muhamad hasbi register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 1 the attitudes of students from esl and efl countries to english muhamad hasbi english and foreign languages university hyderabad 500 007, andhra pradesh, india hasbi.muhamad@yahoo.com abstract this research is to study the attitudes of english students from english as a second language (esl) and english as a foreign language (efl) country in english and foreign languages university (efl university), hyderabad to english. this is a descriptive-quantitative research with a survey method. the attitudes researched include those to listening, speaking, reading, and writing. the data was taken through questionnaire consisting of 20 questions. the findings of this study showed that the english students in efl university have neutral-to-positive attitudes to listening, positive attitudes to speaking, positive attitudes to reading, and poor attitudes to writing. in addition, the english students from esl country have better attitudes to reading (positive) and writing (neutral) and those from efl country have better attitudes to speaking (neutral-topositive) and listening (neutral-to-positive). keywords: attitudes, english as a second language (esl), english as a foreign language (efl) abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk meneliti sikap mahasiswa jurusan bahasa inggris yang berasal dari negara yang menggunakan bahasa inggris the attitudes of students from esland efl countries to english 2 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 sebagai bahasa kedua (efl) dan yang menggunakan bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing (efl) di universitas bahasa inggris dan bahasa asing (english and foreign languages university/efl university), hyderabad terhadap bahasa inggris. penelitian ini adalah penelitian deskriptif-kuantitatif dengan menggunakan metode survey. sikap yang diteliti termasuk sikap terhadap mendengarkan, berbicara, membaca, dan menulis. data diperoleh melalui kuesioner yang terdiri dari 20 pertanyaan. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa di efl university memiliki sikap netral ke positif terhadap mendengarkan, sikap positif terhadap berbicara, sikap positif terhadap membaca, dan sikap yang kurang positif terhadap menulis. mahasiswa dari negara esl memiliki sikap yang lebih baik terhadap membaca (positif) dan menulis(netral) dan mereka yang berasal dari negara efl memiliki sikap yang lebih baik terhadap berbicara (netral ke positif) dan mendengarkan (netral ke positif) keywords: sikap, bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa kedua, bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing introduction day to day, english becomes so familiar for people around the world due to its role as a lingua franca and an international language used in almost fields of life. international relationship, mass communication, business, education, politics, and others are established primarily using english. this condition then triggers people around the world to learn english, either for academic or specific purposes. because of the reasons, english study has become a branch of science with limitless knowledge discussed by linguists and learners. english books have continuously been on the first rank publication of language books for years back and predictably for years after. therefore, the development of methods and approaches to the teaching and the muhamad hasbi register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 3 learning of english becomes one of the major expert attentions so as to make the english learning more successful and effective. the teaching and the learning of english can never be aside from the four language skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking) and two language components (grammar and vocabulary). teachers will have to have a lot of efforts in designing and developing their teaching methods and approaches to help students learn better. in addition, the learners will have to have several efforts in doing classroom as well as independent learning which are initially influenced by their own attitudes towards english. the attitudes towards english are considered as a very basic as well as crucial to the successfulness of students‘ learning. it is believed that the attitudes consisting of the way the learners think, feel, and behave towards english, count for learners‘ intention, process, and so result of english learning. considering the importance of this phenomenon, the writer intends to investigate how far the attitudes of english contribute to the successfulness of their learning. furthermore, the writer also compares the attitudes of learners from efl and esl countries since there are some universal differences in terms of their accessibility, environmental and educational supports towards english learning. in this study, the writer would like to figure out these following questions: (1) how far are the attitudes of english students in efl university to english? (2) how far are the attitudes of english students from esl country compared to those from efl country? (3) how far are the attitudes of students from esland efl countries to english 4 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 the attitudes of students from efl country compared to those from esl country? attitudes 'attitude' is defined as the way in which a person thinks (cognitive component), feels (affective component), and intends to behave(behavioural component) towards something (rajecki, 1982:33). it underlines the summation of the three components united as a package of competence of a person who determines the successfulness of one‘s addressed effort. further, wenden (1991) explains that the cognitive component is made up of the beliefs andideas or opinions about the object of the attitudes; the affective one refers to the feelings and emotions that one has towards an object, 'likes' or 'dislikes', 'with' or 'against'; and finally, the behavioural component refers to one's consisting actions or behavioural intentionstowards the object. learning a language is closely related to the attitudes towards the languages (starks &paltridge, 1996). english language learning, similarly, is also an effort done by a learner towards the mastery of english for his or her intended purpose. in reference to rajecki‘s definition, english learning attitudes will include learners‘ thinking, feeling, and behavior sprung during his english learning. smit (1996) adds that language attitudes can be defined as strong positive or negative emotionsexperienced by people when they are faced with a choice between languages in a variety of situations or a variety of language learning. one‘s attitude towards english either positive or negative, will then strongly influence his intention, orientation, effort, and result of his muhamad hasbi register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 5 learning. karahan (2007) avers that ―positive language attitudes let learner have positive orientation towards learning english‖; inferring that negative language attitude, in vice versa, will bear negative orientation. in a further extension, this attitude can be broken down up to the branches of english skills, i.e., listening, speaking, reading, and writing. this means that a learner can actually has a various type of attitudes in each of the skills. this is because one‘s thought, feeling, and behavior towards a particular skill may be different, slightly or strongly, from the other skills. thus, it can be found that a learner probably has a good attitude in reading and or writing but poor in speaking and or listening. at last, this phenomenon stimulates the writer‘s willingness to research deeper on learners‘ attitude to those four various skills, rather than generally to only english language. english as a second language (esl) english as a second language (esl) belongs to those whose english is a secondary language used for a particular purpose and in a particular situation. this english has a meaningful significance, yet, is not used as primary spoken language in daily communication. the users have their own language, either mother tongue or national language, used in everyday speaking. india, for instance, has esl. english as a foreign language (efl) english as a foreign language (efl) belongs to those whose english is a foreign language used for a limit purpose and in a limit situation. this english has an occasional significance, so is used in a the attitudes of students from esland efl countries to english 6 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 particular occasion, such as in english classroom, international symposium, etc. the users have their own language to use in everyday speaking. countries such as indonesia, bhutan, iran, iraq, etc have their english as efl. research method based upon the research procedures which had been conducted later on, this study is included into quantitative research (sugiyono, 2008:v). in terms of the natural setting, this is included in a survey research (sugiyono, 2008: 4). survey research is used to find out facts from research setting naturally and the researcher uses treatments for collecting the research data. the treatments can be in the form of questionnaires, tests, structural interviews, and the like (sugiyono, 2008: 6). as cohen, at.al. (2000) says, typically, surveys gather data at a particular point in time with the intention of describing the nature of existing conditions, or identifying standards against which existing conditions can be compared, or determining the relationships that exist between specific events. thus, surveys may vary in their levels of complexity from those which provide simple frequency counts to those which present relational analysis. the object of this research is the attitudes of english students from esl country and those from efl country studying ma english program in efl university, hyderabad. the attitudes researched include those to listening, speaking, reading, and writing. the data was taken through questionnaire consisting of 20 questions of which every 5 questions belonged to one particular category of the four english skills. the questionnaire used five optional answer types, i.e., always, often, muhamad hasbi register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 7 sometimes, seldom, and never. there were 20 respondents; 10 of them were students from esl country, here india, and the other 10s were from efl country randomly chosen from afghanistan, bhutan, indonesia, iran, iraq, oman, and tajikistan. the data was then analyzed descriptively. the answer frequency of occurrence of the highest percentage determined to what attitude the students belonged. the category of the attitude along with its mean percentage range of answers follows this criterion: always often sometimes → ‗neutral attitude‘ seldom never thus, later in the discussion, a positive attitude is given if the total sum of ‗always‘ and ‗often‘ answers is majority than the others; a neutral attitude is given if the total sum of ‗sometimes‘ answer is majority; and, a negative attitude is given if the total sum of ‗seldom‘ and ‗never‘ answers is majority compared to the others. discussion the questionnaires filled by the 20 respondents, and they were united to be recapitulated as a final data. below are the final data together with their analysis presented in four parts based on each language skill. students’ attitude towards listening (question 1-5) to investigate students‘ attitude to listening, the writer performed these 5 questions to be filled.these five questions were given to detect students‘ attitude in listening skill specifically on five elements indicating ‗positive attitude‘ ‗negative attitude‘ the attitudes of students from esland efl countries to english 8 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 the attitude, including their habit (q1), readiness (q2), accessibility (q3), comprehension (q4), and evaluation (q5) toward english listening. table 1 questionnaire data preview on listening skill using the criterion explained earlier in the research method, the data show that generally students have positive habit (60%), neutral readiness (65%), neutral-to-negative accessibility (35%-35%), neutral comprehension (40%), and positive evaluation (65%) toward english listening. further, in comparison from the perspective of students from efl to esl country, efl students have better habit, better readiness, lesser accessibility, similar comprehension, and better evaluation than esl students do. thus, it is said that generally the students have neutralto-positive attitudes towards english listening, yet, efl students‘ attitude shows better. muhamad hasbi register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 9 from the table, it is seen that efl students show higher interest in using songs, movies, and videos to improve their english and many of them do not really need subtitle although esl students actually have more access to them. correlating to later finding in reading and writing session, esl students have better interest in english reading and writing, this can probably be the reason why esl students‘ interest in movies, songs and videos does not really mean. however, they both have good attitudes in evaluation to english. students’ attitude towards speaking (question 6-10) to measure students‘ attitudes to speaking, the writer gave these 5 questions to be filled. these questions aimed to know students‘ attitudes to speaking skill focusing on five components indicating the attitudes, i.e., their fondness (q6), confidence (q7), meaningfulness focus (q8), commitment (q9), and evaluation (q10) toward english speaking. table 2 questionnaire data preview on speaking skill the attitudes of students from esland efl countries to english 10 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 using the criterion explained earlier in the research method, the data show that generally students have positive fondness (60%), positive confidence (65%), positive meaningfulness focus (55%), neutral-tonegative commitment (40%), and positive evaluation (65%) toward english listening. further, in comparison with the perspective of students from efl to esl country, efl students have better fondness, better confidence, lesser meaningfulness focus, similar commitment, and similar evaluation as esl students do. thus, it is said that generally the students have positive attitude towards english speaking, with almost the same level of attitudes of both esl and efl students. as to explain, efl students have better fondness in speaking session (70%) and have no doubts to speak in english (80%) compared to esl students; though in average they also show good attitudes in this. when speaking, half of them have confidence and think more ideas and half of them still think of ‗what and how to say‘ and have problems of confidence. the majority of both esl and efl students do not prefer to use english to their acquaintances or relatives. however, many have good mark in speaking evaluation (60%). students’ attitude towards reading (question 11-15) to measure students‘ attitudes to reading, the writer made these five questions to be filled. these questions were addressed to identify students‘ attitude in reading skill focusing on five indications, i.e., their habit (q11), primary fondness (q12), regular commitment (q13), hard effort (q14), and evaluation (q15) toward english reading. muhamad hasbi register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 11 using the criterion explained earlier in the research method, the data show that generally students have positive habit (50%), neutral primary fondness (50%), positive regular commitment (60%), negative/poor hard effort (40%), and positive evaluation (45%) towards english reading. further, in comparison with the perspective of students from esl to efl country, esl students have similar habit, better primary fondness, better regular commitment, better hard effort, and better evaluation than efl students do. thus, it is said that generally the students have positive attitudes towards english reading, but esl students have better attitudes than efl students do. table 3 questionnaire data preview on reading skill to describe, esl students have more fondness of reading english (60%) than efl students (30%). it shows similarly to the fact that most of them have gotten used english reading as well as have regular reading the attitudes of students from esland efl countries to english 12 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 habit. academically, both esl and efl students have been evaluated good in english reading, though 30% of efl students said ‗never‘. in addition, both esl and esl students have few efforts in challenging reading though 30% of indians have good trials on that. students’ attitude towards writing (question 16-20) to detect students‘ attitude to writing, the writer used these following five questions. these questions were delivered to investigate students‘ attitude in writing skill concerning with five elements, i.e., their habit (q16), regular commitment (q17), challenged passion (q18), professional effort (q19), and evaluation (q15) toward english writing. table 4 questionnaire data preview on writing skill muhamad hasbi register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 13 using the criterion explained earlier in the research method, the data show that generally students have positive habit (45%), negative regular commitment (60%), negative challenged passion (60%), negative professional effort (40%), and positive evaluation (60%) towards english reading. further, in comparison with the perspective of students from esl to efl country, esl students have better habit, better regular commitment, lesser challenged passion, better professional effort, and better evaluation than efl students do. thus, it is said that generally the students have negative attitudes towards english writing, and esl students dominantly have better attitudes than efl students do. to add, the majority of esl students, they are indians, have gotten used to write in english (70%) and even 60% of them experience publishing their article, while only 20% of efl students get used to write and similarly only 20% have experience in publishing their english writing. this is probably because, in india, english learning attempts more on reading and writing and schools give more practice and task on them. however, both esl students and efl students have good evaluations in english. other same things are few esl and efl have regular habit on writing and feel challenged when writing english. conclusion in conclusion, this study finally found that generally english students in efl university have neutral-to-positive attitude towards english listening, positive attitude towards english speaking, positive attitude towards english reading, and negative attitude towards english writing. further, students from esl country have better attitude in the attitudes of students from esland efl countries to english 14 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 reading and writing, and vice versa, students from efl country have better attitude in listening and speaking. this finding then recommends that english learners need to create good habit and attitude towards english to make their english learning meaningful, effective and applicable, since the heart of a language is not to be learned as a science, but rather to be used in daily life, verbally and nonverbally. references cohen, l., manion, l., and morrison, k. 2000. research methods in education (fifth edition).london and new york: routledge falmer. karahan, f. 2007. language attitudes of turkish students towards the english languageand its use in turkish context. journal of arts and sciences say, 7 may, 73-87. rejecky, d. w. 1982. attitude themes and advances.sunderland snouer associates inc. smit, v. 1996.anew english for a new south africa: language attitudes planning and education. vienna: braumuller. sugiyono. 2008. metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r & d. bandung: alfabeta. wenden, a. 1991. learner strategies for learner autonomy. london: prentice hall. register, language & language teaching journals vol. 5, no.2, 2012 51 politeness maxim in the film ” laskar pelangi” budiati ngudi waluyo nursing academy jln. gedongsongo, candirejo, ungaran, kabupaten semarang syifabunda@yahoo.com abstract sentential implicature is something meant or implied that is proposed to avoid impoliteness in making harmonious conversation. for the sake of politeness it was postulated cooperative politeness and maxims; tact maxim, approbation maxim, generosity maxim, modesty maxim, agreement maxim and sympathy maxim. the measurement of politeness or impoliteness is also determined by the four factors; power, range, distance and familiarity. in “laskar pelangi” the movie, it was found some maxims with indonesian cultural background for its politeness. politeness was shown by addressing someone just by name or by saying “mr.” and “mrs”, according to the power and relationship, minimizing dispraise of others, and mentioning something or someone indirectly. key words: implicature, maxim, politeness introduction in making conversation runs well sometimes it needs strategy and skills. it is often found some conversations get stuck because of losing connection between speaker and hearer. for these, some people raise strategy called sentential implicature. implicature has been invoked for a variety of purposes, from defending controversial semantic claims in philosophy to explain lexical gaps in linguistics. an implicature is something meant, implied, or suggested distinct from what is said (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/implicature/). the speaker doesn’t have to say what he intends to do or means directly to avoid impoliteness or misinterpretation. a sentential implicature is used as a bridge for linguisticsgaps for making harmonious conversation. the concept of politeness may be different in one place to others. it may be influenced by the culture. in the film of “laskar pelangi”, directed by andrea hirata, it was told how the people in the mailto:syifabunda@yahoo.com http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/implicature/ register, language & language teaching journals vol. 5, no.2, 2012 52 film use maxims in the terms of politeness. the film itself used indonesian culture as a background. there are many ways in showing politeness; by greeting, addressing others not by name and etc. film “laskar pelangi” has interested many viewers from any places and social status. as a thrillers film it has taken sympathy and big impression from its viewers. in this film, it was told how ironic the life in belitong, one of indonesian richest islands. the island with abandon of tin, but the people lived in poverty. to pay the school fee they didn’t have capacity that they had to keep a very poor school with strong religious principle. the school was nearly collapsed, but there was no ability to reconstruct the building. with merely the struggle and fighting of three teachers, muslimah, mr. harfan and bakri, the school kept its existence. in describing how the living and daily life, it was used maxims and sentential implicature in making the fluency of the utterances. sentential implicature with politeness principle can be used to minimize the belief of impolite expression and maximize the belief of polite expression. in term of politeness someone may lose the face. in this paper, i’d like to reveal the use of politeness maxims in film “laskar pelangi”. here, i’d like to show how politeness maxims in indonesian cultural background in the aim of showing people’s respect to others. “laskar pelangi” will give a few description of the part of indonesian people’s way of life. the concept of politeness the politeness or impoliteness of our utterances is not only influenced by the word choice, but also by the appropriateness use of language. the dimension on which act of communication may be located are no less complex than those relevant to the social location of the speaker. halliday (1978:33) in hammond et al (1992: 2) distinguishes three general types of dimension: field (the purpose and subject-matter of communication), mode (the means by which communication takes place; by speech or writing) and tenor (the relations between participants). the three dimensions are called register. hymes (1972) proposed thirteen separate variables determine the linguistic items selected by the speaker that provide a framework within which any relevant dimensions of similarity and difference may be located. one of the dimensions is the relations between the speaker and addressee. it involves the dimension that is called power. power is the relationship between speaker and addressee whether the addressee is subordinate, equal or superior to the speaker. register, language & language teaching journals vol. 5, no.2, 2012 53 in the term of politeness it is also involved four components; they are power, range, distance and familiarity. power distinguishes relatively intimate relations from more distant with the addressee by means of the choice of terms of addressee, e. g. saying “mr.” …., “sir”, “mate” and etc. meanwhile, familiarity is a habit in a particular culture, for example in indonesia it is common to greet someone by “where are you going?”, but it is not common in english. politeness in terms of principle and maxims grice (1913–1988) was the first in systematically studying cases in which what a speaker means differs from what the sentence used by the speaker means. grice introduced the technical terms implicate and implicature for the case in which what the speaker meant, implied, or suggested is distinct from what the speaker said. the conversational implicature is a message that is not found in the plain sense of the sentence. the speaker implies it. the hearer is able to infer (work out, read between the lines) this message in the utterance, by appealing to the rules governing successful conversational interaction. the success of a conversation depends upon the various speakers' approach to the interaction. the way in which people try to make conversations work is sometimes called the cooperative principle. grice postulated a general “cooperative principle,” and four “maxims” specifying how to be cooperative postulated a general “cooperative principle,” and four “maxims” specifying how to be cooperative (levinson and brown, 1987:61). the maxims are: (1) maxim of quality: make your contribution true; so do not convey what you believe false or unjustified; (2). maxim of quantity: be as informative as required; (3) maxim of relation: be relevant; (4) maxim of manner: be perspicuous; so avoid obscurity and ambiguity, and strive for brevity and order. (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/implicature/) research methodology subject of study the subject of the study is text or script of film “laskar pelangi”. the film tells us the life of belitong people in 1974. belitong is one of indonesian richest islands. there was abundant of tin in it. ironically, many people lived in poverty. they became a coolie. there, there was a school that merely collapsed for the poor. the teachers; mr. harfan, muslimah and bakri struggled with the ten-godhttp://plato.stanford.edu/entries/implicature/ register, language & language teaching journals vol. 5, no.2, 2012 54 sent students to keep the school existed. in this text, i’d like to focus the study in finding politeness maxims used in the utterances. data collection since it is a kind of discourse study, the data were collected by watching the film and reading the script thoroughly, and then finding the linguistics features studied, in this case politeness maxims. discourse analysis would seek to uncover, through ideology critique, the repressive forces which systematically distort communication (habermas, 1984 quoted by cohen, manion and morrison, 2007: 389). discourse analysis requires a careful reading and interpretation of textual material, with interpretation being supported by the linguistics evidence (coyle, 1995 as quoted by cohen, manion and morrison, 2007: 390). data analysis the data were analyzed for its meaning and inference; in this case was the use of politeness maxims. discourse analysis is lack of systematicity for its emphasis on the linguistics construction of social reality “a discourse that in turn can be analyzed for its meaning and inferences, rendering the need for reflexivity to be high” (ashmore, 1989 in cohen, manion and morrison, 2007: 391) in analyzing the data it is also used the component of politeness; they are power, range, distance and familiarity between the speaker and the addressee. what the relations they are and whether the utterances chosen polite or not based on the components. discussion tact maxim in the text the function tact maxim is to minimize the expression of belief which imply cost to other; maximize the expression of beliefs which imply benefit to other. in the film it was found in (1). (1) rek : take off your shirt! i’ll make you a man ladies will pine for. hey, this is a deadly secret! quick take off your shirt. ikal : ough, it hurts, rek. enough, rek! you’re crazy. register, language & language teaching journals vol. 5, no.2, 2012 55 rek : not, yet. hold it a little more. rek and ikal are schoolmates. it’s polite to say with this way. a little more will give positive opinion than about 15 minutes or an hour or others. (2) muslimah : hi, mrs. hamidah……. mrs. hamidah : how is my dress, mus? you said it’d be done this saturday. muslimah : sorry, a little bit more. i need to do the buttons. mrs. hamidah is muslimah’s neighbour. she is older than muslimah and to show her respect muslimah calls her by saying “mrs” and did not just by calling the name. vice versa, mrs. hamidah just calls muslimah by name because she is older than muslimah. the use of a little bit more is to show that her job merely done. but to minimize the negative opinion about the job the use of this utterance was conveyed. (3) zul : i’m concerned about you, fan. you have struggled to keep this school running for 5 years now. i can only help a bit. mr. harfan : you have helped more than that, zul. don’t worry, bakri, muslimah and i can still do it with the 10-god-sent students. zul and mr. harfan are close friends; even zul is in higher position than mr. harfan. however, they are friends, so it is okay just to call him by name. the use of i can only help a bit is to show the humbleness of zul. he does not want to show his arrogance by saying the reality. generosity maxim in the text generosity maxim is to minimize the expression of benefit to self; maximize the expression of cost to self. register, language & language teaching journals vol. 5, no.2, 2012 56 (4) mr. harfan : hei, children. who wants to hear the story of prophet nuh…making the biggest manmade ark ever? muslimah : kucai, being a leader is a noble duty. sahara : hey, kucai, the qur’an reminds us a leader will be accountable for his actions in the hereafter. kucai is muslimah’s student. she calls him just by the name and it is polite in indonesian. to make her student proud of himself for his duty, she encourages him. (5) muslimah : this is our math class. get your palm leaf ribs out. that’s enough a kong. get back to your seat. i’ll read a math problem. (12+4-5) equals………… go on. lintang : -80 muslimah : very good, coast boy. correct. to show her respect to her diligent student she calls him as “coastal boy” that make him proud of himself. (6) sahara : harun, so you have 3 kittens with 3 color patterns all born on the 3 rd . harun : yes, 1, 2, 3…….. sahara : you’re good at math now, harun sahara and harun are friends. to show that sahara is very proud of harun she compliments him by saying “you’re good in math” even though it is just a little progress for him. modesty maxim in the text modesty maxim is to minimize the expression of praise of self; maximize the expression of dispraise of self. (7) muslimah : 9 or 10 students what the difference? we can still teach them, sir. register, language & language teaching journals vol. 5, no.2, 2012 57 mr. harfan : yes, but you know what this is. i’m so thankful to allah almighty because all of you have come here to safe the oldest islamic elementary education in belitong. a school is where moral lessons are taught to produce upright citizens. however, if eventually this school can’t get 10 students, we can’t open a new class. let’s all accept this whole-heartedly. mr. harfan shows the respect to the audience that their coming is to safe the school. so it gives benefit to the school and he thanks to the audience. approbation maxim in the text approbation maxim is to minimize the expression of beliefs which express dispraise of other; maximize the expression of beliefs which express approval of other. (8) kucai : your shoes are pretty, kal. ikal : dad, this one smells of sunburn he doesn’t mention the name of the students, just saying that someone smells of sunburn. (9) ikal’s father : i’m going now. come, kal. ikal’s mother : give my best regard to mr. harfan. father’s friend : where are you going? you are going to put him in that collapsing school? that school’s roof is falling apart. ikal’s father would not feel guilty with this utterance because his friends didn’t mention the name of the school directly as a very poor school that merely falls down. it is to minimize the expression of making others guilty. (10) lintang : your big ears will grow as big as an elephants, har. ikal :what’s playing on your radio, har? mahar : what’s playing, boy? there is plenty of powerful music here, boy. now, listen to this. this is called jazz, kal. smart people’s music. register, language & language teaching journals vol. 5, no.2, 2012 58 lintang and mahar are friends. they usually make a joke and it is common to say that. but if lintang critisizes him for his habit, he may get angry. but by his utterance, it will prevent of being upset. agreement maxim in the text agreement maxim is to minimize the expression of disagreement between self and other; maximize the expression of agreement between self and other. (11) muslimah : excuse me. my diligent students are waiting bakri : i’m going home, uncle. ass…. mr. harfan : there is nothing we can do about it, mus. the south sumatra school supervisors letter clearly states our kids must take next week general exams at pn elementary. mus, you shouldn’t feel obligated just because your dad is in the photo with me. your salary and bakri have been delayed 2 months. from the relations, muslimah is mr. harfan’s niece. so he is higher and older from muslimah. according to indonesian culture it is impolite to call the older one just by the name. to show the respect it is used the saying of “mr.” and vice versa the older may call the younger just by the name. to show disagreement of something not by saying “i disagree or i don’t agree” but just showing the action that can’t be done. (12) father’s friend: where are you going? you are going to put him in that collapsing school? that school’s roof is falling apart. father’s friend : what’s school for? hell end up being a coolie anyway! ikal’s father and his friends are equal. there is no certain word choice better than this. to show their disagreement they not saying “i disagree to ask the children going school”, but asking what the school for. because they know what the end of the school for the poor children. however, they don’t want to hurt their friend. sympathy maxim in the text register, language & language teaching journals vol. 5, no.2, 2012 59 sympathy maxim is to minimize antipathy between self and other; maximize sympathy between self and other. (13) muslimah : what’s your name, son? lintang : lintang from tanjung kelumpang, mam. i want to go to school. muslimah : dear god. you rode a bike this far? by yourself? lintang : my father has to go out to sea. he can’t come. muslimah is the teacher and lintang is the student. muslimah may calls lintang by his nickname, but not vice versa. to show sympathy is not just by say it directly. for it she asks a rhetoric question for the children that has rode for the long distance just for going to school. (14) zul : i’m concerned about you, fan. you have struggled to keep this school running for 5 years now. i can only help a bit. mr. harfan : you have helped more than that, zul. don’t worry, bakri, muslimah and i can still do it with the 10-god-sent students. zul and mr. harfan are good friends. to show his sympathy he said directly. it’s polite to show it to friend. (15) ikal’s father : yes, i got half the day off. ikal’s mother : i hope they get 10 students. i want ikal to learn about islam from mr. harfan ikal’s brother : just wear them, kal. you’ll look lovely.ikal’ ikal’s mother and mr. harfan don’t know each other. ikal’s mother knows him just from people said, so she calls mr. harfan by mr. to shows her respect to him. she shows her impression and sympathy to the teacher by asking her child to learn religion from him. she expects that mr. harfan can be the best teacher for her child. (16) muslimah : how are you mr. mahmud? register, language & language teaching journals vol. 5, no.2, 2012 60 mr. mahmud : i’m fine. it’s you i’m concerned about. why did you turn down the job offer from pn timah, mus? what did you expect from that collapsing school? kids who have no future? the offer is still available. i can talk to……………. muslimah : excuse me. my diligent students are waiting. mr. mahmud and muslimah are friends. however, mr. mahmud is higher in social status that muslimah must call him by saying “mr.”, while mr. mahmud just calls her by the name. he shows his sympathy directly. conclusion sentential implicature and maxims are used in the conversation for the sake of politeness, avoid impoliteness and maximize praise of others. it can be used as a bridge of linguistics gaps in order to get harmonious conversation. film is just a description of some parts of people’s life. however, this film has successfully describing a few portrayals about life of people in belitong. there are so many ways in showing politeness to others. politeness maxims are used to minimize unwanted effect of utterances and make the utterances smooth. it also gives benefit to others. belitong people may use different ways from other places in showing politeness. some of these reflect indonesian culture how to respect the old ones with regarding power, range, distance and familiarity. after reading the paper it is hoped that the community are able to use politeness maxim for the sake of minimizing misunderstanding and getting stuck in conversation. references cohen, l, manion, l, and morrison. 2007. research method in education. routledge: new york gerot, linda and wignel, peter. 1995. making sense of functional grammar. australia: gerd stabler hammond, et. al. 1992. english for social purposes. australia: macquire university register, language & language teaching journals vol. 5, no.2, 2012 61 implicature. on line at http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/implicature/ accessed on thursday, june 25 th , 2009 levinson, s. c and brown. 1987. politeness: some universals in language use. new york: cup http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/implicature/ 37 enhancing students’ speaking through the process of performing drama dian anggraini english department of education faculty state institute for islamic studies (stain) salatiga diananggraini@gmail.com abstract an action research has always been interesting thing for teacher because the root of it is taken from their own problems. this study is a self reflection of a problem that is faced by the researcher. it focuses on a certain activity in a certain class and at a certain period of time. questionnaires, interview sheet, observation sheet, students‘ worksheets, and teacher‘s lesson plans serve as data resources. the result shows a significant increase in the students score. however, there is variation on the general result. keywords: collaborative learning, drama, motivation abstrak penelitian tindakan selalu mengundang ketertarikan bagi guru karena akarnya diambil dari masalah mereka sendiri. meskipun tidak selalu mudah untuk mengakui dan mendefinisikan hal seperti itu. penelitian ini merupakan refleksi dari masalah yang dihadapi peneliti. ini berfokus pada aktivitas tertentu di kelas tertentu dan pada waktu periode tertentu. kuesioner, lembar wawancara, lembar observasi, lembar kerja siswa, dan rpp guru berfungsi sebagai sumber data. hasilnya menunjukkan peningkatan yang signifikan pada nilai siswa. namun, ada variasi pada hasil secara general. kata kunci: pembelajaran kolaboratif, drama, motivasi 38 introduction speaking activity is practically abandoned in junior high school level. teachers are concerned with national examination. that is the reason the research is taken the interest for choosing this topic also lies in the development of teaching and learning in the researcher‘s environment, such as the schools‘ atmosphere, students‘ interests and teachers‘ attraction. the researcher prefers to choose this topic because she finds that a classroom consists of a number of students at least 25 percent of it is still having trouble speaking in english. their reason is mostly shy but some of them admitted to have very little understanding about english lesson. the speaking activity chosen for this research is drama because it can promote interaction. richard and lockhart (2000: 138) point out that a common theme underlying different methods of language teaching is that second language learning is a highly interactive process. the interaction hypothesis argues that it is in the interaction process that acquisition occurs, that learning is acquired through talking with others (johnson, 2002: 95). furthermore, ellis (1986: 127) states classroom teaching should be treated as interaction. it can be assumed that the language used in the classroom affects the nature of the interaction, which in turn affects the opportunities available for learning. therefore, the study of interaction is critical to the study of language classroom learning. 39 drama the use of drama as a method to improve students‘ speaking relates with the genre used for the viii grade as it is stated in the curriculum that is narrative, and it concerns with the need of the problem. zalta (2006) describes using drama in the young learner classroom gives children who are shy when speaking a foreign language a character to ―hide behind‖. it also helps children to activate language and have fun. using drama activities has clear advantages for language learning. it encourages them to speak and gives them the chance to communicate, even only through learned dialogues. drama in education was first brought by winifred ward, a teacher of northwestern university's school of oratory, who introduced creative drama for language learner for the first time. although it has rather different objectives, when it is used for second language learner, the main point lies in the using of the method. liu (2002: 6) believes that in second or foreign-language classrooms, there are generally two options in teaching. one option is focus on forms, and the other is focus on meaning. liu also states process drama requires language to be used in meaningful, authentic situations, where the focus is on posing questions and seeking answers to those questions. in drama, learners study with other learners through asking and answering and then if they really can understand the meaning of it, expressing them in their own way. it is stated that when a lesson focuses on meaning, they are often interesting, because it is relevant to their social life. 40 according to lewis and rainer (2005: 10) in order to be practitioner in drama, here are several things their students should have, they are: 1. personal and social abilities 2. performance skills 3. knowledge and understanding of theatrical ideas and concepts they also emphasize that every element is so important for a drama to succeed. lewis and rainer (2005:13) summarize the concept of drama into seven broad categories. they are role, form, structure, stage, text, audience, and content. those categories are not the main concern here but the actual performance and how the students conduct it using narrative stories. the writer would like to investigate the students‘ ability to relate the language into their performance. the use of narrative as the story represents part of the curriculum that is used today. the drama will be performed in a group, so the researcher will also use a collaborative method. natural-conversation speech conversation according to zaida (2008) can be defined as the informal interchange of thoughts and information. a natural– conversation flows on itself. if we look closer, we can infer that it covers (1) question –and answer– play, a major role in general conversation dynamics; (2) the building of one comment on another.; (3) it has specific feature of the english used such as: the use of contraction (i‘ll, i‘m, you‘re, etc), the occasional use of colloquialism, the use of exclamation, 41 and the use of transition expression, such as by the way, incidentally, that reminds me, as a matter of fact, in other words, in any case, any way, etc. creating a natural-conversation based on narrative story is autonomy. to make it as natural as possible, we need to include the above elements into the script of the drama. the preceding activity before drama for students can be, for example,miming activity. children use gesture or actions to indicate a thing or situation. here teacher can establish the activity by doing other variation. watching video can be a language learning also. there are many variations to use the video. here are a few: (1) students watch a fragment, a video sequence with no sound, and guess what happens. students then create a dramatic scene based on what they have watched. by the end of the activity, the video is replayed again this time with sound so students can compare their version with the video. (2) students do not watch, but only listen and try to guess what happens and where the events take place. students then create dramatic sequence based on what they have heard. students then watch the video again and compare their version with the video. (3) students watch only a very short fragment and then predict its continuation. students then act it out. when they watch the continuation from the video, they can compare their version. transforming stories into mini plays requires several things, such as: (1) choose simple stories for students; (2) create scripts for the stories, adjust them to the situation in your class; (3) if necessary, have students prepare costumes and supporting aids; (4) put on play for other classes and/or parents. brown (2001: 184) explains that drama is a pre-planned form of role-play or simulation. the use of story line or script is essential. 42 writing the story line or script and rehearsing was part of the activity. with large classes, the activity can be done in groups. furthermore, each group can create their own interpretation to the story. collaborative learning gunawan (2003: 198) stresses that collaborative learning is not just a learning process collaboratively but also it involves a fair communication process in the class. he believes there are five important elements in a collaborative learning, they are: a. positive interdependent b. supportive face to face interaction c. personal and group responsibility d. personnel communication ability and communication in a small group (developing trust, leadership, decision making, good management and conflict resolution) e. learning process in groups (reflecting a function, forming ability to cooperate in a group, and developing better achievement together) it is believed that a group work would not succeed if members of the group do not realize the important of those elements. in order to achieve that, teachers need to supervise and facilitate. grouping should be arranged carefully and it needs good planning, consistent and systemic. the negative side of collaborative learning needs to be considered. there are possibilities that might arise, such as: a. smart students might feel at disadvantage, if they do not fully comprehend the real goals 43 b. those students would also object because the assessment would be based on group‘ work achievement. c. there is a possibility that the group would not work well, only some students are busy while others only play around and later rely on them. on the other hand, socially it is good to have collaborative learning. gunawan (2003: 203) states the positive sides of collaborative learning are: a. extend interpersonal ability, b. extend social communication among students, c. increase empathy for others, d. learn leadership and management, e. learn organization, working as a team motivation learning a second language needs motivation. for children in junior high school age, it is needed and teachers should provide it. brown (2001: 72-73) offers definition of motivation; that is the extent to which you make choices about (a) goals to pursue and (b) the effort you will devote to that pursuit. in view of that, teachers need to mention their learning goals to students. it is important for students to understand what is expected of them. it becomes their intrinsic motivation. if a student has understood, the teaching and learning process would succeed by itself. brown (2001: 81) also reminds teachers to think not so much as a teacher who must constantly ―deliver‖ information but more as a ―facilitator‖. teachers should set the stage for learning, start the wheels 44 turning inside the heads of their students, turn them on to their own abilities, and help to develop their ability. number of students in a class is also an important factor. as long (2000: 76) states that each child is an individual with a unique ability and characteristic style. children‘s personality can also affect the learning process since this shapes the way in which they relate with others. based on this assumption, the writer will take some consideration throughout the research. action research in investigating the effectiveness of a teaching and learning process, using an action research is the most appropriate methods to work with. as stated by glanz (1982: xii) that action research is devoted to specific strategies and techniques. teaching english in junior high school should integrate four skills of competence, speaking, listening, reading and writing. in simple way, english teacher says written cycle and spoken cycle. the focus of this research will be on the spoken cycle. furthermore, harmer‘s (1998:4) says that students are the people who need the practice, in other words not the teacher. in general terms, therefore, a good teacher maximizes stt (student talking time) and minimizes ttt (teacher talking time). thornbury (1998: iv) states that speaking is interactive and requires the ability to co-operate with others. therefore it is necessary to have speaking class conducted for students. not only it will give them the opportunity to practice how much english knowledge they have but also learn from other. it is also quite important for english teacher to speak english in the class. 45 in order to maximize speaking opportunity and increase students‘ experiences in language used in a speaking classes, teachers should also provide feedback. it is best given when the activity has ended. thornbury (1998: 89) also states that drama is one of speaking class activities. therefore in this research, drama is the main activity being investigated. drama activity chosen for this speaking class has gone through many considerations. time allotment, school environment, teaching situation, and mainly students‘ interest come to mind. the viii a of pius junior high school students as the subjects of the research are chosen because of their lowest average score among other classes. the class consists of 15 female and 16 male students. for the drama activity in the first cycle, the class is divided into 5/6 group members mix gender. later based on reflection from the first cycle, there is regrouping for drama in the second cycle. in the third cycle, the researcher is getting more confident. the drama is great. finally, it can be inferred that drama is good for speaking class. research method here is the scheme of the research; it showed how the action research ran. there were 3 cycles involved. 46 figure 1 research scheme plan 3: the teacher planned another cycle. students would perform drama with friends they chose themselves act 3: teacher divided students in 3 categories. good score students, fair and poor. the good groups chose friends from the poor group, then from the fair group until there was no student left. when the groups were arranged, they performed drama with the new group. observe 3: 97% passed the passing grade score and 3% did not pass the pg score reflect 3: drama‘s performances were better viii a students practiced speaking english in english class. there was one student who did not passed the passing grade. he would get further assistant. viii a students tended to speak indonesian in english class. the reasons were: shy not confidence unsupportive environment no reward (no score for speaking) plan 1: the teacher asked the students to retell a story by the end of narrative act 1: teacher conducted retelling story activity observe 1: 55% got above passing grade (pg) score and 45% got below pg score reflect 1: teacher should think of other speaking activity teacher should motivate students better low student felt more frightened even fast students felt not confidence plan 2: teacher used drama in the speaking class students would do drama collaboratively act 2: teacher conducted drama in speaking class. students worked in groups. the groups were arranged by teacher based on students score in previous cycle. observe 2: 68% got above pg score and 32% got below pg score. reflect 2: a certain group had communication problem among members. students performance did not maximal. 47 the research subject was chosen based on pre-cycle activity. the result was viii a class of pius junior high school in the 2009/2010 school year. the data analysis was based on questionnaires, interview sheet, observation sheet, students‘ worksheets, and teacher‘s lesson plans. result based on observation, in spoken cycle students of junior high school faced such problems: table 1 list of weaknesses weakness 1. slow learners had problem with technical term. 2. slow learners had trouble in determining the technical term. 1. slow learners had problem with understanding the story. 2. slow learners were confused in determining the concept. 1. they did not have enough vocabulary. 2. they were too confused even to start their own story. 3. they did not know how the concept of sentence worked. 1. slow learners were shy with their works. 2. in a group, slow learner depended a lot on the fast learner. 3. because students were not confidence with their works as a results, they were shy their performance. 4. only fast learners excelled both in writing and speaking. 5. sharing could be hard for those who had never done it. 6. the atmosphere of the english class was not conducive because the gap and the competition reflected. then later after the action research was taken the result could be seen from the figure below: 48 figure 2 student‘s recapitulation after conducting the classroom action research, i as the english teacher of pius pekalongan junior high school got better understanding of my teaching. from the result of my research, i found the weakness of my teaching. they can be elaborated as follows: (1) i did not approach my student in person. i only told them things and expected them to follow. i should have listened and paid attention better to all students. (2) i was lacking in instructional approach in conducting speaking class. i should have consulted teaching method text book more. (3) i did not talked english in class. i think that was one of the reasons that my students were lacking in pronunciation. i found that it was the most question asked to me. ―how to say this word?‖ etc. i found that students who thought english was difficult, they tended to ignore the lesson. they tried to do the assignment without understanding what it was. they just copied from others. by doing creative drama, they became involve in the teaching and learning process. the most important thing was they had an english environment. 97% 3% 68% 32% 55% 45% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% passed failed cycle 1 cycle 2 cycle 3 49 conclusions and suggestions the conclusions that can be taken from the research are: (1) in order to absorb the lesson in a classroom students need to build up their motivation. the role of a teacher is very important in creating such motivation. (2) learning second language needs a supportive environment. a teacher needs to be able to create a good atmosphere in a classroom. (3) with an appropriate activity students can explore their competence actively. based on the result of the research, the following are some suggestions for readers, including students and teachers: (1) students speaking class is done in order to provide students with english setting; all students should not feel terrified because of it. a lot of practice would make perfect. students of junior high school are capable of having conversation in english in daily life. that is why they should not feel shy. (2) teachers teachers should understand their students‘ need and problems so they can give the best treatment to overcome the problem. teachers should be able to motivate their students in various ways. (3) schools the english teaching and learning process in smp pius pekalongan get better quality and to motivate other teachers to do their analysis on their teaching and learning process. 50 references brown, h. doughlas. 2001. teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy 2 nd edition. new york: pearson education company. ellis, rod. 1983. understanding second language acquisition. oxford: oxford university press. glanz, jeffrey. 1982. action research: an educational leader’s guide to school improvement. norwood: christopher-gordon publishers, inc. gunawan, adi w. 2003. genius learning strategy. jakarta: pt. gramedia pustaka utama harmer, jeremy. 1998. how to teach english. malaysia: pearson education limited lewis and rainer, martin and john. 2005. teaching classroom drama and theater. usa rutledge. liu, jun. 2002. body and language. intercultural learning through drama. process drama in second – and foreign – language classrooms. european medi@culture-online http://www.european-mediaculture.org (accessed on 15 april 2010) long, martyn. 2000. the psychology of education. london: routledge falmer thornbury, scott. 2005. how to teach speaking. malaysia: longman richard, j.c and lockhart. 1994. reflective teaching in second language classroom. united states of america; cambridge: cup zaida, nur. 2008. using dramatization in encouraging efl students engage in natural-conversation speech. a paper. the 5 th national jeta seminar sanata dharma university 30 june – 1 july 2008. zalta, galina. 2006. using drama with children. english teaching forum, p. 24-27, 46. http://www.european-mediaculture.org/ 207 improving coherence of the students’ sentences by applying thematic progression and personal blog in the sentence-based writing class arif suryo priyatmojo faculty of languages and arts semarang state university arifsuryo.unnes@gmail.com abstract this study was aimed at describing what kinds of thematic progression patterns mostly employed by the students, describing how to apply thematic progression theory and personal blog in the sentence-based writing class, and finding out whether the use of thematic progression theory and personal blog give positive significances to coherence of the students‘ sentences. this is an action research study employing two cycles. the subject of the study was 24 students of group 2, in a class of sentence-based writing (sbw), and the object of the study was students‘ sentences created by the students in the teaching and learning process (tlp). the result of the study shows that thematic progression patterns moslty employed by the students are constant theme pattern followed by zig zag and multiple theme patterns. in tlp, the materials were devided and given to the students in two cycles. the first cycle focused on introducing the thematic progression theory and its kinds of patterns. then, in the next cycle the students focused on sharing ideas with other classmates via individual blogs. based on the result of the study, teaching sbw using thematic progression theory gives its positive significance by varied patterns used by the students. it can be seen from the analysis of the students‘ sentences from pretest, paragraf 1, paragraf 2, paragraf 3 and posttest. the students also give positive responses upon its teaching and learning process using thematic progression and personal blogs based 208 on the pre and post test questionnaire data. it is hoped that the result of the study gives positive contribution to the students in preparing them to write in bigger contexts paragraph-based writing, genre-based writng and academic writing in the next coming semesters. keywords: thematic progression, theme rheme, thematization, personal blog abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan apa jenis pola perkembangan tematik yang sebagian besar digunakan oleh siswa, menjelaskan bagaimana menerapkan teori perkembangan tematik dan blog pribadi dalam kalimat berbasis kelas menulis, dan mencari tahu apakah penggunaan teori perkembangan tematik dan blog pribadi memberikan signifikansi positif terhadap koherensi kalimat siswa . ini merupakan studi penelitian tindakan dengan dua siklus. subyek penelitian ini adalah 24 siswa dari kelompok 2, dalam kelas berbasis kalimat menulis (sentence-based writing-sbw ), dan obyek penelitian ini adalah kalimat yang dibuat oleh mahasiswa dalam proses belajar mengajar (teaching and learning process-tlp ). hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pola perkembangan tematik yang banyak digunakan oleh siswa yaitu pola tema tetap diikuti oleh zig zag dan beberapa pola tema . di tlp, materi dibagi dan diberikan kepada siswa dalam dua siklus . siklus pertama difokuskan pada memperkenalkan teori perkembangan tematik dan macam-macam pola. kemudian, pada siklus berikutnya siswa difokuskan pada berbagi ide dengan teman sekelas lain melalui blog masing-masing. berdasarkan hasil penelitian, mengajar sbw menggunakan teori perkembangan tematik memberikan makna positif oleh pola bervariasi yang digunakan oleh para siswa . hal ini dapat dilihat dari analisis kalimat siswa dari pretest, paragraf 1, paragraf 2, paragraf 3 dan post test. para siswa juga memberikan respon positif terhadap proses belajar mengajar dengan menggunakan perkembangan tematik dan blog pribadi yang didasarkan pada sebelum dan setelah data tes kuesioner. diharapkan hasil penelitian ini memberikan kontribusi positif bagi siswa dalam mempersiapkan mereka untuk menulis dalam konteks yang lebih besarparagraf berbasis menulis (paragraph-based writing), berdasarkan genre writng dan menulis akademik di semester yang akan datang. 209 kata kunci : perkembangan tematik, tema rheme, tematisasi, blog pribadi introduction writing is one of the four skills in english from which students are supposed to master besides listening, speaking and reading. those skills are classified into two main skills – receptive and productive skills. here, writing is classified into a productive skill as the students are demanded to be able to write in the forms of sentences, paragraphs, essays and texts. this is due to its main objective of writing, the students have literacy in writing. literacy is defined as the students‘ competence in communicating messages (paltridge, 2001:4). the students doing writing gives some significances. first, the students can explore their ideas or opinions. then, writing is one of the academic demands. moreover, writing belongs to the epistemic level for the students. it is based on the literacy level proposed by wells (1987). based on this level, the students are supposed to have skills in writing started from the basic one, sentence-based writing, from which they are going to meet other writing activities namely paragraph-based writing, genre-based writing and academic writing. the purpose of those writing activities is the students‘ competence in communicating meaningful messages for the readers. sentence-based writing is one of the course subjects given to the students in the second semester. before they get this subject, the students learn intensive writing in the first semester. furthermore, the materials given are quite simple. for example, they have to rewrite words, phrases, 210 clauses and sentences. as a result, they do not explore their ideas. here, the writer only taught one class consisting of 24 students. based on textual observation and analysis, it was found that some students still had difficulties in writing coherent sentences. they also gave some arguments in the questionnaires which indicated their weaknesses due to some considerations; they were not only about the structure of the sentences but also coherency of the sentences. the followings are some comments given by the students based on one of the questions in the pre questionnaires ―did you use to practice writing sentences and find its difficulties?‖ intan adi setyaningrum, one of my students said that she liked writing even it was not an easy job to do: ―in my opinion, there must be some rules especially grammar if i would like to write sentences. as a result, i should pay attention in that process‖. (pre-questionaire) then, another comment was given by ela julaeha: ―it is not easy to write sentences in english. i have to practice a lot how to write good sentences and paragraphs. i do practice every day, but it is still difficult indeed‖. (pre-questionaire). moreover, haifa khairunnisa provided her different point of view: “we are not only aware of grammar but also other things such theme and rheme, and thematic progression patterns (prequestionaire). it is very interesting to analyse haifa‘s comment as i assumed she has already read some references about how to write coherent sentences. it seemed that she had copied and read the books recommended by the lecturer in the first meeting. those comments indicated that some students still had less knowledge of producing sentences. based on the 211 elaboration above, the writer was interested in conducting a research. he tried to find out whether thematic progression theory could be applied in sentence-based writing class and it has positive significances. the writer was also highly interested in employing personal blog as a sharing medium among the students. it was because most of the students have not used the blog maximally for academic purposes. based on the questionnaire, most of the students were highly literate with the use of personal blog, but they did not use for english writing activities. they just used it as media for sharing their ideas, status, opinions in which they were still in indonesia. it could be ilustrated by the following comments related to the use of personal blog ―do you know and have a personal blog. if yes, how can you use it?‖ first comment given by nuki nurazizah: ―i know about personal blog as some of my friends have it. i do so. i made it a couple of years ago the purpose of which was for sharing with others. it can be many things. but, i rarely use it nowadays.‖ (pre-questionaire) then, sri utami provides her comment as the following: ―i knew personal blog when i was in senior high school as we had computer subject in which the teacher demanded us to create our personal blog. i also have a personal blog to write my short stories and poems‖. (pre-questionaire) nizar religia gives his comment: “before i join at unnes, i have heard lots of things about blog. at first i was not quite interested in having that, but i started writing my text in my new blog and i like it. now i have my own blog and it can improve my sentences” (pre-questionaire) 212 those are some comments given by some students. it can be inferred that some students were acknowledged with the personal blog and its varied use for different purposes. furthermore, they did not use it as media for them for sharing with others. such case interested the writer to apply personal blog in the sentence-based writing class. based on significances, elaborations and identified problems, the writer conducted the research. the purposes of the study are to find out what kinds of thematic progression patterns mostly used by the students; how to apply thematic progression and personal blog in the teaching and learning process; to what extent thematic progression and personal blog give positive contribution for the students. theme and rheme theme and rheme are terms describing how information is explored in a sentence. according to butt.et al (1995:38) theme is the information which is clearly understood by readers, the function of which, is as ―the point of departure‖ in an information. it has been stated in a text or it is based on contextual understanding. the information can be in the forms of characters, process or circumstances. on the other hand, rheme is defined as a new information in a clause within sentences developed from theme (eggins, 1994: 275). the information is knowledge assumed by the writer that is unclearly understood by the readers, but it needs to be informed in order to the development of the information in the sentences. we can easily identify that theme is the first element occurred in the beginning of the clause; the rest is the rheme. 213 theme and rheme classification can be ilustrated as the following examples: the man in the moon came down too soon mr. smith and his rival were fighting for the crown on the first day of lebaran we went around to meet other people on sunday morning my love came to my house on a rainy day we invited our close friend theme rheme we can identify three different clause elements categorized as theme based on three dimensional metafunctional structure: topical/experiential element, interpersonal element dan texstual element (eggins, 1994: 276). topical theme eggins (1994, 276) states that an element of a clause functioning as transitivity (actor, behaver, senser or circumstance) is categorized as topical theme. a main principal is that there should be a topical theme in a clause. after we can identify a theme in a clause, the rest must be the rheme. table 1 example of topical theme infants cry and fuss for a mean of 1 ¾ hr/ day at age 2 weeks behaver theme rheme (source: eggins, 1994: 277) textual theme some writers often use experiental meanings using words or phrases to connect a message with the previous text. by doing this, the 214 writers have created a coherent text. conjunctions are mostly used in clauses here. eggins (1994, 281) states that textual themes are elements which do not express interpersonal and experiental meanings. eggins classify textual theme into continuity adjuncts and conjunctive adjuncts. continuity adjuncts are related with some expressions used in utterances such as oh, well, yea and no. meanwhile, the conjcunctive adjuncts funsctions to combine clauses or sentences. it can be applied using conjunctions. table 2 example of textual theme and they went on their journey but i was still happy nevertheles all students enjoyed the trip and os the teacher gave some assignment textual topical rheme theme interpersonal theme interpersonal themes are used by the writers when they start writing sentences with clauses functioning as interpersonal meanings indicating kinds of interactions. butt et al. (1995: 94) group interpersonal themes into finite in interrogative clause, initial vocatives, mood and common adjunct. 215 table 3 example of interpersonal theme may we have some butter for the royal slice of bread? assuredly madam we will grant for your request could the team have beaten the grand finalists? probably they could interpersonal topical rheme theme thematic progression thematic progression is a way used by the writers to create sentences in a text. it can be done by putting the previous theme or rheme into new themes. eggins (1994: 302) classifies three kinds of thematic models: theme re-iteration/ constant theme pattern, zig-zag pattern and multiple theme pattern. theme re-iteation/ constant theme pattern this model is considered as the simplest pattern in writing sentences. it just repeats an element (eggins, 1994: 303). it does not have varied thematization patterns. new themes are taken from the previous themes. table 4 example of constant theme pattern theme rheme my friends and i went to jakarta last holiday we visited some places there we also spent our holiday by visiting ancol and dufan my friends and i were very happy (source: butt et.al, 1995:99) 216 figure 1 thematic progression: theme reiteration/constant theme pattern. theme 1 rheme 1 theme 2 rheme 2 theme 3 rheme 3 theme 4 rheme 4 zigzag/linear theme in this uses zig zag pattern, a rheme is placed as the new theme in the next clause. table 5 example of zig zag pattern theme rheme on saturday night my friends and i went to lawang sewu it is well-known as the living place for ghost (source: butt et.al, 1995:99) figure 2 thematic progression: a zigzag/linear theme pattern theme 1 rheme 1 theme 2 rheme 2 217 a multiple theme/split rheme pattern the last pattern combines the previous patterns. it is called as multiple theme pattern. in this pattern, a rheme can have many informations and this rheme may arrise some new themes (eggins, 1994: 304). table 6 example of multiple theme pattern on saturday, my colleague and i went to jakarta. we stayed at ibis hotel it had lots of rooms and restaurants the rooms consisted of economical and luxuries even president suit class the restaurants offered many kinds of menus from different countries theme rheme (source: butt et.al, 1995:100) figure 3 thematic progression: multiple theme pattern clause1 t1 r1 on saturday my ... jakarta clause2 t2 r2 we stayed ... hotel clause3 t3 r3 it had ... restaurants clause4 t4 r4 the room consisted ... class clause5 t5 r5 the restaurants offered ... countries 218 research methodology the writer used action research method in this study employing two cycles based on the progress of teaching and leraning process. the following is the research cycle based on kemmis and mc. taggart (1988): figure 4 action research cycles based on kemmis and mc. taggart (1988) cited in burns (2010: 9). 219 subject of the study the subject of the study was 24 students, in the second semester, taking a sentence-based writing class (subject code: bin 108) object of the study the sentences produced by the students were the object of the study. they were analysed using thematic progression theory to find out the coherence of the sentences taken in the students‘ personal blogs. the number of the analysed paragraph was not only one paragraph, but it was based on the teaching and learning process. before the researcher analysed the sentences, he demanded the students to put their work on their own blog in case it enabled the researcher to analyse anytime. setting of time and place the research took 6 months to complete based on the teaching and learning progress. it was conducted in the english department, faculty of languages and arts, unnes. the action research was based on the proposed schedule, in b3-317 building. steps of doing action research problem identification in identifying the problem, the writer demanded the students to do exercises and assignment in the classroom before main activities of tlp. moreover, their works were uploaded in their own blogs, the purpose of this, was to get early observation in analysing the students‘ competence in writing sentences. it became an indicator to plan the research. data gathering 220 as the object of the study was in the form of sentences, so the data was taken from its analysis using thematic progression theory. data interpretation after analysing the students‘ sentences using thematic progression theory, the researcher identified and classified based on its purposes. action this research employed two cycles, so the teaching materials of the thematic progression theory was devided into two activities. the first activity was the introduction of theme and rheme within clauses. later, the focus of tlp was similar with the previous one, but in deeper discussion. to ease the description of tlp, here was the teaching and learning process: table 7 action in the first cycle cycle 1 activities materials tlp discussion question & answer practice introduction of theme and rheme tlp discussion question & answer practice introduction of thematic progression writing practice free topics after evaluating the first cycle, the researcher planned to conduct the second cycle. table 8 action in the second cycle 221 cycle 2 activities materials tlp discussion question & answer practice theme and rheme tlp discussion question & answer practice thematic progression writing practice enlarged from the previous topics in the first cycle. instrument the instruments used in the research were: a. observation. it was refered as textual analysis on the sentences produced by the students based on every meeting demanding them to produce sentences. b. test. pretest and posttest were used to measure the outcome of tlp, but they were not as the main assessment as the students did writing activities in every meeting. c. questionnaires. to find out the students‘ responses related to the use of thematic progression and personal blog in the sentence-based writing class, pre and post questionnaires were used. both were used to find out the students responses upon tlp. 222 discussion based on tlp using thematic progression and personal blog, the result shows that the students varied their sentences based on thematic progression theory. it can also be seen from the number of clauses produced by the students: pretest 227 clauses, 220 clauses, 269 clauses, 275 clauses, and 263 clauses. the following figure describes the number of clauses: figure 5 the number of clauses thematic progression pattern used by the students are lack of consistency. furthermore, it is very interesting to see from the development of zigzag pattern. on the pretest, the number of this pattern is 14%, but on the following paragpraphs the percentage of the clauses are 21.36 %, 21. 8%, 20% dan 22.43%. it indicated that the students started using rheme into new themes to the following clauses. here is the figure describing kinds of thematic progression patterns used by the students: 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 jumlah klausa pre test paragraf 1 paragraf 2 paragraf 3 posttest 223 figure 6 thematic progression patterns referring to the blog used by the students as the media in tlp of the sentence-based writing class, the blog gives positive contribution for the students. it can be seen from the responses of the students. it affects to the students‘ sentences quality. based on the observation and evaluation, the researcher concludes that the use of thematic progression and personal blog improve some aspects of students sentence writing, even not for all aspects. conclusion and suggestion conclusion based on the analysis and result of the research finding, some conclusions are as follow: 1. the students produced sentences using three patterns. constant pattern dominates the two other patterns. in the pretest activity, the precentage of three patterns are constant with 37.9%, zigzag with 14.1% and multiple with11%. then, in paragraph 1, the number of 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 pretest paragraf 1 paragraf 2 paragraf 3 posttest constant zig zag multiple 224 precentages has changed. for example, the number of constant pattern is 21.81% followed with zig zag pattern with 21.36% and multiple pattern with 12.72%. it is very interesting to analyse it as the students did not focus on constant pattern only. moreover, in paragraph 2 the students tend to go back to the previous pattern. it can be seen from the number of clauses 41.63% dominating other patterns as their clauses are stable, zig zag with 21.18% and multiple pattern with 12.64%. in addition, in paragraph 3 the number of clauses on three patterns are decreasing 29.82%, 20% and 9.45%. it can be affected by the students who did not concentrate on tlp but they focused on how to share ideas via personal blogs. finally, in the post-test the percentage of three patterns are 29.27%, 22.43% and 10.64%. 2. teaching and learning process using thematic progression was devided into some meetings. in the early meetings, the students learned about basic skills of writing coherent sentences. then, they were demanded to write a paragraph consisting of minimally 10 sentences with their own topics. after that, the students learned more about the materials in the next meetings. the students also used personal blog as sharing media with others. personal blog was focused in the second cycle. 3. the use of thematic progression gives positive contribution for the students‘ sentences. it can be seen from the varied number of patterns which does not only focus on constant pattern. though they do not increase significantly, by the varied number of patterns it indicates that the students are getting aware of writing coherent 225 sentences. in addition, it is supported by the responses given by the students in the questionnaires. suggestions some suggestions are as follows: 1. thematic progression theory needs to be learned by the students in the sentence-based writing class; 2. the students need to practice a lot in writing sentences not only in the classroom but also outside of the classroom; 3. in intensive writing class, the students should be given opportunities to freely explore their ideas; 4. it needs time for the researcher to analyse the students‘ sentences as it takes time to do such analysis. references burns, anne. 2010. doing action research in english language teaching: a guide for practitioners. oxon: routledge butt. et al. 1995. using functional grammar: an explorer’s guide. sydney: national centre for english language and research macquaire university eggins, suzanne. 1994. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. london: pinter publsiher oshima, alice & hogue, ann. 1999. writing academic english. new york: pearson 226 paltridge, brian. 2001. genre and the language learning classroom. michigan: the university of michigan press. wells, g. 1987. apprenticeship in literacy. in interchange 18, 1/2: 109123. witte, stephen p. & faigley, lester. 1981. coherence, cohesion and writing quality. college composition and communication, 32, 189-204. 3-20.1.1 zulianti register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 63 the influence of listening habits of english songs toward vocabulary mastery zulianti mi ma’arif magelang zulianti11@yahoo.com abstract the objectives of the study are as follows: (1) to find out the intensity of the students‟ habit in listening english songs, (2) to find out the students‟ mastery of english vocabulary, (3) to find out the influences of listening habit of english songs towards vocabulary mastery. this is a descriptive qualitative study. the subjects of study were the third year students of man i temanggung. the result of the research are as follow: (1) the majority of the students‟ listening habits of english songs is good enough that falls on the scores of 68-83, (2) the majority of the students‟ vocabulary mastery is fair that falls on the scores of 65-79, (3) there is a positive influence of listening habits of english songs toward vocabulary mastery. key words: listening habit, english songs, vocabulary mastery. abstract the tujuan penelitian ini sebagai berikut: (1) mengetahui intensitas kebiasaan mahasiswa dalam mendengarkan lagu inggris, (2) mengetahui penguasaan perbendaharaan kata mahasiswa inggris, (3) mengetahui pengaruh kebiasaan mendengarkan bahasa inggris lagu dan penguasaan perbendaharaan kata. ini adalah studi deskriptif-kualitatif. subyek penelitian ialah siswa kelas iii di man i temanggung. hasil penelitian sebagai berikut (1) sebagian besar swa memiliki tingkat kemampuan mendengarkan lagu berbahasa inggris dinilai baik dengan skor penilaian 68-83, (2) sebagian besar penguasaan perbendaharaan kata siswa lumayan/agak baik dengan skor penilaian 65-79, (3) terdapat pengaruh positif antara mendengarkan lagu inggris dengan perbendaharaan kata penguasaan. mailto:zulianti11@yahoo.com the influence of listening habits of english songs toward vocabulary… register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 64 kata kunci : kebiasaan mendengarkan, lagu berbahasa inggris, penguasaan kosa kata. introduction english is the first foreign language. first of all it is quite clear that nearly all people in the world understand that english as one of the international languages used as a means to exchange, share or transfer information. in indonesia, it is regarded very important for the development of science, technology, art and establishing relationship among nations. in order to master it well, people need four skills such as: listening, speaking, reading and writing. in our country, english is taught from elementary school until university. in elementary school english as elective subject, in junior and senior high school as compulsory subject, and in university as language department but also there is as compulsory subject like in other departments. in addition, to learn the language it is not only in formal education, students also learn it in non-formal institutions such as courses which offer the easy ways in mastering english. people can choose one of them that are suitable with their purpose. although they are learning from different sources, they have same motivation in their learning process that they want to get success on it. language learning is the activity for students in their endeavor for acquiring vocabulary and grammar for the purpose of developing and expressing ideas in the target language. to develop and express their ideas in target language they have to master large vocabularies because it is important for them to master the four english skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) that need zulianti register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 65 them. tarigan states that the quality of one‟s language skills depends on the quality and the quantity of the vocabulary mastered (tarigan, 1989 : 2). from the statement above, the writer can conclude that vocabulary mastery is very important for the students to master english skills. so, they focus on their attention first to the vocabulary mastery in their learning process. the graduates of senior high school who have been taught english for about 6 years still have difficulties in english because they have low vocabulary mastery. learning of vocabulary is not only from text books but it can be learned by other ways such as by listening the songs, especially english. if the students often listen the english songs, they can enrich their vocabularies little by little because they will get many unfamiliar words and if they are interested in those songs they will look for the meaning of those words, and automatically they can increase their vocabularies. based on the observation in the classroom of third year students of man i temanggung, the researcher found that students got difficulties in the vocabulary mastery like pronunciation, spelling, meaning and memorize the words, however, they should have good vocabulary mastery. realizing this fact, the writer thinks that listening habit of english songs is really good way for students to enrich their vocabularies. they can get those things that they do not get in their classes and text books. it is good for them in their learning process. their skill will develop better if they also learn about it out of school. moreover, they can know that english in daily communication is slightly different from that of text books. this fact will open their eyes that they should learn from many different sources if they want to get success in learning it. based on those explanations, the writer here is interested in searching the influence of listening habit of english songs toward the influence of listening habits of english songs toward vocabulary… register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 66 vocabulary mastery. the objectives of the study are as follows: (1) to find out the intensity of the students‟ habit in listening english songs. (2) to find out the students‟ mastery of english vocabulary. (3) to find out the influences of listening habit of english songs vocabulary mastery. the definition of vocabulary vocabulary is the total number of words which makes up the languages. it can be defined, caught as the words we teach in the foreign language (hornby,1985:959). based on longman dictionary of contemporary english, vocabulary is all the words known to a particular person, the special set of word used in a particular kind of work, business, a list of word, usually in alphabetical order and with explanation of their meaning (group,1981:112). in learning vocabulary, it is important for students to understand the meaning of the new language in the communication of meaning. people talk in order to express the meaning of their ideas and thoughts, and they listen in order to discover the meaning of what others say. without meaning in the spoken and expression can make the others do not understand what they say. dupuy and krashen divide the vocabulary into two kinds, namely receptive vocabulary and productive vocabulary (brown, 1958 : 370). finocchiaro suggests that students‟ vocabulary can be divided into passive and active vocabulary rather than receptive and productive vocabulary (finocchiaro, 1974 : 87). haycraft defines receptive or passive vocabularies are words that the student recognize and understand when they occur in a context, but which he can not produce correctly, it means in zulianti register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 67 reading or listening. on the other hand, productive or active vocabulary is words which the students understand, can pronounce correctly and use constructively in speaking or writing (brown:370). in learning vocabulary to get the appropriate meaning of the words of sentences, the thing that must be considered is sense relation. it is important to distinguish the meaning of individut6al items of what they mean in the real word, their meaning in relation to other words within the vocabulary system of the language (their sense) (mccarthy, 1990 : 15-16). beside that there are many important aspects in learning vocabulary, they are: 1. word formation a. derivational affixes b. inflectional affixes (1) plural forms, (2)possessions, (3)third singular verb maker, (4)tense markers, (5)pronouns c. compound compound words are the words that consist of two parts that make up one meaning. d. blends blending is the fusion of two words into one and both have original meanings. e. clipped clipping is a process in which a word is formed by shortening a larger one. f. acronyms acronyms are the result of forming a word from the first letters of each word in a phrase. the influence of listening habits of english songs toward vocabulary… register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 68 g. coining coining is pure creations of writers, inventors, scientists and others who are in need of a term to express a given meaning or to an item or product. 2. synonym 3. antonym 4. homonym 5. idioms before talking about the relation of listening habits of english songs, of course, we have to know the problem of vocabulary mastery. students need a high curiosity and motivation from themselves to learn a foreign language. it is really important for them when they learn it. by having a high curiosity and motivation, they will give more attention in learning english. nowadays, many teachers of english at high schools face a lot of problem in their learning process in class. for an illustration, in senior high school, although they do not in the beginner again, they are still having difficulties in learning of foreign language because their vocabularies are still limited. students have difficulties in many aspects of learning process. one of their difficulties is to understand the meaning of new words which they just hear beside in considering the meaning of new words in the text. it happens because they do not have habits in listening of english words. beside that, because english is different from indonesian language, in culture, pronunciation, and of course in written. about this case, as quoted by brown: in the comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease of difficulty in foreign language learning …. those elements that are similar to (the learners) native language will be zulianti register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 69 simple for him and those elements that are different will be difficult. (brown, 1980:149) from the above explanation, the writer concludes that meaning of words depends on context of sentences, so the students have difficulties to select the appropriate meaning of words. the different culture from one country to other country is different and sometimes causes misinterpretation in comprehending the meaning of words and it is called as a communication problem. some misunderstanding is significant and can be easily ignored. other conflicts are more serious that they can cause misinterpretation and create persistent and negative attitudes towards the language user. according to evelyn hatch and cheryl brown there are five steps for students in learning vocabulary, they are: 1. encountering new words the students‟ strategies here include learning new words by reading books, listening to tv and radio, and reading newspaper and magazines. 2. getting the word forms 3. getting the word meaning 4. consolidating word form and meaning in memory 5. using the word (hatch, 1995:372-39). according to colin rose and malcolm j. nicholl, units of music, video, audio, dramatization, picture, games and other technique can create “comprehensive theatre-thinking” (nicholl : 223-224). based on those statements above, the writer concludes learning vocabulary of a language needs more practices and patient. the learners cannot learn it from one source only. they should try many ways that can the influence of listening habits of english songs toward vocabulary… register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 70 help them in enriching their vocabulary. and the last, people cannot master many vocabularies of a language in a short time. based on oxford dictionary, song is poem set to music and intended to be song (hornby,1985:219). according to collin flt, song is a piece of music with words that are sung to the music (collins,1988:89). song is short musical work set to a poetic text, with equal importance given to music and to the words. it is generally performed with instrument accompaniment (1986:1220) from the definition above, the writer concludes that song is a short metrical composition for singing and it is usually performed with instrumental accompaniment. as the writer stated previously, that song is useful, amusing, and challenging means to improve the mastery of students‟ vocabulary. songs are part of music. music helps us to focus and on guard, it gives emotional dimension for your new words, and integrates the power of left brain and right brain. plato says “music is an education instrument which stronger than other instrument (malcolm:243).” music also makes high remember capacity, that make the words are remembered easier. we know that words in a song are easier to remember (ibid:244). words those are synchronized with music need little aware effort to learn it, big possibility its matter because they attractively united left brain (words) and right brain (music) activity. we also know that music has great influence in emotional system centers, which also part of spread which strive to longrange memory. based on the kinds of vocabulary that have been discussed in the page before, the writer considers that vocabularies that are found in english songs are included into active vocabulary. the vocabularies heard zulianti register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 71 in the songs are the vocabularies that people use in their daily speaking and writing. the words like: “every time i see you in my dream”, “she cries in her lonely heart thinking”, “don‟t leave hanging”, “i‟m sorry”, “i can be perfect”, “did you know you used to be my hero?”, “i just want to you know”, “i‟ve found a reason for me”, “little by little we gave you everything”, and the other words that are familiar with the people in communication. they use the words in their daily life, both in oral and writing communication. the listener will not get a difficulty to understand those words because the speakers or singers on those songs say in an interesting and wonderful intonation, so they will know about how to pronounce the words in a right and good pronunciation. more over, they will learn to determine appropriate meaning of words by see their context. but also they sometimes have difficulties because in english songs there are several funky language such as “wanna”. “gonna”, “gotta”, “coz”, “cuz” and my be there are the other words. research method population suharsimi arikunto states “population is all members of the research subject (arikunto, 1993:102). the population of this research is the third year students of man i temanggung. they are all students of language department consisting 60 person. sample sample is the part of the representative of population who are observed (ibid:104). in this research, the writer takes about 60 students from language class. the influence of listening habits of english songs toward vocabulary… register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 72 variable and indicator variable is the various research subject (hadi,1990:9). first variable: listening habits of english songs. second variable: vocabulary mastery first and second variable can be seen from indicators as follows: (a)songs are listened, (b)function of songs, (c) method that use in listening the songs, (d)activity when listen the songs, (e)kinds of vocabulary method of data collection a. questionnaire and test questionnaire is written question which are used to get information from respondent. it is the report of their private or other things they know (kartono,1990:135). the writer uses questionnaire to know about the students‟ listening habit of english songs. beside that, a vocabulary test is administrated to find students‟ mastery of english songs. b. documentation it is finding data about variables in notes, book transcript, newspaper, magazine, meeting note, agenda and so on (arikunto:202). this method is used as a technique to find the condition of teachers, officers, students, and location of school. c. data analysis 1. the result of test will be presented in the percentage formula: p = explanation: p = the score obtained ∑x = the sum of score x n = samples zulianti register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 73 p = explanation: p = the score obtained ∑y = the sum of score y n = samples 2. to determine whether there is or not a significant influence of listening habit of english songs toward vocabulary mastery, the writer will use product moment formula as follow: (sudjana,1989:146) explanation: r = correlation coefficient of variable x and y = the sum of the product multiplying the vocabulary test scores and the questionnaire‟s scores = the sum of vocabulary‟s score = the sum of questionnaire‟s scores = the sum of square of vocabulary test scores = the sum of square of questionnaire‟s test scores = the square of the sum vocabulary test scores = the square of the sum questionnaire‟s test scores n = the total number of respondent. discussion after the test had been carried out, the scoring of the test papers the influence of listening habits of english songs toward vocabulary… register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 74 was conducted. the list of the score of listening habits of english songs was presented in appendix 4, and the list of the students‟ vocabulary mastery was presented in appendix 5. 1. listening habits of english songs the following table can represent the list of the students‟ standard scores of the frequency in listening of english songs and their level of frequency in appendix 4 table 4.1 distribution of the listening habits of english songs scores frequency criteria 84 – 100 68 – 83 52 – 67 36 – 51 12 43 21 2 excellent good fair weak it is clearly seen in the table above that out of seventy eight students are twelve students of them were excellent in listening habits of english songs, forty there students were good, twenty one were fair and two students were weak. 2. students‟ vocabulary mastery the following table can represent the list of students‟ vocabulary mastery in appendix 5. table 4.2 distribution of the students’ vocabulary mastery scores frequency criteria 91 – 100 1 excellent zulianti register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 75 82 – 90 65 79 50 64 19 40 18 good fair weak the table above shows that out of seventy eight students taking part in the vocabulary test, only one student of them got excellent level in acquisition, nineteen students got fair and eighteen students got poor. 3. correlation analysis the purpose of data analysis in this research is to measure the listening habits of english songs and the students‟ vocabulary mastery of third year students of man i temanggung in the academic year of 2005 – 2006. to measure it, it is important to take the prefatory measurement as follows: table 4.3 the prefatory table for compulsion of coefficient correlation x and y no x y x2 y2 xy 1 70 26 4900 676 1820 2 64 27 4096 729 1728 3 69 25 4761 625 1725 4 78 28 6084 784 2184 5 74 25 5476 625 1850 6 74 25 5476 625 1850 7 84 31 7056 961 2604 8 95 25 9025 625 2375 9 81 25 6561 625 2025 10 89 32 7921 1024 2848 11 62 27 3844 729 1674 12 61 25 3721 625 1525 13 81 25 6561 625 2025 14 67 30 4489 900 2010 15 55 25 3025 625 1375 16 57 26 3249 676 1482 the influence of listening habits of english songs toward vocabulary… register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 76 17 78 35 6084 1225 2730 18 79 37 6241 1369 2923 19 71 27 5041 729 1917 20 78 32 6084 1024 2496 21 84 33 7056 1089 2772 22 81 34 6561 1156 2754 23 79 25 6241 625 1975 24 60 28 3600 784 1680 25 81 26 6561 676 2106 26 67 25 4489 625 1675 27 74 28 5476 784 2072 28 58 33 3364 1089 1914 29 75 28 5625 784 2100 30 70 29 4900 841 2030 31 85 25 7225 625 2125 32 81 27 6561 729 2187 33 86 27 7396 729 2322 34 80 29 6400 841 2320 35 81 28 6561 784 2268 36 93 26 8649 676 2418 37 73 26 5329 676 1898 38 80 27 6400 729 2160 39 53 27 2809 729 1431 40 71 26 5041 676 1846 41 48 25 2304 625 1200 42 90 30 8100 900 2700 43 62 25 3844 625 1550 44 86 25 7396 625 2150 45 63 26 3969 676 1638 46 69 31 4761 961 2139 47 78 36 6084 1296 2808 48 84 30 7056 900 2520 49 64 32 4096 1024 2048 50 74 35 5476 1225 2590 51 53 30 2809 900 1590 52 63 32 3969 1024 2016 53 67 25 4489 625 1675 54 72 34 5184 1156 2448 55 84 34 7056 1156 2448 56 87 30 7569 900 2610 zulianti register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 77 57 63 33 3969 1089 2079 58 72 35 5184 1225 2520 59 73 35 5329 1225 2555 60 74 33 5476 1089 2442 61 75 30 5625 900 2250 62 80 31 6400 961 2480 63 74 34 5476 1156 2516 64 83 35 6889 1225 2905 65 67 31 4489 961 2077 66 70 25 4900 625 1750 67 51 26 2601 676 1326 68 68 25 4624 625 1700 69 75 27 5625 729 2025 70 66 26 4356 676 1716 71 61 26 3721 676 1716 72 76 25 5776 625 1900 73 81 28 6561 784 2268 74 75 26 5625 676 1950 75 68 26 4624 676 1768 76 70 27 4900 729 1890 77 68 26 4624 676 1768 78 64 32 4096 1024 2048 5677 2179 420977 62780 160390 the interpret the research finding, the researcher uses the arithmetical calculation and product moment correlation formula to compute the data that has been contained as foll ows: 1). arithmetical calculation a. calculating the score of students‟ listening habits of english songs p = = = = 72,78% the influence of listening habits of english songs toward vocabulary… register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 78 b. calculating the score of students‟ vocabulary mastery p = = = = 2). product moment correlation analysis from the computation above, it was obtained that rxy = 0,466 and then rxy is consulted to the critical value for r table of product moment to examine whether rxy value is significant or not. the value of r table with n=75 and the 5% significant level is 0,277. so, it can be concluded that rxy is greater than r table or 0,466 is greater than 0,277. the research finding indicate that there is a significant correlation between listening habits of english songs and students‟ vocabulary zulianti register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 79 mastery. these facts imply that listening habits and the frequency in english songs give a useful contribution to enrich students‟ vocabulary mastery. based on the result of the study, we know that listening habits and the frequency in english songs give a useful contribution to enrich students‟ vocabulary mastery is fall on the good and fair criteria. this implies that both of the teacher and students must pay attention to them. one way which can be taken by the teacher if he was to point students vocabulary mastery, the frequency of students‟ listening habits of english songs must be increased and when the teacher teaches language he can use english songs as medium of teaching, especially in vocabulary subject. conclusion the result of the research are as follow: (1) the majority of the students‟ listening habits of english songs is good that falls on the scores of 68-83. (2) the majority of the students‟ vocabulary mastery is fair that falls on the scores of 65-79. (3) there is a positive influence of listening habits of english songs toward vocabulary mastery. references arikunto, suharsimi. 1993. prosedur penelitian suatu pendekatan praktek. yogyakarta : rineka cipta. brown, douglas. 1980. principle of language learning. new jersey : prentice hall. collins. 1988. english language teaching. encyclopedia americana,vol.25, 1988. the influence of listening habits of english songs toward vocabulary… register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 80 finnochiaro, marry. 1974. the foreign language learner, a guide for teacher. new york : . regents publising company. hatch, evelyn, and brown, cheryl.1958. vocabulary, semantics and language. california : cambridge university perss. hornby. 1981. oxford advanced learners dictionary of current english, london : oxford university. kartono, kartini. 1990. metodologi riset sosial, bandung : manar maju. longman. 1981. longman dictionary of contemporary english. great britain : pitman perss. mccharty, michael. 1990. vocabulary, oxford university press. rose, colin and j. nicholl, malcolm. accelerated learning for the 21 st century. nuansa. sudjana, nana.1989.tuntunan penyusunan karya ilmiah. bandung : sinar baru. tarigan, henri guntur. 1989. pengajaran kosa kata, angkasa, bandung. 259 the role of computer assisted language learning (call) for english language learning of elementary and high schools in indonesia miftachudin master student of the university of manchester oxford road, manchester, m13 9pl, uk miftac4@ymail.com abstract computer assisted language learning (call) or in another word collaborating computer with the classroom component to enhance language learning has a long history of pedagogical development since 1950 until nowadays which started with the simple program into microcomputers. it covers all learning processes using computers which advance the language skills of the learners. in the language courses, call is implemented by using several applications but this essay will solely mention 8 applications out of many. the study cases prove that those implementations offer several great values toward academic life. however, in order to achieve successful implementation, the preconditions or requirements of the call implementation must be fulfilled. in indonesia, the advent of some hindrances such as cost, teacher trainings are the main issues to fulfil those requirements. alternatively, several recommendations are proposed to refute the problems such as schools and local government cooperation, customisation learning technology and peer school teaching. keywords: call, language learning, elementary and high schools mailto:miftac4@ymail.com 260 abstrak komputer sebagai media pembelajaran bahasa ( call) atau dengan kata lain komputer yang berkolaborasi dengan komponen kelas untuk meningkatkan pembelajaran bahasa memiliki sejarah panjang pengembangan pedagogis sejak tahun 1950 sampai saat ini, yang dimulai dengan program sederhana hingga mikrokomputer . hal ini mencakup semua proses pembelajaran menggunakan komputer yang dapat memajukan kemampuan bahasa peserta didik .dalam pengajaran bahasa, call diimplementasikan dengan menggunakan beberapa aplikasi, tetapi esai ini hanya akan menyebutkan 8 aplikasi diantara banyak aplikasi yang ada. studi kasus membuktikan bahwa implementasi aplikasiaplikasi tersebut menawarkan beberapa kontribusi yang besar terhadap kehidupan akademik . namun, untuk mencapai keberhasilan itu , pra kondisi atau persyaratan dalam pelaksanaan call harus dipenuhi . di indonesia , munculnya beberapa kendala seperti biaya , pelatihan guru adalah isu utama guna memenuhi kebutuhan tersebut. sebagai alternatif, beberapa rekomendasi diusulkan untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut, seperti kerjasama antara sekolah dan pemerintah daerah, kustomisasi teknologi pembelajaran, dan pengajaran sebaya. kata kunci: call, pembelajaran bahasa, sekolah dasar dan menengah atas introduction computers are highly in demand since their functions are not only to calculate numerals but also to assist human activities. in the case of language learning, computers have significant contributions and lead to better teaching (hagen, 1993:21). furthermore, since 1950s they tend to be more popular for language learning because there is a need to figure out the efficient and scientific methods in language teaching (beatty:2003). computers are prominent devices among other technologies which should attach to collaborate with the curriculum requirement and reach certain learning goals. in addition, pre-condition 261 such as technology-literate teachers is needed to guarantee the successful implementation (hagen:1993). in indonesia, english is mainly used as a second language which is learned formally at school. it is taught by using text books and the students need to follow the language instruction within. in fact, the classroom sometimes tends to be boring because students face the same learning method every day. as a result, they lack motivation in learning. simultaneously, that condition affects the academic life and learning process. the aim of this essay is to give an overview of call and evaluate its potential use for language learning. firstly, a literature review providing background to call will be given. secondly, opportunities of call for language learning will be presented. thirdly, the potential implementation of call in english language learning of elementary and senior high education in indonesia will be analysed. next, recommendations of using call in english language learning of elementary and high schools in indonesia will be proposed. finally, a conclusion will be drawn. discussion the description of call beatty (2003) defined call as the process of using computers in learning which results learner‘s language improvement. by using this terminology, appropriate materials and methodologies are easily recognized by learners, teachers and researchers. furthermore, they can be adapted to various teaching and learning styles. call covers the issues of material design, technology, theories of pedagogical and 262 instruction modes. since the nature of computers has changed, call persistently develops pedagogy terms and technology advances in both hardware and software. call can be implemented in and out of the class. it can be used in the classroom as an honour for good learners or a reinforcement tool for students who work at a slower pace. conversely, out of the classroom, it is a complete language learning application which serves individual away from his or her resident. call is mostly concerned with autonomous learning where learners may have chances to study independently from the teachers and organise their personal learning. regarding the design of call materials, endless revisiting is granted that helps learners practice and have remedial for certain parts they need. call in the 1950s and 1960s in 1959, the university of illinois collaborating with a business partner, control data corporation developed program logic/learning for automated teaching operation (plato) system in which the first and most significant application for teaching and learning of language at the computer was used. this system had the capability to give feedback such as an examination collaborated with remedial work based on learners‘ incorrect answers. the learners need to follow the same steps in the same fashion with point rewards and advancement for correct answers. the exercises were mainly conversion of traditional textbook exercises and avoided the usage of computer features (beatty:2003). on the other hand, the invention of simulation brought the special nature of computer to allow for branching of choices. it can be seen from the machine interface that under the constructivist model instruction 263 where the learners‘ knowledge about the world rationalised the task. the classroom altered into computer based environment where the learner may make frequent errors in a non-threatening way. as a result of simulation in independent learning situations which allow for repeated attempts, the positive stress which often fuels learning may reduce (beatty, 2003). call in the 1970s and 1980s in this period, the classification of computers was divided into three categories: mainframe computers, mini-computers and microcomputers. the former category was room-sized machines. the second one was similar to what it is recently called as a server. the latter category is what we call desktop computers or personal computer such as portables and laptops (beatty: 2003). call research in this period focused on videodisc technology, a high-volume storage system. its technology allowed less powerful computers which commonly relied on textual exercise to go beyond the behaviourist models of instruction (beatty:2003). according to bush and crotty (1991), promoting listening rather than speaking, using the target language exclusively, implicit over explicit grammar, and correcting or providing evidence through modelling and certain effort to make a low-anxiety atmosphere were pointed out as some videodisc learning features. call in the 1990s the multimedia call environment is the ones cited so far provide an overview of the types of features likely to be offered among thousands of new publicity of call (beatty:2003). in accordance with 264 murray, morgenstern and furstenberg (1991:97-118), the guidelines concern with how to evaluate narrative-driven multimedia learning environments such as multiplicity of protagonist, multiplicity of plot events, knowledge-based choice points, choice-points based on temperament of the learner, whimsical surprises, multimedia for presentation and intrinsic rather than extrinsic rewards. those points are useful to decide the possibility and desire in multimedia context among many non-narrative materials that do not accommodate the guidelines. applications of call eight call applications are available including word processing, games, literature, corpus linguistic, computer mediated communication (cmc), www resources, adapting other materials for call and personal digital assistant (pda) (beatty, 2003:52). sharma and barret (2007:69) mention office software in general as call applications including word processors, data base processors, spread sheets applications, and program of presentations. in fact, they only mention the two of them; word processors and presentation programs which can be collaborated to language learning. in the term of blended learning, sharma and barret (2007) combine proper technology with direct teaching features. however, most of their applications in language courses use computers, some hardware and software within to enhance the learning process. search engines, word processors, media players, cd roms, internet, interactive white boards (iwb), emails, internet chat rooms, virtual learning environments (vle), blogs and wikis are the sample of technology used in the practice of sharma and barret. 265 requirements to implement call in the classroom hagen (1993) concluded that the successful implementation of new technology into the language classroom requires special precondition: support of senior management, a whole-school approach, technology-literate teachers, technician support, a designated language learning accommodation (for example sound proofing) and a budget for staff training, materials development and the purchase of good-quality course material. sharma & barret (2007) also listed some factors that affect the technology usage in language learning. the factors cover the attitude of teachers and learners to technology, learners‘ level affecting the appropriate use of technology, teacher training related to novelty of the technology, teachers and learners availability to access technology, and the cost factor to provide new technology. values of the call implementations for language learning sharma and barret (2007) stated that computers as one of the technology devices in blended learning collaborated with a face-to-face (f2f) classroom component offer several important opportunities. first, learning with technology is motivating to some extent. for example playing language game such as hang-man, it gives learners joy and knowledge consecutively. also, there is a direct evaluation after learning interaction that learners may proceed to the next level or repeat a certain part as much as they want to. 266 second, flexibility in venue, timetable, and in terms of level are great values in using technology. video conference meet people‘s need in communication from different time and place without any direct interaction. virtual learning environment (vle) helps learners who lack of ability in note taking. therefore, they can grasp the material at later date from online teachers‘ note. in terms of level, technology such as cd rom is created to promote certain level band such as beginner, intermediate, and advanced. intermediate students are allowed to learn beginner material in order to review and trace back what they have learnt. alternatively, they may try to start the advanced level in purpose of testing themselves. third, web-based tasks tend to be more interactive than paper based tasks because it lets learners make choices. in the case of mixmatch collocation task, learners may try to match one word to the others and start to make a new phrase. next, technology also leads to independent learning. learners are able to access learning materials from everywhere (home, office, or even café), review any materials they have not understood and get evaluation instantly. invitingly, they may manage the learning timetable based on their own preference since the material is available online. lastly, updated online materials in the internet are more available than the printed one. there is a wide range of material in the internet. thus teachers should choose the most current, appropriate and reliable to the topic of learning. by using updated online materials, teachers save a lot of time in preparing materials because one material can be used 267 thousands of time to different groups and there is no time consuming in duplicating the worksheet like in the paper based materials. english language learning for elementary and high school in indonesia education curriculum in indonesia the curriculum of education in indonesia has an autonomous system which is regulated by local government as it is explicated in the act of indonesian republic no. 20 year 2003 about the national educational system. specifically, it is defined in the chapter 4, article 10 about rights and obligations of state and local government. they can direct, advice, assist and supervise educational administration as stated in the act (bidang dikbud kbri tokyo 2003:5). the implementation of this policy becomes the curriculum named kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan (educational unit base curriculum). ktsp abbreviated from kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan is operational curriculum which are composed by and performed in each educational unit. it has an educational objective in a certain educational unit, structure and curriculum contents in a certain educational unit, an academic calendar and syllabus (badan standar nasional pendidikan 2006:3). each group or educational unit may develop appropriate and relevant ktsp under the supervision and coordination of education department or that of county / regency religious affairs department for elementary education and that of province religious affairs department for secondary education. the development itself must consider the standard of content and alumni competency. there are seven principles in 268 developing ktsp and one of them is the awareness towards the development of science, technology and art. thus, the spirit and content of the curriculum should promote learners to experience in updating and using science, technology and art (badan standar nasional pendidikan, 2006). current learning resources in english language learning of elementary and high school in indonesia learning resources which are used in teaching learning process can be indicated in syllabus. badan standar nasional pendidikan (2006:5) defined that syllabus are lesson plans in a certain unit of topics or a learning-subject which cover standards of competencies, basic competences, main discussions, learning activities, achievement indicators in assessment, assessments, time allocations and learning resources. learning resources which have been observed on some syllabus indicates that the teachers have used some application of call. the findings are concluded as follow. pancaran (2009) mentioned some learning resources that he used in language teaching in senior high schools such as www, cassettes, cds, english newspapers, english modules, tape scripts, overhead projectors (ohp) and lcds. it means that one in a time, he tried to swap english modules or english newspapers which are paper based materials with other resources such as web based materials and other technologies. surely, the web based resources must involve computers to access them. meanwhile, pancaran (2009) used course books, cassettes or cd recordings, teaching aids and related images when he taught fifth grade 269 elementary students. in addition sugiono (2010) used pictures, conversation scripts and english modules to teach his 9 grade elementary students. drawbacks in implementing call in english language learning of elementary and high school in indonesia as a developing country, indonesia faces many problems in managing its budget. in the field of education, government only allocated 15.81% for the national education ministry, rp 51.8 trillion from rp 327.6 trillion of the 2010 fiscal. in fact, this amount is not enough to improve the education quality because 25% of the budget has been allocated to teachers‘ salary and the other 25% of that is used to pay school operational cost (the jakarta post, 2009). simultaneously, it creates another problem in administering education and complementing learning tools such as technology equipment. in the case of computer technology, it usually comes together with building a computer lab to accommodate language learning, computer peripherals, an internet connection, staff and teacher trainings and additional monthly expenses for maintenance (noni, 2010:2). this bundle cost a great amount of money which cannot be afforded by the government. in addition, teachers have different attitudes to respond the new technology whether it is a challenge or a burden. based on writer‘s teaching experience in computer classes, teachers who are accustom with face-to-face learning find to be difficult to manage their time in learning how to use computer or new technology especially those who teach in elementary or high school. it may not simply difficulties but there can be other factors such as laziness, reluctant to be innovative, unlike 270 challenge, quite busy with extra errands or other excuses. thus, they cannot bear their mind to be technology literate and develop teaching creativity (noni:2010). further, the archipelago country of indonesia with 13.667 islands including 1000 inhabited ones still has a problem in distributing resources to improve the educational quality and output. for example, the jakarta post (2009) stated that in east kalimantan of indonesia well known as a rich region, the local government planned to allocate 4.000 laptops gradually for teachers in international project schools. following that, there will be training for teachers to improve computer skill programs. there must be a good management to balance between the centre of development, country sides and remote areas. it is an important issue because the national standard of national exam is same although the facilities are on the other hand. from the students‘ point of view, most of them are technologically savvy and computer such as playing games online, socializing online or surfing the internet using mobile-phone. however, those facts may liable to them into violence and irresponsible activities. (the jakarta post, 2009). recommendations of using call in english language learning for elementary and high schools in indonesia. comparing the requirements and current condition of indonesian education, it is hardly to believe that indonesia is capable to use call in language classroom at the moment. on the other hand, there is a new hope because the government tend to initiate maintaining 20% budget for education from national fiscal (the jakarta post, 2009). 271 obviously, computers are the most prominent technology but technology itself covers wide range of devices. as long as they can collaborate with the classroom component, fulfil the curriculum, and promote the objectives of learning, teachers may combine and use the most appropriate technology they have. alternatively, the schools as a whole cooperate with the local government to make and find the way to make all requirements in using call. the autonomy system lets this to be applicable because state government deliberate local government using their own method to manage their area. in the case of teacher training, peer school teaching is the way to speed up transferring computer skills. in indonesia, international project schools have the highest rank among that of the other schools. normally, they have ultimate services, great academia components, technology and facilities. the non-international project school should have set at the same table with the international ones in order to teach and learn together about the use of call. finally, the cycle process of transfer will direct to students and teach them how to use technology appropriately in field of education. conclusion the call overview and the evaluation of potential use of computers have been delivered in details. in the first part, a literature review of call was given. next, opportunities of call for language learning were also presented in brief. moreover, the potential implementations of call in english language learning of elementary and senior high education in indonesia was analysed. finally, 272 recommendations of using call in english language learning of elementary and high schools in indonesia were proposed. call covers all learning processes using computers which advance the language skills of the learners. they have a long history of pedagogical development since 1950 until nowadays which started with the simple program into microcomputers. their implementations include many kinds of applications. however, there are only 8 types mentioned in this essay. based on study cases, those implementations have some great values toward academic achievement but the requirements to collaborate call with any classroom components must be considered in order have a successful implementation. in indonesia, those requirements are likely doubtful to achieve because some problems persist such as budget or cost, teacher trainings etc. however, there are some recommendations were proposed to refute the condition in indonesia such as schools and local government cooperation, customisation learning technology and peer school teaching. references badan standar nasional pendidikan. (2006). panduan penyusunan kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan jenjang pendidikan dasar dan menengah [online]. available from: http://bsnpindonesia.org/id/wpcontent/uploads/kompetensi/panduan_umum_ktsp.pdf [accessed august 21, 2011]. beatty, k. (2003). teaching and researching computer-assisted language learning. london: pearson education limited. bidang dikbud kbri tokyo. (2003). undang-undang sistem pendidikan nasional [online]. available from: http://bsnp-indonesia.org/id/wp-content/uploads/kompetensi/panduan_umum_ktsp.pdf http://bsnp-indonesia.org/id/wp-content/uploads/kompetensi/panduan_umum_ktsp.pdf http://bsnp-indonesia.org/id/wp-content/uploads/kompetensi/panduan_umum_ktsp.pdf 273 http://www.inherent-dikti.net/files/sisdiknas.pdf [accessed august 14, 2011]. bush, m.d. and crotty, j. (1991). interactive videodisc in language teaching. in betty, k. teaching and researching computerassisted language learning. london: pearson education limited. hagen, s. ed. 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(2009). responding to the `digital age' in education [online]. available form: http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/08/27/respondingdigital-age039-education.html [accessed: august 31, 2011]. the jakarta post. (2009). rp 6.3b allotted for laptops for teachers. the jakarta post [online]. available from: http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/08/01/rp-63ballotted-laptops-teachers.html [accessed: august 31, 2011]. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/10/28/education-ministry-told-improve-budget-spending.html http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/10/28/education-ministry-told-improve-budget-spending.html http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/08/27/responding-digital-age039-education.html http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/08/27/responding-digital-age039-education.html http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/08/01/rp-63b-allotted-laptops-teachers.html http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/08/01/rp-63b-allotted-laptops-teachers.html 101 using rummy game method to improve students’ learning activities and english dialog supriyanto state senior high school 3 salatiga jl. kartini no. 34 salatiga, central java, indonesia priyantompd@yahoo.co.id abstract this classroom action research was aimed at improving students‟ learning activities and students‟ english dialog skills in the state senior high school 3 salatiga. the research was carried out in the state senior high school 3 salatiga from january to june 2012. the subject of the research was 38 students of grade xi natural science 2. while the objects of research were rummy game method, students‟ learning activities and students‟ english dialog skills. this action research was conducted in two cycles. each consisted of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. in cycle 1, the researcher implemented rummy game method with big groups and ready made cards while in cycle 2, the researcher applied rummy game method with small groups and student designed cards. to collect the data the researcher gave self-assessment test and performance test before the first cycle, after the first cycle, and after the second cycle. the data analysis was done by descriptive comparison namely by comparing scores in the previous condition with those of the first cycle and the second cycle. the research findings revealed that there was significant improvement of average scores in students‟ learning activities namely 13.8 % from 56.8 % in the previous condition to 70.6 % in cycle 2 and in students‟ english dialog skill namely 5.8 from 72.7 in the previous condition to 78.5 in cycle 2. hence, hypothesis stating that using rummy game method is able to improve students‟ learning 102 activities and english dialog skill in the state senior high school 3 salatiga grade xi natural science 2 even semester year 2011/2012 is proven right. key words: rummy game method, learning activities, english dialog skill abstrak penelitian tindakan kelas ini bertujuan untuk meningkatkan aktivitas belajar dan kemampuan berdialog dalam bahasa inggris para siswa di sman 3 salatiga. penelitian ini dilakukan di sman 3 salatiga mulai bulan januari sampai juni 2012. subyek penelitian nya adalah 38 siswa kelas xi ipa 2. sedangkan obyek penelitian adalah metode permainan remi, aktivitas belajar siswa dan keterampilan dialog berbahasa inggris para siswa. penelitian tindakan ini dilaksanakan dalam dua siklus. masing-masing terdiri dari perencanaan, tindakan, observasi, dan refleksi. pada siklus 1, peneliti menerapkan metode permainan remi dengan kelompok-kelompok besar dan siap memainkan/membuat kartu sedangkan pada siklus 2, peneliti menerapkan metode permainan remi dengan kelompok-kelompok kecil dan kartu yang dirancang siswa.untuk mengumpulkan data, peneliti memberikan tes pencapaian diri/selfassessment dan uji kinerja sebelum dan sesudah siklus pertama dan setelah siklus kedua. analisis data dikerjakan dengan perbandingan deskriptif yaitu dengan membandingkan nilai-nilai dalam kondisi sebelumnya dengan nilai-nilai siklus i dan siklus ii. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada peningkatan yang signifikan nilai rata-rata aktivitas belajar yaitu 13,8% dari 56,8% pada kondisi sebelumnya menjadi 70,6% pada siklus 2 dan keterampilan berdialog bahasa inggris siswa yaitu 5,8 dari 72,7 pada kondisi sebelumnya menjadi 78,5 pada siklus 2. oleh karena itu,hipotesis yang menyatakan bahwa menggunakan metode permainan remi mampu meningkatkan aktivitas belajar siswa dan keterampilan dialog bahasa inggris di sman 3salatiga kelas xi ipa 2 semester genap tahun 2011/2012 terbukti benar. kata kunci: metode permainan remi, kegiatan belajar, keterampilan berdialog bahasa inggris 103 introduction it was undeniable that the teaching and learning process for english dialog skill in the state senior high school 3 salatiga still tended to run conventionally. usually, instruction began with apperception by asking and answering questions orally which led to certain topics. besides, the teacher sometimes also used related pictures to arouse more questions and answers. then the teacher gave dialog texts containing expressions to be learned. based on the text the teacher developed guiding questions leading to the expressions to be learned. the teacher usually asked general information, participants, the relation among the participants, time and place, topic, and specified expressions used in the dialog. after that the teacher, by using the charts containing expressions and responses to be learned, gave speech model and gives necessary explanation. the students repeated the teacher‟s speech model classically, in groups, and even individually. next, the students were given opportunities to practice performing dialog using expressions they just learned in pairs. finally, the teacher gives necessary correction and feedback. such learning model could not develop students‟ skill in english dialog optimally. the students, in fact, could not speak english fluently and appropriately in accordance with real context. they faced difficulties in finding and using certain expressions that matched to the situation. they were lack of expressions or gambits for variation. they got difficulties to find suitable words to express their mind and feeling. they seemed still clumsy to pronounce correctly. in addition, they did not fully have self confidence to start and to respond in the dialog. furthermore, 104 they still looked a bit afraid to participate totally. besides, the students‟ activities in learning, according to the teacher‟s observation, were also still low. some students did not listen to the lesson attentively. many students seldom asked questions. many students were not ready to answer the teacher‟s questions. not all students repeated the teacher‟s speech model enthusiastically. many students did not take their turns when the teacher gave opportunities to do. besides, many students were reluctant to propose something, and even they hardly ever gave any comment. ideally, the students of the state senior high school 3 salatiga especially grade xi natural science 2 were good at both written and spoken english and had intense activities in learning since they came from strictly selected students. in addition, the students of natural science were accustomed to work competitively as well as collaboratively. for those reasons, it was badly needed to create learning innovation so as to cope with the learning problems. the learning innovation that the teacher did was using rummy game method in teaching english dialog skill. based on the facts above, the research discusses whether rummy game method is able to improve students‟ learning activities and english dialog skill in the state senior high school 3 salatiga grade xi natural science 2 even semester academic year 2011/2012. rummy game method rummy game method is a method used to present instructional materials by using rummy game in order to achieve the determined goals. the cards are designed in such a way that they resemble the rummy cards but they contain instructional material that will be learned. the 105 instructional material includes speech functions and their expressions or gambits. there are 44 cards each set, 4 face cards containing speech functions i.e expressing love, expressing sadness/sorrow, expressing agreement, and expressing disagreement and 40 cards containing specific expressions or gambits that match to certain speech functions. there are 10 expressions for one speech function. each card includes either one speech function or one gambit/expression. this modified rummy game can be played with three or four players. the game is simple. first the cards are shuffled and 5 cards are dealt to ach player. one card with face up is put randomly on the table as a determiner card. the remaining cards are stacked as stock pile. the players discard one card which is suitable with the determiner card and the turn to play passes clockwise. the cards are considered suitable if they are on the same speech function. if the player does not have suitable cards, he or she must take card from the stock pile. the player who discard his card which is of highest value has right to discard his card used as a determiner card for the next round. then other player should discard one card which is suitable with the latest determiner card. the player whose cards are used up first will be the winner while the player whose cards are last used up will be the loser. the most important thing in this game is that the players should read the content of card loudly as they discard their card so as to practice their speech and strengthen their memory. besides, the loser will get spontaneous punishment which involves pronouncing english such as singing english song, reading poem, saying something to someone else in order to improve students‟ self confidence as well as to practice pronouncing english words. 106 according to lie (2002: 46), learning groups with big groups (4 members) have many advantages. they are: easy to split into pairs, producing more ideas, capable of finishing more works, and easy to monitor. besides, the rummy cards were fully provided by the teacher. rummy game with small groups means that rummy game is played by 3 players. there are some advantages with small groups. according to lie (2002: 45), learning groups with three member have some advantages such as more opportunities to contribute, easier to form, and easier to interact. in addition, the rummy cards are designed by the students themselves in groups. research methodology setting of place and time this classroom action research had been done for six months from january to june 2012 in the state senior high school 3 salatiga grade xi natural science 2 . this school is on kartini street no. 34 salatiga. meanwhile, observing and identifying problems were done in january. designing research proposal was held in february. writing research instruments was done in march. giving treatment and collecting data were conducted in april and may. analyzing and discussing collected data were executed in may. writing research report was accomplished in june 2012. subjects and objects of the research the subjects of this research were the students of grade xi natural science 2 of the state senior high school 3 salatiga even semester academic year 2011/2012. the number of students was 38. it consisted of 107 9 male and 29 female students. while the objects were students‟ learning activities, students‟ english dialog skill and rummy game method. research method in this research the researcher wanted to solve students‟ problem both in learning activities and english dialog skill by giving specific treatment to the students. for those reasons the researcher applied action research method since it has purpose to solve the problem. in this case, r.b. burns in burns (1999: 30) states that action research is the application of fact finding to practical problem solving in a social situation with a view to improving the quality of an action within it, involving the collaboration and cooperation of researchers, practitioners and lay men. techniques and instruments of collecting data the techniques of collecting data used in this research were performance test, self-assessment test, and observation. their instruments were test questions, questioner, and observation paper. validation and analysis of data for dialog skill test, the researcher validated the test questions by writing blue prints which matched to the indicators, basic standard, and competence standard. for students‟ learning activities, the researcher validated data using what the so called data triangulation as stated in sutopo (2006: 93) in this case, the researcher compared data from three sources namely from students, collaborator, and the researcher himself. for data analysis, the researcher analyzed quantitative data by using 108 descriptive comparison namely by comparing test in previous condition with posttest in cycle 1, and posttest in cycle 2. performance indicators the research was considered successful if 80 % or 31 students had high learning activities, 90% or 35 students had reached passing grade (75), and the average score of english dialog skill was 77. research procedures the research was conducted in two cycles. each cycle consisted of four steps. they were planning, acting, observing and reflecting. pretest was executed before treatment in cycle 1 and posttests were done after treatment in cycle 1 and treatment in cycle 2. self-assessment tests were given before cycle 1, after cycle 1, and after cycle 2. the treatment in cycle 1 needed two meetings while the treatment in cycle 2 needed four meetings. each meeting spent 2 x 45 minutes. planning the planning which was done both in cycle 1 and in cycle 2 were designing lesson plan, preparing rummy game equipment, making assessment instruments, observation paper, and arranging schedule. rummy game equipment included rummy cards, scoring paper, speech function and gambit list, and rummy game guidelines. the differences between the first cycle and second cycle were on the number groups, instructional material, rummy card availability, and time allotment. in cycle 1, each group consisted of four students. the instructional material included 4 speech functions namely expressing love, expressing sadness or sorrow, expressing agreement, and expressing 109 disagreement. each speech function was exemplified with ten various gambits. the rummy cards were designed by the teacher. time allotment were 4 meetings; one meeting used for doing pretest and self-assessment test, two meetings used for giving treatment, and one meeting used for doing posttest and self-assessment test. the treatment included playing rummy game and practicing dialog using rummy cards. in cycle 2, each group consisted of three students. the instructional material included 4 speech functions namely expressing embarrassment, expressing anger, calming down someone, and expressing annoyance. each speech function was exemplified with ten various gambits. the rummy cards were designed by the students who were guided by the teacher. the time allotments were five meetings; four meetings used for giving treatment, and one meeting used for doing posttest and assessment test. the treatment included designing rummy cards, playing rummy game, and practicing dialog using student designed rummy cards. acting in this step the teacher and the students conducted activities as it had been planned before. firstly, the students did self-assessment test by answering questionnaire to know how intense the students did activities in teaching and learning process in the previous condition. then pretest was done by asking the students to perform dialog in pairs for about 3-5 minutes based on a given situation. teaching learning process included introduction, core activities, and closing. in introduction the teacher gave motivation, reminded the students to do activities as the teacher instructed optimally, and told the sequence of activities that would be done. the core activities in cycle 1 included playing rummy game with 110 certain rules and practicing dialog by giving stimuli and responses based on modified rummy cards in groups of four. while the core activities in the cycle 2 comprised designing rummy cards with teacher‟s guidance, playing rummy game with specified rules, and practicing dialog by giving stimuli and responses based on modified rummy cards in groups of three. as closing, the teacher reviewed the lesson and gave necessary feedback. for posttest, both in first and second cycle, the students were asked to perform dialog based a given situation in pair. besides, the students were given self-assessment test to know how high the students did activities after being given treatment. observing the teacher as well as the collaborator observed what happened when the teaching and learning process were running in the classroom. furthermore, they focused more about students‟ activities in listening, asking questions, answering question or responding, repeating speech model, taking turn, making a note, initiating or proposing, and giving comment. the teacher as well as the collaborator took note the necessary things which were found while teaching and learning process were in progress. reflecting in this step, the researcher did reflection toward what had been achieved during the teaching and learning process. the researcher identified and analyzed the goodness and weakness found during the teaching and learning process. after that the researcher anticipated and made necessary plan for improvement done in the next activities. 111 discussion research finding in cycle 1 based on the teacher and collaborator‟s observation in cycle 1, majority of the students did activities intensively as the teacher had instructed. they listened to what the teacher and other students told attentively. they were active in asking and answering questions or giving response. they repeated speech model enthusiastically, they tried to take every turn they got. they made a note on necessary thing. they also braved to initiate or propose as well as to give comment. from the result of selfassessment test, it revealed the students‟ learning activities grade as in the table 1 below. table 1 students‟ learning activities in cycle 1 no learning activity grade scores number of student percentage 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. very low low fair high very high 1 – 7 8 – 13 14 – 19 20 – 25 26 – 32 0 0 7 29 2 0 % 0 % 18.4 % 76.3 % 5.3 % average score 21.6 67.4 % based on the table above, it indicated that there was no student with very low and low learning activities, students with fair learning activities were 7 (18.4%), students with high learning activities were 29 (76.3 %), students with very high learning activities were 2(5.3 %). the 112 average score of students‟ learning activities was 21.6 (67.4 %). furthermore, the comparison of students‟ learning activities between cycle 1 and previous condition could be shown in the table 2 below. table 2 comparison of the students‟ learning activities between cycle 1 and previous condition learning activity grade number of students increase/ decrease previous condition cycle 1 very low low fair high very high 0 4 21 13 0 0 0 7 29 2 0 4 14 16 2 based on the table above it was shown that there was no student with very low learning activities in the previous condition. the number of students with low learning activities decreased 4 from 4 in the previous condition to 0 in cycle 1, the number of students with fair learning activities decreased 14 from 21 in the previous condition to 7 in cycle 1, the number of students with high learning activities increased 16 from 13 in the previous condition to 29 in cycle 1, and the number of students with very high learning activities increased 2 from 0 in the previous condition to 2 in cycle 2. besides, the scores of english dialog skill in cycle 1 could be shown in the table 3 below. 113 table 3 scores of english dialog skill in cycle 1 no explanations scores 1 2 3 highest score lowest score average score 88 69 76.6 based on the table above it was known that the highest score of english dialog skill was 88, the lowest score of english dialog skill was 69 and the average score of english dialog skill was 76.6. in addition from 38 students, 36 students had reached passing grade and 2 students had not reached passing grade yet. in addition, the comparison of english dialog skill scores between cycle 1 and the previous condition could be shown in the table 4 below. table 4 comparison of english dialog skill scores between cycle 1 and previous condition no explanations scores increase/decrease previous condition cycle 1 1 2 3 highest score lowest score average score 81 63 72.7 88 69 76,6 7 6 3.9 based on the table above, it was known that the highest score increased 7 from 81 in the previous condition to 88 in cycle 1, the lowest score increased 6 from 63 in the previous condition to 69 in cycle 1, and 114 the average score increased 3,9 from 72.7 in the previous condition to 76.6 in cycle 1. bisides, the students who reached the passing grade also increased 8 (21 %) from 28 (74 %) students in the previous condition to 36 (95 %) students in cycle 1. superficially, both students‟ learning activities and students‟ english dialog skill improved a lot, however the determined target namely the average score of dialog skill was 77 had not been reached yet therefore it was continued to cycle 2. research finding in cycle 2 based on the teacher and collaborator‟s observation in cycle 2, all students did activities intensively as the teacher had instructed. they listened to what the teacher and other students told more attentively. they were more active in asking and answering questions or giving response. they all repeated speech model enthusiastically. they were ready to take every turn they got. they made a note on necessary thing. they were more confident and brave to initiate or propose as well as give comment. from the result of self assessment test, it revealed the students‟ learning activities grade as in table 5 below. table 5 students‟ learning activities in cycle 2 no learning activity grade scores number of student percentage 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. very low low fair high very high 1 – 7 8 – 13 14 – 19 20 – 25 26 – 32 0 0 2 30 6 0 % 0 % 5.3 % 78.9 % 15.8 % average score 22.6 70.6 % 115 based on the table above, it indicated that there was no student with very low and low learning activities, students with fair learning activities were 2 (5.3 %), students with high learning activities were 30 (78.9 %), students with very high learning activities were 6 (15.8 %). the average score of students‟ learning activities was 22.6 (70.6 %). furthermore, the comparison of students‟ learning activities between cycle 2 and cycle 1 could be shown in the table 6 below. table 6 comparison of the students‟ learning activities between cycle 1 and cycle 2 learning activity grade number of students increase/decrease cycle 1 cycle 2 very low low fair high very high 0 0 7 29 2 0 0 2 30 6 0 0 5 1 4 based on the table above it was shown that there was no student with very low and low learning activities both in cycle 1 and in cycle 2, the number of students with fair learning activities decreased 5 from 7 in cycle 1 to 2 in cycle 2, the number of students with high learning activities increased 1 from 29 in cycle 1 to 30 in cycle 2, and the number of students with very high learning activities increased 4 from 2 in cycle 1 to 6 in cycle 2. besides, the scores of english dialog skill in cycle 2 could be shown in the table 7 below. 116 table 7 scores of english dialog skill in cycle 2 no explanations scores 1 2 3 highest score lowest score average score 94 75 78.5 based on the table above it was known that the highest score of english dialog skill was 94, the lowest score of english dialog skill was 75 and the average score of english dialog skill was 78.5. in addition, all students had reached passing grade. furthermore, the comparison of english dialog skill scores between cycle 2 and cycle 1 could be shown in the table 8 below. table 8 comparison of english dialog skill scores between cycle 1 and 2 no explanations scores increase/ decrease cycle 1 cycle 2 1 2 3 highest score lowest score average score 88 69 76.6 94 75 78,5 6 6 1.9 based on the table above, it was known that the highest score increased 6 from 88 in cycle 1 to 94 in cycle 2, the lowest score increased 6 from 69 in cycle 1 to 75 in cycle 2, and average score increased 1,9 from 76.6 in cycle 1 to 78.5 in cycle 2. besides, the students who reached the passing grade also increased 2 (5.3 %) from 36 (94.7 %) students in cycle 1 to 38 (100 %) students in cycle 2. 117 moreover, the comparison of students‟ learning activities between cycle 2 and previous condition could be shown in the table 9 below. table 9 comparison of the students‟ learning activities between cycle 2 and previous condition learning activity grade number of students increase/decrease previous condition cycle 2 very low low fair high very high 0 4 21 13 0 0 0 2 30 6 0 4 19 17 6 based on the table above it was shown that there was no student with very low learning activities both in the previous condition and in cycle 2, the number of students with low learning activities decreased 4 from 4 in the previous condition to 0 in cycle 2, the number of students with fair learning activities decreased 19 from 21 in the previous condition to 2 in cycle 2, the number of students with high learning activities increased 17 from 13 in the previous condition to 30 in cycle 2, and the number of students with very high learning activities increased 6 from 0 in the previous condition to 6 in cycle 2. in addition, the comparison of english dialog skill scores between cycle 2 and the previous condition could be shown in the table 10 below. table 10 118 comparison of english dialog skill scores between cycle 2 and previous condition no explanations scores increase/decrease previous condition cycle 2 1 2 3 highest score lowest score average score 81 63 72.7 94 75 78,5 13 12 5.8 based on the table above, it was known that the highest score increased 13 from 81 in the previous condition to 94 in cycle 2, the lowest score increased 12 from 63 in the previous condition to 75 in cycle 2, and the average score increased 5,8 from 72.7 in the previous condition to 78.5 in cycle 2. besides, the students who reached the passing grade also increased 10 (26.3 %) from 28 (73.7 %) students in the previous condition to 38 (100 %) students in cycle 2. in short, the students‟ learning activities, students‟ english dialog skill, and number of students who reached passing grade increased significantly. conclusion after the researcher did an action research by using rummy game method to improve students‟ learning activities and skill in english dialog as planned before, it was known that there was significant improvement in students‟ learning activities and english dialog skill during the teaching and learning process. 119 references anita. 2002. cooperative learning. jakarta: pt grasindo bnsp. 2006. standar kompetensi dan kompetensi dasar bahasa inggris sma/ma. jakarta: departemen pendidikan nasional burns, anne.1999. collaborative action research for english language teachers. united kingdom: cambridge university press oemar.2008. kurikulum dan pembelajaran. jakarta: pt bumi aksara richard.2001. approaches and methods in language teaching. united states of america: cambride university press sardiman.1990. interaksi dan motivasi belajar mengajar. jakarta: rajawali sudarwati. 2007. look ahead 2: an english course for senior high school students. jakarta: penerbit erlangga sutopo. 2006. metode penelitian kualitatif. surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. undang-undang no. 20 tahun 2003 tentang sistem pendidikan nasional 120 147 psychological structural analysis to “a child called it” by dave pelzer endang susilowati ngudi waluyo nursing academy jl. gedong songo candi rejo ungaran endsus2@yahoo.co.id abstract this paper attempts to explore a child abuse, the reason and the effect of the character‘s psychological development using the theory of psychological development and structural analysis. two approaches are used in this paper. those are structural approach and psychology, especially developmental psychology approach. the first approach focuses on literary intrinsic elements. the second approach focuses on the character‘s psychological development based on the developmental stages and tasks. those are integrated into a psychological structural analysis. the result shows that child abuse that experienced by david is physical and psychological. he got the first stage of abuse commited by his mother who didn‘t give him food and the last stage evidenced by some physical abuses when he lived with his mother. the primary reasons of david abuses are disciplinary patterns and he was regarded as a trouble maker. keywords: psychological structural analysis, child abuse and psychological development. 148 abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengungkapkan kekerasan pada anak, alasan dan dampak dari kekerasan tersebut terhadap perkembangan psikologis tokoh dengan menggunakan teori perkembangan psikologis dan analisis struktural. ada dua pendekatan yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini. pendekatan tersebut adalah pendekatan struktural dan psikologi, khususnya psikologi perkembangan. pendekatan pertama berfokus pada unsur intrinsik sastra. pendekatan kedua berfokus pada perkembangan psikologis tokoh berdasarkan tahap dan tugas perkembangan. kedua pendekatan tersebut diintegrasikan ke dalam analisis struktur psikologis. hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa kekerasan terhadap anak yang dialami oleh david adalah kekerasan yang berupa fisik dan psikologis. dia mendapat tahap pertama kekerasan yang dibuktikan dengan ibunya yang tidak memberinya makanan dan tahap terakhir dari kekerasan yang dibuktikan dengan beberapa hukuman secara fisik ketika ia tinggal dengan ibunya. alasan utama david mendapatkan penyiksaan adalah pola pendisiplinan dan ia dianggap sebagai anak yang menjadi sumber masalah. kata kunci: analisis struktur psikologis, kekerasan pada anak dan perkembangan psikologis introduction novel as a genre of literary work has intrinsic elements such as character and characterization, plot and plotting, setting and point of view. those transfer the writer‘s ideas to readers. some novels are personal, seeking to explore human relationships, conflicts, desires and fears. this novel seems to appeal to readers in the way that described the writer‘s idea. for example, dave plezer, the writer of novel trilogy a child called it, the lost boy and a man named dave tells his idea about child abuse in his novels. this paper only focuses on his first novel, a child called it. 149 david plezer through dave—tells about a child who tried to survive from his mother‘s cruelty. his father only watched without ability to help him. even when he was legally taken by his country, his effort to be freed from his mother‘s shadow couldn‘t be stopped. until at last he can prove that he can become a famous writer. this paper tries to explore the kind of child abuse and its effect to a child by analyzing its character and characterization, plot and the writer‘s point of view. because the problem is the psychological development of a child so it needs developmental psychology. those theories will be integrated. wellek and warren (1976:81) state ‗by psychology of literature‘, we may mean the psychological study of the writer as type and as individual, or the study of the creative process, or the study of psychological types and laws present within works of literature, or , finally, the effect of literature upon its readers (audience psychology). it is known that psychology can be used to analyze the writer‘s soul, his creative process, psychological types and the concept of psychology in literature and the effect of literature works upon its readers. it can be said that there is a significant relationship between psychology and literature. psychology helps to clarify the problems in literature and literature presents insight to psychology. developmental psychology monks, et.al (2004:1) say that the object of developmental psychology is the human development as an individual. development refers to a process leading to bring out capabilities and cannot be repeated. some psychologists differ in their opinion about growth and 150 development. growth refers to the adding of body weight and physical‘s function, whereas development refers to distinctive nature of psychological condition. erikson approach in discussing the process of child development is to outline the stages of psychosocial development. those are trust versus distrust (0-1 year), autonomy versus shyness and doubtful (1-3 years), initiative versus guilty (3-6 years), ability feeling versus low self esteem (6-12 years), identity and role disoriented (12-18 years), intimacy versus isolation (21-40 years/early adult), generative versus stagnation (40-65/middle adult) and ego integrity versus desperate (65die). those phases have their own developmental task. meanwhile piaget in his theory about cognitive development explains that cognitive development is discussed based on the phase of sensoric-motoric, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational states (piaget, 1952:18,42,153). at every process of development there is a combination of self-encouragement to maintain and develop the self-encouragement. this means that what have been achieved will be maintained and used as a basic moral for further development. as a result of the defense, one will store all the useful experience. this experience will make the person more intelligent and mature. kartono (1995:40) states that the combination of self-defense and encouragement of self-development is a process of new synthesis integration, namely the impulse of self realization and selftranscendence efforts. the developmental psychology also mentions that the principle of development, the main motive of life is to negate and break away from all obstacles, sense of tension, and inner 151 disequilibrium to reach and satisfy state of inner equilibrium. this balance would be achieved if all the requirements are met so all tension and mental disorders are lost. discussion by using the first person point of view (i), the narrator seemed to make the reader able to feel all feelings experienced by the character. david as the main character and is a complex figure as can be seen from the dynamics of his life. it can be seen from his efforts to survive in the face of violence committed by his mother. the character in this novel is figured in dramatic ways. the reader will know the character and his attitude from several measures taken by him to survive. in the process of reading the novel, the reader will soon be brought with the dynamism of the character who never gave up in his quest to survive the abuse. “i act timid, nodding to her threats. „please, „i say to myself, „just let me to eat. hit me again, but i have to have food. „another blow pushed my head against the tile counter top. i let the tears of mock defeat stream down my face as storms out the kitchen, seemingly satisfied with herself. after i count her steps, making sure she‟s gone, i breathe a sigh of relief. the act worked. mother can beat me all she wants. i haven‟t let her take away my will to somehow survive. i finish the dishes, then my other chores. for my reward i receive breakfast-leftover from one of my brother‟s cereal bowls.” (4) in his very young age (6-12 years), david has known that he had to get food if he wanted to live. his effort is not only having food but also stealing, slacking off when his mother would torture him, being very obedient and others. based on the plot of time analysis, this novel 152 uses flash back. the first chapter of the novel is rescue. it tells about david‘s life at the end he got abuse from his mother, as cited in the first chapter of this novel:‖ 5 march 1973, daly city, california-i‟m late i‟ve got to finish the dishes on time, otherwise no breakfast; since i didn‟t have dinner last night, i have to make sure i get something to eat” (3). from this note, it can be seen that at the first narration, the narrator at this case is david who brings the reader to the situation when he had to finish his task if he wanted to get a plate of rice. in this chapter, david also tells about the rescue that was done by his school teacher and ends the abuse from his mother. then he was brought to foster house by a police officer. “i run to the administration office, and i‟m there in a flash. my throat is raw and still burns from yesterday‟s „game‟ mother played against me. the secretary leads me into the teacher‟s lounge. after she opens the door, it takes a moment for my eyes to adjust. in front of me, sitting around a table, are my homeroom teacher mr. ziegler, my match teacher miss woods, the school nurse, mr. hansen and a police officer… i have no idea that they are about to risk their jobs to save me” (9) then, the story is back to the situation when he was happy with his family and when his mother still loved him: ‖in the years before i was abused, my family was „brady bunch‟ of the 1960s. my two brothers and i were blessed with the perfect parents. our every whim was fulfilled with love and care‖ (17). in this step through the chapter of good times, david tries to explore his mother‘s closeness with her children and david‘s admiration of his mother. ―my mother, catherine roerva, was a woman of average size and appearance. i never could remember the color of her hair or eyes, 153 but mom was a woman who glared with love for her children…” (18). david also told that her mother was a perfect woman for him. ―when it came to house keeping, mom was an absolute clean fiend. after feeding my two brohters, ronald and stand, and i breakfast. she would dust disinfect, scour and vacuum everything. no room in our house was left untouched. as we grew older, mom made sure we did our part by keeping our room neat. outside, she meticulously attended a small flower garden, which was the envy of the neighborhood, with mom, everything she touched turned into gold. she didn‟t believe in doing anything halfway. mom often told us that we must always do the best could, in whatever we did” (18-19). from david‘s story readers can know that david admired and loved her mother so much. her mother really cared of her sons and her house. even her neighbors were also jealous with the way she managed her house. it is told by david when he was four (4) years. according to kohlberg moral developmental psychology (1968:12) a child in this age is on the sensoric-motoric and preoperational phase by interpreting a thing or an event. david also uses his sensoric-motoric by starting to evaluate his house condition and his mother which makes him comfortable. this comfortable state can be seen from his happiness when he lived with his parents and his brothers. at halloween and christmas celebrations his mother always gave the best things to him. because his father was a fire man who worked for 24 hours, he and his brothers spent most of the time with his mother. base on the erikson psychosocial development, david didn‘t get bias of development when he was in 0-11 months or in the phase of trust versus un trust and when he was in one (1) until three (3) years old or in phase of autonomy versus shyness and doubtful. because of that, david had really trust on 154 his mother. his mother‘s love in giving his daily needs when he was hungry or thirsty made him feels comfortable. he was never scared of his mother and it also made his mother close to her children. at that time, he was the youngest children in his house. he could play with his brothers well. the story develops with his mother changing and to ill treat david as the conflict in this story emerges. in the chapter of bad boys, david told that his mother‘s treatment to him changed dramatically because of disciplinary reasons. his mother often gave punishment to him. it made him afraid of his mother. his fear is the conflict source in this story and makes the story more developed. “about this time, mom‟s behavior began to change radically. at times while father was away, she would spend the entire day lying on the couch, dressed only in her bathrobe, watching television. mom got up only to go to the bathroom, get another drink or heat leftover food. when she yelled at us, her voice changed from nurturing mother to the wicked witch. soon, the sound of mother‟s voice began to send tremors down on my spine. even when she barked at one of my brothers, i‟d run to hide in our room, hoping she would soon return to the couch, her drink and her tv show” (30). it can be seen from the quote that the abused happened when david‘s father was not at home. his mother‘s attitude changed and this changing made david‘s afraid. his mother who was initially described as an ideal mother for her children, day by day her character changes. the problem between david and his mother developed more as when his mother often gave david punishment. the punishment started from standing at the corner of the bed to smashing and pinching. 155 “smack!” mother hits me in the face, and i topple to the floor. i know better than to stand there and take hit, i learned hard way that she takes that as an act of defiance, which means more hits, or worst of all, no food”(37) “mother claimed that she had seen me that very day playing on the grass, which was absolutely forbidden by her rules. i quickly answered that i never played on the grass. i knew mother had somehow made a mistake. my reward for observing mother‟s rules and telling the truth was a hard pinch in the face” (40-41) in the chapters the fight for food and while father is away, david tells his mother abused to him. in exploring those abuses, the narrator brings the reader to the phase of the end of the character‘s torturing. plot of the story presented the existing conflict between david and his mother and makes it interesting. the worst punishment that david got from his mother was when she didn‘t allow david going out with his father and his brothers when they went out. “….once in the cabin, i was scolded for making too much noise. for my punishment, i was not allowed to go with father and my brothers to the super slide. i sat on a chair in a corner, shivering, hoping that something would happen so three of them wouldn‟t leave. i know mother had something hideous on her mind. as soon as they left, she brought out of russell‟s diapers. she smeared the diaper on my face. i tried to sit perfectly still. i knew if i moved, it would only be worse. i didn‟t look up. i couldn‟t see mother standing over me; but i could hear her heavy beating.”(53) david gets abused when he was four (4) years old. according to erikson (1963:19) a child in this age is on the initiative versus guilty phase (3-6 years). in this phase the child started to develop his independency by his effort to wear his own cloth, to take his own food and to go to the toilet. david didn‘t get development problem in this 156 phase because at the beginning of his life, he felt comfortable living with his family. he had been able to control himself. the abuses continuously happened to david. david hoped that his father could help him but he never got it. his father only saw what his mother had done to him. it made david hates his father so much: .‖...when i open them, i stared at father who turned away to avoid my pain. at that moment i hated mother to the end, but i hated father even more”. (64). according to kohlberg moral development (1968:15), david‘s feeling to his father emerged because david was in pre-conventional phase. he had learned about good and bad and he had known that what his mother had done to him was not good but he didn‘t get support from his father. he came to hate his father as the result of his disappointment. after david was pushed to eat his own vomit, his punishment was changed to the ammoniac. because he couldn‘t eat, his mother forced him to drink that liquid. as the child who didn‘t know the dangers of the ammoniac, david thought that his punishment was too easy for him. he only needed to open his mouth and his problem would be finished. according to piaget cognitive development (1952:42), the child 7 until 11 years old, his thinking is more rationale, imaginative, and can explore more object or situation to solve his problem. but his thinking ability isn‘t completed. it also happened to david. his knowledge about the dangerous of the ammoniac wasn‘t sufficient. “without hesitation i opened my mouth, and mother rammed the cold spoon deep into my throat. again i told myself this was all too easy, but moment later i couldn‟t breathe. my throat seized. i stood wobbling in front of mother, feeling as if my eyes were going to pop out of my skull…” (75) 157 as a result of that punishment, david nearly died.. he couldn‘t breathe, his throat was burned and his body seized. but it didn‘t make his mother stop to punish him. his mother stabbed her knife into david‘s stomach accidentally. “she tried to regain her balance, snapping at russell to let go of her leg, while she continued to scream at me. by then, her upper body looked like rocking chair that was out of control. forgetting about her useless threats, i imagined that the old drunk was going to fall flat on her face. i focused all my attention on mother‟s face. out of the corner of my eye i saw blurred object fly from her hand. a sharp pain erupted from just above my stomach. i tried to remain standing, but my legs gave out, and my world turned black” (87) david thought with this accident his punishment would be over, but he was wrong. his mother still asked him to finish his food and wash all the dishes in thirty minutes. with his body still weak and in very severe pain, david followed his mother‘s instructions. this condition is like the climax of the story, but the tensions of the story still continued. his mother dunks david‘s face in the bathroom sink. those abuses made david were very scared of his mother. according to hurlock psychological development (1991:131) about the changing relationship between children and their parents, it can happen because of the concept of a good child. if the child doesn‘t fulfill what his parents needed, his parents often become critical and punished. it also happened into david‘s mother who thought that david isn‘t a good boy because he always breaks her rules and always be able to have tactics to face each of her punishment and it makes her annoyed and made her give more and even worse punishment. ―…this 158 will teach the boy to quit stealing food!‖ (76). her mother‘s reason giving hard punishments to stop david‘s habit stealing food in his school. as 4-6 years child or in initiative versus guilty phase in piaget (1952) cognitive development phase, david started his initiative by planning and trying new things. in his development phase he thought that it may not give a chance to him for fighting and he didn‘t have another choice to be freed from his torturing. the climax of this story is in chapter the lord prayer as the end of the chapter of a child called it. this chapter told about david‘s abuse when he was a proud of his writing was the best in his school and his teacher was very a proud of him. he hoped his mother would do the same but his mother never appreciated his works. his mother thought he was only it that had meaningless. his mother amuck made him had no spirit to survive. ―….there is nothing you can do to impress me! do you understand me? you are nobody! an it! you are nonexistent! you are a bastard child! i hate you and i wish you were dead! dead! do you hear me? dead! (140). views of psychosocial development suggested by erickson (1963:42), when david got abused from his mother, he was at the phase of feeling ability versus low self esteem (6-12 years). in this phase the child will begin to learn to work together to compete through academic activities. as well as david, he felt very happy when he succeeded in writing and it made his teacher proud of him.. he hoped her mother would also be nice to him when she knew that he was doing well in his school, but he was wrong. his mother did not appreciate and reward for all that was done by him. as a result david felt that he was useless and 159 he becomes low self-esteem. all his efforts to prove to his mother that he doesn‘t like what his mother‘s thought was gone. david finally found that he was only it just like what his mother said and his presence was only making a problem in his family. he did not have a passion for life. he resigned to that done by her mother until she eventually rescued by the teachers at his school. david was in 5 th grade when he was rescued. he started to get abused when he was in kindergarten, which was the age of 3-4 years. refers to kohlberg's moral development (1968:20) at that time child is in preconvention at the second phase. it can be seen from david'soriented attitude to punishment and obedience; he was very obedient to all that was done by his mother. the obedience to his mother made him more afraid of his mother. as a child he only felt fear when her mother suddenly punished him when his brother also did the same thing. “as a small child, i probably had a voice that carried farther than others. i also had the unfortunate luck of getting caught at mischief, even though my brothers and i were often committing the same „crime‟. in the beginning, i was put in a corner of our bedroom. by this time, i had become more afraid of mom. very afraid. i never asked her to let me come out. i would sit and wait for one of my brothers to come into our bedroom, and have him ask if david could come out now and play” (29). according to kohlberg moral development (1963:20) at the preconvention phase, the child should get strong motivation from his family. this motivation is to make the child able to differentiate between good and bad in his attitude. but if the task of child‘s development isn‘t fulfilled, the child will not understand about good and bad label and he will be scared. then it‘s happened to david. he doesn‘t 160 understand what his mistake was. he only knew that he got a lot of punishment from his mother. with these experiences david became more mature than his age. he suffered early aspiration level; the level of struggle leads a higher level. with his attitudes, he was able to find a way to survive. he realizes, crying is not a settlement. he must be able to think quickly and act correctly when faced his mother. it is in line with the thinking of the monks who said that by the encouragement to survive, someone will save all his useful experiences (2004:178). then, with those experiences, someone will be cleverer and mature and have deeper appreciation of life. every stage of life has just achieved a form of temporary equilibrium point of departure for the effort and new activities. david, with his experiences, began to look for ways to be able to withstand his mother‘s abuse. ―standing alone in that damp, dark garage, i knew, for the first time, that i could survive. i decided that i would use any tactic. i could think of defeat mother or delay her from her grisly obsession” (43). in term of cognitive development, piaget (1962), david‘s capabilities in addressing the abuses because when he was in 6-11 years old he is in concrete phase, he has been able to form his knowledge. david has been able to analyze the events in his life. he thought if he wanted to survive he had to have a tactics to face his mother. conclusion based on the analysis above, it can be seen that the writer uses flash back of the plot in telling his story. the writer made the story interesting and complex by revealing the tensions of the problem. the 161 writer wants the reader to feel what has been experienced by the character with using ‗i ‗as the point of view of his narration. by analyzing the structural point of the literature along with psychological development approach, it can be seen that david gets from the first to the last stages of the child abuse. the sign of the first stage is that he didn‘t get food from his mother and the sign of the last stage is physical abuse such as slap in his face, pinch etc. the primary reason of the abuse that david received is disciplinary. his mother thought that david wasn‘t a good son so he should be disciplined by giving a lot of punishment that were very heavy for david. his mother also was annoyed with david because he was always able to face her punishment. the effect of the abuse was that david became scared of his mother. he also feels disappointed with his father because he couldn‘t help him. david didn‘t understand why he got a lot of abuse from his mother because he was still a kid when he got those abuses. references erikson eh; 1963. childhood and society. new york: norton hurlock, elizabeth b. 1991. psikologi perkembangan: suatu pendekatan sepanjang rentang kehidupan (terjemahan istiwadayanti dan soedjarwo). jakarta erlangga. kartono, kartini. 1995. psikologi anak (psikologi perkembangan). bandung: penerbit mandar maju. kolberg. l. 1968. the child as moral. cambridge: ma harvard university monks, et al. 2004. psikologi perkembangan. yogjakarta: gadjah mada university press 162 piaget, j. 1952. the origin of intelegence in children. new york: international university press plezer, david. 2004. a child called it (thirty third impression). london: orion books ltd. wellek, rene and warren, austin. 1976. theory of literature. great britain: cox and wayman ltd register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 294 coinage and neologism in hausa political programs: a sociolinguistics perspective abdulkadir abubakar zailani department of nigerian languages and linguistics kaduna state university, kadunanigeria abdulkadirzailani@yahoo.co.uk doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.238-252 submission track: received: 09-02-2019 final revision: 21-11-2019 available online: 01-12-2019 abstract linguistic aspect of language development is not an event that occur abruptly; rather, it pass through processes that take place gradually over time, in a stage by stage development. this paper dwells on linguistic issues on coinage and neologism arising in hausa political programs in the media (radio), from the sociolinguistic perspective, which gave birth and rebirth of words/phrases meaning. new words/phrase are created, the existing ones are lexically and semantically expanded to accommodate new meanings in hausa language usage. it observes and explains how some hausa lexical items as well as sentences are used in the media (radio) political programs in such a way that the language has new words and meanings; and instances of coinage and neologism in hausa in the media are discussed. keywords: coinage & neologism, hausa political programs, sociolinguistics register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 295 introduction the speakers of a language can coin new words according to their needs with the help of already existing words or word-forming elements in the language. hausa as a language do coin new words, and the language is one of the three major nigerian languages others are the yoruba and igbo. the language is widely accepted and used as lingua-franca by many people from different ethnic groups in northern nigeria. furthermore, the language is also been used across nigeria and west africa. it is used in both print and non-print media houses. that is in newspapers and radio stations for news broadcast, education, entitlements, political programs and a host of others. hausa language has served as a tool which radio use for social engineering and mobilization. it has long been the language of politics, religion (islam and christianity alike) and broadcasting before nigerian independence and after independence. the language almost up to date is the nigerian language that enjoys the highest patronage of western media stations especially the bbc, voa, rfi, dw and a lot of others. it is also in hausa that the media assessed and evaluate the performance of the elected representatives and the elected public office holders for the benefit of the electorates. an example of such programs is on the hausa radio station across the northern region of nigeria, “an ce, ka ce” of nagarta radio kaduna, and the likes. mohsin (2013:1) argues that the amount of newly generated information that we utilize in our daily lives far surpasses the accumulative amount of information that we produced in past generations. therefore, we need to create or coin a huge number of new labels and names for everything new that has come into existence in recent times. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 296 therefore, this paper attempts to view the existence of new words/phrases created by politicians and presenters for different purposes and motives in radio political programs specifically, the nagarta radio hausa political program. “an ce, ka ce”. that made the meaning of the word shifts away from its primary senses to acquire multiple senses. however, it studies coinage and neologism as the process of word creation and extension in meaning of words and phrases, which develops new words in the language by the users, particularly because radio has great influence and appeal on them. research methods inventing new words is especially reflected in language as needs of society in terms of new concepts and ideas, constantly arising from the development of science, technology, culture, public relations, politics, etc. coinage and neologisms reflect the socio-cultural situation in hausa political programs too. in this way to identify the coinage and neologisms and its process, the data was taken from the hausa political program in a northern nigeria radio “nagarta radio”. this means that data were gathered from primary and secondary sources, which include; observations at participants and not participants’ level, in the radio political program. the selection of this political program is due to the high number of coining new words in the program, and also high number of listeners of the program. this will make data acquisition easy to collect due to the above factors. it is likely that people have encountered new words in the program due to their exposure and interaction with the program. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 297 the program is broadcast from monday to friday of every week, and those programs presented in year 2015 and 2019 were selected through purposive sampling. among these, 2015 and 2019 were years for nigerian general elections. this was informed by the fact that political activities were high and would help trace any change in language that may be experienced by the listeners and presenters of the program. the researcher also listen the program on regular basis. results & discussions language, media (radio) and politics according to gabari (2012) radio is the major medium of disseminating information to a large number of people no matter the distance. human language is most exacting and demanding. it deals with the formal theories about the linguistic knowledge human beings need, for generating and understanding language. poret (2009:14) notes that media in the past hard greatly helped in reviving democracy when it successfully, in partnership with other civil society groups exterminated military rule in the country. nigeria today has many electronic and print media houses and stations, through which the voice of the masses could be heard. however, cheggs (1960) states that mass media consists of the various means by which information reaches people such as television, radio, movies, newspapers and the internet. mass media is one of the great agents of change in any ideal society. it influences the general thinking of the populace, educated and non-educated (balarabe, 2013:15). mukhtar (2004:108) argues that, the manipulation of sentence by the media can be seen as intentional with a view to achieving particular purpose or register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 298 effect. in most cases, the purpose is to attract attention of readers and front page headlines or lead stories are particularly structured in such a way to achieve that effect. language and political campaign indeed are synonymous, because campaign can not be carried out without a language a persuasive language for that matter. in support of this assertion, sani (2011:47) argues that political campaign is a persuasive communication aimed at mobilization of support and influencing action. campaign therefore, denotes the activities of an individual or group in a particular context designed to manipulate the behavior of a wide number of people. the primary role of political language is to solicit response and preserve relationship among people. the rejuvenation and revitalization of hausa political words has taken a new dimension beside the traditional process of word formation. the word formation devices of compounding derivative and affixation, traditionally has to do with the form of the word itself, whereas the coinage and neologism are concurrently, dealing with the meaning of the word sense. really, in no small measure, the expansion of political terms has been a breakthrough in the field of linguistics (abba, 2013:120). however, gandu (2014) argues that hausa political graphics contain images and inscribed messages on paper, fabric, leather, polyester products, panels, screens and flat surfaces. the graphics are important infrastructure or media through which political metaphors are used as linguistic resources for the attainment of political objectives. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 299 coinage and neologism in radio (media) neologisms or coinage is one of the processes of creating new words. in the media, journalists often coin new expressions with the help of different word formation processes (compounding, shortening, hybridization, claque and affixation etc). people try to outdo each other with more attractive and unique expressions to name their products, which results that these trademarks names are adopted by the common person and become “everyday words of language” (yule 2006, 53). coinage is the method of creating new words or phrases. the coined items are puts to use by the speech community. similarly, new concepts and ideas are coming into the body of the existing lexicon. however, coinage is a process whereby new words are totally invented to name objects, ideas or concepts (nasir 2008:52 in abba 2013:117). this is in line with, safire (1978) opinion where sani (2011:33) notes that two types of coinages do exist: chorus and phantom. chorus coinage is where a word or phrase pops into political language without recoverable coiner while the phantom is where a coinage enters the language by osmosis. though some words and phrases have been in the hausa lexicon, by the coming of modern politics, it pops into political discourse and took several interpretations. for strong political culture of the people, the words and phrases became a political language that electorates reckon with. neologisms tend to occur more often in cultures that are changing rapidly and also in situations where there is easy and fast propagation of information. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 300 the new terms are often created by combining existing words or by giving words new and unique suffixes or prefixes. after being coined, a newly coined word invariably undergoes scrutiny by the society and by language experts to determine its suitability to the concerned language. many of newly coined words are accepted very easily where as some are rejected. non-experts who dislike the neologism sometimes also use this argument, deriding the neologism as “abuse and ignorance of the language.” some neologisms, especially those dealing with sensitive subjects, are often objected to on the grounds that they obscure the issue being discussed, and that a such word’s novelty often leads a discussion away from the root issue and onto a sidetrack about the meaning of the neologism itself. proponents of a neologism see it as being useful, and also helping the language to grow and change; often they perceive these words as being a fun and creative way to play with a language. in addition, the semantic precision of most neologisms, along with what is usually a straightforward syntax, often makes them easier to grasp by people who are not native speakers of the language (banjar, 2011). neologisms are accepted as parts of the language. other times, however, they disappear from common use just as readily as they appeared. whether a neologism continues as part of the language depends on many factors, probably the most important of which is acceptance by the public. if a newly coined word continues to use by the masses, it always eventually sheds its status as a neologism and enters the language even over the rejection of its opponents. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 301 abba (2013:118) argues that, politics is one of most productive sources of generating new words. neologisms in this field often are used to make some political or rhetorical point. and some words are powerful enough to shape peoples attitude towards certain issues. mohsin (2013: 821) states that neologism can be a brand new word gaining usage in a language, or a new meaning for a word already in existence. such a term isn't typically in common use, but may become so if it is used often. neologisms can come from a variety of places and might be gleaned from scientific or technical language, come from other languages, be derived by putting two words together, or they may be solely invented. language specialists suggest new words often migrate into a language most with great cultural changes or with the integration of two cultures that speak two different languages. furthermore, in support of the above submission, wurma (2002) believes that, in virtually all languages, words meaning is broadened to encompass new ideas and concepts introduced by speakers. he stress that widening of meaning is a sign of language development. and, virtually in all societies, new ideas, senses and opinions are being created to meet the challenges of modern life. coinage and neologisms in “an ce ka ce” (they said you say) according to martan (2008:75) neologisms are new words that are use in society, and are deemed to have been non-existent in the past. neologisms are very important in the generative capacity of natural languages; they are the register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 302 elements that make languages living rather than dead…” and “are an indicative of language death”. the slogan used by politicians and presenters of radio political programs in the daily use of like has demonstrated a birth and rebirth of hausa vocabularies from linguistics perspectives, indeed a breakthrough in expanding the hausa lexicon. for example words and phrases like: hausa gloss 1. naka sai naka yours is yours 2. daram-dam unshakable 3. ka yi mun gani you did, we saw 4. ta ware to separate 5. dawo-dawo return-return 6. ya hau kan katanga he cross a fence 7. hannun jarirai children hands 8. sabarta juyata change from one side to other 9. janar buzu-buzu general with bears. 10. farfesun tarugu soup of pepper 11. amanawan katambaluwa trustees of katambaluwa 12. baba ojo gwanin rawar banjo father ojo, master of dance 13. namu duka sabo tumaki ours all hold sheep 14. labarum mako news week the nagarta radio hausa political program “an ce, ka ce” is a political program the presenters use some words and phrases in the program which are register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 303 meant to hide the actual names of the personalities being referred to, at the same time coined a word or phrase giving a description of those personalities. here, presenters twist and twill language to suit the purpose and amuse the largest audience. in relation to the above, some words and phrases are already in the realm and vocabulary of the hausa language. eventually due to the advent of modern politics, some of them have taken several connotations as used in the radio political program. they are diverted from the literal traditional meaning and are motivated by the mental representation of the speaker and hearer as well as metaphorical features association to the word which makes it well understood within the domain of politics. with this, we can say coinage and neologism took place in the radio (media). however, coinage and neologisms can be found in the below data: 15. kúrmusàa-kúrmusàa gloss: defeat meaning: yin nasara a kan ‘yan hamayya 16. qákkàvín kavár gloss: destroy meaning: rushewa 17. shaaranáyè gloss: lie meaning: shara qarya 18. hántánmantán gloss: what was not understand meaning: abin da ba a fahimce shi ba 19. hadariín tsígèe-tsíigèe gloss: cloud of removal meaning: tsige masu riqe da mukamai 20. yaakice–kice gloss: conflict meaning: hatsaniya 21. siibàree–na-báiyee gloss: injustice meaning: zalunci 22. shílloríiyà gloss: light meaning: abu mara nauyi 23. zuuqìi tàa málli gloss: lie meaning: karya register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 304 24. bòsórùwaa gloss: unserious meaning: shìríiritaa 25. hara da bálliyaa gloss: difficult situation meaning: rikitaccen al’amari 26. hárqumaaquma gloss: discomfort meaning: baqe-baqe 27. giríngishìxii da gírgixìi gloss: meaning: kujera na rawa 28. màgúrmàagùxín gloss: fraud meaning: maguxi 29. kaafatàni gloss: altogether meaning: gaba xaya in the data, one can see how coinage and neologism is in hausa political program, which results from media, in the sense that the actual word/phrase has been modify to suit the interest of the presenters and to capture the minds of the listeners as well. this enriched hausa vocabulary, basically the media or the program as effective tools of disseminating changes and diffusion of innovation, which could accelerate the adaptation of hausa lexical used created by the media. since, word could be created either deliberately or accidentally without using the word formation processes. based on sani’s (2011:92) argument which argues that, coinage ranges from single to multiple words. however, the following are some of their characteristics which the data possessed: i. absence of definition of terms, ii. only equivalence are provided; iii. predominance of translation; iv. little use of morphological resources of the language; v. resistance to creativity and innovation in coining new terms; vi. provision of more than one equivalent to a term; register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 305 vii. lack of general principles, methodological guidelines and convention governing the selection and adoption of loanword; and viii. lack of clear strategy of dissemination of the terms for use in different spheres of human activities. coinage as the creation of totally new words or phrases in language, took place as in the above examples. neologism is associated with the formation of new words that represent ideas, objects and concepts in a language, has took place also. this is in accordance with rey (1995) who notes that neologism as a lexical unit perceived as recent by language users. he identifies three core areas of neology: formal, semantic and pragmatic neology. formal neology is a result of application of grammatical rules to the morphology of the language e.g suffixation, pre-ffixation etc. while semantic neology is a feature found in all neologisms. pragmatic neology is identified in relation to communication. this means that the neologism is used in a social context depending on its appropriateness in communication. neologism passes through three stages as it is in the above data: creation, trial; and establishment. once it gained widespread usage, it becomes stable. stability is indicated by appearance in glossaries dictionaries and large corpora. some of the above lexical or phrases are used by individual in communication, not necessarily in political discourse. in support of this argument abba (2013:18) argues that the pre-election campaign with the help of electronic media has opened up a new window in the socio-linguistic land map. the word senses have moved from their primary register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 306 meaning and taken up new shades of meaning. new words are created; the existing ones are lexically expanded and semantically redressed in another sphere of meaning. conclusion politics is a fertile ground for the use of language to express political thoughts and opinions in the political processes. the language of politics reveals certain peculiarities in the communication process and in context perspective, as well as effective disposition of the recipients. this can be seen in the radio political program as presented above. the primary concern is to ascertain radio contribution towards such changes, which in turn develop hausa language vocabularies. they contain specified features and served specified functions in the political oval. the role of radio is very important to introduce these new words in the language; a new word is popular by way of radio political program because the program introduces these words. presenters of the program often coin new expressions to make the program interesting and effective which sometimes results the coinage and if these newly coined words are accepted by the masses, they become the part of the language. generally speaking, the paper has addressed issues relating to coinage and neologism in hausa political program “an ce, ka ce” of radio nagarta, the voice of unity which helps in language development. one other contribution of this research could be seen relatively to the vocabulary of hausa language and portrayed how important they are to political preparation. sometimes these newly form words become the accepted part of the language or disappear from common usage just as readily as they appear. the acceptance by the speakers register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.238-252 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 307 is most important factor of a neologism for being a part of the language. if its speakers continuously use a newly coined word, it gradually enters the language even over the rejection of its opponents but finally in that of the many neologisms created, adapted, mutilated, very few survive. it’s hoped that this paper will draw the attention of more researchers towards finding how hausa radio political program do contribution towards language development; 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(2nd ed). cambridge: cambridge university press. zailani, a. a and muntari, h (2018). an analysis of neologism in hausa cellular phone market. zajolals 1. 9 school of secondary education languages federal college of education, zaria untitled-6 85register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 the effectiveness of speaking instruction through task-based language teaching noor malihah english department of education faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) of salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 02 salatiga 50721 indonesia noormalihah_itah@yahoo.com abstract speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching. teaching speaking is not merely to let students to repeat or memorize dialogues, but they should be able to use the utterance to communicate in the real situations. teachers’ attitudes to respond the students thought and opinion is important, as they should not be forced to speak and put them in the deep anxiety, but we invite the learners to use any languages in the performance of oral tasks where teachers give a task and learners complete the task. teachers should be able to create such situations where students hold meaningful tasks that will promote their speaking proficiency. this can be realized when students works with their friends in groups to complete a task. task-based approach is the alternate to solve the problem where learning is developed through performing a series of activities as steps towards successful task realization. key words: language learning and teaching, speaking instruction, taskbased approach, task 86 the effectiveness of speaking instruction through task-based language teaching register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 introduction developing interactive teaching strategy is very essential in creating meaningful communication. the traditional approaches of language teaching (grammar translation, direct method, and audiolingual method) try to manage the language learning process, which focus much on a controlled, measured practicing of language items where teacher is very much in charge. on the other way around, the communicative approach focuses more on language learning as interaction, and meaningful communication becomes the main point rather than the complexity of grammar rules. this approach will lead the students to talk more during the class and outside the class in many activities like to talk about themselves, to have a joke, to give an idea, without thinking whether the structure is correct or incorrect as they have fun in english class. among the four language skills, learners consider speaking as the most difficult one since it needs great courage as well as preparation to produce the language. their personalities play a large role in determining how quickly and how correctly they will accomplish this skill. those who are risk-takers unafraid of making mistakes will generally be more talkative, but they do not realize with the errors they make. meanwhile, the conservative, shy students may take a long time to speak confidently, but when they do, they will make fewer errors and be proud of their english ability. learners will think about which one is better, to talk much with many errors or to think more with better result. it can be answered when the aims of speaking is clearly stated, that is to build meaningful communication. in this case, to encourage learners to talk as much as possible to convey the messages of communication is more important rather than to let them think about the grammar rules they use. when we talk about speaking, we intend the learners to use any languages in the performance of oral tasks where teachers give a task and learners complete the task. harmer (1988: 87-88) proposed the reason 87 noor malihah register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 why it is a good idea to give students speaking tasks. they are: 1) rehearsal: when students have free discussions or conversations inside the classroom they have a chance to rehearse having discussions or conversations outside the classroom; 2) feedback: engagement in a speaking task which demands for the use of all and any language at the students’ command provides feedback for both teacher and students; 3) engagement: completing a speaking task can be really motivating and give real satisfaction. there is a phenomenon today that students are sometimes not motivated to talk because they are lack involvement in the topic. besides, many students have to overcome a psychological constraints before they are prepared to speak in the foreign language. some students feel uneasy when they have to speak in the classroom situation because there is always an audience. a few prefer not to speak at all and deny opportunities for practice. they feel so anxious in practicing their speaking skill in foreign language. people learning a foreign language is afraid of such a comment: “i hate make a fool of myself”. students sometimes feel foolish because they use their native language beyond their consciousness. so, how can teachers reduce their fear of looking foolish and build up their confidence and pleasure in using english? how can teachers convict them to control their talk while speaking in english? there should be therefore an appropriate approach implemented in the process of teaching learning speaking. one alternate approach, which is possible to implement for the sake of enhancing the students’ confidence of speaking is the task-based approach. using task-based approach, each student should get the same opportunity to experience the learning process by putting him/her in a situation in which she/he can decide alone, mainly the way of expressing and accepting experience of using the target language. it is expected that 88 the effectiveness of speaking instruction through task-based language teaching register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 the implementation of this approach in speaking class will change the condition happened in this class where some students dominate the opportunity of talking over the other ones. discussion speaking speaking skill is an ability to orally express opinion, thought, and feeling to other people both directly and indirectly. moris in novia (2002) states that speaking is the novice means of communication among member of society in expressing their thought and is as the representation of social behavior. on the other way around, wilkin in maulida (2001) proposes that the aim of the recent teaching english as fl is speaking achievement. furthermore, in oktarina (2002) she underlines that speaking skill is the ability of arranging sentences since communication happens through the series of sentences constructing in performing the various behavior from various society. in a bit different statement, chaney (1998: 13) states that speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts. from the above definition, it can be concluded that speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching. dealing with the importance of speaking in efl, stovall (1998) states that language learners need to recognize that speaking involves three areas of knowledge: 1. mechanics (pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary): using the right words in the right order with the correct pronunciation 2. functions (transaction and interaction): knowing when clarity of message is essential (transaction/information exchange) and when precise understanding is not required (interaction/relationship building). 3. social and cultural rules and norms (turn-taking, rate of speech, length of pauses between speakers, relative roles of participants): 89 noor malihah register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 understanding how to take into account who is speaking to whom, in what circumstances, about what, and for what reason. teaching speaking nunan (2003) defines the meaning of “teaching speaking” as teaching esl learners to (1) produce the english speech sounds and sound patterns; (2) use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the second language; (3) select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social setting, audience, situation and subject matter; (4) organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence; (5) use language as a means of expressing values and judgments; (6) use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called as fluency. on the other way around, many times ago, teaching speaking has been undervalued and english language teachers teach speaking just in the forms of a repetition of drills or memorization of dialogues. it should be now extended that the goal of teaching speaking is not merely to force them to speak the english utterances but it should cover the mastery of students’ communicative skills due to the fact that only in that way, students can express themselves and learn how to follow the social and cultural rules appropriate in each communicative circumstance. to do so, learners should be given an opportunity to work in interactive mode to talk about themselves in personally relevant ways. this demands such new dimension to the language learning process. anxiety the students should feel comfortable in sharing their feeling and opinions even some cultures consider it as improper values to talk about one. teachers’ attitudes to respond the students thought and opinion is also important as they should not be forced to speak, they should be heard 90 the effectiveness of speaking instruction through task-based language teaching register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 and respected, and they should extend the same courtesy to their classmates. teachers should realize that students many times live in difficult conditions, and as a consequence, teachers should avoid expressions of negative feelings. such attitude is expected to reduce the student anxiety of making mistakes and they will have courageous to speak. anxiety, simply speaking, is a kind of troubled feeling in the mind. it is a subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the automatic nervous system (horwitz, 1986). krashen (1985a, 1985b) maintained that anxiety inhibits the learner’s ability to process incoming language and short-circuits the process of acquisition. an interaction is often found among anxiety, task difficulty, and ability, which interferes at the input, processing, retrieval, and at the output level. if anxiety impairs cognitive function, students who are anxious may learn less and also may not be able to demonstrate what they have learned. furthermore, crookall and oxford (1991) reported that serious language anxiety may cause other related problems with self-esteem, selfconfidence, and risk-taking ability, and ultimately hampers proficiency in the second language. macintyre and gardner (1991) found that speaking is by far the main agent of anxiety-arousal, and that students with high anxiety perform worse than those with low anxiety. according to young (1991), there are six potential causes of language anxiety that include personal and interpersonal, learner beliefs about language learning, instructor beliefs about language teaching, instructor-learner interactions, classroom procedures and language tests. however, to date, findings by horwitz, horwitz and cope (1986) have been the most influential. they identified three causes of language anxiety, that is, communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation. 91 noor malihah register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 based on the above definition, anxiety is a kind of troubled feeling in the mind, which covers a subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the automatic nervous system. there are three causes of anxiety; they are (1) communication apprehension, (2) the test, and (3) the fear of making mistakes in producing the language. task based language teaching richards (2001: 223) states that task-based language teaching (tblt) refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching. tblt proposes the notion of ‘task’ as a central unit of planning and teaching. task-based syllabus design has interested some researchers and curriculum developers in second/foreign language instruction since the mid-1980s (long 1985; breen 1987; prabhu 1987; nunan 1989 in ahmed, 1996), as a result of widespread interest in the functional views of language and communicative language teaching. the variety of students’ backgrounds of experience leads to the types and the arrangement of activities in taking the practice opportunities as well as the attraction of having the group interaction, naturally, closely, freely, happily. giyoto (2007) also states that tblt seems to have a variety of features that are helpful in the development of language proficiency. the language is initially presented in context through dialogues that are local culturally based. such texts based on everyday life give students’ models that can be used to develop functional proficiency through role-taking and their interactive language practice activities. task-based language education starts from the basic idea that students learn a language by performing tasks. a task is generally described as an activity in which people engage to attain an objective, and which involves the meaningful use of language (bygate, skehan & swain, 2002; 92 the effectiveness of speaking instruction through task-based language teaching register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 long, 1985; van den branden, 2006). in the above-mentioned example, it turned out that the task that was used, and which was taken from a brand new task-based syllabus, was not perceived as a “task” by the students at all. for them, it did not involve meaningful use of language, nor did it give rise to the kind of activity in which people engage to attain an objective they find worthwhile. bystrom (2007) mentioned that task is usually seen as a purposeful set of linked concrete or cognitive activities performed by people (or machines); normally, it has a meaningful purpose as well as an identifiable beginning and end. this kind of task is viewed as a dynamic activity, rather than a stable description. task seen from the latter point of view is a description of what is expected from a person (or a machine), such as “make a personnel allocation plan for the next four weeks”. task often includes some type of requirement (for instance, in respect to duration or quality of performance or other issues of concern), and it may be either set by the task performer himself or by others. similarly, task may be initiated by the task performers themselves or assigned by others as well as performed in solitude or as a team effort. task takes place both within and outside work. task may be authentic or simulated and performed in authentic or simulated contexts. to summarize, task are multidimensional activities. ellis (2003: 16) provides a composite definition: a task is a workplan that requires learners to process language pragmatically in order to achieve an outcome that can be evaluated in terms of whether the correct or appropriate propositional content has been conveyed. to this end, it requires them to give primary attention to meaning and to make use of their own linguistic resources, although the design of the task may predispose them to choose particular forms. a task is intended to result in language use that bears a resemblance, direct or indirect, to the way language is used in the real world. like other language activities, a task can 93 noor malihah register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 engage productive or receptive, and oral or written skills, and also various cognitive processes. an interesting aspect of this definition is that it includes almost all the major points of contention in language pedagogy: attention to meaning, engagement with grammar, inclusion of pragmatic properties, use of authentic communication, importance of social interaction, integration of language skills, and the connection to psycholinguistic processes. the implementation of task-based approach in the speaking instruction esl/fl teachers and some linguists now agree that interaction while the students learn a second/foreign language is very important. it means what they need during the learning process is the communicative language teaching approach where collaborations among members is part essential as well. in this case the learning process should be arranged in real-life situations that require communication. it is expected that students will have the opportunity to communicate each other in the target language. thus, teachers should be able to create such situations where students hold meaningful tasks that will promote their speaking proficiency. this can be realized when students works with their friends in groups to complete a task. in task-based approach, learning is developed through performing a series of activities as steps towards successful task realization. by working towards task realization, the language is used immediately in the real-world context of the learner, making learning authentic. this approach puts the task to be completed during the language learning process. problems are given to learners to be solved using the target language as a task to be completed individually or collaboratively. the teacher facilitates the language needed to succeed the task. in this case traditional teacher-centered approach is thrown away since this approach will let the learners to be active in seeking the appropriate forms and in 94 the effectiveness of speaking instruction through task-based language teaching register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 practicing the language skills so that they will more confident with their own works. willis (1996) broke the task completion into three sections. the pre-task, the task cycle, and the language focus. the elaboration is as follow: 1. pre-task in the pre-task, the teacher will present what will be expected of the students in the task phase. additionally, the teacher may prime the students with key vocabulary or grammatical constructs, although, in “pure” task-based learning lessons, these will be presented as suggestions and the students would be encouraged to use what they are comfortable with in order to complete the task. the instructor may also present a model of the task by either doing it themselves or by presenting picture, audio, or video demonstrating the task. 2. task cycle during the task phase, the students perform the task, typically in small groups, although this is dependent on the type of activity. and unless the teacher plays a particular role in the task, then the teacher’s role is typically limited to one of an observer or counselor—thus the reason for it being a more student-centered methodology. a. planning having completed the task, the students prepare either a written or oral report to present to the class. the instructor takes questions and otherwise simply monitors the students. b. report the students then present this information to the rest of the class. here the teacher may provide written or oral feedback, as appropriate, and the students observing may do the same. 95 noor malihah register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 3. language focus in focusing the language produced by students, the teachers will create two stages here, they are: a. analysis here the focus returns to the teacher who reviews what happened in the task, in regards to language. it may include language forms that the students were using, problems that students had, and perhaps forms that need to be covered more or were not used enough. b. practice the practice stage may be used to cover material mentioned by the teacher in the analysis stage. it is an opportunity for the teacher to emphasize key language. within the sections above, learners will complete the task through preparation where in this case they will reduce their troubled feeling in mind or anxiety. they have more time to think how to complete the task in their best way. it is then expected that learners will not be nervous and full of tension in performing their speaking ability. through tbll, focus on form is not the main point instead of focus in meaning. due to the fact, learners will not be afraid of making mistakes on the series of complicated rules which is very probable to pressure them in performing their speaking ability. besides, tbll is also defined as learning by doing mostly in group work which allows discussion and help between learners. the role of teacher in task-centered learning is that of a wise and experienced member of the group. willis (1998) says that at the end of a workshop on using task-based approach to language teaching teachers commented that “taskbased learning is like an adventure—learners surprise you by coming up with all kind of things”. she accepts that tbll may entail elements of 96 the effectiveness of speaking instruction through task-based language teaching register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 risk that can make things quite scary for teachers and offers a principled use of a task-based learning framework in order to show how to minimize such a risk and to help teachers create tasks that will prove fulfilling and challenging but not too risky. moor (1998b) states that worthwhile task-based activities should have the following characteristics: 1. intrinsic interest (personal anecdotes, favorite stories, discussions where there is a problem to be resolved, etc.) 2. the existence of an outcome or end product (records, videos, posters, etc.) 3. provision for language input (from the teacher, reference books and fellow students, etc.) 4. opportunities for silence, spontaneous speech and prepared speech (time for planning) the example of task-based approach in speaking instruction the above cycles can be seen in the action below, which is taken from frost (2002) but has been modified. preparation and materials you will need to record two people planning a night out on the town. during the class, the task is divided into three phases: pre-task, during-task, and post-task. first, it concerns with the various activities that teachers and students should do before they start the task, such as whether students are given issue of the story, time allotted to plan the performance of the task. pre-task (15-20min) aim: to introduce the topic of nights out and to give the class exposure to language related to it. to highlight words and phrases, 97 noor malihah register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 a. show students pictures of a night out in a restaurant / bar and ask them where they go to have a good night out. b. brainstorm words/phrases onto the board related to the topic; people / verbs / feelings etc. c. introduce the example of conversation of two people planning a night out. write up different alternatives on the board to give them a reason for listening e.g. (a) restaurant / bar (b) meet at the train station / in the square. d. tell them that they are going to plan a class night out and give them a few minutes to think it over. the second phase, the ‘during task’ phase, centres on around the task itself and affords task of experiencing the various communicative ways of sharing ideas or options, including the students that are required to operate under time-pressure or not and complete ideas of their story. the final phase is ‘post-task’ and involves procedures for following up on the task performance. only the ‘during task’ phase is obligatory in task-based teaching (ahmed, 1996). task (10min) • students do the task in twos and plan the night. match them with another pair to discuss their ideas and any similarities and differences. planning (10min) • each pair rehearses presenting their night out. teacher walks around, helps them if they need it and notes down any language points to be highlighted later. report (15 min) a. class listen to the plans, their task is to choose one of them. they can ask questions after the presentation. 98 the effectiveness of speaking instruction through task-based language teaching register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 b. teacher gives feedback on the content and quickly reviews what was suggested. students vote and choose one of the nights out. the final phase is ‘post-task’ and involves procedures for following up on the task performance. only the ‘during task’ phase is obligatory in task-based teaching language focus (20min) a. write on the board fives good phrases used by the students during the task and five incorrect phrases/sentences from the task without the word that caused the problem. students discuss the meaning and how to complete the sentences. b. hand out the example of conversation and ask the students to underline the useful words and phrases. c. highlight any language you wish to draw attention to e.g. language for making suggestions, collocations etc. d. students write down any other language they wish to remember. thus, minimally, a task-based lesson concentrates the students’ preparation, performance of a task. the pre-task can serve a crucial role in ensuring that the task performance is maximally effective for language. the analysis of the task can be graded for the very first start of studying english in the university to the fluent use and instant use of the language. it is said communicative when the better the speaker and the audience knows each other; the more effective the message will be related. the speaker and the audience know certain things and share mutually. furthermore, at a theoretical level, it has become more clear that oral communication skills (i.e., speaking) are complex sociolinguistic phenomena (hymes in ahmed, 1996), and that the classroom situation is not only determined by curricular and pedagogical concerns but also has social and personal dimensions. 99 noor malihah register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 the focus of discussion in task-based language teaching is the rich complexity of task as the unit of analysis, the classroom situation and the institutional contexts need to be incorporated. the class is divided into many groups depending on the time allotment and also the number of the students. the number of the members for one group and the numbers of the group depend on how long every student should experience the task. the length of the time of each group is the same as the length of the english class because the groups of the class do the task simultaneously at the same time. when the english class is 100 minutes, every group of the class also gets 100 minutes, and if the group is of five students, every student will have from10 to 20 minutes for experiencing the use of the language or doing his task. conclusion advantages task-based learning is advantageous to the student because it is more student-centered, allows for more meaningful communication. although the teacher may present language in the pre-task, the students are ultimately free to use what grammar constructs and vocabulary they want. this allows them to use all the language they know and are learning, rather than just the ‘target language’ of the lesson. furthermore, as the tasks are likely to be familiar to the students (e.g.: buying a ticket), students are more likely to be engaged, which may further motivate them in their language learning. disadvantages there have been criticisms that task-based learning is not appropriate as the foundation of a class for beginning students. others claim that students are only exposed to certain forms of language, and are being neglected of others, such as discussion or debate. teachers 100 the effectiveness of speaking instruction through task-based language teaching register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 may want to keep these in mind when designing a task-based learning lesson plan. references: ahmed, m.k.1996. teaching oral communication skills in academic settings: a case study in task-based approach to syllabus design. presented at thai tesol 16th annual convention, pataya, thailand byström, katriina. 2007. approaches to “task” in contemporary information studies. sweden: swedish school of library and information science giyoto. 2007. task-based approach of facilitating the speaking practice for a big class (from the bravery of being wrong to the pride of being acceptable). a paper presented in teflin 2007 krashen, s. d. 1985a. applications of psycholinguistic research to the classroom. in c. james (ed.), practical applications of research in foreign language teaching (pp.51-66). lincolnwood, il: national textbook co. madya, suwarsih, 2007. penelitian tindakan kelas. http:// www.ktiguru.org/index.php/ptk-1. novia, t. 2002. strategy to improve student’s ability in speaking. makalah tugas akhir s1. padang: unp padang. nurkamto, joko. 2002. an introduction to classroom action research. a paper presented in mgmp bahasa inggris madrasah aliyah sejawa tengah in madrasah aliyah negeri model magelang jawa tengah. 101 noor malihah register, vol. 3, no. 1, june 2010 octarina, d. 2001. interactive activities as the way to improve efl learners’ speaking abilities. makalah tugas akhir s1 padang: unp padang peace corps (information collection and exchange). 1989. english as a second or foreign language. http://www.peacecorps.gov richards, j., & rodgers, t. 2001. approaches and methods in language teaching (2nd ed.). cambridge: cambridge university press. rodgers, t. 2001. language teaching methodology. digests (paper), hawaii. university of hawaii rod ellis. 2006. asian efl journal conference 2006. university of auckland http://asian-efl-journal.com/ellis_task_based_ teaching.doc; willis, j. 1996. a framework for task-based learning. harlow, u.k. longman: addisonwesley. chaney, 1998. p. 13. in http://unr.edu/homepage/hayriyek stovall. 1998, in http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/speaking/spindex.htm http://informationr.net/ir/12-1/colis/colis26.html setia rini register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 225 the error analysis on the students of english department speaking scripts setia rini sekolah tinggi agama islam negeri (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no.02 salatiga, central java, indonesia setiarini.setia@gmail.com abstract speaking skill is different from writing skill. writing is a formal skill, so as a writer he or she must be consistently follow the formal procedures. it is different from the speaking skill which doesn‘t so strict in accommodating the formal rules. the writing of script at speaking 2 lecture is the focus of this study because the scripts are presented after they prepare for having conversation. through writing the speaking script the students learn carefully of khow to deliver a conversation purposefully and use the language features correctly even in oral communication. moreover, in speaking they are able to convey their feeling, emotion and thought. the purposes of this study are to know the kind of grammatical errors made by the students of the english department in writing their speaking scripts and the sources of students in making error in writing the speaking scripts. the researcher takes the subjects of students of the second semester of the english department stain salatiga in academic year of 2012/2013 as they took speaking 2 subject. and to collect the data the researcher used test and documentation. the result of this study explains that the writer analyzed the errors made by the students included the use of grammatical rules, vocabulary choice by implementing error analysis. in addition, the errors mailto:setiarini.setia@gmail.com the error analysis on the students of english department speaking scripts 226 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 are analyzed such as the use of preposition, subject pronoun, object pronoun, verbs and nouns, irregular verbs, tenses, pronouns and possessive case, word choice, writing questions, and conditional sentence. keywords: error analysis, speaking, writing and script abstrak keterampilan berbicara berbeda dari keterampilan menulis dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris. menulis adalah keterampilan formal, sehingga para penulis harus konsisten untuk mengikuti prosedur resmi dalam menulis. hal ini berbeda dengan keterampilan berbicara yang tidak mengikuti aturan formal seperti halnya keterampilan berbicara. fokus dari penelitian ini adalah penulisan naskah speaking di mata kuliah speaking 2 yang mana nantinya naskah dibuat setelah mahasiswa mempersiapkan rancangan untuk percakapan. dengan menulis naskah untuk berbicara mahasiswa dapat belajar dengan lebih teliti untuk berbicara atau dalam percakapan dalam bahasa inggris dengan baik dan benar. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui jenis kesalahan pada tata bahasa yang ditulis oleh mahasiswa jurusan bahasa inggris dalam penulisan naskah berbicara dan mengetahui penyebab kesalahan dalam menulis naskah mata kuliah speaking 2. kata kunci: kesalahan, analisis, naskah. introduction speaking is a skill that can be mastered through continuous practices. this skill cannot be generated genetically. speaking skill is different from writing skill. writing is a formal skill, so as a writer he or she must be consistently follow the formal procedures. it is different from the speaking skill which doesn‘t so strict in accommodating the formal rules. for instance, the discourse markers must be clearly seen setia rini register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 227 within the text. on the other hand, in speaking the phrases can be represented by an interval when someone is speaking. speaking 2 is a subject covers some topic to be practiced by the second semester students of the english department at stain salatiga. in these two classes the teacher weekly asks the students to practice speaking by using role play method. the students make a group of 4 or five to discuss about one topic that has been arranged and presenting each topic weekly. before presenting their dialogue based on the scripts, the students submit also the scripts. the focus of this study is on the writing speaking 2 scripts, because the scripts are presented after they prepare for having conversation. by writing the speaking script they learn carefully of how to deliver a conversation purposefully and use the language features correctly even in oral communication. moreover, in speaking they are able to convey their feeling, emotion and thought. baker (2011; 13) said that the skills of language cover listening, speaking, reading and writing; meanwhile the components cover grammar, vocabulary, phonology and graphology. those skills and components of language are related to each other. as an example when someone wants to deliver his feeling or thought by writing, he has to notice not only the vocabulary but also the grammar. in writing, as one of the components of a language, grammar is necessary in order to create meaningful and understandable sentences. moreover, for many people, grammar is an aspect which becomes the most difficult to learn in english. the error analysis on the students of english department speaking scripts 228 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 ―grammar may be roughly defined as the way a language manipulated and combines words (or bits of words) in order to form longer units of meaning‖ (ur, 2007; 4). a language without grammar would be disorganized and causes misunderstanding, like grammatical errors in writing speaking scripts. therefore, learners need to know the grammatical system of the language so that they can communicate with others properly. the learners frequently make mistakes and even errors in learning english, especially when they try to arrange sentences or use tenses in writing. as a result, they will write sentences grammatically incorrect. research methodology in doing this research, the data is taken from the scripts of speaking 2 classes which are submitted through email and print outs. two speaking 2 classes in the english department in the second semester at stain salatiga in academic year of 2012/2013 as the population of this research as arikunto (2006; 134) stated that if the population is less than one hundred, the subjects should be taken entirely. therefore, the researcher takes the subjects of students of the second semester of the english department stain salatiga in academic year of 2012/2013 as they took speaking 2 subject and submit the scripts of the speaking 2 tests through email. the other groups of students submit the scripts in printed sheets. there are only 5 groups who submitted the scripts of speaking 2 tests through email. setia rini register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 229 method of data collection test arikunto (2006; 150) wrote a test can be described a series of questions or other instruments, which are used to measure the intervals or group‘s skill, knowledge, intelligence, capability or talent. here, the researcher uses a test as the instrument of the research. the test is given to know and to identify the errors made by students in writing the speaking ii scripts. documentation the researcher also collects some materials from students‘ speaking 2 scripts and to give suggestion for better understanding and learning. as arikunto (2006; 158) noted documentation, from the word document means written objects, is way to collect data from written objects such as books, magazines, documents, ordinances, notes, diaries or other documentations. method of data analysis in this study the writer used descriptive method to solve problems in education fields for making revisions (mohammad ali, 1985) meanwhile moh. nazir (1983) explained that this method is used to scrutinize the status of a group of people, object, condition, system of thought and recent events. it has the purpose to describe facts, characteristics of the object of the study systematically and accurately. this is a survey research, as stated by mohammad ali (1985) that this kind of study is aimed at identifying a group of objects in a certain period. furthermore moh nazir (1983) stated that it is used to get the the error analysis on the students of english department speaking scripts 230 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 symptoms and search for information. analysis survey document is used to solve the problems like in descriptive study; and the object of this study is speaking 2 test scripts written by students of the english department of stain salatiga. the writer selected 5 samples of the speaking 2 test scripts written by the students of the english department of stain salatiga in academic year 2012/2013 randomly and then the writer followed the steps started from identifying, describing, explaining, and revising the errors. discussion error analysis writing in the first language is a complex process and of course, it will be more complicated to write in a foreign language. many researchers have tried to identify the common errors made by students in writing the second language. having better understanding of errors and the source of errors will help teachers to know students‘ difficulties in learning that language. as hydari and bagheri (2012 cited in keshavaez, (1999) stated that there have been two major approaches to the study of learner‘s errors, contrastive analysis and error analysis. however, error analysis then became the favored way of describing learner‘s language. the error analysis was also noted by ellis (1994; 47) that in the 1970s, it succeed contrastive analysis, which focus on the learner‘s errors by identifying the linguistic differences between learner‘s first language and the target language. setia rini register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 231 the existence of error analysis is not far from the development and changes in language teaching. one of the basic changes is about the experts‘ paradigm on learners and language learner. experts considered the only source of information is teachers, so language teaching and learning focuses on the teacher; it means that teacher becomes the subject and the students are the object. according to nababan (1993), the changes in that paradigm improve the attention on the achievement analysis toward the language target by learners in a certain time called error analysis. he stated that it is a proper tool to identify the achievement target on the learners‘ language target. mistakes and errors in language learning context, the difference between mistake and error is clearly defined. nababan (1993) stated that differing between those terms is very crucial in language error analysis because those terms are different in concept. he said that the characteristics of mistake are that it is done unpurposively by the speaker, and he will repair by himself. most native speakers can make mistakes, but the sooner they repairs it, the better they realize their mistakes consciously because of fatigue or sleepy. on the contrary, nababan (1993) stated that error is the speaker of the language target subconsciously produces the error so that he cannot repair it soon. he will always make the same errors in the oral or written work. the basic characteristic of error is that it is not done systematically by the tl (target language) speaker. it can be repaired by his teacher, native speaker or the experts. the error analysis on the students of english department speaking scripts 232 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 the steps in doing error analysis according to van elk as quoted by nababan (1993), that there are some steps in language error analysis; a. identifying error; nababan (1993) stated that in this step a teacher must be sensitive in identifying the types of error and also the non structural factor, such as on fair and unfairness of forms, because target language learners will make error on the language varieties b. describing error; generally, error can be explained in the form of addition, lessen, replacing the element and word order. this step must be followed by reconstructing the form of error. reconstructing the form of error is rearranging the wrong sentences purposefully. it becomes the guidance to determine what is wrong and how to revise it. c. explaining error; finding the causes of error based on its classification. the advantage is that teacher can refer to which point that has most errors done by the target language learners. d. evaluating error; evaluating error either qualitatively e. revising error. revising the error by giving remedial training/teaching through focusing on general errors either on the structural contexts or unstructured elements. it has been argued by richards, as quoted by nababan (1993), that there are two causes for students in making the error: 1) error caused by the interference of the target language called interlingual errors. this error has the relevance with the negative influences of students‘ language in language target including phonology, morphology, syntax, lexis and culture. 2) error caused by the difficulties faced by the students due to that setia rini register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 233 target language, including analogi. this kind of error is called intralingual errors. the benefit of error analysis error analysis has its significance from the point of view of the teacher and from the learner of language. this kind of significance is seen at the peak of the sixth level, after the steps are passed. in the final steps, both students and teacher are interacting in remedial training or teaching. students know their error and then revise it continuously. while identifying the error, the teacher gets the advantages, but in describing the error, teachers get whether the speech are true or false. so as in explaining the error, students are able to know what is wrong and why it is wrong when teacher evaluate them. finally, students are invited to revise their errors so that they will not encounter the same trouble again. nababan (1993) discovered that although there are many benefits of error analysis, then teachers may not focus on students‘ error. it is suggested that the four language skills can be implemented sinergically, in both oral and written forms. the notion of writing lado (1983) explained that writing is arranging the graphical symbols that represent any language known by people to be communicated. bell and burnaby, as quoted by nunan (1989) explained that writing is a very complicated cognitive process in which the writer is required to control toward variables simultaneously. in a sentence, the the error analysis on the students of english department speaking scripts 234 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 control can be on the content, format, sentence structure, punctuation, pronunciation and letters arrangement. the characteristic of writing nunan (1989) stated that learning to write expressively is the most difficult macro skill for language users, and ignoring whether it is a first or second or even foreign language. all children except the physically incapable ones learn to comprehend their mother tongue. not all of them can write, but some others tries to learn to write easily. white, as quoted by nunan (1989) also stated that writing is not a genetic skill instead of learning how to write. writing requires the possibility of the movable information but actually it is permanent. basic concept of writing writing is a process. shoemaker (1985) defined process as a chain of events, changes or jobs which produce a result. to understand the writing process, there are many steps that lead us to the written communication like a spiral. the components are interacted continuously, or even we can do it together. for example, when the writers get an idea, they can find their focus of writing and basically, finding new ideas, making focus, explaining and revising occurs at any activities. even though there is continuity on each component; they can be done separately by good writers. shoemaker (1985) in his book write in the corner mention that there are five assumptions about writing; (1) writing is personal, because the main purpose of doing it is a need for self actualizing; (2) writing is a process for better result; (3) writing is a continuous interaction between setia rini register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 235 components; (4) in its process also covers finding ideas; dan (5) identifying the writer‘s procedural weaknesses than on their mistakes. writing is a written means of communication between the writer and the reader and it must be written clearly to avoid ambiguity. it is the way of presenting ideas. numerous studies have attempted that those rules consist of grammar, writing style, punctuation, capitalization that lead to the purposive academic writing effectively. (sullivan, 1984; apa, 1990; gibaldi 1990) . krashen (1984) in his book writing: research, theory, and applications explained that there were many recent studies in evaluating the improvement of training in writing toward the writing skill itself. some studies agreed on it, some others are not. the results of the effect of frequent writing compared with the effect of reading development shows that reading has great impact toward writing competence. to be a good writer must be a good reader first. steps in writing kirszner (1983) identified that there are many steps in writing. the first is invention. at this stage a good writer has to understand with what will be written to determine the length of the text, the purposes of writing, the reader, and the whole knowledge he has. second the arrangement, the writer has to identify about what will be written, the limitation on theme and topic through some investigative questioning, imagining, selecting and grouping ideas, also formulating the main idea. finally is writing and revision. in this step the writer delivers his ideas and corrects the scripts. even, a good writer makes crosschecking among his colleagues. the error analysis on the students of english department speaking scripts 236 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 krashen (1984) observed that there are four important steps to be noticed by a good writer; the first is planning. secondly is rescanning. krashen stated that a good writer will always stop writing frequently for rereading during his writing. it functions to add, lessen, or revise his text. thirdly is revision. a good writer will revise his writings many times to complete it. the final step is recursion. the writer crosses checks through non-linear approach such as by reformulating and harmonizing among those three previous steps considering the complexity of the writing rules, it needs regularity and consistency. moreover doing scientific writing is not just taking shorter time and instantly. ron white and valerie arndt, as quoted by harmer (2001), stressed on rewriting and revising has important roles in writing process. they proposed that writing is a continuous activity such as; drafting, structuring, reviewing, focusing and generating ideas and evaluation nunan (1989) explained that those who are succeeded in mastering the writing skill are those who master word arrangement, master and obey pronunciation and punctuation, use purposive grammatical rules, organize content in the script and text to describe new information and comments, revise and complete the previous writers‘ activity, choose appropriate language style for the reader. the relationship between writing and error analysis writing is considered as the most difficult skill among the other language skills. one of the reasons is that it is not a heritage. it needs learning and practices continuously. setia rini register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 237 secondly, the writer has to master and obey formally on the language rules, such as structural (grammar usage, lexical items, and punctuation) and non structural rules (ideas, language styles cohesion and coherence). due to its formality, many students often get difficulties in writing, but they must keep on spirit to practice writing. they do not need to be afraid of making mistakes in writing processes. in this case, teachers as facilitator invite students to analyze the errors together in class for evaluating and revising the errors done by the students‘ candidates in writing. writing is a formal skill and error analysis is also a formal process to revise and improve writing skills. through error analysis both teachers and students are able to find errors due to their mother tongue‘s interferences in the context of phonology, morphology, syntax, lexical and culture. basic english grammar there are many points to be discussed in basic english grammar. here the writer took the source of information from http://www.englischhilfen.e/en/grammar.htm which is retrieved on the october 24 th, 2013. those points are: a. simple present tense b. proper names (or nouns) in english c. prepositions at, in, on d. passive voice e. personal pronouns, possessive determiners, possessive pronouns. f. modals english grammar g. direct and indirect speech h. degree of comparison i. simple past tense the error analysis on the students of english department speaking scripts 238 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 most of the learners' errors which is found in the writing skill are in the areas of verbs (be + v for v, be omission, -s omission, incorrect use of present perfect, incorrect use of past perfect), prepositions (incorrect use of prepositions, redundant prepositions), articles (omission of a, incorrect use of a, omission of the ,the instead of zero), plural/singular agreement, adjectives, conjunctions (incorrect use of conjunctions, stranded/redundant conjunctions) data presentation in the 5 samples of the speaking 2 test scripts written by the students of the english department of stain salatiga in academic year 2012/2013. below are data of groups of students : no group 1. no group 2 1 dwi setyawan 1 wakhid 2 yuyun azizah 2 yunita 3 hafizh ana n 3 hajar 4 asna ristanti 4 faisal ariadi 5 zulia permata q no group 3 no group 4: 1 nofi yulianti 1 mu‘minatul afifah 2 fitriyani masfufah 2 alfida alfiyani 3 ismiatul faidah 3 sutikno 4 dini wahyu tri utami 4 muhaimin 5 ratih purwati 5 atik magfiroh no group 5 1 sapta suci 2 siwi puji saras wati 3 sachibul ula 4 uswatun hasanah data analysis and discussion in this case the writer analyzed the errors made by the students included the use of grammatical rules, vocabulary choice by implementing error analysis theory by brown (2000), corder (1973), setia rini register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 239 ellis (1997). the errors that are analyzed such as the use of preposition, subject pronoun, object pronoun, the use of verbs and nouns, irregular verbs, tenses, pronouns and possessive case, word choice, writing questions, conditional sentence etc. below are some of the data of the speaking 2 tests scripts which were analyzed for its grammatical errors points. data 1 then asna come in to her house. mrs. hafizh : where have you been asna? we are worried to you. asna : (just silent) mr. dwi : asna, your mother asks! why you don‘t answer?! it must be in past form. ―why didn‘t you answer?‖ asna : when mom and dad care of me?! you just care of your work! not me! it is a question, there must be a auxiliary. so it should be ―when did mom and dad care of me?‖ data 2 mrs. hafizh : i‘m so sorry asna. it‘s all for you, for your own good. mr. dwi : your mom right asna. (it must be : your mom is right asna) we are care to you. (it must be : we care you) asna : what side? this?!(show her wallet). it doesn’t a real happiness dad. (throw her wallet and go to her room). it is a nominal sentence, it uses an adjective. so it should be ―it is not a real happiness dad‖. it must be ―she throws her wallet and goes to her room.‖ data 3 outside of the police office hajar : then, what will we do now? back home? yunita : no. i am afraid of my mother if she know about this. let’s get back to palagan ―know‖ must be added ―s‖. since the subject of the sentence is ―she‖ data 4 novi : hai yes i am novi, anything else ratih : do you will go to fitri’s house? the error analysis on the students of english department speaking scripts 240 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 this is a kind of future tense. in the question form it doesn‘t need an auxiliary because there is a modal ―will‖. so the sentence should be ― will you go to fitri‘s house?‖ data 5 ismi : yeah like that, may be we will be confused too if we get much of bussiness beside be a teacher. ( back to imagination) ―beside be a teacher‖, after beside is followed by v-ing. so it should be ―beside being a teacher‖ data 6 dini : people around there looked for fish, but they just met a snake. then they cut it into smaller pieces. fitri : that remain piece changed be a man, he was called baru klinting. he was short and had bad smell. then he go down to the village. he wanted food, but nobody give him. ―then he go down town to the village‖, it should be in past tense form. so, the word ―go‖ should be changed to ―went‖ data 7 uswa : i got the information yesterday, by browsing the internet. you can watch tv if you want more information. sapta : i‘ve never watch television. it is boring and just wasting my time. it only full of un-useful programs and bad effect for children. so children nowadays have poor idea to playing with their friends. it must be infinitive after ―to‖. so it should be ―to play‖ not ―to playing‖ data 8 zulia : you are right. but internet is the most complete media to search information. asna : yes. guys, may i sleep over here? yuyun : yes, of course. you can sleep over here anytime you want. zulia : don‘t be clumsy. we are friendship right? (―friendship‖ should be replaced by ―friends‖.) data 9 while asna‘s parents are watching tv, asna and her friends talk about advantages and disadvantages of watching tv. setia rini register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 241 asna : huh.. they always like that! zulia : do you know that watching tv has many disadvantages? (it needs a to be ―are‖ after ―they‖ because it is a nominal sentence) data 10 yuyun : tv has many advantages and disadvantages. so we must be smart to choose what we want to watch from tv. zulia : yes i agree with you. we also must manage our time for watching tv. asna : that‘s good. if i had had tv station, i would show educating and entertaining program. (conditional sentence type 2, ―if + s + v2+ c‖ so it should be ― if i had tv station‖) according to the data that show some mistake in the transcript of speaking project, the researcher found that the types of errors were as follows: 1. deletion of the indefinite article. 2. writing ―a‖ as part of the noun/adjective following it. 3. use of the infinitive and gerund. 4. the use of preposition 5. the order of noun 6. the order of adjectives. 7. the use of there is/are. 8. use of degree comparison 9. how to order the direct/indirect object. 10. how to construct of past tense, simple present 11. how to construct conditional sentence. 12. how to make passive voice. the error analysis on the students of english department speaking scripts 242 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 conclusion based on the finding of the analysis, it shows that the students made errors. the dominant errors students made are error of using preposition, using noun, simple present tense, simple past tense, word choices, and degrees of comparison. after analyzing the source of error from each various kinds of error, the researcher find that the most dominant source or error is ignorance of rule restrictions. references apa, 1983. publication manual of the american psychological association, washington: apa brown, h. d, 1980. principles of language learning and teaching, new jersey: prentice hall, inc, englewood cliffs. gibaldi, j. 1999. mla handbook for writers of research papers, the modern new york: language association of america. harmer, j. 2001. the practice of english language teaching, england: longman. harris, d.p. 1969. testing english as a second language, new york: mcgraw-hill book company. kirszner, l.g., and stephen, r. m. 1983. patterns for college writing: a rhetorical reader and guide, new york: st. martin‘s press. krashen, s.d., 1984. writing: research, theory, and applications, new york: pergamon institute of english. lado, r. 1983. language teaching: scientific approach, india: tata mcgraw-hill publishing company limited. mohamad, a. 1985. penelitian kependidikan, prosedur dan strategi, bandung: angkasa. nazir, m. 1988. metode penelitian, ghalia indonesia, jakarta. nunan, d. 1989. designing task for the communicative classroom, cambridege: cambridge university press. setia rini register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 243 shoemaker, c. 1985. write in the corner whereyou are, usa: holtrinehart and winston., inc. sri, u.s. and nababan. 1993. metodologi pengajaran bahasa. jakarta: gramedia. sullivan, k.e. 1984. paragraph practice : writing the paragraph and the short composition, new york: macmillan publishing co., inc. winarno, s. 1978. dasar dan teknik, research pengantar metodologi ilmiah, bandung: tarsito. the error analysis on the students of english department speaking scripts 244 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 275 descriptive analysis on flouting and hedging of conversational maxims in the “post grad” movie nastiti rokhmania stain salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 2 salatiga, central java, indonesia rokhmania.nastiti@gmail.com abstract this research is focused on analyzing flouting and hedging of conversational maxim of utterances used by the main characters in ―post grad‖ movie. conversational maxims are the rules of cooperative principle categorized into four categories; maxim of quality, maxim of quantity, maxim of relevance, and maxim of manner. if these maxims are used in conversations, the conversations can go smoothly. however, people often break the maxims overtly (flouting maxim) and sometimes break the maxims secretly (hedging maxims) when they make a conversation. this research is conducted using descriptive qualitative method based on the theory known as grice‘s maxims. the data are in form of utterances used by the characters in ―post grad‖ movie. the data analysis reveals some finding covering the formulated research question. the maxims are flouted when the speaker breaks some conversational maxims when using the utterances in the form of rhetorical strategies, such as tautology, metaphor, hyperbole, irony, and rhetorical question. on the other hand, conversational maxims are also hedged when the information is not totally accurate or unclearly stated but seems informative, well-founded, and relevant. key words: descriptive analysis, flouting maxims, hedging maxims, post grad movie. abstrak penelitian ini difokuskan pada analisis pelanggaran (flouting) dan pemagaran (hedging) maksim percakapan ujaran yang digunakan oleh 276 karakter utama dalam film "post grad". maksim percakapan adalah aturan prinsip kerjasama yang terdiri dari empat kategori; maksim kualitas, maksim kuantitas, maksim relevansi, dan maxim cara. jika prinsip-prinsip ini digunakan dalam percakapan, mereka bisa berjalan lancar. namun, orang sering melanggar (pepatah mencemoohkan) maksim terang-terangan dan kadang-kadang melanggar maksim diamdiam (maksim lindung nilai) ketika mereka melakukan percakapan. penelitian ini dilakukan di dengan metode deskriptif kualitatif berdasarkan teori yang dikenal sebagai grice pepatah. data tersebut berupa ucapan-ucapan yang digunakan oleh karakter dalam "post grad" film. analisis data menunjukkan beberapa temuan yang mencakup pertanyaan penelitian yang dirumuskan. kaidah yang mencemooh ketika pembicara istirahat beberapa pepatah percakapan saat menggunakan ucapan-ucapan dalam bentuk strategi retoris, seperti tautologi, metafora, hiperbola, ironi, dan pertanyaan retoris. di sisi lain, maksim percakapan juga lindung nilai ketika informasi itu tidak benar-benar akurat atau tidak jelas dinyatakan tetapi tampaknya informatif, cukup beralasan, dan relevan. kata kunci: analisis deskriptif, pelanggaran maksim, pemagaran maksim, film “post grad”. introduction in the daily interactions, everyone needs a good communication. a good communication can avoid misunderstanding and misinterpret between the speaker and hearer. in communication there is a theory known as the ―cooperative principle‖. it is a principle of conversation that was presented by grice (1975) stating that participants will contribute in a conversation such as is needed when the conversation occurs and each of them can accept the purpose of the conversation or the talk exchange. the cooperative principle explains how the people interact with others. the people who obey the cooperative principle in their conversation will make sure that what they say in their conversation gives more information about their conversation. grice proposes four 277 types of cooperative principle that is called conversational maxims. the grice maxims are a way to explain the relation between utterance and what is known from it. the principle describes the effectiveness communication in a conversational that can be accepted by the natural social situation, and it is broken down into four. those are maxim of quality, quantity, relevance and manner. obviously, when we notice the communication around us, we will find many people do not use the grice‘s maxims appropriately. they sometimes speak and break the rule of maxim quality, quantity, relevance or even manner. breaking the rule of the maxims is usually called flouting and hedging. we can find some flouting in the form of tautology, metaphor, irony, hyperbole, banter, sarcasm, overstatement, understatement, and rhetorical question. furthermore, the maxim are hedged when the speaker gives an information that is not totally accurate but seem informative, well founded, and relevant, moreover the speaker copies the information from other people. there are some reasons why people often break the maxim in the conversation. first, sometimes breaking the maxim can give more colors to the language used. then, to draw an attention from the hearer sometimes the speaker breaks the maxim either. breaking maxim also appreciates the language, such is found in the dialogue of novel, short story, drama, or even a movie. this research discuss about flouting and hedging maxims used by the main character in ―post grad‖ movie. the object of this study is chosen because of some reason: first, discussing about flouting and hedging maxim in used in the movie is interesting topic. secondly, language used in the movie has many variations, for example irony, 278 hyperbole, metaphor. thirdly, in communication people tend to speak what is in their mind without obeying the rule especially the rule of cooperative principle. the main objectives of the study are to help the reader know and understand about flouting and hedging maxim used by the main characters on ―post grad‖. besides, this study also provides the answer from the research problems of study. (1) how the maxims are flouted by the main characters on ―post grad‖ movie? (2) how the maxims are hedged by the main characters on ―post grad‖ movie? this research was also supposed to give valuable contributions theoretically and practically. theoretically, this study will give additional information to the readers; they will know the analyzing flouting and hedging maxims used in spoken language. in pragmatics study, there are so many kinds of attractive problems that can be analyzed and discussed. it is impossible to analyze all of them. so, this research is limited on the problems by analyzing all the english conversation that is support the flouting and hedging maxims which is contained in the “post grad” movie script. cooperative principle the success of a conversation depends on the various speakers‘ approaches to the interaction. one of the most basic assumptions must be made for successful. communication is that both people in conversation are cooperating. the way in which people try to make conversations works is called a co-operative principle. in yule (1996: 37), paul grice defines the cooperative principle as: ―make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which is occurs, by the 279 accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged‖ the cooperative principle is also divided into four types, which is called grice‘s maxims. they are maxim of quality, maxim of quantity, maxim of relevance, and maxim of manner. grice‘s four maxims can be expressed in synopsis as: be brief, be true, be relevant, and be clear. maxim of quality according to grundy (2000: 74), maxim quality can be defined as truthful as required. that means the speaker should inform the truth and they are not allowed to say what they think false and give the statement that run short of proof. here, speaker and writer are expected to say only what they believe to be true and to have evidence for what they say. however, the speaker must aware of this expectation, that the hearer expect them to honor the maxim of quality. maxim of quantity grundy (2000:74) states that maxim of quantity as one of the cooperative principle is concerned in giving the information as it is required and is not giving the information more than it is required. the speaker just say the information as needed, it should not be less informative or more informative. in a normal circumstance, the maxim of quantity provides that the speaker say just enough, that they do not supply less information or more that is necessary. 280 maxim of relevance maxim of relevance means the utterance must be relevant with the topic that being discussed. cutting (2002: 35) states that speakers are expected to give information about something that is relevant to what has been said before. furthermore, grundy (2000: 74) states that maxim of relevance is fulfilled when the speaker give information that is relevant to the topic of proceeding. therefore, each information of the speaker or hearer must be relevant to the topic of conversation. maxim of manner according to cutting (2002: 35), maxim of manner is when the speakers put information briefly and orderly, the speaker must avoid the obscure and ambiguous information from the hearer. therefore, each participant must give the information directly and reasonably, and it should not be vague, ambiguous or excessive. this maxim is related to the form of speech we use. speaker should not to use the words they know but the listeners do not understand or say things. the speaker also should not state something in a long drawn out way if they could say it in a simple manner. flouting maxims according to grundy (2000: 78), flouting maxim is a particularly silent way of getting an addressee to draw inference and hence recover an implicature. moreover, cutting (2002: 37) states that when the speaker seems not to hold on the maxims but expect the hearers to get the meaning implied, it is called flouting the maxims. the speaker says in an 281 indirect speech act that implies a different function of the literal meaning of the word form; when flouting maxim, the speaker supposes to the hearer knows that their words should not be taken at the direct meaning and that they can expect the implicit meaning of the words. according to cutting (2002: 37) the flouting of each maxim is determined on the basis of these criteria: (1) a speaker flouts the maxim of quantity when his contribution is not as informative as is required for the current purpose of the exchange and more informative than is required. (2) a speaker flouts the maxim of quality when his contribution is not true and he says something for which lacks adequate evidence. it can be hyperbole (overstatement), metaphor, irony, banter, litotes (understatement), and sarcasm. (3) a speaker flouts the maxim of relation if his contribution is not relevant. (4) a speaker flouts the maxim of manner if contribution is not perspicuous it may be obscure, ambiguous and disorderly. according to grundy (2000:76) can be found in tautology, metaphor, overstatement, understatement, rhetorical question and irony. hedging maxim according to grundy (2000:79-80), hedging maxim is avoiding to make bold statement. maxims are hedged when the information is not totally accurate but seem informative, well found and relevant. the information is taken by quoting from other person opinion. yule (2006: 130) states that hedges is a kind of expression which show the speaker concern to use the maxim to be a cooperative participant in the conversation. hedges can be asserted as a words or phrase to indicate that the speaker are not really sure about his information is totally true or complete. for example, the speaker can use 282 sort of or kind of as hedges on the exactness of his statement, as in this description; “his hair was kind of long” (rather than it was long) or “the cover of the book is sort of yellow” (rather than it is yellow). these are example of hedges on the quality maxim. in the italic version, we will assume that the speaker is not really sure that his hair is really long or the book‘s cover is really yellow, because it seems that it does not has a very good evidence for the statement. hedges, intentionally or unintentionally, can be employed in both spoken and written language, since they are crucially important in communication. hedges help the speaker and writer communicate more precisely in the degree of accuracy and truth in assessment. in this case, grundy (2000:79), hedges are markers tied to the expectation of the maxim of quantity, quality, manner, and relevance. methodology of research this research is qualitative research. this type of research is ―descriptive qualitative research‖. according to emzir (2011: 1), qualitative research is a research that uses deductive reasoning; it focuses on the social phenomenon. jacob (1988) states that qualitative research is a common investigative terminology of methodologies described as ethnography, naturalistic, anthropological, field, or participant observer research, which insists the importance of the founded natural variable. in this research, the researcher applies the documentation to collect the data. documentation is all written materials that contain the authentic, valid, or formal form of something that can be used to complete the evidence or information. the documentation in this case is the ―post grad‖ movie script. the way of collecting data are: the 283 researcher selects the ―post grad‖ movie script. the researcher reads the ―post grad‖ movie script. the researcher collects and takes note about the flouting and hedging maxims, which are found in the ―post grad‖ movie script. in analyzing the data, the researcher uses descriptive analysis technique to analyze the flouting and hedging maxims used in “post grad” movie script. discussion this chapter presents the research findings and discussions. in this chapter, the analysis of the data is in line with the formulated research question. the data are analyzed based on grice‘s theory of cooperative principle which contains for maxims; maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of relevance and maxim of manner. to answer the problems, the data are classified into flouting and hedging maxims. as the next part, the discussion is done which is geared toward deriving conclusion. there are some data obtained from the utterances in the ―post grad‖ movie that can be classified into flouting maxims. (1) 00:04:54,727 --> 00:05:00,732 woman :ma'am! could you keep it down? maureen malby : and now...i'm dying. the conversation happens in ryden‘s graduation ceremony. maureen malby, ryden‘s grandma, comes with an oxygen tank and it disturbs other visitor. when maureen states the utterance, “and now… i’m dying”, she flouts the maxim of quality. she exaggerates her 284 statement which is catergorized as hyperbole or overstatement. she gives information that lies far from the truth. (2) 00:06:23,015 --> 00:06:44,797 ryden : didn't i tell you? what do you see over there? what do you see right here on this wall? adam: uh, white paint ryden: bookshelves! adam: oh! ryden states these utterances when she is looking around the apartment where she wants to live if she is accepted in happerman & browning. adam does not understand what ryden means by asking those questions. actually, ryden wants to tell him what thing that she will put on that wall, but she does not give the complete information. she produces irrelevant question with the topic they are talked about. when ryden states the questions, ―didn't i tell you? what do you see over there? what do you see right here on this wall?‖ she flouts the third maxim of relation because she does not make her contribution in the conversation as relevant with the topic that being discussed, she asks questions about what adam sees on the wall to give a clue that she will put a big book selves on there. by producing irrelevant statements, adam as the listener cannot catch what ryden talks about. he answers ―white paint‖ that he looks on the wall because it‘s really white pain on it. if only ryden added her question as relevant by saying, ―do you know? what thing that i will put in this wall?‖ adam would understand it and maybe he will answer bookshelves or painting, not by saying white paint. (3) 00:06:388,131 > 00:06:44,797 285 ryden: all my babies (a), floor to ceiling (b), organized by title. no, by author. no, by genre. adam: okay. settle down. ryden states this utterance when she imagines what she will put on the floor of that apartment. when ryden states an utterance (a) ―all my babies.‖ she uses an exaggerate statement in calling the book of her job, which make the information too more informative than what is required. it is categorized as overstatement or hyperbole by saying ―all my babies‖. actually, the speaker is enough to say ―my books‖ because it seems informative. in addition the utterance (b) ―floor to ceiling‖ is an exaggeration statement either, which make more informative statement than it is required. it is also categorized as hyperbole or overstatement. (4) 00:08:25,505 --> 00:08:36,872 adam -you just calm down. ryden oh... my car! he killed my car! no! no, no, no, no, no, no, no. adamno, calm down. ryden states the utterance when she is in hurry to the interview and a truck suddenly hit her car whereas the truck driver does not take the responsibility to fix it or pay the insurance. the utterance ―he killed my car‖ that is stated by ryden, she flouts the first maxim of quality because she does not use the truth information. she says that a person killed her car, however, there is none killed her car and there is none can kill a car because car is a thing that does not have spirit. actually, she is enough to say ―he broke my car‖, it will be more truthful and can be believed. 286 (5) 00:25:17,282 --> 00:26:18,238 mr. daviesare you ever gonna actually open that? adamit's made a long journey from new york. i'm letting it breathe. mr daviesyou know, adam, if you don't wanna go... adamdon't give me that shit. mr. davies-it's not like i'm gonna force you. adam-no, you're just gonna hate me if i don't. it is a conversation between adam and his father, mr. davies, which talks about the letter from university where adam is accepted for the law scholarship. the utterance ―it's made a long journey from new york. i'm letting it breathe.‖ which is stated by adam, is kind of an exaggeration statement. he flouts the maxim of quality, which gives the information more than it is needed. he tells the information untruthful. it is categorized as metaphor. he is talking about a letter, but he talks as it is a person. letter is a thing that cannot make a journey or breathe but he says that he wants the letter breath and has a rest. in addition, he also flouts the maxim of manner. his father question is kind of yes/no question but he answers it indirectly. actually, if he does not want to open the letter he can say, “no, i’m not”. (6) 01:00:26,689 --> 01:00:39,529 carmela: cough it up. maureen: cough what up? carmela: pay the man your son's bail money. maureen: are you crazy? you think if i had that kind of dough i'd be living with you? 287 the conversation happens in the police office. carmela asks to maureen to pay walter‘s bail money. however, maureen refuses to pay the money. she says that she does not have that much money. when maureen states that utterance ―are you crazy?‖ she flouts the maxim of manner. she gives the information indirectly, ambiguously, and excessively. actually, she can say ―no way‖ or ―i will not‖ to refuse carmela‘s offer. moreover, the utterance (1) also a kind of rhetorical question, even it is a kind of question but the speaker does not need an answer from the hearer. maureen just wants to give a stress in her utterance that she refuses to do the thing. in addition the utterance ―you think if i had that kind of dough i'd be living with you?‖ that is stated by maureen is also kind if rhetorical question. where, it is also a strong statement to refuse carmela‘s offer. these are some data obtained from the utterances in the ―post grad‖ movie that can be classified into hedging of conversational maxims. (1) 00:28:49,027 --> 00:28:52,622 ryden: adam, so you're going into music then. why don't you just say that? adam: well, because i'm not saying that necessarily. ryden: so you're going to law school? adam: no, i'm not saying that either necessarily. ryden: then what are you saying, necessarily? adam: i don't know what i'm saying. all i'm saying is that i'm opening at the mint on friday. yea! 288 this conversation happens when after the college reunion. when adam tries to amuse ryden, after she was humiliated by jessica. then adam informs to ryden that he will make a show off in the café. here, adam hedges the maxim of relevant when he says ‖well, because i'm not saying that necessarily‖, by saying ―well‖ and ―necessarily‖ he does not make his contribution one is relevant. he tells irrelevant information with the topic. when ryden asks about the music, he does not answer it clearly but seems clear. he tries to move ryden‘s thought about the music. however, when ryden asks about the law school, he does not answer it clearly either, and it seems that he also tries to move to other topic which is coming back to the music. actually, he only needs to say that he will have his first music show. he does not need to spinning round his words that make the hearer, ryden, feels confused. (2) 00:34:05,877 --> 00:34:19,356 jessica bardyou know, ryden, i think we've got really good synergy, you and i. i know you're in a tough place right now... but i want you to remember that struggle and strife come before success. even in the dictionary. jessica states the utterance when she is in luggage shack. she tries to compare her job and her luck to ryden, which is very different.jessica states the utterance, she uses some ironical statements. she uses the opposite meaning of what she means. she says that she has a synergy with ryden, but actually she humiliates ryden because she has a good job at happerman & browning where ryden is in the luggage shack. (3) 01:07:13,896 --> 01:07:39,921 289 adamlook, i didn't get a chance to tell you... but i decided to go to columbia. and i'm leaving tomorrow. ryden-what? you're going to law school? in new york? adam-yeah. rydenthat's... that's... so great. congratulations. adamyeah, i think it'll be... i think it'll be good. this conversation happens when ryden tries to ask an apologize. then, adam informs her that he will go to new york to take his scholarship. when adam states the utterance ―yeah, i think it‘ll be… i think it‘ll be good‖ he hedges the maxim of quality by saying ―i think‖. he tries to observe the maxim of quality. he tells unsure information end he does not tell the fact what will happen in the next. in fact, he does not know whether his decision will be good for him or not. (4) 01:19:03,872 --> 01:19:07,171 rydenjust out of curiosity though, do you think i'm making the right decision? walterwell, you know, ever since you were a little kid... you always seemed to have it figured out. you know, you made good grades, you... kept your room neat and clean, you ate your vegetables. can i be honest with you? i always found it a little troubling. because, see, hon... the world's a screwy place. it doesn't play by the rules. so if you're asking me… do i think it's a good idea for you to, uh...quit your job... leave behind the only family you have... and travel 3,000 miles... to a place you've never been before? i think it's the most kick-ass idea you've 290 ever had. 'cause i think no matter where you are, you're gonna knock 'em dead. rydenthanks, dad. the conversation happens when ryden packs for leaving to new york. for the last, she asks her father‘s opinion about her decision. indeed, her father supports her. walter‘s utterances are so exaggerated. he gives the information more than it is needed, which flouts the maxim of quantity. actually, when he is asked about his opinion, he does not need to tell about ryden‘s childhood and the world life. however, he talks more about how kind ryden was, when she was a kid. he also talks about the decision that is made by ryden. in addition, walter also hedges the maxim of relation in his utterances ―well, you know, ever since you were a little kid... you always seemed to have it figured out‖ by using ―well‖. he consciously makes his contribution irrelevant with the topic which is being talked before. ryden asks about his opinion but he talks about ryden when she was a kid. moreover, he also hedges the maxim of quality by using ―i think‖ in his utterances ―i think it's the most kick-ass idea you've ever ha. 'cause i think no matter where you are, you're gonna knock 'em dead‖. he tries to observe the maxim of quality. he tells unsure information and he does not tell the fact that ryden‘s decisions are good ideas. in fact, he does not know whether ryden‘s decision are good or not, and he is not sure that ryden can adapt in the new place easily. findings after obtaining the data, the researcher finds that the maxim flout when they are delivering and maintaining their opinion, such as by 291 producing the utterance in the form of rhetorical strategies, namely tautology, metaphor, overstatement, irony, and rhetorical question. when the utterance produced by using tautology, the maxim of quantity which are ―make your contribution as informative as is required‖ and ―do not make your contribution more informative than is required‖ are broken because in tautology the utterance that is produced is more informative that what is needed. besides, the maxim of quality also can be flouted when the speaker produces the utterance in the metaphor form. in this case, the speaker uses the word not in the real condition but uses symbolic or what the literary said is different with what is implied. for example, ―it's (it = letter) made a long journey from new york. i'm letting it breathe‖. furthermore, maxim quantity is also flouted when the speaker produces the utterance in the form of overstatement. in this case, the speaker uses exaggerated statement to convey his opinion which is too strong and appears worse than the really it is. therefore, the information becomes more or too informative than is required. for example, ―he killed my car‖. moreover, the maxim of quality that is ―do not say what you believe to be false‖ is also flouted when the speaker produces the utterance in the rhetorical question form. in this case, the speaker informs that it is not a sincere question. it means that the speaker asks a question without any intention of getting an answer and it ends to break a sincere condition on question, the speaker wants the hearer to provide him with the indicate information. for example: ―are you crazy? you think if i had that kind of dough i'd be living with you?‖ and so on. besides, the point of maxim of quality ―do not say what you believe to be false‖ is also flouted when the speaker 292 produces the utterance in the ironical form. in this case, the thing that is spoken by the speaker expresses one‘s meaning by saying something, which is direct opposite of one‘s thoughts, in order to make one‘s remark to be forceful. for example, ―i think we've got really good synergy, you and i. however, maxim of manner is also flouted when the speaker produces the utterance indirectly, ambiguously, and excessively. in this case the speaker intends to inform to the hearer about something but the speaker uses indirect statement that implies for something. for example: ―are you crazy? you think if i had that kind of dough i'd be living with you?‖. besides, the maxim of relevance also can be flouted when the speaker produces the utterance that is not relevance with the topic of what the speaker talks about. in addition, the researcher finds that the maxims hedges when the utterance produced is not totally accurate but it seems informative, wellfounded, and relevant. in this case, the maxim quantity that is ―make your contribution as informative as is required‖ hedged by the speaker when they produce the information that is not as much or not as precise as it might be expected. for example: ―i think it's the most kick-ass idea you've ever had.‖ by using the phrase ―it think…‖ it seems that the speaker do not tell the information as precisely as the hearer might be expected. moreover, the maxim of relevance is hedged when the speaker produces the utterance is not as relevant at the stage at which it occurs. for example: ―well, you know, ever since you were a little kid... you always seemed to have it figured out.‖ the signal word ―well‖ changes the topic that is spoken by the speaker before, but it does not seem that 293 the speaker breaks the maxim of relevance. thus how, in the ―post grad‖ movie, the characters hedge the maxims of quantity and relevance. conclusion after obtaining and analyzing the data, the researcher presents the conclusion at the last part of this paper. the conclusion is drawn based on the formulated research question. firstly, the main characters of ―post grad‖ movie flout the conversational maxims when they broke the utterance in delivering their opinion with other character by using the utterances in the form of rhetorical strategies, such as: tautology, metaphor, overstatement, rhetorical question, and irony. secondly, the main characters of ―post grad‖ movie also hedge the conversational maxims in their conversations. they hedge the maxim of quantity and the maxim of relevant when the information in their utterance are not as much or as precise as it might be expected and it is not as relevant at the stage at which it occure. references cook, guy. 1989. discourse. new york: oxford university press diyanni, robert. 2004. literature: approaches to fiction, poetry, and drama. new york. mcgraw-hill cutting, joan. 2002. pragmatics and discourse, a resource book for student. new york: routledge. emzir, prof.dr. 2011. metodologi penelitian qualitative “analisis data”. jakarta: rajawali press. grice, paul. 1989. study in the way of words. harvard university press. 294 grundy, petter. 2000. doing pragmatics. london: arnold, a member of the hodder headline group leech, geoffrey. n. 1983. principle of pragmatic. new york: longman yule, george. 1988. discourse analysis. cambridge: cambridge university press ... . 1996. pragmatic. oxford: oxford university press … . 2006. the study of language. new york: cambridge university press. http://www.aect.org/edtech/ed1/41/41-01.html http://www.awinlanguage.blogspot.com/2012/05/hedging-of-maxim.html accessed on september, 25th 2012 at 23.01 pm http://universitychic.com/article/qa-post-grad-screenwriter-kelly-fremon, accessed on august, 6 th 2012 http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/16/7-post-grad-movies-foryo_n_1521448.html accessed on july, 26th 2012 http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1142433/ , accessed on july, 26 th 2012 http://www.okstate.edu/ag/agedcm4h/academic/aged5980a/5980/newpag e110.htm http://www.wvup.edu/elamb/emily'spdffiles/102%20ads/unit%202% 20-%20literary%20analysis%20-basic%20elements.pdf, http://www.wikipedia.com/postgradmovie register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.221-233 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 221 understanding culture: a literature review comparing three cultural pedagogies tabitha kidwell university of maryland, college park tabithakidwell@gmail.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i2.221-233 submission track: received: 23/10/2017 final revision: 04/12/2017 available online: 06/12/2017 english abstract culture is an integral part of language study, but the field has yet to put forward a coherent theoretical argument for how culture can or should be incorporated in language education. in an effort to remedy this situation, this paper reviews literature on the teaching of culture, drawing on larzén’s (2005) identification of three pedagogies used to teach about culture within the language classroom: through a pedagogy of information, a pedagogy of preparation, and a pedagogy of encounter. the pedagogy of information takes a cognitive orientation, framing culture as factual knowledge, with a focus on the teacher as the transmitter of knowledge. the pedagogy of preparation portrays culture as skills, and aims to help students develop the sociocultural, pragmatic, and strategic competence necessary for interactions with native speakers. the pedagogy of encounter takes an intercultural approach, with an affective orientation, and aims to help students develop tolerance, empathy, and an awareness of their own and others’ perspectives, and the emergent nature of culture. using these three pedagogies as a conceptual framework, this paper reviews scholarship in support and critique of each type of cultural teaching. because each of these three pedagogies continues to be used in various contexts worldwide, a clear understanding of the beliefs systems underpinning the belief systems of teachers and learners is essential. keywords: culture; language teaching; methodologies. indonesian abstract budaya merupakan bagian integral dari studi bahasa, namun khalayak belum mengemukakan argumen teoritis yang koheren untuk mailto:tabithakidwell@gmail.com http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i2.221-233 tabitha kidwell 222 bagaimana budaya dapat atau harus digabungkan dalam pendidikan bahasa. dalam upaya memperbaiki situasi ini, makalah ini mengulas literatur tentang ajaran budaya, dengan mengacu pada identifikasi tiga pedagogi larzén (2005) yang digunakan untuk mengajarkan tentang budaya di dalam kelas bahasa: melalui pedagogi informasi, pedagogi persiapan, dan pedagogi perjumpaan pedagogi informasi mengambil orientasi kognitif, membingkai budaya sebagai pengetahuan faktual, dengan fokus pada guru sebagai pemancar pengetahuan. pedagogi persiapan menggambarkan budaya sebagai keterampilan, dan bertujuan untuk membantu siswa mengembangkan kompetensi sosiokultural, pragmatis, dan strategis yang diperlukan untuk interaksi dengan penutur asli. pedagogi pertemuan mengambil pendekatan antar budaya, dengan orientasi afektif, dan bertujuan untuk membantu siswa mengembangkan toleransi, empati, dan kesadaran akan perspektif mereka sendiri dan orang lain, dan sifat budaya yang muncul. dengan menggunakan ketiga pedagogi ini sebagai kerangka konseptual, makalah ini mengulas pustaka untuk mendukung dan mengkritik setiap jenis pengajaran budaya. karena masing-masing dari ketiga pedagogi ini terus digunakan dalam berbagai konteks di seluruh dunia, pemahaman yang jelas tentang sistem kepercayaan yang mendasari sistem kepercayaan guru dan pelajar sangat penting. kata kunci: budaya; pengajaran bahasa; metodologi. introduction the emergence of english as a global language means that english is increasingly the medium of interaction for cross-cultural exchanges. by teaching english, teachers around the world are preparing students for encounters with people from different cultures – both monolingual speakers of english and multilingual speakers from various backgrounds. successful communication will require cultural proficiency in addition to language proficiency. to support students’ participation in the 21 st century knowledge economy, english teachers must therefore be prepared to attend to the cultural aspects of learning a foreign language. without professional preparation to do so, teachers are likely to teach as they were taught, prioritizing linguistic objectives and perpetuating outdated modes of curriculum and pedagogy. one essential aspect of that professional preparation is an understanding of the nature of culture, and the ability to define the concept. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.221-233 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 223 culture is a central part of language study because culture and language are inextricably linked – language is both an integral part of the construction of culture and the way culture is expressed (agar, 1994, kramsch, 1993). cultural competency is essential to language learning because of culture’s impact on everyday interactions and on norms of speaking and behaving (hymes, 1972). language classrooms, therefore, are almost always sites of cultural contact. language teachers act as “cultural workers” (giroux, 2005, p. 71), or “go-betweens” (kramsch, 2004, p. 37) because they are asked to socialize students into new cultural and linguistic practices and help them develop “intercultural, cognitive, social and affective connections” (duff & uchida, 1997, p. 476). language teachers must not only teach language – they must also help students understand the nature of culture and culture’s impact on language, communication, and interaction. cultural pedagogies culture, therefore, is one of the most important concepts in the field of language teaching. in the english teaching context, for instance, atkinson (1999) notes, “except for language, learning, and teaching, there is no more important concept in the field of tesol than culture” (p. 625). nevertheless, scholars vary in their definitions of culture and the role culture should play in language teaching. these differing understandings of culture have contributed to “a certain degree of ambiguity among language teachers regarding ‘teaching culture’” (rantz & horan, 2005). in one of the few studies to explicitly examine language teachers’ beliefs about culture, larzén’s (2005) found that language teachers’ cultural understandings, objectives, and practices conformed to one of three approaches, which she called the pedagogy of information, the pedagogy of preparation, and the pedagogy of encounter. in this paper, i draw on larzén’s (2005) framework to discuss various language teaching scholars’ views of culture, and how their views have evolved over time. see figure 1 for an overview of larzén’s (2005) cultural pedagogies. tabitha kidwell 224 figure 1: continuum of cultural pedagogies (drawing from larzén, 2005) pedagogy of information pedagogy of preparation pedagogy of encounter aims to impart… facts skills perspectives aims to develop…* linguistic competence communicative competence intercultural competence orientation cognitive action-based affective goal provide background knowledge prepare for interactions with native speakers cultivate tolerance and empathy focus teacher teacher and student student view of culture* knowledge sociocultural, pragmatic & strategic competence social process analogous view of language* code communicative competence semiotic process *an asterisk denotes information i have added to larzén’s (2005) findings. pedagogy of information the pedagogy of information takes a cognitive orientation and is typically paired with a focus on linguistic competence. in this pedagogy, culture is presented as factual knowledge. this type of teaching was prevalent during the grammar translation era, when language was primarily seen as a code. throughout much of the history of language teaching, culture has been seen as background knowledge to be provided by the teacher and acquired by students. from the 1800s to mid 1900s, the grammar translation approach was the primary language teaching approach, and the development of students’ cultural knowledge was thought to occur through their exposure to literature in the target language. indeed, students’ ability to understand texts in the target language was considered the central goal of language instruction register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.221-233 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 225 (byrd, hlas, watzke & valencia, 2011). culture instruction focused on a group’s conventionally praised cultural achievements, knowledge of which contributes to a person’s status as a “cultured” individual. as language teaching evolved, the increased popularity of behaviorist psychology, influenced by the work of b.f. skinner (e.g., skinner, 1953), led to the implementation of the audio-lingual method in the 1950s and 60s. within this model of language teaching, cultural knowledge was seen as necessary to avoid social blunders; because of the audio-lingual method’s behaviorist underpinnings, culture was presented as factual knowledge that students could master through patterned drill activities, as with linguistic knowledge (byrd et al, 2011). though culture came to be seen as a skill or competency with the advent of communicative language teaching approach in the 1980s, in many contexts, culture continued (and continues) to be primarily seen cognitively – as knowledge to be acquired. this view of culture continues to be the traditional approach taken by language teachers, and it is an approach that has been supported by published teaching materials, curricula, and standards documents. critiques of the pedagogy of information the knowledge-based view of culture has been criticized in recent years for several reasons. first, the focus on the transmission of knowledge places teachers in the central, active role, with students positioned as passive recipients of knowledge. this style of education has been criticized by freire (1970) and illich (1971) as a dehumanizing pedagogy that that perpetuates systems of power and oppression. freire (1970) describes this pedagogical system as the “banking concept” of education, where students are seen as empty bank accounts, devoid of prior knowledge, in which teachers can make deposits through knowledge transmission. a knowledge-based view of cultural learning is consistent with a behaviorist view of teaching that has been challenged by constructivist models (e.g., smith, 1971), which view learning as the integration of new knowledge with existing knowledge through learners’ active involvement in the learning process, and by social constructivist models (e.g., vygotsky, 1978), which emphasize the active co-construction of knowledge through social interaction. additionally, though teachers operating under a knowledge-based view of culture may intend to focus on the products, practices and perspectives (sometimes called the “three ps”) tabitha kidwell 226 of the target culture, there is a tendency to reduce instructional content to “the four fs”: food, fashion, festivals and folklore (banks, 2002). this trivialized definition of culture does not take into account the complex nature of culture and tends to focus on exoticism, stereotypes, and an exaggerated view of difference. by focusing on the differences across and among cultures, language teachers tend to avoid examination of difference within cultures and miss the opportunity to engage in critical dialogue about issues of racism and power. often, the culture of study is “otherized” in comparison with the home culture, and at times even stands in as a proxy for race (holliday, 2009; lee, 2014). in this approach, students are often implicitly encouraged to develop binary views of culture or even a deficit view of other cultures because they are not encouraged to examine and become aware of their own cultural assumptions and stereotypes (banks, 1994). lastly, by focusing on the specific culture of a target country, this view adopts a nation-state view of culture and portrays culture as homogenous, static, and (often) monolingual. because the essentializing nation-state view of culture also applies to understandings of culture as skills or competencies, i will discuss this critique more in detail following the next section. pedagogy of preparation the pedagogy of preparation takes an action-based orientation and is typically paired with a focus on communicative competence. culture was cast as an aspect of communicative competence during the advent of the communicative language teaching method. as the field of educational psychology moved away from transmission-based and behavioral models of learning, the field of language pedagogy came to favor communicative language teaching over grammar-translation and audiolingual methods. influenced by these shifts, culture came to be seen not only as knowledge to be transmitted or acquired, but also as an essential aspect of language competence. within this view, whether speakers possess cultural knowledge is less important than their ability to act upon (or enact) that cultural knowledge to support successful communication. neither cultural nor linguistic knowledge are as important as a language user’s ability to use that knowledge to engage in communication. in this view, culture – like language – is a skill to be drawn on to support effective communication. according to hymes (1972), language learning does not simply require register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.221-233 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 227 morphological and syntactical knowledge – it also requires the ability to use the language appropriately in the cultural context. language users need sociocultural knowledge – knowing when to speak, when not to speak, whom to speak with, and how to speak – in addition to linguistic competence. the importance of culture as a key feature of language proficiency became increasingly clear through the work of canale and swain (1980), who built on hymes’ model by identifying three components of communicative competence: grammatical (the syntactic, lexical, morphological, and phonological features of the language); sociolinguistic (the social rules of language use); and strategic (communication strategies to handle breakdowns in communication). canale (1983) added a fourth component: discourse, the extended use of language in context. because social rules, appropriate communication strategies, and organizational patterns are impacted by culturally bound norms, values, beliefs, and behavior patterns, culture is an essential element of the sociolinguistic, strategic, and discourse competencies. by extension, the teaching of culture is an essential element of language instruction that takes communicative competence as its goal. critiques of pedagogy of preparation a critique of the pedagogy of preparation (as well as of the pedagogy of information, discussed above) is that the culture that is focused on is often that of a particular nation-state – for instance, british culture, french culture, or argentinean culture. the major critique of this view is that by focusing on the specific culture of a target country, this view adopts a nationstate view of culture and portrays culture as homogenous, static, and (often) monolingual. though national and ethnic identities are important, scholars such as kumaravadivelu (2008) and risager (2007) argue that language educators’ adherence to nation-based understandings of culture is overly simplistic. nation-based approaches have been critiqued as essentializing differences between nations while denying differences within nations (harklau, 1999; kubota, 1999). scholars argue that language teachers should adopt a more nuanced understanding that is not dictated by geographic borders to better serve students’ needs in the era of globalization. risager (2007), for instance, calls for “a transnational paradigm,” which would reduce the field’s dependence on membership in a certain nation-state as the defining feature of an individual’s culture. tabitha kidwell 228 an additional important critique of the nation-state model is its adherence to a nativespeaker norm. alptekin (2002) questions the validity of a pedagogic model based on a native speaker-based notion of communicative competence because the model is based on a utopian, unrealistic understanding of “the native speaker,” and on a monolithic perception of “the native speaker’s” language and culture. many scholars join in these critiques of “native speakerism” and adherence to an idealized native speaker model (i.e., cook, 1999; jenkins, 2006; pennycook, 1999). these critiques have led scholars to advocate for the inclusion of culture in language teaching in order to help students develop communicative skills across and within a variety of cultures, not merely in accordance with native speaker norms. this approach can be considered “pedagogy of encounter,” and is discussed in the following section. pedagogy of encounter the pedagogy of encounter takes an affective orientation and is typically paired with a focus on intercultural competence. now that scholars increasingly view language as a semiotic process, the teaching of culture is intended to help students develop intercultural communicative skills. in this model, the pedagogical model is not native speakers, but multilinguals with intercultural knowledge and skills that allow them to communicate effectively with others across cultural and linguistic differences (alptekin, 2002; hyde, 1998, kramsch, 1995). students need to develop skills as “multilingual communicators,” which extend beyond mastery of a single cultural code (baker, 2011 p. 63). in developing the competencies necessary for students to navigate the “borders” between cultures, it is important that teachers validate students’ cultures while also developing their willingness to engage with others. developing students’ intercultural communicative competence requires language teachers to focus not only on the local culture or the target culture, but also on the culture embodied in learners’ emergent, variant cultural understandings. kramsch (1996) refers to the site of cultural learning as a “third place” and suggests that “language teachers focus less on seemingly fixed, stable cultural entities and identities on both sides of national borders, and more on the shifting and emerging third place of the language learners themselves (kramsch, 1996, p. 9). in this third place, learners are positioned at the “intersection of multiple social roles and individual choices,” and are able to develop a richer understanding of the multifaceted nature of culture (kramsch, 1993, p. 234). a focus on these sites can be powerful register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.221-233 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 229 because it raises issues of power, conflict, and social justice. language classrooms can be places where learners engage with these important issues, but teachers must be willing and prepared to act as “go-betweens” who actively support students’ engagement with these complex issues (kramsch, 2004, p. 37) critiques of pedagogy of encounter though the pedagogy of encounter, with its focus on development of intercultural communicative competence, is viewed by many scholars as the preferred approach to the teaching of culture in language classrooms, this approach is not universally accepted. in recent years, scholars in various periphery countries such as tanzania (biswalo, 2015), bahrain (mawoda, 2011), and indonesia (gandana, 2014; siregar, 2015) have similarly questioned the appropriacy of intercultural teaching methods within their contexts. additionally, scholars in several muslim majority countries have found challenges related to a cultural divide between the local culture and the “west.” in indonesia, gandana (2014) found that efl teachers saw “the west” as both the object of desire and resentment, and that teachers’ ability to teach inter-culturally was hampered by the rigid hierarchy inherent in their own culture. in other words, individual teachers did not feel that they could question a curriculum that adhered to a knowledge-based view of culture that portrayed “western culture” somewhat monolithically. similarly, siregar (2015) found that university efl teachers in indonesia encounter deeply ingrained essentialist beliefs about both indonesian culture and foreign cultures among their students, which implies an “us-them” view of culture and cultural difference that has little room for variance or nuance. in brunei, elgar (2011) found that, while english skills are highly sought after, the global dominance of english is also a source of resentment, and there were worries that increasingly widespread english skills would threaten the nation’s cultural values. in iran, zabetipour and baghi (2015) reported a fear that efl learners would be “at risk of an emerging new identity that tries to replace iranian sociocultural and religious identity with a new western one” (p. 330), thus illustrating concerns that english teaching would go hand-in-hand with cultural imperialism. given these concerns, there is a need for research in muslim and non-western contexts that examines the potential implementation of language teaching with the aim of intercultural communicative competence. tabitha kidwell 230 conclusion the body of literature on the teaching of culture reviewed above reveals three ways to teach about culture within the language classroom: through a pedagogy of information, a pedagogy of preparation, and a pedagogy of encounter. the pedagogy of information takes a cognitive orientation, framing culture as factual knowledge, with a focus on the teacher as the transmitter of knowledge. the pedagogy of preparation portrays culture as skills, and aims to help students develop the sociocultural, pragmatic, and strategic competence necessary for interactions with native speakers. the pedagogy of encounter takes an intercultural approach, with an affective orientation, and aims to help students develop tolerance, empathy, and an awareness of their own and others’ perspectives, and the emergent nature of culture. though scholarly discussion of these three pedagogies emerged chronologically, it should not be assumed that the pedagogy of encounter is the predominant model in use currently. rather, all three pedagogies can likely be found in various contexts, and even within the practice of a single teacher over the course of a single lesson. because the pedagogy of information was long the prevalent method, many language teachers were exposed to it through their own language learning experiences, and continue to adhere to that approach. additionally, because the pedagogy of preparation was the predominant approach advocated by teacher educators and language education scholars since the 1980s, many current practicing teachers were exposed to the idea of communicative competence during their teacher preparation programs; indeed, in many contexts, they continue to be exposed to these concepts. because each of these three pedagogies continues to be used in various contexts worldwide, it is important to have an understanding of each when observing language teachers or speaking to them about their practice. identifying which pedagogies teachers are drawing from in a given lesson allows for a clearer understand of the rationales underlying the decisions they make about teaching culture. as english comes to be used as an international language, it will become increasingly important to design education research studies with a clear understanding of the beliefs systems underpinning the belief systems of teachers and learners – particularly when undertaking research in under-researched contexts in nonwestern countries. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.221-233 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 231 references agar, m. 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(1978). mind in society: the development of higher mental process. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. zabetipour, m., & baghi, b. a. (2015). the impact of efl teachers’ years of experience on their cultural identity. theory and practice in language studies, 5(2), 330–335. http://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0502.12 http://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2014.892503 http://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0502.12 register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.139-153 139 teachers’ strategies to improve students’ self-confidence in speaking lavani satya christie universitas kristen satya wacana 112014070@student.uksw.edu listyani universitas kristen satya wacana listyani@staff.uksw.edu doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.139-153 submission track: received: 02/10/2018 final revision: 25/11/2018 available online: 01/11/2018 corresponding author: listyani listyani@staff.uksw.edu abstract speaking become one of the important skills among other skills such as listening, reading and writing. however, some students felt not confident to deliver words or sentences in english. the purpose of this study was to find teachers’ strategies to improve students’ self confidence in speaking at smk 1 and smk 2 in tamiang layang. this study used qualitative study. all data were analyzed qualitatively. instruments used were interview questions and observation protocol. in this study, there are no statistical calculations. participants’ ideas, feelings, and stories were accommodated and then analyzed descriptively. the participants were four teachers from two different schools which are smk 1 and smk 2 in central borneo, indonesia. data were audiorecorded, then transcribed. after the transcription, themes were then drawn based on the transcribed interviews. participants’ statements which answered the research questions were highlighted and coded or classified according to certain topics. those data were analyzed to answer the research questions in this study. based on the findings, there was found four strategies that the four teachers used in speaking class activity. those strategies are role-play, small group discussion, storytelling, and songs. these strategies were very helpful to encourage students’ self confidence in speaking, because each strategy giving a chance for students to pratice speaking.besides that, the advantages that students got from those, help students increase their vocabulary and pronunciation, build an interaction between passive and active students, and make the class more fun and not boring. mailto:112014070@student.uksw.edu mailto:listyani@staff.uksw.edu http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.139-153 mailto:listyani@staff.uksw.edu lavani satya christie & listyani keywords: speaking, self-confidence, teachers’ strategies. introduction nowadays english has an important role in this era and become an international language. many people use english to communicate and have a good relationship with people from many other countries. learning english in our life has thus become a necessity. when learning english, it is important for us to master the four english skills such as listening, speaking, writing, and reading. there are many other components that also support the process of learning english, such as grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling, and some others. nonetheless, speaking is one among other important skills that needs to be mastered in learning english, since this skill is needed in oral communication with other speakers of english all around the globe. as highlighted above, speaking skill is very useful in communication. however, the fact shows that in learning english, some people lack confidence to deliver sentences in a spoken way, and most of them think that speaking skill is harder than other skills. according to dincer &yesilyurt (2017) speaking skill is considered as one of difficult skills among the other four skills (writing, speaking, listening, and reading). this raises a special concern for some researchers and ways to make students get more interested in and improve their speaking are often suggested. in spite of the fact that speaking is important for students in practicing their capability to produce words, sentences, or ideas in english, there are barriers that may demotivate students in speaking such as lack of confidence, feeling of anxiety, difficulty to express sentences appropriately, and some other problems. it is clear that there are some problems encountered by students in speaking. one of the problems is students’ lack of confidence in expressing words, sentences or ideas in english. according to tuan & mai (2015), the first problem is inhibition. students often feel unsecured when they try to express something in a foreign language. they are afraid to make errors in speaking, get bad comments, or feel embarrassed and scared when people are looking at them while they speak. melendez et al (2014) assert that students with low proficiency level of english have their own characters like feeling anxious while speaking, sweating, becoming silent whenever the teacher asks them to speak, or even starting to cry due to loss of the words. register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.139-153 141 in the case of students’ lack of confidence, teachers have an important role to find effective strategies to motivate students who lack confidence. it is challenging to find because there are many problems that appear from the students. if the students are demotivated in speaking due to lack of confidence, their learning process will be affected. it is important for the teachers to find the right strategies in developing students’ speaking skill especially for their future careers. kuivamaki (2015) says that in vocational schools, english is needed for their future such as social and healthcare fields, customer service and have a good speaking skill for business and administration. based on the importance of enhancing students’ speaking skills in learning english, a piece of research on this matter was done. we perceived the need to share the ways some vocational school teachers implemented in helping their students’ speaking skill improve. data were gathered through some interviews with the teachers and an observation conducted in some classes at smk 1 and smk 2 in tamiang layang, central borneo, indonesia. we chose those schools because we were interested to do the research outside of java, which surely give new insights and knowledge about schools in that area. based on the students’ problems in speaking, this study is aimed at finding the teachers’ strategies in motivating students who lacked confidence in speaking. the strategies were a great help to encourage students revealing words, sentences or ideas in their own way and made them feel confident to speak out everything in their mind. then the research question that will be answered in this study is: what are teachers’ strategies to overcome students’ lack of confidence in speaking english in vocational school? hopefully, the results of this study can beneficial for the students to gain more confidence in speaking and very helpful for them in the future to improve their level of speaking. it is hopefully also useful for the teachers to implement the strategies in their classes whose have students have similar problems. speaking skill there are a lot of definitions of speaking that have been suggested by experts in language learning. according to afsar and asakereh (2016), speaking is an important skill that needs to be developed as for efl/esl students in enhancing successful communication in various contexts. lavani satya christie & listyani anther opinion comes from kusrini (2012), who defines speaking as a procces in oral communication that includes between the speaker and listener to share information. in the same way, inayah (2015) supports this idea. she says that speaking is the central language skills to be improved for language learners. from the experts’ definitions above, it can be concluded that speaking is a process of communication that requires to be developed to build a successful learning. the importance of speaking in learning english, we need to master the four skills such as reading, speaking, listening and writing. among these four skills (reading, speaking, listening and writing), speaking seems to be an important skill to show how we can use the language effectively in a conversation. according to leong and ahmadi (2017), speaking as a significant skill that needs an ability to carry out the informations in a conversation. similarly, al-roud (2016) asserts that speaking is the most important skill in the language to build communication between people effectively. another opinion comes from derakhshan et al (2016), saying that among four skills (listening, reading, speaking, and writing) speaking becomes an important part in communication. in short, speaking is an essential skill that concerns more about how people use the language to encourage a good communication one to another. problems in speaking in mastering the speaking skill in english, there are some problems that may appear in the mastering process. for example, afisa (2015) mentions a factor that makes students feel anxious to speak english, that is, when they find it difficult to use words appropriately. normawati and muna (2015) also assert that the obstacels faced by students in speaking activities are unability to deliver words and feel shy when speaking. the other similar factor comes from ibrahim. he says that “lack of self-confidence can be thought under the both titles of psychological and attitudinal barriers that makes learner hard to speak in foreign language and even in mother tongue” (ibrahim, 2015, p. 15). as a result, there are some factors that affect students in speaking such as anxiety, low of confidence, shyness, and difficult to express words, ideas or sentences in appropriate way. self-confidence kanza mentions her idea about self-confidence. she says that “generally, self-confidence is someone’s feeling of trusting and believing in his/her abilities to do things in successful register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.139-153 143 way”(kanza, 2015, p. 24). we cannot deny that in learning fields, self-confidence has an important role in learning process to be successful. self-confidence is also important in developing speaking skill. according to kanza (2015), self-confidence becomes one of the key factor in enhancing speaking skill through presentation because with this factor, the speaker can deliver their opinions or ideas clearly. jamila (2014) argues that unmotivated learners who lack confidence and have high level of anxiety cannot achieve their goals in speaking skill. thus, selfconfidence is the key to achieve the goal in encouraging speaking skill. teachers’ strategies to enhance students’ speaking skills when a teacher teaches speaking in class, it is expected that good teaching strategies would be the key to reach successful teaching. anjaniputra (2013) states that teaching strategies are the factors that can influence the teaching of speaking class. derakhshan (2015) also says that new strategies can be used for teachers to develop the esl learners in communication and speech without feel under pressure. imane also support this idea. he mentions that ”strategies often help learners to avoid the failure in the oral communication and psychological aspects that obstacle their speaking performance” (imane, 2015, p. 11). in order to encourage students in speaking, teachers can use role-play. according to siwi (2014), role play is an alternative strategy enhancing students in their speaking skill. kucuker (2004) argue that role play takes a lot of time such as in preparation, practice, and assessment. however, role play can be useful to enhance students’ speaking skills. another strategy come from rokni & qarajeh (2014). storytelling is also a technique that can help students develop their speaking ability. however, gafu & badea (2011) remind teachers that storytelling should not always be used for the speaking activity in the class because this can make the students feel unexcited. meanwhile, argawati (2014) suggests a different strategy. she argues that small group discussion also has an important role to improve students’ speaking skill and increase their vocabulary. another strategy is suggested by romero et al. they say teachers can also use songs as a strategy for speaking class. they mention that, “in fact, they have used songs as a resource to develop communicative abilities properly in a foreign language, providing students with the lavani satya christie & listyani opportunity to talk with confidence and giving teachers the chance to teach in a fun way” (romero et al, 2012, p.12). teachers can also use technology as a medium to encourage students in speaking. according to wu et al (2011), the use computer-mediated communicator (cmc) is beneficial to improve speaking skill when we communicate with native speaker. not only technology, but also collaborative learning also has an important role in speaking. al-tamimi (2014) also supports collaborative learning an effecient way to develop speaking skill and build a positive students’ attitude. therefore, teachers’ strategies becomes an essential tools to be successful in speaking skill. previous studies on strategies to improve students’ self confidence in speaking there are some previous studies that investigated about strategies to improve students’ self confidence in speaking. this related study comes from askia, manurung and wahyudin (2016). research was conducted in smp negeri 1 dako pemean. their study was aimed to examine how active learning strategy could enhance students in speaking. the method of this study used pre-experimental design. the result of their study showed that the researchers tried to use active learning strategy to see improvement the students in speaking. to encourage students more active in speaking, the researchers used some technique. there are small group discussion, games and drama. grisales and cruz (2017) also have a similar study related with different strategies. this study was conducted in public school in ibague, columbia. the aim of this study was to see how podcasting language learning strategy and collaborative learning improved the tenth graders in their speaking skill. the method of the study used qualitative approach. results showed that those language learning strategies mentioned above helped the students improve their selfconfidence, self-esteem, and their learning development. podcasting made students comfortable to perform and enhance their speaking skill. the last finding is collaborative learning this strategy involved students to be active in a discussion, this also developed students in speaking skill. another study came from alam & uddin (2013). this study was conducted in a rural context in karachi, pakistan. the aim of this study to was to improve students’ oral communication (ocss) in lower secondary public school in karachi by integrating lessons with the national curriculum for english language (ncel) 2006. qualitative research method register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.139-153 145 was used by the researchers. they found that strategies like demonstration, role-play and discussion gave benefits in improving students in speaking. to conclude all of the previous studies discussed in this section, there are some strategies to encourage students’ self confidence in speaking such as group discussions, games, role-play, collaborative learning, podcasting, language learning strategies, and demonstration. those strategies can be successfully implemented in learning language, especially in speaking skill. research methodology the context of the study the research was conducted in april 2018 in two vocational schools, which are smk 1 and smk 2 of tamiang layang, central borneo, indonesia. these schools used the national k13 for the curriculum . the number of students in one class was fifteen students. this study was aimed at finding teachers’ strategies in motivating students who lacked confidence in speaking. participants to get the data, we conducted interviews with four english teachers in two vocational schools in tamiang layang, which were smk 1 and smk 2. the four teachers were female and each teacher had been taught english for eight years when the study was done. we selected two english teachers from each school. methodology as the issue is about teachers’ strategies to improve students’ self confidence in speaking, we used the method of qualitative study with semi-structured interviews. we chose this method because we needed different kinds of in-depth information and experiences from the teachers about their strategies to develop students’ self confidence in speaking class. data collection instruments in this study we used the interview protocols. the type of the interviews was semistructured. there are five questions using indonesian language to ask the four participants. the questions were related to teachers’ strategies to encourage students in speaking. an audiolavani satya christie & listyani recorder in a mobile phone was used to record the interviews. data were then qualitatively analyzed. data collection procedures for the data collection procedures, we interviewed four teachers from two different schools which were smk 1 and smk 2 of tamiang layang, central borneo. it was conducted in april and may 2018. we recorded the conversation with the participants and also took notes to obtain more detailed information. data analysis procedures after finishing the data olletion procedures from the interviews, we transcribed the data recording into the written text. after doing the transcribed the data, we classified, identified, and determined which themes to focus. the themes were drawn based on the strategies used by the four teachers. they are strategy 1 (roleplay), strategy 2 (small-group discussion), strategy 3 (storytelling) and strategy 4 (songs). these themes were arranged based on the strategy which was used by the least number of teachers, moving to the strategy used by more teachers. “thematic analysis is a type of qualitative analysis. it is used to analyse classifications and present themes (patterns) that relate with the data. it illustrates the data in great detail and deals with diverse subjects via interpretation”, says ibrahim (2012), as by cited boyatsis (1998, p. 40). it means that through thematic analysis, the themes could be obtained. results & discussion in this section, we would like to explain the results of the interviews and observations with the teachers from two vocational schools which are smk 1 and smk 2 about their strategies in teaching speaking. in this study, there were four strategies that the teachers used to improve students’ self-confidence in speaking. those strategies are role-play, small group discussion, storytelling, and songs. strategy 1: role play the first strategy that the teacher used in speaking activity is role play. actually, role play helps students in improving their speaking skill. ardriyati (2009) also says role play is helpful to make students involved in speaking and build an interaction with each other. register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.139-153 147 in this activity, the teacher asked students to play a character then practice the dialogue with his or her pair. this excerpt below strengthens the benefit from role play: to encourage students in speaking, sometimes i asked students to do a role-play in class. this activity can also help the students to increase their vocabulary. (teacher a, may 2, 2018, researchers’ translation) role play is a strategy that helps students in speaking especially for silent students or students who do not want to speak. not only helps their speaking, but also vocabulary. this discussion is related with the previous theory in the literature review mentioned by siwi (2014) that role play is an alternative strategy to enhance students' speaking skill. thus, role play is very useful to improve students in their speaking skill. as role play is very helpful for speaking, however, there is also a disadvantage from role play. only one of the four teachers used role-play in teaching speaking. it is very likely that the reason was because the preparation needed more time and special properties should be provided such as costume and some others. kucuker (2004) also mentions that role play takes a lot of time in the preparation, practice, and assessment. there was only one teacher who used this strategy, that is teacher a. strategy 2: small group discussion this section discusses about small group discussion strategy. it is a strategy that teachers did not always use in speaking activities, but this strategy helped teachers improve the students in speaking. antoni (2014) strengthens this idea, he says that “the role of friends found in small group discussion technique became the main factor that influences students’ speaking skill” (antoni, 2014, p.63). besides to encourage students speaking in english, this strategy also gives some benefits for students such as helping in pronunciation and build an interaction between pasive and active students. in this strategy, the teacher gave a reading text for the students, then the teacher asked them to understand the text. after that, the students started to do the discussion and each group explained what they got from the text in front of the class. an excerpt below shows how small group discussion strategy helped in improving students' speaking skill: lavani satya christie & listyani to motivate the students to speak in class, i would ask them to understand a text individually, then they made a group discussion. after they have finished the discussion, each group should present the result of their discussion. this activity helps the students in pronunciation and encourage them to communicate between passive and active students. (teacher b, 25 april, 2018, researchers’ translation) from teacher b’s explanation, small group discussion activity helped the students to enhance their speaking skill, because in this activity they had to speak their ideas or share opinions with their friends in a small group. this activity also give some advantages. first, the teacher helped them in giving correction on the pronunciation, and this strategy could also create a conversation between active and passive students. from the result above, this strategy is related to the theory mentioned in the literature review. argawati (2014) says that small group discussion also has an important role to improve students' speaking skill and increase their vocabulary. applying small group discussion improves students in speaking. however, teachers need to handle or control the class well so that all of the students get actively involved in the discussion. strategy 3: storytelling the third strategy to encourage students in their speaking is storytelling. in this activity, the students have to retell a folktale, their own experience, or short stories. storytelling is also helpful in improving students’ self confidence in speaking, especially for passive students. this excerpt below supports the fact that storytelling is a good way to enhance students' speaking skill: to develop students’ self confidence in speaking skill, i asked students to write their holiday experience in a form of short story. then, they have to tell their stories one by one in front of the class. (teacher c, 25 april, 2018, researchers’ translation) storytelling does not only use folktales. students can also use their own experiences. teacher a mentioned that she used video text for storytelling activity in her speaking class. here is an excerpt from teacher a who used video text for storytelling: in speaking class activity, i also used storytelling. in this activity, i gave the students a video text and asked them to listen to the video text. after that, the students retold the video text but not in the same way as the given one. (teacher a, 2 may, 2018, researchers’ translation) register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.139-153 149 the use of storytelling in speaking class activity is evidently useful to improve students’ self confidence in speaking. usually some students are shy, but in storytelling, they can talk about folktales, short stories, or their own experience. it means that this strategy is quite successful in helping the teacher in speaking class. as mentioned in the literature review before, it is proven that storytelling can become a good strategy to enhance students in speaking skill. rokni & qarajeh (2014) also strenghthen this; they say storytelling is also a technique that helps students in developing their speaking ability. gafu & badea (2011) claim that storytelling should not always used for the activity in the class because this will make the students feel unexcited. it means if storytelling is done too often in the speaking activity, students will not feel the fun and they may get bored. there were two teachers who used this strategy in their speaking class, teacher c and teacher a. strategy 4: songs the last strategy used is songs. songs are a tool that the teacher used to encourage students who were not confident in speaking. this activity is pretty fun for the students, because they can choose their favorite english songs and also it helps them in pronunciation. an excerpt strengthens the advantages from songs: i used songs strategy and it helped the students in speaking. in this activity, i asked the students to choose their favorite english songs. then, they should remember the song and lyrics well. after that, one by one, the students sang in front of the class. songs are very helpful to improve students in speaking, and also their pronunciation. (teacher d, 2 may, 2018, researchers’ translation) this strategy was also used by teacher a, she used it to make students interested in her speaking class and also enhance their speaking skill. this is an excerpt from teacher a: to make my speaking class more fun, i chose songs as our activity. in this activity, students can choose their favorite songs freely. after that, i asked the students to sing in front of the class. (teacher a, 2 may, 2018, researchers’ translation). in the class, the teacher asked the students to choose their favorite songs, for example shape of you by ed sheeran or someone like you by adele. then, they listen to the song first and remembered the lyrics. after that, one by one, students should sing in the front of the class. lavani satya christie & listyani even though not all students sang in a good way especially on pronunciation, there was a little bit improvement for students in practicing their speaking confidently through songs. as usual, some students were very shy, but through this activity, they could sing confidently. on the whole, songs are proven as a strategy that teacher used successfully. it was helpful to encourage students’ self confidence in speaking, make a speaking class more pleasant, and help students in pronunciation. this strategy was related with the theories in the literature review about improving students in speaking skill. romero et al asserts, “in fact, they have used songs as a resource to develop communicative abilities properly in a foreign language, providing students with the opportunity to talk with confidence and giving teachers the chance to teach in a fun way” (romero et al, 2012, p.12). there were two teachers who used this strategy in their speaking class, that are teacher d and teacher a. conclusions the findings and discussion showed that there were four strategies that the four teachers at two vocational schools in tamiang layang used to help students involved in speaking class. the first strategy was role-play, in which students played a kind of roles and practiced a dialogue with their pairs. this activity can encourage students to speak and increase their vocabulary. the second is small group discussion. this activity involved students to speak and have an interaction with other students in a group. from the activity, the students became more interactive in class, and it helped them in pronunciation. then, the third strategy is storytelling. the teachers used this strategy to develop students in speaking ability. for example, teacher asked students to write their holiday experiences or tell an imaginative story in the form of short story. after that, one by one, students retold their own story in a class. the last strategy is songs. the teachers used this strategy to improve students in speaking, pronunciation, and also create a positive atmosphere in class. other teachers at other secondary schools can also apply these strategies, depending on the class situations and needs. these four strategies can be used to enhance students’ speaking skill and to motivate students in learning english. roleplay, storytelling, songs, and small -group discussion should be alternatively used based on what strategy is needed most at different times and situations. register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.139-153 151 in this study, the four strategies that teachers from smk 1 and smk 2 used were successful to improve students’ self confidence in speaking. it was proven from the results of the interviews with the teachers. then, the benefits from those strategies not only enhanced students in speaking, but also helped them in their pronunciation, increased their vocabulary, and made a class speaking more fun. each of the teachers had their own styles and preferences in using speaking teachers’ strategies depending on the contexts, the class situation, the students’ level and their background in learning english. this research has some limitations in some aspects. one of them is the participants. this study only had four english teachers to be interviewed. it is suggested that future researchers can have more than four participants, so that more insights and more various strategies to improve students’ self confidence in speaking can be obtained. also, it is limited in the methodology. this research only used one method, that is semi-structured interview. it is recommended that future researchers use more methods, so that data can be validated. also further explanations about teachers’ strategies to improve students’ self confidence in speaking skill can be elaborated more. references afisa, p, y, s. 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(2004). the effects of activities based on role-play on ninth grade students’ achievementand attitudes towards simple electric circuits. retrieved august 13, 2018 from https://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12605375/index.pdf romero, m, d., bernal, l, m, t., olivares, m, c. (2012). using songs to encourage sixth graders to develop english speaking skills. profile. 14(1), 11-28. retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1051509.pdf siwi, f, c. (2014). the use of role-play technique to improve class viii d students’ speaking confidence in smpn 1 merbau mataram. publication article, 1-88. retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/8323099/the_use_of_roleplay_technique_to_improve_class_viii_d_students_speaking_confidence_in_smp_n _1_merbau_mataram wu, v, w., yen, l, l., marek, m. (2011). using online efl to increase confidence, motivation and ability. educational technology & society, 14(3), 118-13. https://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12605375/index.pdf https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1051509.pdf https://www.academia.edu/8323099/the_use_of_role-play_technique_to_improve_class_viii_d_students_speaking_confidence_in_smp_n_1_merbau_mataram https://www.academia.edu/8323099/the_use_of_role-play_technique_to_improve_class_viii_d_students_speaking_confidence_in_smp_n_1_merbau_mataram https://www.academia.edu/8323099/the_use_of_role-play_technique_to_improve_class_viii_d_students_speaking_confidence_in_smp_n_1_merbau_mataram register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.59-78 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.59-78 59 photovoice: a tool of reflective learning to enhance students' speaking ability amirah husnun sebelas maret university amirahhusnun2@gmail.com aprilia wulandari sebelas maret university apriliawe1997@gmail.com atika munawwaroh sebelas maret university atika.muna.15@gmail.com nur arifah drajati sebelas maret university nurarifah_drajati@staff.uns.ac.id doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.59-78 submission track: received: 25-03-018 final revision: 28-05--2018 available online: 01-06-2018 corresponding author: abstract speaking considers as an important skill since it requires students to speak up their idea or opinion. however, students tend to do the same mistakes when performing an oral speaking test. due to the lack of students' skill in performing speaking, it triggers the researchers to raise this issue so the problem of students in performing speaking could be solved by using reflective learning based on reflective learning strengths.this research used narrative inquiry to mailto:nurarifah_drajati@staff.uns.ac.id amirah husnun, aprilia wulandari, atika munawwaroh, nur arifah drajati 60 nur arifah drajati nurarifah_drajati@staff.uns.ac.id elaborate the photovoice method in which more practical is needed by collaborating with showed analysisin order to find and analyze the data. the participants of this study are 15 students who join speaking class of english education department consisting of 13 females and 2 males with the average age of around 19-20 years old. this article provides the findings of the use of reflective learning in the classroom to gain students' speaking ability for college students and also it uses audio recording, video of the student’s performance and document as the main data for the study. in conclusion, the use of reflective learning from lectures to enhance students' speaking ability could be achieved through a certain treatment during the learning and teaching process in the classroom. keywords: reflective learning, speaking ability, narrative inquiry, photovoice. introduction c.s.koong (2014) described reflective learning as a process of combining experiences, theories, and actions to gain new values. reflective learning is a combination of thinking and action process. more studies stated that reflective learning gives positive impact to academic achievement level of learning (c.hursen and f.g.fasli, 2017). moreover, reflective learning allows the students to enhance their learning experiences by using their previous skills. reflective learning can be as the appropriate technique for developing lifelong learning skills of the students. even though there are some arguments between the experts, but facts indicate that reflective register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.59-78 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.59-78 61 learning provides the students with deeper understanding and improves their skills as well. reflective learning also helps the teacher in giving instruction for the students according to the students' need by providing a significant learning-teaching process (s.galea, 2012). for helping the students to develop their speaking skill the researchers use reflective learning to conduct this study. the research intends to answer the question of how reflective learning impact in students' speaking performance. reflective learning approach provides the learning-teaching process with an important viewpoint, offers teachers the opportunity of improving their instructional implementations in the direction of students' needs(s.galea, 2012).the reflective learning includeas an essential element both for change in students' behavior and cooperation among teachers (fatemipour h. , 2013). through reflection learning, students can correct their misinterpretation by revising their beliefs and challenging the nature of their knowledge. in brief, it is a practice, which helps the students to become active learners. as cited in m. liu and j.jackson (2009), based on the previous study found that many the students were passive learners, in a classroom the example of a negative action is students' silence. a study conducted by j.k.wong (2004) used interviews with non-native students (e.sawir, 2005). his study found that a lot of non-native english students became passive learners because they had been set up to focus on academic purposes and only listen to the teacher (teacher-centered) in the classroom with less chance to have active classroom conversation. additionally, this study found that the students' cultural obstacle and lack of english language competence in the classroom were the main causes of students' passiveness. they only read the textbook, then teacher give the instruction, did the exam, in the end, they amirah husnun, aprilia wulandari, atika munawwaroh, nur arifah drajati 62 forgot what they had learned. since they became passive learners, they had lack of practice in speaking, such as they did not engage in conversation with classmates and teachers, students did not ask questions and figured out the answers, and eventually, they did not engage with students. such problems made their speaking skills far from the target of learning plans. students often made some mistakes since they never learned how to fix those mistakes. in addition, because of the students' passiveness, they tended to escape from their mistakes without any fixes. to cover the problems that students faced in speaking class, the researcher uses reflective learning strategy in order to improve their speaking performance. according to c.l.anandari (2015), foreign language made anxiety appeared among the students and that self-reflection activity helped the students to realize the strength, weaknesses, and helped them to solve the problems. students could improve their own ability in speaking since they did the reflection; the reflection is one of the effective ways and it was practical to be done. according to suwartono (2014), the reflective learning method using video involves oral communication activities has enhanced student learning process of english supra-segmental phonemes. reflection creates a "bridge between theory and practice (a.power,c. thomson,b.mason and b.l. bartleet, 2016). it is a vital part of students' critically reflective development within experiential-learning contexts. according to e.a.insuasty, l.c.z. castillo (2010), reflection should become the fundamental part of teacher development because teachers have the responsibility to be able to assess and rearrange their teaching skill in order to optimize the teaching-learning process. further, zeichner.k.m & d.p.liston (1996)stated that reflective learning concept means to advance teacher's professional competence(radulescu c. , 2013).it is because reflective learning concept consists of some steps, which generally aim to rise register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.59-78 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.59-78 63 exploration attitude and investigation in order to encourage teacher student's awareness and become the factor, which affects student teacher's learning process. with regard to english foreign language learners, according to akkakoson s. , 2016) speaking considers as the most significant language skill, the students have to learn it. it is because english is important as an instrument for international communication ((crystal, d, 2003)) and yet it is assumed the most stressful among the four language skills (m. liu and j.jackson, 2009). according to y. rahmawati & ertin (2014), there are some aspects that a person should consider when assessing students' speaking ability. (1) grammar test takers focus on the way they use grammar appropriately and accurately, construct the sentences and to avoid grammatical errors in speaking. (2) using vocabulary features in a conversation used by test takers indicate the level of how proficient they are. (3) comprehension is vital in order to understand the situation of the conversation and capable to give appropriate answer according to the question. (4) fluency signs that the production of speech in a conversation is well delivered. in delivering the speech and being able to respond specific topics without many pauses in choosing words, confidence is necessary.(5) the criteria of the assessment in pronunciation deals with the frequent errors in pronunciation happen and the way pronunciation factor delays the communication. (6) a task is about finishing the instruction given during the speaking test. as cited in y. rahmawati & ertin (2014) speaking scores must be trustworthy, fair, and used for the intended purposes (louma, 2004). in addition, trustworthy can be reached in speaking assessment as long as there should be some reasons (y. rahmawati & ertin, 2014).the first is amirah husnun, aprilia wulandari, atika munawwaroh, nur arifah drajati 64 practicality. test designer must consider how practical the test is, by considering the time limitation of running and interpreting the scoring of the test, budget limitation, and facilities. the second is validity. excluding all irrelevant variables to measure the test. test designer should decide the kind of speaking types that is suitable, as it will affect the design of assessment. the third is reliability. a reliable test is very significant since it needs the consistent scoring. in addition, clear rubric and scoring criteria is also a must. without a good scoring system, it is hardly possible to have a reliable result of the test. the items on the scoring system should represent all aspects of what is to be assessed from the students. the amount of the score must be printed clearly on the form to make sure each student's ability is well presented. during the test, the standard scoring system will useful to record students' work. the last is authenticity. it is about contextual language or language in use. test takers are instructed to represent something related to their values. in that case, the language produced is authentic. returning to reflective learning, blumberg p. (2014) states that critical reflection is essential for all continued professional development. therefore, instructors can use it as an effective tool as they transition to learn-centered teaching. critical reflection is composed of three integrated part, namely personal reflection, critical review that is more data-driven, and documentation to support and record the insights gained in reflection. in addition, the development of reflective practice is certainly important for formative learning, tutors and students would benefit from an open discussion of a meta-cognitive dimension of learning and the theories of underpinning the process of reflection to facilitate their reflective competence. according to bard r. (2014), reflective learning is the act of thinking about something while seeking a deeper level of understanding; it needs register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.59-78 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.59-78 65 systematically thoughts by making questions, collecting data and analyzing data in order. bard also shares that reflective learning is not isolated evidence (or data) about their work and then make a decision (instruction and otherwise) based on this information. farrel t. (2012) states that reflective learning is a compass that allows us to stop for a moment or two and consider how we can create more learning opportunities for students. according to s. thomas & d. s. packer (2013),reflective practicing makes teachers monitoring the students' progress and analyzing progress, monitoring data, making a reflection on every student's progress and fixing teaching practices based on each student's response to the instruction. in brief, reflective learning is an activity that involves high order thinking to acquire the information by passing some scientific process. by taking the advantages of reflective learning, students can enhance their ability in performing speaking. according to ncaa (2015) reflective learning can be significant since it creates students' awareness of knowledge and skills that students have developed before. every student has different knowledge background, in class students will be encouraged by using reflective learning. besides, by using reflective learning students can categorize strengths and areas for development. students in the class will be evaluated by their friends using written feedback during the learning process and friends' evaluation make the students know their weaknesses that they will do better in the next performance. reflective learning can develop an action plan for future learning; it is quite similar as the previous benefit. students that have been evaluated by their friends they understand on which part that they usually make a mistake; therefore in the next chance they will not do the same fault. afterwards, reflective learning is really important because it gains a greater understanding amirah husnun, aprilia wulandari, atika munawwaroh, nur arifah drajati 66 of students and how students learn. it is very crucial that reflective learning can be a parameter of students' ability so that it helps the teacher to know how far students learn the knowledge. lastly, reflective learning takes more responsibility for student process. because in the reflective learning, students whom their friends assess will get the feedback about the performance, it is useful since it makes them improve their ability and revise their mistake in order to be better in the next performance. research methods in this study, photovoice is used as the tool to analyze the data of reflective learning impact in students' speaking ability. photovoice can be defined as a participatory action research strategy based on educational theories and health principles to contribute in social issues and community change, cited in (c.wang & m.a. burris, 1997) photovoice allows people to use the camera to take photographs of every moment that happens in the community or social life. photovoice helps the teacher to understand what is really happening in the teaching-learning activities through photographs. this research employed narrative inquiry as the methodology to collect and constructs the data. through inquiry into narratives, the participants have the chance to reflect on what they have experienced in their lives (chan e. , 2017). the participants of this research were 15 students who join speaking class of english education department in one of universities in indonesia. this class consists of 13 females and 2 males with the average age of around 19-20 years old. this research was conducted in around 8 weeks. researchers used questionnaire and written document to collect the data. after the students watched and gave feedback on the videos of their friends, the researchers give the questionnaire. the researchers, then, analyzed the results of the questionnaire by using showed analysis. register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.59-78 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.59-78 67 the purpose of our photovoice project was to understand what happens in the class. in photovoice project, we use showed analysis. showed is theacronyms of several questions in the questionnaire that the participants should answer while analyzing pictures. s – what do you see here? h – what is really happening here? o – how does this relates to our lives? (or your life personally) w – why does the situation, concern or strength exist? e – how could this image educate the community? ( class) d – what can we do about it? the documents in form of written reflection from the students themselves were used to assess and know which part needs to be revised. the written documents consist of some parts of their mistakes during selfrecording, e.g. intonation, grammar, pronunciation and fluency. in addition, what they have learned from their mistakes. results & discussion the implementation of reflective learning for college students, which focused on students’ speaking ability, reports great improvement. at the beginning of the speaking class, the teacher explained the objectives that should students achieved in one period of learning activity. the students would learn about how to deal with speaking for ielts test. in order to enhance students' speaking ability, the teacher asked the students to make a recording or video of himself or herself practicing their speaking skills. there were 10 topics, which usually appeared in speaking ielts test and the students could choose one of them for their recording or video. the purpose of using recording or video in speaking lesson was to make the students amirah husnun, aprilia wulandari, atika munawwaroh, nur arifah drajati 68 practice their speaking ability. the students do the reflection of their performance. there were three instruments used in a reflective learning activity in the classroom, namely recording instrument, video about students' performance and the other friends assess it, self-reflection documents. the researchers use those instruments to monitor the students’ learning progress in reflective learning method. figure 1. recording instrument s – what do you see here? answer: we are recording ourselves. h – what is really happening here? answer: the lecturer asks us to make two recordings about introducing themselves. the first recording is without any preparation and the second one the students have a chance to prepare it before records it. after that, we are asked to compare the recording and analyze. o – how does this relates to our lives? (or your life personally) answer: from this exercise, we the can know that if we want to get a better result we have to prepare it before. w – why does the situation, concern or strength exist? answer: because of the lecturer and we need to know about how far students' ability in speaking ielts, so they can predict what should they do next. e – how could this image educate the community? (class) answer: by looking at the image, we can learn about the importance of reflecting ourselves to know our weaknesses and to know how to solve it. d – what can we do about it? answer: we can fix our problem by doing reflection so that we can perform better. credit: participant x register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.59-78 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.59-78 69 one of the ways to know the student's performance in speaking is through a voice recording. the recording is the good method to improve the students' speaking skills and one of the appropriate exercises because it allows the students to review their own performance. through the recording, the students know their mistakes after listening to their own recording. therefore, they know what they should do in the next better performance. figure 1. shows that based on showed analysis of the picture, one of the participants shows a good response towards reflective learning implementation in speaking class. the students made a self-recording in speaking test without any preparation. the first recording was without any preparation and the second one the students had a chance to prepare it before recordedit. after that, the students compared the recordings and analyzed it. from the recording, we can know that if we want to get a better result we have to prepare it before. according to bard r. (2014), reflective learning is the act of thinking about something while seeking a deeper level of understanding; it needs systematic thoughts by making questions, collecting data and analyzing data in order. the research found that the students of speaking class could develop their skill in critical thinking and had better performance in speaking by using reflective learning. when listening to the first recording, the students, who joined speaking class using reflective learning method, realized that there were some errors in pronunciation, intonation, and pause. from knowing the students' own mistakes, they know their own speaking ability, so they can predict what they should do next to have better performance in speaking test. the students can learn about the importance of reflecting themselves to know our weaknesses and to know how to solve it. amirah husnun, aprilia wulandari, atika munawwaroh, nur arifah drajati 70 figure 2. video about students' performance assed by the other friends this video captured by one of the student in speaking class. she records her video of ielts speaking test preparation. the video is about student' personal data description. the content of the video is the ielts speaking test part 1. this student introduces what her name is, how her friendsusually call her, where she lives, and what her hobbyis. in addition, the student talks about the special things in her hometown. the video is recorded in about 2 minutes. the students has watched the video in figure 2 in the class and then students take a note to assess and give feedback to the friend' performance. most of the feedback given for each student focuses on grammar, pronunciation, fluency. students have various mistakes and their friends comment on written feedback. feedback is useful for students since it helps students to realize their actual competence; they not only realize their ability but also revise and try to improve their ability in order to perform better in the next recording. one student said that feedback is an evaluation for them. reflective learning could be one of an effective way since it involves all the members of the class to assess one performance. consequently, those phenomena above relate to the study conducted by ncca (2015) indicating that reflective learning can categorize strengths and areas for development. students in the class evaluate their friends using written feedback during the learning process. the peer assessments make the evaluated students know their weaknesses so that they can perform better in the next performance. credit: participant y register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.59-78 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.59-78 71 in addition, reflective learning is flexible. it is not only applicable inside classrooms but also outside the class. it is limitless as long as students have the video to assess. students agree that reflective learning involves critical thinking. in reflective learning students who assess others should think critically in what aspect should be corrected, e.g. they have to give detail comment of their friends’ videos. moreover, critical thinking is useful to gain the great result. there are some changes from students after joining the reflective learning process; they are well improved. students become more critical in speaking aspect, in this case, they not only say what they want to say but also pay attention to some aspects, such as their pronunciation, grammar and also expression. therefore, blumberg p. (2014) states that critical reflection is essential for all continued professional development. therefore, instructors can use it as an effective tool as they are in transition to learn-centred teaching. critical reflection consists of three integrated parts, namely personal reflection, critical review that is more data-driven, and documentation to support and record the insights gained in reflection. in addition, the development of reflective practice is certainly important for formative learning, tutors and students. the students gain benefit from the open discussion of a metacognitive dimension of learning and the theories underpinning the process of reflection to facilitate their reflective competence. amirah husnun, aprilia wulandari, atika munawwaroh, nur arifah drajati 72 figure 3. self-reflection document student a in today's classroom, i have learned and gained about speaking on ielts, how the test going on, what time we have to prepare our speaking and the available time to speak. also, we know that there are three parts in ielts speaking test, the topic that has high possibilities to be come out as a test material. in my own recording, i have learned that two minutes can be so short and also long, depends on how we can share what we have known about any kind of topics. besides, we have to automatically concern on using appropriate intonation, fluency, accuracy, and grammar when speaking. student b i got a lot of new information, especially in ielts. what things that we have to say when we are in ielts test, how to introduce ourselves in two minutes with the appropriate topic. and then, there are three points that we have to know about ielts. by listening to my own recording, it makes me realize how awkward was my voice is. so, i want to practice a lot in speak english to get the better voice. student c from today's classroom, i learn so many things especially, to introduce myself in two minutes because before this i think that two minutes is a little time but when i practice it, two minutes are enough. not only knowing my own introduction but also knowing my friend's introduction. i also learn about recording my voice when i have the introduction, so i know that my pronunciation is good or bad. the things that i learn from the recording is i can fix my pronunciation register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.59-78 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.59-78 73 when i heard and record it. student d the things that i have learned: 1. three parts of speaking on ielts (introduction and interview, individual long turn, discussion). 2. duration in speaking on ielts (15 minutes). 3. one minute's preparation and two minutes speak in part 1 (introduction myself). 4. fluency is very important in speaking on ielts. 5. there is a feedback from examiner on part 2. 6. the score of speaking is 25% of total marks. 7. one candidate one examiner. 8. we speak familiar topic on the part one. 9. a lot of things that we can introduce in introduction and interview section. 10. practice introduce myself by record it (before we have the knowledge and after we get it). what topic we should introduce, preparing for speak, listen to my own recording and we can know my duration, my mistakes, and my fluency. student e i have got new experiences such as trying to introduce myself to academic speaking. in the first time, i try to prepare what will i say on the recording. because i confuse what will i say. but, the lectures help me with give some "clue" to speak. finally, i can say what will do. (introduction to ielts): 1. trying to score the fluency. 2. trying to exercise (speaking) with my friends. amirah husnun, aprilia wulandari, atika munawwaroh, nur arifah drajati 74 student f i learn how to arrange my points to talk about my minute's introduction. i learn about the 3 parts of speaking in ielts. i should be calmer when i speak or introduce myself. i should my pronunciation so what. i've said an be well-heard to everyone. i should speak beautifully so my voice will not feel weird. student g the thing that we can learn from today's classroom is about the parts of introduction ielts speaking ability, especially in the introduction parts. i learned some question in the introduction. i learned some things especially about the way i speak. i learned about fluency, pronunciation, and the way i choose the vocabularies. i will learn to answer all the questions because in my recording i only can answer some questions. the students’ reflection documents of speaking ielts talk about the rule in speaking ielts test. the students have a chance to speak in 2 minutes with the chosen topic. one of the students feel that the time is sufficient, and some say that 2 minutes is not enough, it proves that each pupil has the different problems on diction. from the result of their own recording, the students able to know their own performance. the students also know what they experience in doing reflective learning during speaking class. that activity helps them to make introspection of themselves so that they learn from their mistakes and try to fix it. every student has different background knowledge, in the class students will have encouragement by using reflective learning. the finding of this study prove the statement of ncca on section 1that the students are more aware of their knowledge. the reflective learning process demands the register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.59-78 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.59-78 75 students to revise their works frequently. moreover, by doing frequent revision they recognize their own ability and the point to develop. the students also have better preparation, they anticipate some problems by having more practice, fix their pronunciation, recheck the grammar, set the intonation, as well as the fluency. therefore, they minimize the same mistake in the next performance. by using reflective learning, the effectiveness can be reached since it involves all the students in the class. reflective learning really makes the students realize to make progress of their own ability, the students are aware that they have responsibility to revise their mistakes. conclusion by looking on the students' result, researchers can conclude that the practice of reflective learning is effective. it is able to reflect the mistake made by the students and the reflection improves the students’ skill, particularly speaking competence. the enhancement aspects include intonation, grammar, pronunciation and fluency. besides, reflective learning encourages the students to learn from their mistakes in form of oral speech. by learning the mistakes, the students develop their ability to do better in performing speaking. this study contributes to help both teacher and students. for the teacher, it helps the teacher to develop new method for teaching-learning activities in classroom. reflective learning include as the appropriate method for the teacher to monitor the student's learning progress. meanwhile, reflective learning is very helpful for the students to do better performance in speaking by learning and evaluating their own mistakes. the limitation of the research is that the researcher had limited time to conduct the study.it might influence the participant's responses to have complete answer. amirah husnun, aprilia wulandari, atika munawwaroh, nur arifah drajati 76 with regard to further research, this study is investigating the use of reflective learning to develop the students' speaking skill. although the study reveals that reflective learning shows a positive impact to improve students' speaking skill, it still depends on the students' honesty in doing the reflection activity. the researchers suggest for the next study to do more preparation to maximize the results and prevent non-valid result. references zeichner.k.m & d.p.liston. (1996). reflective teaching: an introduction. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. a.power,c. thomson,b.mason and b.l. bartleet. (2016). reflection for learning, learning for reflection. journal of university teaching & learning practice, 13(2). akkakoson, s. (2016). speaking anxiety in english conversation classrooms among thai students . malaysian journal of learnng and instruction , (13):63-82. bard, r. (2014). focus on learning: reflective learners and feedback. tesl-j, 18(3). blumberg. (2014). how critical reflection benefits fculty as they implement learnercenterd tecahing. new direction for teaching and learning, 144. c.hursen and f.g.fasli. (2017). the impact of reflective teaching application supported by edmodo on prospective teachers' selfdirected learning skills. international journal of emerging technologies in learning, 12(10). c.l.anandari. (2015). indonesiaan efl students anxiety in speech production: possible causes and remedy. teflin journal, 26(1). register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.59-78 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.59-78 77 c.s.koong. (2014). an investigation into effectiveness of different reflective learning strategies for learning operational software. computer and education elsevier, 72, 167-186. c.wang & m.a. burris. (1997). photovoice: concept, methodology, and use for particpatory needs. sage journal, 24(3), 369-387. chan, e. (2017). narrative inquiry: a dynamic relationship between culture, language and. australian journal of teacher education, 42(6), 2234. crystal, d. (2003). english as global language. cambridge: cambridge university press. e.a.insuasty, l.c.z. castillo. (2010). exploring refflective teaching through informed journal keeping and blog group. national university of columbia, 12(2), 87-105. farrel, t. (2012). reflecting on reflective practice: (re)visiting dewery and schon. tesol journal, 3(1). fatemipour, h. (2013). the efficiency of the tools used for reflective teaching in esl contexts. elsevier, 93, 1398-1403. j.k.wong. (2004). are the learning styles of asian internationals culturally or contextually based? international education system, 4(4), 154156. louma, s. (2004). assessing speaking. cambridge: university of cambridge. m. liu and j.jackson. (2009). retience in chineese efl students at varied proficiency levels. tesl canada journal, 26(2), 67. ncaa. (2015). focus on learning: students reflecting on their learning. dublin: ncaa. radulescu, c. (2013). reinventing reflective learning methods in teacher education. science direct, 78(-), 11-15. amirah husnun, aprilia wulandari, atika munawwaroh, nur arifah drajati 78 s. thomas & d. s. packer. (2013). a reflective teaching road map for pre-service and novice early childhood educators. international journal of early childhood special education, 5(1). s.galea. (2012). reflecting reflective practice. educational philosophy and theory, 44(3). sawir, e. (2005). language difficulties of international students in australia: the effect of prior learning experience. international education journal, 6(5). suwartono. (2014). enhancig the pronunciation of english suprasegmental features through reflective learning. teflin journal, 25(1). y. rahmawati & ertin. (2014). developing assessment for speaking. ijee, 1(2), 1-12. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.170-184 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 170 developing massive open online course (mooc) : need analysis of teaching materials for madrasah english teachers dewi wahyu mustikasari state insitute for islamic studies (iain) of salatiga email: dewi.w.mustikasari@gmail.com doi: 84http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i2.170-184 submission track: received: 29-09-2017 final revision: 25-11-2017 available online: 01-12-2017 english abstract the purposes of this study are (1) to recognize the textbooks or other teaching materials used by the madrasah english teachers, (2) to identify their obstacles in preparing the teaching materials, (3) to analyze the teaching materials which can be developed in mooc, (4) to analyze the teaching materials for mooc which are related to the indonesian curriculum, (5) to analyze their willingness of proffesional teaching development by joining mooc. this study used a descriptive qualitative approach. moreover, the subjects of the study were 3 english teachers of mts negeri salatiga and 5 english teachers of man salatiga. observation, interview and documentation were used as the techniques of data collection. the results showed that (1) they used the textbooks from ministry of education (moe), selected main handbooks, supplemenatary teaching materials from certain websites, (2) communicative competence as the main issue of content of textbook from moe gave different challanges for them to prepare the teaching materials, (3) authentic materials were highly needed to be developed in mooc, (4) characters building based-teaching materials needed to be developed too as those are the uniqueness of the indonesian curriculum, (5) they had less interest to join mooc as their way to develop their proffesional teaching development. keywords: mooc, english teaching materials, authentic materials, characters building indonesian abstract tujuan penelitian ini adalah (1) untuk mengetahui buku-buku atau materi pelajaran yang digunakan oleh guru-guru bahasa inggris di madrasah, (2) untuk mengidentifikasi kendala yang dihadapi oleh http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i2.170-184 dewi wahyu mustikasari mereka ketika menyiapkan materi pelajaran, (3) untuk meganalisa materi pelajaran yang dibutuhkan untuk mengembangkan mooc, (4) untuk menganalisa materi pelajaran untuk mooc yang sesuai dengan kurikulum di indonesia, (5) untuk menganalisa kesanggupan guru-guru tersebut untuk mengikuti mooc dalam usaha mereka untuk peningkatan mutu mengajar. penelitian ini menggunakan pendeketan deskriptip kualitatif. selanjutnya, subyek penelitiannya adalah 3 guru mts negeri salatiga and 5 guru man salatiga. obeservasi, wawancara, dokumentasi digunakan sebagai teknik pegumpulan data. hasil peneltian menunjukan bahwa (1) mereka menggunakan bukubuku dari kemendikbud, buku-buku pilihan sekolah, materi tambahan dari situs, (2) kompetensi komuniksi sebagai isu utama dalam buku kemedndikbud memberikan beberapa tantangan yang berbeda bagi mereka ketika menyiapkan mateeri pelajaran, (3) materi otentik sangat dibutuhkan untuk dikembangkan di mooc, (4) pembelajaran berbasis karakter perlu dikembangkan juga sebagai keunikan kurikulum di indonesia, (5) mereka memiliki kertetarikan yang rendah untuk mengikuti mooc sebagai usaha untuk peningkatan mutu mengajar. kata kunci: mooc, materi pelajaran bahasa inggris, materi otentik, pendidikan karakter introduction developing mooc for madrasah english teachers is designed to support their teaching professionalism. it is planned to be investigated in a multiyear study. in this paper, i propose to inform the first year study results which cover the need analysis of teaching materials for them. the term “need analysis” is “procedures used to collect information about learners’ needs are known as need analysis (richards, 2001: 51).” the teaching materials which are analyzed must be related to the learners’ needs. in addition, the teaching materials are essential to be discussed because madrasah english teachers are mostly recognized to use text book. as it is informed by liu & littlewood (1997) as mentioned by zhenhui (2001) “traditionally, the teaching of efl in most east asian countries is dominated by a teachercentered, book-centered, grammar-translation method and an emphasis on rote memory.” the concept of teacher-based learning is commonly used by the indonesian teachers, and text book is widely used by them, as it is obviously dominated the learning process. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.170-184 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 172 the classroom activities of the learning process need to be guided using textbook as the teaching material because based on ansary and babaii (2002) “a textbook is a framework which regulates and times the programs.” therefore, the indonesian government also publishes the textbooks which are related to the curriculum. however, lamie (1999) informs that “textbooks produced or approved by a governing body, such as a ministry of education (moe), may purport to adhere to curriculum guidelines, but in reality not fulfill the objectives they set themselves.” as a result, it is important to analyze the textbooks of moe of indonesia. are they closely related to the needs of the teachers and students or not? thinking about this point of view, thus, allwright (1990) as quoted by kitao and kitao (1997:1) argues that “materials should teach students to learn, that they should be resource books for ideas and activities for instruction/learning, and that they should give teachers rationales for what they do. from allwright's point of view, textbooks are too inflexible to be used directly as instructional material.” it can be assumed that a good textbook is not a rescources pack which provides an intructional teaching materials because the teachers must recognize the students’ needs in learning english. unwise action is conducted by the teachers if they teach the students because they need to finish the teaching materials of the textbooks without recognizing the students’process of learning which expects them to perform communicative competence. boosting the students’ communicative competence demands the teachers to use authentic materials so that the students are able to use english communicatively. the students can have an adequate competence if they can use anything in the real life situation as their stimulation to produce english in written or oral. as it is also claims by kilickaya (2004) “authentic material is significant since it increases students’ motivation for learning, makes the learner be exposed to the real language as discussed by guariento & morley (2001: 347).” the usage of authentic materials can motivate the students to be active in the classroom because they will use the real language, that is, english in reality not in an isolated situation. as it is also claimed by kelly et.al (2005) “providing authentic materials for language learning should be relied on students’ need of using the language itself.” if they need to be communicative in using english, thus, the teachers need to provide their demands. moreover, authentic materials also can be gained from objects dewi wahyu mustikasari surrounds us, it is known as realia. mumford (2005) informs that “we like using realia, i.e. objects in the class because it adds interest and relates language to the real world.” the real object brings more realistic situation of life, thus, the students are able to produce daily used of english. then, he finds three categories of using realia in teaching the students namely “first for descriptions, and second as props in drama and another type of activity is a creative thinking exercise, finding different uses for an object, e.g. a ruler could be a weapon, musical instrument, a symbol of authority and so on (mumford, 2005).” his three main concept of beneficial realia can be adopted in the classroom so that the daily english can be made by the students. realia is used to support the realization of real-life experiences. brown (2001: 238) as stated by mustikasari (2013: 169-170) “experiential learning includes activities that engages both left and right-brain processing, that contextualize language, that integrate skills, and that point toward authentic, real-world purposes.” real-life experiences which resemble real-world activities occupy the students to use english by integrating the four skills, as it is described that english is not learned separately, but it is an integration of the skills. listening and reading as the receptive skills are function as the former skills which are needed by the students when they create the productive skills that are writing and speaking. the students learn to contextualize english when they use the receptive and productive skills, thus, it acquires realia to help them to process an integration of language skills. critical thinking is another issue which must be provided in the learning process, except authentic material and integrated skills tasks. fisher (2001:14) says that “critical thinking clearly requires interpretation and evaluation of observation, communication, and other sources of information.” meanwhile, cottrell (2005: 3) adds that “critical thinking is associated with reasoning or with our capacity for rational thought. the word “rational” means using reasons to solve problems.” then, norris and ennis (1989: 3) as informed by liaw (2007: 50) claim it “reasonable and reflective thinking that is focused upon deciding what to believe and do.” it can be described that the students are clearly assumed to have an adequate knowledge to use their mental process to answer and do cognitive tasks in the learning process. furthermore, they need to display their critical thinking quality of interpreting thought, classification, assortment, and decision. the critical thinking quality can be seen when students perform their self-regulation and learner autonomy to solve the problems. tan (2003: 1) “problem solving in real-world contexts involves multiple ways of register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.170-184 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 174 knowing and learning.” thus, by activating the critical thinking, it is hoped that the students are able to use various steps of knowing and learning in term of problem solving. in addition, they need the teachers to guide them. as it is stated by tan (2004: 2) calls “the role of the teacher is to enable students to recognize the state, repertoire, and depth of various dimensions of their thinking and to sharpen their abilities to deal with real-world problems.” having the teachers’ guidance, the students can maximize their scope of thinking. the authentic material, integrated skills tasks and critical thinking are hoped to equip the students to gain communicative competence. therefore, the teachers must have teaching strategies to be used to boost the students’ communicative competence, thus, the teachers must consider their own teaching professionalism. in this occasion, i like to introduce mooc as an alternative domain for them to increase their teaching professionalism. then, what is mooc? the following paragraphs answer this question. ozturk (2015) states that “ideas of open educational resources movement (oerm) advocating for free access to resources for learning, teaching, and research (knox, 2013) underpinned the pedagogical design of moocs.” this term makes education as a turning point of expensive and unacssessable schools. it can not be denied that digital era brings positive movements to educate everyone. thus, it is possible to provide free access for open resources. as one of the mode of open recources, mooc is a platfrom to develop an on-line course with a huge number of students. andersen and ponti (2014) as it is quoted by ozturk (2015) mentions “moocs as structured and organized oer in the form of a course with participation from educators or organizers.” a structured-course of mooc is easily developed because there are some providers that offer various platforms which can be found in the internet. class2go, eliademy, and mooc.org (some of providers) provide a free mooc platforms. agarwalt (2013) claims that “many organizations are offering these online courses to students all over the world, in the millions, for free. anybody who has an internet connection and the will to learn can access these great courses from excellent universities and dewi wahyu mustikasari get a credential at the end of it.” thus, it can be inferred that mooc provides advantages for learners who have willingness to learn and want to develop their knowledges as long as they have internet connection. in addition, they do not have to pay the tuition fee because it is free. as it is also stated by jordan (2014), liyanagunawardena, adams, & williams (2013) as mentioned by israel (2015: 102) “moocs are online courses open to all who have access to an internet connection and are self-motivated in learning anywhere and anytime in the world.” the benificials of mooc are those mentioned above. this new invention of learning triggers some researchers to conduct various researches on mooc. firstly, mackey and evans (2011) found that the respondents (15 professional teachers who were taken their graduate diploma in ict in education at the university of canterbury) took control of their own on-line learning experiences by (1) freely choosing the level of interaction in online and off-line communication, (2) connecting the theorical framework and practical application from the coursework to their work athmosphere. however, they were not interested to have a permanent relationship with the others in the on-line athmospheres bacause they just needed to take the advantages of the on-line learning. secondly, kop (2011) informed that the respondents performed their participation in joining the mooc by aggregating, relating, and sharing resources. on the contrary, they showed less active in creating the digital artefacts namely blog posts and video. from the above previous researches it can be analyzed that the respondents seek for knowledges for their proffesionalism in their own work contexts, thus, it can inferred t hat madrasah english teachers also can be facilitated to have this such enviroment of learning for their proffesional teaching development. clarà & barberà (2013) in comer, clark, and canelas (2014: 27-28) state that “moocs, because of their scale, offer a significant opportunity for peer-to-peer interaction in the form of dialogic, networked learning experience.” independent learning demmand to be conducted by them because joining mooc will need some efforts. they have to manage their times wisely because some courses will require them to do reading session and submitting tasks. some moocs provide group discussion which useful for the member to have a discussion on the reading session. in addtion, they also capable to inform and share their problems related to technical matters. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.170-184 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 176 designing mooc for madrasah english teachers becomes important to support their proffesionalism in teaching. eventhough, in reality it can be easily enough to find moocs of english courses, but those moocs do not consider the indonesian curriculum. they provide food of thought about english language teaching, but they do not directly organize the indonesian curriculum which explores the usage of characters building in the teaching and learning process. thus, creating mooc which includes the characters building will support the indonesian government to widesprade the knowledge of integrating the characters building into the classroom activities. methodology i used descriptive qualitative research and conducted some following steps namely organizing, explaining, categorizing and classifing the data of the madrasah english teachers’ needs in preparing the teaching material, and using it while teaching the students, in order to define the teaching materials for madrasah english teachers which can be used to develop mooc and recognized the teaching materials which is related to indonesian curriculum. the subjects of study were three teachers from mts salatiga, and four teachers from man salatiga. those madrasah english teachers had more than 5 years of teaching experiences and got their proffesional teaching certification. furthermore, they had the experiences of several different indonesian curriculums when they have been taught the students. the research was conducted in the first semester in the academic year of 2015/2016. the data were started to be collected from july until september 2015. the techniques of data collection in this research were observation (field notes), documentation (the textbooks from ministry of education (moe), selected main handbooks, supplemenatary teaching materials from certain websites) and interview (a semistuctured interview). results textbooks or other teaching materials used by the madrasah english teachers dewi wahyu mustikasari it was recognized that most of them used three types of teaching materials namely the textbooks from ministry of education (moe), selected main handbooks, supplemenatary teaching materials from certain websites. the textbooks from moe were extremely good to be used as a teacher and student book. although, those books did not mention the guideline of how to use the book, but those books easily can be used and covered various activities to engange the students. for example the activities of one chapter of the textbook for the ten graders of senior high schools/ madrasah as follow: 1. warmer (game: chinese wishper) 2. vocabulary builder 3. pronounciation practise 4. reading (jigsaw) 5. vocabulary exercises 6. text structure (think-pair-share) 7. grammar review 8. speaking (guessing game: ball trawing) 9. writing 10. reflection most of the textbooks of moe supplied four skills (reading, listening, speaking, and writing skills) which were hoped to be activated by the students because they needed to perform their communicative competence as the targeted-indicators which were also mentioned in the textbooks. furthermore, the teachers was hoped to play role as facilitator. the reflection part was a good space for the students to washback their abilities whether they were able to achieve the indicators of each chapter or not. some of textbooks also provided motivating words which came from famous people, eventhough, those motivating words did not appear in each chapter. table 1. motivating words no topic of the cahapter motivating words page 1 talking about self accept responsibility for your life. know that is you who will get you where you want to go, no one else (les brown) 16 2 complimenting the only thing that stands between you and your dream is the 30 register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.170-184 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 178 and showing care will to try and the belief that is actually possible (joel brown) 3 expressing intension the only way to do great work is to love what you do. if you haven’t found it yet, keep looking. don’t settle (steve job) 42 4 congratulating others 5 describing people life is either a daring adventure or noting (hellen keller) 66 6 visiting ecotourism destination a journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step (lao tzu 80 7 visiting niagara falls 8 describing historical places 9 giving announcement source: moe textbook for the ten graders of senior high schools/ madrasah it was nice to discover that the textbooks clearly display character traits into the topics in order to boost the students’ awareness of character buildings by giving the motivating words. however, the famous people should be introduced. who are they? why their motivating words must be recognized by them? what is so special about those famous people? from the above explanation about the textbooks of moe, it can be informed that the textbooks were highly designed to shape the students’ communicative competence, but the textbooks were used as a secondary book by the madrasah english teachers, and the students may borrow the textbooks in the library so the targeted-competence was not achieve properly because they did not use the textbooks of moe. on the other hand, the selected books were choosen by the madrasah english teacher as the main book to be used by them and the students. the man salatiga english teachers discussed and decided one book to be used as the main book for all classes, eventhough, the students joined different classes which were taught by different teachers, they had the same learning activities because they used the same book. on the contrary, the mts english teachers had different preferance to choose the main book. the students still got the same content of the topic of discussions, eventhough, they taught the students using different books, dewi wahyu mustikasari but they strickly chose the main books which were related to the syllabus. one of the example of the selected books was english book for the ten graders of senior high schools/ madrasah which is publised by intan pariwara. the book implemented the syllabus, and it included tasks, assessments, mid-term test, and final test. in addition, it had a homework which was connected to the internet. the tasks were a series of activities such as warmer, vocabulary builder, pronounciation drills, reading text, and grammar focus. furthermore, the book also provided a guideline of how to use the book and motivating words. however, the selected books did not provide the integrated tasks skills to foster the students’ communicative competence because the series of task or assessment were done by them as a routine activity in the classroom, and english was in an isolated situation. the next teaching material was selected websites. few of the madrsah english (the advance one who had willingness to use internet) used the selected websites to find pictures, photographs, diagrams, songs and videos for grammar focus or other related topics. using internet was an optional action to do, if they found that the activities using the selected books were various they were not consider finding authentic materials in the internet. obstacles in preparing the teaching materials challaging situation were faced by the madrasah english teachers in preparing the teaching materials due to the need to facilitate the students to perform their communicative competence as the main issue of content of textbooks of moe. firsly, most of them complaint that the students did not have an adequate four skills of learning english so they can not be forced to perform the communicative competence by using the textbooks of moe. they informed that the students needed to be stimulated to be an active student in a class, and it can not be done by using the textbooks of moe. secondly, the students’ confidanceness to learn english was another issue which needed to overcome. thirdly, there was a lack of supply of the textbooks of moe. therefore, the students can not get those books, but they may borro w those books in the library. thus, those books were not use as the main book. fourthly, they needed to discuss, think and choose only one book as the main selected book. this is a hard situation to be handle because each teacher had different perspective. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.170-184 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 180 teaching materials which can be developed in mooc to foster the students’ communicative competence, the madrasah english teachers must be supplied with authentic materials. it informed that selected books were dominated the programs, but it provides less space for the students to perform communicative competence because they got less vocabulary building. the authentic materials that can be given daily words of english which is occured in printed text, realia, images and multimedia. those authentic materials must be easily found in the real-life situation because those items are real things in the real world. in addition, the authentic materials must be cheap and easily to be prepared by the madrasah english teachers and students. they can collaborate to prepare the authentic materials with the students. thus learning english is not in isolated world that is in a classroom. it is hoped that it can be used to activated the students’ communicative competence. teaching materials for mooc which are related to the indonesian curriculum the characters building based-teaching materials highly needed to be developed in the mooc because it is the uniqueness of the indonesian curriculum. the motivating words which were existed in the textbooks of moe or selected books should not be only read and understood by the students. thus, it was just a lip service because the students only understood the context of the motivating words literaly. it is going to be useless if there is no action after they understand those motivating words. they need to be guided to take the action. therefore, the concept of characters building based-teaching materials can be used to help the students to perform the character traits. in addition, the characters building based teaching materials is done by providing the students with authentic materials and asking them to perform their communicative competence which includes their performance of character traits. for example, the character trait of confidance “belief in your self you can do it,” when they want to introduce them self is hard to be done if the students have less vocabulary and they tend to copypaste the model of how to introduce your self in the textbooks. therefore, the teachers ask the students to tell about their hobbies and bring one of their favorite items which resembles it, then stimulate them to tell (not reading the script) it in front of the classroom. their favorite items are authentic materials (realia). furthermore, the teachers can ask them to prepare the realia at home. telling about themselve is going to be interesting to be dewi wahyu mustikasari followed by the entire members of the class because they bring different realia. on the other hand, the characters building based-teaching material also can be conducted by providing the students with various islamic stories and events as the reading texts. from the data, it was revealed that the reading texts of the textbooks of moe and selected books rarely display the islamic stories or events. thus, it is not a bad ideas to integrate the islamic point of view of characters building in the concept of chaaracters building based-teaching materials. willingness of proffesional teaching development by joining mooc most of the madrasah english teachers admit that they have difficulty to join the mooc because of their personal matters such as office duty and home affairs. thus their less intension to be a part of the project results in some considerations to be jotted down in creating the mooc namely 1. avoid a time consuming design of activities for the mooc 2. work with the english teacher association to support the project 3. invite more respondents in the project such as novice teachers who teach english in madrasah or other private islamic schools 4. work with colleagues to be a part of the project by asking their students to join the mooc because later on the students will have to conduct the intership program. the noval result exposed that the characters building based-teaching materials must be designed and developed to maximize the usage of authentic materials, integrated-skills tasks, and critical thinking in order to boost the students’ communicative competence. those items can be listed in developing the mooc. another essential finding covered that the textbooks of moe were not meet the expectation of fostering the students’ communicative competence because the textbooks were not used as the main book for some reasons. firstly, there was less supply of the textbooks in the schools, although the textbooks also had the pdf version but not all of the students had register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.170-184 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 182 laptop to open it, and using technology in the classroom was not easy to be organized by the teachers. secondly, the teachers argued that the textbooks were not suitable to be used as the main book because the students were not ready to perform the activities in the textbooks because of the students’ inadequate english skills and confident. as a result, the findings of the research support lamie’s theory in 1999. according to him, the government fails to provide a well-designed textbook which is related to the curriculum requirements, but in fact, it is not sufficient to support the academic goals of learning. conclusion in conclusion, to develop a mooc for them quite challenges because certain things need to be adjusted so that they are able to join this mooc for their professional development. furthermore, the teaching materials which supply them with real-world activities can be provided by using authentic materials as the media of teaching. in addition, it is essential to provide the teaching materials which are related to the indonesia curriculum and needed to improve the students’ cognitive competence. references agarwal, anant. (2013). why massive open online courses (still) matter. retrived from http://www.ted.com/talks/anant_agarwal_why_massively_open_online_courses_still_matter on 27 may 2014 ansary, hasan and babaii, esmat. 2002. universal characteristics of efl/esl textbooks: a step towards systematic textbook evaluation. the internet tesl journal, vol. viii, no. 2, february 2002. http://iteslj.org/articles/ansary-textbooks/ 21/09/15 http://www.ted.com/talks/anant_agarwal_why_massively_open_online_courses_still_matter.html/ http://www.ted.com/talks/anant_agarwal_why_massively_open_online_courses_still_matter%20on%2027%20may%202014 http://www.ted.com/talks/anant_agarwal_why_massively_open_online_courses_still_matter%20on%2027%20may%202014 http://iteslj.org/articles/ansary-textbooks/ dewi wahyu mustikasari comer, denise k., clark, charlotte r and. canelas, dorian a. 2014. writing to learn and learning to write across the disciplines: peer-to-peer writing in introductory-level moocs. international review of research in open and distributed learning. volume 15, number 5 november 2014 cottrell, stella. 2005. critical thinking skills-developing effective analysis and argument. new york: palgrave macmillan fisher, alec. 2001. critical thinking-an introduction. cambridge: cambridge university press. israel, maria joseph. 2015. effectiveness of integrating moocs in traditional classrooms for undergraduate students. international review of research in open and distributed learning. volume 16, number 5 september – 2015. kelly, charles., kelly, lawrence., offner, mark and vorland, bruce. 2005. effective ways to use authentic materials with esl/efl students. the internet tesl journal, vol. xi, no. 2, february 2005. http://iteslj.org/techniques/mumford-relia.html.21/09/15 kilickaya, ferit. 2004. authentic materials and cultural content in efl classrooms. the internet tesl journal, vol. x, no. 7, july 2004. http://iteslj.org/techniques/kilickayaautenticmaterial.html. 21/09/15 kitao, kenji and kitao, s. kathleen. 1997. selecting and developing teaching/learning materials. the internet tesl journal, vol. iv, no. 4, april 1997. http://iteslj.org/articles/kitao-materials.html.21/09/15. 21/09/15 kop, rita. 2011. the challenges to connectivist learning on open online networks: learning experiences during a massive open online course. international review of research in open and distance learning vol. 12.3 march – 2011. lamie, judith m. 1999. making the textbook more communicative. the internet tesl journal, vol. v, no. 1, january 1999. http://iteslj.org/articles/lamietextbooks.html.21/09/15 liaw, meei-ling. 2007. content-based reading and writing for critical thinking skills in an efl context. english teaching & learning 31.2 (summer 2007): 45-87 mackey, julie and evans, terry. 2011. interconnecting networks of practice for professional learning. international review of research in open and distance learning vol. 12.3 march – 2011. http://iteslj.org/techniques/mumford-relia.html.21/09/15 http://iteslj.org/techniques/kilickaya-autenticmaterial.html.%2021/09/15 http://iteslj.org/techniques/kilickaya-autenticmaterial.html.%2021/09/15 http://iteslj.org/articles/kitao-materials.html.21/09/15 http://iteslj.org/articles/lamie-textbooks.html.21/09/15 http://iteslj.org/articles/lamie-textbooks.html.21/09/15 register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.170-184 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 184 mumford, simon. 2005. using creative thinking to find new uses for realia. the internet tesl journal, vol. xi, no. 2, february 2005. http://iteslj.org/techniques/mumford-relia.html. 21/09/15 mustikasari, dewi wahyu. 2013. real-life activities: boosting my students’ awareness of honesty in creating genre, 2 nd english language teaching literature and translation international conference proceedings, pp. 168-176 ozturk, hayriye tugba. 2015. examining value change in moocs in the scope of connectivism and open educational resources movement. international review of research in open and distributed learning volume 16, number 5 september 2015 richards, jack. c. 2001. curriculum development in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. tan, oon-seng. 2003. problem-based learning innovation: using problems to power learning in the 21st century. singapore: gale cengage learning tan, oon-seng. 2004. cognition, metacognition, and problem-based learning. enhancing thinking through problem-based learning approaches: international perspectives (ed. tan). singapore: gale cengage learning zhenhui, rao. 2001. matching teaching styles with learning styles in east asian contexts. the internet tesl journal, vol. vii, no. 7, july 2001. http://iteslj.org/techniques/zhenhui-teachingstyles.html. 21/09/15 http://iteslj.org/techniques/mumford-relia.html.%2021/09/15 http://iteslj.org/techniques/zhenhui-teachingstyles.html.%2021/09/15 sigit cahyo saputro register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 119 tragedy and moral valuesin william shakespeare’s macbeth: a structural analysis sigit cahyo saputro stkip pgri pacitan jl cut nya’ dien 4a ploso pacitan adimas_sigit @yahoo.com i. irawati stkip pgri pacitan jl cut nya’ dien 4a ploso pacitan iisrohlii@yahoo.com abstract this research is aimed to find out the structural elements and the moral values of the play. the subject of the research is the play macbeth by william shakespeare and the object of research is its intrinsic elements of the play and the moral values of it. to analyze the structural elements of the play macbeth, the writer uses the objective approach that anatomizes the work of art itself without relating to external factors such as the universe, the artist and audience. the findings of the research show that (1) the theme of the play is a blind ambition. macbeth is goaded by his more ambitious wife, lady macbeth, to be king by evil way. he uses ‗the goal which justifies the means‘ to obtain it. but it causes the downfall. (2) there are two main characters namely macbeth and lady macbeth and seven minor characters namely king duncan, banquo, three witches, macduff, malcolm, fleance, and lady macduff. (3)the setting of time happens in eleventh century ; meanwhile, the setting of place happens in scotland and in england, though, shakespeare uses the setting of place in tragedy and moral valuesin william shakespeare‘s macbeth: a structural analysis 120 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 beginning of every act. (4) the plot of the play starts from exposition, then it moves to rising action and reaches the climax or turning point. later, it goes to falling action and the resolution. 5).shakespeare as author always uses the third person point of view such as he, she, and the name of the character. (6)the language that is used is dialog language in the stage and it is old classic english.(7)the symbolisms of play which are standing out are blood and darkness. (8) the moral values are divided into positive moral values such as bravery, loyalty, affection, modesty as well as honesty, and negative moral values such as ambition, atrocity, temptation, vengeance. keywords: tragedy, moral values, structural analysis abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui unsur-unsur struktural dan nilai-nilai moral drama tersebut. subyek penelitian adalah drama macbeth karya william shakespeare dan objek penelitian adalah unsurunsur intrinsik dan nilai-nilai moral dari drama tersebut. untuk menganalisis unsur-unsur struktural drama macbeth, penulis menggunakan pendekatan objektif yang menguraikan karya seni itu sendiri tanpa mengaitkan dengan faktor eksternal seperti alam semesta , seniman dan penonton. temuan dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa (1) tema drama tersebut adalah ambisi buta. macbeth, terpengaruh oleh istri yang lebih ambisius (lady macbeth) menjadi raja dengan cara yang jahat. dia menggunakan 'segala cara untuk mencapai tujuan' untuk mendapatkannya. tapi itu menyebabkan kejatuhan. ( 2 ) ada dua karakter utama yaitu macbeth dan lady macbeth dan tujuh karakter minor yaitu raja duncan, banquo, tiga penyihir, macduff, malcolm, fleance, dan lady macduff. ( 3 ) latar waktu terjadi di abad kesebelas; sementara itu, latar tempat terjadi di skotlandia dan di inggris meskipun shakespeare menggunakan seting tempat di awal setiap pertunjukan. ( 4 ) plot drama dimulai dari eksposisi , kemudian bergerak ke alur menanjak dan mencapai klimaks atau titik balik. kemudian, mengarah kepada penyelesaian dan resolusi. 5 ). shakespeare sebagai penulis selalu menggunakan sudut pandang orang ketiga pandang seperti dia (laki-laki), dia (perempuan), dan nama karakter. ( 6 ) bahasa yang digunakan adalah bahasa dialog di panggung dan itu adalah bahasa inggris klasik lama. (7) simbolisme drama sigit cahyo saputro register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 121 yangmenonjol adalah darah dan kegelapan. ( 8 ) nilai-nilai moralnya terbagi menjadi nilai-nilai moral positif seperti keberanian, kesetiaan, kasih sayang, kesederhanaan serta kejujuran, dan nilai-nilai moral negatif seperti ambisi, kekejaman, godaan, balas dendam. kata kunci : tragedi , nilai moral, analisis struktural introduction literature contains universal ideas of human interest and it alsocan be the imitation of human life. it isthe clear representation of author‘s reflection upon the reality of life. what the writer normally comprehends about literature is any writing that has power to move the reader‘s hearts or to stir his/her emotions. some people define literature as the expression of beautiful thoughts or ideas in the beautiful language. in some literary books, it is found that the use of particular literary thoughts that by means of the normal, the conventional standards are not beautiful at all. moreover, it is within the language. many examples are able to be quoted from william shakespeare‘s great literary works. the point of hisliterature appeals to the emotion and to the imagination in addition, it gives the readers the certain pleasure or particular satisfaction. the strongest emotional appeal is found in the poetry but, novels or plays (drama) also have the emotional appeal. in realm of poetry, the effect is reached through the use of words such as their meanings, sound, position, connotations, etc. in the literary works like novel or play, the representation of events and persons also contribute to the emotional effect. similar to any other form of art, literature is an artistic expression of the life or an artistic expression of the truth. in painting, the expression takes the form of lines and colors. tragedy and moral valuesin william shakespeare‘s macbeth: a structural analysis 122 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 so, in literature, the mode can be taken form the words and sounds. the setting of the story may be confined to the particular place and period. the problem of the particular individual, the underlying theme is one that is not limited by time and space. for instance, william shakespeare‘s plays or drama, though written nearly for hundred years ago, are still read and enjoyed by many readers around the world. william shakespeare is known as the greatest dramatist that creates many masterpieces in his works. the plays that become his masterpieces are like romeo and juliet, king henry, macbeth, etc. in brief, it can be stated that literature is artistic, permanent, and universal. by learning the literary works like world drama, our understanding of the world deepens. also our sense of humanity and interrelationship increases. people study that other people living in distant place under different climatic and cultural conditions may have the human problems and aspirations quite similar to others. on the other hand, the new emotions and value may also be learned that the writer of this paper would never have realized if he had remained out of touch with the foreign literature. talking abut literature, the writer must be familiar with english literature. in english literature, there are many periods such as old english period, anglo norman period, elizabethan age, etc. among the eras in english, the writer of the paper wants to take one of the famous works entitled the play macbeth by william shakespeare. the writer thinks that william shakespeare is the great english man of letters in elizabethan era. then, the research about him and his works especially in term of tragedy point of view is seldom done . sigit cahyo saputro register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 123 the play macbeth is his masterpiece and interesting to research from structural approach. moreover, william shakespeare is famous for dramatic instinct, a deep knowledge of human nature. he is able to develop the story base on the love and ambition. this research is aimed to reveal the ambition the protagonist macbeth has. but it causes the downfall and it becomes the tragic story of the play. in doing the research, he is interested in taking the topic related with tragedy. he wants to discuss deeply about the structural elements including the major character, macbeth as a tragic hero in the play and analyze the moral values from the play. we can learn and take the moral values after comprehending the play macbeth. besides, william shakespeare is well-known poet and greatest dramatist in england who is a well-know and legendary figure. he certainly had the capacity and intelligence to read the works of the great masters of the past that can be seen from his wide variety of topics in his plays. one of his famous plays is macbeth that is most valuable and great tragedy written by him. the main idea of the play macbeth is about the ambition. macbeth is an ambitious man and his wife, lady macbeth, is more ambitious. macbeth was goaded by his wife to be a king in scotland by the evil way. though, he succeeds to kill the king duncan, but it becomes the downfall of macbeth and his wife. in the end of story, he was killed by, macduff, general of palace. so, that is why the story becomes the great tragedy and macbeth is a tragic hero of the play. this topic is so interesting to be analyzed byk scrutinizing the structural elements including the relationship among them. it will be tragedy and moral valuesin william shakespeare‘s macbeth: a structural analysis 124 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 focused on the story in the view of intrinsic element. it does not talk about the extrinsic aspects and it is not only positive moral values that will be elaborated but the negative moral values as well. the genres of drama there are many thoughts related to the genres of play. each source has different opinion. according to tennyson (1967, 59), the genres of drama are divided into three kinds; namely tragedy, comedy and melodrama. by and large, shakespeare's dramatic work is traditionally and rather arbitrarily divided into three main genres: comedies, histories, and tragedies. the word ‗comedy‘ has a greek origin. it signifies a festive musical and dancing procession and the ode song on such as occasion. comedy has a ritual origin not one associated with the death of a god (like tragedy), but one conjoined with the marriage of a youthful god of a vegetation or life cult. the festival from which comedy grew was a joyous and happy one, marked by jokes and laughter. tragedy is an imitation of an action that is admirable, complete (composed of an introduction, a middle part and an ending), and possesses magnitude; in language made pleasurable, each of its species separated in different parts; performed by actors, not through narration; effecting through pity and fear the purification of such emotions. history as a separate genre was popularized by william shakespeare. one might think the genre of the history play would be more stable than that of the comedy. the history play as a genre was when shakespeare began to crate his version of english history. one includes plays about britain‘s legendary history such as cymberline or sigit cahyo saputro register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 125 king lear or plays about the history of rome like titus andronicus, julius caesar, antony and cleopatra. for shakespeare, history is an altogether mor human and murky experience. however, he simply presented some hybrid of hall‘s and holinshed‘s versions of english history. the next genre is tragedy. the word ‗tragedy‘ derives from a greek word manninggoat song. its origins are so ancient that no one now knows whether the association with the goat arose because a goat was sacrificed during the performance, or because a goat was the prize. in common understanding, a tragedy is simply a play that ends unhappily. but in the study of drama, it is customary to distinguish between that which is tragic and that which is merely sad. in tragedy, there is a sense of dignity and importance beyond that of everyday life or, even, of exceptionally unfortunate situation. a tragedy will inspire in the spectators a sense of pity and fear and that it will purge these emotions. it depends on a view of life as a partial and dependent dimension of a larger reality. it requires a belief in a world of transcendence, a world that exists and has meaning beyond the world we know and understand. tragedy is man‘s encounter with that great and ultimate meaning which the transcendent world embodies. more specifically, tragedy is man‘s casting himself athwart the purposes of the world beyond. thus, tragedy is more than a play that ends unhappily, it is also a play that meaningfully comes to grips with the ultimate questions of life, that exhibits man in his most exalted moments and that somehow leaves the spectator a better man than he was. tragedy and moral valuesin william shakespeare‘s macbeth: a structural analysis 126 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 morality and moral values as.hornby (1974: 548-549) in his oxford advanced learner‟s dictionary of current english, states that moral is concerning principles of right and wrong, the power of distinguishing right and wrong, the ability to understand the difference between right and wrong. so, it can be stated that moral is relating to character or conduct considered as good or evil: ethical: conformed to or directed towards right, virtuous: esp. virtuous in matters of sex: capable of knowing right and wrong: subject to the moral law. meanwhile, he defines that morality is the standards, principles of good behavior or the particular system of morals. morality is quality of being moral: that which renders an action right or wrong: the practice of moral duties apart from religion: virtue: the doctrine of actions as right or wrong. morality is the quality of being in accord with standards of right or good conduct or a system of ideas that fall into those same categories. a moral is a message conveyed or a lesson to be learned from a story or event. the moral may be left to the hearer, reader or viewer to determine for themselves, or may be explicitly encapsulated in a maxim. the use of characters is a means of conveying the moral of the story by eliminating complexity of personality and so spelling out the issues arising in the interplay between the characters, enabling the writer to make clear the message. with more rounded characters, such as those typically found in shakespeare's plays, the moral may be more nuanced but no less present, and the writer may point it up in other ways. moral values are the standards of good and evil, which govern an individual‘s behavior and choices. individual‘s morals may derive from sigit cahyo saputro register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 127 society and government, religion, or self. when moral values derive from society and government they, of necessity, may change as the laws and morals of the society change. moral values also derive from within one‘s own self.this is clearly demonstrated in the behavior of older infants and young toddlers. if a child has been forbidden to touch or take a certain object early on, they know enough to slowly look over their shoulder to see if they are being observed before touching said object. research method the researcher uses library research in data collecting process. there were some steps in the collecting data. the first step was reading carefully the primary data for several times in order to understand the content of the book. the second step, the researcher gained all the information related to the topic that was being analyzed in order to complete the analysis. the next method of collecting data was a documentation method; all the data were collected from international network and other supporting sources which were relevant and related to the subject matter of the research. the methods were used to determine the intrinsic elements and moral values in play macbeth. all of the data from the methods are gathered, studied, and then compiled suitably based on determined pattern. the subject of the research is play macbeth by william shakespeare and the object of research is the intrinsic elements of the play and the moral values of it. to analyze the structural elements of the play macbeth, the writer uses the objective approach that anatomizes the tragedy and moral valuesin william shakespeare‘s macbeth: a structural analysis 128 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 work of art itself without relating to external factors such as universe, artists, audience. discussion theme after reading many times, comprehending, and analyzing the play, it can be concluded that the theme of play macbeth is about the blind ambition. it is the ambition of macbeth to be the king of scotland by the clout of evil prophesy and his devilish wife to kill the king duncan.that ambition causes the downfall. it is real bad and horrified ambition. the play is a variety of underlying motifs, such as the supernatural, the temptation of evil, etc. the tragedy of macbeth is a story of power and destruction. the two main character, macbeth and his wife, lady macbeth, are driven by ambition to commit the evil actions. lady macbeth, a more ambitious person than her husband, plots to have her husband murder the king of scotland, so that he can take the throne of scotland. the ambition pushes macbeth to see all that has come before as merely prologue; the crown is his goal. what‘s past, and what must come to pass to get the crown, are unimportant. macbeth is completely consumed with his ambitions. though he does feel fear, all he can think of is "what is not" – namely that he is not yet king, but soon will be. ambition got macbeth to where he now stands, and he now has nothing but ambition to fall back on. it can be seen from the quotations below: sigit cahyo saputro register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 129 macbeth [aside.] two truths are told, as happy prologues to the swelling act of the imperial theme. i thank you, gentlemen. [aside.] this supernatural soliciting cannot be ill; cannot be good: if ill, why hath it given me earnest of success, commencing in a truth?i am thane of cawdor: if good, why do i yield to that suggestion whose horrid image doth unfix my hair, and make my seated heart knock at my ribs, against the use of nature? present fears are less than horrible imaginings: my thought, whose murder yet is but fantastical, shakes so my single state of man, that function is smother'd in surmise; and nothing is but what is not. ( act i, scene iii, 128) ambition is central to macbeth, as it can be used to justify every act – and yet the actions it encourages are unjustifiable. he is blinded by the good promised him, and feels that following his ambition, no matter the cost, is the best way to fulfill his destiny. moreover, the horrible blandishments come from his wife, lady macbeth. character and characterization nurgiyantoro (1998:165) distinguishes between the character and characterization that character indicates the person; meanwhile, characterization indicates the characteristics and attitude of the character s like what is interpreted by the readers. the characterization is tragedy and moral valuesin william shakespeare‘s macbeth: a structural analysis 130 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 imagination of character in story certainly. a character is any person, persona, identity, or entity that exists in a work of art. the process of conveying information about characters in fiction is called characterization. characters may be entirely fictional or based on real, historical entities. characters may be human, supernatural, mythical, divine, animal, or personifications of an abstraction. a character may be based on a particular archetype. character is an important element of building the play. characterization is a way of making clear about the character, as character is a creation of the author. characterization is the important part in embodying the good story that will give both mental and physical feature of individuals or figures involved in the story, for it gives both mental and physical features of individual or figures. (sudjiman, 1992: 16) in the play macbeth, the characters can be divided into two groups, they are major or main characters and minor characters. two major characters in the play are macbeth and lady macbeth. meanwhile, the minor characters are king ducan, banquo, macduff, three witches, and malcolm. setting stanton (1965, 18) states that setting is environment of its events, the immediate world in which they occur. usually, the setting is presented through descriptive passage, and many readers are impatient with these because, understandably enough, they want to get on with the narrative. the story always happens in a place and in a time. setting is sigit cahyo saputro register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 131 usually divided into two namely setting of place and setting of time. in the william shakespeare‘s macbeth, the setting of time happens in eleventh century; meanwhile, the setting of place happens in scotland and in england. moral values of the play macbeth moral is concerning principles of right and wrong, the power of distinguishing right and wrong, the ability to understand the difference between right and wrong (hornby, 1974: 548). moral values are the standards of good and evil, which govern an individual‘s behavior and choices. individual‘s morals may derive from society and government, religion, or self. reading and analyzing the play macbeth, the writer of the paper divides the moral values on the play into two parts namely positive moral values and negative moral values. positive moral values a. bravery bravery means the principle in willing to face danger, pain, or trouble, not afraid, having courage. it implies fearlessness in meeting danger or difficulty. macbeth is a brave and good general in battlefield. it can be seen when he has won the battle with his friend, banquo. macbeth is introduced as the brave man who led king duncan's forces to victory against the traitorous thane of cawdor, macdonwald and the king of norway, in a battle that could have gone either way were it not for macbeth's leadership. we learn that macbeth killed tragedy and moral valuesin william shakespeare‘s macbeth: a structural analysis 132 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 macdonwald himself in battle. king duncan, overjoyed, decides to make macbeth his new thane of cawdor. malcolm this is the sergeant who, like a good and hardy soldier, fought 'gainst my captivity.—hail, brave friend! say to the king the knowledge of the broil as thou didst leave it. ( act i, scene ii, 04 ) soldier for brave macbeth,—well he deserves that name,— disdaining fortune, with his brandish'd steel, which smok'd with bloody execution, like valor's minion, carv'd out his passag ttill he fac'd the slave; and ne'er shook hands, nor bade farewell to him, till he unseam'd him from the nave to the chaps, and fix'd his head upon our battlements. ( act i, scene ii, 18 ) b. loyalty or obedience loyalty or obedience means doing or willing to do what one is told. it suggests a giving in to the orders or instructions of one in authority or control. loyalty is one of moral values on play macbeth. macduff, the thane of fife, is portrait of loyal and patriotic person. he puts country above home and family when he flees to england and leaves his castle a the mercy of the tyrannous usurper. sigit cahyo saputro register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 133 malcolm why in that rawness left you wife and child,— those precious motives, those strong knots of love,— without leave-taking?—i pray you, let not my jealousies be your dishonors, but mine own safeties:—you may be rightly just, whatever i shall think. ( act iv, scene iii, 30 ). c. affection and love both macbeth and lady macbeth love each other. although they are blinded by the evil ambition, they are a good couple. macbeth loves his wife and so does she. macbeth accepts her guidance and advice and consults her concerning his plans. he shares his joy with his wife. moreover, he is affectionate in his action toward her and uses terms of endearment when speaking to her. macbeth my dearest love, ( act i, scene v, 58 ) macbeth so shall i, love; and so, i pray, be you: ( act iii, scene ii, 33 ) it is proved that when macbeth is told of lady macbeth‘s death, he is too weary to feel more than just a dull sense of loss and regret. though, lady macbeth is more ambitious woman in prompting in killing the king duncan and makes him in downfall, lady macbeth also loves much his husband, macbeth. she greets him in their first tragedy and moral valuesin william shakespeare‘s macbeth: a structural analysis 134 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 affectionate meeting. she shows the good portrait of woman in welcoming her husband returning from battlefield. lady macbeth great glamis!worthy cawdor! greater than both, by the all-hail hereafter! thy letters have transported me beyond ( act i, scene v, 56 ) lady macbeth my royal lord, you do not give the cheer: the feast is sold ( act iii, scene iv, 36 ). d. modesty modesty means the principle in having or showing a moderate opinion of one‘s own value, abilities, achievements, etc; not vain or boastful. in the play macbeth, banquo has the portrait of modest person. he and macbeth won the battle. and the king duncan gives the honor and praises banquet: duncan noble banquo, that hast no less deserv'd, nor must be known no less to have done so,let me infold thee and hold thee to my heart. banquo modestly replies: there if i grow, the harvest is your own. ( act i, scene iv, 32 ) sigit cahyo saputro register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 135 e. honesty honesty means the principle is held in respect, honorable. it is respectable, creditable, commendable. banquo is not only the modest person but the honest one as well. his honesty is shown in his struggles against temptation and the evil thoughts that beset him. only in sleep does his power of resistance weaken. banquo a heavy summons lies like lead upon me, and yet i would not sleep:—merciful powers, restrain in me the cursed thoughts that nature ( act ii, scene i, 06 ) negative moral values a. ambition ambition means the strong desire to gain a particular objective. actually, ambition has good moral values if it is used in right and proper aim. for example, if we are teachers, then we want to reach the higher level in a position such as headmaster or headmistress, we should work hard to reach the best achievement in gaining the position by struggling and praying. but, when we reach the position by a bad or evil ambition with short cut like bribing, the result will be bad; even, it will be a downfall for us. in play macbeth, the main character, macbeth is the ambitious person; indeed, his wife, lady macbeth is more ambitious. she is a prompter to do evil ambition to macbeth. she motivates him to kill the king duncan and the story of the play becomes the tragedy. macbeth tragedy and moral valuesin william shakespeare‘s macbeth: a structural analysis 136 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 does a tragic event by being killed by macduff in the end of story. he does downfall in his life. lady macbeth your hand, your tongue: look like the innocent flower, but be the serpent under't. he that's coming must be provided for: and you shall put ( act i, scene v, 65 ) lady macbeth to alter favor ever is to fear: leave all the rest to me. ( act i, scene v, 74 ) b. atrocity the cruelty or tyranny is a best description for lady macbeth. she is the main role in motivating macbeth to kill the king duncan. in his hesitation, she whispers that the king would be us. finally, macbeth is killing duncan. lady macbeth come, you spirits that tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here; and fill me, from the crown to the toe, top-full of direst cruelty! ( act i, scene v, 41 ) the cruelty can also be seen when macduff fights with macbeth. macduff is able to cut macbeth‘s head. macduff behold, where stands the usurper's cursed head: the time is free: i see thee compass'd with thy kingdom's pearl ( act iv scene viii, 64. ) sigit cahyo saputro register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 137 c. temptation the big temptation is encountered by macbeth. as his wife, lady macbeth has the evil ambition to tempt macbeth. by his goading, macbeth finally is crushed and does in killing duncan. lady macbeth holds him to his vow to kill duncan, telling him. this is the great temptation for macbeth lady macbeth i have given suck, and know how tender 'tis to love the babe that milks me: i would, while it was smiling in my face, have pluck'd my nipple from his boneless gums and dash'd the brains out, had i so sworn as you have done to this. ( act i, scene vi, 62 ) d. vengeance vengeance is vividly hown by the portrayal of macduff, the thane of fife. he loves his wife and family. macduff‘s love of his family propels him to vengeance to macbeth. macduff that way the noise is.—tyrant, show thy face! if thou be'st slain and with no stroke of mine, my wife and children's ghosts will haunt me still. ( act v, scene vii, 14 ) the play macbeth is regarded as a tragic story after analyzing the play macbeth, the researcher can take some reasons why this play can be told as tragedy. macbeth as a victim of supernatural conspiracy: one of the important elements of a tragedy and moral valuesin william shakespeare‘s macbeth: a structural analysis 138 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 shakespearian tragedy is the supernatural element. it‘s the witches who sow the seed of treason in macbeth‘s mind, though we do get a feeling that the thought of ‗replacing‘ king duncan was in his mind all the time. later on they even give wrong information of his impending death. the birnam wood does move to dunsinane hill & macduff who is ‗born of no woman‘ does kill macbeth who was snug due to the witches‘ ambiguous prophesies. but the blame does not lie squarely on the witches, as it is macbeth who ‗chooses‘ to murder the king. macbeth as a victim of human soliciting: it is lady macbeth who actively encourages macbeth to commit the ‗ghastly deed‘. she challenges his masculinity with a battering of arguments & a blitzkrieg of bitter & stinging words. later she entices him by saying that the blame of the murder could be put on the king‘s guards & so their crime won‘t be discovered. macbeth as a tyrant: after duncan‘s murder, macbeth would be expected to calm down. but he becomes a tyrant.he kills banquo & wipes off macduff‘s family. but macbeth becomes a tyrant out of desperation. death. he fails to defend the king of scotland and macduff is able to hand over the crown. his head is cut by macduff. it is so tragic. conclusion william shakespeare is one of the well-known world wide english authors .so, there are many writings dealing with him such as critics about him, his writings or articles and also his biography. additionally, many actual facts about him can be proved so far. william shakespeare sigit cahyo saputro register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 139 was born in stratford-upon-avon, warwickshire, england. his birth was april 23, 1564. the play macbeth is a tragedy by william shakespeare written around 1606 and macbeth, the main character, is the tragic hero of the play. the play follows the story of general macbeth, a nobleman who hears a prophecy that he will become king and is tempted to evil. finally, he goes through the downfall for his devilish ambition. references hornby, a.s. 1989. oxford advanced learner‟s dictionary of current english. oxford: oxford university press. nurgiyantoro, b. 2000. teori pengkajian fiksi. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press shakespeare, w. 1994. macbeth.london: penguin popular classics. stanton, r. 1969. an introduction to fiction.new york: holt, rinehart & winston. tennyson, g.b. 1967. an introduction to drama. california: holt, rinehart and winston. tragedy and moral valuesin william shakespeare‘s macbeth: a structural analysis 140 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.79-100 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.79-100 79 a descriptive analysis of young learners’ behaviors toward tefl choiril anwar universitas islam sultan agung semarang, indonesia choirilanwar@unissula.ac.id wa ode runi kusumawarni universitas islam sultan agung semarang, indonesia runnykusuma20@gmail.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.79-100 submission track: received: 12-05-2018 final revision: 01-06-2018 available online: 06-06-2018 corresponding author: choiril anwar choirilanwar@unissula.ac.id abstract this research was surely aimed at investigating young learners’ behaviors toward the teaching english as a foreign language (tefl). this qualitative research used descriptive method. it was conducted in sd islam sultan agung 4 semarang, central java, indonesia. the population of this research was the students of grade 5 and students of grade 6 in the academic year of 2017/2018 with the total sample was 70 students, consisting of 32 students of grade va and 38 students of grade vi. in this research, the researchers used convenience sampling to determine the sample of the research. the independent variable of this study was teaching english as a foreign language and the dependent variable was young learners’ behavior functions. the data collection techniques of this research were through 1) observation and 2) close-ended questionnaire. the results of the research, choiril anwar, wa ode kusumawarni 80 then, indicated that students had a high motivation in following the lesson given by the teacher. the young learners showed positive behaviors toward the teaching english as a foreign language, such as paid attention to the teacher’s explanation, wrote down and read the material, actively and bravely in asking questions to the teacher, and made the vocabularies list to memorize new english words. keywords: teaching english as a foreign language, behavior, young learners. introduction language is a very important tool that is needed by the people in interaction. according to pringgawidagda (2002), language is the main tool for communicating in human life, both individually and socially. by using language, people can do the social interactions by expressing their desires, feelings, and hopes. one of many important aspects of language, which enables the speakers to use it in its social function, is language acquisition. therefore, this research focuses on teaching english to young learners (e.g. “anyone under the age of 18” (copland & garton, 2014)). the objective of this study was to investigate their behaviors toward the teaching of english as a foreign language. the samples of the research were the fifth and sixth grade students of sd islam sultan agung 4 semarang in the academic year of 2017/2018. language is very helpful for young learners, especially when they are in primary school. according to zubaidah (2003), through language, young learners can connect, share experiences, and improve intellectuals, in order to their development of knowledge and language skills. moreover, as a communication tool, language also helps primary school students to understand the material provided by teachers and even assists them in interacting in their environment. register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.79-100 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.79-100 81 in facing of the development of the times, the mastery of foreign languages is an effort made by various countries to improve the quality of human resources. nowadays, english is one of the most commonly used languages in the world. the statement is reinforced by held et al., in condruz-băcescu (2013) that english has also become the central language of communication in business, politics, administration, science and academia, as well as being dominant language of globalized advertising and popular culture. according to harmer (2007), english is applied as a compulsory subject in school and included in the curriculum. english is the language generally introduced in primary schools in the world (copland, garton, & burns, 2014; garton, 2014; nguyen, 2016). “for many years now, theoretical considerations and practices related to teaching english to young learners (teyl) have been excessively investigated” (ekin & damar, 2013). in indonesia, english is taught from primary school to high school. in state primary school, english subject is taught from grade 4. meanwhile for private primary school, it starts from grade 1. in primary schools, students should at least study three languages, such as bahasa indonesia as the national language, vernacular (adjusting their respective regions), and english as a foreign language. this can be a consideration for english teachers in order to make the english teaching as enjoyable as possible in order to attract students' learning interests and make them not easily bored. as a foreign language, learning english is not an easy thing especially for students (young learners) in primary school. it is because after learning english, the students do not apply it into their daily communication (setiyadi, 2006). therefore, students will find it difficult to be learned. in facing the difficulties in learning english, students will give different responses or reactions. this shows that the teaching of english in primary school affects the behavior that will be shown by students in the classroom. file:///c:/users/lenovo/downloads/artikel%20register_june%202018(4).docx%23_enref_1 file:///c:/users/lenovo/downloads/artikel%20register_june%202018(4).docx%23_enref_4 file:///c:/users/lenovo/downloads/artikel%20register_june%202018(4).docx%23_enref_4 file:///c:/users/lenovo/downloads/artikel%20register_june%202018(4).docx%23_enref_4 file:///c:/users/lenovo/downloads/artikel%20register_june%202018(4).docx%23_enref_3 choiril anwar, wa ode kusumawarni 82 research methods as the researchers mentioned in the previous part, this research was a descriptive study that investigated the young learners‟ behaviors toward the teaching of english as a foreign language for the fifth and sixth grade students of sd islam sultan agung 4 semarang in the academic year of 2017/2018. the researchers used two kinds of instruments such as narrative observation sheet and close-ended questionnaire. according to airasian (2012), a questionnaire is a written collection of self-report questions that need to be answered by the respondents. furthermore, zohrabi (2013) states that questionnaires are doubtless one of the primary sources of obtaining data in any research. according to arikunto (2010), based on how to answer it, questionnaire is divided into two types such as open-ended questionnaire and closed-ended questionnaire. in openended questionnaire, the researcher gives the opportunity to the respondents to answer the question by their own sentence. meanwhile, close-ended questionnaire means that the respondents choose one of the options or answers that have been provided by the researcher. in this research, the researchers used the closed-ended questionnaire, considering not only about the sample, who are primary school students, but also close-ended questionnaire is easier to analyze. another method used by the researchers was narrative observation. according to burns (2010), in narrative observation, the researchers may make notes like telling the story of the events that the researcher observes by freehand writing. the researchers used narrative observation sheet to observe the students‟ behavior (activities) in the teaching and learning process in english class. according to diedrich in sardiman (2006), there are several kinds of students‟ activities in the classroom such as visual activities, oral register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.79-100 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.79-100 83 activities, listening activities, writing activities, motor activities, mental activities and emotional activities. results & discussion based on those kinds of students‟ activities, here are some indicators of students' activities in the classroom based on researchers‟ observation followed by the students‟ respond to questionnaire and the critical discussion on them. observation students’ sitting occupation while the researchers were doing the observation on january 27 th , 2018, in grade va, researchers found that before the teacher said greetings to start the lesson, few students were still standing up and did not want to sit yet. when the teacher started the class by saying greetings, the students who were standing up directly hurried to sit down to their seats. there were five students who came late but the teacher still allowed them to join the class and sit to their seats. there were four empty chairs because two students were sick and two students did not come without any information. nevertheless, the seats were left empty and not occupied by other students present that day. while observing in grade vi on february 29 th , 2018, researchers found that when teacher entered the classroom, they all have been sitting neatly in their respective seats, even before the teacher saying greetings to start the lesson. after that, the classroom door was closed and no students were late for english class. there were three students who were absent because they were sick, so their seats were left empty and no one occupied. student’s preparation choiril anwar, wa ode kusumawarni 84 after the students had occupied their seats, they prepared the necessary equipments for english lesson such as pen, eraser, notebook, lks (worksheet) and dictionary. in grade va‟s class, there were about three students who did not carry lks, so they shared the same book with their friends. there was one student who lost the pen, so he borrowed his friend‟s pen to be used. the students already had their own eraser, so they did not have to borrow someone else's. while in class vi, there was one student who did not carry lks, and they did the same thing that happened in the va class which shared the lks together. no student borrowed a pen or eraser to another friend. student’s attentiveness during the observation in both classes, i.e. class va and class vi, the researchers saw that most of the students were very concerned to the teacher in explaining the material. although in the class va there were two students who were busy playing with their chair mate, while in class vi there were two students who were busy telling stories about something beyond the material when the teacher was explaining. when the teacher gave instructions, the students paid attention and followed the instructions well. for the example when the teacher instructed the students to notice when their friend was asking or answering questions. student’s thoroughness in reading material besides paying attention to the teacher who was explaining the material, the students read the material in the lks to make them easier to understand. in class vi, researchers found that students read the material aloud along with the teacher. when there were students who pronounced the wrong word, the teacher justified. the students in the class va read the material when the teacher said they would hold a quiz. for some students who did not carry lks, they read the lks together with their friends. register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.79-100 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.79-100 85 raising questions researchers saw that in class va, most of students actively asked the teacher about the material that they did not understand yet and the meaning of english words, such as famous, south, mosque, and the market. at that time, they were discussing about direction and location. the researchers also found that there were few students who asked their friends about the meaning of english words. they prefer asking questions to their friends to their teacher. the researchers also found in the students of class vi, they actively asked the teacher about the material. the material was about describing people and objects. researchers did not find any students who asked about the material to another student. by asking questions to teachers as well as to other students, it shows that students have an effort to learn english during the lesson. they were not just silent when they had something to ask. students’ note taking researchers observed that all students wrote down the material provided by the teacher, both in class va and class vi. when the teacher mentioned the meaning of the words asked by one of the students, the other students directly wrote it down in their notebooks. students also wrote down the material written by teachers on the board. students’ teamwork capability the data shows that the student's teamwork capability is very good for both class va and class vi. va class students were seen doing the task in groups, they gathered with other friends, shifted the bench and moved to their friend's desk. they appeared to discuss the given topic among others and they looked serious in doing the task. choiril anwar, wa ode kusumawarni 86 while in class vi, researchers did not see any interaction among students to do the task in groups. this was because the teacher did not give the task to be doing in group. but when the teacher gave the question to one of the students, the other students were seen discussing and guessing the answer. students’ independence in doing tasks in doing the observation, the researchers did not see any students who did the task independently. it happened to the students of va and students of vi. they were asking other friends‟ answer and even visiting other friends' desk to do the work even though it was an individual task. students’ eagerness in following the lesson during the observation in class va and class vi, the researchers found that all of the students looked very enthusiastic in following the english lesson given by the teacher. the material was made as simple as possible by the teacher so that the students seemed enjoying the teaching and learning process. especially when the teacher provided a game that tested the students' ability to memorize the english vocabulary. the game began when the teacher gave eraser to the student who sat in the front row in the left corner, after which they sang the song 'balonku' (my balloon) together. the student holding the eraser was asked to give the eraser to a friend next to him and the friend next to him had to give it to the other student beside him and so on until the song stopped at the word 'doorr'. when the song stopped, the last student who held the eraser would be asked by the teacher to state the meaning of an english word. the teacher would give ten seconds to the student to find the meaning of the word and if, on the tenth count, the student could not answer it, then the student was asked to do funny actions and make the others laugh in front of the class. students’ automatic response to questions register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.79-100 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.79-100 87 in this indicator, the researchers found that the students had been dared to answer the questions given by the teacher. most of the students, who got questions from the teacher, answered the questions bravely. there were a small number of students who were still shy, although in the end they would answer the questions given by the teacher. for example when one of the students was asked about the meaning of the word 'halte' and that student answered 'terminal'. some of the other students laughed at that student, but the teacher continued to appreciate that student and gave the correct answer, i.e. 'bus stop'. the teacher also advised students not to laugh at their friends when they had wrong answer because they were all still learning english. questionnaire the second method to collect the data was close-ended questionnaire. ten statements were adapted from the aspects of behavior of the students in the classroom by lavin (2011). however, the researchers modified the aspects, i.e. the amount of the time that the students study, notes that the students take, the students‟ attendance, the interactions with the teacher. the researcher presents the results of the close-ended questionnaire with its figures. (1) „i study the material of english lesson before that lesson began.‟ the first statement of the questionnaire enquires the preparation of the students before attending the class. figure 1 shows the results of the students‟ response. choiril anwar, wa ode kusumawarni 88 figure 1. students‟ attitude toward english material before class based on figure 1, there was 1.6% of the samples or one student, who chose selalu (always) as the response to this statement. 23.8% of the samples or 15 students responded sering (often). for the response jarang (seldom), there were 20.6% of the samples or 13 students, who read the material before attending the class. finally, 54% of the samples or 34 students responded that they tidak pernah (never) do this statement. hence, it can be concluded that most of the students never study the material of english lesson before the lesson began. (2) „i write down the material given by the teacher.‟ the second statement of the questionnaire questioning the students‟ activities during the class, particularly their attitudes toward the topic under discussion. the response of the students are presented on figure 2 0% 100% sl sr jr tp 1.6% 23.8% 20.6% 54% f re q u e n c y students' responses statement 1 register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.79-100 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.79-100 89 figure 2. students‟ attitude on class figure 2 shows that there were 90.5% of the samples or 57 students, who selalu (always) wrote the material discussed on class. for the rest of the students, 7.9% of the samples or five students chose sering (often), 1.6% of the samples or one student responded jarang (seldom), and 0% or no one answered tidak pernah (never). the researchers concludes from the data that most of the students always write down the material given by the teacher. (3) „i attend the english class every week.‟ the third statement describes students‟ attendance on class. figure 3 shows the students‟ responses. figure 3. students‟ attendance on class 0% 50% 100% sl sr jr tp 90.5% 7.9% 1.6% 0% f re q u e n c y students' responses statement 2 0% 50% 100% sl sr jr tp 55.6% 39.7% 3.2% 1.6% f re q u e n c y students' responses statement 3 choiril anwar, wa ode kusumawarni 90 there were 55.6% of the samples or 35 students, who selalu (always) attended the class. for the response sering (often), there were 39.7% or 25 students, who chose this option, 3.2% of the samples or two students, who chose jarang (seldom), and only 1.6% or 1 student, who responded tidak pernah (never). the researcher concludes that most of the students always attend to the english class every week. (4) „i ask the teacher when there is material that i do not understand.‟ the fourth statement of the questionnaire was arranged to analyze the aspect of students-teachers interactions. figure 4. students‟ responses to the fourth statement it can be seen from figure 4 that 82.5% of the samples or 52 students chose selalu (always) as the response to this statement, 9.5% of the sample or six students responded sering (often) and 6.3% of the sample or four students answered jarang (seldom). for tidak pernah (never), there was only 1.6% of the sample or one student, who chose the option. from the description, it can be concluded that most of the students always ask the english teacher when they do not understand the lesson materials (5) „i make vocabularies list to be memorized.‟ 0% 50% 100% sl sr jr tp 82.5% 9.5% 6.3% 1.6% f r e q u e n c y students' responses statement 4 register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.79-100 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.79-100 91 the fifth statement of the questionnaire was arranged based on notes that the students take. the results of the students‟ response are on figure 5. figure 5. students‟ responses to vocabularies list it can be seen form figure 5 that there were 81% of the samples or 51 students, who selalu (always) wrote new vocabularies on the vocabularies list. there were 17.5% of the samples or 11 students, who chose sering (often) as the response. for jarang (seldom), there was only 1.6% of the samples or one student. meanwhile, 0% of the sample or no one responded tidak pernah (never) to this statement. the data inform that most of the students, to memorize vocabularies, always adds new vocabularies to their vocabularies list. it helps them to memorize new vocabularies. (6) „i study the material of english lesson before the examination began.‟ the sixth statement of the questionnaire was arranged based on the amount of time allocated by the students to read the material of english lesson. the results of the students‟ response are on figure 6. 0% 50% 100% sl sr jr tp 81% 17.5% 1.6% 0% f re q u e n c y students' responses statement 5 choiril anwar, wa ode kusumawarni 92 figure 6. students‟ attitude in facing examination figure 6 indicates that 65.1% of the samples or 41 students responded selalu (always) to this sixth statement. for sering (often), there were 31.7% of the samples or 20 students chose that response. only 3.2% of the samples or two students responded jarang (seldom) and 0% or no one chose tidak pernah (never). the findings indicates that most of the students always study the material of english lesson before the examination began. (7) „i pay attention attentively when the teacher is explaining.‟ the seventh statement of the questionnaire reflected students-teacher interactions. figure 7 informs the response. figure 7. students‟ attentiveness figure 7 shows that there were 52.4% of the samples or 33 students, who responded selalu (always) to this statement. meanwhile, 46% of the samples or 29 students chose sering (often), only 1.6% of the samples or one 0% 50% 100% sl sr jr tp 65.1% 31.7% 3.2% 0% f re q u e n c y students' responses statement 6 0% 50% 100% sl sr jr tp 52.4% 46% 1.6% 0% f re q u e n c y students' rsponses statement 7 register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.79-100 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.79-100 93 student stated jarang (seldom), and 0% or no one answered tidak pernah (never). it means that most of the students always pay attention attentively when the teacher is explaining. (8) „i follow the english class although my homework is not done yet.‟ the eighth statement of the questionnaire questions the students‟ attendance on class. figure 8 describes the students‟ attendance. figure 8. students‟ responses to pupils‟ attendance from figure 8, it can be seen that 84.1% of the samples or 53 students selalu (always) join the class. meanwhile, only 4.8% of the samples or three students responded sering (often) to this statement. for jarang (seldom), there were 6.3% of the samples or four students chose it as the response. finally, 4.8% of the samples or 3 students stated that they tidak pernah (never) attended the class when they did not do the homework. it can be concluded that most of the students always follow the english class although they did not finish their homework. (9) „i bravely answer the question that is given by the teacher.‟ 0% 50% 100% sl sr jr tp 84.1% 4.8% 6.3% 4.8% f re q u e n c y students' responses statement 8 choiril anwar, wa ode kusumawarni 94 the ninth statement of the questionnaire discusses how the students respond the teacher‟s question. the students‟ response on are shown on figure 9. figure 9. students‟ responses to teacher‟s question figure 9 informs that 50.8% of the samples or 32 students chose selalu (always) to respond teacher‟s question. there were 15.9% of the samples or 10 students responded sering (often) to this statement. for the third option, there were 28.6% of the samples or 18 students, who jarang (seldom) answer the question and only 4.8% of the samples or three students chose tidak pernah (never). the data describes that most of the students always bravely answer the question given by the teacher. (10) „i make the resume of the material in order to understand it easily.‟ the tenth statement of the questionnaire is about the students‟ technique in learning. the students‟ the response are presented on figure 10. 0% 50% 100% sl sr jr tp 50.8% 15.9% 28.6% 4.8% f re q u e n c y students' responses statement 9 register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.79-100 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.79-100 95 figure 10. students‟ responses indicating their attitude in learning based on figure 10, there were only 3.2% of the samples or two students, who always resumed the english materials. it helped them to understand the materials effortlessly. meanwhile, 14.3% of the samples or nine students responded sering (often), 27% of the samples or 17 students chose jarang (seldom) and 55.6% of the samples or 35 students stated tidak pernah (never). the researchers concludes that most of the students never make the resume of the material as the technique to understand them easily. discussion in the observation, the researchers found that, in the beginning, the students were afraid of answering the questions given by the teacher. this was due to the lack of english vocabulary that students had, so students would feel embarrassed and afraid if they give the wrong answer. students also had difficulty in pronouncing a word or when they were asked to read a sentence by the teacher. that explanation is appropriate with the statement by anwar and fitriani (2016), “primary school students have many difficulties in learning english, especially in pronouncing and understanding the meaning of the words”. this shows that the most common difficulties encountered by primary school students are related to vocabulary and 0% 50% 100% sl sr jr tp 3.2% 14.3% 27% 55.6% f re q u e n c y students' responses statement 10 choiril anwar, wa ode kusumawarni 96 pronunciation. the statement is also supported by menakapriya (2016) stating that vocabulary and pronunciation are basics problems faced by students who learn english beside spelling, grammar and sentence formation. because of the difficulties students faced when learning english in the classroom, students realized and tried to actively ask the teacher about the meaning of words, how to pronounce words or about materials they did not understand. this shows that students' curiosity was very high in learning english so that the students actively asked the teacher when they had something that makes them confused. that statement was supported by the result of the questionnaire showing that 82.5% of the sample or 52 students chose selalu (always) as the response to the statement „i ask the teacher when there is material that i do not understand‟. besides asking the teacher, the students had another way to handle their difficulties in learning english. from the result of the questionnaire, 81% of the sample or 51 students responded selalu (always) to the statement „i make the vocabularies list to be memorized‟. it shows that the students did not keep silent when they get problems in learning english, particularly on understanding the meaning of english words; they did the efforts to cope with those difficulties. from the result of observation, the researchers also found that the students had a high motivation in following the lesson given by the teacher. researchers saw that several factors caused the students‟ behavior, such as the teacher could provide a comfortable classroom atmosphere so the students could enjoy the class. besides, the teacher also conveyed the material as simple as possible, which did not make students dizzy. other factors are that the students had high curiosity, the students were also very active in asking and answering the questions, and the students loved to move around and could not stay in their seats while doing the task given by the register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.79-100 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.79-100 97 teacher. the above statement related to the characteristics of young learners that they are different from adult learners; they have a lot of physical energy and emotionally excitable (ellis and brewster; 2002; uysal & yavuz, 2015). it shows that students were not burdened with the teaching of english as a foreign language at school even though they had to learn three languages such as bahasa indonesia, javanese and english. teaching english as a foreign language did not make them lazy to follow the lesson, it actually made them challenged in overcoming their difficulties in learning. conclusion based on the discussion mentioned, it comes to the conclusion that young learners showed the positive behaviors toward the teaching of english as a foreign language at school. the young learners showed that they paid attention to the teacher‟s explanation, wrote down and read the material, actively and bravely in asking questions to the teacher, and made the vocabularies list to be memorized. the statement that the young learners paid attention to the teacher‟s explanation can be seen from the observation result that the students were very concerned to the teacher in explaining the material. the result of the questionnaire showed that most of the students always pay attention attentively when the teacher is explaining. the statement for the students wrote down and read the material can be seen from the observation and questionnaire results. the results showed that the students wrote down the material that is given by the teacher as well as read the material from the lks. for the statement that the students actively and bravely raising questions to the teacher, it can be seen from the result of the observation explaining that the students actively asked the teacher about the meaning of file:///c:/users/lenovo/downloads/artikel%20register_june%202018(4).docx%23_enref_1 choiril anwar, wa ode kusumawarni 98 english words they did not know. the result of the questionnaire showed that most of the students always bravely ask the teacher when there is material that they do not understand. meanwhile for the statement for students made the vocabularies list to be memorized can be seen from the questionnaire result that most of the students always make vocabularies list to memorize english vocabularies. references airasian, l. r. (2012). educational research: competencies for analysis and applications (10th ed). boston: pearson education, inc. anwar, c., & fitriani, d. (2016). total physical response and direct method in students‟ vocabulary mastery learning. shahih: journal of islamicate multidisciplinary, 1 (1), 2016, 83-97. arikunto, s. (2010). prosedur penelitian suatu pendekatan praktik, ed. revisi. jakarta: rineka cipta. burns, a. (2010). doing action research in english language teaching: a guide for practitioners. new york: routledge. condruz-băcescu, m. (2013). english in romania from the past to the present. synergy, 9 (1), 20-27. copland, f., & garton, s. (2014). key themes and future directions in teaching english to young learners: introduction to the special issue. elt journal, 68(3), 223-230. copland, f., garton, s. u. e., & burns, a. (2014). challenges in teaching english to young learners: global perspectives and local realities. tesol quarterly, 48(4), 738-762 ekin, m. t. y., & damar, e. a. (2013). voices from the young learner classrooms: if i were …. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 93, 602-606 register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.79-100 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.79-100 99 ellis, g., & brewster, j. (2002). the primary english teacher's guide. london: pearson education limited and penguin books ltd. garton, s. (2014). unresolved issues and new challenges in teaching english to young learners: the case of south korea. current issues in language planning, 15(2), 201-219 harmer, j. (2007). how to teach english (new edition). london: longman group ltd. lavin, a. m. (2011). the impact of classroom technology on student behavior. journal of technology research, 2 (1), 1-13. menakapriya, p. (2016). challenges in learning english as a second language. south asian journal of engineering and technology, 2 (14), 22-25. nguyen, c. d. (2016). metaphors as a window into identity: a study of teachers of english to young learners in vietnam. system, 60, 66-78. pringgawidagda, s. (2002). strategi penguasaan berbahasa. yogyakarta: adicita karya nusa. sardiman, a. (2006). interaksi dan motivasi belajar mengajar. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. setiyadi, a. b. (2006). metode penelitian untuk pengajaran bahasa asing pendekatan kuantitatif dan kualitatif. yogyakarta: graha ilmu. uysal, n. d., & yavuz, f. (2015). teaching english to very young learners. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 197, 19-22 zohrabi, m. (2013). mixed method research: instruments, validity, reliability and reporting findings. theory and practice in language studies, 3 (2), 254-262. choiril anwar, wa ode kusumawarni 100 zubaidah, d. e. (2003). pengembangan bahasa anak usia dini. yogyakarta: pendidikan dasar dan prasekolah fakultas ilmu pendidikan. universitas negeri yogyakarta. 49 the strategy to translate metaphor yunita widiyantari aba harapan bangsa surakarta jl. pakel, sumber surakarta yunita_widiantari@yahoo.com abstract metaphor is called as part of comparison figure of speech. it compares two thing implisitly without using any comparison words such as, like, resemble to, etc. as a figurative expression, metaphor requires a special treatment to translate. the ability of the translator is very much influence to the result of metaphorical translation. he is not only have to empower himself with both source and target languages but also he better has a deep cultural understanding especially about metaphor. there are four types of metaphor on ullmann version (1972: 213 216), namely: antropomorfis etmaphor, animal metaphor, the abstract to concrete transfer and vise versa, sinaestetic metaphor. furthermore, there are three criteria that should be fulfilled to value the quality of a translation viz the accuracy, the acceptability, and the text readability. keywords: translation, strategy, metaphor abstrak metafora disebut sebagai bagian dari perbandingan majas/gaya bahasa. ia membandingkan dua hal secara tersirat tanpa menggunakan kata-kata perbandingan seperti "like"(seperti) ,"resemble to"(mirip dengan), dll sebagai ekspresi figuratif, metafora memerlukan perlakuan khusus dalam menerjemahkan. kemampuan penerjemah sangat banyak berpengaruh 50 terhadap hasilt erjemahan metafora. dia tidak hanya harus memberdayakan dirinya dengan kedua bahasa sumber dan bahsa target bahasa tetapi juga ia harus lebih memiliki pemahaman budaya yang mendalam terutama tentang metafora. ada empat jenis metafora menurut/versi ullmann (1972: 213-216), yaitu: metafora antropomorfis, metafora ke-binatang-an, perubahan dari abstrak ke konkrit dan sebaliknya ,metafora sinestetik. lebih lanjut, ada tiga kriteria yang harus dipenuhi untuk menilai kualitas sebuah yaitu ketepatan/akurasi terjemahan, akseptabilitas, dan keterbacaan teks. kata kunci: penerjemahan, strategi, metafora introduction to be a translator becomes the idea of many people. the working opportunity of a translator today is so wide since there are huge demands of translating. nevertheless, the duty of a translator is not a piece of cake to do. a translator must be able to accomplish the translating process carefully. the professional one will understand his heavy assignment vis transferring the message from the source language to the target language. he also has to consider the whole context of the text in the way of form, language style, structure, texture, register, the naturalness level and the readability level. translation is an activity of transferring meaning from the source language into the target language. many experts give their definitions about translation. it was pinchuck (in soemarno, 1988:28) who was simply defined translation as a meaning transferring. a deeper opinion was revealed by brislin (1976:1) that “translation is the general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to another (target) whether the languages are in written or oral 51 form”. according to brislin, translation is a general term that refers to the transfer of idea or thought from the source language to the target language either written or spoken. therefore the core of translation is the transforming of message, meaning or idea from the source language to the target one. whereas, in the term of language style, both languages used must be appropriate each other so that it will give the same effect between the reader of the source text and the reader of the translation version. that is because the resulted translation is accurate, understandable and acceptable. meanwhile, catford (1974:20) stated that “translation may be defined as the replacement of textual in one language (sl), by textual material in another language”. in this definition translator will only change the text material or the passage in source language into the target language. besides, in the real activity translator will not only transfer the substance material but he also has to consider the language style and the culture. nida and taber (1974:14) mentioned that “translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language and secondly in terms of style”. it means that translation is the re-expression into target language from the source language, with first focus on the meaning expression and then the style of the expression as the second. the mastery of the culture and both languages used is not a guarantee that someone can be a qualified translator. many requirements have to be possesed. bell (1991:36) said “the translator must, as a communicator, possess the knowledge and skill.” it means that a translator should have a wide deep insight and also skill. furthermore, he has to master the translation theory and also has an understanding about 52 the types of translation. bell also revealed that “…the professional (technical) translator has access to five distinct kinds of knowledge: target language (tl) knowledge; text-type knowledge; source language (sl) knowledge; subject area (“real-world”) knowledge and contrastive knowledge.” in doing the process of translation, a translator does not only transfer the meaning. there are several aspects that should be taken into consideration. those are linguistics and non linguistics aspects. in translation there are two terms vis linguistics unsure and extra linguistics unsure. linguistics unsure is the language itself. it conveys word, phrase, sentence, paragraph and passage. while the extralinguistics is the unsure outside those above that are social context (register) and cultural context (genre). in addition, term is an important substance for the translator to be mastered. in certain field of studies, a similar term will have a far meaning. the word “struktur” for instance, in language field it will be replaced by the word “grammar” but in technical field the word “structure” has always been related to shape or even building. a translator who is not accustomed to the various type field of studies will find it difficult to produce the best translation. another thing that could not be forgotten by a translator is the process of translation. according to nida (1974) it comprises three steps vis analysis, transfer and restructuration. nababan (2003:24) states that a translation process is a series of activities done by a translator when he transfers the message from the source laguage to the target language. briefly, a translation process is described as follow: 1. the analysis of the source language text 53 it is done by reaading the translated text over and over again. the purpose of the reading is that the translation will understand the entire text content both in terms of linguistics and extra linguistics substances. the linguistics substance refers to all that deals with language whereas extra linguistics substance is the opposite, it is anything outside the linguistics subjects. it is commonly related to the socio cultural of the source language text which is unseparatable to the language itself. 2. transferring it is a meaning searching or the transfer of meaning from the source language to the target language. actually it is a mental process done by the translator. it is occured in the translator‟s mind. after he has the content , the meaning and the message of the text he then describes it into the target language written or orally. 3. restructurisation the last step of translation process is the restructurisation. this is the step where the translator acts to change the style form of the text into the style that matches to the style of the target readers or listeners. he will pay more attention to determine the language style such as whether the formal or informal style, the scientific style, poetic, play or novel or others which is suitable to the text being translated. moreover, the translator also take into consideration the reader design or for whom the text translates for. it is because the choice of words that used in children text is very much different to the dixtion used for adultary readers. in addition to the steps above, there is usually something that influences the translation process but a translator does not realize it. that is the ideology of the translator. it will really take an important effect to 54 the result of the translation. as the main actor, translator has the right to take the decision to any words or phrases used. in doing this, his ideology is always be a shadow that influences his job. according to hoed (2004: 1) especially in the text that has cultural content, a translator is always influenced by his certain ideology. in fact, any text must contain cultural substance either large or little in the ammount. it is because a text is described through language and language is part of a culture. therefore, to produce an accurate, understanable and acceptable translation, it is not enough to only analys the source language text. the factors outside the translation text is also important to be accounted. those factors are: 1. the text writer to produce a writer, a text writer can not be free from the influence of his educational and social background. every thought and every word he gives to the translation is a reflection of his personnal background. 2. the translator translator is someone who connects two languages involved in the translation process. it is hopefully that he is able to determine words or terms or even sentences that will be used or omitted. this is because the translator is the person who receives the text in source language and he also will have to transfer his production in the target language precisely. 3. the reader the readers will finally give their assesment to a translation. this mark will show whether the translation is qualified or not. 55 4. the norm difference the norm in one place can have different standart to the norm in other places. so that it is important for the translator to pay attention to this matter due to any norm contravention in a source text or even in a translation. 5. the culture the different cultures of both language can cause a translation product to be less comprehenable. therefore it is a must for a translator to have a wide insight about the both cultures involved in the translation process. this deep understanding will very much help him in determining the meaning inside any cultural terms appearred in the translation. 6. the topic of the talk it is necessary to pay more attention to the topic of the talk. it will lead to the comprehension of a text by the translator, text writer and the translation readers. the mastery of the main material and the theme being disccused included the specific terms that come up in the text is very important to be understood. an incompleteness understanding about the material being translated will cause difficulties in the translation process. nonetheless, the complete and sufficient understanding about what a good translation is and what should do to produce a best qualified translation must be done to result in an accurate, acceptable and readable translation. from those definitions of translation given by several experts, it can be concluded that translation is an activity of transferring message from the source language to the target language by still focus on the text type, the style of the language used and the culture. the translator, 56 therefore, has to consider both linguistics and extra linguistics aspects. discussion metaphor and the strategy in translating metaphor metaphor metaphor is called as part of comparison figure of speech. it compares two thing implisitly without using any comparison words such as, like, resemble to, etc. the use of language that contain metaforical speech commonly found on literature works such as poetry or songs. edi subroto (1991: 45) gives his opinion that metaphor is a configuration of linguistics creative power in the meaning application. ulmann (1972: 213 216) said that metaphor is created under the grounded on the similarity between two things or two terms that are the thing we are talking about and that to which we are comparing with. the first thing is called tenor and the second one is called vvehicle. metaphor is formed under certain factors. still according to ullmann those factors are because of a particular motivation, a certain emotional encouragement (to an intense emotional expression), to overcome the vocabulary lackness, to concrete something abstract, et cetera the effectiveness of a metaphor depends on the distance of tenor and vehicle. if the distance is too close, metaphor is not interesting anymore because the similarity is so real that people do not take a good care of its conotation. for example kuping gajah dan lengan kursi. we recognize kuping gajah as a name of a kind of snack which shape is like the ear of an elephant. the similarity collides each other that makes the metaphor sounds ineffective. moreover, the metaphor lengan kursi shares the same thing with the previous model. lengan or shoulder in english is 57 part of human body which is assumed to have the same shape to a part of chair that is the shoulder of the chair. the near similairity of the above examples results to the an uninteresting metaphor. this metaphor is called as the dead metaphor. the kuping gajah and lengan kursi expressions have been a cliche in indonesian language so that the relation between tenor and vehicle is not an amazing topic to be disccused. when the similarity of two substances in metaphor is vague, however, it will take the metaphor into an effective metaphor or called as the living metaphor (1972: 213-216). we can take the example of the sentence mobilnya batuk-batuk sejak tadi pagi. the phrase batuk-batuk is not suitable to put aside other lingual unities in that sentence. certainly it is impossible for a car to get cough like what human being do. the meaning deviation that appeared here will create a living metaphor. there are four types of metaphor on ullmann version (1972: 213 216), namely: a). antropomorfis metaphor. it is a kind of metaphor that source to part of human being body or the characteristics of human being which then relates to unliving things such as kaki meja or mulut gang. the similarity that emerges on the examples above is on the position. kaki meja or the leg of the table is part of the table which is used to support the table to stand up. it is together with the function of a leg which is also to stand the body up. in addition, mulut gang is the most outside part of an alley. it is practically used as a way to come inside or outside the area. sure, it also shares the similarity to human‟s mouth which is an outside body part that is used to take food inside the human‟s bod. these examples are taken from harry potter and the chamber of secrets novel and the translation in the harry 58 potter dan kamar rahasia.novel. he was scrambling back onto the chest of drawers when uncle vernon hammered on the unlocked door---and it crashed open. dia sedang memanjat lemari lacinya ketika paman vernon menggedor pintu yang sudah tidak terkunci---dan pintu berdebam terbuka. antropomorfis metaphore is in the above sentence particulary in the the chest of the drawer phrase. the use of word chest which is part of human body is compared to drawers (laci) word that considered to hace a chest likes what human have. another example will make us more understand this theory. led by fawkes, whose wide scarlet wings emitted a soft golden glow in the darkness, they walked all the way back to the mouth of the pipe. dipimpin fawkes, yang sayap merah lebarnya mengeluarkan cahaya lembut keemasan di dalam kegelapan, mereka berjalan kembali ke mulut pipa. the phrase the mouth of the pipe tries to compare part of human body that is mouth (mulut) with pipe (pipa), an unliving thing. the similarity of shape and function becomes the comparable point of similarity in the above sentence. b). animal metaphor that is if the source of the metaphor comes from the animal world for instance leher angsa (part of toilet equipment) or kumis kucing (a kind of plant), telur mata sapi (omellete), tulisan cakar ayam (chicken hand writing), tenaga kuda (horse power) et cetera. animal vehicle is used in several speech acts such as verb, noun or adjective. the usage of animal as the vehicle is since it has a resemblance characteristics in the 59 way of form and function. look at an example taken from harry potter and the chamber of secrets novel and the translation in the harry potter dan kamar rahasia.novel. aunt petunia was horse-faced and bonny; dudley was blond, pink, and porky. bibi petunia kurus berwajah kuda. dudley berambut pirang, kulitnya agak merah jambu, jadi kesannya seperti babi. the sentence uses horse-faced phrase to compare aunt petunia face with horse (kuda). in the novel, it is described that this harry potter‟s aunty has a thin body that her face looks so haggard and looks like horse face. in addition, the word porky is used by the writer as a metaphor to describe dudley, harry potter‟s cousin, who is fat and has fair pink complexion likes a pig. c). the abstract to concrete transfer and vise versa the third metaphor is a metaphor which appearred as the result of the transfer of a concrete to an abstract experience and vise versa from an abstract to a concrete thing. some examples of this metaphor are highlight and bintang lapangan (fieldstar). in this type, there are many abstract objects used as vehicles and then they are concreted in the metaforical meanings. in the word for word translation, the word highlight means an abstract bright gleam though its metaforical meaning is the main happening. this word is often used to emphazise the main news that showed in newspaper or on tv. so is the word fieldstar. metaforically it is used to show an amazing achievement and performance and it does not merely refer to an athlete who becomes the idol in such games. from harry potter and the chamber of secrets 60 novel and the translation in the harry potter dan kamar rahasia.novel we learn this metaphorical transfer. the moment the door had closed, mr. borgin dropped his oily manner begitu pintu tertutup, mr borgin menanggalkan sopan santunnya in the above sentence, the transfer appearred from concrete thing viz dropped word to an abstract phrase that is his oily manner. manner or etiquette in bahasa indonesia is something that absolutely abstract. so it is impossible to treat it such as drop or lift it. the use of the concreteabstract metaphor to this sentence is able to give a language variation so that the resulted sentence becomes more lovely and attractive. in the sentence below, the transfer of experience that happens is the the transfer from the abstract to concrete thing. here is the sentence. darkness was falling as they walked down to lockhart‟s office. kegelapan sedang turun ketika mereka berjalan menuju kantor lockhart. the word darkness (kegelapan) certainly is something abstract. it is then compared to a verbal phrase was falling which is a concrete thing. d). sinaestetic metaphor sinaestetics metaphor is a kind of metaphor that is created based on the transfer of conceptions or senses. it might be the transfer of one human being sense to another. as the example is the transfer of hearing sense to the feeling sense which resulting metaphor such as suaranya halus (her nice voice), musiknya lembut (the soft music), kata-katanya manis (his nice words), kerasnya kehidupan (the hard life), and so on. let‟s play atention to these examples. 61 from behind him, harry could hear a funny rustling and clicking. dari belakangnya, harry bisa mendengar bunyi berkeresek dan klak-klik yang aneh the last sentence uses sinaestetic metaphor in the a funny rustling and clicking phrase. the word funny (lucu) is parallized or compared to the word rustling (gresak-gresek yang dihasilkan oleh suara kertas yang bergerak) and clicking (dentang-denting suara gelas). thus, there is a sense transfer that is from feeling sense to the hearing sense. another example of the use of sinaestetic metaphor is as follow: there was an odd red gleam in his hungry eyes now. ada kilat merah aneh di mata riddle yang kelaparan. the word hungry is usually connected to a stomach condition that needs to be fulfilled or starves. but interestingly, in this sentence the word hungry is compared to the word eyes which do not have a specific relationship to stomach condition since eyes capacity is as sight sense. the startegy in translating metaphor as discussed previously, metaphor is part of figurative expressions. inside metaphor there is cultural content that should be translated. this, however, will rise the possibility that there will be an untranslatability condition. it is because the translator will not only consider the both languages used but also the both cultures appearred. related to this translation difficulty due to the culture, larson (1984:137) stated that „one of the most difficult problems in translating is found in the differences between cultures‟. the difficulty faced by the translator in relation to metaphor 62 translation is because usually the translator does not really recognize that metaphor is actually being utilized in the translated text. hence, he tends to translate the text literally without paying attention to the metaphor aspects. in order to produce an ideal translation, a translator should empower himself with any knowledge and substances that cover the process of translation. those substances are linguistics and extra linguistics substances. linguistics substancee is the language substances inside the translated text like word, phrase, sentence, paragraph and even passage. whereas the contents of extra linguistics substance are those outside the linguistics substances such as social and culture contexts and the style of the language. a translator often faces several difficulties in finding the proper meaning or at least the closest meaning to the words, phrases or sentences being translated when he discovers figurative expressions whether in the form of metaphors or proverbs. meanwhile, in the translation view, the beauty that appearred in the sourse language text due to the the use of certain language style should be transfered as lovely as it is in the target language text. the formal language style is not proper to be transfered in a relax style. moreover, the conversational style is not also suitable to have a speech language style. the miss-equivalent translation will result to a rigid translation or the worst is that the translator will create a missconception about the text. a translator is strived for determining an exact equivalent based on the contexts surround it. a translator has to see figurative expressions such as metaphor, idiom and proverb in the both languages involved in order to avoid deviation of meaning in translation. 63 the translation experts admit that they often have to work extra harder when they translate texts that contain figurative expressions. metaphor is always be a problem that have to be solved by the translators. it is because metaphor cannot be translated literally and has a high level of difficulty in the process. in his book, meaning-based of translation, larson (1984: 293) said that if metaphor is translated literally or by word for word method, the translation result will often contain misperception. the problem is due to the cultural substance of the society who speak in the source language is not always the same to the culture of the target language. moreover according to larson (1984: 17) there are some reasons why it is difficult to translate metaphor and why it cannot be translated literally. those are: a. the image used in the metaphor is not recognized in the target language. b. the topicc of the metaphor is not clearly explained. c. the point of similarity is implicit and difficult to be recognized. d. the point of similarity can be interpreted differently depend on the culture. e. there is no comparison for the metaphor in the target language as their existences in the source language. f. every language has their differences in the frequency of using metaphor and also the difference in the way they are created. remembering that the main purpose of translation is to re-express the content and the message from the source language to the target language in terms of meaning and style to gain a qualified translation, it is important to not only have a deep understanding about the two 64 languages used but also the understanding of cultural contexts of those languages involved. in translating metaphor, it is important to look at the point of similarity between the languages involved in the translation process. larson (1984: 276) gave an example in the sentence “he is a sheep”. in several cultures this sentence has different meanings based on the its local cultural context. it can be translated as a person who just follows without thinking or in other culture that sentence is translated as a young fellow waiting for girls to follow him, and many more. to overcome this phenomena larson (1984: 276) mentioned five ways to translate metaphor as follow: a. the metaphor is maintained. this method is used when the metaphor looks clear and natural for the readers. b. the metaphor can be translated as simile by adding some words such as like, as if, resemble and so on. c. the metaphor of the source language is transfered to the metaphor in the target language which has the same meaning. d. the metaphor will be maintained by explaining the meaning or adding the topic of the talk or the point of similarity. e. the meaning of the metaphor is explained without using its metaforical image. almost similar to larson‟s opinion, another expert, newmark (1981: 88-91), proposed seven manners to translate metaphor, namely: a. to reproduce the same image in the target language. it has a certain requirement that is the image used has a propotional frequency and usage in the appropriate style. 65 b. to change the image in the source language into a standart image in the target language which is not contrast to the target language culture but as metaphor (stock metaphor), proverb et cetera. c. to translate metaphor with simile by maintaining the image. d. to translate metaphor or simile with simile but by adding the meaning or sometimes translate metaphor with metaphor plus the meaning. e. to change metaphor to be a meaning. f. to omit it. when the metaphor is up side down or unneedfull the translator can omit it with the meaning component. g. to combine the metaphor with the meaning in relation to both solutions given by larson and newmark, a translator will be easier to do his job especially when he meets any text with metaphor content. those opinions above can be a guideline for a translator to transfer the exact message and meaning of the metaphor texts. the border and limitation are clear enough to support a translator to overcome his problem that usually come in translating metaphor. assessing the quality of translation assessing the quality of a translation is done to jugde “how good” a translation is. it also means how to criticize a translation work.. to be able to criticize someone has to have a wide knowledge and ability. schutlle in nababan (1997: 76) said that there are several ccriteria to be a translation work critic. he must master the source and target languages. he also has to understand the difference of linguistics perception in both source language and target language. in addition he has to be very familiar to the aesthetics of those two languages. finally he has to have a 66 deep wide knowledge about the material he is criticizing in relation to this translation assessment, larson (1984:482) mentioned that a translation should be evaluated to ensure the level of accuracy, the clearity and also the naturalness it got. meanwhile according to nababan (2003:86) a research about translation quality comprises three things, namely: (1) the accuracy of the message transfer, (2) the accuracy of message expression in target language, and (3) the naturalness of the translation language. as a consequence of both opinions above, there are three criteria that should be fulfilled to value the quality of a translation viz the accuracy, the acceptability, and the text readability. the accuracy the accuracy of a translation is related to how deep the content of the source language text is correctly transferred in the target language (nababan, 2004:61). when a message from the source language is well and exactly delivered in the target language it is said that the translation has covered the accurate substance. an accurate translation is a translation that is far from language mistake and also be able to communicate its content from its former language to the new one precisely. many translators keep their translations accurate by positioning themselves more in the source language side. when the translation is not accurate it will turn to less or even in-accurate. in metaphorical translation, a translation is classified into accurate when the metaphorical meaning in the target language can be transferred precisely in the metaphorical meaning in the target language. furthermore, when the point of similarity in the source language 67 metaphor is found and used in the target language metaphor with the same meaning then this translation is named as accurate. with such limitations, translating metaphor sounds more difficult to do and it will be a challenge for the translators. the acceptability a good translation is translation that acceptable by the target language readers. acceptability requires that a sequence of sentences be acceptable to the intended audience in order to qualify as a text (rekmana in yuwono, 2005:53). it means that the acceptabilit has a tight relation to the text readers aspect. when reading a text, a reader tries to comprehend it best. he will understand every single sentence that builds the text. he will also connect the understanding that is developed from the series of sentences that must be in associated to its situational context. if then the readers find any sentences which is miss to the undestanding given and are unusal in their language, it means that text is not the acceptable one. the acceptability aspect also values the logical side of a translation in the target language. a simple example of an unacceptable translation in target language is on the sentence i cut my finger. the translation in indonesian saya memotong jari saya is accurate. however, the sentence is unacceptable because it is not logic for someone to cut his own finger on purpose. the acceptable translation to this is jari saya terpotong. there is an accidental element happened there which causes someone‟s finger cut. a metaphor translation is considered acceptable if the meaning or message in the target text metaphor is well understood by the target 68 laguage readers. therefore, if the image in the source language metaphor appeared and used with the same meaning to the image of target language metaphor, the metaphorical translation is belong to acceptable. here is another simple example for us. in the west world, a cat is considered as the second level animal after dog. cat does not give a significant contribution in the way of loyalty, hard working and safety as given by a dog. as the result, in west culture dog is much more valuable than cat. the difference between west and east cultures takes part here. the dog‟s image in the east, in contrast, is not as high as it is in the west. in several regions such as in arabic or other islamic countries dog‟s image is even so low and it is viewed as a disgusting animal. religion perspective becomes the main reason for this matter. when a sentence “you worked like a dog” appearred, a translator should be able to see the situatioanal context of the target language first before he does his job. certain values in the source language culture for dog such as hard working are not found in the east cultural context. thus, it is inappropriate for the translator to translate it into kau bekerja seperti anjing, eventhough the acceptable meaning of the sencente is kau seorang pekerja keras or you are a hard worker. the translation of kau bekerja seperti anjing is unacceptable in the target language. the readability of the text richards et al in nababan (2003: 62) mentioned readability …how easily written materials can be read and understood. it means that the readability is to measure how easy a text to be comprehend in the target language. when a text is fluently read and understood as if we understand its source text, this translation text is considered as having a 69 high readability level. from the explanation above, it is clear that the readability level is separated from the accuracy and the acceptability level. it can be, sometimes happened, a text is comprehendable and easily read but it is not correct in the way of transferring the message. conclusion in such a way, when a translator realizes the difficulty level and its chalange that he must face then translating metaphor is not an easy thing to do. the translation experts, indeed, have been thinking about certain strategies used to overcome the translating metaphor problems. hopefully, while referring to the theories proposed by larson dan newmark above, it is better for the translator to give the best equivalent to the sentence containing metaphor. references bell, roger t. 1991. translation & translating: theory and practice. new york: longman inc. brislin, richard w. 1976. translation: application, and research. new york: gardner, inc. catford, j.c. 1974. a linguistic theory of translation. oxford: oxford univ. press. hoed, b.h. 2004. ideology dalam penerjemahan. jlb vol. 2 no. 1 tahun 2004. hal 01-16. surakarta: program studi linguistik (s2) pps universitas sebelas maret. house, j. 199. a model for translation quality assessment. tubingen: tbl verlag gunter narr. gibbs, steen. 1997. metaphor in cognitive linguistics. amsterdam: benjamins publishing company. j.k. rowling. 1998. harry potter and the chamber of secrets. new york: scholastic inc. scholastic. ……………. 2000.harry potter dan kamar rahasia. terjemahan bhs 70 indonesia oleh listiana srisanti. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. larson, mildred l. 1984. meaning-based translation: a guide to crosslanguage equivalent. america: university press of america. nababan, m.r. 1997. aspek teori penerjemahan dan pengalihbahasaan. surakarta. ………………….2003. teori menerjemah bahasa inggris. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. ………………… 2004. strategi penilaian kualitas terjemahan, jurnal linguistik bahasa, volume 2 no. 1. mei 2004. hal 54-65 surakarta: program studi linguistik (s2) pps universitas sebelas maret. ………………. dkk. 2004. laporan penelitian: keterkaitan antara latar belakang penerjemah dengan proses penerjemahan dan kualitas terjemahan (studi kasus penerjemah profesional di surakarta). surakarta. program studi pascasarjana universitas sebelas maret. newmark, p. 1981. approches to translation. oxford: pegamon press. …………….. 1988. a text book of translation. uk: prentice hal international ltd. nida, e.a. dan ch. r. taber. 1974. the theory and practice of translation. den haag: brill. rochayah machali. 2000. pedoman bagi penerjemah. jakarta: grasindo. sadtono. 1985. pedoman penerjemahan. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. soemarno. 1991. berbagai kesulitan dalam penerjemahan. konggres bhs jawa di semarang. …………….1998. sedikit catatan mengenai teori terjemahan. seminar sehari bidang penerjemahan. uns. surakarta. …………... 2003. menerjemahkan itu sulit dan rumit. konggres nasional penerjemahan, 15-16 september 2003, fakultas sastra dan seni rupa dan program pascasarjana universitas sebelas maret surakarta. stern, josep. 2000. metaphor in context. massachussets: massachussets institute of technology. subroto, d. edi. 1991. metafora dan kemetaforaan (analisis pada beberapa puisi indonesia). majalah ilmiah haluan sastra budaya no. 17 th. x. oktober. surakarta. uns ullmann, stephen. 1972. semantics: an introduction of the science of 71 meaning. oxford: basil blackwell. yuwono, suhud eko. 2005. analisis kesepadanan, keterbacaan, dan keberterimaan teks terjemahan cerita anak terbitan balai pustaka: kajian terjemahan istilah budaya. tesis. surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. 72 247 autonomous learning writing promoted by the use of facebook group khairil razali uin arraniry aceh jl. syechabdurra’ufkopelma darussalam banda aceh khairilrazali1976@gmail.com husnul khatimah uin arraniry aceh jl. syechabdurra’ufkopelma darussalam banda aceh husnulkhatimah.adnan@gmail.com abstract in aglobalized world, internet facilities and social media are becoming increasingly important and take a strategic role in most of human activities. one of them is in the education and learning sector. this qualitative research explored the role of a facebook group to increase students' autonomy in learning writing. the experiment was conducted with qualitative methodology to 6 students as a sample. the process of data collection is done through the media facebook group which was developed during the data collection through observation and interviews. the research lasted for 30(thirty) days in which researchers became the administrator and facilitator. from the process of collecting and analyzing the data assumed that facebook group influenced the autonomy and promote independent of students learning in writing. keywords: facebook group, students autonomy, learning writing abstrak dalam dunia yang global, sarana internet dan media social menjadi semakin penting dan mengambil peran strategis dalam segala lini mailto:khairilrazali1976@gmail.com mailto:husnulkhatimah.adnan@gmail.com 248 kehidupan manusia. salah satunya adalah di sector pendidikan dan pembelajaran. penelitian ini melakukan explorasi kualitatif tentang eran facebook group terhadap peningkatan kemandirian siswa dalam belajar writing. penelitian dilaksanakan dengan pendekatan kualitatif terhadap 6 siswa sebagai sampel. proses pengumpulan data dilakukan melalui media facebook group yang di desain untuk proses penelitian ini, observasi dan wawancara. penelitian berlangsung selama 30 (tiga puluh) hari dimana peneliti menjadi pengelola akun dan fasilitator. dari proses pengumpulan dan analisa disimpulkan bahwa media facebook group mempromosikan dan mempengaruhi kemandiriaan siswa dalam kemandirian belajar writing. kata kunci: facebook group, kemandirian belajar siswa, belajar menulis introduction facebook is a global large social media that boosts more than 100 million followers, and it is one of the fastest-growing and best-known sites on internet these days. initiated and established by zuckerberg in 2004, facebook as a network at first targeted high school and college students but it goes globally and actively gains its popularity of all people ages. (blattner & fiori, 2009). literally, hayashi (2011) has studied about the use of facebook that contributed the increased students‘ motivation and language output. she explained that in facebook students can enjoy written communication freely by sharing their ideas, via facebook status or note. they also can comment to other‘s posting, and or share link, and video as well. however even so, she just tends to see the use of facebook in general and focusing on the general language learning. learning writing in the classroom is not adequate to foster students‘ competence. therefore, the demand of autonomous learning 249 methods and techniques by learning outside classroom is increased. autonomous learning as defined by holec (cited in hayashi, 2011) as ―the ability to take charge of one‘s learning,‖ had grown considerably in the field of language education. lee (2011) stated that autonomous learning does not require learners to work in isolation; rather, they socially construct knowledge by actively engaging in the process of learning. through social interaction, learners develop a capacity to receive information, and then to create a new perspective. it means, to lead students to get their autonomy in learning, the instructors must be able to create such community that appropriate for this need. fortunately, besides enhancing students‘ motivation to love writing, facebook also provides an additional media to facilitate this need. one of the examples is facebook group. ‗facebook group‘ is a feature that is available on the social networking site facebook, where students are allowed to participate communicate and interact via post and chat for a specific purpose with unlimited number of people, and of course with unlimited usage of time. this article mainly discusses the use of facebook groups only. actually, yunus et al (n.d) has studied about the connection of facebook group and learning writing. however, their focus is only on how facebook develop students‘ preparation process in writing, which is brainstorming, before they are doing the real writing. then, they looked at the issues from teacher point of view with having the result ‗how to teach writing to els students by using facebook group?‘ otherwise, this present study would explore more at how ‗facebook group promoting students autonomy in writing learning?‘ with the focus more on students point of view. according to yunus et al 250 (n.d) method, for this study, a facebook group was created specifically for the purpose of providing students with a space where they were in control of the content and the direction of their learning, as well as providing more opportunities for students to write. the researcher merely acted as a facilitator for the group which apply scaffolding role, to give temporary support to help student move from lower stage to higher stage of development. facebook group also allowed for almost immediate feedback and fun interaction that the researcher hoped will motivate students in improving their writing. the researcher hypothesized that facebook group will benefit the students in motivating them to learn writing autonomously. facebook facebook has been a leading social media currently. facebook has been gaining market share since launched in february 2004. it obtains over eight million users in the u.s. alone and expands worldwide to eight other english-speaking countries with more to follow (yani, 2011). it started its corporation with high schools in the united states in september 2005 and followed crossing the atlantic to universities in the uk (yani, 2011). now, the site becomes one of the biggest web sites in the world visited by 400 million people in a month. in indonesia, currently stands at the second largest facebook market in the world. the fact, despite of its relatively slow internet connection compared to other countries, its rates grown rate from year to year that has been tremendously high. bucher (as cited in yani, 2011) reported the top 30 countries by number of active facebook users with facebook data from 1 st april 2011 compared to april 2009 and april 251 2010, which is showed that indonesia precisely the second stair after usa and above the uk. it is surprise when we recall back to the facebook history development which showed that uk is the second home of facebook in the beginning. however, sukmana (2011) states there are reasons statistically lead indonesia at the second place of followers facebook growth. culturally,indonesian is mostly based on sharing, communicating, and solidarity. facebook facilitates indonesian people to connect with their families, friends and collegues in their lives easily. as more and more people get connected through facebook, people are not able to refuse to join it since most of their friends had been there. in addition, the fact mobile phone subscribers have reached more than 200 million in 2011 in indonesia. it shows an increasingly trend. another important reason is the demands and interests towards facebook has led to innovative and impressive development of facebook website, therefore, it leads to attracts users through its features and functions. indeed, by the reason, exclusive network, photo-tagging, news feed, and great application including facebook group resulted to a community-based cultural country like indonesia promotes of the existence of facebook and its group allowspeople to manage communication, moreover, it gives in some way facebook increases its development in indonesian market rapidly. furthermore, facebook has successfully won the heart of indonesian people, moreover the young adults. communication on facebook group is mostly done in written type, therefore this study would like to find out how this popular media involves in developing 252 students‘ autonomy in learning writing. to somehow the students‘ autonomy in learning is totally important in learning writing. learner autonomy the origin theory and practice of autonomy in language learning emerged from knowel‘sresearch of self-directed learning (1975, cited in kocak, 2003) which defined as a leading figure in adult education, as a process in which individuals accept responsibility for all the decisions concerned with their learning. in the 1970s and 1980s the focuses on adult self-directed learning was becoming popular. then, the term of autonomy firstly was introduced by holec in 1981. it begins with the council of europe‘s modern language project, which led to the publication of holec‘s seminar report, in which autonomy is defined as ‗the ability to take charge of one‘s own learning‘ (cited in benson, 2006). however, the practical application focuses on self-directed learning and led the development of self-access centers and learner training as focal point for experimentation. therefore, as the more recent literature has begun to use the term ‗self-directed learning‘ together with the concept of learning autonomy in the context of institutional education context, it treats autonomous learning as a synonym for self-directed learning. the only distinction between autonomy and self-directed learning is clearly emphasized by dickinson (1987, cited in kocak, 2003) who said that in selfdirectedlearning, learners accept responsibility for all decisions related to their learning but not necessarily implement those decisions; on the other hand, in autonomous learning the learners are entirely responsible for all 253 the decisions concerned with their learning and also the implementation of these decisions. nevertheless, at that time, the issues of autonomous learning still involved around adult learning which is held out of the classroom-based. then, in his book on learner training, dickinson (1992, cited in benson, 2003) argued that learner often acted ‗independently,‘ both cognitively and behaviorally, in the classroom, while dam (1995, cited in benson 2003) demonstrated how principle of autonomy could be integrated into secondary school classroom without self-access or formal learner training. this then turn to the application of learner autonomy in the classroom context, which was as the second wave of the interest in learner autonomy in language learning and teaching. furthermore, allwright (1988: 35, cited in benson 2003) suggested for the re-conceptualizing autonomy if it was to be used to the classroom context. it is because, he defined autonomy as the long-life learning which was not being adequate captured by the classroom environment. this idea then was supported by the development of computer and internet usage for the academic educational purposes. this is third wave of the context for growing of the interest of autonomy in recent years. indeed, the ―tendency has been towards a blurring of the distinctions, leading to new and often complex understandings of the role of autonomy in language teaching and learning‖ (benson, 2003). language skills can best be developed if the learner develops awareness of his or her own learning, and of the strategies and styles that are available. strategic competence means being able to plan, implement, monitor and evaluate one‘s learning, and making use of all available opportunities both in and outside the classroom. 254 autonomy is often taken, mistakenly we believe, to be a solitary condition. however more and more writers are stressing the need for interaction and negotiation. dam (1995, cited in nordlund, n.d.) stressed the social dimension that ―learner autonomy is characterized by a readiness to take charge of one‘s own learning in the service of one‘s needs and purposes. this entails a capacity and willingness to act independently and in co-operation with others, as a socially responsible person.‖ therefore, in this learning, every participant is encouraged to response to each other writing, whether to appreciate it or to revise it. their participation in commenting others would be well-observed. an important part of language-learning awareness is the admission that a lot of learning goes on the outside the classroom. there has been considerable debate over whether autonomy is just another western concept that is being forced on cultures that do not share the same values. however, there have been autonomous systems successfully applied and adopted in a wide range of cultures. this indicates that the problem may be more a misunderstanding about the deep values of different societies. individual differences in learning styles, for instance, may be more important than learning strategies that have been acquired in a different classroom culture. furthermore, autonomous learning can be developed in almost any context and with any type of learner, but the context and culture have to be taken into account. autonomous learning of writing writing is a task, described by levy and olive as ―one of the most complex activities that people can accomplish‖ (dion, m. n., 255 2011). it is undeniable that the hardest skill in english learning is writing which require learner‘s competency to receipt the information, process it, and at least, produce it. seriously, learning writing is inadequate if only rely on the ―two hours or four hours‖ learning in the classroom. writing is about the long processes, which require more time, more effort, as well as more guidance. indeed, learners need to learn more outside the classroom in order to be a good writer, especially english writer. it is undeniably that the demand of autonomous learning in writing is such a crucial issue to be focused on. therefore, in this study i would like to explore on how autonomous learning of writing could be developed by using facebook group media, which is provided more space for the learning outside the classroom, but with the consideration that the learners still in touch with their social environment, as well as friends, teachers, or even english native speakers or writers. as well as a complex subject, english writing has so large scope to be covered to, and therefore would be impossible conducting research on all aspect of it. nevertheless, considering time limitation, participants‘ basic competence, i have to limit the writing scope into two authentic basic writing, that are; writing comment, and writing a paragraph. in order to help the participants learn successfully, i provided the instructional process by using scaffolding approach, which was started from the lower level to the next. in this situation, i would start the learning process from the comment writing, and then paragraph writing. to guide the participants to gain better achievement, along with those writing instruction, i provided a slight explanation and basic links, and a 256 rubric, so that they could monitor their learning, as well as their peer learning. in recent years, interest in students‘ autonomy has grown considerably in the field of language education (e.g., benson, 2003). furthermore, along with the development of internet and its usage, there are also many studies that figured out about how is the internet usage can be adopted to the learning process, or facilitated the learning. facebook as the most popular social networking site (sns) in the world now day also gained the attention of academic researchers, especially in the language learning issues. albertson (2011) studied the influence of facebook to students‘ grammatical and pragmatic awareness; he did this study among japanese learners of english that showed facebook can lead students to be more aware about the grammatical and pragmatic used in daily communication. it is emphasized by wu p. and hsu l‘s study that deal with the connection of facebook and efl learning (n.d). in their action research they got the result that facebook improve students‘ language competence, as well as improving their motivation. their research is in a line with nowland‘s study which more focuses on students‘ motivation and autonomous learning. his result suggests the teacher to not only ―teach a language, but to also inform and instruct how to study outside the classroom,‖ and facebook gladly provide it if the teacher understands to lead the students use it wisely. in addition, blattner and fiori (2009) conducted study more specific on facebook usage in the classroom activities which was also resulting good conclusion on facebook usage. obviously, if that circumstance was happening, the english learning process by using facebook will become useless. as wu p. and 257 hsu l. (n.d) concluded that the external factors, such as; ―1) audience, 2) quantity and quality of feedback from peers, 3) topic preference, 4) upcoming assignment and examination and 5) novelty effect,‖ will become the disturbance of the learning process. research design participants we conducted the research at the second grade students of madrasah aliyahnegeri (man) model banda aceh. the population of the research was 130 students. however, there was only 114 students participated in answering questionnaires. nevertheless, to get the detail of qualitative data, we limited the samples into six participants purposively; by giving them the questionnaires to select the appropriateness. the researchers distributed questionnaires to explore of how often they signed in facebook, facebook group, their writing passion, and their writing interest which is proved by how often they write a diary or anything a day. data collection this study applied a descriptive qualitative approach. it explores understanding of a central phenomenon. there were three major procedures in collecting the data. they were observations, interviews and documents analysis. the research was carried on the facebook group that the researchers created for this study purpose. then research samples were added through their facebook account into the group developed. to begin the conversation flow, the researchers started the conversation through simple and free topics started from free writing to introduce 258 them. they research respondents were free to write anything they would like to such as their activities, and so on. to support the collection of the detail qualitative data, the learning activities were done merely in facebook group environment for 30 days. the observation activities were carried out on facebook group. the learning process in the facebook group was activated through ―posting‖ as the instructional learning, and ―comment‖ as the learning response to one another. to attract students, topics posted in the group were different from regular classroom learning process. it maintains more approaching to the basic learning of writing; which is more authentic and more needed as a base of their learning writing development, such as writing a good comment on the internet, and writing a good paragraph. therefore, any of the participants‘ posting, both assignment and free posting, and comment in the facebook group were the document that would be analyzed for the research need. discussion the result of observation and document analysis the primary data for this research was the observation data from the facebook group environment, which was more detail and comprehensive. therefore, all of the participants‘ postings and comments in facebook group were data of the research. actually, according to thanasaulas‘s (2000), autonomous learning emphasized as the ―path‖ of the learning process in which the learners go through, and it was not a product that can be produced, moreover in the very short period of time. it means, it is adequate hard to measure the autonomous learning. therefore, in order to analyze and 259 measure the participants‘ autonomous learning of english writing development during one month learning activities, we adopted reinder‘s (2010) eight-stages of autonomous learning process as the patron for this measurement. each of the stages highlights the learners in learning autonomously. the eight-stages were as cycle that could not be torn up each other. those stages are; identifying needs, selecting goals, planning learning, selecting resources, selecting learning strategies, practice, monitoring the progress, and the last was assessment and revision. furthermore, in order to analyze those stages thoroughly, i will explain them separately; 1. identifying needs in this stage, before the learning was starting, the learners were asked to decide what they need to learn, and what condition they need in order to learn better. therefore, we asked them to decide the rules of this group learning activities that need to be obeyed by all of the participants. in order to stimulate their opinion involvement; we suggested 3 rules to be applied; 1) be active and participate enthusiastically, 2) be respectful to each other by using well or polite language, and 3) be brave to talk and do not afraid of making mistake. however, those rules were opened to be eliminated or accepted, as well as the full opportunity for them to add other rules that theyneed. in this identifying needs stage, only two participants (c and no) who decided what they need by adding other rules through their comments, but other participants (v, na, i, and r) gave no responses.  c: ―i should add? no. 4. do not neglect the task given by admin. no.5 not active at night always, but when the sun is not setting too 260 n often comment on and make suggestions. and that's all i can say. participation please!‖  no: ―i agree with chohaekyungevilmagnae but, sorry maybe i can't active at night without the participation of its members will be difficult to realize that learning to our liking with‖ 2. selecting goals in this stage, the learners were asked to decide what the goals of our learning in this group are. they need to know and elaborate what they want to learn, in short, what kind of writing they want to master in through this learning media. therefore, to help them think, we suggested them to learn about descriptive and/or narrative paragraph, but also with the same consideration that they might choose and decide their own. however, they had to elaborate why they need to learn and how. 3. planning of learning at this stage, there were no other participants were responding, the conclusion that other participants also agreed with those needs and goals that had been settled by c and no. therefore, the learning process was started. it began with the writing comment learning. we posted a brief basic knowledge about how to write a good comment on the internet. then, they explored their writing comment competency by commenting on other people‘s english posting, and reported them to the group, as well as their analysis of other comments in that posting. then, every of them had to comment and revise each other report about writing comment. trying to understand the postings and the link given about comment, all of the participants have their own way in learning, as well as their strategy to plan their own learning. the participants wrote a 261 reflection on the problem, the feeling toward the learning, etc. one of the participant reflected as follows; ―i like study about write comment, because i can know new vocabulary from other, but sometimes i can't understand all‖ nevertheless, in the next learning topic, learning about writing paragraph, almost all of the participants wrote their reflection about learning of writing paragraph. in this reflection writing section, a participant, v reflected based on the reflection guideline, but she misunderstood the ―planning learning‖ meaning in this context which was talking about the planning about how to learn the materials, but she talked about ―the future plan.‖ she explained about her future plans as ―2. my plan after this i can learn to practice in daily life and i plan one more i want to learn to speak like a tourist, they understand my language and i can understand their language as well.‖ fortunately, in this turn c understood the instruction well, but she wrote shorter reflection than the previous one. there are only several questions were covered in no‘s reflection, but it was very confusing answer about planning learning question; “lesson planning is done well, but to realize in need of sacrifice and hard work of both the recipient and the giver. not all of the planning we can do well or according to plan lots of obstacles in this regard occurred.” 4. selecting resources the learners selected their own learning sources. the participants were free to check and search any others as many as they wanted to. according to the explanation in stage 3, at this stage, there were only three participants (c, v, and no) explained their selecting resource 262 process, while two others (na and i) were only talking about their feeling and one participant was giving no response. in this stage, c elaborated that she did not visit any other link because she felt that the link given was adequate for her learning as follows; otherwise, v said that she visit other link to help her understand what she read in the given link, as she said ―i've also seen other people's links, if i am unsure of my mind, i saw it aims to correct my mistakes.‖ however, unluckily, she did not mention the links she had visited to. this is in accordance with no‘s thought, which was visiting other links because she thought that learning something was not enough by visiting one link, as she said “of course because we can understand the learning of a variety of things not just one link only goal that we get more banyak pengetahuan.” 263 5. selecting learning strategies. the detail of those three participants‘ learning strategies were c elaborated in her first reflection that her learning strategies were by speaking, reading, writing, and listening, but in the second reflection she wrote that arranging time is her strategy in learning, as she said “to arrange a time to learn.” otherwise, v explained that her learning strategies was by trying to understand the materials giving by guessing and if she failed to guest, she would ask me directly, and she really did it, as she said “i am attempting guessing yourself what tasks the teacher, if i do not understand also recently asked directly at the teacher.” the last is no, which was writing her learning strategies by trying to find the meaning of the material, and therefore she tried to look at the digital dictionary, alfa link, and asking her friends, and very rare she asked me. 6. practice in this stage, the learners are asked to practice their learning by writing based on the task given.the task that was given had been designed based on the autonomous learning development consideration. therefore, their participation in fulfilling the task by writing showed how their autonomous learning in writing developed. to help them practice writing, in the beginning of the learning, i asked the participants to do free writing about themselves as the introduction. for this activity, all of the participants (c, v, na, no, i, and r) were participating very well. indeed, before the learning was started, three participants (c, no, and v) had been starting writing by asking other participants‘ condition and/or just saying hello and good night, and na also participated commenting on those posting. furthermore, in the 264 activity of ―how to write a good comment‖ material posted the participants practiced writing comment by exploring comments of other people outside the group and posted its report in the group, even though those posting did not meet the deadline that had been settled together before. however, there are two participants (c and r) who were merely analyzing other people‘s comment, but they did not providing any comment in that posting. 7. monitoring progress the ―monitoring progress‖ not only can be explored through the ―seen check,‖ it also can be seen from their opinion about the learning. therewas one participant (c) who showed her opinion about the writing comment learning, as she said “oh come on guys .... please, further comments.. do not be quiet like this.. i'm bored -_-“ interestingly 100% students participated at this stages, but with the detail that 69% of participant were highly participated observing others‘ posting, and only 15% who were critically giving opinion about the learning progress and 52% were participating well, because they missed the last 5 posting and they did not give any opinion through the learning progress. 8. assessment and revision. in this last stage, the learners were asked to assess their peers learning as well as theirs. therefore, their feedbacks for other participants were observed through their comments, but the feedbacks that assess others‘ posting will only be counted. in this stage, the participants‘ participation decreased than previous stages. there were only three participants (c, v and r) who provided feedback to assess other participants‘ posting, but others were 265 giving none. however, each of them only wrote one feedback in each learning step; c only wrote one feedback for writing comment learning in no‘s posting, but she did not provide any feedback for the writing paragraph learning. otherwise, v and r did not provide any assessment feedback in writing comment learning, but they gave a feedback for their pair in the writing paragraph learning. furthermore, after assessment process (assessing others‘ posting and their own posting) the participants were asked to revise their posting according to the assessment. nevertheless, for the revision process, only one participant (v) who did; she revised her paragraph, and others did none; even i and no whose paragraph was revised by the participants above. data interpretation the result of facebook group observation and document analysis shows that facebook group media promotes students autonomous learning. the ―practice‖ stages are considered as the main stages in writing learning, where all of the participants (100%) fully engaged participating. all of the participants actively practice writing. in addition, all of the participants also showed full involvement in monitoring the progress. in addition, the interviews data exposed participants enjoy the learning process and the practice through media (facebook group). of six other stages, the participants showed different level of participation. where for ―selecting resources, selecting learning strategies‖, and assessment, there were only three participants showed the engagement, and for ―planning learning, setting goals, and identifying needs‖ there were only two participants showed the involvement. 266 nevertheless, from the facebook observation and document analysis, there is one participant (c) who was actively participated in the group, and fulfilled all of the eight stages of autonomous learning, but she did not realized that the facebook group had promote her to learn writing autonomously. it can be seen from her interview answer that “the learning activity we had done in the group was not motivated me to love english writing.” otherwise, other participants‘ participation level is; v fulfilled 6 stages, no fulfilled 5 stages, r fulfilled 3, and the last na and i fulfilled 2 stages. in fact, the interviews data reflected the only factor of their problem in participating the learning in the group is the timing which students had timing conflict between participating in the research and completing the school assignments. since ―selecting goals, selecting learning, and assessment‖ had to be written in their reflection and it was done in the last time of the learning, it was approaching to their final examination timing and therefore they could not participate actively. the participants stated that they love this type of learning which is more fun and relax. even r and ―i‖ that was fulfilling only two stages, they answered that they loved this kind of learning which was providing a lot advantages, especially for developing their english vocabulary, writing comment, and writing a paragraph. indeed, ―i‖ showed high enthusiasm of this learning and said that she wanted to be a member in other facebook groups that provides english learning. actually her answer and the participation in the group were contradictory, but then she explained that she got problem in accessing the internet connection. therefore, it can be concluded that the facebook group promote 267 students‘ autonomy in learning writing, even though it was not significant. conclusion this study concludes that the facebook group promoted students‘ autonomy in learning english writing. it promotes students to practice writing more often, and also promotes students monitor the learning process. one of the reasons that the learners felt learning writing in the facebook group as more fun and relax compared to routine classroom situation. however, for the selecting learning resources, selecting learning strategies, assessment, identifying needs, and setting goals the learners suffered from difficulty due to final examination and school assignments of students. therefore, it is urgent to consider facebook group as a media in learning language mainly. the fact that it could promote autonomy; 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issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.37-58 37 utilization of edmodo as an online tool in efl writing class to increase students’ writing ability m. zaini miftah english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, iain palangka raya miftahmzaini@gmail.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.37-58 submission track: received: 09-11-2017 final revision: 30-05--2018 available online: 01-06-2018 corresponding author: m. zaini miftah miftahmzaini@gmail.com abstract this article reports the results of investigation on the utilization of edmodo as an online tool in efl writing class to increase the students’ ability in producing an argumentative essay. classroom action research was applied in the study. 15 indonesian efl students who enrolled in the course of argumentative writing became the participants of the study. observation, writing task, questionnaire, and field notes were used for the data collection. the data obtained were categorized into qualitative and quantitative data. the collected data were then analyzed for the conclusion drawn. the results show that the utilization of edmodo in efl writing class could significantly increase the students’ ability in producing an argumentative essay in the cycle 2. the appropriate teaching procedures are; prepare the teaching materials, introduce edmodo, guide students to get ready to use edmodo, give an opportunity to students to get in the edmodo group, train students to use edmodo group, group students in the small group via edmodo, give students writing tasks through mailto:miftahmzaini@gmail.com m. zaini miftah 38 edmodo, provide a guideline and tell students to follow the guideline to access their small group, ask students to post their first drafts of an argumentative essay on their small groups, ask students to give feedback on their peers’ works, ask students to revise their drafts of the argumentative essay based on the their peers’ feedback and teacher, and ask students to post their final products of an argumentative essay on their edmodo account. keywords: edmodo, online tool, efl writing class, writing ability, argumentative essay introduction the study addresses the question of how edmodo as an online tool in writing class of english as a foreign language (efl) can improve students’ ability in writing an argumentative essay. the researcher expects to contribute to knowledge theoretically and practically. theoretically, it was expected to support the theory of the use of edmodo in the teaching of writing specifically in the development of utilization of edmodo in the writing teaching of efl. meanwhile, practically, teachers can get benefits from edmodo as an online tool or e-learning community that could be as one of the alternative ways in efl writing class. also, the students could be engaged in writing activities collaboratively in order that their writing ability improves. in the teaching and learning of english as a foreign language, information and communication technology (ict) is widely used. ict has become an important aspect of life and its various types have been established in different parts of life such as in education field (cahyono, 2010). also, the technology use of computer and internet being developed in register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.37-58 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.37-58 39 this digital era gives big influence on higher education (çobanoğlu, 2018), and the trend current technology now is shifted from the traditional way with face-to-face to the online community of practices (trust, 2015). thus, the communication technology uses such as the utilization of edmodo that is implemented via internet can be used for teaching english, more specifically for teaching writing. on the internet, both teachers and students can browse learning materials and access virtual learning environments and resources for free (kodriyah, 2016). teachers can bring students to another way of learning, i.e. e-learning, because they can access the internet every time and everywhere as their information sources (kistow, 2011). in short, by utilizing technology in english classes, it could assist teachers and students for the easier and more motivated teaching and learning process. one of the online tools or the educational social networking sites is edmodo (anbe, 2013). jeff o’hara and nick borg has designed and developed it and make it available at www.edmodo.com since 2008 (kongchan, 2013). it is free, private and secure learning network, which is similar to facebook (jarc (2010) in kongchan, 2013). edmodo is useful for both teachers and students. it provides simple functions or features for teachers in creating and managing their online classroom environment. moreover, it assists students to contact and work easily with their online classmates and teachers. this social networking device provides a secure community for the connection, collaboration and learning among teachers and students (trust, 2017). edmodo offers privacy to both teachers and their students. it is only the teacher of the classroom, who can create and manage the edmodo accounts. the access to the edmodo class is limited only to http://www.edmodo.com/ m. zaini miftah 40 students who receive a group code from the teachers and register in the group. students from other classes cannot participate and join in the group (kongchan, 2013). in short, the teacher of the edmodo english class can invite students to get collaboratively involved in the learning process of the virtual classroom community of the writing. for the collaboration process, it is as suggested by alwasilah (2006) as cited in supiani (2012), to develop confidence, authorship, and enjoyment of being parts in the community of writing, writing collaboratively should be applied in the writing class. since the edmodo utilization makes the use of the power of online social media in the atmosphere of education (ursavaş & reisoglu, (2017) such as in the edmodo classroom activities, teachers can send text alerts, messages attached with a file or a link, reply students’ messages, send out quizzes and assignments, receive completed assignments, give feedback, assign polls, maintain a class calendar, and contact the whole class, small groups, or even individual students. meanwhile, students can send a message attached with a file and a link, store and share content, e.g. a file or a link, submit homework, assignments, and quizzes, receive and reply their teacher’s feedback, messages, alerts, vote on polls as well as set their own calendar. students can communicate with their teachers, the whole class, and their small group. the only limitation is that they cannot communicate with individual students via edmodo (kongchan, 2013). with regard to edmodo used in teaching english as first, second or foreign language, some researchers have conducted studies on the use of edmodo in writing classes. holland and muilenburg (2011) studied the students participating in literature discussions using asynchronous discussion platform found on edmodo.com. it was to improve the quality and the depth of student discussion of literature in (and potentially outside of) an english register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.37-58 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.37-58 41 classroom. the results showed that edmodo successfully expanded the students’ ability to ask insightful questions and elicit meaningful responses with minimal intervention from the teacher because they gained more experience in the literature-based online discussion. ali (2015) carried out the study aiming at investigating the students’ voices towards edmodo use to supplement face-to-face way in the english language class. it reported that the significant implications of the study in english language teaching applied by the teacher needs knowledge of using tools such as edmodo as teaching and learning platform. purnawarman et al. (2016) did their research observing edmodo as a learning platform in a blended learning setting combined with genre-based approach. the results informed that it was possible to integrate edmodo into genre-based approach writing cycles within the writing class. kodriyah (2016) investigated the effectiveness of the use of edmodo based on the students’ perception. the results indicated that the majority of the students considered edmodo as an effective tool to support their english learning even though they got problem with internet access. salasiah (2016) explored students’ perception or students’ voice on online learning particularly edmodo application in the class of writing course. the research indicated that using digital learning especially edmodo in the class of writing could significantly contribute to positive change in the process of learning such as improving students’ digital learning knowledge. students can access various materials of learning writing online that enrich their horizon. the previous research focused on investigating students’ view on edmodo application in the writing class, but the current research more m. zaini miftah 42 focuses on investigating how edmodo can be implemented for the student’s writing ability improvement. in addition, al-naibi, al-jabri, and al-kalbani (2018) did a classroom action research in efl classroom at arab university. it was found that by using edmodo integrating in the writing class, the students’ writing had significant improvement. in the present study, it uses classroom action research design in different atmosphere of indonesian efl writing class with focus on the use of edmodo to improve students’ writing performance in argumentative essay writing. at the english department of state islamic institute (iain) palangka raya, indonesia, in which english is taught as a foreign language (efl). the use of technology to teach writing tends to be challenging and only some teachers facilitate their classrooms with it. in the current study, the teacherresearcher tried to implement the use of technology such as edmodo in his efl writing class. research methods type of research, data collection, and data analysis the research design applied in this study was classroom action research (car). it covers four steps – planning, implementing, observing, and reflecting (kemmis & mctaggart, 1992, p. 11-13). these phases took place in 2 cycles with 4 meetings each. the participants were 15 indonesian fourth-year undergraduate efl students, who enrolled in an argumentative writing course, particularly in english education department of state islamic institute (iain) palangka raya, central kalimantan, indonesia. dealing with data collection, koshy (2006, p. 85) asserts that an action research can apply a variety of methods to collect the data. the instruments register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.37-58 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.37-58 43 required in this study were writing tasks, observation checklist, field notes, and questionnaire. the students' works were analyzed at the end of the cycle by utilizing an analytic scoring rubric for argumentative essay adapted from oshima & houge (2007, p. 316). research procedures the preliminary study was conducted in the first week of the meeting of the course. it obtained the data through the writing test and observation. the study found that the students had been interested in learning writing and had unsatisfactory abilities in writing an argumentative essay. this happened since there was no interesting tools or ways of teaching and learning strategy to engage them in the collaborative activities in writing class. planning in this phase, the teacher developed the instructional procedures of edmodo as an online tool in writing activities in the efl writing class. in applying edmodo in teaching writing, the researcher modified the instructional procedures proposed by stroud (2010) and purnawarman et al. (2016). the modification was based on the material provided in the course of argumentative writing and the students’ need. when implementing instructional procedure for utilizing edmodo in teaching writing, the process of writing was applied, i.e. prewriting, drafting, revising, editing and publishing (miftah, 2015). in addition, the process of writing implemented the techniques of peer and teacher feedback so that the students could engage in the writing activities via edmodo as a virtual writing community. by engaging them in the writing activities the students can hopefully get involved in giving feedback on their peers’ work in order to produce better writings. m. zaini miftah 44 in preparing the classes, lesson plan was developed based on the course syllabus of argumentative writing curriculum of the university. it focused on the implementation of edmodo in the writing class. to know the students’ writing ability and see the progress of their writing ability, the students produced argumentative essay through the writing activities via edmodo. they followed the procedures of prewriting activities, writing first drafts, giving feedback on peers’ argumentative essay focused on introductory, body, and concluding paragraphs, revising and editing the drafts, and publishing the final product in each cycle. in cycle i, the students were assigned to produce argumentative essay based on the topics of their interest. meanwhile, in cycle ii, the students wrote their argumentative essay based on the topics provided by the teacher. they chose one of five topics expressing agreement or disagreement toward the given themes. topic 1 was “the future status of english teacher is assured”. topic 2 discussed about “the death sentence for corruptors to establish good governance in indonesia”. topic 3 dealt with “the urbanization rate should be minimized for the safety of palangka raya city”. topic 4 focused on “people should apply diet program should for their good health”. topic 5 addressed the problem of “the english students of iain palangka raya should go abroad for their better future”. at the end of each cycle, the students collected portfolio of their final works. the teacher, then, analyzed the students' works using analytic scoring rubric for argumentative essay (oshima & houge, 2007, p. 316). the data obtained from this instrument were in the form of scores. the criteria of success were set up in advance as a basis to determine whether the action conducted was successful or not. this study is said to be successful if it meets two criteria of success: (1) the students’ writing register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.37-58 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.37-58 45 achievement enhances, and (2) the students are actively involved in the writing activities. implementing in this phase, cycle i applied the instructional procedures of implementing edmodo in the writing class through the activities of training on how to use edmodo in writing class (in-class and online activities). task 1 was doing prewriting activities in edmodo (in class and online activities). task 2 was writing first draft. task 3 was giving feedback on peer’s argumentative essay (focus on introductory paragraph) (in-class and online activities), task 4 was giving feedback on peer’s argumentative essay (focus on body paragraphs) (online activities). task 5 was giving feedback on peer’s argumentative essay (focus on concluding paragraph) (online activities). task 6 was revising and editing the draft based on the feedback from peers and teacher (in-class and online activities). task 7 was publishing the essay by posting the final product in edmodo account (online activities), and reviewing the essays (in-class activities). cycle ii applied the revised instructional procedures of implementing edmodo in the writing class through the activities of reinforcement of using edmodo in writing class (in-class and online activities). task 1 was doing pre writing activity (in-class and online activities). task 2 was writing a thesis statement (in-class and online activities). task 3 was organizing the ideas (inclass and online activities). task 4 was writing first draft (in-class and online activities). task 5 was taking photo of the results of prewriting activities and outline and uploading into edmodo account (online activities). task 6 was post the first draft of argumentative essay in edmodo account (online activities). task 7 was giving feedback on peer’s argumentative essay (focus m. zaini miftah 46 on introductory paragraph) (in-class and online activities). task 8 was giving feedback on peer’s argumentative essay (focus on body paragraphs) (online activities). task 9 was giving feedback on peer’s argumentative essay (focus on concluding paragraph) (online activities). task 10 was revising and editing the draft based on the feedback from peers and teacher (in-class and online activities). task 11 was publishing the essay by posting the final product in edmodo account (online activities) and reviewing (in-class activities). the complete schedule of implementing the action plan is shown in table 1. table 1. research time line (within lecture activities) cycle focus/activities weeks/meeting learning mode cycle i training on using edmodo in writing class, by: introducing edmodo in writing classroom showing the procedure of using edmodo in writing class practicing to upload file (first draft of their argumentative essay): introductory paragraph and body paragraph into edmodo account practicing on writing concluding paragraph and upload it into edmodo account practicing on giving feedback on peer’s work in edmodo group (argumentative writing) giving feedback (teacher feedback) on each student’s essay. week 7 (meeting 1) in-class and online activities task 1: do prewriting activities in edmodo group by: week 8 (meeting 2) in-class and online activities register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.37-58 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.37-58 47 grouping students in the small group via edmodo (a group of 3) randomly, 5 group in total using prewriting technique (i.e. listing, clustering, or freewriting). clarifying in mind what the two sides of the argument are. deciding which side student agrees with. task 2: write the first draft and upload argumentative essay into edmodo group (small group). in-class and online activities task 3: give comments/feedback/ suggestion on peer’s argumentative essay (focus on introductory paragraph). week 9 (meeting 3) in-class and online activities task 4: give comments/feedback/ suggestion on peer’s argumentative essay (focus on body paragraphs). online activities task 5: give comments/feedback/ suggestion on peer’s argumentative essay (focus on concluding paragraph). online activities task 6: revise and edit the draft based on the comments/feedback/sugge stion from peers and teacher. week 10 (meeting 4) in-class and online activities task 7: publish the essay by posting the final product of argumentative essay in edmodo account online activities m. zaini miftah 48 (in a small group). review week 11 in-class activities cycle ii reinforcement of using edmodo in writing class week 12 (meeting 1) in-class and online activities task 1: do pre writing activity by: using a prewriting technique (listing, clustering, or freewriting). clarifying in mind what the two sides of the argument are. deciding which side student agrees with. in-class and online activities task 2: write a thesis statement by stating either your point of view or both points of view (the writer’s point of view and others’ point of view) in-class and online activities task 3: writing an outline to organize your ideas in-class and online activities task 4: write the first draft by: writing an explanatory or an attention-getting introduction, as student prefers. supporting the arguments for both sides of the arguments using references if any week 13 (meeting 2) in-class and online activities task 5: take photos the results of prewriting activities and outline, and then upload them into edmodo account (in a small group). online activities task 6: post the first draft of an argumentative essay in edmodo account (in a small group). online activities task 7: give comments/feedback/ suggestion on peer’s argumentative essay week 14 (meeting 3) in-class and online activities register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.37-58 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.37-58 49 (focus on introductory paragraph). task 8: give comments/feedback/ suggestion on peer’s argumentative essay (focus on body paragraphs). online activities task 9: give comments/feedback/ suggestion on peer’s argumentative essay (focus on concluding paragraph). online activities task 10: revise and edit the draft based on the comments/feedback/sugge stion from peers and teacher. week 15 (meeting 4) in-class and online activities task 11: publish the essay by posting the final product of argumentative essay in edmodo account (in a small group). online activities review week 16 in-class activities observing the observation was conducted in each meeting in cycle i and ii. it observed the whole aspects of the implementation of the action of teaching writing using edmodo covering the improvement of the students' writing ability and their involvement during the writing classes of in-class and online activities via the virtual community. reflecting in this stage, it dealt with the activity to analyze the data. it analyzed the data based on two classifications. the data dealing with the writing achievement in the form of students’ writing products in form of argumentative essay were analyzed by utilizing the analytic scoring rubric m. zaini miftah 50 adapted from oshima & houge (2007, p. 316). the writing products were assessed in terms of the three writing components – content, organization, and grammar. the data dealing with the students’ involvement in the writing class during the implementation of edmodo gathered through observation checklist were analyzed quantitatively based on the number of the scale checked by the observer in the observation checklist. the analysis results, furthermore, were employed to decide whether the class met the predetermined criteria of success. the result of this reflection was then used as the basic consideration to draw a conclusion whether the action stops or needed improving for deciding what next cycle would be done. results & discussion the students’ writing achievement the students’ achievement, in the cycle i, was not satisfactory yet. the mean score of the students gotten from the writing task was 68.80. this score was greater than those obtained from the writing task in preliminary study (64.40). there was an increase in the students’ writing achievement. however, the result has not met the first criterion of the succesfull learners. the indicator determined that the students’ writing achievement enhances if the mean score of the students is higher than or equal to 70.00 (it is categorized into b or good). in cycle i, the majority of the students was struggling to improve their technical skill on how to use edmodo in the classroom; consequently, they could not yet produce a good argumentative essay. they did not get benefit more from edmodo as their learning community. most of them have not yet used edmodo as a tool in their writing learning appropriately. the students encountered some problems with their tasks during writing activities register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.37-58 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.37-58 51 using edmodo. in doing task 1, prewriting activities, most of them did not use prewriting technique appropriately and they did not clarify the two sides of the argument stated in the essay and decide which side they agreed as well. in doing task 2, most of them got difficulties to write first draft and building communication on a small group of edmodo, particularly in uploading activity. in doing the next tasks of giving comment or feedback on their peers’ works, they faced technical problems in responding their peers’ works on edmodo in a small group. moreover, they did not know how to comment on their peers’ works, i.e. on the introduction of the argumentative essay, body paragraphs, and concluding paragraph. the teacher should suggest them to consult to the feedback guidelines. additionally, most of them took longer time in revising activities. even though the teacher had signed the useful feedback gotten from their peers in his comment box of each small group, the students sometimes did not pay more attention to the sign “like”. consequently, the students were not able revised properly their essays. for the last task of cycle i, the majority of the students succeeded to publish their final essays in their own edmodo account. after teaching reflection, the teacher evaluated the instructional procedures of the teaching of writing using edmodo. he revised the teaching procedures to encounter problems found in class activities of the cycle i. after doing the action in cycle ii, the students’ achievement in writing argumentative increased significantly. the mean score of the students gotten from the writing task was 74.60, higher than the score in cycle i (68.80). from the findings, there was a slight improvement of the students’ writing achievement in producing argumentative essay using edmodo in cycle ii. therefore, it met the first criterion of the study success. the m. zaini miftah 52 indicator said that the students’ writing achievement enhances if the mean score of the students in the writing task is greater than or equal to 70.00 (it is categorized into b or good). inspite of the increasing score, the students continuously made certain types of mistakes in their argumentative essays. the number of the mistakes reduced gradually. typically, the students doing some mistakes were those who were not active during writing activities using edmodo. most of the students’ argumentative essays presented better information in terms of the general statement and thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. in addition, each body paragraph had a topic sentence, which was stated fairly, clearly and accurately. their essays were fairly well organized. they were generally able to develop coherent paragraphs. they had supporting details and proper transitional signals. however, their writings still had some grammatical mistakes. despite of the errors, their argumentative essays were understandable and readable since they had good content and organization. in addition, in the writing activities during using edmodo in the virtual community, the students could express or expose their ideas dealing with writing an argumentative essay during conference time in the stages of revising and editing activities. the students’ involvement in writing class using edmodo the students’ involvement in writing activities during the class using edmodo in cycle i was fair. it is indicated by the average percentage (69.13%) of the students, who engage in class activities (11 students of the class were actively involved in the writing activities). this result can be categorized as fail since it did not meet the second criterion of the study success. the indicator requires 70%-84% students of the class or 12-13 students to engage in the class activity in order to reach good category. register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.37-58 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.37-58 53 the technical problems on how to use edmodo encountered.by the students caused the unsatisfactory level of students’ involvement in writing activities of cycle i. for instance, they got problems to upload pre-writing activities and outlining argumentative essay into edmodo account in their own groups and to give feedback in the conference activities during revising and editing stages. moreover, they could not revise their works which refer to the feedback/comment/suggestion by their peers, and could not produce their argumentative essays well after being given feedback by their peers and the teacher. in addition, they still got difficulties of making coherent paragraphs and essays. the students’ involvement in writing activities during the class using edmodo in cycle ii was good. the average percentage (83.13%) of the students doing the activities (13 students of the class were actively involved in the writing activities) indicates the result. this result was greater than the percentage gained in the previous cycle. this outcome is categorized as succeed since it met the second criterion of the study success. the instructional procedures of teaching writing using edmodo the research findings in cycle i and ii show how edmodo as an online tool in efl writing class can increase the students’ ability in producing an argumentative essay. by engaging the students in the writing class during the use of edmodo as virtual writing community, it seems that they are able to communicate and collaborate with their peers. the communication process was indicated when the students were actively using their english during writing process activities, e.g. in the prewriting, outlining, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing activities using edmodo as their online writing community during the process of the action cycles. m. zaini miftah 54 the instructional procedures of teaching writing using edmodo developed by the teacher-researcher and applied in the efl writing class were adapted from stroud (2010) and purnawarman et al. (2016) and based on the material provided in the course of argumentative writing and the students’ need. the focus of teaching writing using edmodo implemented by the teacher-researcher was on the teaching of writing which strongly engaged the students in the process of writing collaboratively. in this activities, the students can revise their works effectively based on peer feedback and teacher feedback. in relation to the writing instruction using edmodo, it was done by following the steps which were integrated within the lecture activities in argumentative writing class shown in table 1. the increase of the students’ writing ability after the writing class using edmodo the utilization of edmodo as an online tool in efl writing class with the appropriate instructional procedures can increase the students’ ability in writing an argumentative essay. the increase of the students’ writing ability can be examined from the indicators: (1) the increase of the students’ achievement in writing an argumentative essay, and (2) the students’ involvement in the writing class during the use of edmodo in the process of teaching and learning writing. the students’ achievement in writing argumentative essay is reflected by the increase of the mean score of the students gotten from the writing task in cycle i and ii. the mean score of the students in the writing task of cycle i was 68.80. it increased significantly into 74.60 in cycle ii. the students’ involvement during the writing class using edmodo shows the improvement the students’ participation in the writing activities. statistical data of cycle i informs that 69.13% students (11 students of the register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.37-58 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.37-58 55 class) involve in the writing activities. the involvement of the students increase significantly in cycle ii (83.13% or 13 students of the class). it means that they actively involved in the writing activities. conclusion the study investigates the utilization of edmodo as an online tool in indonesian efl writing class to increase the students’ ability in producing an argumentative essay. the results show that edmodo as virtual writing community can significantly increase the students’ ability in writing argumentative essay, particularly, in the cycle 2. to reach the goal, the teaching learning process applying edmodo follows 14 steps. (1) prepare the teaching materials. (2) introduce edmodo in writing classroom. (3) guide students to get ready to use edmodo by having a personal account of edmodo. (4) give an opportunity to students to get in the edmodo group by telling them “the group code”. (5) train students to use edmodo group so that they get involved in writing activities in the group. (6) group students in the small group via edmodo (a group of 3). (7) give students writing tasks through edmodo accompanied by clear instruction for each task. (8) provide a guideline and tell students to follow the guideline to access their small group in edmodo. (9) ask students to post their first drafts of an argumentative essay on their small groups. (10) ask students to give comments/feedback/suggestion on their peers’ works on the parts of the introductory paragraph. (11) ask students to give comments/feedback/suggestion on their peers’ works on the parts of the body paragraphs. (12) ask students to give comments/feedback/suggestion on their peers’ works on the parts of the concluding paragraph. (13) ask students to m. zaini miftah 56 revise their drafts of the argumentative essay based on the feedback from the peers (their friends) and their teacher (a useful feedback from their peer is the feedback that was assigned with "like" by teacher). (14) ask students to post their final products of an argumentative essay on their edmodo account (in their own small group). references ali, z. (2015). a case study of tertiary students’ experiences using edmodo in language learning. international journal of language education and applied linguistics (ijleal), 2(1), 39-48. al-naibi, i., al-jabri, m., & al-kalbani, i. (2018). promoting students’ paragraph writing using edmodo: an action research. tojet: the turkish online journal of educational technology, 17(1), 130-143. anbe, g. (2013). using edmodo to incorporate wicor strategies in the avid classroom. paper presented on tcc conference (pp. 1-9), retrieved from scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu cahyono, b.y. (2010). teaching english by using internet resources. malang: state university of malang. çobanoğlu, a. a. (2018). student teachers’ satisfaction for blended learning via edmodo learning management system. behaviour & information technology, 37(2), 133-144, doi: 10.1080/0144929x.2017.1417481 holland, c., & muilenburg, l. y. (2011). supporting student collaboration: edmodo in the classroom. paper presented on society for information technology & teacher education international conference, mar 07, 2011 in nashville, tennessee, usa kemmis, s. & mctaggart, r. (1992). the action research planner, 3 rd ed. victoria: deakin university press. register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.37-58 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.37-58 57 kistow, b. (2011). blended learning in a higher education: a study of graduate school of business, trinidad and tobago. carribean teaching scholar, 1(2), 115-128. kodriyah, l. (2016). students’ perceptions toward the use of edmodo as an effective tool for learning english. paper presented at the 63 rd teflin international conference: creativity and innovation in language materials development and language teaching methodology in asia and beyond, book 2, university of pgri adi buana surabaya. kongchan, c. (2013). how edmodo and google docs can change traditional classrooms. paper presented at the european conference on language learning 2013, chada konchan, king mongkut’s university of technology thonburi, thailand. koshy, v. (2006). action research for improving practice: a practical guide. london: paul chapman publishing. miftah, m. z. (2015). enhancing writing skill through writing process approach. journal on english as a foreign language, 5(1), 9-24. oshima, a., & hogue, a. (2007). introduction to academic writing. 3 rd ed. new york: longman. purnawarman, s., susilawati, & sundayana. (2016). the use of edmodo in teaching writing in a blended learning setting. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 5(2), 242-252. salasiah, a. (2016). edmodo in the class: students’ voice on online learning (a case study at universitas muhammadiyah parepare. paper presented at the 63 rd teflin international conference: creativity and innovation in language materials development and language m. zaini miftah 58 teaching methodology in asia and beyond, book 3, university of pgri adi buana surabaya. stroud, c. (2010). edmodo: a white paper. retrieved from stroudc2@winthrop.edu supiani (2012). improving the students’ abilty in writing descriptive texts through collaborative writing technique. journal on english as a foreign language, 2(2), 11-20. trust, t. (2015). deconstructing an online community of practice: teachers’ actions in the edmodo math subject community. journal of digital learning in teacher education, 31(2), 73-81, doi: 10.1080/21532974.2015.1011293 trust, t. (2017). motivation, empowerment, and innovation: teachers' beliefs about how participating in the edmodo math subject community shapes teaching and learning. journal of research on technology in education, 49(1-2), 16-30, doi: 10.1080/15391523.2017.1291317 ursavaş, ö. f. & reisoglu, i. (2017). the effects of cognitive style on edmodo users’ behaviour: a structural equation modeling-based multi-group analysis. the international journal of information and learning technology, 34(1), 31-50, doi: 10.1108/ijilt-06-20160019 mailto:stroudc2@winthrop.edu https://doi.org/10.1108/ijilt-06-2016-0019 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijilt-06-2016-0019 ratini setyowati register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 263 understanding barack obama’s characteristics through “dreams from my father” ratini setyowati apikes citra medika surakarta jl. kh. samanhudi 93 (sondakan), laweyan, surakarta. skarestu@yahoo.com abstract obama is not only popular as a president but also popular for his literary works. he has some literary works especially his popular books, such as dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance, the audacity of hope, change we can believe in and others. his books can insipre others. one of his popular book is dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance. in his book he tells everything about his life, his journey to some cities and countries. he describes them well and can hipnotize the readers. the purpose of the study is to know obama‘s characteristic through his book dreams of my father: a story of race and inheritance. this study is descriptive qualitative research, the method of the study is library research. the analyses and depictions in this study will be taken from books, journals, magazines, and articles that are related to barack obama‘s book dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance, beside that to complete the data the writer takes the sources from internet. the result of the study is the book reflects the character of obama. to analyze the study, the writer uapplies psychoanalysis approach (id, ego and superego) keywords: dreams from my father, chacteristics, race and inheritance mailto:skarestu@yahoo.com understanding barack obama‘s characteristics through ―dreams from my father‖ 264 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 abstrak obama tidak hanya populer sebagai presiden tetapi juga populer karya sastranya. dia memiliki beberapa karya sastra terutama buku populer, seperti dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance, audacity of hope, dan change we can believe in and others. buku-bukunya obama dapat insipre orang lain. salah satu buku obama yang populer adalah dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance. buku tersebut menceritakan tentang segala sesuatu tentang hidup obama, dan perjalanannya ke beberapa kota dan negara. dia menggambarkan mereka dengan baik dan dapat hipnotize pembaca. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui karakteristik obama melalui dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif kualitatif, metode penelitian ini adalah studi pustaka. analisis dan penggambaran dalam penelitian ini akan diambil dari buku, jurnal, majalah, dan artikel yang terkait dengan dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance, selain itu untuk melengkapi data penulis mengambil sumber dari internet. hasil penelitian ini adalah buku mencerminkan karakter obama dengan analisis menggunakan pendekatan psychoanalysis (id, ego and superego). kata kunci: dreams from my father, chacteristics, race and inheritance introduction barack obama is charismatic leader and a good listener, he wants to listen to criticism and learn from experiences. he has attractive style that can impress other people as well. he is popular for his pragmatism, flexibility, humility and outreach. obama is totally practical and no ideological man. he is an extremely disciplined thinker, very intelligent, very efficient and he is very cool to face pressure. obama has methodical and disciplined approach to make a decision. barack obama is a ratini setyowati register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 265 confident person. he said, ―i am confident to face the future‖ (walsh (2009) in setyowati (2010: 54)). the statements describe about obama‘s characteristics, his characteristic can be seen from his career as a lawyer, senator in illinois and as us‘ senator. nowadays, talking about america is identical with barack obama. discussing about obama is not only discussing about his career in politic but also talking about his capability in literature.he has some literary works, it can be seen from all of his speech in the early of his presidency could hipnotize people around the world such as his speech in chicago on february 5th 2008. beside that he has written some popular books, such as dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance, the audacity of hope, change we can believe in and other. one of that is his literature work that was not popular is his first book dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance. when he was running for the president the book was not a new book, it had been printed in 1995 but it was not really popular. it becomes popular because of obama‘s speech at the democratic national convention in boston, dreams from my father quickly climbed to the top of the new york times best seller list and sold millions of copies. dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance is a barack obama‘s autobiography. it is a kind of literature works and there are many kinds of literature works that can inspire people in the generation even for other generation. it can happen because literature is kind of mirror of the social condition where the works are produced, including the author‘s live. according to abrams (1953; 34) in his book, mirror and the lamp said that art is mirror, it is the reflection of object and event. therefore the writer is interested in studying about obama‘s understanding barack obama‘s characteristics through ―dreams from my father‖ 266 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 first book, dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance. the writer is going to study about barack obamas‘s characteristics through his first book ―dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance‖: a psychoanalysis approach. based on the background above, the problem statement of this study is how barrack obama‘s characteristics can be seen through obama‘s first book dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance by using a psychoanalysis approach?. research method this study is descriptive qualitative research, the method of the study is library research. the analyses and depictions in this study will be taken from books, journals, magazines, and articles that are related to barack obama‘s first book dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance, beside that to complete the data the writer takes the sources from internet. the object of the study is barack obama‘s first book: dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance. there are two kinds of data sources namely primary data and secondary data. the primary datum is barack obama‘s book: dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance, whereas secondary data are taken from books, journals, magazines, and articles that are related to barack obama‘s book dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance. psychoanalysis psychoanalysis is a theory of personality, which employs the view of the person and the view of society and even the total philosophy of life ratini setyowati register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 267 (freud in pervin and john, 1997: 68). in psychoanalytic theory, human is seen as an energy system, which is dynamic, and like other animals is driven by insticts or drives and operates in the pursuit of pleasure. according to rosiani (2014:1) psychoanalysis is the branch of psychological study that focuses on the personality of human being. miderop (2010: 11) in marsanti et al (2012: 62) states that ―psychoanalysis is a discipline that began around the 1990s by sigmund freud. psychoanalytic theory is related to the functions and human mental development. science is part of psychology that contributes big contribution and it is made for human psychology all this time". according to freud in terry (1983:1) in rosiani (2014:1), ―all human beings are born with certain instincts, i.e. with a natural tendency to satisfy their biologically determined needs for food, shelter and warmth‖. the satisfaction of these needs is both practical and a source of pleasure which freud refers to as sexual. rosiani (2014:1) said that there are three main issues of structural of personality namely the id, the ego and the superego. rosiani (2014:3) adds that id refers to the biological aspect and the original system in the personality. id contains the biological elements including instinct and id is the conscious physic energy to operate ego and superego. freud divided the mind into conscious and unconscious, then he filed topography of the ego (conscious mind), the superego (conscience) and id (subconscious mind) (ryan, 2011: 131). moreover marsanti et al (2012: 62) states that the personality systems (id, ego, superego) complete each other and form totality of human behavior as the product of the personality systems interaction. understanding barack obama‘s characteristics through ―dreams from my father‖ 268 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 id according to freud in hall and lindzey (1985:3) in rosiani (2014:3) the id or the principle of pleasure is the most basic system or the original personality system or innate instinct. the only function of id is to channel the insticncts so that there is no strained situation as the result of pressure of failure. id brings the individual from a strained situation to joyful situation. id does not tolerate any increase of energy that makes uncomfortable state of tension. the samples of id are pleasure, they are reflex action and primary process, the sample of relaxes inhaling, coughing and sneezing. marsanti et al (2012: 632-63) adds that ―das es or id is a biological aspect and as the most fundamental psychological layers. id contains those things that is present at birth, i.e innate instincts (sexual and aggressive), including desires of depression. id is an aspect of personality that is dark in the human subconscious. it contains instincts and desires that do not know the value and it seems to be "blind energy". id serves to achieve the satisfaction of instincts that is appropriate to pleasure principle. therefore id does not recognize the legal sense and id is trying to satisfy the desires or submit to the influence of the ego ". ego the ego is composed from the difference of the id because of its contact with reality. ego can distinguish between things in mind and things in external worlds. the ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality. according to freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world. the ego function is ratini setyowati register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 269 in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind ((cherry, 2006) in rosiani (2014:3)). marsanti et al (2012: 63) explains that "das ich or ego is the psychological aspect of personality that arises because of the need for a relationship with the world of reality (reality). ego is a derivative of id that assigns intermediaries instinctive needs of environment to find the right object in order to reduce the tention. in the development, ego grows based that the behavior is based on the principle of reality. as the executive aspect of personality, ego applies psychic energy to integrate the three aspects of the personality that arise inner harmony so that the relationship between the personal with the outside world can be a good. using psychic energy that will rise of an internal conflict or inner conflict is expressed in the form of pathological behavior and abnormal behavior". marsanti et al (2012: 62) adds that ―ego‖ is the personality system that acts as an individual steering to the object world of reality and running the function based on reality. ego is implementative personality in the form of contact with the outside world ". superego according to cherry (2006) in rosiani (2014:3), superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society our sense of right and wrong. the superego provides guidelines for making judgments. the superego represents our moral system. it strives to put a right or wrong tag on our behavior, often triggering conflict. its main quirk is morality. understanding barack obama‘s characteristics through ―dreams from my father‖ 270 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 endraswara (2008: 101) in marsanti et al (2012: 63) states that the superego evolved to control blind impulses of the id. this means that the ego is a personality system that acts as an individual steering to the object world of reality, and running the function is based on the principle of reality. ego is implementable personality, in the form of contact with the outside world. the superego is a personality system that contains values or evaluative rules (concerning good orbad) ". suryabrata (2006 : 124-128) in marsanti et al (2012: 63) adds that ―superego is the psychological aspect of personality which function essentially determines the truth or falsity and moral or imoral thing. thus, to act in accordance with the personal morality of society, superego is formed through the internalization, it means that the prohibition/external command is processed such that eventually radiates from within. a major function of the superego is seen in relation to the three systems of personality, which inhibit impulses en especially sexual and aggressive impulses, pushing ego to further pursue matters of morality and the pursuit of perfection. activities superego declares themselves in conflicts with the perceived ego emotions, such as guilt, regret and attitude of self observation and self-criticism " discussion barack obama was born on august 4 th , 1961 in honolulu, hawaii. his father was barack hussein obama senior; he was a black american from kenya. his mother is an dunham, she is a white american, she is from kansas city. his wife is michelle obama and he has two daughters, malia and sasha. obama had great educational background, through the educational background he can be sucessful. he ratini setyowati register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 271 studied at occidental college (2 years), university at columbia university in political science (1983). he continued stusying at harvard law school, in boston he graduated in 1991. he began his career as a community organizer in some of chicago‘s poorest community. he was the first african american president of the harvard law review. he was a statesenator from illinois for 8 years and he was a united states senator in 2004 and in 2007 he announced his candidacy in the u.s presidential elections. now he is an american president. obama wrote two books before being elected president. his two books are dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance and the audacity of hope: thoughts on reclaiming the american dream (manerjang harapan dari jakarta menuju gedung putih). the books were not popular but his first book become popular after it was boosted by obama‘s speech at the democratic national convention in boston. dreams from my father was reprented in 2004 and it quickly climbed to the top of the new york times bestseller list and sold millions of copies (p.2). obama‘s victory speech elaborates on a concept he had already introduced in dreams from my father and the audacity of hope: the willingness to hope for a better future as personal need and national creed, as a bulwark against pessimism and doubt. his first book has been popular and it could increase his popularity and it could support him to be the fourty forth and fourty fifth american president. therefore the writer is going to study about the using book psychological approach. understanding barack obama‘s characteristics through ―dreams from my father‖ 272 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 the impression of barack obama obama is very impressive person, obama‘s impression has been reported by kenneth t. walsh titled the power center in u.s news in june 2009. obama is an ambitious president but not overreaching. his fans like his pragmatism, his willing to listen to criticism and learn from experience. he is a new figure that can bring new things and changes for american and the world as well. as a president, barack obama has his own ways to build international partnership. he made sympathetic approach on his trip to port of spain, trinidad, and other 33 nations. he shook hands with venezuelan president hugo chaves. it shows of his humility and outreach (walsh, 2009: 13) in setyowati, 2010: 5). walsh in setyowati (2010: 53-54) added that obama‘s capital to run for presidential election, obama is a charismatic leader and a good listener, he wants to listen to criticism and learn from experiences. he has attractive style that can impress other people as well. he is popular for his pragmatism, flexibility, humility and outreach. it is totally different from bush who was unilateral and intransigent. obama is totally practical and no ideological man. he is an extremely disciplined thinker. he is a very intelligent, very efficient person, he has a tremendous calmness in coping with the pressure. obama has systematical and rigid approach in making every decision. his charm lies on his confidence which impresses the american people leading them to vote for him. moreover, his confident is an influential factor which helps him to face every bad situation. obama‘s characteristic is one of the factors that can augment people‘s interest in him. as a matter of fact, barack obama has other impressions for americans. ratini setyowati register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 273 before becoming a president, barack obama had been active for social organizations when he was in the university. after graduating, he practiced civil rights law, and represented victims of housing and employment discrimination. he also served as general counsel to social service agencies, promoted efforts to replace dilapidated other nations housing, and worked on voting rights litigation. in 1992, obama led illinois project vote, a registration drive that put 150,000 new voters on the rolls, helping democratic nominee bill clinton carry illinois in the presidential election that year (holid, 2008: 90) in setyowati, 2010: 5354). moreover leanne (2009, xv) in komalasari (2009: 63) added that, the ability to convey vision, inspire confidence, persuade, and motivate others is key to effective leadership. it means that a communicative power has to be attached with practices and techniques that will assist someone to be the most notable orator in a campaign. speech code here refers to methods and techniques related to verbal communication such as slogans, diction, or sentences that are motivating and inspiring, as well as persuading people to always support obama in his campaign. as stated by harrow (2008), a public relation examiner, obama created a strong, positive and consistent message (komalasari, 2009: 63). psychoanalysis of obama’s characteristic through his first book dreams from my father: race and inheritance. in literary works especially novel or books, characters has dominant power because through the character the author can describe about the setting, plot ect. according to meyer (1990) in marcelino understanding barack obama‘s characteristics through ―dreams from my father‖ 274 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 (2010: 24)‖character is important in a fictional work because a character helps to develop the plot. character is influenced by events just as events are shape by character.‖ obama‘s book dreams from my father: race and inheritance is aouthobiograpy, it tells about obama‘s life therefore all of the characters are obama‘s family and relatives. there are some chacters in the book namely: barack obama himself, lolo soetoro (obama‘s step father), ann dunham (obama‘s mother), maya soetoro (obama‘s sister), david (ndesandjo) obama, bernard obama, abo obama, auma obama abongo (roy) obama and otthers. barack obama himself is the majaor character in the book. through the characters, obama develops the plot of the story. he tells the story o his life through the characters. their quotes show what obama should do and have done. ratini setyowati register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 275 figure: character map of obama‘s book ―dreams from my father: race and inheritance”(carol. 2010). the characters are like in his real life and have the same names. obama tells his life detail through those characters because the characters influenced obama‘s characteristic. it can be seen through the dialogue that are always remembered and applied by obama. ann durham (1942–1995): ‗―if you want to grow into a human being,‖ she would say to me, ―you‘re going to need some values‖‘ (p.49). barack obama senior (1936–1982): ‗… the important thing is that you know your people, and also that you know where you belong‘ (p.114). it is obvious that obama takes every values in his part of life, he can be a president of the harvard law review, illinois senator to american president. he applies every value that has been got and he appreciates everything that has been found. obama describes his journey as black american from one country to others that‘s why he has found racism and discrimination as well. stanley dunham (1918–1992): ‗racism was part of that past, his instincts told him, part of convention and respectability and status, the smirks and whispers and gossip that had kept him on the outside looking in‘ (p.21) (carol,2010). beside that suharianto in sangidu (2004:132) in (mahendra: 2010: 10) says, characters is the picture of the story both physically and mentally that includes characteristic, manner, behaviour, view of life, belief, culture, and so fort. obama describes every places that had been visited, he describes the beauty, the badness of the pace and culture of the place as well. he describes indonesia through the character of his step father lolo sutoro and he describes indonesian culture as well. he does the same thing when he visited his father‘s village kenya and he met his understanding barack obama‘s characteristics through ―dreams from my father‖ 276 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 grandfather, uncle and all of his relatives. he describes that he can be very confident, carismatic, respectful and humble as well. ―now there‘s something you can learn from your dad,‖ he would tell me. ―confidence. the secret to a man‘s success. (p.9). it had to do with something called respectability-there were respectable people and not-so-respectable people-and although you didn‘t have to be rich to be respectable, you sure had to work harder at it if you weren‘t (p.12). my mother‘s chin trembled, as it still does when she‘s fighting back tears, and she pulled me into a long hug that made me feel very brave, although i wasn‘t sure why (p.20). he describes how hard is his life as a black american in his surrounding and how he struggle to face his hard life by getting support from his beloved family. he can be sucessful because of some beloved people around him and he wants to learn from his surrounding. psychoanalysis as the branch of psychological study, psychoanalysis focuses on the personality of human being. because according to freud in terry (1983:1) in rosiani (2014:1), ―all human beings are born with certain instincts, i.e. with a natural tendency to satisfy their biologically determined needs for food, shelter and warmth‖. the satisfaction of these needs is both practical and a source of pleasure which freud refers to as sexual. rosiani (2014:1) said that there are three main issues of structural of personality namely the id, the ego and the superego. using the theory of psychoanalysis, this study is going to study obama‘s characteristics through his book. the book does not use symbol to describe obama‘s characteristics. obama as the author describes the ratini setyowati register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 277 character as the real experience that he has had. according to the psychoanalysis theory, the book is going to be analyzed using three main issues of structural of personality namely the id, the ego and the superego. id id refers to biological aspect and the original system in the personality. id contains the biological elements including instinct and id is the conscious physic energy to operate ego and superego. the sample of id are joyful situation, pleasure, reflex action and primary process, the sample of relax inhaling, coughing and sneezing. from obama‘s book dreams from my father: race and inheritage, id of obama is obviously seen. he is described as very cheeful boy who always enjoys his life whereever he is ―he is curious and cheerful boy who enjoys wherever he is” (p.22). although obama always move from one city or even country to other countries, he can enoys the differences he had found. the differences are not only culture, language, situation, environment but also race or skin color. it is described clearly in his book. i enjoyed exchanging spanish pleasantries with my mostly puerto rican neighbors, and on my way back from classes i‘d usually stop to talk to the boys who hung out on the stoop all summer long about the knicks or the gunshots they‘d heard the night before (p. 5). obama‘s id can be seen when he tells his activities with his roomates and with his mother. he can share joy and express his feeling by laughing together with his friends and sharing his experiences with his mother. understanding barack obama‘s characteristics through ―dreams from my father‖ 278 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 when the weather was good, my roommate and i might sit out on the fire escape to smoke cigarettes and study the dusk washing blue over the city, or watch white people from the better neighborhoods nearby walk their dogs down our block to let the animals shit on our curbs-―scoop the poop, you bastards!‖ my roommate would shout with impressive rage, and we‘d laugh at the faces of both master and beast, grim and unapologetic as they hunkered down to do the deed. i enjoyed such moments-but only in brief (p.6-7). sometimes, when my mother came home from work, i would tell her the things i had seen or heard, and she would stroke my forehead, listening intently, trying her best to explain what she could (p.24). id is not only about the joy, but id contains those things that is present at birth, i.e innate instincts (sexual and aggressive), including desires of depression. the id of obama is obviously seen when obama describes his feeling about terrorism in america, he shows his depression. it‘s beyond my skill as a writer to capture that day, and the days that would follow-the planes, like specters, vanishing into steel and glass; the slow-motion cascade of the towers crumbling into themselves; the ash-covered figures wandering the streets; the anguish and the fear. nor do i pretend to understand the stark nihilism that drove the terrorists that day and that drives their brethren still. my powers of empathy, my ability to reach into another‘s heart, cannot penetrate the blank stares of those who would murder innocents with abstract, serene satisfaction (p.3). ego the ego is composed from the difference of the id because of its contact with reality. ego can distinguish between things in mind and things in external worlds. the ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality. obama describes that living as black american is not easy, it needs hard work and patience to face the ratini setyowati register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 279 situation and obama studies from his parent life especially his father to be more strong to face unpredictable situation. in fact, i can recall only one story that dealt explicitly with the subject of race; as i got older, it would be repeated more often, as if it captured the essence of the morality tale that my father‘s life had become. according to the story, after long hours of study, my father had joined my grandfather and several other friends at a local waikiki bar. everyone was in a festive mood, eating and drinking to the sounds of a slack-key guitar, when a white man abruptly announced to the bartender, loudly enough for everyone to hear, that he shouldn‘t have to drink good liquor ―next to a nigger.‖ the room fell quiet and people turned to my father, expecting a fight. instead, my father stood up, walked over to the man, smiled, and proceeded to lecture him about the folly of bigotry, the promise of the american dream, and the universal rights of man (p.10). the statement shows that there is conlict in obama senior‘s heart, normally a man would be angry and fight if someone calls a black american with ―nigger‖ but obama senior was not angry and would not fight although the men in the place expected him to fight. he did something different, he smiled to the man who mocked him. moreover, ―ego‖ is the personality system that acts as an individual steering to the object world of reality and running the function based on reality. ego is implementative personality in the form of contact with the outside world ". obama improves his personality by having interaction with others. he studies how to associate with other such as when he was in indonesia he can describe and study the culture of indonesian well. in that last year of law school, i began to organize in my mind, with a frightening confidence, just how the book would proceed. there would understanding barack obama‘s characteristics through ―dreams from my father‖ 280 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 be an essay on the limits of civil rights litigation in bringing about racial equality,...(p.4) superego superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society our sense of right and wrong. the superego provides guidelines for making judgments. the superego represents our moral system. it strives to put a right or wrong tag on our behavior, often triggering conflict. its main quirk is morality. obama‘s superego can be seen clearly when obama was in indonesia for three years. he learned from his mother to treat the poor and he can manage his emotion well beause of finding which one is good or bad from the real life. the experience that is expressed in the book influence obama to be low profile person. he knew more elusive things, ways of managing the emotions i felt, ways to explain fate‘s constant mysteries. like how to deal with beggars. they seemed to be everywhere, a gallery of ills-men, women, children, in tattered clothing matted with dirt, some without arms, others without feet, victims of scurvy or polio or leprosy walking on their hands or rolling down the crowded sidewalks in jerry-built carts, their legs twisted behind them like contortionists‘. at first, i watched my mother give over her money to anyone who stopped at our door or stretched out an arm as we passed on the streets. later, when it became clear that the tide of pain was endless, she gave more selectively, learning to calibrate the levels of misery. lolo thought her moral calculations endearing but silly, and whenever he caught me following her example with the few coins in my possession, he would raise his eyebrows and take me aside. ―how much money do you have?‖ he would ask. i‘d empty my pocket. ―thirty rupiah.‖ ―how many beggars are there on the street?‖ i tried to imagine the number that had come by the house in the last week. ―you see?‖ he said, once it was clear i‘d lost count. ―better to ratini setyowati register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 281 save your money and make sure you don‘t end up on the street yourself.‖ he was the same way about servants. they were mostly young villagers newly arrived in the city, often working for families not much better off than themselves, sending money to their people back in the country or saving enough to start their own businesses. if they had ambition, lolo was willing to help them get their start, and he would generally tolerate their personal idiosyncrasies: for over a year, he employed a good-natured young man who liked to dress up as a woman on weekends-lolo loved the man‘s cooking. but he would fire the servants without compunction if they were clumsy, forgetful, or otherwise cost him money; and he would be baffled when either my mother or i tried to protect them from his judgment. ―your mother has a soft heart,‖ lolo would tell me one day after my mother tried to take the blame for knocking a radio off the dresser. ―that‘s a good thing in a woman. but you will be a man someday, and a man needs to have more sense.‖ (p.25). beside that, obama can understand how life is by facing it and struggle to reach his dreams, he can appreciate other as well. ‗away from my mother, away from my grandparents, i was engaged in a fitful interior struggle. i was trying to raise myself as a black man in america, and beyond the given of my appearance, no one around me seemed to know exactly what that meant‘ (p.76). conclusion dreams from my father: a story of race and inheritance is very great book, through the book, obama describes his own characteristics and his life through the characters. the id, ego and superego can be seen after reading the book. the characters are his real family and relatives. it describes about the real life that had been done and enjoyed by obama. his journey of life can inspire readers to know more about the city that have been visited. understanding barack obama‘s characteristics through ―dreams from my father‖ 282 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 references hard, c. 2010. insight text guide dreams from my father, barack obama. australia: insight publications . https://www.insightpublications.com.au/pdf_preview/tgdreams-from-my-father-10-pages.pdf komalasari, a. 2009. understanding barack obama‘s victory in the 2008 united states presidential election. yogyakarta. ugm mahendra, m. 2010. obsesi gadis desa dalam novel trah karya atas s. danusubroto (sebuah tinjaan psikologi sastra. surakarta: digilib uns. marcelino, y, 2010. konflik batin yang dialami tokoh utama christ taylor dalam film platoon. semarang: thesis universitas diponegoro. retrieved from http://eprints.undip.ac.id/17537/1/konflik_batin_yang_dialami_to koh_utama_chris_taylor_dalam_film_platoon.pdf marsanti, e.p., suyitno and wardani, n, e. 2 012. aspek 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diff erences across problem types, implementation types, disciplines, and assessment levels. the interdisciplinary https://www.insightpublications.com.au/pdf_preview/tg-dreams-from-my-father-10-pages.pdf https://www.insightpublications.com.au/pdf_preview/tg-dreams-from-my-father-10-pages.pdf http://eprints.undip.ac.id/17537/1/konflik_batin_yang_dialami_tokoh_utama_chris_taylor_dalam_film_platoon.pdf http://eprints.undip.ac.id/17537/1/konflik_batin_yang_dialami_tokoh_utama_chris_taylor_dalam_film_platoon.pdf http://bastind.fkip.uns.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/ena-p.pdf http://bastind.fkip.uns.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/ena-p.pdf ratini setyowati register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 283 journal of problem-based learning. volume 3, no. 1 (spring 2009) west, r.e., williams, g.s, and williams, d.d. 2013. improving problem-based learning in creative communities through effective group evaluation. interdisciplinary journal of problem-based-learning. vol 7 issue 2. understanding barack obama‘s characteristics through ―dreams from my father‖ 284 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 179 the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi universitas veteran bangun nusantara sukoharjo jl.letjend sujono humardani no.1 jombor sukoharjo, 57512 giyatmi85jimmy@gmail.com abstract this research aims at describing how brand names with english in indonesian products are created. to analyze the data found the researchers applied english word formation in english morphology. this is a descriptive research. the data were brand names using english found in indonesian product which were taken from three supermarkets in solo namely hypermart solo grand mall, hypermart gorro assalam, and carefur from february up to april 2010. the research found that the brand names with english in indonesian products can be created by applying word formation such as compounding, blending, affixation, reduplication, onomatopoeia, abbreviation, acronym and clipping. the process of compounding consists of pure compounding and modification compounding, the process of blending includes the first syllable of the first words and the first syllable of the second words, the first syllable of the first words and the second syllable from the front of the second words., the first words and the last syllables of the second words, the first words and two syllables from the front of the second words, two syllables from the front of the first words and the second words, two syllables from the front of the first words and the first syllable of the second words, the first words and the two last syllables from the back of the second words, and the first words and the first syllables of the second mailto:giyatmi85jimmy@gmail.com the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products 180 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 words. the affixation process covers prefixes pro-, -bio and suffixes –y, er, -ness, -ish, and –s. the process of reduplication includes pure modification, modification with intensifier meaning and reduplication with sound change. the process of abbreviation found is pure abbreviation and acronym. the process of clipping includes the clipping of letter and syllables. keywords: brand names, english word formation. abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menjelaskan bagaimana nama dagang dengan bahasa inggris di produk indonesia diciptakan. untuk menganalisis data yang ditemukan, para peneliti menerapkan teori pembentukan kata bahasa inggris dalam morfologi bahasa inggris. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif. data penelitian ini adalah nama dagang berbahasa inggris yang ditemukan dalam produk indonesia yang diambil dari tiga supermarket di solo yaitu hypermart solo grand mall, hypermart gorro assalam, dan carefur dari februari hingga april 2010. penelitian ini menemukan bahwa nama dagang berbahasa inggris dalam produk indonesia dapat diciptakan dengan menerapkan pembentukan kata seperti pemajemukan, pencampuran, penambahan imbuhan, reduplikasi atau pengulangan, onomatopoeia, singkatan, akronim dan pemotongan. proses pemajemukan terdiri dari pemajemukan murni dan pemajemukan dengan modifikasi, proses pencampuran terjadi melalui pencampuran suku pertama kata pertama dan suku pertama kata kedua, suku pertama kata pertama dan suku kedua dari depan kata kedua, kata pertama dan suku terakhir kata kedua, kata pertama dan dua suku pertama dari depan kata kedua, dua suku pertama dari depan kata pertama dan kata kedua, dua suku pertama dari depan kata pertama dan suku pertama kata kedua, kata pertama dan dua suku terakhir dari belakang kata kedua. kata pertama dan suku pertama kata kedua. proses afiksasi meliputi awalan pro, -bio dan akhiran -y, eh, -ness, ish, dan -s. proses reduplikasi meliputi modifikasi murni, modifikasi untuk penyangatan makna dan reduplikasi dengan perubahan suara. giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 181 proses singkatan ditemukan adalah singkatan murni dan akronim. proses pemotongan terdiri dari pemotongan huruf serta pemotongan suku kata. kata kunci: nama dagang, proses pembentukan kata berbahasa inggris. introduction what‘s in a name, a very popular quotation taken from romeo and juliet by shakespeare, means that name is not that important. however, it sometimes means so much, for instance a product name or sometimes is called brand name. a brand name is the identity of specific product, service or business. a legally protected brand name is called a trademark. the society will know a certain product from its name. after all, hopefully, the society will buy and use the product offered. it is necessary to develop brand name that can be used widely. it sometimes takes more time to decide the name of a new product than on any other aspects of its development (crystal: 115). there are many aspects to think about in naming a new product, such as marketing, linguistic, legal point of view. linguistics which deals with a language has an important role in this case. there are some linguistic parameters that can be used in naming a product. firstly is the possibility of offensiveness. a name is built up from letters and sound that may have impolite meaning to a certain language. it is important to create a product name which does not offend the others, mostly the name designed for international market. secondly, name must be easy to pronounce and to spell by many people within different languages. the buyer will not buy something that they even cannot say its name, so it is necessary to create a simple name in the case of sound and letters. the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products 182 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 thirdly, memorable name is important. by creating a simple name it is hopefully that the product be easily recognized and remembered by the people. an interesting and unique name will be preferable and recognizable for a consumer, so being creative is indeed needed in naming a new product. to create an interesting and unique product name sometimes can be gained by using linguistics aspect however it is not that easy because it needs creativity. the creator of the name must be able to cultivate a word, sound of a certain language to create a product name. he sometimes uses not only words or sound of their own language but also those of other languages. english is still a foreign language but it has a prestigious position in indonesia, because english is an international language. nowadays, there are many indonesian companies used english word to name their product. it does not mean that they are not proud of their own language. even though they use english words, they do some adjustment within indonesian. they use english words for gointernational purpose. we can find many products sold used english words in indonesia. they use english because they are produced in indonesia but under license of foreign companies such as coca cola, marlboro, and shell. they are all brands produced from english speaking country companies, however there are also english names used by a non english speaking country company such as morinaga, japan which produces milk for children name chilmil, chilkid, chilscol in indonesia. the other products used english word is originally indonesian products but named in english. we are familiar enough with soffel, so klin, bismart, etc. they are all indonesian product but their names are giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 183 derived from english words. soffel is from the words soft [sof] and felt [fæl], so klin is from the word so [so] and clean [klin], bismart is biscuits and smart. the first and the last example experience the process of blending and the second example experiences the process of adjustment with the indonesian language in the case of pronunciation. there are many product names in indonesia used english created by such kind of way. the writer is interested at these phenomena. the writer wants to analyze the used of english in product names found in indonesia. since there is an opinion that english is a prestigious language so there are many indonesian products used english. perhaps by using english, the product will be recognized not only locally but also globally. the researchers want to describe how the english brand names found in indonesia are formed. brand name branding is one of the strategies in marketing. a brand can show an image related to a product or a company visually, emotionally, rationally and even culturally. the brand may become a final consideration of a consumer before buying the products or using the service offered. the brand is the identity of a specific product, service, or business. the brand consists of all information dealing with the products or services. it is used to distinguish one product from another. in other words, it is a mark used to show ownership. when several companies sell a similar product, it is important that the brand name be clearly seen on the packaging and easily recognizable. there are global and local brands. a global brand is a brand which is sold the same product to international market but it has its origin and the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products 184 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 creates strong relationship with the consumers across countries and cultures. the examples of global brand are coca cola, marlboro, and shell. even though they still have their origin, global brand may be different among the countries. this difference depends on the language, culture, style of communication, consumption pattern, market condition, legal and regulatory environment, and national approaching to marketing. while a local brand is a brand sold in a relatively small and restricted geographical area. it is usually ca be found only in one region. a brand can take many forms, including a name, sign, symbol, color combination or slogan. a brand is the personality identifying a product, service or company (name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or combination of them). brand name is a part of product consisting of letters, words and numbers. a legally protected brand name is called a trademark. brand logo, on the other hand, is an element of a product consisting symbols and pictures. brand names come in many styles. brand names sometimes come in acronym such as ups or ibm. names that describe the benefit and function of a product sometimes can show a brand name, such as fatigon which is derived from fatigue and gone. this product functions to reduce the fatigue. this one is called descriptive. alliteration and rhyme can be used to show a brand name, such as dunkin‘ donuts, tini wini biti. the other style is evocative, name that evoke a relevant vivid image like amazon. a brand name may also come in a completely new word such as kodak. we call it coining. foreign word adaptation can be used to create a brand name such as volvo or samsung. a brand name is sometimes named after the founders‘ names for instance disney, giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 185 hewlett-packard. many brands are named for regions and landmark like fuji film. english word formation. a word is the smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own speech and writing. in writing, word boundaries are usually recognized by spaces between the words and in speech, word boundaries may be recognized by slight pauses (richard: 311). words are important in a language. language as a means of communication needs a media to communicate it and it can be achieved by a word. words in a language develop in numbers and variations as time goes by. as one of the languages in the world, english words experiences the same thing as those of the others languages. there are many sources of new english words such as borrowing from other languages, compounding, affixation, coining, etc. the process of new word creation is called a word formation. besides, the growth of science also contributes a big part in the introduction of new words. there are many kinds of word formation in english, such as affixation, compounding, reduplication, coinage, blending, acronym, clipping, onomatopoeia. 1. affixation affixation is a word formation by adding certain affixes whether they are prefixes or suffixes to the root. for instance happiness (happy+ -ness), careless (care+ -less), unpredictable (un +predict+ -able), etc. 2. compounding when we combine two or more words to produce a single word with new meaning, it means we apply compounding. the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products 186 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 compounding process results on compound words such as sunlight (sun+light), ladybird (lady+bird), lighthouse (light+house), etc. 3. reduplication to reduplicate means to repeat the whole or partial words for instance very-very, hanky-panky. the reduplication serves different function among languages. in indonesia, the reduplication can mean plural, such as rumah-rumah or house in english. 4. coinage it is the creation or invention of totally new terms, without employing any other words already in existence. they mostly originated from invented trade marks for example are kodak, kleenex, nokia, etc. 5. acronym it comes from the initial sound (letter or letters) of the words or of a phrase and it is pronounced as a word. we can find acronyms in nato, opec, ilo, kepo etc. 6. blending it means to combine the parts of two words to produce a new word. the first part of the first word is blended with the last part of the second word. the examples are breakfast and lunch become brunch, education and entertainment become edutainment, etc. 7. clipping it is to cut or to shorten the longer word, such as in advertisement becomes ads, information becomes info, and laboratory becomes giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 187 lab. new words sometimes are produced by imitating the sound of animals or other things such gun, boom explosion. 8. onomatopoeia. new words sometimes are produced by imitating the sound of animals or other things such gun, boom explosion. it means we use onomatopoeia to form a word. research methodology this is a descriptive qualitative research. the data of the research were brand names with english in indonesian products found in the supermarket in solo. the chosen supermarkets are hypermart solo grand mall, hypermart gorro assalam, and carefur. the three supermarkets are considered to be representative ones in solo. the data were taken from february up to april 2010. the researchers used observation and documentation to collect the needed data. after collecting the data, the researchers classified the data based on the kind of products. then the data were analyzed based on how they are formed using word formation process. the last step is drawing the conclusion. 1. compounding the writer found 116 brand names formed by compounding. compounding words found in this research were classified into two kinds; they are pure compounding and modified compounding. modified compounding happens when there is adaptation process with indonesian language. the followings are several data representing for those two kinds of compounding. the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products 188 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 a. pure compounding pure compounding means combining two words to form a new word with a new meaning. the followings are the examples of brand names applying pure compounding; no brand names word formation 1 baby happy baby (n)+happy (adj) 2 skin white skin (n)+white (adj) 3 sunlight sun (n)+light (n) 4 bee jelly bee (n)+jelly (n) 5 my lady my (adj)+lady (n) 6 care free care (v)+free (adj) 7 weight gain weight (n)+gain (v) 8 tropicana slim tropicana (n)+slim (adj) 9 milky day milky (adj)+day (n) 10 greenfield green (adj)+field (n) 11 slimming tea slimming (ving)+tea (n) 12 fruit punch fruit (n)+punch (n) 13 country choice country (n)+choice (n) 14 fruit tea fruit (n)+tea (n) 15 fitactive fit (v)+active (adj) 16 fit up fit (v)+up (prep) 17 cheese cracker cheese (n)+cracker (n) 18 juicy fruit juicy (adj)+fruit (n) 19 rose brand rose (n)+brand (n) 20 swallow globe swallow (n)+globe (n) all brand names above are formed by combining of two words and to create the new words with the new meanings. the words combined may be the same part of speech such as brand names number 3, 4, 12, 13, 14, 19, 20 or the different ones such as those in 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18. b. modified compounding modified compounding happens when the words combined undergo some adjustment. the writer finds pronunciation and writing giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 189 adjustment into indonesian language. the following table lists brand names applying modified compounding; no brand name original words writing pronunciation 1 stefit stay+fit stay fit [stei] + [fit] 2 hilo [hailo] high+low high low [hai] + [lou] 3 soffel soft+felt soft felt [sof] + [fel] 4 frais well fries + well fries well [frais] + [wel] 5 fatigon fatigue+gone fatigue gone [fatig] + [gon] 6 kukizereal : cookie + cereal cookie cereal [kuki] + [siriəl] 7 lofet low + fat low fat [lou] + [fæt] 9 chooey choco chewy+ choco chewy choco [t∫ui] +[t∫oko] 10 chilmil child+milk chil milk [t∫ail] + [mil] 11 soklin so + clean so clean [so] + [klin] 12 jas jus just + juice just juice [jas] + [jus] 13 nu face new + face new face [nu] + [feis] 14 frestea fresh+tea fresh tea [fræ∫] + [ti] the examples above show the modified compounding because there are some adjustment applied to the words combined. the brand names are written based on their english pronunciation. the brand names, however, are not written in english writing system. for example brand name stefit which comes from stay [stei] dan fit [fit] is not written stay fit. this naming process is for the easiness of pronouncing the brand names. for the indonesian where english is still considered as a foreigner language, it is easier to read stefit than stay fit. the rest of the brand names listed on the table above apply the same way of naming process of stefit. 2. blending the writer found 41 brand names applying blending in this research. they were classified into 8 groups. this classification is based on the syllable blended in creating the brand names. the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products 190 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 a. the first syllable of the first word and the first syllable of the second word. no first words second words brand names 1 yogurt ice yogice 2 popular ice popice 3 nestle tea nestea 4 mountain tea mountea 5 yogurt fit yofit 6 rich cheese richeese 7 rich chip richip 8 biscuit smart bismart 9 maximum tea maxtea 10 biscuit chocolate bischoc 11 wet tissue wetties the examples above are formed by blending the first syllable of the first words and the first syllable of the second ones. the second words of the data above mostly consist of one syllable only so that the blending involves the first syllable of the first word and all the second words, such as in data number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. on the other hand, for data number 9, 10, 11, the blending involves the first syllable of the first words and the first syllable of the second words b. the first syllable of the first words and the second syllable from the front of the second words no first words second words brand names 1 floor [flor] protection florex 2 sun [san] protection sanex 3 window protection windex 4 porcelain [pors] protection porstex 5 soft protection softex the brand names above are formed by blending of the first syllable of the first words and the second syllable from the front of the second giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 191 words. having blended, the brand names are written in the same way of their english pronunciation; however they are not written using english spelling. sanex is derived from sun [san] and protection [protæk∫iən]. this brand name is written sanex instead of sunect. the sound /æk/ from protection [protæk∫iən] seems difficult to be recognized by indonesian; therefore the sound /æk/ is changed into /ex/ that have similar sound and is easier to pronounce as well. the similar process also is also occurred in the rest of the data above. c. the first words and the last syllable of the second words no first words second words brand names 1 happy potatos happytos 2 wet napkin wetkin 3 cheese potatos cheetos the brand names listed on the table are formed by blending the first words and the last syllable of the second words. three brand names are blended right away without any adjustment on pronunciation and spelling. d. the first words and two syllables from the front of the second words. no first words second words brand names 1 rich chocolate richoco 2 for vitamin forvita the two brand names above are formed by blending the first words and the two syllables from the front of the second words. the blending involves no spelling and pronunciation adjustment. the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products 192 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 e. two syllables from the front of the first words and the second words no first words second words brand names 1 indonesia milk indomilk 2 vitamin zone vitazone 3 vitamin charm vitacharm 4 vitamin milk vitamilk 5 chocolate [t∫ok(ə)lit] chip chocochip 6 chocolate [t∫ok(ə)lit] balls chocoballs 7 chocolate [t∫ok(ə)lit] mania chocomania the data are formed by blending two syllables from the front of the first words and the second words. data number 1, 2, 3, 4 has no adjustment from the spelling and pronunciation point of view. they are just blended right away. data number 5, 6, 7 experience no spelling adjustment, however they undergo pronunciation adjustment. the brand names, mainly the two syllables from the front of the first words are pronounced in indonesian pronunciation even though the spelling of the brand names is in english, such as the table below; no writing of brand names pronunciation of brand names english indonesian 1 chocochip [t∫okə∫ip] [cokocip] 2 chocoballs [t∫ok(ə)bals] [cokobols] 3 chocomania [t∫okəmeiniə] [cokomania] f. two syllables from the front of the first words and the first syllable of the second words no first words second words brand names 1 calcium maximum calcimex 2 nutrition mama nutrima 3 nutritious jelly nutrijell 4 protect calcium protecal giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 193 all the brand names above are formed by blending two syllables from the front of the first word and the first syllable of the second word. on the brand name calcimex, there is an adjustment on its writing. the brand name is spoken in english pronunciation but not in english spelling. calcimex is from calcium and maximum [mæksəməm]. mex which is from the pronunciation of max /mæk/ is chosen instead of max on the process of blending. for the brand name protecal, the first word is protect which only consists of two syllables so that word is just blended with no cutting. g. the first word and two last syllables from the back of the second word. no first words second words brand names 1 fruit vitamin fruitamin 2 chip potato chitato those brand names are formed by blending the first word and the two last syllables from the back of the second word. both brand names are right away blended with no adjustment on either writing or spelling. h. the first word and the first syllable of the second word. no first words second words brand names 1 stick chocolate stico [stiko] 2 stick chocolate stikko 3 twist chocolate twistko 4 brick chocolate briko 5 sweet tissue sweeties 6 diabetes solution diabetasol 7 diabetes milk diabetamil the brand names above are formed by blending the first word and the first syllable of the second word. brand names number 5 and 6 are the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products 194 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 blended right away with no adjustment either writing or spelling. brand name number 1 uses adjustment on writing. the first syllable of the second word (chocolate) namely cho is simplified into co so that it becomes stico read [stiko]. brand names number 2, 3, and 4 apply an adjustment on writing after the process of blending. the way of writing the brand name is adapted with indonesian spelling. the syllable cho is written into ko because the sound of /ch/ is closely to the sound of /c/ which is read with the sound of /k/ in indonesian. the results of the blending process of the brand names should be stikcho, twistcho, brikcho, but they are adapted into stikko, twisko, briko. brand name number 7 undergoes omission of letter on the second word after the words are blended. the second word, milk, is written into mil. affixation the researchers found 21 english brand names formed by affixation. the following are the data found: a. suffix –y no roots and suffixes brand names 1 sweet + y sweety 2 cream+ y creamy 3 fit + y fitty --fitti 4 down + y downy those brand names are formed by adding suffix –y on the words followed. there is no changing on the process of affixation applying on the brand names except for brand name number 3 as shown below: fit + y fitty fitti giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 195 b. suffix -er no roots and suffixes brand names 1 blast + er blaster 2 twist + er twister 3 creame + er [krimər] kreamer the brand names above are formed by adding suffix –er on the word followed. no adaptation on writing or pronunciation found on the affixation process applied on brand name number 1 and 2. however, there is an adaptation on writing and pronunciation found on the affixation process applied on brand name number 3. the sound /c/ in english is read into the sound /k/ in indonesian. the affixation of brand name number 3 should result in creamer but then it is written into kreamer. this adaptation is due to the easy pronunciation for indonesian people. c. suffix –ness no roots and suffixes brand names 1 well + ness wellness 2 soft+ness softness brand names above are formed by adding suffix –ness on the word followed. there is no adaptation on writing and pronunciation. d. suffix –ish no roots and suffixes brand names 1 brown + ish brownish ---broniz brand name above is formed by adding suffix –ish on the word followed. there is an adaptation process found on the process of affixation. brand the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products 196 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 name above is written in english pronunciation for brownish [broniz] and to simplify it is just written broniz suffix –s no roots and suffixes brand names 1 pamper + s pampers 2 chocolate --chocolato + s chocolatos 3 wing + s wings 4 huggy + s ---huggies huggies 5 sport + s ---sportz sportz 6 wet + s ---wetz wetz 7 mint + s ---mintz mintz the brand names are formed by adding suffix –s to the words followed. there is no adaptation found on the process of affixation on brand names number 1, 3, and 4. the process of adaptation is found on the brand name number 2. chocolatos is from chocolate. the changing of chocolate into chaocolatos is associated to the italian word that often uses sound /o/. italian is familiar with chocolate product and italian chocolate is so famous all around the world so when talking about chocolate product, it will be associated with italy and its language. the process of the affixation as follow; chocolate -----chocolato+s ----chocolatos there‘s a changing of affixation process applied on the brand name number 5, 6, and 7. the suffix –s is changed into –z due to the pronunciation variation. suffix –s/-es as has three allomorphs, namely /s, z, iz/. e. prefix pro no prefixes and roots brand names 1 pro+clean [klin] proclin [proklin] 2 pro+dental prodental giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 197 all the brand names above use prefix pro-. brand name number 1 uses combination both indonesian and english pronunciation. the diphthong ea in the word clean which is pronounced /i/ is written with i, meanwhile the brand name is still used the letter c for the word clin but it is pronounced with indonesian pronunciation [klin]. the second brand name has no special adjustment in the affixation process. f. prefix bio no prefixes and roots brand names 1 bio + clean bioklin 2 bio + kid biokid brand names above use prefix –bio on the word followed. brand name number 1 uses combination both indonesian and english pronunciation. the diphthong ea in the word clean which is pronounced /i/ is written with i, meanwhile the brand name is still used the letter c for the word clin but it is pronounced with indonesian pronunciation [klin]. the second brand name has no special adaptation in the affixation process. 3. reduplication there are 8 brand names found applying reduplication. the following brand names are: no brand names 1 pet-pet 2 beng-beng 3 ring-ring 4 tini wini biti 5 choky-choky 6 coca-cola 7 chic-choc 8 snips-snaps the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products 198 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 brand name number 1, 2, 3 apply pure reduplication. it means the reduplication process which repeats all the words. the word pet is actually from the word pat [pæt] and to pronounce it easily the word is written into pet. the same process happens to beng which is derived from the word bang [bæŋ]. the next reduplication is on brand name number 5 which applies pure reduplication too. choky is derived from the word chocolate but it is clipped so it becomes choco [t∫ok] and then suffix –y is added so it becomes chocky which means a lot of chocolate. reduplication applied on brand name number 4 is used to give intensifier. tini wini biti is derived from tiny winy bity mean very small. it is a product of biscuit with small size. brand names number 6, 7, and 8 undergo the same process of reduplication. the process of reduplication occurs by sound changing such as vowel changing in brand name chic-choc, snips-snaps and consonant changing in brand name coca-cola. the table below shows the sound changing: no roots sound changing reduplication 1 chic [t∫ik] choc [t∫ o k] chic-choc 2 snips [snips] snaps [snæps] snips-snaps 3 coca [koukə] cola [koulə] coca-cola 4. onomatopoeia the researchers found 5 brand names using onomatopoeia such as; no brand names 1 pet-pet 2 beng-beng 3 ring-ring 4 boom 5 snips-snaps giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 199 pet-pet is derived from the word pat. pat means to strike something lightly with palm of the hand or something flat. the sound of patting is imitated and used to give a name of a brand name. beng-beng is derived from the word bang mean sound of gun. ring-ring is from the word ring which means sound of bells. brand name of candy name boom is imitated the sound of explosion. snip means the act or sound of using scissors to snip something and snap means a sharp sound: a short sound for example of something brittle suddenly or something clicking shut, in addition snap means to break with sharp noise: to break suddenly with a sharp cracking sound (encarta dictionaries). so we can conclude that both snip and snap are words dealing with producing sound. acronym and abbreviation the researchers found 5 brand names formed by acronym and abbreviation. the brand names are classified into acronym since the abbreviation of the brand names can be pronounced as words. the followings are the brand names applying acronym; no brand names pronunciation 1 fc (feminine comfort) [ef-si] 2 sos [es-ou-es] 3 zevit c (zinc vitamin c) [ze-vit-si] 4 vitalong c (vitamin long c) [vita-long-si] 5 mi-u (me you) [mi-yu] besides, the researchers also found 3 brand names applying abbreviation. the followings are the brand names applying abbreviation; no brand names the longer foms 1 redoxon cdr redoxon calcium d redoxon 2 oxygen dw oxygen drink water 3 wpc wings porcelain cleaner the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products 200 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 5. clipping the researchers found 8 brand names formed by clipping. the brand names consist of longer words but due to the simplicity, they are clipped or cut into shorter ones. these are the brand names applying clipping process; no original words brand names 1 fresh fres 2 luxurious lux 3 chocolate choc 4 frozen froz 5 kiss kis 6 give giv 7 lavender lavenda 8 fantasy fanta the brand names using clipping can be categorized into two groups based on the way how the words are clipped. a. clipping the letters no original words brand names 1 fresh fres 2 kiss kis 3 give giv the three brand names above are simplified by clipping the last letter of the brand names. it is for the easiness of pronunciation and the simplicity of the writing or spelling. b. clipping the syllables no original words brand names 1 luxurious lux 2 chocolate choc 3 frozen froz 4 lavender lavenda 5 fantasy fanta giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 201 the five brand names mentioned are clipped by cutting the last syllables. the brand name number 4 is added with new letter [a] after it is cut. sound changing /ə/ into /a/ like in lavender [lævəndə] becomes lavenda [lavenda] is sometimes found in english used by afro-american such as the words girl [gə(r)l] that is often written or read gal and kind of [kaindev] that is often written or read kinda [kinda]. that is common in english especially in informal english to simplify the form. conclusion english can be used to create brand names found in indonesian product by applying the word formation. the use of english in indonesian product undergoes writing (spelling) and reading (pronunciation) adjustment to indonesian language. this adjustment is due to the cultural factor and easiness especially in pronunciation. the research found that brand names using english in indonesian products can be created through compounding, blending, affixation, reduplication, onomatopoeia, abbreviation, acronym and clipping. the research concluded that the process of compounding covers pure compounding and modification compounding. the modification is found in the form of writing (spelling) and reading (pronunciation). the process of blending includes the first syllable of the first words and the first syllable of the second words, the first syllable of the first words and the second syllable from the front of the second words., the first words and the last syllables of the second words, the first words and two syllables from the front of the second words, two syllables from the front of the first words and the second words, two syllables from the front of the first words and the first syllable of the second words, the first words the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products 202 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 and the two last syllables from the back of the second words, and the first words and the first syllables of the second words. the affixation consists of applying prefixes such as pro-, -bio and applying suffixes such as –y, -er, -ness, -ish, and –s. the process of reduplication covers pure reduplication, reduplication with intensifier meaning, and reduplication with sound change. the onomatopoeia consists of imitation of sound produced by nature and things such as a gun. the process of abbreviation consists of pure abbreviation and acronym. the process of clipping includes omission of letter and syllables references asib, a. 2004, english morphology (handout), english department faculty of teacher training and education, uns. cheverton, p. 2002, if you’re so brilliant how come your brand isn’t working hard enough (terjemahan). jakarta: pt elex media komputindo. crystal, d. 2003, the cambridge encyclopedia of language, press syndicate of the university of cambridge, new york. durianto, d., lie, j.b., and sugiarto. 2004. brand equity ten strategi memimpin pasar. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka umum. kridalaksana, h. 2001. kamus linguistik. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka umum.. matthews, p. 1997. the concise oxford dictionar of linguistics. new york: oxford university perss inc. moleong, j.l. 2008. metodologi penelitian kualitatif edisi revisi. bandung: pt.remaja rosdakarya. moser, m. 2008.united we brand (terjemahan). jakarta: esensi. richards, j., john p., and heidi, w. 1985, longman dictionary of applied linguistics. england: longman group limited. giyatmi, endang dwi hastuti, ratih wijayava, sihindun arumi register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 203 subana, s. 2001.dasar-dasar penelitian ilmiah.cv pustaka setia, bandung. sukardi. 2006. penelitian kualitatif-naturalistik dalam pendidikan, usaha keluarga, yogyakarta the analysis of english word formations used on brand names found in indonesian products 204 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.175-195 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 175 the cultural significance in greeting practices in belo dialect of the bima language a l e k uin syarif hidayatullah, jakarta-indonesia alek@uinjkt.ac.id doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.175-195 submission track: received: 13-08-2019 final revision: 21-11-2019 available online: 01-12-2019 corresponding author: name & e-mail address alek alek@uinjkt.ac.id abstract greeting personal name in local languages are unique and various from one to another language, island, and cultural group. one of these is bima language, especially in belo dialect. the recent study expects to reveal the three main issues as follows (1) how many patterns of greeting name variations using in belo dialect of the bima language? (2) how are the variations pattern constructed in the greeting of personal names in belo dialect of bima language? (3) what are the most often vocal sound patterns used in greeting the personal names in belo dialect of bima language? the research used a qualitative descriptive study. the collection used some procedures, namely interviews, recording, documentation. the data analyzed with a qualitative descriptive that followed miles and hubermann. the results show that there are four patterns variation in greeting personal male names and eight variations in greeting female names; the second, there are three ways of constructing the patterns of greeting names, namely at the beginning, the middle, and the end of the syllables; and the most often syllable vocal pairs used /e—o/ for male names and syllables /a—u/ and /e—o/vowel pairs for female names. it is crucial to scrutinize the local languages and their cultures contained within. this implication of recent study results expects to evoke the speakers of regional languages have a responsible and sense of belonging to their language and culture. keywords: greeting practices, bima language, and cultural significance alek 176 introduction greeting of the personal name becomes a crucial aspect of daily human interaction. each language has unique ways or patterns in the greeting of personal names. bima language (bl) used in bima regency, and it has some dialects within; one of them is the belo dialect (bd). it used in all aspects of the bimanese life from family, daily, culture, religion, rituals, education, and event in the traditional interactions. regarding the greeting of personal names in the local languages, a scholar states that “every language has at least two relation systems, the term of greeting or addressing and term of reference” (koentjoroningrat, 1980 in hamidsyukrie, et al., 1994, p. 3). there are some researchers have done the investigation related to greeting names, among them are (yannuar, 2017; felecan, 2015; pennesi, 2017; and croft, 2017). furthermore, kridalaksana (1984, p. 171) states that terms of greeting are morpheme or phrases that are widely used to chat with each other on certain interaction circumstances and may be different based on the kind of relationships between the communicators. to a similar extent, language or speech plays a significant role in stabilizing the social structure. it also means, the social status also have their unique variation of expression that is widely used to survive their existence (alwasilah, 1985, p. 102). term of greeting in most of the indonesian tribes divided into at least three significant categories viewed at the social contact. the divisions are ultimately required since one wants to communicate politely to the older men, and to become more friendly to the same age, and to be wiser to the younger age. the categories are (1) eleven old; (2) social context; and (3) friendship (depdikbud, 1988, p. 171). concerning this opinion, hamidsyukrie (1994, p. 3) expresses that there are at least nine terms of addressing that commonly used by applied linguists. still n the same paper, hamidsyukrie et al. stressed that 4 of them are: pronoun, personal names, relative calls, and degree/title. in bima regency, the belo dialect is one of the dialects which exist in the bima language. this region located in sumbawa island. the regency is closer to dompu regency through the land but closer to ende through the sea. geographically, bima regency consists of two regions; east bima and west sanggar. the capital of bima regency is bima. (bima district in figure, register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.175-195 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 177 2000). the difference between dialect and language lies in the mutually intelligible among the language community. finally, the way of greeting one's name mostly similar, that is, by rewarding or honoring "lia" to the older or the charismatic figure. bima people use bima language as their mother tongue and for communication and interaction in their daily life in any activity of their life. like any other subdistrict in bima regency. the bimanese in the belo subdistrict, use terms of greeting names differently for different level, degree, or age. the terms of greeting in any other region, the bimanese language users also have specific rules or principles. those rules are crucial since the communicator(s) are afraid to produce rude or even uncivilized man. therefore, the communicator has to be able to employ the proper term of addresses to the correct men (interlocutor). concerning the pattern of greeting name based on one's age, hanafi (2001) states that bima language uses interesting patterns in greetings related to the personal names. these features distinguished because of two things: (1) the greeter is younger than the one called (at least the difference in age is 2 (two) years) and (2) gender is called (male or female). furthermore, hanafi (2001) also views that: “bahasa bima (bb) merupakan bahasa yang unik dalam sentuhannya dengan sapa diri. selain karena konsonan yang lesap pada akhir pelafalan kata atau pemenggalan berdasarkan silabel.” it also equivalents to english that bima language is a unique language in contact with. for instance, the disappearing of end consonant(s) in its utterance. to a similar case, the adult names can be exchanged (in the belo dialect of the bima language + lia). these facts are different from any other local language in indonesia. for example (1) sudirman, his syllable: /sudi//dirma //ma) by older caller. (2) syllable: /sudi/ to become /sedo//dirma/ to become /moa//ma/ to become /moa/ the pronunciation of personal names should be in the first syllable (s), middle syllable (s), or the end syllable(s). but, it is impossible to pronounce the end syllable, which indicates two forms of greeting personal names (hanafi, 2001). regarding politeness brown and levinson (1987, p. 67) state politeness in language indeed imperative to greet or address someone in social life to avoid conflicts that might occur within every communication interaction. however, politeness in speech is applied differently in each culture because every text cannot be separated from the context. in line with brown and levinson, ellen (in chaer alek 178 and leonie agustina, 2010, p. 21) state that politeness is one of the principles in language use. in other words, it is crucial to consider the other person’s feelings when communicating with others. through considering the other peoples' sense, it will enable communication or interactions and social progress without threatening the face of the speakers or speech partners. research method the method used in recent research is a qualitative descriptive. an investigation with the qualitative approach is the research relied on verbal and non-numerical data as the basis of analysis and solving the problem appears (farkhan, 2007, p. 6). qualitative data obtained by asking questions indirectly or directly to the informants so that they provide information that does not restrict the participants’ opinions (creswell and clark, 2011). before undertaking the data, the informants were chosen based on fulfilling the criteria. there were at least four significant points of consideration of informants of the study, such as stated by hamidsyukrie et al. (1994, p. 5), they are: (1) the native speakers; (2); actively used the language investigated (3) mentally and physically healthy; (4) up to 16 years old; and (5) to get ready to give information needed. the procedures of collecting data used interviews, recording while the researcher conversation with the informants, documentation, note-taking, and relevant sources that support the information needed. the researcher interviewed and communication with the informants directly in belo dialect used tape-recorder then transcribed carefully and concisely (mahsun, 2012, pp. 95—96). the researcher also applied note-taking techniques. the primary data of this recent research obtained directly from the informants in the research sample areas, which were well representative belo dialect in the bima language. the real procedures of analyzing the data followed miles and hubermann (1984), which includes data presentation, data reduction, and drawing conclusions and verification of findings. furthermore, to guarantee the accuracy and limitations of the data, the triangulation technique applied to ensure the research methods, data collection, and data analysis techniques valid and reliable. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.175-195 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 179 result and discussion the recent article expects to reveal the greeting system practice in the bima language, especially in belo dialect (bd). after conducting a long journey of investigation, reciprocating to the native speakers of the bima language, the researcher, then found out the uniqueness of bima’s people or bimanese in greeting system of personal names mainly used by the belo people. during the investigation, he found himself really “melted together” to the natives. so, he got the original facts of the matters discussed. there are two main variations of greeting or addressing names usually used in the belo dialect. the variations of greeting/calling names are different from male and female, which applied in daily interactions of bima language. under detail explanations, the investigation divided into several components. there are four patterns of variation in greeting male’s names in belo dialect of bima language. the first pattern is constructed from the syllable /e—o/. this pattern of variation is the most number in bima language variation in daily greeting personal names use. the greeting of personal names shows the difference based on who is the caller of the names. the sample of greeting names can be seen in table 1 below. table 1. variation of daily greeting personal male names in syllable /e—o/ greeting variation proper name younger caller older/same age caller bedo bidi abidin beho baha baharudin beko baka abubakar bero burha, buru burhan deo nurdi nurdin delo dula, dola abdullah dero dara darham heko haka ishaka helo hali halik alek 180 hemo hima hami hamid melo mali amlik semo sama samad kero kari karim mejo maji majid keso kasi kasim deo haidi haidir jeo hanja hamjah kedo kadi kadir medo sumadi sumadin seno suna, sunardi sunardin table 1 depicts patterns or variations of greeting personal male names in belo dialect of bima language. to call/greet one’s name in belo dialect, the people use several rules, such as follows: the first variation of greeting names of the younger caller to the older called. the way of greeting the older’s name meant to consider the politeness, such as bedo for the proper name abidin, beho for the proper name baharuddin, and beko for the proper name abubakar. the second variation of greeting names of the older caller to the younger called, such as in bidi for the proper name abidin, baka for the proper name abubakar, and nurdi for the proper name nurdin. the third, the variation of calling names of the same age/the same level callers. to this extent, the younger callers, for instance, appreciate much the honor of the adults. such polite expressions also determine deep respect. next, the most patterns greeting male names of older and same-age callers to youngers tend to be greeted or called by omitting the last letter of the proper name. in regard the finding above, brewer (1981) states that based on his research under the title “bimanese personal names: the view from bima town and donggo” bimanese people has a unique pattern in addressing personal names, even though among one to another subdistrict has slightly difference each other. the result above can be viewed from the cultural perspective, brown and levinson (in gunarwan, 1994, p. 6) explain that the speaker chooses the strategy by considering the levels threat of "face" based on the social distance of both the register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.175-195 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 181 speaker and the speaker. the difference in social status and power between speaker one and speaker two make the strategies or patterns in their communication difference to each other. the other aspect usually considered by the speakers in communication is a cultural aspect or concern. in other words, the cultural perspective becomes a crucial thing to be cared about in maintaining conversation continuity. in line with brown and levinson, nwoye (1992) stresses that politeness is an essential aspect of verbal communication and involved the strategies for maintaining social interaction among the speakers. furthermore, nwoy states that the actual using of the strategies in certain social settings may differ from the other tradition or cultural context. the next variation of daily greeting personal male names constructed by syllable /i— a/ as in table 2. table 2. variation of daily greeting personal names in syllable /i—a/ greeting variation proper name younger caller older/same age caller hima hama, ahmad hima muhama muhammad table 3. variation of daily greeting personal names in syllable /o—e/ greeting variation proper name younger caller older/same age caller delo, dole dola, dula abdula abdullah alek 182 table 4. variation of daily greeting personal names in syllable /i—e/ greeting variation proper name younger caller older/same age caller sile sala, salahudin, sile mursali, sali, mursalim sile sali salim sile sale saleh based on results as depicted in tables 2, 3, and 4 above, the results tell us about the greeting variations of personal male names in belo dialect based on syllables of vowel pairs. from the three tables, it is apparent that table 4 is a more productive variation of greeting personal male names than table 2 and table 3. table 4 shows a similar pattern or way of greeting/addressing to some different names when greeted by the younger callers. otherwise, the greeting is variation when are greeted by the older or same age callers. tables 2 shows the less productive in greeting personal names in belo dialect (bd). the greeting constructed from the syllables /i—a/, as in proper names ahmad and muhammad. both names are greeted with hima when they greeted by younger callers. furthermore, the greeting is different when the names are greeted or addressed by the older or same-age callers. next, table 3 depicts further finding regarding the pattern of constructing the greeting of personal name in the belo dialect. the personal greeting names use syllable /o—e/ for the younger caller for delo and dole for the proper name abdullah. as happened in the personal greeting as seen in table 2 above, the variation of greeting personal names is more productive when it is called or greeted by the older or same-age callers than younger ones. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.175-195 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 183 regarding these findings are in line with (erwin wayan & arifin, 2013) under their research title penggunaan bahasa mbojo di lingkungan masyarakat bima di bima: sebuah kajian variasi bahasa state that personal greeting names in belo dialect of bima language. bimanese or bima people have some variations based on their age, sex, and position. furthermore, they express that there are two levels of politeness variations, namely moderate and less politeness the further result is the variation of greeting female names in belo dialect presented from tables 5 up to table 12 respectively. table 5. variation of daily greeting personal female names in syllable /a—u/ greeting variation proper name younger caller older caller/same age bau bia, arabia, arabiah bau misba misbah lau ramla, laila ramlah, lailah jau jahara jaharah, jahora mau muala maulanah tau mariati, ati, ti maryati fau darfia, sarfia darfiah, sarfiah alek 184 hawu hawa siti hawah janu jana, nurjana nurjanah nau ratna, misna, nuraeni ratnah, misnah, nuraeni table 5 shows the variety of greeting personal names for females in belo dialect (bd) of bima language (bl). from ten female names show the difference of greeting between the younger callers and older or same-age callers. the younger callers to the older people have less choice or variation than older and same-age callers. the younger callers have a unique greeting to older people, as in arabiah, ramlah, laila, jahara, maulana, and mariati. but for greeting names fau for darfiah, sarfiah, jau for jahara and jahora; lau for ramlah and lailah; nau for ratna, misnah, nur’aini; and wau for ma’awiah and marwiah. meanwhile the variety of greeting personal name which addressed/greeted by older and same-age callers has more variations than younger callers. based on result in table 5 above, it shows at least two ways of greeting personal female names both older callers and same-age ones. table 6. variation of daily greeting female names in syllable /e—o/ greeting variation proper name younger caller older caller/same age eno ani, ma’ani ma’ani geyo gaya, rugaya rugayah eo ma’ia, ma, ia ma’iah eto ma’atu, atu ma’atu register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.175-195 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 185 heno, nefo hani, hanifa hanifah jeo jauhari, jau jauhari mero mariati, asmara mariati asmara feo fia, safia safiah, sarfiah sero sara, sarfia sarafiah table 6 above shows the different ways of greeting personal names for females in belo dialect (bd) of bima language (bl). from eleven (11) proper names found the difference of greeting between the younger callers and older and same-age callers. the younger caller to the older people has only one choice to greet or call older female names. but in greeting personal names by the older and same-age callers has at least two ways or choices each name. there is a proper name ma’iah is called or greeted with three ways ma’ia, ma, and ia. besides, the proper name hanifah can be greeted by the younger callers in two ways, namely heno and nefo. meanwhile, the proper names mariati and asmara may be addressed or called by younger callers with one greeting, namely mero. table 7. variation of daily greeting female names in syllable /o—a/ greeting variation proper name younger caller older caller/same age alek 186 moa salma, ma, mae, sarmae fatma, ma salmah, sarmae, fatmah the finding, as seen in table 7 shows the different ways of personal greeting names for females in belo dialect (bd) of bima language (bl). from three (3) proper names (salmah, sarmae, and fatmah) which follow the pattern of construction /o—a/ in greeting personal female names by the younger callers. the three proper names called with one greeting name, namely moa. meanwhile, the variation of greeting name by older and same-age callers are two ways, they are salma and ma for salmah; sarmae and mae for sarmae; and fatma and ma for fatmah. table 8. variation of daily greeting female names in syllable /a—o/ greeting variation proper name younger caller older caller/same age rao maria, ria, mariama, maria mariana, maria juria, ria, juhria, ria jumra maria, mariamah, marianah juriah juhriah jumrah table 8 presents the results from the data analysis which used the pattern of greeting female names. this finding shows the difference from the other designs as in the previous tables. the finding in table 5 above may be called a unique construction, especially in greeting female names for younger callers to older people, especially for female names. there are six (6) names may be called with one greeting or addressing, such as maria, mariamah, marianah, juriah, register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.175-195 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 187 juhriah, and jumrah. otherwise the greeting of female names is called by the older and sameage callers are more variations. each of the proper names has two variations, but only one name has no variation or other option, namely jumra for jumrah. table 9. variation of daily greeting female names in syllable /e—i/ greeting variation proper name younger caller older caller/same age jei jaena, junari jaenab sei samsia kaliso samsiah, kalisom sei, moa sarmae, mae sarmaeh table 9 provides the result regarding the patterns of greeting female names using syllable /e— i/. there are four proper names. there is a female name has two ways for younger caller to older people, such as sei and moa for sarmaeh. thre are two names that have one way of greeting the female names, as in younger callers, sei for samsiah and kalisom. meanwhile the older and same-age callers have only one way or choice to greet or call both samsiah and kalisom. the last greeting variation in this pattern is the older and same-age callers have two ways or choices to greet or address the proper name sarmaeh. table 10. variation of daily greeting female names in syllable /o—i/ greeting variation proper name younger caller older alek 188 caller/same age bodi jubaida, beda jubaidah doji dija, hadija hadijah losi lisa, halisa halisah rofi sarifa, rifa sarifah lomi halima, lima halimah as can be seen from table 10 above, the pattern of greeting female names for younger callers to older people using syllable /o—i/. from five female names found that each name has only one way or choice to greet or call when it is called or greeted by younger callers, such bodi for jubaidah; doji for hadijah; losi for halisah. rofi for sarifah, and lomi for halimah. however, each of five names as presented in table 5 above has two ways or choices when they are greeted or called by older and same-age callers. table 11. variation of daily greeting personal names in syllable /e—e/ greeting variation proper name younger caller older caller/same age mene muna, maemuna mini, rukmini maemunah rukmini table 11 shows the variation of greeting female names using syllable pattern /e—e/ for younger caller to older people. there is only one choice of greeting two female names, namely register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.175-195 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 189 maemunah and rukmini. both names greeted or addressed with mene. meanwhile the older and same-age callers have two ways or choices to greet and call them, such as muna and maemuna for maemunah; and mini and rukmini for rukmini. but there is one proper name, namely rumini has the same greeting, both older callers and same-age callers. it means that there is no omitting final phoneme ‘h’ in this name. in other words, this name is unique to other bimanese female names. regarding this finding, hanafi (2001) stresses that: “bahasa bima (bb) merupakan bahasa yang unik dalam sentuhannya dengan sapa diri. selain karena konsonan yang lesap pada akhir pelafalan kata atau pemenggalan berdasarkan silabel.” translation: bima is a unique language along with its its personal address. instead of the ellipsis of consontant on the last part of the pronunciation or the syllable division" table 12. variation of daily greeting female names in syllable /o—o/ greeting variation proper name younger caller older caller/same age bobo habiba, biba habibah it can be seen from the data in table 12 that there is only one name found using this pattern construction in greeting female names of bima people. the variation of greeting occurs only in older and same-age callers, such as habiba and biba for habibah. meanwhile, as the most common of greeting female names, especially the callers or greeters are younger than the people are called or greeted. based on the results as shown in eight tables (table 5 up to table 12) above, they can be classified into three levels of variations, namely high variation, as in tables 5 and table 6; moderate level variation as seen in tables 7, 8, and 9, 10; and low variety as in table 11 and table 12). the other exciting aspect of greeting female names is the most variation of greeting alek 190 names that occur on older callers and same-age callers, as shown in all tables (tables 5—12). in contrast, the variation of greeting personal names of younger callers tends to low productivity, but they still have politeness value. regarding the result of this study, anchimbe (2011) based on his research results under his research title “on not calling people by their names: pragmatic undertones of socio-cultural relationships in a post-colony found that to greeting people by their proper names in certain cultures is not only disrespectful but also an indication that they have no respect or have no politeness. in line with this opinion, manno (2005) strengthens that politeness comprises not only reducing the face-strengthening act (negative politeness) but also creating polite acts, for example, compliment, greeting, etcetera (positive politeness). the other research result comes from schneider (2017) with his research title “(im)politeness and regional variation” supports the tworesearch result before, that in macro-social interaction, gender and age factors may affect the language use, not only at the national, sub-national, and local level. furthermore, to answer the second question posed before, which related to how are the use of variations pattern in the greeting of personal names in belo dialect of bima language? regarding the answer to this question, it can be revealed based on the above results. the ways of using variations in greeting personal names in the belo dialect of bima language consists of three ways. the three variation patterns of greeting personal names, namely at the beginning, such as in proper names kasim to become keso and hamid to become hemo or hima; the middle, such as in proper name abidin to become bedo, and aldi to become deo; and at the end of the syllables, such as in proper name ramli to become leo and hamdin to become deo. these examples as seen above are the most often used and natural occurrence when bimanese people interact in daily life. related to this finding ahn, h. (2017) stated in his research finding that terms of greeting used by callers communication happen the callers/speakers always consider the appropriately linguistic features and specific cultural embraced by the addressee (younger, older, or same age) as a means of precisely designating individuals. regarding the results above, belo dialect of the bima language has unique variation patterns and systems of greeting both male’s and female’s names. in line with this finding, montemurro at al. (2016), in any language, there are many signals produced by complex systems, such as phoneme sounds and words, and its meaning within. besides that malt, at al. (2003) expressed another aspect of language use, it based on their research result stated that in https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0378216610003310#! register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.175-195 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 191 using language, the speakers need to know not only the individual elements, such as his/her cultural aspect which they are embraced but also of the language they speak. regarding this concern. alek (2018, p. 9) says more explicitly in his book ‘linguistik umum’ that language is a variety. it means that each language or dialect used by a group of the language community that owned by a language society. the diversity of communication has an impact on the patterns of the formation of specific systems that are adopted by a language, such as in the variation of syllable of vowel patterns in greeting system of people's names in the belo dialect. similar to alek, sri (2016) stated that language is a unique sound pattern according to the way of the channel and according to its acoustic properties (phonetic articulatory). speech is the process of producing air through the mouth and the role of all utensils. furthermore, sri stressed that all utterances or sentences produced should have meaning and meaningful. conclusion the present investigation definitely answers the questions regarding greeting practice of personal names in the bima language, especially in belo dialect. the results indicated that there are differences between males and females in the greeting of personal names. there are four variations or patterns in male’s greeting their personal names. in the meantime, there are nine patterns of syllable of vowel variations in constructing the greeting of female’s names in belo dialect of bima language. the other result related the process of building the patterns or variations in greeting both male and female names consist of three variation patterns, namely at the beginning (kasim for keso), in the middle (nurdin for deo), and the last is at the end of the syllables (bakri for reo). the variation found in this study not only the patterns of syllables or vowel pairs but also the name variation in the way of greeting some personal names, both in male’s name and female’s name when they are called by older or same age speakers/callers. the other important result indicates that the most syllable /e—o/ for male and syllable /a—u/ and /e—o/ for female names. the other important uniqueness found in this study is that of all final letters or phonemes in greeting personal names, both males and females in the bima language ending with ‘vowel letter.’ in societal life, personal greeting names may differ from a language community to another language community; it is strongly affected by the culture embraced and the level of closeness among the speakers. alek 192 the finding of the recent study suggests that the language teachers, the language planners of bima language, includes belo dialect to scrutinize the aspects that have not revealed yet within the investigation. last but not least, the local language not only a means of communication among the speaker of the language but also to support the development of the national language. references alek. 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(1998). an introduction to sociolinguistics. oxford: basil blackwell ltd. widiasri, d. a. (2016). penyimpangan pola fonologis bahasa inggris siswa sd tampak siring. menara ilmu, 10 (72). vol. x jilid 1 no.72 november 2016 menara il. retrieved from http:// https://scholar.google.co.id/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5&q=variasi+pola+silabel+k ata&btng=\ https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/978-1-137-37508-7_21 http://ejournal.ukm.my/gema/article/view/11632 https://scholar.google.co.id/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5&q=variasi+pola+silabel+kata&btng=/ https://scholar.google.co.id/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5&q=variasi+pola+silabel+kata&btng=/ 75 the use of a write-pair-square strategy to improve the students’ active participation in writing descriptive text dwi arni siti margiyanti kesatrian 2 semarang senior high school, indonesia e-mail: mdwiarni@yahoo.co.id) abstract many problems faced by students in participating in the classroom and writing a text. this study discussed the use of write-pair-square strategy to improve the students‘ active participation in writing descriptive text. the objectives of the study are to find out the implementation of writepair-square in teaching descriptive text and to investigate the improvement of students‘ participation and writing achievement after being taught by using write-pair-square strategy. the research focused on teaching of descriptive text by using write-pair-square as the strategy. the subjects are sma kesatrian 2 semarang students. this study used classroom action research that was carried out through a pre-test, first and second cycle activities. the result showed that the students‘ progress of participation improved. the average score of pre-test was 11.27, post-test 1 was 20.13, and post-test 2 was 30.24. it also showed that students‘ mastering descriptive improved. the average achievement of students‘ pretest was63.27, first cycle test was70.23and post test was 77.66. according to this study, i conclude that teaching descriptive text by using write-pair-square as the strategy is helpful for students. it is recommended for english teachers to use write-pair-square as the strategy for students‘ improvement of their writing skill. keywords: teaching descriptive text, write pair square, active participation 76 abstrak banyak masalah yang dihadapi oleh siswa dalam mengikuti pembelajaran dan menulis teks. penelitian ini membahas tetang penggunaan strategi write-pair-square untuk meningkatkan partisipasi aktif dari siswa dalam menulis teks.objek dari studi ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan penerapan write-pair-square dalam mengajar teks deskriptif dan untuk menyelidiki peningkatan partisipasi siswa dan prestasi menulis setelah diajar dengan menggunakan strategi write-pairsquare. penelitian ini berfokus pada pengajaran teks deskriptif dengan menggunakan strategi write-pair-square. sedangkan subjek penelitian ini adalah siswa sma kesatrian 2 semarang. dengan menerapkan penelitian tindakan kelas, penelitian dilakukan melalui pre-test, serta aktivitas siklus pertama dan kedua. penelitian menunjukkan terdapat peningkatan partisipasi siswa. skor rata dari pre-test adalah 11, 27, post-test 1 sebanyak 20,13, dan post-test 2 sebanyak 30,24. ini menunjukkan bahwa kemampuan siswa dalam menguasai teks deskriptif meningkat. rata-rata prestasi siswa pada pre-test adalah 63, 27. sedangkan pada siklus pertama adalah 70, 23 dan pada post-test sebanyak 77, 66. berdasarkan studi ini, penulis menyimpulkan bahwa pengajaran teks deskriptif dengan menggunakan strategi write-pair-square dapat membantu siswa dalam pembelajaran. sehingga, disarankan kepada guru bahasa inggris untuk menggunakan strategi tersebut guna peningkatan kemampuan menulis siswa. kata kunci: pengajaran teks deskriptif, write-pair-square, partisipasi aktif introduction teaching writing in traditional way is still can be found in many schools. harmer (2004) pointed out in his book that in some teaching, particularly in teaching writing, students write a composition in the classroom which the teacher corrects and hands back the next day covered in red ink. the students put the corrected pieces of work in their folder and rarely look at them again. this situation can be found in some schools in indonesia. 77 that kind of activity in teaching language teaching is considered as traditional teaching (tl) method. dealing with student‘s improvement in learning language, especially in writing skill, there is shifting happen in educational field. the shifting here is from tl method into cooperative learning (cl) method. there are several definitions of cl suggested by some researchers. one of the definitions is pointed out by felder and brent (2007). they suggested that cl refers to students working in teams on anassignment or project under conditions in which certain criteria are satisfied,including that the team members be held individually accountable for the completecontent of the assignment or project. from this definition, students are not working alone, individually. they work within a group which has the same goal. another definition of cl is suggested by slavin in syafini and rizan (2010). he describes cl as students working in small groups and are given rewards and recognition based on the group‘s performance. compare to the cl, tl has less advantage in the process of learning. it is in line with the statement suggested by felder and brent. they say: ― relative to students taught traditionally-i.e with instructorcentered lecture, individual assignments, and competitive grading cooperatively taught students tend to exhibit higher academic achievement, greater persistence through graduation, better highlevel reasoning critical thinking skills, deeper understanding of learned material, greater intrinsic motivation to learn and achieve, greater ability to view situations from others‘ perspectives, more positive and supportive relationships with peers, more positive attitudes toward subject areas, and higher self-esteem‖ (felder and brent, 2007). 78 when the teachers are using traditional learning, the students are asked to accomplish the task individually. there will be competition among them. the fastest learners will get more success than the slow ones. writing plays its big role in expressing students‘ idea. hence, writing is still considered as the important skilled that should be taught to the students. the skill of expressing oneself in the form of writing has been the aim of many teachers to cultivate in their students (krause 1994). in traditional learning, writing is assessed merely by evaluating the product of students‘ writing. they submit their writing to the teacher and the teacher will correct them and give it back. the only aspect which is evaluated is only the text produced by the students. in cooperative learning, the students are not depending on the teacher. they are not merely listening to the teachers‘ lecture. they actively participate in the classroom activity. syafini and rizan (2010) mentions that in group works sometimes the participation of the group members is not equal and there are group members who indulge on a free ride without contributing the group work and objective. in one group there are different students with different characteristic. this characteristic that defines the different participation of the students. there are some techniques under the umbrella of cooperative learning. they are group-investigation, student teams achievement division (stad), learning together, jigsaw, murder and write-pairsquare (jacobs et al, 1999). all of them are suitable to be implemented in the language teaching. i am interested in write-pair-square in teaching writing to my students. the reason is because it covers both group and pair work. moreover, it seems like it is preferable in improving their 79 writing skill. working in groups not only increases students‘ active participation but also build their social skill development, improves communication, enhance the independence and accountability. hence, using cooperative learning through write-pair-square is likely useful to be implemented in my classroom. however, in the real education field in indonesia in which we can see it from the existing schools whether they are public or private, general or vocational, and primary or secondary schools, we can still easily find that traditional learning activity is still used in teaching learning process. we cannot simply say that traditional teaching is not good. however, many researchers have conducted and find that traditional learning is not adequate enough to meet the students‘ need. campbell in syafini and rizan (2010) suggested that rote learning has been a common practice in today‘s educational scene in language learning. hence, in this study, i pick a cooperative learning implementation to prove the previous study about the effectiveness of using cl in language teaching. students supposed to involve in every activity in the classroom actively. the fact happens in the field yet is different from the theory. some students are open to the teachers and the rests are not. syafini and rizan (2010) suggested that xtroverts generally produce more action with fewer thoughts whereas introverts produce numerous thoughts with little action. the theories above are the ideal situations that actually should happen in education field. however, the facts in the real field are sometimes still far from the ideal ones. they are still many problems happen in making the harmony between theories and facts. considering the facts that different from the ideal situation, i think it is needed to 80 conduct a study about how to overcome this problem. therefore, i need to give it a try on using cooperative learning to improve students‘ active participation and writing skill. related to the background above, the researcher formulated the research problem as follows: (1) what problems are faced by the tenth graders of sma kesatrian 2 in participating and writing a descriptive text? (2) how is a write-pair-square strategy implemented in the classroom activity? (3) how is the students‘ participation improvement when they are taught by using a write-pair-square strategy? (4) how is the learners‘ achievement in writing descriptive text improved by using a write-pair-square strategy? general concept of cooperative learning many people see the description of a classroom that there is one teacher standing in front of the students. they will explain the students about the subject that he masters. while the students are sitting nicely in front of the teachers, and listening carefully what the teacher explains. the teacher asks the students not to make any noise. it is a good method when it is needed. moreover, the assessment of only focuses on the product without any careful attention on the process. from the ideas above, it can be concluded that in cooperative learning, the world of education is not only about giving the material to the students. it also covers the knowledge about socializing with the world. if people only care about themselves they cannot live in social world. it also happens in the classroom. if students merely focus on themselves, they will not interact with their friends. they even l compete each other to be the best. sometimes they need to do something 81 individually to learn how to survive if there is nobody they can depend on. however, if it happens all the time, they will be individualistic student. it will be difficult for them to interact since they used to work individually. element of cooperative learning there is a difference between simply having students work in group and structuring groups of students to work cooperatively. this is supported by roger and david (2009). they suggest that a group of students sitting at the same table doing their own work, but free to talk to each others as they work, is not structured to be a cooperative group, as there is no positive interdependence. it means that not all group work is cooperative learning. there are some elements of cooperative learning suggested by roger and david (2009), they are; positive interdependence; individual accountability; face-to-face promotive interaction; appropriate use of collaborative skills; and group processing. in this part the elements of cooperative learning will be discussed further. 1. positive interdependence every student gets involved in any activity. in their book, roger and david (2009) suggest that within cooperative learning situations, students have two responsibilities: 1) learn the assigned material, and 2) ensure that all members of the group learn the assigned material. from this characteristic, it is clear that the material still something important to be learned. 2. individual accountability individual accountability occurs within the interdependence. the students must feel that they are each accountable for helping to complete 82 a task for mastering material (joyce: 2010). each student is responsible for a specific portion of a task. if there is a ‗hitchhike‘, there will be no productive work. 3. face-to-face promotive interaction cooperative learning is conducted by asking the students to work in groups. this activity results in promotive interaction. it can be defined as individual encouraging and facilitating each others‘ efforts to achieve, complete tasks, and produce in order to reach the group‘s goals. in the positive interdependence, students will feel that they need each others. in the process of helping each others, they will interact. roger and david suggest that by using face-to-face promotive interaction, learning becomes active rather than passive (roger and david: 2009). discussion of the ideas happens in each group. the discussion will make the students interact each other. more over cooperative team helps students learn to value individual differences and promote more elaborate thinking. the heterogeneous in the groups make the students think differently. however, they have to make one goal so they will negotiate and draw a conclusion. this activity need good interaction to get one deal of the theme discussed within the group. 4. appropriate use of collaborative skills cooperative learning makes the student master the skills for working together effectively. they are able to stay on task, summarizing, and recording the ideas. they also can maintain the skills by encouraging each others. therefore, the teachers need to do something in order the students can learn effectively. these efforts can be done by giving them the appropriate treatment. roger and david (2009) suggest that ways to 83 foster skill development include teaching modeling, brainstorming characteristic of ‗good‘ skills, direct practice, process observing, and reflection. these activities will support the students to develop and maintain their skills. being good in socialization is not an easy job. students have different characteristic. making them work and interact in the same time is not that easy. roger and david (2009) state that in order to coordinate effort to achieve mutual goals, students must; 1) get to know and trust each other; 2) communicate accurately and unambiguously; and 3) accept and support each other; 4) resolve conflict constructively. when we place the unskilled students in a group and simply ask them to cooperate, there is no guarantee that they will do it. we are not burn with automatically have the instinct to socialize. all we are doing is learning as well as the students. we must teach them how to do that step by step. 5. group processing the main activity in cooperative learning when the students have a discussion. in this process, they will learn whether they do effectively or not. they will find out who is involved and which one is not. roger and david (2009) suggested that an effective group work is influenced by whether or not groups reflect on how well they are functioning. the function of group will run effectively if they share their idea and interact within the groups. this group processing is an identifiable sequence of events taking place overtime, and process goals refer to the sequence of events instrumental in achieving outcome goals (johnson & johnson: 1991). therefore, this kind of learning method needs time to be investigated and the concern is not the product. though the product is expected to prove 84 the improvement of the students that is not the main point. the point is students can learn something in the process of cooperative learning for their betterment. based on the situation above, i conduct the study to apply the cooperative learning in my class in order the students are able to work not only individually but also in group. write-pair-square cooperative learning aims at leading the students to work in groups. it can be loosely categorized by the skill that each enhances (barkley, cross and major: 2005). it means that it can be done by conducting several strategies under the umbrella of cooperative learning. each of them includes the number of potential structures to guide the development of a cooperative learning exercise. it is in line with the statement about the technique of cooperative learning. each strategy can be developed to fit within multiple categories by considering the needs of the student. one of the strategies is write-pair-square. this is a four-step discussion strategy that incorporates with time and aspects of cooperative learning. students and teachers learn to listen while a question is posed (joyce: 2010). the students need time in doing the activity. it requires the skill of listening and gives more attention to teacher‘s instruction. write-pair-square is developed bykagan (1994). this strategy consists of three steps: 1. write the teacher asks question on the certain issues related to the learningmaterial. after that, the students are required to think about 85 the issues individually. in this step students should work individually. they write their opinion about the given issue by the teacher. 2. pair the students are grouped in pair to discuss what they have been thinkingon the first step. in this step, students share their answer on the proposed question, or share theidea on the identified problem. teacher usually allocates 4 or 5 minutes to work in pair. the students share their idea with the partner and make pair work. the discussion is needed after sharing. they complete their opinion each other. they take the good idea and construct a pair work. 3. square to share what they have learnt, in this step, teacher asks one student ofthe pairs to form a bigger group. in this way, all the students within the group are expected to be ableto share the idea. they share their idea and finally make a group work. they have to compose the final draft after sharing and discussing the topic. each pair presents its pair work and by discussing they will find which idea is good and complete with another good idea. the response is something that becomes the key of this learning process. this strategy provides students with the opportunity to reflect on the question posed and then practice sharing and receiving potential solutions. by doing this step, students are supposed to be critical and creative to respond a question dealing with the theme given by the teachers. 86 research method in this research, the writer applied qualitative approach to identify the use of writing-pair-square in improving students‘ active participation in writing descriptive text. in completing this research, the writer collected data and information from the main source, namely field research. this term referred to the efforts in obtaining the empirical data from the subject of the research. the writer also conducted the activity of gathering information from library facilities such as references and books which supported the efforts in conducting this research. the writer decided to carry out an action research in sma kesatrian 2 semarang as the writer had been teaching there and wanted to know how is the effective way in using a write-pair-square to improve students‘ active participation and their writing ability. the research design of this study was action research. it took two cycles. each cycle consisted of three meetings excluded the pre and posttest. each cycle had four steps; they were planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. the place of this research was at a private school. it is sma kesatrian 2 semarang at gajah raya street number 58, semarang. the research was conducted in the second semester of the academic year of 2012/2013. the pre-cycle test was conducted on april, 24 2013. the second cycle was conducted on april, 30 2013 – may, 8 2013. second cycle was conducted on 14-21 may 2013 and post test 2 was conducted on may, 22 2013. the study of action research was involving a group of students as the subject of investigation. this action research was done at sma kesatrian 2 semarang. this school is located at jalan gajah 87 raya number 58, semarang. i conducted this action research in classx.3. there were 13 males and 17 females. in this action research, some instruments were used in form of observation sheet, outsider observer, field notes, rubric of students‘ active participation, students‘ observation sheet, and test. observation sheet was used to describe the exact situation during the research was conducted. it was be used by the outsider observer. he filled the observation sheet while doing the observation. i collaborated with one of the teachers in my school to do the observation during this research was conducted. the data analysis in this study consisted of observation sheet, students‘ participation scoring, students‘ observation sheet, and writing test. findings and discussion the preliminary research was conducted before the research was undertaken. i observed the students while i was teaching them. i had taught them for almost two semesters. according to the teaching experience and two semesters activities, i could identify the problems are faced by the students in learning english. some of the problems are; (1) lack of learning sources; (2) lack of motivation; (3) family background; (4) lack of interest; (5) lack of motivation; (6) lack of practice; (7) no support from the environment; (8) lack of participation and (9) low competence. those problems make the students‘ ability in writing skill is unsatisfying. in this study i concerned with the problems dealing with lack of participation and writing problems. the following paragraphs are the discussion about those two problems. 88 the pre-test was conducted in order to know the students‘ prior achievement in writing description text. moreover, it was given to dig students‘ weaknesses in writing. the pre-test was given to the students on wednesday, 24 th april 2013, before the research was conducted. the students were asked to produce a description text after given a short explanation and sample about descriptive text. the results of the students‘ writing were analyzed based on the rubric of scoring writing test. the time allotment given was 90 minutes. the result of this pre-test would be compared with the result of the test after students were given treatments. the aim of this comparison was to determine the improvement of students‘ writing skill of descriptive text. after administering the pre-test, the result was analyzed to get the students‘ score. the result of this pre-test analysis would underline the process of planning for the first cycle. the result of the pretest was attached in the following table 1 (appendix 11). the following table was the summary of the pre-test result. table 1. the summary of pre-test result category organization content grammar punctuation style total mean 13.17 19.80 14.83 3.70 11.70 63.27 % 65.83 66 59.33 74 58.83 13.33 based on the data presented in appendix 11, the mean score was calculated as follows. 89 according to the pre-test analysis, the average of the students‘ result was 63.27. the passing grade of writing test was 75. the percentage of the student that achieved the passing grade was 13% (4 students). using the same formula, the mean of each category was calculated. the result showed that the mean of organization was 13.17, content was 19.80, grammar was 14.83, punctuation was 3.70, and style was 11.77. this score then would be analyzed to get the description of their competence in writing descriptive text. the first post-test was conducted after the third meeting of cycle 1. the students were given an answer sheet and asked to write a descriptive text about animal. the time allotment was 45 minutes. after giving the material, worksheet and exercise using write pair square strategy, the students were expected to produce a good descriptive text. the students‘ results of writing were evaluated and it was constructed into a result table. it was attached in the appendix 12. the following table 2 was the summary of post-test 1 result table 2. the summary of post-test 1 result category organization content grammar punctuation style total mean 15.17 22.07 17.60 3.90 11.60 70.23 % 75.83 73.56 70.4 78 57.5 70.23 based on the students‘ writing result table, it was found that the average score of students‘ writing in the first post-test was 70.23. the students that achieved the passing grade of writing test were 18 students (70.23%). the same formula was applied to analyze each category in writing rubric. from the calculation, it was found that the mean of 90 organization was15.17. in other words the students‘ organization competence achieved by them was 75% if it was compared to the maximum score. the result of mean score and achievement percentage of content, grammar, punctuation, and style was respectively 22, 07 (73.55%); 17.60 (70.4%); 3.90 (78%); and 11.50 (57.5%). generally, there were improvement found based on average score and each rubric category except in style category. the reflection was constructed based on the process during the actions and observation was undertaken. the reflections were as follows. 1. students‘ participation result showed that the students‘ participation was still in poor category. 2. based on the result of students‘ writing, it was found that they were still poor in category style. it was because when they were composing a descriptive text, almost all of the students were confused in choosing the vocabulary. sometimes they did not know the english word of the word that they wanted to write. sometimes they misused the english word. for example they used ‗see‘ instead of ‗watch‘ in ‗i see television with my brother‘ while actually he meant ‗i watch television with my brother‘. 3. they found difficulty in making a group in the process of ‗square‘. it was because the instruction was not clear enough for them. before they did the ‗write pair square‘ i only informed them that they were going to work individually, in pairs and in group. however, i did not give instruction how to make a group after they shared with their partner. this lack of information made them took quite long time to make a group. 91 4. in ‗pair‘ step, they find difficulties about how to make the result of sharing. some of them wrote the point and others wrote in form of paragraph. it made the students confused since there was no clear instruction about the form of ‗pair‘ discussion result. 5. in doing the individual work, they still look at their friends‘ result. it could be found when the students were doing worksheet and in the process of ‗write‘ in write pair square strategy. when they were still having discussion in writing their opinion, it was useless since after they did ‗write‘ process they would have ‗pair‘ work where they would discuss their own work to their pair. 6. in doing the ‗square‘ process, it was expected that all of the students would participate actively in sharing and discussing the topic. however, in fact there were only some students who controlled the discussion while other members were only kept silent without giving any idea. some of them did not contribute because they did not know what to say but the others seemed not too enthusiastic in taking a part. 7. by having some worksheet in each material, they complained that they were bored of doing the written exercise. based on those reflections, i decided to conduct the second cycle. the planning would be based on the problems in the reflection of this cycle. i expected by having the second cycle there would be improvement. the second post-test was conducted after the third meeting of cycle 2. the students were given an answer sheet and asked to write a descriptive text about person. the time allotment was 45 minutes. after giving the material, worksheet and exercise using write pair square 92 strategy, the students were expected to produce a good descriptive text. the students‘ results of writing were evaluated and it was constructed into a result table. it was attached in the appendix 13. the following table was the summary of post-test 2 result. table 3. the summary of post-test 2 result category organization content grammar punctuation style total mean 18.17 23.00 19.00 4.07 12.85 77.07 % 90.83 76.67 76 81.33 51.33 76.67 based on the students‘ writing result table, it was found that the average score of students‘ writing in the second post-test was 77.07. this number was higher if compared to the average score in cycle 1. it showed that the students‘ writing competence was improved. the students that achieved the passing grade of writing test were 23 students (76.67%). the number of students that achieved the passing grade was also increased. in the beginning, most of them were passively participate in classroom. however, by applying write pair square strategy they got opportunity to willingly participate and involved themselves in classroom activity. to make it clear in understanding the research result, the observation result of the activity was pictured in the following (figure 1): 93 the figure above showed that the observation done by the observer was in line with what students thought. it meant that there was a balance between the observer‘s opinions with students‘ point of view. the observer observed started before and during the research was done. then the result was derived from the calculation of the average score derived from each meeting. it was done to find the changes of each meeting. in the end of the research the students were given an observation sheet to make sure that the data was taken from both sides, from observer‘s and students‘ opinion. another issue in this research was students‘ active participation. the following was students‘ development of participation that had been observed before and during the research. 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 preparation presentation methods personal characteristic teacher-student interaction m e a n observer student figure 1 the result of research observation by observer and students. 94 table 4. the classification of students’ achievement percentage level of achievement 67-100 34-66 0-3 excellent good poor based on the diagram above, it was showed that students‘ participation in pre-cycle was 15.03%; first cycle was 26.84% and second cycle was 40.33%. based on the classification of achievement table (table 4), the level of achievement of students‘ active participation was poor in pre-cycle and cycle 1 and improved to good in cycle 2. besides participation, another concern in this research was students; competence in writing descriptive text. in the beginning, students were expected showed change during the research or in other words they were expected to improve their competence after being taught 15.03 26.84 40.33 pre-cycle cycle 1 cycle 2 students' participation in percentage students participation in percentage figure 2 the result of research observation by observer and students. 95 using write pair square strategy. the following diagram showed clearly the development of students‘ writing competence from pre-cycle to the end of cycle 2. the figure above showed that students‘ writing competence in pre-test was improved both the average score and the number of students that achieved the writing passing grade. the mean score in pre-test was 63.27 and the number of students that achieved the passing grade was 13.33% from the total number of the student. the average score of post-test 1 was 70.23 and there were 70.23 % students achieved the passing grade. the last post-test‘s average score was 77.66 and there were 76.67% students achieved the passing grade. the development of students writing competence had some category that could be seen their improvement. each category had different achievement but generally they were improved. the following diagram showed the development of students‘ each category competence in writing descriptive text. 63.27 70.23 77.66 13.33 70.23 76.66 pre-test post-test 1 post-test 2 average score students' passing grade in % figure 3 the development of students‘ writing descriptive competence 96 from the diagram above it showed that students‘ competence in each assessment category was generally improved. the organization‘s average score in pre-cycle was 13.17; cycle 1 was 15.17; and cycle 2 was 18.17. the content‘s average score in pre-cycle was 19.80; cycle 1 was 22.07; and cycle 2 was 23. the average score of grammar competence in pre-cycle was 14.83; cycle 1 was 17.6; and cycle 2 was 4.07. the average score of style in pre-cycle was 11.77; cycle 1 was 11.50; and cycle 2 was 12.83. conclusion based on data analysis which was discussed, the researcher concluded that: this study concerns with the use of write-pair-square strategy to improve students‘ active participation in writing descriptive text. based on the results of the study, the conclusions are as follows. 13.17 19.8 14.83 3.7 11.77 15.17 22.07 17.6 3.9 11.5 18.17 23.00 19.00 4.07 12.83 organization content grammar punctuation style pre-cycle cycle 1 cycle 2 figure 4 the development of students‘ writing descriptive competence in each assessment category 97 firstly, the main problems faced by the students in the preliminary research were the lack of participation in classroom activity and writing a text especially in grammar and vocabulary. secondly, the write-pair-square was implemented through action research. it consisted of pre-cycle, cycle 1 and cycle 2. in cycle 1 and cycle 2 there were four steps they were planning, acting, observation and reflection. write-pair-square was done in the acting step. it consisted of three activities; write, pair, and square. there was a pre-test and post-test in each cycle. thirdly, the implementation of write-pair-square strategy in the classroom activities had developed students‘ active participation. the percentage of students‘ participation had developed from 15.33% into 40.33 % and based on category they are developed from poor into good category. fourthly, the implementation of write-pair-square strategy during the research had developed students‘ writing descriptive competence. this strategy had also improved the percentage of 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examinations.vol.32, no.2.available online at: http://www.vcu.edu/cte/workshops/workshop_list/references/yo der_%26_hochevar.pdf [accessed on 11-12-12 ] http://www.context.org/iclib/ http://www.context.org/iclib/ http://www.context.org/iclib/ic18/ http://www.ukm.my/solls09/proceeding/pdf/shafini.pdf http://www.vcu.edu/cte/workshops/workshop_list/references/yoder_%26_hochevar.pdf http://www.vcu.edu/cte/workshops/workshop_list/references/yoder_%26_hochevar.pdf register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.81-99 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.81-99 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 81 the adjacency pairs analysis of teacher students talks in hearing impairment classroom nahar nurun nafi’ universitas sebelas maret naharnurunnafi@gmail.com desika rinanda universitas sebelas maret desikrinanda@mail.com sularti universitas sebelas maret lrti_art159@yahoo.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.81-99 submission track: received: 31/03/2019 final revision: 27/05/2019 available online: 01/06/2019 corresponding author: nahar nurun nafi’ naharnurunnafi@ gmail.com abstract the purpose of this study is to investigate the components of adjacency pairs, which appear in a conversation between an english teacher and hearing-impairment students in a special need classroom. another aim is to find the dominant role of english teacher in the process of adjacency pairs which is related to the students’ activeness in the classroom. data were collected through observing the classroom, recording and transcribing their conversation during the teaching and learning activities. interview is also done to support the findings. meanwhile, data analysis is done by identifying, analyzing, and classifying the findings based on mc charty’s theory of adjacency pairs. the research, then, results 9 kinds of adjacency pairs committed from the interaction between english teachers and the hearing-impairment students. they are (1) compliment / acceptance, (2) information / acknowledgement, (3) greeting / greeting, (4) invitation / acceptance, (5) offer / refusal, (6) question / answer, (7) summons / answer, (8) accusation / denial, (9) offer / acceptance. this study reveals a fact that an active interaction between teacher and students indeed exists through various adjacency pairs occur in the special need classroom, even though the teacher’s role is also quite powerful in the special need classroom. the finding of this study may become the reference for the teachers and practitioners who need deep understanding toward characteristics of the special needs students especially for the impairment students. keywords: adjacency pairs, teaching and learning, mailto:naharnurunnafi@gmail.com mailto:desikrinanda@mail.com mailto:lrti_art159@yahoo.com http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.81-99 nahar nurun nafi, desika rinanda, sularti 82 introduction communication takes an essential role in the teaching and learning process. materials are occasionally delivered by means of communication between teacher and students in the classroom. through this research, the writers try to investigate how the structures of adjacency pairs in hearing impairment-students. in addition, related to adjacency pairs, the writers attempt to find the influence of dominant role of english teacher in students‘ activeness in teaching and learning process. these two findings are obtained through the conversation occurred between teacher and students. conversations cannot be separated from long-term communication. as a process of sending and receiving information, conversation is a very important element in most part of communications. conversation itself consists of a speaker and a listener who occupies their own functions (baiat et al, 2013; hagoort & meyer, 2013). in the conversation, language and contexts are interrelated each other so that in understanding the language, the speaker and listener have to understand the context of the material conveyed through the language. the relationship between language and context is included in the domain of discourse analysis (mccarty, 2002). conversations also occur in the teachinglearning process where there is a class interaction between teacher-students and student-student. in good interactions, there is always an exchange of role between the speaker and the listener. there are several important things that must be considered, both by speakers and listeners in conversation, one of them is the adjacency pairs. adjacency pairs refer to an activity to cooperate between speaker and listener in a private organization of interaction (mccarty, 2000). in addition, coulthard (1985) defines adjacency pairs as contributive exchanges in conversations that help to determine the first speaker in charge of initiating the conversation and the second speaker as the listener who provides actionbased responses initiated by the speaker. adjacency pairs consists of first pair and second pair parts which each part of the pair is identified by utterance produced by the speaker and listener. each speaker and listener will propose the similar or different utterance acts during the conversation. it has become a general basis that each speaker has a response in mind that is expected or not expected by the first speaker (coates, 2004). mccarthy (2000) adds that adjacency pairs are as different types of identical (hello-hello), and different second pair-part (congratulations-thanks). the most tangible evidence for adjacency pairs are thanking – response, request – acceptance, and questionanswer sequences. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.81-99 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.81-99 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 83 the following example illustrates adjacency pairs types taken from richards and schmidt (1983:128). a: hi, (greeting) b: hello (greeting) a: ok, see you (farewell) b: so long (farewell) a: is that what you mean? b: yes (answer) adjacency pairs also occur in the classroom, not only in normal classroom but also in special need classroom especially in hearing-impairment students‘ classroom. hearingimpairment students refers to students who lose their whole part or those parts of hearing so they have obstacles in understanding other people's utterance through their own hearing, with or without using hearing aids (moores,2001). their obstacles in understanding utterances often cause difficulties in the teaching and learning process. based on the previous experience of researcher in teaching english in one of special need schools in medan during 2015 to 2017, it comes across the incident in which teacher and students often have miscommunication in interacting each other. teacher often misunderstands what students mean and vice versa. one of the factors causing the incident is the different ability of hearing-impairment students from normal students in communicating generally. they tend to use signs, the certain codes used by hearing impairment students‘ fingers to communicate, instead of verbal language in communication. teacher often has difficulties and make some mistakes in understanding sign languages given by the students. children with hearing impairments often show significant delays in phoneme production, vocabulary, and syntax (schirmer et all, 1985). it is assumed that the children, particularly with hearing impairment, can improve their language through adequate exposure and practice; however, nelson, loncke, and camarata (1993) emphasize that poor input at an early age and severe delay require intensive interventions that focus on enhancing strategies for all components of language. although being delayed in other areas of language, deaf students often have communicative skills such as making a comment, request, or acknowledgment that match those of their hearing peers (curtiss, prutting, & lowell, 1979; nicholas, geers, & kozak, 1994). deaf students rely more on nonverbal labeling techniques than would be expected in children with normal hearing, but still to express a full range of communicative skills (curtissetal,1979; nicholasetal.,1994). these skills are the foundation on which spoken language is later developed (skarakis & prutting, 1977). nahar nurun nafi, desika rinanda, sularti 84 serving non-verbal modes of communication in the classroom therefore become the main starting place for students developing their verbal language skills (nicholas et al., 1994). a researcher argues that belief about spoken and sign languages among informed professionals have serious consequences such as parents who are being advised to make decisions and to construct home and school environments that affect normal language acquisition among deaf children. in the united states, around 96% of deaf children are born to hearing parents (moores, 2001) who have no family history of using a sign language. the remaining 4% are born to deaf parents, and in most cases, though not always the primary language of the home is a sign language. many hearing parents are initially uninformed about fundamental language matters and turn to the medical profession, the internet, their spiritual leaders, and/or their friends and family for advice about the language choices they need to make for their children (luterman 1979, gregory 1995, porter & edirippulige 2007). parents frequently tell the best way to acquire spoken language for their child is by raising them without using sign language and they belief that sign is to be chosen only as a last resort (petitto 1998, johnston 2006), and that great effort should be devoted instead to the acquisition of speech. delay in mastering the language usually results in poor academic success and difficulty communicating in class (musselman, lindsey, & wilson, 1988). savage, evans, and potter (1986) catch that students with hearing impairment regularly start school with a 3-year delay in language skills; hence, they have an average improvement in performance, with the average high school–age deaf student reading at a third-grade level. savage et al. hypothesize that the problems in academic is mainly caused by the poor communication conducted between the deaf students and the teacher. savage et al. review research on three types of communication commonly used in classrooms, those are oral-only (lip reading), mainly oral (lip reading and finger spelling), and simultaneous communication (lip reading, finger spelling, and signing). it appears important, therefore, to add the capacity of teacher speech with sign language. these overall scores do not reflect variation in sub scores at the single word, sentence, or syntax levels. savage et al. found that sign language helps dramatically: comprehension increased to over 86% using the simultaneous communication method. the result of study of savage et al. (1986) are further supported by hyde and power (1992), who finds simultaneous communication beneficial for both severely and profoundly deaf individuals on a receptive language in the form of comprehension task. for participants with register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.81-99 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.81-99 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 85 profound hearing loss, conditions using combinations of lip reading, audition, and finger spelling were all inferior to conditions involving signing. for those with severe hearing loss, however, the superiority of conditions with signs was less clear. even so, results from conditions of audition alone are poorer than those of speech and finger spelling or combined signs. the results of this study demonstrate that communication needs of deaf students may different based on the level of hearing loss yet at the same time confirm previous findings that simultaneous communication may be better than oral-only delivery. results from savage et al. (1986) and hyde and power (1992) suggest that it is possible to have an effective simultaneous communication environment with a single instructor. they after that test the hypothesis by asking six teachers to tell a short story to three simulated groups of early elementary school students. that is, the teachers are required to pretend they are telling the story to hearing students, deaf students using oral-only methods, and deaf students who used simultaneous communication. a study by huntington and watton (1986) suggests that it should be cautious about the use of simultaneous communication in classrooms with deaf students. this study illustrates the difficulty one person has in providing complex spoken language and manual language input. they investigated teacher speech in oral only, mainly oral (with finger spelling), and simultaneous communication classrooms. teacher speech was analyzed for mean length of sentence (mls), proportion of simple to complex sentences, total word output, range of vocabulary, sentence type (declarative, question, and imperative), and closed versus open questions. the results showed that teacher speech in the oral-only settings is highest on all complexity measures. in contrast, teacher speech in the simultaneous communication models consistently ranked below that of the oral-only and mainly oral classrooms. it appeared that the demand of two languages, spoken and signed, reduces the teacher‘s oral output and linguistic complexity (see also wilbur & peterson, 1998). when the teacher applies simultaneous communication, student comprehension has the opportunity to improve, but one language source may come at the expense of richer, more complex spoken language. the limitation of content of sign language is based on indictment of producing both languages simultaneously. inclusive classrooms with an interpreter may be less predictable to language constriction because sign and speech come from separate language sources. study that has approached the oral and signed language of such an inclusive classroom does appear. it is a need in order to know the pattern of oral language occur when both a general education teacher and an interpreter are present. nahar nurun nafi, desika rinanda, sularti 86 previous studies and research questions a number of research related to adjacency pairs have been conducted in term of classroom interaction. a previous study by title ―classroom interaction: a dynamic of questions and answers” written by pineda (2015) discussing about adjacency pairs in normal class students. the finding reveals that during the interaction between students and teacher in the dynamic of questions answers, teachers hold the main role in starting the conversation and initiating the adjacency pairs even though one and two-way communication occur. this finally causes less students‘ active interaction in teaching and learning process. the upcoming phenomena in the hearing impairment students have not been identified. the similar case also occurs on the study from hashamdar (2012) entitled ―the teacher student communication pattern: a need to follow?” which discusses the adjacency pairs in normal student‘s classroom. this research indicates that the teacher always dominates the communication whereas this can trigger the passive participation from students in the active leaning process which promote students-centered learning style. in addition, for the hearing impairment students, aloud voice is absolutely needed by the teacher to condition the classroom with special leaners. somehow, whether the result of active talk domination from teacher will cause less active students‘ participation or not in the hearing impairment students has not been discussed. the other previous study is in ghana conducted by obuku, asare, and deku (2016) with the title “access to english language acquisition in ghana schools for the deaf: are the deaf students handicapped?”. the observation is conducted in 15 english classrooms. this research aims to know the challenges faced by hearing impairment students in accessing the provided materials in english language. the research shows that students handicapped by hearing impairments have delays to reach the passing grade standard. at the end, the researchers recommend the national education in ghana to give the specific attention to the criteria of passing grade for hearing impairment students who have unique and special abilities. this research discusses only challenges experienced by the students not the portrait of how interactive conversation exists between teacher and students. that is why a research about adjacency pairs which depicts the portrait of conversation is needed. therefore, in order to fill the gaps found in the prior research related to the adjacency pairs analysis of english teaching and learning in hearing-impairment students, this research register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.81-99 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.81-99 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 87 attempts to answer the following questions: (1) what adjacency pairs are found in english teaching and learning in hearing-impairment students? (2) to what extent does the teacher take role in english teaching and learning for hearingimpairment students? methodology to obtain the objective of the study, the researchers apply suitable methodology to the research conducted. rajasekar, et.al. (2013) propose the definition of research methodology as a systematic way to solve a problem. it is a science of studying how research to be carried out. essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. it is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. its aim is to give the work plan of research (rajasekar, at. al.: 2013). this research is conducted at state special need school (sekolah luar biasa negeri) of surakarta, central java indonesia. the total of students in the observed classroom is 7 students. all of them are handicapped by hearing impairments. communication occurs is mostly carried out through sign language using fingers. but sometimes mimicking through lips is also combined in conveying the lesson. the researchers collect all the data and collect them in full and detailed elements. the data processed in this study are based on the theory of mccharty (2002) on adjacency pairs. in this research, the researchers administer qualitative data analysis which has the main role on profound understanding towards investigation of the object and not statistic data analysis. as in confirming that, hasanuddin ws (2016) asserts that qualitative research is in accordance with ―researcher‘s understanding towards the interaction among empirically analyzed concepts‖. this means that such a research has much to do with the way a researcher views each event or action as empirical data that need to be investigated under the data of speech act and underlying meaning of the data. the researchers assemble the data by specifying and describing them. the researchers collect the data by recording the classroom‘s conversation between a teacher and the students in english subject and transcribing them into a written text to be analyzed. in addition, the interview with classroom teacher is done to strengthen the findings. nahar nurun nafi, desika rinanda, sularti 88 to conduct a research, the researchers involve an english teacher and hearingimpairment students in eighth grade of a special need school in indonesia. there are seven hearing-impairment students consist of four males and three females. there are two classes of deaf students and the participants are selected collectively in one class. the data instrument in this research is the conversation occurred between an english teacher and students in english subject classroom. the researchers do the data retrieval when the students learn about the material of introduction. researchers take the data thoroughly from the beginning when the teacher open the class until the end of learning process. triangulation data was also conducted to compare data from the analysis with preliminary data about the condition of students with special needs, especially students with hearing impairment. the collection of the data is conducted by recording the conversation between an english teacher and hearing-impairment students using video-recorder and transcribing it. researchers transcribed the conversation occurred in the first six minutes. it consists of the greeting, opening, and teaching learning process during the english class. the focus of data analysis is on the interrelation between two utterances that are adjacent, produced by different speakers, hereinafter referred to as adjacency pairs. this qualitative research is analyzed through interactive model by miles and huberman (1994). the steps are data collection, data reduction, data display, drawing conclusion and verification. for verifying, the researchers check and compares the data of classroom interaction based on classroom discourse theory by sinclair and coulthard to everyday conversation theory by susan and gill. results and discussions findings of adjacency pairs after analyzing the two-way communication between english teachers and hearingimpairment students, the result reveals that there are the following categories of adjacency pairs found: (1) compliment / acceptance, (2) information / acknowledgement, (3) greeting / greeting, (4) invitation / acceptance, (5) offer / refusal, (6) question / answer, (7) summons / answer, (8) accusation / denial, (9) offer / acceptance. these categories are explained as follows compliment / acceptance 1. teacher : apa yang dia bilang ya? (what did he say?) a. how are you? b. are you fine? c. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.81-99 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.81-99 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 89 how do you do? dan (and) d. i am fine student : aaa.aaa (while her fingers are using sign language) teacher: good answer, (while her thumps are up) student: (smiling) as what has been inferred by mc charty (2002) that adjacency pairs of utterances in talk are often mutually dependent, the example is like the expression of congratulation will be always followed by gratitude response. the answer can be easily predicted by the first utterance. the teacher compliment one of the students who is able to answer the question from the teacher correctly. as the response from teacher‘s appraisal, the student takes it by showing the smiling face. hearing-impairment students cannot talk smoothly as normal people talk. so, instead of talking, sometimes they prefer using smile as a symbol of acceptance. information / acknowledgement 2. teacher: okay, nomor selanjutya nomor 3, (the next number is number 3) apa jawaban nomor 3? (what is the answer for number 3?) (while her fingers are using sign language) student: eeeee (while her fingers are using sign language) teacher: c? (while her fingers are using sign language and her face are mimicking a doubtful face) student: aaa..aaa.. teacher: coba perhatikan susunan kalimatnya, (try to look into its sentence structure,) nomor 3 a, b, c, atau d? (for the answer of number 3, it should be a, b, c, or d?) student: heee, heee? teacher: d? are you sure? (while her fingers are using sign language) student: aaa a.a? (while her fingers are using sign language) teacher: very good, jawabannya a (the answer is a) (while her fingers are using sign nahar nurun nafi, desika rinanda, sularti 90 language) students: (they nod their heads and communicate one another using sign language to show the awareness of understanding the materials presented) the part of transcribing above, shows how the students with hearing impairment confirms their understanding about new materials / information they already have obtained. firstly, the question from teacher is answered incorrectly by most of the students. some of them give c as the answer. the teacher then triggers the students to give other response by showing an uncertainty through her face. the students catch the teacher‘s intended meaning and then they come up with another answer. a student starts answering with a but the majority say d. the teacher then repeats her doubtful face again and finally the student who give answer a confidently utter his answer and give sign language. the teacher‘s compliment by saying ―very good‖ is able to catch by the majority of students that the correct answer is not what they think. they finally stare and give confirmation each other about the answer from teacher which is different from their expectation. the normal students probably will express it orally but hearing-impairment students do it in the different way. they communicate using sign language. greeting / greeting 2. teacher: assalamualaikum warahmatullahi wa barakatuh, selamat pagi. (may peace be upon to you all, good morning) students: ai… teacher: good morning (while showing sign language) students: ning… (showing sign language) register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.81-99 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.81-99 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 91 in the first meeting, the teacher opens the class by greeting the students. the response is then given by the students. feeling that the teacher has not engaged the students well, she greets again by saying ―good morning‖ and use sign language. this is apparently understood more by the students. they then respond it by sign language and uttering good morning. this is in line with what has been mentioned by kristina (2018: 40) that one of the adjacency pairs is greeting answered by greeting. even though the spoken language is not carried out as normal people do, but adjacency pairs indeed exist between teacher and students through fingers namely sign language. invitation / acceptance 3. teacher: bunga? are you here, raise your hand, please? student: (silent) teacher: bunga (the teacher uses sign language indicating flower) (bunga): (raise her hand) the teacher requests a student who has name ―bunga‖ to give respond when the teacher calls her by raising her hand. the first calling is not catching the student‘s attention. the teacher repeats it by using sign language. her hands shape flower like what the student who has name ―bunga‖ means. the student gets it and she raise her hand. the request – acceptance occurring in that occasion is going well because the first speaker understands that catching the student‘s attention is really fundamental in teaching special need students since their minds are easily distracted. offer / refusal 4. teacher: okay, sebelum pulang, ibu ada hadiah untuk kalian di rumah. (before going home, i have present for all you at home) (while writing word “homework” on the board) students: ooo… most of them show face of refusal and give sign language. the teacher‘s offering is responded negatively by the students. when the teacher writes the word ―homework‖ on the whiteboard, the students apparently have understood nahar nurun nafi, desika rinanda, sularti 92 that they will be asked to do tasks at home. they refuse the teacher‘s offering both orally and physically. the refusal is obviously expressed by saying ―no‖ which is not clear and instead it sounds like ―ooo‖.this is in line with the interview conducted with the teacher of special need classroom about the characteristics of the special need students. they tend to be honest and behave as what their mind thinking. the teacher adds that people who notice seeing the students stand on chair or put their leg on table will think that those students are rude. in fact, they are still evolving. question / answer 5. teacher: sekarang nomor selanjutnya (now it comes to the next question). ada jawaban (there is an answer) ―how do you do,‖ berarti muridnya bertanya apa? (it means that the student asks about?) student: eeecccee (while pointing at one of multiple choice answer on the paper the hold) teacher: yang mana? yang c? jawabanya yang c apa? read! students: hmmm ooo uuuuu teacher: how do you do. that‘s right... betul. in this category, this is tangible that the process of question and answer does happen in the conversation above. the teacher tries to stimulate the students by showing a response of sentence ―how do you do‖. the students utter the letter c loudly while showing the question and answer paper to the teacher who asks. the interviewed classroom teacher states that most of them are confident enough to express their opinion when they want to talk. the teacher adds that many of them will try as maximal as possible to catch the teacher‘s attention even some will do physical contacts such as touching the teacher‘s hand. summons / answer 6. teacher: sekarang coba kita cek (now, let us check it together), siapa yang hadir di kelas (who attends the class), raise your hand if i call your name. alvina mana alvina? (alvina, where is alvina?) register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.81-99 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.81-99 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 93 alvina: (raise hand) this category is clearly seen on the part of conversation above. the teacher checks the attendance of the students by calling the names one by one. the student whose name is called should give a code by raising a hand. this comprehensible pair of action shows the good relationship between the first utterance and its response which is compatible. this is actually what is defined as adjacency pairs in form of summon and answer. accusation / denial 7. teacher: what is the answer? student: the students are still crowed teacher: ya, budi jawab c (yes, budi answered c just now). (while pointing at one of students) students: everyone is looking at budi teacher: budi, jawabanmu c? (budi, is your answer c?) (communicating using finger and lip spelling) budi: oo, (showing “no” with sign language) teacher: oh, i see, jawabannya a ( his answer is a) (communicating with finger spelling) budi: smile and nodding his head many times the accusation found in this conversation is visible when the teacher thinks that the answer uttered by budi is c. in fact, budi says a. this action is denied by budi by showing the sign language. he insists on his answer that the correct response for the teacher‘s nahar nurun nafi, desika rinanda, sularti 94 questions should be a. the teacher understands it by confirming once again about budi‘s answer. offer – acceptance 8. teacher: the next question, nomor 5 (number 5), adakah yang mau membaca pertanyaanya? (is there anyone who wants to read the question) student: (silent) teacher: boni? student: (showing an enthusiastic face, he wants to do it) teacher: okay dibaca bersama sama (okay, let us read it together), repeat after me ―where does she live?‖ boni: hee as i ive… teacher: excellent (while showing her thumps), apa jawabannya? (what is the answer?) the last adjacency pairs are found when the teacher asks one of the students to read the question loudly. he willingly plans to do it. in other words, the student has accepted the teacher‘s offering to do what has been instructed. the teacher finally guides the process of pronouncing it so that the student does it correctly as expected. teacher’s domination teachers have important role in the teaching and learning process in the classroom including in hearing-impairment classroom. according to litchfield and lartz (2002), in teaching hearing-impairment students, the teacher‘s roles may vary depending on type of lesson taught. in teaching lessons that are primarily formal and structured such as mathematics, social studies, and science, may require different roles of teacher rather than those needed for informal and less structured lesson. based on the researchers‘ classroom observation, focusing on one student outside the classroom seems more effective because the attention from the teacher is given maximally to one student. but, in certain classrooms consisting of 6 to 8 students, there are two teachers needed to condition the classroom. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.81-99 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.81-99 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 95 in this research, it is found that the role of the teacher in teaching english language for hearing-impairment students is quite dominating or it is called as teacher-centered. in this case, the teacher plays a role in determining the topic of learning or the material to be taught. moreover, the learning activities are almost completely handled by the teacher herself. however, based on the observations, hearing-impairment students are quite active in responding when the teacher asked some questions. they are not afraid or shy when they are appointed by their teacher to answer the questions given even though they tend to answer using sign language rather than verbally. ranging from observation until transcribing the conversation, nearly all of the initiators of adjacency pairs are from the teachers. this happens because the teacher only discusses the materials during class. actually, there is a little opportunity for the students to stimulate the adjacency pairs but most of their attention are directed by the teacher to the questions on the book only. as stated by sivaranjani et al (2015) effective teaching policy and providing information is a kind of art that needs appropriate strategies and methods. there are many strategies so that the students are able to be active not only at answering the teacher‘s question but also at starting or initiating the conversation. one of them is through icebreaking. the entertainment in the classroom is absolutely needed to decrease the boredom inside. from the special need classroom observed, there is no activity of ice breaking like the normal classroom goes. in fact, the students are always so confident to express their opinion in answering the questions. this phenomenon seemingly can be utilized by the teacher to let the students ask, to start or initiate the adjacency pairs. but, some teachers opt to restrict the students‘ talk domination to make the time efficient. in the interview conducted, the teacher said “teaching the special need students is different from teaching the regular students, the teacher of special need students’ needs to be powerful and conquer the classroom. this is to make sure that the objectives taught are certainly delivered” the teacher‘s decision to direct the atmosphere of classroom seems to be teacher centered but actually it is the teachers‘ belief systems which have been built up gradually overtime and they are gradually derived from different sources and factors. richards and lochart, (1994: 30) propose the following factors as the influencers of teacher‘s beliefs. those are (1) their own experience as language learners, (2) experience of what works best, nahar nurun nafi, desika rinanda, sularti 96 (3) established practice, (4) personality factors, (5) principles derived from an approach or methods. the teacher also adds information in the interview that building critical thinking can always be done with teacher‘s talk domination in the hearing impairment students. she states “one of the main purposes of the teacher dominates the conversation is to give lots of exposure to the students of hearing impairment”. the students are not able to sound words correctly, the habit of receiving english expressions and vocabularies aurally by hearing tool and visually by eyes will maximize the input process of language item. conclusion in conclusion, it reveals that there are nine categories of adjacency pairs found in english teaching and learning in hearing-impairment students, as follows: (1) compliment / acceptance, (2) information / acknowledgement, (3) greeting / greeting, (4) invitation / acceptance, (5) offer / refusal, (6) question / answer, (7) summons / answer, (8) accusation / denial, (9) offer / acceptance. this reveals a fact that various adjacency pairs can exists in the environment where utterances are seldom to produce orally. moreover, this study of adjacency pairs analysis can also be useful in providing the relevant information to facilitate pre-teachers who will teach english for hearing-impairment students. furthermore, in this research, it is also found that the teacher dominates the english class of hearing impairment students. the teacher plays a dominant role in determining the topic of learning or the material to be taught. nevertheless, the learning objective is able to be conveyed. moreover, based on the observations, hearing-impairment students are quite active in responding when the teacher asked some questions even though they tend to used sign language rather than verbally. references baiat, g.e., coler, m., pullen, m., tienkouw, s., & hunyadi, l. 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(2015). value of understanding and accepting for the students of professional studies, journal of education and practice, v6 n25 p117-126. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.158-174 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 157 themes in south-east asian newspaper headlines on rohingya issue: critical discourse analysis arina isti’anah universitas sanata dharma arina@usd.ac.id doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.158-174 submission track: received: 20-07-2019 final revision: 21-11-2019 available online: 01-12-2019 corresponding author & e-mail address: arina isti’anah & arina@usd.ac.id abstract language is regarded as a tool to present the ideologies of its users, including how media portray a particular issue in their headlines. rohingya has gained much attention from media, including south-east asian newspapers. the massive clearing done by myanmar government triggers the attention of media. headlines are regarded as the important element of news since their jobs are to attract the readers and frame the ideologies of the readers as well as the media themselves. this paper attempts at discussing how south-east asian media present rohingya in their headlines. five newspapers were involved: the jakarta post from indonesia, malaysia kini from malaysia, mmtimes from myanmar, the nation from thailand, and daily star from bangladesh, taken during 2017. the analysis was focused on the choice of theme in the headlines as it is the departing message of the headlines. the approach conducted was faiclough’s critical discourse analysis utilizing the textual function of language offered by halliday. the analysis revealed that south-east asian media had similarities and differences in portraying rohingya issue. the similarities were seen from the reflected ideologies, responsibility and blame, and the types of employed themes. the difference was found in the way each media portrayed the ideologies. however, all media agreed to show their responsibility to end and solve rohingya crisis to achieve peace and harmony amongst south-east asian countries. keywords: headlines, critical discourse analysis, rohingya arina isti’anah 158 introduction rohingya case is one of the humanity issues that attracts media’s attention, particularly in south-east asia. news on rohingya has been published for years since the case seems unfinished. the number of refugees keeps increasing and the clearing still happens until now. rohingya’s attempt to flee to malaysia by sea are denied by myanmar government, thus the government called them as bengalis and refused them as a national race (james, 2006, p. 22). it is also reported that rohingyas never have any type of citizen and ethnic group (steinberg, 2010, p. 73). furthermore, the clearing has sustained until early 2005, when “some 20.000 muslim refugees from myanmar still remained refugee camps in bangladesh. malaysia has offered political asylum to about 10.000 such persons” (ganesan & hlaing, 2007, p. 191). the facts mentioned previously triggers media to share information related to rohingya in the form of news. online newspapers are chosen by people nowadays since they are easily accessed from their gadgets. “newspapers function as a special tool of language to propagate agendas of different social, political, and economic pillars of power” (lodhi, et al., 2019, p. 325). hence, what is written in newspaper reflects not only the writers’ or editors’ ideologies but also the parties behind the media. media news is described as “a news item or news report, i.e. a text or discourse on radio, tv, or in the newspaper, in which new information is given about recent events” (dijk, 1988, p. 4). the term “news discourse” is thus preferred since media news involves the whole discourse: physical shape and its contents which has a more semantic nature (dijk, 1988). what is interesting in “news discourse” is the choice of words as the title of news, called headlines. reah defines headlines as “the story in a minimum number of words, attract the reader to the story and, if it appears on the front page, attract the reader to the paper” (mapunda & keya, 2015, p. 59). thus, readers will catch the departing message of news from the headlines. critical discourse analysis (cda) facilitates news discourse analysis by considering how texts strive for social practice (fairclough, 1995). fairclough proposes that careful analysis of textual form, structure, and organization at all levels is needed for text interpretation. in news discourse, the existence of headlines cannot be ignored as they portray the news summary. the departing message in headlines is called theme. halliday defines theme as “the initial part of a clause which gives prominence to particular information and which, in cda terms, is often an register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.158-174 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 159 indication of taken-for-granted or ‘common sense’ assumption about the nature of things” (locke, 2004, p. 49). finding out the themes in news discourse can reveal newspaper’s ideology since ideology is found in the discursive event itself (fairclough, 1995). systemic functional grammar (sfg) facilitates cda by considering language as a vehicle to express people’s thoughts in various ways and purposes by means of wordings (mathiessen and halliday, 1997). analyzing text covers not only the linguistic feature description but also ideologies brought by language use. the choice of text features “is regarded as potentially ideological, including features of vocabulary and metaphors, grammar, presuppositions and implicatures, politeness conventions, speech exchange (turn-taking) systems, generic structure and style” (fairclough, 1995, pp. 1-2). halliday figures out that language functions to ideationally represent the experience of the world, interpersonally constitute social interaction between participants, and textually put the parts of text together into a coherent whole (fairclough, 1995, p. 6). in the textual function, the linguistic features used to signpost the speaker’s meaning are theme and rheme. theme is the initial part of a clause. it is the starting point for the message since it is what the clause is about (halliday,2004). downing and locke (2006) add that a theme is the communicative point of departure of the message. eggins (2004) summarizes three types of themes: topical or experiential, interpersonal, and textual themes. a topical theme is the clause element in which a transitivity function can be assigned in the first position in a clause (eggins, 2004). participants and circumstances as themes in a clause are categorized as topical or experiential theme. interpersonal theme is in the form of “the unfused finite (in interrogative) and modal adjuncts (mood, vocative, polarity, and comment). textual theme has a cohesive function to relate clause to its context, realized in the form of continuity and conjunctive adjunct (eggins, 2004). newspaper headlines are chosen as the main data since headlines serve some functions, one of which is to present the truth (metila, 2013). however, turner (2009) mentions that “headlines can be notoriously misleading, inaccurate, or ambiguous” (cited in metila, 2013). to avoid what mentioned earlier, cda is seen as the appropriate way to conduct as it analyses the discourse to find the hidden meanings or ideologies (mcgregor, 2003 as cited in taiwo, 2007). this paper focuses on figuring out themes employed by the south-east asian newspaper regarding rohingya issue. the dominance of themes employed in the news discourse can arina isti’anah 160 reveal how south-east asian media regard rohingya issue. as the case happens in south-east asia, the researcher expects that there will be some similarities among the media. to prove the hypothesis, cda is employed by focusing on the textual structure of text, or how the message is packaged by media. studies on cda have been exercised by some scholars. umami (2013) observed the discourse devices utilized in an opinion column title on polycarpus case. the research employed the metafunctions analysis, including the appraisal and thematic analyses. the data were taken from news features in the jakarta post newspaper, analyzed in terms of their micro level and macro level of analysis. the employment of topic sentence, fullness development, and coherence among paragraphs are used in the analysis. in the textual analysis, the research paid attention to the use of conjunction and theme. the use of marked theme is benefited by the writers to make the readers easier grasp the meanings and plot of the articles (umami, 2013). rohingya crisis also attracted the study by afzal (2016) by concerning the media’s strategies to frame rohingya issue in the international stage. the data were taken from pakistani, british and american editorial opinions. the research believes that frame may be used in a biased way to interpret different political events. the nation, a pakistani newspaper, criticizes the nobel laureate aung san suu kyi for showing her dislike to the muslims. the newspaper also encourages readers’ emotions by framing aung san suu kyi as a discriminative leader. the similar frame is also shown in the guardian newspaper. several emotional appeals (pathos) are used to frame rohingya crisis. from the western point of view, the new york times keeps the readers on the side of rohingya muslims. the research found that rohingya crisis itself is covered up by the readers’ emotions framed by the media (afzal, 2016). bolte & keong (2014) involved fairclough’s cda to observe the representation of refugees, asylum seekers and immigrants (rasim) in three malaysian newspaper reports. the textual analysis covering themes reveals three main attributes to rasim: refugee protection, people smuggling and human trafficking, and policy and national security. the paper found that the discourse in the three newspapers is influenced by its situational context and ideological differences between newspapers. rasim is represented in a positive supporting way as the media is on the side of malaysian government, or pro-government. malaysia kini is concluded to have more balanced report since it fulfills the ethics of proper journalism (bolte & keong, 2014). register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.158-174 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 161 research on textual analysis, focusing theme and information parts of clauses in arabic and english news reports was utilized by potter (2016). the research compares how arabic and english news presents syrian refugees. influenced by the different language target readers, english news reports present the ‘accusation’ against syria and signpost the ‘evidence’ against syria. on the other hand, arabic news employs new information as themes to emphasize syria’s ‘cooperation’. syria’s innocence is also shown in arabic news reports. the paper concludes that arabic news tends to be a pro-syria by encouraging readers to perceive syria as an innocent victim, whereas english news favors a negative representation of syria and encourages readers to perceive syria as the logical perpetrator of hariri’s murder (potter, 2016). the papers reviewed above agree that ideology is embodied inside the wordings. the presence of news discourse welcomes linguistic scholars to criticize the representation of an issue, in this case is refugees, in various media. headlines, analyzed in their textual functions, are designed in such a way that readers are grasped to read the news. the textual analyses of headlines, editorials, or news reports support fairclough’s claim about language, ideology, and power. the presence of discursive and social practices cannot be ignored in the analysis. news media are also capable of framing an issue and encouraging readers’ emotions. thus, the analysis of textual meanings of headlines is urgently needed. to be specific, this paper attempts at figuring out how themes are exercised in five online newspaper headlines in south-east asia regarding refugee case, rohingya. research method this paper employed fairclough’s cda as its approach. fairclough argues that language is exercised to express ideology in various code, structure, system, or formation (1995, p. 71). in systemic functional grammar (sfg), meanings are represented into three functions: ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions. the textual function of language provokes the reading positions ‘inscribed’ in texts (talbot, 2007, p. 46). it is about how the message is packaged. fairclough proposes that wordings change or affect the ideological meaning embedded in the text. the lexico-grammar structures are ideologically chosen (cited in bolte & keong, 2014). van dijk adds that reports are expected to be highly topicalized and intertwined with the notion of positive us versus negative them construction (2000). arina isti’anah 162 the data were taken from the online newspapers published by five south-east asian countries: the jakarta post from indonesia, malaysia kini from malaysia, mmtimes from myanmar, the nation from thailand, and daily star from bangladesh, taken during 2017. those five countries were chosen due to the close border to rakhine, the place where rohingyans stayed. the headlines are coded as follows: ina refers to the indonesia, h refers to headline, 1 refer to the number of headline. the same code is used for the other countries: mal for malaysia, thai for thailand, myan for myanmar and bang for bangladesh. there were twenty headlines chosen for each country. thus, the number used in the third code will range from 1 to 20. each headline was carefully analyzed and categorized into its type: experiential, interpersonal, or textual theme (eggins, 2004). since all headlines were experiential, each participant or circumstance in the headline was grouped in terms of its newspaper. since five newspapers were included as the data, the variations of theme are displayed in a table to figure out how the wordings in each newspaper similar to and different from the others. the participants performing as themes were thus related to the social context in which the discursive event happened. this analysis is helpful to reveal the ideologies embodied in the text. results & discussion the analysis shows that the observed headlines have experiential theme, meaning the theme in which transitivity participants are involved. however, the participants chosen as the themes are different. the table below depicts the participants in the headlines of the five newspapers. table 1. summary of participants in south-east asian newspaper headlines theme ina mal myan bang thai actor ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ goal ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ carrier ✓ ✓ ✓ token ✓ attribute sayer ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ verbiage ✓ ✓ patient ✓ register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.158-174 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 163 circumstance ✓ ✓ the table above shows that malaysian newspaper headlines have the most various participants. indonesian and bangladesh newspaper headlines have the same number of variants in their participants. token is absent in indonesian headlines, but present in bangladesh newspaper headlines. on the other hand, circumstance is found in indonesian newspaper headlines, but not in bangladesh. myanmar and thailand newspaper headlines employ the least variant of participants in their themes. both involve actor, goal, and sayer. carrier is present in thailand newspaper headlines, but absent in myanmar. verbiage, on the other hand, is found in myanmar newspaper headlines, but not in thailand. there are two main ideological perspectives shared by the observed media: responsibility and blame. in general, the south-east asian newspaper headlines portray rohingya issue as “responsibility” that they have to fulfill. the conflict in this region is seen as a serious one, thus the media choose particular linguistic features to show their responsibility to put it as the departing message in the media. the table below shows the representation of responsibility and blame by the south-east asian media. table 2. summary of ideologies in south-east asian newspapers “blame” “responsibility” indonesia 9 11 malaysia 8 12 myanmar 2 18 bangladesh 6 14 thailand 7 13 total 32 68 the table above displays that all of the headlines in the five countries are dominated by “responsibility” as the theme. however, the linguistic choice in the headlines is different from one newspaper to the others. the discussion below shows proof. responsibility arina isti’anah 164 responsibility is the dominant ideology reflected in all media. the table below shows the type of theme which shows responsibility. table 3 summary of theme showing responsibility south-east asian media type of theme examples indonesia actor, goal, sayer indonesia, jokowi-suu kyi, more rohingyans refugee myanmar actor, goal, sayer government, refugee deal, ministry, a strong commitment malaysia actor, sayer, patient a mercy mission, najib, dpm, malaysia bangladesh actor, sayer bangladesh, home minister, bangladesh-myanmar thailand actor, goal, sayer, carrier asean credibility, asean, thailand, asean minister the first theme revealing responsibility is the employment of actor which refers to government as the theme. the examples are as follows. ina.h.2 indonesia urged to initiate conflict resolution for rohingya ina.h.16 jokowi, suu kyi discuss rohingya crisis in the data above, the use of indonesia and jokowi-suu kyi indicates that the newspaper intends to show the responsibility to solve rohingya crisis. jokowi and suu kyi are the leaders in indonesia and myanmar. their statement and action regarding rohingya issue are important to represent the position of the country. the involvement of the actors above strengthens the responsibility which is seriously conducted by indonesian and myanmar government. another existence of actor in indonesian media takes “indonesia” as actors. below are the examples. ina.h.2 indonesia urged to initiate conflict resolution for rohingya ina.h.10 indonesia carries out intensive diplomacy on rohingya the above headlines employ “indonesia” as the actor. in the first datum above, indonesia is presented to have the power to initiate the conflict resolution for rohingya. as one of asean initiators and moslem country, indonesia shows its responsibility to overcome the issue. the previous analysis is supported by the second headline shown above. instead of initiating the discussion, indonesian media also spreads the country’s concrete action to carry out intensive diplomacy. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.158-174 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 165 responsibility is also seen in myanmar newspaper headlines. however, the themes used in the headlines which reveal responsibility are different from indonesian headlines. in myanmar newspaper, goal and sayer are also chosen to show the government responsibility. below are the evidence. myan.h.11 government team to visit bangladesh to discuss refugee repatriation myan.h.7 ministry vows speedier info release on rakhine crisis myan.h.8 peace, stability restored in northern rakhine, some troops withdrawn myan.h.9 plans to repatriate refugees agreed the use of actor as the theme in the first datum above signifies the myanmar government’s responsibility in relation to the crisis. by choosing an actor, myanmar media aims at emphasizing the action done by the actor. bringing similar ideology, headline 7 above is represented in different theme. the use of sayer as theme signals responsibility in terms of saying. myanmar government is represented in different themes shown in headlines 8 and 9 above. the themes in headlines 8 and 9 are goals. in addition to mentioning the references of myanmar government, the media also picks the results of what the government did as seen in headlines 8 and 9. similar to myanmar newspaper headlines, the malaysian newspaper also employs goal to show its government responsibility. mal.h.2 a mercy mission to the rohingya refugees there is an ellipsis found in the above headline. however, the preposition to above indicates that the first phrase can be regarded as the patient. the headline can be paraphrased into a mercy mission is given to the rohingya refugees. the second phrase above, the rohingya refugees, performs as the goal. the use of lexical choice “mercy” above is to emphasize the good deeds by the government to help rohingyans. the media put action to help the refugees as something “mercy”. in other words, praise is also attached to malaysian government. another type of theme showing malaysian responsibility is the employment of actor. in the malaysian newspaper headline, the actor is attached to the government official to show their responsibility in accordance with rohingya crisis. below is the datum. mal.h.18 najib came through for rohingya, give credit where due https://www.mmtimes.com/news/government-team-visit-bangladesh-discuss-refugee-repatriation.html https://www.mmtimes.com/news/ministry-vows-speedier-info-release-rakhine-crisis.html https://www.mmtimes.com/news/peace-stability-restored-northern-rakhine-some-troops-withdrawn.html https://www.mmtimes.com/news/plans-repatriate-refugees-agreed.html arina isti’anah 166 the use of material verb “came through” marks the material process. the action done by najib is a portrayal of malaysian government responsibility. the media intends to choose najib as the theme in order to emphasize responsibility made by the government. the other distinctive participant in the malaysian headline is circumstance of place as seen below. mal.h.7 from malaysian backrooms, rohingya send what little they can to fleeing relatives the theme in the above headline is in the form of prepositional phrase “from malaysian backrooms”. in transitivity process, it is categorized as circumstance of place. instead of displaying rohingya as the actor who sends their expectation, malaysian media chose to put the circumstance as the theme. the effect inferred from the structure is readers can pay more attention to malaysian backrooms as the place in which rohingya seeks helps. bangladesh newspaper headline also uses actor which refers to its government to show responsibility dealing with the rohingya crisis. below are the examples. bang.h.6 bangladesh draws global attention to myanmar rohingya crisis issue bang.h.8 rohingya refugees: govt plans big to ease plight the use of bangladesh and government explicitly in the headlines signifies responsibility by the bangladesh government. an actor is presented as the clause constituent which conducts an action. the use of verbs “draw” and “plan” in the data above refer to the government’s concrete deeds to help rohingyans. in bangladesh newspaper headlines, other actors found in the data are “home minister” and “bangladesh”. the systematic actions done by the government refer to their responsibility to rohingyans since they are located near the area where rohingyans live. moreover, the label that rohingyans are bengalis also triggers bangladesh’ actions. different from the previous linguistic features showing responsibility, thailand newspaper headlines show their neutral commitment towards rohingyans. in the headlines, thailand media choose asean and asean ministers as actors in the themes to show responsibility. below are the proofs. thai.h.7 asean has an obvious role in rohingya crisis thai.h.17 asean ministers express concern over rohingya crisis the involvement of asean and asean ministers as the themes in thailand newspaper headlines show that thailand as one of the founders of asean is involved in showing register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.158-174 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 167 responsibility toward the rohingya crisis. the indirect involvement in the decision can be interpreted that thailand is in a neutral position. blame despite the responsibility represented in various linguistic features in south-east asian newspaper headlines, “blame” is also found from the employment of linguistic features in the data. the table below points out the type of theme showing “blame” in the headlines. table 4 summary of theme showing blame south-east asian media type of theme examples indonesia actor, carrier, goal rohingya crisis, rohingya refugee influx, 600,000 rohingya children myanmar verbiage illegal immigration, terrorism new global threats; over 70 malaysia actor, goal, verbiage at least 6,700 rohingya; at least 100 rohingya; suu kyi bangladesh actor, carrier nearly 90,000 rohingyas; rohingya; 1992 criteria thailand actor, carrier both myanmar and bangladesh, rohingya forced from myanmar in indonesian newspaper headlines, “blame” is represented in the form of actor, carrier, and goal as the departing messages in the headlines. below are the examples. ina.h.1 rohingya crisis could affect asean stability: jokowi ina.h.4 rohingya refugee influx in bangladesh now 507,000: report in the indonesian newspaper, “blame” is shown in the form of actor and carrier. the actor in the first datum displayed above shows the ability of the crisis to affect asean stability. the serious issue which happens in myanmar is seen as blame towards the crisis. the solid and intimate relationships among asean countries is not stable due to the crisis. here, jokowi as the president of the republic of indonesia shows his political statement regarding rohingya issue. as one of the founders of asean, indonesia takes its responsibility to keep stability among asean countries. the similar “blame” is shown as carrier in the second datum above. arina isti’anah 168 the huge number of refugees in bangladesh shows the failure of myanmar government to solve the crisis. bangladesh is seen as the affected country which has to provide place for rohingyans. the other linguistic features showing blame by indonesian media is shown as a goal in the headline. below is the datum. ina.h.14 rohingya lives and limbs shattered by mines at myanmar frontier the existence of the goal above also shows “blame” since rohingyans become the participants directed to by the actor, myanmar frontier. the presence of goal instead of actor above signifies that the media intends to portray rohingyans as the victim of the action. herewith, blame is shown by the media. the choice of the name rohingya instead of refugees also shows that indonesian media acknowledges the existence of the race. unlike indonesian media which show blame and responsibility in almost equal existence, myanmar media only put a few headlines which show blame. below is the datum. myan.h.13 over 70 killed in rakhine after militants attack the participant bold above is the theme, represented as the goal. the number of people shown as the goal above shows “blame” to the militants. what the actor did, militants, results in more than 70 people died. myanmar media blames the militant to kill more than 70 people in rakhine. the choice of rakhine instead of rohingya shows myanmar’s decision to follow the government. the word “rohingya” is prohibited to mention in myanmar, meaning they never acknowledge the existence of the race. instead of showing the enormous number of rohingyans suffering from the clearing, myanmar media intends to share the news about what militants did in rakhine. the “blame” has different reference in myanmar media. while other media blame myanmar government, myanmar media blames the militants which refer to rohingyans who fought for their rights to stay in rakhine. in malaysian media, the choice of goal and actor as the themes in the headlines is to show “blame” to the myanmar government. below are the data, mal.h.6 at least 100 rohingyas drowned fleeing myanmar last 2 months: un mal.h.17 suu kyi condemns all rights violations in rakhine state goal as the theme is shown in “at least 100 rohingyans”. the use of the number as the departing message in the headline is to blame myanmar government. the sayer in that headline is the un. the involvement of what un utters also shows global attention toward the crisis. the number of rohingyans who were drowned when fleeing myanmar is the responsibility of myanmar. the ignorance and clearing by the government result in the violation of human rights. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.158-174 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 169 it is also strengthened by the second headline above. malaysian media chooses the name “suu kyi” as the actor who is responsible for the crisis. blame is shown strongly in malaysian media, referring to suu kyi. in bangladesh's newspaper media, domination is also responsibility to solve the crisis. however, “blame” is also found in the headlines. below are the examples. bang.h.1 nearly 90,000 rohingyas escape myanmar violence as humanitarian crisis looms bang.h.2 rohingya refugee crisis: thousands take shelter in no-man's land the use of the number as shown in malaysian media also appears here. furthermore, the use of actor as the theme in bangladesh headline also shows “blame” to myanmar government. the number of refugees escaping and suffering from the crisis is repeated in bangladesh headlines, which signifies that the crisis creates serious problems. to save themselves, rohinyans are represented as the actor who conducts material actions. the only way for them to keep alive is by escaping from rakhine. despite died, they choose to look for protection by the neighboring countries. bangladesh is the first country they choose since they are given camps and food by bangladesh government. in the headlines, carrier is also selected as the theme in bangladesh media to show blame. below are the examples. bang.h.18 1992 criteria not realistic now bang.h.20 200,000 rohingya children at risk in bangladesh camps: unicef the employment of “1992 criteria” as the carrier above is attached to the attribute “not realistic now”. this signifies “blame” to the myanmar government since the number of rohingyans who died and escaped from the country keeps increasing. it is proven in the following headlines which mention the massive number of rohingya children who are now at risk. the camps and food provided by bangladesh government are no longer able to provide healthy life to the children. camps are not the best place for children as they need clean environment to grow as healthy children. the limitation in the camps is portrayed as the result of the clearing by myanmar government. in thailand newspaper headlines, patient is the only participant found among southeast asian media. it is shown in the datum below. thai.h.14 myanmar beauty queen dethroned 'after posting rohingya video' arina isti’anah 170 what myanmar beauty queen accepted, being dethroned, is a result of her action posting rohingya video. thailand media portrays that event as blame to the government. the strict rule which forbids its citizens to mention rohingya is experienced by the beauty queen. she is portrayed as the affected participant because of the rule. another participant revealing blame is sayer, the participant who says. the sayer in thailand media refers to rohingyas as seen below. thai.h.18 rohingya forced from myanmar say army redoubling push to clear villages as the sayer, rohingya forced from myanmar utters their experience of clearing by the army. thailand media portrays that event as blame to the myanmar army since rohingyans experience unpleasant treatment by the government. the systematic clearing has continued and become more severe. the employment of “redoubling push” emphasizes the sad witness by rohingyans. they do not have another choice but leave the area. thailand newspaper media also shows its fair view of the crisis. the employment of carrier which involves both bangladesh and myanmar below is the proof. thai.h.19 both bangladesh and myanmar are responsible for the rohingya blame is not only directed to the myanmar government but also bangladesh. the initial conflict regarding the occupation of myanmar territory by bangladesh is regarded as the initial conflict of rohingya crisis. thailand newspaper media sees this as the blame of both countries. the negotiation which should have been done a long time ago never happened. that is, why the media put both countries as the carrier which is attached to the responsibility they have to make. the five newspapers analyzed above reveal similar ideologies, responsibility and blame. that finding can be understood since the south-east asian newspapers are produced in the same spirit as asean members. the presence of society cannot be ignored in discourse analysis. rohingya issue is seen as a shared problem by south-east asian countries, thus the headlines presented in five newspapers reveal similar ideology. this supports fairclough’s argument that cda can be employed to describe, interpret, and explain the language and power. cda regards language as creating ideology and revealing concealed agendas in language that may be ideological (montejo & adriano, 2018). the language choice in the headlines is powerful to show the countries’ responsibility and arise their readers’ emotion in the form of blame. in south-east asian newspaper headlines, the themes are represented in different linguistic features. in indonesian media, the employment of actor, goal, carrier, sayer, and register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.158-174 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 171 circumstance is to represent different messages the readers should pay attention to. the involvement of indonesia and its government as the dominating theme is to show responsibility toward rohingya issue. the media also share some activities held in indonesia to show its people’s responsibility as human beings who feel sympathy for the victims. indonesian newspaper presents as a pro-government organization to support what the government conducts to solve the crisis. the finding supports bolte & keong (2014) research on how media is influenced by its situational and ideological context. as the biggest muslim country, indonesian newspaper attempts at showing its government responsibility to protect rohingyans. though the readers’ sympathy is not obviously inscribed in the headlines, the readers are grasped to observe their government action regarding rohingya issue. nevertheless, the choice of actor referring to myanmar is used by indonesian media to show “blame” toward myanmar. the employment of “myanmar troops” and “myanmar army” are some examples. malaysian newspaper headlines are rich in linguistic features put in the headlines. the domination of actor in the headlines at the same time show responsibility and blame. the responsibility shared by the media is represented by government official who shows its power to take particular decision toward rohingya issues, such as the choice of “najib, dpm, and shahidan”. to show blame, malaysian media repeats the choice of “suu kyi” as the actor behind the clearing. the representation of suu kyi as the actor is in line with afzal's (2016) analysis of how pakistani media frames suu kyi as a discriminative leader. this also arouses the readers’ emotional appeals (pathos) toward rohingya crisis. it emphasizes that media produced in muslim countries share similar attitude toward rohingya case. bangladesh's media has different referents of actor though actor also dominates the headlines. bangladesh chooses the number of rohingya to be the themes in order to show how rohingyans make effort to save themselves, which results in “blame” shown by the theme. however, bangladesh's media also shows responsibility by means of actor shown in the word “bangladesh”. similar to indonesian newspaper headlines, malaysian and bangladesh newspapers are pro-government media. what their government and its representatives conduct regarding rohingya issue is signposted in their headlines. malaysia is also a country dominated by muslims, while bangladesh shares its solidarity due to the close border to rakhine. “blame” is embodied in malaysian and bangladesh media to encourage readers’ emotions toward the arina isti’anah 172 actions done by rohingya refugees. what triggers rohingya crisis is covered up by the emotions framed by the media (afzal, 2016). different from the four media mentioned above, myanmar newspaper headlines are dominated by the theme referring to responsibility by the myanmar government. the choice of goal refers to things done by the government to recover rohingya crisis, such as “refugee deal, peace, stability, and plans to repatriate refugee”. the media intends to share the good points myanmar government makes. the use of actor and sayer referring to the government also shows its responsibility. similar to the other three newspapers discussed previously, myanmar newspaper is also on the side of its government, seen from the absence of the word “rohingya”. the newspaper intends not to acknowledge rohingya as a national race (james, 2006). the neglect of race is intentionally and systematically conducted in myanmar. in the last media, thailand newspaper headlines, it is found that the media also shows its responsibility and blame toward the rohingya crisis. however, blame is not only directed to myanmar government, but also bangladesh. thailand newspaper headlines also involve asean as the official association among south-east asian countries to solve the crisis together. what is concerned in the media is the stability amongst south-east asian countries. the readers are encouraged to recall the spirit of asean which can unite them. the conflict happens in south-east asia is the countries’ responsibility. the “neutral” position thailand newspaper headlines show is influenced by the socio-political context in thailand, as a country that is not affected directly by the crisis. as one of the founders of asean, thailand government is portrayed as the one mediates the conflict. the analysis emphasizes that newspapers propagate agendas of different social, political, and economic pillars of power (lodhi, et al., 2019) conclusion this research concludes the choice of wordings in the headlines can create different discursive effects to the readers. even though the textual structures of the headlines are represented in the same type, they can bring different ideological perspectives depending on how the texts are distributed. the language choice in the headlines is capable of revealing the position of the media, whether they are pro-government or not. language is also benefited to exercise power and encourage the readers’ emotions. the event behind the case may be hidden by the emotions and actions signposted in the headlines. this emphasizes that language choice register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.158-174 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 173 in media is socially and politically influenced by the social context. this research invites future scholars to enrich the present findings so that the studies on how media bring rohingya issue in the world. references afzal, n. (2016). elements of pathos and media framing as scientific discourse: a newspaper perspective on rohingya crisis. international journal of advanced and applied science, 3(6), 89-99. bolte, s., & keong, y. c. (2014). the refugee swap deal in malaysian online news reports: ideology and representation. gema online journal of language studies, 14(2), 93108. (http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/gema-2014-1402-07) dijk, t. a. (1988). news as discourse. london: lawrence erlbaum associates publisher. fairclough, n. (1995). critical discourse analysis: the critical study of language. new york: longman. downing, a., & locke, p. (2006). english grammar: a university course. london: routledge. eggins, s. (2004). an introduction to systemic functional linguistics, second edition. new york: continuum. ganesan, n., & hlaing, k. y. (2007). myanmar: state, society and ethnicity. pasir panjang: iseas publishing. halliday, m., & matthiessen, c. m. (2004). an introduction to functional grammar. london: arnold. isti'anah, a. (2018). rohingya in media: critical discourse analysis of myanmar and bangladesh newspaper headlines. language in the online and offline world 6: the fortitude (pp. 18-23). james, h. (2006). security and sustainable development in myanmar . new york: routledge. lodhi, m. a., mukhtar, s., akhtar, s., nafees, k., akhtar, n., & sajid, h. m. (2019). textual and rhetoric analysis of news headlines of urdu and english newspapers. international journal of english linguistics, 324-342. locke, t. (2004). critical discourse analysis. new york: continuum. mapunda, g., & keya, a. (2015). an analysis of language use in the tanzania's 2010 preelection newspaper headlines in the swahili press. african review, 42(1), 58-78. arina isti’anah 174 metila, r. a. (2013, may). a discourse analysis of news headlines: diverse framings for a hostage-taking event. asian journal of social sciences and humanities, 2(2), 71-78. montejo, g. m., & adriano, t. q. (2018). a critical discourse analysis of headlines in online news portals. journal of advances in humanities and social sciences, 4(2), 70-83. potter, l. (2016). ideological representations and theme-rheme analysis in english and arabic news reports: a systemic functional approach. functional linguistics, 3(5), 1-20. doi:http://10.1186/s40554-016-0028-y steinberg, d. i. (2010). burma/ myanmar: what everyone needs to know. oxford: oxford university press. talbot, m. (2007). media discourse: representation and interaction. edinburgh: edinburgh university press ltd. ulum, o. g. (2016). newspaper ideology: a critical discourse analysis of news headlines on syrian refugees in published newspapers. turkish studies, 11(5), 541-552. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/turkishstudies.9930 umami, m. (2013). the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post’s opinion column entitled “polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir’s case” on december 05th, 2014. register, 6(1), 77-118. note: some parts of this article were presented in loow 6 by petra christian university, entitled “rohingya in media: critical discourse analysis in myanmar and bangladesh newspaper headlines” register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.122-139 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 122 hoax news: promoting the students’ critical thinking in critical reading class sri haryati 1 english education department, sebelas maret university email: nafisahatiku@gmail.com diyah nur hidayati 2 language center, sebelas maret university email: diyah.nurhidayati26@yahoo.co.id http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i2.122-139 submission track: received: 01-08-2017 final revision: 23-11-2017 available online: 01-12-2017 english abstract critical thinking is vital for graduates in facing the dynamic life in order to strengthen their analysis ability and providing alternative solution towards the current problem. it is essential that units, courses, and material teach the critical thinking process have to provide an opportunity for students to excoriate certain problem and present the harmonious flow of thinking. hoax news, the trending issue in a society as the reading materials, has abundance aspect to be criticized by students. moreover, it has its own authenticity to be brought into a critical reading class as authentic materials which was not broadly discussed yet. this study aimed at paving the ways to improve the students’ critical thinking skills through reading hoax news. it is conducted to investigate the usage of hoax news in teaching critical reading for undergraduate students as well as particularize how far hoax news can enhance studenst’ critical thinking. this study employed classroom action research design. the subject of the study was the 31 students joining the critical reading class. the data were gotten from observation, document analysis and test. the essay test was the instrument used to assess the students’ critical thinking which later adopted the model of the holistic critical thinking scoring rubric (hctsr). the result of the study showed that using of hoax news significantly improve the students’ critical thinking followed by the development of interpretation, analysis and identification ability. the number students posed strong thinking increased from 6.45% to 72,2%. using critical thinking can promote students’ high order thinking since it drives students to consider the fact and fake which demanding the high analysis and deep interpretation toward the presented text. keywords: critical thinking, hoax news, teaching materials. mailto:diyah.nurhidayati26@yahoo.co.id http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i2.122-139 sri haryati & diyah nur hidayati 123 indonesian abstract berpikir kritis merupakan hal yang penting dalam mengahadapi hidup yang dinamis untuk memperkuat kemampuan analisis serta memberikan alternatif solusi dalam memecahkan masalah yang dihadapi saat ini. sangatlah penting dalam setiap unit pembelajaran, perkuliahan dan materi mengajarkan proses berpikir kritis untuk menyiapkan siswa dalam menghadapi berbagai masalah dan merepresentasikan pemikiran secara runtut. hoax news (berita hoax), permasalahan aktual di masyarakat, sebagai bahan bacaan menyuguhkan berbagai aspek untuk siswa kritisi. terlebih, berita hoak mempunyai nilai autentik untuk dapat digunakan di kelas critical reading sebagai materi otentik yang belum banyak dibahas. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengungkapkan cara meningkatkan berpikir kritis siswa dengan menggunakan hoax news sebagai bahan bacaan. selain itu, penelitian ini berupaya mengungkap penggunaan berita hoak dalam mengajarkan kritikal reading bagi siswa serta mengetahui seberapa jauh berita hoal dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir kritis siswa. penelitian ini menggunakan desain penelitian tindakan kelas. data diperoleh dari observasi, analisis dokumen dan tes. tes berbentuk uraian (essay) merupakan instrumen penelitian yang digunakan untuk mengukur tingkat berpikir kritis siswa yang mana rubric penilaian model holistic critical thinking scoring rubric (hctsr) diadopsi untuk keperluan ini. pengamatan juga dilakukan untuk mendukung perolehan data dalam penelitian ini. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan hoax news secara signifikan dapat meningkatkan tingkat berpikir kritis siswa yang diikuti dengan meningkatnya kemampuan interpretasi, analisis dan identifikasi. jumlah siswa yang memiliki kemampuan berpikir kritis yang kuat meningkat dari 6.45% menjadi 72,2%. menggunakan berita hoak dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir kritis karena materi ini memacu siswa untuk berpikir kritis dan melakukan analisa mendalam pada teks yang disajikan. kata kunci: berfikir kritis, berita hoax, materi mengajar introduction preparing university students to be competitive in the 21st century needs critical thinking (zivkovic, 2016). critical thinking is the use of cognitives skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desireable outcome. it is purposeful, reasoned, and goal-directed. it is the kind of thinking involved in solving problems. formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions. critical thinkers use these skills appropriately, without register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.122-139 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 124 promting, and usually with concious intents, in a variety setting. that is, they are predisposed to think critically. when think critically, we are evaluating the outcomes of our thought processes-how good a decision is or how well a problem solved (halpern in alnofaie, 2013). the critical thinking as the heart of the key focus of university requires students to be not only smart but also creative, innovative, and communicative. they need to develop their critical thinking to share their ideas in order to be accepted by others. indeed, sharing ideas do not solely say what they think (wilson, 2016). they have to explain their judgment based on the evidence. moreover, applying critical thinking in the university curriculum could be the tool of students' future success (wilson, 2016). it is because the students who have a high critical thinking are able to open new perspectives, events, situations, and people from different angles (akkaya 2012). as a result, using a critical thinking in a critical reading class would be the best practice of this skill. the fact that most students in the university just read and/or learn the surface of the learning subject without find beyond it is also able to be the essential reason. also, what students think recently is just solely how to get the high score without realizing the needs of learning essences itself. in fact, they need to learn how to analyze, justify, and judge using strong arguments in which those are parts of critical thinking skills. those skills promote students to think beyond the limit. in relation to the critical reading class, it becomes one of the compulsory subjects offered in the university. based on the syllabus, the aims of this course are to comprehend ideas in and beyond the text. in this course, students are asked to identify characteristics of critical thinking, comprehend explicitly reading texts, and identify characteristics of texts including language function and contents. to achieve the goal, therefore, critical thinking is applied in this course. the instructional process under critical reading class is expected to be able to facilitate the tertiery students‟ critical thinking betterment through reading the qualified reading materials. however, as a matter of fact, the level of students‟ critical reading shows that there were few students owning the strong critical thiking level. only 6.45% students (10 among 31 students) performed their strong critical thinking in perceiving the text. the rest of the students were put in unacceptable and acceptable level of thinking. the possible causal factor sri haryati & diyah nur hidayati 125 of the above problem was the choice of reading materials which was not sufficiently led students‟ to think more critically towards the content of the text. practically, there is still debatable what kind of appropriate materials and/or methods is used to teach critical thinking since teaching this thinking needs to engage teachers to be informative intellectual (zivcovic, 2016). the teachers have to provide a relevant material promoting students to construct the knowledge as well as be active participants. also, the teachers need to give a model how to apply the critical thinking skills to students. to full fill this gap, hoax news is chosen to be a learning material to promote students‟ critical thinking in this study. this news consists of unsolvable-ideas which are believed to be able to encourage students‟ to think critically since students can share their opinion when criticizing it. in addition, the news is categorized as an authentic material that is able to use as a good learning source in the teaching and learning process. the debatable trending news is chosen to be categorized as hoax news by determining the flawed arguments stated in the news or providing the stronger argument to prove that the given news is hoax. using this material, the students' ability for interpreting, identifying, analyzing, evaluating, justifying and explaining the arguments or opinion in the text are expected to develop. obviously, this study aimed at paving the ways to improve the students‟ critical thinking skills through reading hoax news in a critical reading class. promoting students‟ critical thinking in a critical reading class is an uneasy job. it needs teachers' competence in determining the class' activity to stimulate the students' ways of thinking. moreover, the teacher also needs to prepare the appropriate materials in order that the goal achieves successfully. then, using hoax news, it is believed that the news is appropriate to be used to facilitate students when applying the critical thinking skills in the critical reading class due to several reasons discussed in the literature reviews. to know whether the students‟ critical thinking skills improve or not, the teacher, then, is able to use the holistic critical thinking scoring rubric (htcsr) proposed by facione and facione (1994). this study is worthy to be done as there are few previous researchers discussed this topic in their study. moreover, the application of critical thinking for teaching and learning foreign language is a new area of investigation. critical thinking pedagogies are underpinned by the theory of critical language awareness. this theory explains the role of the learners‟ cognitives and metacognitive domains in developing his awareness of the new language and register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.122-139 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 126 the world around him (fairclough in alnofaie, 2013). this work then proposed alternate teaching material for promoting students‟ critical thinking in reading class. critical thinking in the classroom talking about critical thinking, freeley and steinberg (2009) define as the ability to analyze, criticize, judge, and advocate clear ideas using inductive and/or deductive arguments. the ideas presented must be rational and logical. to make clear the explanation, mindful communication, problem-solving, and a freedom from bias or egocentric tendency are the keys of critical thinking. on the other word, ennis (2011) stated critical thinking as the ability to provide, evaluate, state, deduce, and induce the problems. both arguments are in accordance with hervas‟s and miralles‟s (2004) opinions. they state that critical thinking is required dynamic skills such as „analyzing, conceptualizing, informing, managing, systemic thinking, and researching‟ to solve the problems. everything stated must be based on the valid evidence. the result of the research done by zivkovic (2016) related to „critical thinking‟ as an important attribute for success in 21 st century‟ shows that critical thinking is able to 1) encourage students to participate actively in the classroom, 2) acquire interpersonal and oral communication skills, and 3) develop better understanding of the issues at hand. using critical thinking also overcome sociocultural obstacles and demonstrates students to engage successfully in group conversations in a critical dialogue (dewaelsche, 2015). particularly, critical thinking scaffolds students to „develop deeper skills and criticality' (wilson, 2015). students who have strong critical thinking will be „critical meaning-makers'. to make a good decision with a good reasoned and ethical argument needs critical thinking. breaking argumentation down to get the validity and strength required a deep evaluation. indeed, a critical thinker is better users of information. national council excellence in critical thinking instruction (michael scriven and richard paul) argues that the effective critical thinkers are able to: 1. raise vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely, 2. gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively, 3. come to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards, sri haryati & diyah nur hidayati 127 4. think open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences, 5. communicate effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems. overall, it could be concluded that critical thinking is very important because life demands decision making. the ability to make reasoned decisions relies on it as well. as critical thinkers, the learners need to share their strong analysis and evaluation of arguments based on the evidence they have. moreover, the use of information and advocacy are also required in this skill. in the education field, it is very crucial to teach and learn critical thinking in order that students could be an open-minded person. this will help them to achieve their future dream in this era. then, improving critical thinking could be learned by analyzing hot news in the recent day. students analyze the case by using the principles of critical thinking. critical reading in a critical reading course critical reading is totally different from reading in common. this activity needs a high intelligence of thinking involving the critics of hidden analysis beyond the text (valerio, 2013). it not only requires the linguistic related to the language used but also cultural levels (wallace, 2003 in valerio, 2013). identifying cultural levels means that the readers have to know the implied meaning of the text regarding different cultures. haromi (2014) also argues that critical reading is beyond understanding the explicit meaning of the text. he explains that it is in relation to the ability to: 1. create an accurate interpretation, 2. assess the author’s purpose, 3. accurately identify the question-at-issue or the problem being discussed, 4. accurately identify basic concepts at the heart of what is written, 5. see significant implications of the advanced position, 6. identify, understand and evaluate the assumptions underlying someone’s position, 7. recognize evidence, argument, inference (or their lack) in a written presentation, 8. reasonably assess the credibility of an author, 9. accurately grasp the point of view of the author, 10. empathetically reason within the point of view of the author. furthermore, akine, et.al (2015) explains the different concept of basic reading skills and critical reading. the basic reading just needs the ability to analyze the main idea of the paragraph, multi-paragraph units and articles, text organizations, and transitions. on the other register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.122-139 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 128 hand, the critical reading is related to the ability to identify the inference, analyzing stated implied the main idea, synthesizing the sentences, distinguishing fact and opinion, explaining figurative language, and identifying fallacies and emotional appeals. those explanations are in line with knott's opinion (2013 in duran and yalcintas, 2015) stating that it is not only finding the information but also thinking beyond the text. indeed, evaluating and drawing the inferences is the key to critical reading. accordingly, applying critical thinking skills in the critical reading class is appropriate. students need to employ the skills when analyzing the texts being discussed. indeed, the analysis should be based on the strong evidence. having a discussion with others will also be meaningful through the actual-based judgment. in this case, the critical thinking skills play an important role. hoax news it is undeniable that a hoax always refers to a negative perception bringing some definition related to „fakes, lies, frauds, and pranks. whereas, boese (2010) states that a hoax is „deliberately deceptive act succeeding in capturing the attention of the public‟. rubin, et.al (2015) also point out that a hoax is „deliberate fabrication or falsification‟ used to deceive the readers related to the news. additionally, the plot of a hoax is made intentionally (erlich, flexner, carruth and hawkins, 1986). in fact, the hoax is used to cause embarrassment, or to provoke social or political change. it is also used to break individual or group reputation down (paul in pike, 2005). then, frauds and pranks can become a hoax if those generate enough public impact (boese, 2010). a lie categorizing a hoax must be outrageous, ingenious, dramatic, or sensational. accurately, a large-scale hoax is „creative, unique, and multiplatform‟ employing „beyond text analytics‟ (rubin, et.al.,2015). regarding hoax news, allcott and gentzkow (2017) define it as „intentionally fabricated news articles‟ that are able to mislead the readers. it means that the news is made and spread intentionally in accordance with the hidden goals. in addition, they explain the detail definition of hoax news into: 1) unintentional reporting mistakes; 2) rumors that do not originate from a particular news article; 3) conspiracy theories (these are, by definition, difficult to verify as true or false, and they are typically originated by people who believe them to be true); sri haryati & diyah nur hidayati 129 4) satire that is unlikely to be misconstrued as factual; 5) false statements by politicians; 6) reports that are slanted or misleading but not outright false. hoax news spreads mostly through media socials, especially facebook (menczer, 2016 in lazer. et.al., 2017) since it is the ease of sharing and rewiring the social connections. indeed, the young people as an active user tend to use this media than any other media. to support the statement, the reviews done by allcott and gentzkow (2017) also show that: (1) 62% of us adults get news on social media (gottfried and shearer 2016); (2) the most popular fake news stories were more widely shared on facebook than the most popular mainstream news stories (silverman 2016); (3) many people who see fake news stories report that they believe them (silverman and singer-vine, 2016). analyzing the fact of hoax news, thus, a reader must be a smart and critical reader to deal with it. the reader needs to check and investigate the news rather than merely trust the way it is (aryunia & aditomo, 2017 and keeshin, 2009). in this case, critical thinking skills must be applied so that the news is able to validate using the strong analysis. hoax news as teaching materials in critical reading class the national literacy trust (2017) states that an incredible discussion regarding to hoax news as teaching materials comes up to students‟ critical literacy skills (www.theguardian.com). it is believed that students are able to develop their critical analysis using the news. indeed, they are facilitated to share their ideas from different perspective to discuss the news in a safe place with the teacher‟s guidance. in addition, hobbs and mcgee (2014) who concern on propaganda news pinpoint that the news can be a good teaching material since it strengthens students‟ belief in democracy. the more they analyze the idea, the more they appreciate the political, economic, and social freedom. zalaznick (2017) also shows a positive result for his research related to the hoax news in the class. based on his interview with camhi, the hoax news is able to (1) develop students‟ ability to evaluate the news, (2) teach students not only to be a good reader but also to be thinkers, (3) help students to consider all sides of an issue, and (4) teach students to make comparisons to their own lives, to figure out what the authors are trying to teach and what their bias is. http://www.theguardian.com/ register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.122-139 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 130 furthermore, stockslader (in zalaznick, 2017) says that the students‟ abilities to make valid inferences improve much better using the hoax news. they also can make connections between today‟s news and historical events. gertler (in zalaznick, 2017) adds that these sources of informational text can move students from the basics of reading comprehension to the higher-order, evaluative skills critical thinking skill. methods this study was conducted under collaborative classroom action research which applied planning, acting, observing and reflecting. it is a systematic inquiry with the goal of informing practice in a particular situation (angelo and cross, 1993, p. 1). this study aims at describing the learning process on an environment course when hoax news implemented in the critical reading class to promote the students' critical thinking as well as investigating how far those reading materials can improve this ability. the course is aim at comprehending ideas in and beyond the text. in this course, students are asked to identify characteristics of critical thinking, comprehend explicitly reading texts, and identify characteristics of texts including language function and contents. thirty-one students consisting six boys and twenty-five students in critical reading class for the fourth semester, a lecture and an observer involved in this study. the students‟ joined critical reading class as the continuation of the extensive reading class. the lecture and the observer worked together as the raters to achive the valid score of the students‟ critical thinking. the focus of using hoax news containing current controversial and sensational issue in critical reading class was to promote the students' critical thinking ability. this ability was measured before and after the hoax news used in their class through pre-test and post-test. the instrument used to measure the students' critical thinking ability was an essay test which requires the students' ability to provide the argument, to evaluate, to state problems, to deduce, and to induce (ennis, 2011). the holistic critical thinking scoring rubric (htcsr) by facione and facione (1994) used for assigning a rating to one to four levels ranging from strong to weak critical thinking. the htcsr is chosen to anallitically put the students‟ level of critical thinking through several criteria. the data on the learning process obtained from sri haryati & diyah nur hidayati 131 the observation sheet recorded during the instructional process in 7 meetings (2 cycles) to depict the implementation of hoax news in critical reading class. the cyclical procedures of action research covering planning, acting, observing and reflecting proposed by kemmis and mc taggart (1992) is adopted in this study. the planning, the usage of hoax news in cr class, was setted before followed with the implementation of the planning. the observation was undergone later and the action together with the result were reflected to find out the betterments and the weaknesses of the action which was repaired in the next cycle. the spiral model of action research is visualized in figure 1. figure 1. the procedure of action research (kemmis and mc. taggart, 1992) the data obtained in this study were the students' critical thinking ability which categorized into four level and the learning process when hoax news used as the reading materials. the data of the students' critical thinking was gotten from pre-test and post-test. the htcsr adopted in this study is presented in table 1. the data of the students' critical thinking were analyzed descriptively and were presented, whereas the data of the learning process were obtained from an observation form during the instructional process when hoax news as the teaching aids used. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.122-139 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 132 table 1. scoring rubric score criteria 1 (significantly weak) offers biased interpretations of evidence, statements, graphics, questions, information, or the points of view of others. fails to identify or hastily dismisses strong, relevant counter-arguments. ignores or superficially evaluates obvious alternative points of view. argues using fallacious or irrelevant reasons, and unwarranted claims. does not justify results or procedures, nor explain reasons. regardless of the evidence or reasons, maintains or defends views based on self-interest or preconceptions. exhibits close-mindedness or hostility to reason. 2 (unacceptable) misinterprets evidence, statements, graphics, questions, etc. fails to identify strong, relevant counter-arguments. ignores or superficially evaluates obvious alternative points of view. draws unwarranted or fallacious conclusions. justifies few results or procedures, seldom explains reasons. regardless of the evidence or reasons, maintains or defends views based on self-interest or preconceptions. 3 (acceptable) accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics, questions, etc. identifies relevant arguments (reasons and claims) pro and con. offers analyses and evaluations of obvious alternative points of view. draws warranted, non-fallacious conclusions. justifies some results or procedures, explains reasons. fair-mindedly follows where evidence and reasons lead. 4 (strong) accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics, questions, etc. identifies the most important arguments (reasons and claims) pro and con. thoughtfully analyzes and evaluates major alternative points of view. draws warranted, judicious, non-fallacious conclusions. justifies key results and procedures, explains assumptions and reasons. fair-mindedly follows where evidence and reasons lead. discussion learning process using hoax news as reading materials the learning process using hoax news to promote the students‟ critical thinking which was undergone in two cycles (7 meetings) is presented in table 2. the different topic was given for each meeting to offer the different problems and perspectives as well as to maintain the students‟ interest. table 2. the description of learning process using hoax news as reading materials no cycles meeting date topic 1 1 1 28 april 2017 planned parenthood opens $8 billion abortionplex 2 4 may 2017 sri haryati & diyah nur hidayati 133 3 11 may 2017 2 2 4 18 may 2017 pokemon go: “i am jewish” 5 25 may 2017 6 1 june 2017 indonesia‟s first disneyland 7 8 june 2017 during the learning process, the students were assigned into five groups to discuss the given issue within hoax news. the task has been set and informed before where students were required to determine whether the news is hoax by providing the interpretation on the evidence, statements, graphic etc; identifying the arguments; analyzing and evaluating point of view; drawing warranted, judicious, non-fallacious conclusion; justifying key result and procedure and explaining assumption and reason. based on the observation result, the learning process conducted in the beginning did not show the students' real ability to interpret the evidence and statements. most of the students did not point out the evidence and arguments stated in the passage and provide the opposite evidence as well as arguments to strengthen their judgment in order to attest that the article is a hoax. those things show the students' low ability in providing the arguments and evidence which result in the weak-proposed statements and argumentations. moreover, some students less analyze the writer's point of view about the main topic thus they misunderstood the topic of discussion like in the first given article, abortionplex. in discussing this topic, some students tended to talk about the abortion in general context based on their basic knowledge rather than the abortionplex as the main point to be discussed. it showed that the students' critical thinking level was mostly unacceptable (level 2), although the critical thinking of the three to five of them were acceptable (level 3). through the reflection phase, it was obvious that most students got difficulties to provide opinion and discourage to communicate their ideas. the repetition of the opinion from one group to others occurred (in the first meeting). moreover, the discussion was dominated by several students. most students in the group categorized as passive students where they did not give significant contribution when the discussion run. besides, based on the observation report, the internet access was a helpful aid for students to investigate the existing facts, arguments, evidence and etc. this learning aid plays significant contributions in providing broad information to examine the righteousness of the statement as well as provide the evidence, fact, statistic and others supporting statement to enhance students' opinion about the case and deciding whether the article is a hoax at the end. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.122-139 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 134 in the next cycle, there was a betterment of the students‟ ability in providing and communicating the ideas. the students were encouraged to deliver their opinion about the topic given (pokemon go: “i am jewish” and indonesia’s first disneyland) and communicate their ideas better by providing the supporting evidence, the fact even showing the flawed arguments in the article. they criticized the detail information stated in the news and presented their opinion in harmony. those deep investigations showed that the students' critical thinking was improved since they attempted to drive other students to agree more with their opinion by presenting logical and reasonable supporting arguments. moreover, the passive students have shown their role where they were given an opportunity to express their ideas about the topic in group and class. this betterment results in positive contribution since the varied point of view emerged and enrich the points of discussion which at the end develop the student's ability in identifying the arguments, analyzing and evaluating point of view, drawing the non-fallacious conclusion, explaining assumption and reason to establish their critical thinking. hoax news defines as a plot to trick or deceive or the object used in the deception, a fake or fabrication (erlich, flexner, carruth and hawkins, 1986), is an alternative reading material to promote the students‟ critical thinking. hoaxes may be inspired for multiple reasons: to see how far it may go, harass an individual or group or damage reputation. the term “urban legend” may sound familiar. it also falls into the category of uncensored information available on the internet (paul in pike, 2005). whatever label is applied, it ultimately becomes the recipients' chore to sort out the facts. the existence of the hoax news then drives the reader's interest to re-examine the truth of the news by investigating the pieces of information in the news article and link the gotten information to draw the conclusion whether the article is a hoax. this challenge then requires the students' critical thinking ability to conduct a deep investigation and understand how to critically evaluate the news content. sri haryati & diyah nur hidayati 135 the improvement of the students’ critical thinking in regard to the improvement of the students' critical thinking, the result of the pre-test and post-test conducted before and after the using of hoax news as the reading materials in figure 1 showed that there is the significant improvement of the students critical thinking. figure 1. the improvement of the students‟ critical thinking score considering the pre-test result presented in figure 1, it shows that none student performed the significantly weak critical thinking, 8 students (28.81%) perform unacceptable thinking, 21 students (67.74%) show acceptable thinking and the rest, 2 students (6.45%) present the strong thinking. compare to the result of the post-test, the students' critical thinking is significantly developed. it was shown that none of the students was in the lowest level of the critical thinking which reflects the significantly weak and unacceptable thinking. six students (19.35%) performed the acceptable thinking and 25 students performed the strong thinking. it can be inferred that the number of the students who categorized in unacceptable thinking decreases 25.81% and the number of students categorized in presenting acceptable thinking also decreases 48.39%. however, the number of the students possesses the strong thinking increases massively until 74.2%. the significantly weak thinking is the lowest level of thinking both displayed in verbal presentation and written report. in this level, the students presented bias interpretation to the evidence, statement, graphic, as well as detail information stated in the text. the failure in identifying the strong and relevant argument also happened. in addition, the presented register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.122-139 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 136 arguments are irrelevant to the topic and unwarranted claims often stated even there is no result justification and explanation to the reason given. last, the presented statement is lack of evidence and only based on self-interest or preconceptions. in unacceptable thinking, there is the misinterpretation with the evidence, statement, graphics and etc stated in the text. the failure in identifying the strong and relevant argument still happened. in drawing the conclusion, the unwarranted and fallacious conclusion sometimes found. however, the ability in making justification the result and explaining the reason appears in this level. the students' critical thinking increased to the level of acceptable thinking. in this stage, the students possess the ability to interpret the evidence, statement, and graphics accurately. the identification toward the stated arguments is followed by the analyses and evaluation of the point of view done well. thus, the warrant and precise conclusion are drawn. the flow of thinking runs smooth supported by the evidence and reasons. the strong thinking performs the highest level thinking in which it accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics, questions, etc. the identification to the most important arguments (reason and claims) done well followed by the thoughtfulness analyzes and evaluates major alternative points of view. in this level of thinking, the warranted, judicious, non-fallacious conclusions were drawn, completed by the justification of the assumption and reasons. this flow of thinking was also fair supported by the evidence and the strong reason. based on the result of the post-test, the strong thinking is mostly obtained by the students after the using of hoax news. since the strong thinking is the highest order of thinking, it is assumed that the students‟ critical thinking is well developed. the students are able to interpret the evidence and identify the arguments in the text then conduct analysis to examine the honesty of the news. moreover, they make an effort to link gotten information to provide logical reasons and make a justification. the using of hoax news in learning stimulates the students to perform the highest order thinking. hoax tends to appear in a bombastic title so people are interested in spreading it since it is interesting to be discussed. to detect the hoax news, people need to develop critical thinking by examining the truth lies behind the news, checking the website address, investigating the fact to the trusted source, and comparing the stated information to anti hoax fan page (aryunia and aditomo, 2017). moreover, fake news, news as entertainment, is just another way to speak interest and converse about meaningful topics. fake news, foster critical sri haryati & diyah nur hidayati 137 thinking, and desire to remain informed. to be read well, fake news needs a critical lens, and this lens is what can allow the reader to be more through recipients of all types of media and information (keeshin, 2009). conclusion hoax news as the reading materials provides multiple views for students as the source of discussion. the verification which leads to the judgment of hoax news requires the series process of critical thinking. regarding the result of the study, it can be concluded that (1) the use of hoax news promotes the students' critical thinking in case the students possess better ability in interpreting, analyzing and evaluating the stated information in the article as well as link the information to draw the logical conclusion whether the article is hoax; (2) the learning process using hoax news as the reading material encourage students to think critically and actively in producing the accurate interpretation, identification, analyses as well as drawing the conclusion. the reflection phase in the study assisted the success of the learning process which was able to activate the passive students and facilitate students for having deep investigation towards the topic in the article. moreover, the domination of students in the discussion can be reduced by the distribution of chance in expressing the ideas. based on the result of the study, several points are suggested as follows: (1) providing the appropriate topic of discussion for the hoax news draw the students‟ interest and maintain their motivation and enthusiasm to follow the discussion and (2) guiding and monitoring class discussion assists students to develop their critical thinking better since teachers‟ guidance stimulate students to think more critically and deeply about the problems exceedingly for the hard topic. references aditomo, anindito and aryunia, rovien. 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(2016). a model of critical thinking as an important attribute for success in the 21st century. journal of social and behavioral sciences, april (2016) 102 – 108 register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.210-227 210 recount text in sfl perspective: pedagogical implication based on student’s writing analysis laxmi mustika cakrawati universitas pendidikan indonesia laxmicakrawati@student.upi.edu doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.210-227 submission track: received: 01/04/2018 final revision: 25/11/2018 available online: 01/12/2018 abstract recount can be considered as one of the easier type of text that can be written by students. this might be the reason why the text is learned in both junior and senior high school level. however, there are still a lot of students who cannot produce the text well. this study was aimed to analyze student’s recount text based on three metafunctions in sfl perspective. it is expected that by identifying students’ problems, teachers can decide and design appropriate pedagogical plan. the result of the study reveals that the student’s major problems in producing recount text are the use of subject and verb tense (interpersonal metafunctions), the generic structure of the text, the use of conjunctions, the grammatical errors, and l1 interference. therefore, considering the problems found in the student’s recount text, power strategy is proposed as one of strategies can be applied by teachers in teaching writing, particularly teaching recount text. keywords: recount text, systemic functionl linguistics, metafunction, power strategy introduction the term genre has been widely used in media and literary world. in linguistics and language learning, the term has also been used recently. in systemic functional linguistics, genre is seen as staged, goal oriented social process achieved primarily through language. it is suggested that curriculum activities should engage students in using language for social purposes as explaining, describing, arguing, reviewing, recounting, and storytelling. therefore, the content of curriculum should be made explicit both in terms of topics and in terms of genres involved in the topics ( derewianka, 2015). since genre-based approach has contributed significant development in solving literacy problem in australia, the approach is becoming increasingly prominent in the field of english language teaching (derewianka, 2013). thus, many countries as well as indonesia implement mailto:laxmicakrawati@student.upi.edu http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.210laxmi mustika cakrawati the approach. systemic functional linguistic genre pedagogy (sfl gp) has existed in indonesia since 2004. the approach was adapted to curriculum for teaching english in indonesian school to improve students’ ability in english. by implementing genre-based approach, it is hoped that teachers will be able to guide students to understand the text not only as a group of sentences but also as a tool for achieving purposes in communication. hyland (2004) in lee (2012) defined genre as a term used for identifying different types of text. martin (1990) and swales (1990) stated that genre is a goal oriented activity in communication. the members involve in the process of communication will set goals regarding to certain event and social context. thus, it can be said that genre is either oral or written text which portrays the relationship between language and its social function. (dirgeyasa, 2016). it is also in line with martin (1993) who defined genre as “a staged, goaloriented social processes which integrate field (the subject-matter of the text), mode (the channel of communication being used – whether it is written or spoken), and tenor (participants) choices in predictable ways. it means that the concept of genre intertwine with the way in achieving social purposes. derewianka (1990) identified six main genres based on their purposes: (a) narratives: usually to entertain, (b) recount: to tell what happened, (c) information reports: to provide factual information, (d) instruction: to tell the listeners or readers what to do, (e) explanation: to explain why or how something happens, and (f) expository: to present or argue a viewpoint. these social purposes will determine the schematic structure or organization of the text and particular language features that the writers have to use. related to genre in language learning, educators has been already familiar with the term genre pedagogies or genre based approaches. hyon (1996) in najmi (2015) stated that a genre-based approach focuses on the relationship between text-genres and their contexts. genre-based approach highlights writing as a social activity. it stresses on the linguistic conventions, the role of writer-reader interaction, and the importance of exploring the social and cultural context of language use on a piece of writing in order to be successfully accepted by readers. a genre-based approach can help students not only to identify purpose, audience, and context of writing but also to help them understand the ways structural and language features of written text can influence meaning making. likewise, tardy (2011) stated that in second language contexts, genre pedagogies can be beneficial to help teachers in providing targeted instruction to meet students' needs related to language and writing (lee, 2012). genre pedagogies also promise very real benefits for learners as it stresses that genres are register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.210-227 212 specific to particular cultures. it can also help students to exploit the expressive potential of society’s discourse structures instead of merely being manipulated by them (hyland, 2007). genre-based approaches focus on written discourse as a mean to construct meaning for the right audience and appropriate context. in genre-based approaches, the emphasis is the creation of meaning at the level of the whole text. genre theory starts from the premise that language use is goal-oriented and evolve within a culture to enable members of that culture achieve their social purposes. since genre approach involves metalinguistic terms, vocabulary, and text structure, it cannot be easily implemented in the classroom. thus, in this approach, teachers have an important role to provide instructional scaffolding. in teaching and learning process, implementing genre-based approach means teaching students to use particular language patterns to accomplish coherent writing and how to achieve their purpose through writing. thus, teachers should be able to provide systematic guidance and engage students in meaningful activities so that they can understand the pattern of each genre and finally be able to produce their own text. genre theory provides all students to have access to the powerful discourse of the culture. it regards language as the primary resource for meaning-making and foundation of learning. the theory also helps students to interpret the relationship between language and context. at the more specific level, genre theory enables students to understand how register of a particular situation is related to certain language choice, how the various fields of knowledge utilize different language resources, how the tenor of the classroom varies as the participants involve in different relationship, and how oral and written modes play different roles in learning process. recount text recount is one of texts that learned both in junior high school level and senior high school level. in schools, students usually learn recount text in form of personal recount and biography. according to derewianka (1990), recount is a development of a sequence of events and in recount, writers reconstruct past experience. meanwhile, based on knapp’s genre model (knapp & watkins, 2005), we can say that personal and historical recount are products of the process of narrate through the process of sequencing people and events in time and space. laxmi mustika cakrawati common features of recount text according to derewianka (1990) and gerot & wignel (1995), the purpose of recount text is to tell what happened or to retell events for the purpose of informing and entertaining. similarly, butt, et al (2006) mentioned that the function of recount text is to tell what happened and to document sequence of events and evaluate their significance in some way. derewianka (1990) divided recount text into three types: personal recount, factual recount, and imaginative recount. the specific purpose of the first type is to retell an activity that the writer/ speaker have been personally involved in (e.g. oral anecdote, diary entry). while factual recount is aimed to record the particulars of an incident (e.g. report of a science experiment, police report, news report, historical account), the imaginative recount is aimed to talk on an imaginary role and giving details of events (e.g. a day in the life of a roman slaver, how i invented...). since each type has its own specific purpose, there are slight differences in each language features of the text. generally, recount will focus on specific participants, the use of temporal sequence, the use of simple past tense, the use of action verbs (material process), and the existence of linking words to do with time (circumstances of time) and place. normally, details irrelevant to the purpose of the text should be avoided. in addition, specifically, personal recount use the first person pronoun. personal responses to the events and details are often added to add interest or humor. in factual recount, readers can see the use of third person pronouns and passive voice. details of time, place, manner, and descriptive details may be required to provide precise information and to help reader reconstruct the activity or incident accurately. sometimes, the ending of the text describes the outcome of the activity and the personal feeling is probably not appropriate to be included in the text. in imaginative recount, the first person pronoun is used but it may be appropriate to include writers’ personal reactions. although there are few differences in language features of recount text, each type of recount text consists of the same structure.  orientation: provides the reader/ listener the background information needed to understand the text (who was involved, where it happened, when it happened)  series of events: tell what happened, ordered in a chronological sequence.  re-orientation: optional – closure of events. at various stages, there may be some personal comment on an incident register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.210-227 214 recount text in metafunction perspective the theory of sfl emphasizes that language has three general functions: the interpersonal metafunction, the ideational or experiential metafunction, and the textual metafunction. these three metafunction perspective will influence texts to achieve their social purposes. a. interpersonal metafunction interpersonal metafunction deals with the relationship that is portrayed in the text. the overall structure will be varied due to the purpose of each text and the language features of the text will be different because the register of the text are different. it means that the situation in which the text is produced differed in terms of tenor, field, and mode (derewianka, 1990). the tenor of a text will depend on the relationship and the roles of the participants involved in the text. in written discourse such as recount text, if the writer and reader are not personally known each other, we can see the neutral tenor which describes formality and no expression of personal feelings and emotion. on the other hand, when students construct a text about their holiday experience in which their friends are the target readers, the use of personal pronoun, expression of personal feelings and emotion can be seen in the text. the field of the text deals with a situation refers to what’s going on and the circumstances in which they are taking place and the mode of the text refers to the channel of communication used through the participants. it covers how distant the speaker – listener or the writer – reader is and the extent to which the language accompanies the action going on. interpersonal metafunction also deals with the purposes of communicative exchange that are giving – demanding information and demanding goods and service. since recount text belongs to written discourse, the sentences used in recount texts are usually in the form of declarative sentences. the sentence of recount text can also be analyzed using two main grammatical features related to interpersonal meanings: the subject and the finite which are combined to make the mood of a clause. b. ideational/ experiential metafunction ideational or experiential metafunction deals with the experiences which are explained by language. it is also known as the field of experience (emilia, 2005). by analyzing clause or text using the experiential metafunction, readers can know the overall meaning laxmi mustika cakrawati or content meanings of a clause or text regarding what/ who did what to what/ whom. the experiential perspective focuses on the action expressed in the main verb of a clause. one of basic ways in analyzing experiential metafunction is transitivity that is used to refer a system for describing the whole clause. processes are central point in transitivity. there are four main categories of processes: material, mental, relational, and verbal. two additional categories of process are called as behavioral and existential processes. although other processes can be found in recount text, it has been mentioned that generally, recount employs material processes. material process shows that something physically doing something which may be done to some other thing (thompson, 2014). the ‘doer’ of the action is called the actor and when the action is being done to another participant, the second participant is called as the goal. c. textual metafunction the textual metafunction deals with the role that language plays in context and how language works to create connected and coherent discourse. there are three main ways in which textual meanings are constructed in a text: repetition, conjunction, and thematization (thompson, 2014). repetition in a text includes repetition of the same word or a synonym. the repetition is used to indicate the speaker’s or writer’s focus on certain topic. in the text sample above, it can be seen that the writer of the text repeat the words warilla and gerringong few times to maintain the focus of the readers since the text tells them about the grand final match between warilla and gerringong. the second way is conjunction. conjunction is used to combine two or more clauses to show that the parts of a text are related in some way. the last way is thematization which relates to the structuring of a clause or the order in which elements appear in the clause. since the beginning of a clause is a prominent part, the theme of a clause is the first element appears in a clause while the rest of the clause can be called as the rheme. according to halliday and matthiessen (2014) in thompson (2014), theme is the point of departure of the message. the theme has main function to indicate the progression of ‘what is the text about’ and to signal what the speaker think is important starting point. by having knowledge about the theme of sentences, students can be able to comprehend long text as well as organize their writing. studies related to the implementation of genre-based approach have been conducted by researchers for years. the study conducted by najmi (2015) in iran revealed that the phases of teaching learning cycle in genre-based approach have created a great impact on participants. based on the result, teachers in classroom are suggested to introduce many wellregister journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.210-227 216 written sample reading text so that students can identify and realize the purpose, language features, and structure of particular text. it is in line with the study conducted by lee (2012) in hong kong. the study highlighted the importance of teachers’ role in making plan for the whole academic year. teachers in the same school should exchange their views regarding specific genre they have to teach, develop teaching resources and feedback form, divide the works, and collaborate each other. the study also showed that factor facilitating the genre innovation in teaching are teachers’ willingness to work collaboratively, teachers’ professional knowledge and skill related to genre, and students’ language abilities and learning motivation. in indonesian context, based on several studies, sfl gp can help learners in learning english, especially writing skill because all activities involved in sfl gp were complement each other and contributed in improving students’ writing ability (emilia & hamied, 2015). however, a study conducted by nurviyani (2013) revealed that many junior high school teachers’ understand genre-based approach superficially. the data obtained from the classroom observation also shows that the teachers applied the approach partially and the teacher employs the approach in certain skills only. although there are few things should be improved in implementing genre-based approach, it can be said that one of the main goals of genre-based approach is to help students become more successful writers and readers as well as to help them make sense of not only the structure of texts but also a wide range of compositional concerns (brook, 2000 in emilia, 2005). therefore, this paper will focus on analyzing student’s writing and how teachers can help students to solve students’ problems in writing through the pedagogical plan. based on the aforementioned objectives, the concern of the study can be summarized in the following research questions: 1. what are common problems found in students’ recount text? 2. what pedagogical plan is proposed related to the common problems found in students’ recount text? research methodology because error analysis is considered as a qualitative research, this study used a descriptive qualitative method. the subject in this study is the tenth grade students of a vocational school laxmi mustika cakrawati in bandung, hotel accomodaction program. using purposive sampling, one text was chosen as a sample out of 20 texts. furthermore, recount text was chosen because it is one of the texts that had already learned by students in junior high school. there are three main activities on analyzing the data quantitatively. they are data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing or verification. after collecting the data, the study reduces the data by anticipatory (miles &huberman, 1994). the data was gained through analyzing a student’s recount text. the common errors in the student’s writing were calculated and classified by using three metafunctions framework in sfl perspectives. after that, the data were all interpreted descriptively. results & discussion student’s writing analysis based on the three metafunctions a. interpersonal metafunction interpersonal metafunction deals with establishing a relationship between people who are involved in communication. it can be recognized in the system of mood and modality. the mood analysis consists of mood type, subject and finite, and modality analysis. there are four types of mood which is usually found out in the text: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative mood. related to the type of mood, the student’s writing use only declarative sentences to express his intention in telling his holiday experience. it indicates that the student attempts to deliver information to the readers about their experiences in form of recount text. it is corresponding to the general form of recount text which is usually written in declarative sentences. mood consists of two elements: subject and finite. based on the 19 clauses in the student’s writing text, it can be found out that the student mostly used pronoun ‘i’ as the subject. the other subject used in the text is the pronoun ‘we’ and it is used only in two clauses (clause 8 and 10). however, there are also four clauses in the text which have no subject as follows: (4) i did a lot of activities such as playing playstation together with my cousins (5) and go to mall (8) me and my friends while a group photo (9) after finished playing game (14) i do not know what to do (15) so take selfie (18) because there’s no activity (19) and only play my smartphone the clauses in above sentences are connected with conjunctions. it can be concluded that the student is still confused in arranging a compound or complex sentences in terms of the register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.210-227 218 subject. the clause number 8 also indicates that the students have not been able to use compound subject correctly. another constituent of mood analysis is the finite. finite can be a mark of time of the events happened. as aforementioned before, since recount text is intended to tell the past experience, the features of the text should be in the form of past tense. from 19 clauses, the student used the form of present tense in 9 clauses. the examples of the clauses using simple present tense are as follows: (6) and before i go back to bandung (10) we are devoted to recalls memories photo (11) when i’m photographed with my friends (14) i do not know what to do (17) i’m take selfie the clauses above indicate not only that the student faces difficulties in using past tense consistently but also he encounters problems in using passive voice as shown by clauses number 10 and 11. the meaning of the clause cannot fully comprehend because the clauses may be directly translated from the student’s first language. in addition, one clause of the text can be categorized as non-finite clause since it does not use finite to mark its tenses. (7) i doing things together with my old friends. thus, because of the missing finite, the above clause is ungrammatical. modality is also an element analyzed in interpersonal metafunction. however, the use of modality cannot be found in the student’s writing. b. experiential metafunction the analysis of experiential or ideational metafunction deals with the function of language used in communication to express experience and ideas to represent what is going in in the world. transitivity analysis, which consists of three components: participant, process, and circumstance, is used to figure out experiential meaning in the text. there are six main processes that can be found in transitivity analysis: material, relational, mental, verbal, existential, and behavioral processes. however, one main characteristic of a recount text is the use of material process. the material process states laxmi mustika cakrawati about actions that are done by the participant. thus, the clause with a material process have a doing (process) and a doer (participant) (gerot and wignel, 1995). material process is the main process can be identified in the student’s writing text. there are 16 clauses of 19 clauses in the text use material process. through material process used in the text, the student tried to inform readers about the activities or what he did in the events. the examples of material process found in the text are: (1) my last vacation, i went to bekasi to visit my aunt and my uncle and my cousin (3) when i arrived there material processes can be identified in the clause are went and arrived. from the example, the readers will know what kind of activities did by the writer during his holiday experience. there are also three others processes found in the text. they are: (14) i do not know what to do (16) i’m in my own room (18) because there’s no activity the verb used in clause number 14 (know) represents the mental process. the mental process deals with the inner world of cognition, perception, inclination, or liking/disliking (butt, et.al. 2006). while the clause number 16 shows the relational attributive process which is expressed by be (i’m), the clause number 18 represent the use of existential process. the process exists between relational and material process and it shows the existence of something. in the transitivity analysis, beside analyzing the process represented by the verb in the clauses, the kind of participants involved in the text can also be analyzed. there are many kinds of participants related to experiential metafunction. however, since there are only four kinds of processes found in the text, the participants involved will also related to those processes. the example of the participants found in the text is as follows: when i arrived there experiential actor process: material circumstance i do not know what to do experiential senser process: mental phenomenon i ‘m in my own room register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.210-227 220 experiential carrier process: attributive attribute because there ‘s no activity experiential existential existent c. textual metafunction textual metafunction gives information about the writer’s idea in a text. it can be analyzed by identifying repetition, conjunction, and thematization (thompson, 2014). thematization in the text can be achieved by using theme and rheme analysis. there are three different types of theme: topical, textual, and interpersonal theme. the findings of theme in the student’s recount text can be seen in the table below. type of theme unmarked topical theme 9 clauses marked topical theme 2 clauses textual theme 8 clauses interpersonal theme the findings above show that the student frequently used unmarked topical theme. the examples of the themes found in the text are: i did a lot of activitie s such as playing playstation together with my cousins textual theme: unmarked topical rheme my last vacation i went to bekasi to visit aunt and my uncle and my cousin textual theme: marked topical rheme laxmi mustika cakrawati when i arrived there textual theme: textual rheme from the findings and the examples above, we can conclude that most of themes exist in the text are unmarked topical theme since the topical theme is the subject of the clauses. marked topical theme is used to call a topical theme which is not the subject of the clauses. for example, in the text, we can find my last vacation and at that time. on the other hand, textual themes relate the clause to its context. the theme of the clauses can be conjunctive adjunct and conjunction (gerot and wignell, 1995). in the text, i is the predominant themes. the student seems face difficulties in connecting one sentence to another sentence. repetition or the use of synonym which function is to keep readers’ focus on the main idea is rarely found in the text. in some aspect, it makes the sentences were written separately. thus, it can be concluded that the theme progression of the text has not well-developed yet. furthermore, it can be said that the text is still lack in coherence and cohesion. analysis based on the structure of the text, mechanics of writing, and grammatical errors a. generic structures of recount text as mentioned before, generally, a recount text consists of three parts: orientation, series of events, and re-orientation. although it is said that re-orientation is optional, a personal recount text usually provides personal comment of the writer to close the text. orientation (1) my last vacation, i went to bekasi to visit my aunt and my uncle and my cousin (2) i went to use the bus events (3) when i arrived there, (4) i did a lot of activities such as playing playstation together with my cousins (5) and go to mall (6) and before i go back to bandung (7) i doing things together with my old friends. register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.210-227 222 (8) me and my friends while a group photo (9) after finished playing the game (10) we are devoted to recalls memories photo (11) when i’m photographed with my friends (12) at that time, i was playing at a friends house one. (13) i was accompanying my younger brother working on the task. (14) i do not know what to do (15) so take selfie (16) i’m in my own room, (17) i’m take selfie (18) because there’s no activity (19) and only play my smartphone the table above shows the clauses in the text. the orientation part begins with the introduction of the participants, and the setting of the event. in the second part, the writer wrote several events happened during his holiday. unfortunately, the events are not quite well-sequenced, especially transition of the events in clause 12 to clause 13. in addition, the re-orientation stage as a closure if a text is also not provided by the writer. b. mechanics of writing the mechanics of writing is the term used to describe the technical aspect in writing such as spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. a well-written text usually has a good mechanics so it will ease readers in reading the text. in the recount text written by the student, there are some mistakes in terms of mechanics of writing. the first error can be found in capitalization and the second is in punctuation. (1) my last vacation, i went to bekasi to visit my aunt and my uncle and my cousin (6) and before i go back to bandung the clauses above show that the student did not use capital letter to write the name of a city such as bekasi and bandung. moreover, he used capital letter to write vacation while the word which is in the middle of the sentence does not require the capital letter. laxmi mustika cakrawati the full stop (.) is important to sign the end of the sentences. however, in the text above, the student rarely used the full stop at the end of the sentences. in few parts, the writer also did not use the comma (,) to mark slight break between certain parts of the sentences. c. grammatical errors a well-written text with a good grammar will help the writer to deliver the meaning to the readers. it also helps readers to understand the text better. several grammatical errors found in the text can make the reader confused in comprehending the text both as sentence and as a text in a whole. the grammatical errors found in the text cover the use of subject in few clauses, the use of preposition, and the use of tenses and passive voice in few sentences. the examples of grammatical errors in the text are:  my last vacation, i went to bekasi to visit my aunt and my uncle and my cousin  i went to use the bus  i doing things together with my old friends.  me and my friends while a group photo  after finished playing the game  we are devoted to recalls memories photo  when i’m photographed with my friends  at that time, i was playing at a friends house one.  i’m take selfie pedagogical implication in general, to solve problems in students’ writing, teachers should consider strategies and techniques that will improve students’ writing skills. based on the errors found in the sample of student’s writing text, power strategy is one of a ways that can be adapted by teachers in teaching writing. power is a total set of strategies which stood for the five steps in writing process: plan, organize, write, edit, and revise (englert et al., 1991). the power strategy consists of three stages. the first stage is a prewriting stages which includes planning and organizing. the second stage is writing and it includes write step as a core activity in writing instructions. the last stage is the post-writing stage which includes editing and revising (sari, rifqoh, & febriana, 2017). in the planning step, students should be able to synthesize information from various sources. in this initial stage of writing, teachers can utilize activities such as brainstorming or register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.210-227 224 listing ideas. in this step, teachers should also ask their students to focus on the audience of their writings, the purpose of the text, and the background knowledge needed to write the text. organizing step requires students to be able to arrange ideas. using organizing think sheet, teachers can ask their students to complete a pattern guide so students will organize their writing better. in writing step, students should be able to use material prepared in pre-writing stage to produce a first draft. in this step, students should focus not only on grammar and mechanics, but also on ideas in their writing. in editing, teachers help students to identify areas in which they need help. students should check writing conventions and proof read their paper. the process of editing can be done in two ways: self-evaluation and peer editing. the last step in power strategy is revising. in revising step, students make changes based in their self-evaluation sheets and peer feedback. students should revisiting and reseeing their writing to verify whether or not their writing has clear purposes and well developed. thus, this step involves activities such as adding, deleting, and changing content. in general, the power strategy is aimed to improve students’ writing skills in organizing ideas, developing information and ideas, editing, and revising. this strategy can be applied in all writing tasks including essays, short stories, and research papers. based on sfl perspective, related to errors found in students’ writing, the steps in power strategy can give benefits for both students and teachers. for example, the use of planning sheets can help students to focus on social purpose they want to achieve through their writing. by using organize think sheet, problems in determining structure of the text can be solved. by organizing their ideas, students can be able to identify generic structure of particular text they will write. last, in writing step, teachers should emphasize the use of what and who, how, where, when, and why. those questions can ease students to focus on what they are going to write and can solve students’ problem in interpersonal and textual metafunction. furthermore, the use of power strategy is also beneficial since it can promote discovery, collaborative, and students-centered learning. laxmi mustika cakrawati conclusion writing is a productive skill that required students’ ability to generate and organize ides using appropriate vocabularies. however, most students could not produce their own writing because they have not exposed to good resources of reading and in many cases, they face difficulties to comprehend texts. learning english through genre is expected to be one of ways to improve students’ comprehension in english, especially in their reading and writing skills. after analyzing the text in several aspects, it can be identified that the student may encounter problems in composing a text. although recount text is quite easy for a high school student, the student should have enough knowledge in choosing words, in using appropriate tenses related to the context of the events happened, and the use of conjunction to ensure that the text will be coherent. therefore, in teaching and learning process, teachers will play important role in providing good sources of texts for students, guiding them to deconstruct the texts, and teaching them how to compose their own writing not only to share information but also to achieve the purpose of particular texts in the appropriate context and situation. one of the strategies can be used by teachers is the power strategy. considering that the three metafunction of systemic functional linguistic is important in helping student to compose a text, the findings in this paper can be used for teachers to teach their students to produce the well-written text that is not only used to share information but also to clearly convey meaning and idea beyond the information itself. acknowledgements i would like to express my great appreciation for contributors in this study. special thanks should be given to lpdp for being a sponsor for my master study. this research was also supported by lpdp (indonesia endowment fund for education). references butt, d., fahey, r., feez, s., spinks, s., & yallop, c. (2006). using functional grammar: an explorer’s guide (2nd edition). sydney: macquarie university. derewianka, b. (1990). exploring how texts work. newtown: primary english teaching association. derewianka, b. (2003). trends and issues in genre-based approach. relc journal, 34(2), 133–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/003368820303400202 register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.210-227 226 derewianka, b. (2015). the contribution of genre theory to literacy education in australia. in j. turbill, g. barton, & c. brock (eds.), teaching writing in today’s classroom: looking back to looking forward. (pp. 69–86). norwood, australia: australian literary educators’ association. dirgeyasa, i. w. (2016). genre-based approach : what and how to teach and to learn writing. english language teaching, 9(9), 45–51. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v9n9p45 emilia, e. (2005). a critical genre-based approach to teaching academic writing in a tertiary efl context in indonesia. the university of melbourne. emilia, e., & hamied, f. a. (2015). systemic functional linguistic genre pedagogy (sfl gp) in a tertiaty efl writing context in indonesia. teflin journal, 26(2), 155–182. englert, c. s., raphael, t. e., anderson, l. m., anthony, h. m., stevens, d. d., englert, c. s., … stevens, d. d. (1991). making strategies and self-talk visible: writing instruction in regular and special education classrooms. american educational research journal, 28(2), 337–372. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312028002337 gerot, l., & wignell, p. (1995). making sense of functional grammar: an introductory workbook. australia: gerd stabler. hyland, k. (2007). genre pedagogy : language , literacy and l2 writing instruction. journal of second language writing, 16, 148–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2007.07.005 knapp, p., & watkins, m. (2005). genre, text, grammar: technologies for teaching and assessing writing. new south wales: university of new south wales press ltd. lee, i. (2012). genre-based teaching and assessment in secondary english classrooms. english teaching: practice and critique, 11(4), 120–136. miles, m. b. & huberman, a. m. (1994). qualitative data analysis (2nd edition). california: sage publications, inc. najmi, k. (2015). the effect of genre-based approach on enhancing writing skill of iranian law students. modern journal of language teaching methods, 5(2), 474–484. nurviyani, v. (2013). the english teachers’ understanding of genre based approach. joepallt, i, 1–13. sari, a. t. a., rifqoh, a., & febriana, i. (2017). using power technique to teach writing comprehension of recount text in senior high school. retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/6355656/using_p-o-w-elaxmi mustika cakrawati r_technique_to_teach_writing_comprehension_of_recount_text_in_senior_high_s chool thompson, g. (2014). introducing functional grammar (3rd edition). new york: routledge. nurul inayah register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 51 students’ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart nurul inayah english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 02 salatiga, central java, indonesia nurulinayah_aiu@yahoo.com abstract this research is aimed at knowing what the students‘ perception of having taught by foreigner counterpart (native speaker of english) in a conversational class. besides elaborating the students‘ perception which affects how they act and behave during the teaching and learning process, this research also wants to explore the students‘ difficulties and strategies in facing the foreigner‘s class. then, the students‘ expectation of an ideal conversational class is also important to be investigated in order to conduct a better one in the future. since this research explores the students‘ perception which come from the students‘ experience, qualitative approach is considered as an appropriate research design. then the result of this research is presented descriptively in order to reveal the students‘ perception comprehensively. the findings of this research show that most of the students give high appreciation with the presence of foreigner. in fact, the personality of the foreigner as a teacher is also very important to be highlighted since it gives significant influence on students‘ perception. the personality and skill in classroom management become reasons for the other students who do not like the foreigner. then, the cross cultural understanding and the ability to communicate in english is the students‘ main difficulty that hinders their teaching and learning process. keywords: perception, conversational class, foreigner counterpart students‘ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart 52 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui persepsi siswa setelah diajar oleh guru asing (penutur asli bahasa inggris) dalam kelas percakapan. selain memaparkan persepsi siswa yang mempengaruhi bagaimana mereka bersikap dan berperilaku selama proses belajar mengajar, penelitian ini juga mengeksplorasi kesulitan siswa dan strategi menghadapi guru asing. ekspektasi siswa terhadap kelas percakapan yang ideal juga penting untuk diteliti untuk pembelajaran yang lebih baik di masa depan. karena penelitian ini mengeksplorasi persepsi siswa yang berasal dari pengalaman siswa, pendekatan kualitatif dianggap sebagai pendekatan yag tepat. kemudian hasil penelitian disajikan secara deskriptif untuk mengungkap persesi siswa secara komprehensif.temuan dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar siswa memberikan apresiasi yang tinggi terhadap keberadaan guru asing.pada kenyataannya, kepribadian dari guru asing juga sangat penting untuk diperhatikan karena hal ini memberikan pengaruh yang penting terhadap persepsi siswa.kepribadian dan keahlian dalam memanajemen kelas menjadi alasan bagi siswa untuk menyukai atau tidak kehadiran guru asing. kemudian masalah pemahaman budaya dan kemampuan berkomunikasi dalam bahasa inggris adalah kesulitan utama yang menghambat proses belajar mengajar. kata kunci: persepsi, kelas percakapan, guru asing introduction providing an appropriate stimulus in the foreign language teaching and learning process would be very critical for triggering the learners to be able in using and practicing the language actively. this kind of condition is needed to create an atmosphere where both teacher and learners can interact well during the class. unfortunately, it is difficult enough to find this kind of teaching and learning process, especially in english one, since the role of teacher does not seem to provide sufficient nurul inayah register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 53 feedback for the learners. as the result, the students‘ abilities, mostly in oral skill could not be explored well. giving the opportunity for foreign language learners to actively use the language to communicate in a variety of teaching and learning activities is an effort that can be taken to overcome this problem (pringgawidagda, 2002: 34-40). furthermore, pringgawidagda (2002) denoted that native speaker could strength in develope learners‘ ability. similar opinion was also expressed by stern (1992) who states that the presence of native speakers in the class will help foreign language learners to understand the thinking and feelings of the people who use the target language. besides improving students' motivation and interest, a native speaker is also a source of accurate information in language learning as well as culture. seeing this kind of fact, many schools are trying to bring in native speakers in the classroom, as sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga. however, in this case the native speakers will be referred as an english foreigner counterpart, i.e. someone who uses english as the second language. the role of the foreigner counterpart is expected to be as maximal as a native speaker. therefore, sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga itself has a conversational class which is taught by a foreigner counterpart for its first year students. it hopefully can be a facilitator to develop the students' ability to use or practice the language in the process of communication that can be understood by others. so, from this point the aim of communication can be achieved. absolutely, the success of class with a foreigner counterpart cannot be generalized to all of teaching and learning process. beside all of his students‘ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart 54 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 strength, a native speaker or foreigner counterpart also have some weaknesses. they may not be always conscious of his own language, more focused on verbal skills, more tolerant of errors and less stringent, and can be difficult for students in the initial learning phase (stren: 1992). his presence can also be difficult, especially if the foreigner counterpart cannot speak the local language and the learners are not familiar with target language at all. this condition seems bringing various responses from the students as well as the first year students of sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga. from the interview with the foreigner counterpart, the class having 30 students has different responses. students may be very enthusiastic during the class through pay attention and give good participation. however, it does not work for the others. many students do not really care of this class. they are talking to the others during the class; not paying much attention and playing with their gadget instead. some also usually come late. the first fifteen minutes is wasted for waiting for the students. even, some appear after thirty minutes. the foreigner tries to warm the class up by giving different method of teaching. sometimes it is done inside the class with making group work and letting the students work alone to present a result in the end in front of the class, and in the other time they just go out somewhere outside the class or only play games. unfortunately, some of them still do not do well during the class. these various responses are affected mostly by the students‘ perception of the foreigner counterpart itself, the conversational class, and their own capability and confidence. since perception influences the individual‘s action and behavior towards an object, it will be a useful nurul inayah register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 55 basis to identify the students‘ attitude toward the class, their contributions in learning and their own behavior that might hinder the learning process. this perception also can be developed to improve the quality of learning, primarily which is taught by foreigner counterpart. perception ade diwura and bada tayo (2007) in their academic journal elaborate the theories of perception by taking some experts‘ explanation. first, they take the theories as postulated by allport (1966) who defines perception as the way people judge or evaluate others. the second, eggen and kauchak theories (2001) see perception from the cognitive dimension as the process by which people attach meaning to experiences. it means that the perception comes after people attend to certain stimuli in their sensory memories. however, perception will influence the information that enters working memory. this theory is strengthened by the next statement from glover et al. (1990). they state that background knowledge in the form of schemas affects perception and subsequent learning. even, research findings have verified that background knowledge resulting from experience strongly influence perception. finally, baron and byrne (1991) explain it as the process through which people attempt to understand other persons and attempt to obtain information about the temporary causes of others‘ behavior, for example, the emotions or feelings. foreigner’s role in english teaching foreigner is a person belonging to owing allegiance to a foreign country or something originally in other country (webster: 1981:889). the term foreigner counterpart in this study means someone who uses students‘ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart 56 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 english as his second language and has role in the conversational class in sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga to help improving the students‘ english skill. research methodology the research was conducted at sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga, central java, indonesia. the object of the research were students of class xa and xb. the primary data source was the result of interview between the researcher and the students. then, documentation and some information from the foreigner and english teacher of sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga became the secondary data source. the analysis followed miles and huberman (1992: 18-20), namely gathering data, data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion. discussion students’ perception toward the foreigner as the teacher there were various opinions as the result of the interview process since this research explores the students‘ thought and perception toward their experience in having taught by foreigner counterpart personally. each student had their own point of views. however, in general it could be classified into: appreciative, neutral, and hateful appreciative having taught by foreigner might be the first experience for some students. they were very excited to have an uncommon chance where they could directly interact with the foreigner. this positive appreciation could be seen as follows. nurul inayah register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 57 (1): ―yaaa gimana ya… ya cukup memberi pengalaman baru bagi kami semua, temen-temen. ya menarik lah. (i think it is a new experience for us. so, it is interesting)‖ (2):”eee seneng banged ya, karena jarang banget bisa ketemu sama bule terus langsung bisa berinteraksi langsung gitu. (i am very glad, because it is a rare opportunity to meet and interact with the foreigner directly)‖ ( 3): ―… awal-awal tu kayak yang gimana ya, heran gitu „waaah orang luar, gini gini‟ (at the early time i was very excited ‗wow foreigner‘) in general, some students liked the foreigner because of either his personality or his methods in teaching. e2, g2, and r2 for example, they looked the foreigner as a very kind, friendly, humble and humorous person. he sometimes also taught in fun activities through some games. the following data express the appreciation toward the foreigner. (4): ‟ya. sebenernya suka, orangnya low profile, lucu, cara pengajarannya juga menarik gitu. (i like it. he is low profile and humorous person. his teaching methods are also interesting) (5): ―itu ga terlalu mengarah ke pelajaran, jadinya cuma kayak permainan-permainan gitu, nambah-nambah vocab gitu.(it is not about the lesson at all but tends to games to enrich vocabularies)‖ (6): ―ee..lumayan asyik terus juga inovatif jadi buat game apa apaa gitu jadi kadang ada cerita terus suruh buat.. pernah suruh buat komik pake bahasa inggris, terus apa lagi ya? eem ada drama juga pake bahasa inggris terus itu juga ada students‘ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart 58 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 pengenalan tentang jerman eee itu, asal dari j itu sendiri.(ee… fun and innovative. there are games, telling stories, and making comic in english. what else‘s? eeem making drama in english and introducing his country, german)‖ neutral the term ‗neutral‘ in this paper refers to a condition where the students neither look at the foreigner as the special one nor underestimate them. for very few students, the presence of foreigner was not special thing. (7): “biasa aja. (just so-so)‖ as confirmed by the student, foreign teacher or indonesian one was not a problem. whoever the teacher, he highlighted that the more crucial thing was how the teacher could bring fun teaching to the class. some students could not define it as a special thing because the teaching and learning process was influenced by some factors, for example the methods and materials. some of them only liked it in particular activity. (8): ―ya kadang-kadang ada sukanya kadang-kadang ada enggaknya... misalnya kalau pas games-games gitu, seneng. (sometimes i like it especially when it is game but in other time i don‘t)‖ (9): ―ya suka kan soalnya ada permainan-permainan kita kan bisa fresh gitu, pengennya bersantai. tapi enggak sukanya itu dia itu kalo di ajak konsentrasi tu kurang trus dia kalo di ajak bercanda itu kurang gitu lo mb…(i like it because through games we can refresh our mind. but i don‘t like it when it is nurul inayah register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 59 difficult to make a joke with him or simply ask him to more concentrate…)‖ hateful the term ‗hateful‘ in this case does not mean that the students hate the foreigner at all. it is used to describe disliking because of some reasons. actually like or dislike is such of felling that cannot be measured with a particular tool. however, this category appeared from the students‘ information and reasons which clearly showed their disliking. the first reason was communication problem. a few students admitted that they disliked having taught by the foreigner because of this problem. (10): ―berbeda ya, soalnya dari segi komunikasi mungkin kita lebih nyaman sama guru biasa. (it is different. we feel more comfortable when communicate with non native teacher)‖ (11): ―jujur, ga seneng mbak. kata-katanya kurang jelas owg mbak. (to be honest, i don‘t like it. i cannot understand his words)‖ (12): ―…lebih suka diwulang guru sendiri lebih masuk daripada orang lain. (…i prefer having taught by indonesian teacher to the foreigner, because it is more understandable)‖ besides the communication problem, the personality of the foreigner also became the second reason to dislike the foreigner. all of the students included the appreciative ones agreed that the foreigner was students‘ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart 60 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 quick-tempered person. when be confirmed by the interviewer, his anger usually caused by the noisy class. (13): ―naa ini yang saya sedikit tidak suka. dia itu orangnya agak sensitive sama… kadang agak putus asa gitu ketika kelasnya sudah tidak kondusif, gitu. yaaa kalo orang jawa bilang mutungan gitu loo, trus „terserah kalian‟ gitu.(actually i do not like this one thing. i think he is a ‗sensitive‘ person who is hopeless when the class changes into unconducive one. javanese says ‗mutungan‘ (angry), then he does not care anymore)‖ (14): ―ya tapi suka marah-marah. kalau, biasanya kan anak-anak kan jail gitu, sering rame lah. biasa gitu ya. ya sering marahmarah gitu. (he is temperamental person. when the students are noisy, he will be angry) then, the third reason was admitted by the students regarding the less ability of the foreigner to manage the class well. the poor classroom management triggered indiscipline behavior in the class, such as did not pay attention, chatted with their friends, or simply just played with their gadget instead, as confirmed by the foreigner itself. from the students‘ perception this condition was a responsibility that the teacher had to take. it could be showed from the data bellow. (15): ―nggak sukanya sama orangnya mbak. hehehhehe. dia itu kayak emosian gitu. padahal itu karena kesalahan yang dia buat karena dia tidak bisa menguasai (kelas).(i do not like his personality. hehehehe. he is a temperamental person. in fact, it is his own mistake if he cannot manage the class well.)‖ (16): ―ada sih alesannya itu gara-gara yang di ajar itu ga memperhatikan sama dia. tapi kalo saya sebagai murid lebih nurul inayah register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 61 memandang kalau dia tidak bisa menguasai kelas gitu..(there is a reason why he is getting angry: because we do not pay attention to him. but as a student i think it is caused by his poor classroom management)‖ at the beginning meetings, toward the noisy class, the foreigner kept silent and waited the class to be conducive. (17): ―pada waktu awal-awalan banyak yang gojek sendiri ga dimarahin. (at the beginning, he lets the students do indiscipline behavior in the class)‖ (l2.43) however, facing the bad atmosphere in the class made him start to warn the students. to warn the students, he used high intonation and sometimes pounds on the table. he never gave any kind of punishment or benches the students from the class. (18): ―seperti mungkin menggebrak meja, „hey c‟mon guys‟ gimana gitu. kalau menghukum, ga! (he pounds on the table and says ‗hey c‘mon guys‘, something like that. but he never gives punishment) (a2.13-a2.14) unfortunately, this way gave bad perceptions from the students that made them dislike the foreigner‘s class. in the fact, that kind of warning was not an effective way to realize a conducive class. as confirmed by some students, they would keep silent for a while when they were warned by the foreigner. however, they would make a noisy again soon. (19): ―pertama-tama diem trus gojek lagi. (we keep silent first but then we make a noisy again)‖ (n2.20) (20): ―yaa biasanya diam dulu tapi karena ya mungkin banyak yang tidak apa, tidak ngeh gitu apa yang dia katakan jadi students‘ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart 62 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 ya…. ngobrol-ngobrol lagi. (we keep silent for a while. but because we do not understand his words i think, so we start to make a noisy again)‖ (m2.14) students’ perception toward the conversational class students‘ perceptions toward their own conversational class were measured from the ways they looked at the situation of the class. it was also related with the interaction between the foreigner and the students during the class, the methods, and the materials/themes given by the foreigner. class situation the interview process showed that the situation in the conversational class could be classified into fun, bored and strained situation. first, for the enthusiasm and active students the situation in the conversational class was fun. this fun learning was strongly influenced by the various methods and materials during the class. (21): ―menyenangkan. (it is fun)‖ second, the situation in the class turned to be bored when the foreigner was monotone in explaining the materials, to be too serious, less interaction with the students, or in bad mood. (22): ―membosankannya waktu dia menyampaikan materi itu sih.(it is bored when he explains the materials)‖ (23): ―kalau saya ya bosen lah. kalau kan sabtu sekarang, saya bolos. soalnya dia itu menjelaskannya itu seringnya bagaimana ya… cuma teori kalau tidak interaksi dengan siswa itu kan siswa juga bingung mau ngapain jadi semuanya nurul inayah register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 63 bingung.(it is bored i think. the schedule is on saturday now and i play truant from the class. because i think he explains in ee… i mean if he only explains the theories without any interaction with the students i think it make us confuse about what we have to do)‖ (24): ―ya biasanya itu, dia itu orangnya tergantung mood.kalo moodnya lagi jelek gitu ya kelasnya jadi bosan, dia agak gimana gitu.(he is a moody person. if he is in bad mood, the class will be bored)‖ (m2.16) third, few students said that the class was strained because the foreigner only spoke in english. they did not enjoy the class since they could not interact and communicate well. (25): ―mungkin ya agak menegangkan ya mbak. kan situ apa, berbicaranya pakai bahasa inggris kita kan ga mudeng jadi cuma meneeeeng terus. kita kan apa, kalau sedikit-sedikit pakai bahasa indonesia kan kita tau. tapi kan situ kan menerangkannya tu pakai bahasa inggriiiiiiiiis trus kan kita jadi tegang.(maybe it is a little bit strained. he always speaks in english whereas we do not understand it so we just keep silent. if he speaks little in bahasa indonesia we may understand it. in fact, he only speaks in english so we feel so strained)‖. beside the fun, bored and strained situation, there was a confession from a student that the presences of active students give significant effects. in fact, the situation in the class was not only influenced by teacher‘s factor. these students were admitted can create good atmosphere to the class. students‘ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart 64 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 (26):‖tergantung ya mb kalo yang kayak amalia, rosyad ikut gitu lebih ramai. tapi kalo yang ikut cuma, maaf ya yang agak ga mudeng gitu.sulit untuk berkomunikasi. (it depends situation, if there are amalia or rosyad (active students), it will be more interesting. but, i am sorry, if it just consists of students who do not understand english, it will be very difficult to communicate)‖ (d2.21) classroom interaction unfortunately, not all of students could interact well during the class. students having good competency in english might not have problem with classroom interaction. they could freely ask when they did not understand, answered the question or simply did the foreigner command. they could interact with the foreigner easily because they understood more than the others. (27): ―eeem kalo saya pribadi itu eee paham, tetapi mungkin teman-teman saya yang kurang apa ya, ya ya kadang „opo sih artine? ndak mudeng‟ gitu.(i myself can understand it. but i think some friends cannot)‖ in fact, for other students, interaction with the foreigner was not easy. they said that there was difference in interaction with the foreigner and their own teacher/indonesian teacher. it was more comfortable for them to communicate with indonesian teacher, as reflected in data 11 and data 13. it made some students passive during the class. (28): ―beda banget mbak. kalau guru kan biasa tapi kalau sama turis kan apalagi baru pertama ketemu gitu kan aduuuh ngomong apa ya, bingung gitu, deg-degan gitu. (there is a difference in communication with the foreign teacher. i can communicate with the indonesian teacher easily. but with the nurul inayah register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 65 foreigner, i feel a little bit confuse what i have to say. i also feel nervous)‖ (29): ―gimana ya? mungkin kalau aktifnya itu, kalau di pembelajaran foreigner saya ga terlalu aktif, tetapi kalau di pembelajarannya bu hesti sendiri kan saya agak terlalu mudeng jadi kan saya juga aktif gitu. (i think i am active in indonesian teacher class, but for the foreigner‘s class i don‘t)‖ (i2.11) looking at those facts, some students considered that the foreigner only interacted with particular students. (30): ―interaksi itu, untuk anak-anak yang tertentu saja. enggak, enggak gitu (pilih kasih). misalnya, dia kan dia kan juga bisa tau, dia kan juga melihat mana anak yang memperhatikan, mana anak yang mlengos yang mengacuhkan dia (naa interaksinya itu dengan anak-anak yang memperhatikan tadi). (he only interacts with particular students. it does not mean unfairly. but i mean he can see which students who pay attention and which ones who do not. (and the interaction is only with those who pay attention)‖ teaching methods it had to be admitted that the foreigner were creative enough in giving the materials through kinds of methods. sometime they did it in the class and in the other time they went outside. there were kind of games, quizzes, or just discussions about a particular theme. (31): ―bervariasi.ya membuat game, kadang dia suka diluar kelas, lapangan situ sambil duduk-duduk bebas, santai, gitu trus juga di kelas. (it uses various methods. sometimes it is done students‘ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart 66 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 outside, in the field to relax ourselves, for example. in the other time we just go inside)‖ (32): ―macem-macem sih.ya kadang-kadang tadi, kuis, lomba, kadang cuma ngajar doang.(there are many kinds of methods. it is sometimes quizzes and sometimes just explanation)‖ materials/themes the themes or materials itself also brought a significant effect. the students enjoyed the class when they enjoyed the materials. there were some materials which were very attractive for the students. for example was the material about german and its nation. (33): ‖ya tentang itu pengetahuan waktu menerangkan tentang jerman. (it is about german)‖ (b2.35) as claimed by other student, the materials were not about the structure or grammar rules, so it was more interesting for them. (34):‖temanya itu lebih yang ke apa, kemasyarakatan, wawasan masyarakat, ga ke semisal ga ke greeting card atau ke apa tu namanya structure gitu ga. tapi kita itu dilatih untuk semisal wawasan aids, terus wawasan, pokoknya tu wawasan tentang kebiasaan kehidupan sehari-hari. (the themes are about society, social knowledge. it is not about the greeting card or structure. but we are familiarized with the knowledge of aids, and then, the knowledge of our daily life.)‖ however, a controversial material/theme appeared because of the different culture between german and indonesia. in fact, the theme ‗hiv/aids prevention‘ got ‗negative‘ responses. when the theme was nurul inayah nurul inayah register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 67 delivered, a student even left the class because she thought that the content was too vulgar for senior high school students. other students also agreed that actually this theme is inappropriate for them. (35): ―eeem mungkin ada suatu tema yang itu agak ….ih ….agak jorok sebenarnya (tentang hiv).itu menurut saya ya. saya aja kabur dari kelas. ya, dia kan ga tau gimana indonesia. dia itu pernah ngomong “sex itu diperbolehkan” … looh kan sini kan sebagai… waaah itu sesuatu yang …(eeem there is a theme which is… iiiih so vulgar i think (the time when he explains hiv). it makes me escape from the class. he does not know indonesian culture. he said that sex is allowed. oooh it be…)‖ (36): ―ya ada yang menarik tapi ada juga yang agak sebenarnya tidak etis untuk dibahas ya, eee yang menarik misalkan tentang jerman itu, kami bisa ee menambah wawasan tentang negara asal beliau. tapi kan ee pernah sekali eee temanya tentang apa, pengetahuan seksual untuk remaja. mungkin karena budaya disana dan budaya disini agak agak jauh berbeda sehingga cara dia menyampaikan agak maaf kurang bisa diterima disini, agak kesannya tidak etis gitu. (there are interesting themes, about german for example. we know more about his motherland. but there is also a particular theme that cannot be accepted. it is about sex education for the teenagers. maybe because the culture there (germany) and here (indonesia) are different, hence the way he delivered, i am sorry, is unacceptable, it seems that it is not ethical to deliver)‖ actually, the foreigner had good intention in raising the theme. hiv/aids prevention was a good and important theme since everyone had to be aware of it. however, the problem was on the way he explained students‘ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart 68 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 it. he brought condom in the class and showed the way how to use it. he gave a detail description about it. socialization about sex and hiv/aids for the students through that way might be usual thing in his country. however, in indonesia, it could not be accepted. beside of culture differences, the students from religious background of school like sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga were taught that free sex is prohibited. those detail description was worried in giving a stimulus for the students to do/practice it instead. these facts made the hiv/aids theme got the harsh response. it forced the foreigner, mrs. hesti (local teacher) and the students to face uneasy or unpleasure time. in the other side, the male students considered the hiv/aids as their favorite theme. they argued that when this theme was given all of students became very focus; a rare moment that could not be found in others theme. it was also claimed by c2, g2, and o2. (37): ―itu… menurut saya itu materi yang paling banyak mendapatkan respon dari temen-temen. yaaa mbaknya tau sendiri.temen-temen saya yang cowok waktu materi lain mereka mungkin ga memperhatikan, tapi kalo masalah hiv, semua focus. (i think that is a theme which gets so many responses from my friends. i think you understand it. my male students may not pay attention in other themes, but for hiv, all of the students were focus)‖ nurul inayah register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 69 students’ perception toward their own capability and confidence in the foreigner’s class the analysis about this perception was very important since the good interaction class also influenced by the students‘ capability and confidence in facing the foreigner class. some students felt enjoy to communicate with the foreigner. they did not feel anxious or nervous. basically it depended on the personality of each student. they who actually were active students could enjoy the class and understood the foreigner‘s explanation. they could give good contribution during the class. in the other side, some students who were active in other class could not be assured that they would also be active in the conversational class taught by the foreigner, as mentioned in data 31 and data 32. they did not know how to say or express it in english. these students felt anxious of making mistake so that other people would not understand it. they were also afraid it would be a reason for other students to laugh at them. (38): ―grogi lah mbak.ya gimana ya, terkadang sih berani gitu kalau takut salah atau kurang dipahami gitu lo. (i am nervous if i make mistake or speak miss understandable)‖ (c2.25c2.26) (39): ―yang grogi takut.karena ya kurang bisa berbicara bahasa inggris gitu lo. nanti malah di anu (diejek) temen.(i feel nervous because i cannot speak english well. i am afraid of getting ridicule from others)‖ (e2.22-25) students‘ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart 70 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 students’ difficulties in having taught by foreigner counterpart having taught by foreigner counterpart with all of different aspects from the both side was not easy, especially for the first year students of sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga. the difficulties and problems appeared although both of them had tried to adjust their selves during the class. those difficulties could be concluded as follows. communication problem the differences of background of knowledge, culture and language mostly triggered communication problem. some misunderstandings and uncomfortable feelings in communication could hinder in realizing an effective teaching and learning process. most students faced this difficulty. it was caused by the foreigner‘s incapability to speak in bahasa indonesia and less ability of the students in understanding the foreigner‘s words. (40): “(kesulitan utama) komunikasinya.ya ada yang karena cepet ngomong, ada yang karena ga paham artinya.ga, ga jelas sih, terlalu cepet. (the main problem is the communication. he speaks too fast so sometimes we do not understand his words. it doesn‘t clear enough.)‖ ( 41): “kurang memahami bahasa inggris. kalau ga bisa bahasa inggris itu memahami apa yang dia katakan itu agak sulit. (it is difficult for me to understand his words because i haven‘t mastered english yet)‖ ( 42): ―mesti bingung kalau foreigner bicara terus ku ga tau artinya. terus gimana ini. kan kalau dia ngomong kita juga berusaha tahu apa yang dia bicarakan gitu to. kalau ga tau ya… ya masalah utamanya itu aku ga tahu artinya itu. nurul inayah register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 71 bingung. kita mau ngomong apa juga ga bisa, trus mau komentar apa juga ga tahu, pendapat apa juga ga tahu. (i feel a little bit confuse when i do not know the meaning of the foreigner‘s words. we try to understand what he is talking about. however, the problem is i do not know the meaning. as the result i will not be able to give appropriate feedback or comment or opinion)‖ poor classroom management most of students claimed that the foreigner in their conversational class could not manage the class well. the poor classroom management influences the students‘ reaction and behavior during the class that could trigger subsequent problem such as unconducive class. this problem was faced not only by students but the foreigner as well. unfortunately, those various methods and materials could not be accepted for all of students well. as confirmed by the foreigner, the big gradation of the students‘ ability was the main factor. for the high students, the class was easy enough to be followed. however, for some very weak students it was difficult even to handle the simplest tasks. when the foreigner prepared the class for the weak students, it would be too easy and annoying for the high ones. another result, the foreigner had given too difficult task for the weak students, so that they could not fulfill it. then, the middle level also could not fully satisfy both sides. it also became another obstacle for the foreigner itself. big class the conversational class was divided into two classes, x a and x b which each class consisted of 26 students. unfortunately, the two classes students‘ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart 72 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 were joined to be one in the conversational class. although some students did not attend the class, it still became an immersion class. in a conversational class taught by foreigner, too many students surely became a problem. (43): ―saya juga kurang sreg nya itu, kita gabung sama anak-anak yang rame gitu lo mbak. (the joined class makes me uncomfortable because we have to gather with noisy students) (h2.57) (44): ―kurang memperhatikan aja soalnya kebawa suasana. kan itu 2 kelasnya di gabung jadi satu otomatis yang ribut ikutan yang ribut yang anteng juga anteng. (i cannot pay much attention because of classroom atmosphere. the two classes are joined into one, so they will very noisy.)‖ (c2.49-c2.50) unconducive class this kind of condition was an effect from the poor classroom management and big class. it absolutely became a serious problem for those who were enthusiastic and serious in joining the class. (45): ―masalahnya itu sebenarnya ya kalo saya mendengarkan yang disampaikan foreigner tu kayaknya bisa cuman tementemennya itu ada yang berisik jadi kurang konsentrasi. (if i listen carefully to the foreigner i think i can understand. the problem is my friends are too noisy so it is difficult for me to get concentration)‖ (46): ―keganggu sama teman yang ga mendengarkan. ga kondusif. (the noisy students truly disturb me. it is unconducive class)‖ nurul inayah register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 73 bad schedules the schedule of the conversational class itself also became other problem for some students. there were diligent students who were never absent from the conversational class. however, they who did not attend the class have many reasons. some students played truant because they were lazy for attending the class. others blame the inappropriate schedule. the schedule for this extracurricular was on the same time with their own schedule. one of students, for example, admitted that he never came to the class on friday because he had to do the other things. it was a real because in the fact he attended the conversational class when it was changed on saturday. (47): ―kalau yang dulu kan sehabis jumat, dan saya tidak ikut. karena kan kalau dipanti itu harus jumatan di panti, naaah mulainya kan habis jumatan kalau kesini lagi itu ga sempat.(i cannot attend the class because it is friday. on friday we have to pray jum‘at in the orphanage, and if i come back to school again it will be very late)” (48): “segi jamnya mungkin. kan waktu awalan dulu kan hari jumat itu sekitar jam 1 jam 2 itu kan anak-anak uda pada cape. (the problem is the schedule i think. in the past it was in the afternoon on friday at 1 or 2 p.m., when the students are tired enough)‖ every student had their own ideal time for the schedule of the conversational class. some of them preferred having a class on friday to saturday. however, the other students were on the opposite one. the main thing was an appropriate schedule had to be arranged to create an effective teaching and learning process. students‘ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart 74 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 conclusion the students‘ perceptions toward conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart are very various. they have their own opinion with its strong reasons. for some students it is a new experience which gives them unforgettable experience. through many kinds of teaching methods and attractive materials the foreigner can give fun learning for the students. these most of the students give high appreciation with the presence of foreigner in their class. however, for a few students, the presence of foreigner in their class is not a special thing. for them the most important thing is not about foreign teacher or indonesian one. whoever the teacher, they highlight that the more crucial thing is how the teacher can manage the class well. good classroom management which triggers fun learning is their main consideration. so they do not consider the presence of foreigner as special thing. whereas, those who do not like the foreigner‘s class agree that the personality of the foreigner is the main cause. the foreigner is considered as a temperamental person. the students claimed that their fun learning turns to be bored or strained when the foreigner is getting angry. then, poor classroom management which triggers unconducive class becomes the additional reason to dislike the foreigner‘s class. furthermore, new experience in the foreigner‘s class raises some difficulties. they are (a) communication problem. it is claimed as the biggest problem where most students cannot understand the foreigner‘s words. they also cannot give an appropriate feedback since they do not know how to communicate with the foreigner well. this problem widens nurul inayah register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 75 gaps between them; (b) poor classroom management. this kind of weakness enables some students to make noise during the class. the students will be difficult to concentrate; (c) big class. the conversational class consists of too many students since the two classes are joined as one; (d) unconducive class. this situation is a result of poor management classroom and big class. this unconducive class disturbs those who want to pay attention seriously; (e) bad schedule. some students claimed that the conversational class itself is scheduled in inappropriate time. it even disables the students to attend the class; (f) cross cultural understanding. poor understanding of local cultures from the foreigner may become constraint in class. inappropriate ways to deliver sensitive topics may embarrass some group of students that may cause failure in teaching. references adediwura, and tayo, b. 2007. perception of teacher knowledge, attitude, and teaching skills as predictor of academic performance in nigerian secondary schools. educational research and review vol. 2 (7), july, 2007. pp: 165-171 miles, matthew, b., michael, h. 1992 analisis data kualitatif: buku sumber tentang metode-metode baru.jakarta: penerbit universitas indonesia (ui-press). pringgawidagda, s. 2002. strategi penguasaan berbahasa. yogyakarta: adicita karya nusa. stern, h.h. 1992. issues and options in language teaching.oxford university press. students‘ perceptions toward a conversational class taught by foreigner counterpart 76 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 17 energizing local values for tourism services improvement budi purnomo sahid tourism institute of surakarta jl. adi sucipto 154 solo, central java, indonesia 57144 budipurnomo989@yahoo.co.id abstract people in most cultures would probably agree that politeness is needed during their interaction. however there may be differing opinions as to when they should be polite. in tourism industry, tourism service providers‟ act as hosts and tourists act as guests. typically hosts will try to act politely and use appropriate politeness norms when serving guests to ensure their satisfaction. the research findings show that the tourism service providers in central java use various unggah-ungguh „politeness norms‟ when serving english speaking tourists and indonesian speaking tourists. besides that, there are some violations made by the tourism service providers in using unggah-ungguh „politeness norms‟. the research findings also show that there are similar and different perspectives on unggah-ungguh „politeness norms‟ between english speaking tourists with western culture backgrounds and indonesian speaking tourists with indonesian culture backgrounds towards the politeness norms used by the tourism service providers in central java. the findings imply the needs of energizing unggah-ungguh „politeness norms‟ which is discovered from well known noble javanese values used by the tourism service providers for tourism service improvement. keywords: local values, politeness norms, tourism service improvement mailto:budipurnomo989@yahoo.co.id 18 abstrak masyarakat di sebagian besar budaya mungkin akan setuju bahwa kesopanan diperlukan selama mereka berinteraksi. namun demikian mungkin ada perbedaan pendapat mengenai kapan mereka harus bersikap sopan. dalam industri pariwisata, penyedia jasa pariwisata bertindak sebagai tuan rumah dan wisatawan bertindak sebagai tamu. biasanya tuan rumah (host) akan mencoba untuk bertindak sopan dan menggunakan norma-norma kesopanan yang tepat ketika melayani tamu untuk memastikan kepuasan mereka. hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa penyedia jasa pariwisata di jawa tengah menggunakan berbagai bentuk "unggah-ungguh" 'kesopanan norma' ketika melayani wisatawan berbahasa inggris dan wisatawan berbahasa indonesia. di samping itu, ada beberapa pelanggaran bahasa yang dilakukan oleh penyedia jasa pariwisata dalam menggunakan 'norma kesopanan' atau bentuk "unggahungguh". hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa ada perspektif yang sama dan berbeda pada bentuk "unggah-ungguh" atau 'norma kesopanan ' antara wisatawan berbahasa inggris dengan latar belakang budaya barat dan wisatawan berbahasa indonesia dengan latar belakang budaya indonesia terhadap norma-norma kesopanan yang digunakan penyedia jasa pariwisata di jawa tengah. temuan ini menyiratkan kebutuhan untuk mendayagunakan unggah-ungguh 'kesopanan norma' yang diambil dari dari nilai-nilai luhur orang jawa yang masyhur digunakan oleh penyedia jasa pariwisata untuk memperbaiki kualitas pelayanan kepariwisataan. kata kunci: nilai-nilai lokal, norma kesopanan, peningkatan kualitas pelayanan pariwisata introduction as one of the main tourism centres in indonesia, central java is a destination with many places of interest for tourists. places of interaction between tourists and tourism service providers in this area include the airports, bus stations, train stations, tourist information centres, travel agencies, hotels, and restaurants, places of tourist interest, souvenir shops and excursions. the language tourism service providers use during interaction in these many and varied locations – both verbal and non 19 verbal – plays an important role in satisfying tourist‟s needs. a basic goal of the tourism industry anywhere in the world is to provide an enjoyable and positive memorable experience for tourists. this can be especially accomplished by tourism service providers who are not only skilful in providing their services, but who also know how to communicate well and use appropriate nuances of politeness. in the tourism industry, tourists act as guests and tourism service providers act as hosts. as the hosts, tourism service providers serve guests as well as possible in order to ensure the guests' satisfaction. levels of satisfaction can be determined by the politeness of the hosts' behaviour towards their guests, including the politeness of their verbal language. this research project focuses on the use of local wisdoms by the tourism service providers in central java, indonesia to improve services to their tourists. tourism-service language is a type of language commonly used by tourism service providers to serve their tourists. according to astika (2004:109) and samiati et. al. (2008: v), the tourism-service language appears in the kinds of interaction between tourists and tourism service providers which can be further classified into (1) receiving reservations, (2) meeting tourists at the airport/railway station, (3) providing information upon arrival on the way to the hotel, (4) helping tourists with their registration, (5) handling telephone enquiries, (6) giving directions, (7) giving information about art performances and entertainment, (8) beginning a tour and describing the itinerary, (9) describing points of interest on the tour route, (10) serving meals at restaurants, (11) describing processes used in making art objects (batik, leather puppets, gamelan instruments, etc.), (12) bargaining for souvenir prices and (13) 20 describing tourist sites. typically tourism service providers will try to act politely and use appropriate manners when communicating with tourists to ensure harmonious communication. in an interaction tourists and tourism service providers will co-operate with each other in order that their speech can flow well, and so that each speaker can understand what they want through each other's utterances. considered in the light of the host/guest roles of service provider and tourist, communicative interaction would certainly seek to avoid acts that could irritate the hearer's feeling and the interaction would use certain strategies to reduce any unhappy feelings on the part of the hearer. in indonesia, particularly in central java, unique politeness conventions can be identified in comparison with those typically applied in western countries (european countries, usa and australia). poedjosoedarmo (2009) suggests unggah-ungguh „politeness norms‟ as a typical form of javanese values. as an intangible cultural heritage, unggah-ungguh had been written in serat wedharaga by r. ng. ranggawarsita – a well-known javanese wise man in the nineteenth century – and the revitalisation and redefinition by poedjosoedarmo (2009) lead up to norms that are easy to be learned by young generation. the operational questions this research addresses are: how is the unggah-ungguh „politeness norms‟ used by tourism service providers when serving tourists in central java? secondly, are there similar and different perspectives on unggah-ungguh „politeness norms‟ used by tourism service providers in central java when serving english speaking tourists whose backgrounds are western cultures and indonesian speaking tourists whose backgrounds are indonesian cultures? 21 „unggah-ungguh‟(politeness norms) as local values one of the major approaches to politeness in indonesia is poedjosoedarmo's (2009) theory of unggah-ungguh 'politeness norms' (an extension of “language etiquette in indonesia, 1978). as in “the javanese speech levels” that he wrote in 1968, his theory is supposed to be an ideal principle of language propriety, and not a description of actual fact as typically occurring nowadays. some young javanese who claim themselves to be modern or liberal may wish to observe a different principle of propriety, and disregard the advice of their parents and teachers. different from the situation in western countries where the typical person is monolingual, most javanese people are now bilingual, speaking javanese and indonesian. for some of them who work as tourism service providers in central java, they are multilingual, speaking javanese, indonesian, english and other foreign languages. besides, the javanese language makes use of distinct speech levels, which means distinct speech codes, which therefore reflect a slightly different practice of politeness in indonesia, especially in central java from those adhered to by the western people. poedjosoedarmo (2009:1) explains the javanese term unggah-ungguh (politeness norms) as a typical politeness of javanese people. the norms are in the forms of idioms or set phrases which most parents and teachers actually use when they educate their children/students. some are in the forms of positive advice (using positive idioms) and others are in the forms of prohibition (using negative imperative aja „don‟t‟ do this or that). poedjosoedarmo states that politeness norms are implemented in four kinds of attitudes which should be practiced by a speaker in 22 communicating. it starts by how an individual (first participant, p1) should act or behave as a participant in the social network in general. secondly, what one should do when he/she is engaging in a interaction with an interlocutor (p1 to p2). third, to suit the speech event, what topic and aim of speech should be expressed and with what means of communication one should express it. fourthly, how should the speech act be constructed, and in what mood should one express the speech. in addition, how should a person handle his/her physical gestures to accompany the speech acts. the followings are the idioms and set of phrases adapted from poedjosoedarmo‟s politeness norms (2009:2-7) that are suggested to be implemented by tourism service providers when serving tourists in central java, indonesia: in a host-guest communication, a host has to be sumanak (from the stem sanak „family‟ plus infix –um-). one should try to treat his guest as sanak „relative, family‟, so the communication can be very smooth. with this friendly acceptance of friendship, an acquaintance will feel at ease, and a good social relation will prevail. on the other hand, when the host becomes the addressee, he/she should then be tanggap „responsive‟ or tanggap ing sasmita „responsive toward the finest sign‟ of the guest. when the guest wants to converse with him/her, the host should be nggatekake, which means he/she should care to pay attention to what the guest says, and ready to respond to him/her. the host should not only pay attention to the actual words the addresser has uttered, but to the gestures accompanying the speech as well. in addition, it is advisable to be sumeh, showing a cheerful face while engaging in a conversation. it is not good to be mrengut „frowning 23 or showing a sour face‟. sabar „patient‟ and sareh „calm and easy‟ are attributes that are good to be observed in many occasions, especially when talking to guests. during a conversation, one must not gampang nesu „get easily angry‟, gampang muntab „get hot temper‟ and mutungan „easily feeling broken, frustrated‟. parents often say aja ladak „don‟t be quarrelsome‟, aja nyenyengit „don‟t be hateful‟, aja galak „don‟t be vicious‟, and aja kumaki „don‟t be cocky, don‟t be a brag‟. when a host is talking to a guest, there are three idioms usually used: tepa slira, andhap asor and ngajeni. when the guest is someone of the lower status than his/her own, he/she should act tepa slira. this may mean „position oneself at the place of the addressee‟. to be brief, it can be translated as „be considerate‟. in other words, it is „showing a feeling of sympathy or solidarity‟. if the guest is not able to speak indonesian well, join him/her in using javanese. if the guest does not speak the respectful or high krama well, join him/her in using the madya (middle, moderate) level. if the guest does not know how to express the idioms of gratefulness and complementation in a nice way, just accept it. the host has to be momot, which means „accommodating‟. when the guest is from the same higher social status than the host, the host should be andhap asor. this literally means „low and humble‟. the host should give the guest a high respect. the host may speak to the guest in a respectful code, using high polite krama (the polite level) when the host wants to show distant relation, or ngoko (ordinary level) with honorific vocabulary if the host wants to be intimate with the guest. if the guest speaks to the host in english, he/she can respond accordingly, using polite english. 24 in terms of the content, the host should give appreciation and complementation to the guest when the situation is right. the host must ngajeni, meaning „giving high respect, proper appreciation‟. the host must give the guest complementation whenever the opportunity is right. in connection with the above principles, the host must never act umuk „conceited‟. s/he must not seneng nggunggung diri „brag or indulge in showing oneself off‟. s/he must not be degsura „selfcentered‟. the host must not allow oneself to afflict shameful feeling toward the guest. s/he must not gawe wirang, meaning literally „cause shame‟. the host is prohibited to gawe serik „cause ill feeling‟ to the guest. when the host wants to initiate a conversation, s/he must see to it that his/her topic and objective agree with the principle of empan papan. this literally means „agree with the setting and occasion‟. it must suit the speech event and agree with the mood of the guest. when the host is asking something that is not considered proper in relation to the speech event, s/he may be said to be benyunyak-benyunyuk „improper and unwelcome speech initiator‟. it would be better if the host just continue talking about the topic that has just been talked about. this way it can be relevant, because the topic connects with the current discussion. people will say that the host is nyambung „relates to or connects with‟ the interlocutor. another thing to care about is the means by which the topic of the discourse is expressed. at present there is a choice to convey messages, i.e. whether to use a telephone, cellular phone, letter, electronic mail or saying it orally. there are things that must be handled orally in the presence of the interlocutor, there are those that have to be delivered 25 officially with full care, there are those that can be conveyed via the telephone and via the cellular phone, but there are those that are considered proper to be expressed only through letters or electronic mail. when a tourism service provider wants to speak, there is a principle s/he should observe, viz. nuju prana. it literally means „pleasing the heart‟ of the addressee. it includes the way s/he enunciates the words, the sequence of the sentences in the discourse, and the content of the message. the speech must be delivered with good enunciation, pleasing intonation and nice tempo. everything must resep „pleasing‟ or ngresepake „causing pleasant feeling‟. the speech must be delivered in a sareh „reasy, calm‟ and cetha „clear, distinct‟ way. the discourse should be cekak aos „brief but comprehensive‟. cekak means brief and aos means full of content. the tourism service provider must not speak in a nggladrah way „utter long, irrelevant and unnecessary things‟. the speech should be runtut „ordered in a good sentence‟, and not tumpang suh „in disorder with lots of overlapping‟. the content should be pleasing, not nylekit, sengol, sengak, nglarani ati, or marakke nesu (aja nylekit, aja sengol, aja sengak, aja thok léh, isine sing bener, sing prasaja, ora goroh, aja njlomprongake) and the gestures should be suba sita „in appropriate speech act‟ and trapsila „in proper manner‟. from the above explanation, it can be inferred that there are six politeness norms as stated by poedjosoedarmo (2009): norm 1: sumanak 'friendly', norm 2: sabar lan sareh 'patient and with ease, calm', norm 3: tepa slira 'showing a feeling of sympathy or solidarity', norm 4: andhap asor 'giving a high respect, appropriate appreciation', norm 5: empan papan 'matches with the setting and occasion' and norm 6: nuju 26 prana 'pleasing, satisfying'. cross-cultural perspectives on „unggah-ungguh‟ (politeness norms) almost all research views politeness as a universal feature of civilized societies, regardless of their background culture, or their language. politeness is thus seen as an important social value, inherent to successful communication, although its realization may vary across the different speech communities. politeness offers a good method of emotional control of the individual (house and kasper, 1981:158), and is typically a means of preserving and maintaining good social relationships between the speakers of one or more cultures. polite behavior generally protects the individual, as well as their addressee. the verbal realization of politeness poses even greater problems when the interlocutors belong to different cultures and try to communicate, transferring their pragmatic knowledge of polite behavior into the foreign language. lack of practice and or a learners‟ uncertainty in rendering correctly the grammatical structures of foreign language in the first place often lead to misunderstandings, or the so-called „sociopragmatic failures‟ (thomas, 1983), that is errors resulting from non-native speakers not knowing what to say or not saying the appropriate things as a result of transferring incongruent social rules, values and belief systems from their native languages and cultures. these types of errors are likely to cause a downright insult for both the nonnative and the native speakers of a certain language, or with native speakers misunderstanding and misinterpreting the intentions of the nonnative speakers, and the non-native speakers becoming over-sensitive to „distinctions of grammatical form‟ (brown and levinson, 1987: 35), in a 27 way the native speakers are not. in any case, being polite is essential to maintaining healthy social relations within a specific culture, and even more so, for the communication across cultures. the work in intercultural and cross-cultural communication draws on general communication theory and is concerned with comparing cultural differences across such broad dimensions as individual/collective, personal/positional or even more generally as high versus low context cultures (hofstede, 1994). in this tradition, attitude surveys are used to construct general statements about a national group. for example, japan is said to have a high context culture (dependence on implicit assumptions and shared values) whereas america is said to be a low context culture (one in which roles and relationships are more explicitly negotiated) (roberts et al. 2001: 32). cross-cultural communication offers a wide field for research, as the sociopragmatic failure of one speaker of a certain community tends to be stereotyped for the whole community (knapp and hall, 2006: 203), consequently labeling a nation as rude, over-polite, insincere, etc. for instance, one is often confronted with statements like „russians are rude‟, „the english are hypocrites‟, „japanese bow a lot‟, all of them resulting from a superficial comparison between the own pragmatic knowledge and the politeness strategies of the foreign culture. cultural differences have particular implications for intercultural communication, especially for interactions involving people whose backgrounds are one of the asian cultures and for australians (irwin, 1996: 53). chan (1992: 252) has offered a summary of differences in expression of communication style between traditional high-context, collectivist asian cultures and low-context, individualistic cultures such 28 as australia as in the following table. table 1 contrasting communication styles characteristics of traditional asian characteristics of low-context, individualistic cultures such as australia: high-context, collectivist cultures: indirect, implicit, nonverbal, formal, goal oriented, emotionally controlled, self-effacing, modest direct, explicit, verbal, informal, spontaneous, emotionally, expressive, self-promoting, egocentric source: chan (1992a:252) tourism service improvement tourism service providers in central java use various politeness levels based on local values in serving their tourists. from the most to the least polite are: (1) hotel employee, (2) tour guide, (3) travel agency officer, (4) restaurant employee, (5) tourist information center officer, (6) souvenir seller and (7) tourism object officer (purnomo, 2011: 360). the policy makers of central java tourism industry have various reasons to respond the phenomena. they state why the hotel employee and travel agency officer are ranked as the top polite tourism service providers because of some factors: (1) the employee recruitment is very selective, especially for guest-contact employee; (2) they should obey standard operation procedure (sop) made by the hotel/travel agency management to maintain their acceptable (polite) behavior and to improve their quality of service to guests. the factors are opposite to the tourism service providers who are ranked as the impolite ones. the above phenomena reconfirm the need for energizing unggah ungguh as local values for tourism service improvement. the more 29 unggah-ungguh the tourism service providers use, the more polite they are. in other words, improving the implementation of unggah-ungguh will affect to tourism service improvement. research method this study is of a qualitative and descriptive nature. it uses five techniques for collecting data: (1) observation and field notes; (2) recordings; (3) questionnaire; (4) in-depth interviewing; and (5) document analysis. the observation was done in an airport, tourist information centers, and travel agencies, hotels, and restaurants, places of interest, souvenir shops and excursions where the tourism service providers and the tourists made speech acts during their interaction. during the observation, the researcher took field notes. the field notes were written to complement the observation. in this research the recordings of informants were done to naturally. it means that they were not aware of being recorded. the recording was done by using a small tape recorder which has very high recording quality. the purpose of using the questionnaire was to obtain information about unggah-ungguh „politeness norms‟ as used by the tourism service providers based on the tourists‟ perception. from the 200 questionnaires distributed to tourists and then completed by them, the researcher selected them and found 120 which were considered representative. from these 120, 50 completed by english speaking tourists and 70 by the indonesian speaking tourists. the 50 english speaking tourists came from great britain (10 persons), usa (20 persons) and australia (20 persons). the 70 indonesian speaking tourists came from various provinces, including central java province. 30 interviews were undertaken by the researcher with tourism service providers to elicit the reasons why they used particular politeness norms during their interaction with the tourists. in this research the researcher analyzed documents of standard operation procedures (sop) for tourism service providers to serve tourists produced by tourism industries in central java. the purpose in analyzing sop documents is to know whether politeness norms are included in the standard of serving tourists. discussion data analysis for this research was undertaken in three steps: (1) sorting data corpus by giving data number, context and content of conversation; (2) analyzing data based on unggah-ungguh „politeness norms‟; and (3) analyzing data based on cross-cultural perspectives on unggah-ungguh. the total amount of the analyzed data was 127 data. the following are the results of data analysis in this research. a. sumanak 'friendly' an examples of sumanak implemented by a tourism service provider when serving a tourist are as follows: (1) context: conversation between a souvenir seller (s) and a tourist (t) in kauman batik village s: ngersake nopo, den? „what do you want, madam?‟ t: mau lihat-lihat batik. „i want to see batik.‟ s: mangga …. mau yang halus atau yang biasa? „please … you want the soft or the ordinary?‟ t: yang biasa aja, bu. „the ordinary, please.‟ s: (s hands the batik samples to t). mangga silakan pilih. nanti pilihan warnanya banyak. „please choose by yourself. there are many color choices.‟ t: kalau yang ini berapa? „how much for this?‟ 31 s: itu untuk bukaan dhasar ya… tujuh puluh lima ribu saja. „for opening … seventy five thousands rupiahs.‟ in the first underlined expression, the souvenir seller begins her communication with a question in javanese respectful or krama and uses address form den (abbreviated from raden) „madam‟ as a friendly typical of javanese. then in the second underlined expression, the seller pleases the tourist politely to see the batik and asking her wants, either the soft or ordinary batik. in the third underlined expression, the seller pleases tourist to choose the batik samples she handed to her. therefore, it can be inferred that the seller‟s utterances ngersake nopo, den? „what do you want, madam?‟; mangga …. mau yang halus atau yang biasa? „please … you want the soft or the ordinary?‟ and mangga silakan pilih. nanti pilihan warnanya banyak. „please choose by yourself. there are many color choices‟ follow sumanak (friendly). both foreign and indonesian tourists considered that the s‟s utterance ngersake nopo, den? „what do you want, madam?‟ has a polite level. either in the english speaking tourists‟ culture or in the indonesian speaking tourists‟ culture, the use of indirect questions is considered to be more polite, especially to persons they have not familiar with. moreover, both foreign and indonesian tourists also stated that the s‟s utterances mangga …. mau yang halus atau yang biasa? „please … you want the soft or the ordinary?‟ and mangga silakan pilih. nanti pilihan warnanya banyak. „please choose by yourself. there are many color choices‟ have a polite level. another similarity in the english speaking tourists‟ culture and in the indonesia speaking tourists‟ culture, questions which let the tourists to have freedom of action are more liked 32 by them. unlike the above example, the following example is a violation of sumanak implementation. (2) context: conversation between a hotel receptionist (r) and a caller (c) through telephone c: halo. masih ada kamar kosong, mbak? „hallo. do you have a room?‟ r: wah sudah penuh semua itu, pak.. „all rooms are occupied, sir.‟ c: masak satu pun nggak ada yang kosong? „really? i just want a room.‟ r: ya kebetulan semua kamar sudah dibooking tamu rombongan dari jakarta. „all rooms have been booked by a group from jakarta.‟ c: hotel lain dekat-dekat situ masih punya kamar kosong nggak ya? „is there an available room in hotels near your hotel?‟ r:wah, ndak tahu ya. bapak tanya aja sendiri. „i don‟t know. ask by yourself.‟ in the underlined expressions, it seems that the reservation clerk does not nggatekake „pay attention to what the caller‟s says, and ready to respond him‟. instead of sumeh „showing a cheerful face while engaging in a conversation‟, she is mrengut „frowning or showing a sour face‟. moreover, she does not want to help the caller to give information about an available room in other hotels. therefore, it can be inferred that the reservation clerk‟s utterances wah, ndak tahu ya. bapak tanya aja sendiri „i don‟t know. ask by yourself‟ do not follow sumanak (friendly). both foreign and indonesian tourists stated that the r‟s utterance wah, ndak tahu ya. bapak tanya aja sendiri „i don‟t know. ask by yourself‟ has an impolite level. in the both english and indonesian 33 speaking tourists‟ cultures, a hotel is well known as a hospitality industry. c who asks an available room means he intends to be its guest. r should also consider that he may be a repeating guest who must be maintained carefully. although the hotel rooms are fully booked in this case, r should not act unconcerned when c asks an available room in nearby hotels. to make a polite expression, at least r can give some nearby hotel names along with their telephone numbers. b. sabar lan sareh 'patient and with ease, calm' an example of sabar lan sareh implementation by a tourism service provider when serving her tourist is as follows. (3) context: conversation between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) in laweyan batik village t: excuse me, i‟m interested to know about the batik processing. can you explain it to me, please? g: sure. let‟s go to that room. (g and t go to the processing room) this is the fabric that will be processed into batik material. first, it is colored by painting the desired patterns. t: yes, .... g: second, this special copper batik wax is dipped into melted wax, and stamped on the fabric. t: i see … it‟s hard work, isn‟t it? … working near the stove. g: yes, that‟s because the application has to use melted wax. besides, the worker has to take precaution to prevent the wax from dripping. t: i never imagine the waxing process is quite complicated. in the first underlined expressions, the tour guide respons the tourist patiently by inviting her to go to the batik processing room. then he explains the first processing calmly. in the second underlined expressions, he explains the second processing in cekak aos „brief but comprehensive‟, runtut „ordered in a good sentence‟ and not in a nggladrah way „utter long, irrelevant and unnecessary things‟. in the last 34 underlined expressions, the tour guide answers the tourist‟s question in cetha „clear, distinct‟ way and not tumpang suh „in disorder with lots of ovelapping‟. therefore, it can be inferred that the tour guide‟s utterances sure. let‟s go to that room and yes, that‟s because the application has to use melted wax. besides, the worker has to take precaution to prevent the wax from dripping follow sabar lan sareh (patient and with ease, calm). both foreign and indonesian tourists stated that the g‟s utterance let‟s go to that room „mari kita pergi ke ruangan itu‟ has normal level. either in the english speaking tourists‟ culture or in the indonesian speaking tourists‟ culture, the expression of invitation for a person who has a close relation with informal language is normal. thus, the utterance let‟s go to that room „mari kita pergi ke ruangan itu‟ is normal because the relation between the tourist and the tour guide has been closer. still in the data (3), both foreign and indonesian tourists also stated that the g‟s utterance yes, that‟s because the application has to use melted wax. besides, the worker has to take precaution to prevent the wax from dripping „ya, karena membatiknya harus menggunakan lilin yang dicairkan. di samping itu, pembatiknya harus mencegah agar lilinnya tidak menetes‟ has a normal level. in the both english and indonesian speaking tourists‟ culture, the expression of agreement followed by an explanation uttered by a tour guide is normal. this kind of explanation is in relevant with the definition of a tour guide, i.e. a person who guides tourists with a language chosen by them for a specific purpose about tourism objects and telling about their history of cultural heritage and local interest (www.worldtourism.com). unlike the above example, the following example is a violation of sabar lan sareh implementation. 35 (4) context: conversation between a souvenir seller (s) and a tourist (t) in triwindu antique market. t is bargaining for an antique plate t: harga pasnya berapa sih, bu? „how much is the fixed price, madam?‟ s: tiga ratus lima puluh ribu, pak. „three hundreds and fifty thousands, sir.‟ t: bagaimana kalau dua ratus ribu? „how about two hundred thousands?‟ s: kalau nggak mau ya sudah. dari tadi kok nawar-nawar terus. pembeli yang lain nanti juga masih banyak. „no problem if you don‟t want to buy it. you‟re too much bargain from the beginning. there will be many buyers.‟ in the underlined expressions, the souvenir seller uses utterances which are nyenyengit „hateful‟ and rather galak „vicious‟. instead of sabar „patient‟ in serving the tourist during bargaining for the souvenir, she is gampang nesu „get easily angry‟. therefore, it can be inferred that the seller‟s utterances kalau nggak mau ya sudah. dari tadi kok nawarnawar terus. pembeli yang lain nanti juga masih banyak „no problem if you don‟t want to buy it. you‟re too much bargain from the beginning. there will be many buyers‟ do not follow sabar lan sareh (patient and with ease, calm). both foreign and indonesian tourists stated that the s‟s utterances kalau nggak mau ya sudah. dari tadi kok nawar-nawar terus. pembeli yang lain nanti juga masih banyak. „no problem if you don‟t want to buy it. you‟re too much bargain from the beginning. there will be many buyers‟ have an impolite level. in the both english and indonesian speaking tourists‟ cultures, a seller is generally well known as a friendly person. s should also consider that t may be a repeating buyer who must 36 be maintained carefully. unfortunately, by those utterances, it seems that t is being chased away by s. c. tepa slira 'showing a feeling of sympathy or solidarity' an example of the tepa selira implementation is as follows: (5) context: conversation between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) in kauman batik village. t is learning how to make batik t: lihat ini hasil batikanku. bagaimana pendapatmu, mas? „look at this, my creation of batik. what do you think, brother?‟ g: coba saya lihat … betul-betul indah. tidak kalah dibanding pembatik profesional. „let me see … it‟s really beautiful. not inferior to a professional batik creator.‟ in the underlined expressions, the tour guide gives appreciation and complementation to the tourist in the right situation. in other words, the tour guide ngajeni „gives high respect, proper appreciation‟ to the tourist. moreover, the tour guide acts to „position himself at the place of addressee‟. therefore, it can be inferred that the tour guide‟s utterances coba saya lihat …betul-betul indah. tidak kalah dibanding pembatik profesional. „let me see … it‟s really beautiful. not inferior to a professional batik creator‟ follow tepa slira (showing feeling of sympathy or solidarity). both foreign and indonesian tourists stated that the s‟s underlined utterances have a polite level. it seems that g pays attention in the form of praise to t. the praise is given because the tourists are able to make a batik painting. unlike the above example, the following example is a violation of tepa selira implementation. (6) context: conversation between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) at triwindu antique market 37 t: lihat nih, mas. aku dapat cincin akik bagus. hanya dengan seratus ribu rupiah. tadi penjualnya minta lima ratus ribu. sudah bagus, murah lagi. „look at this, brother. i‟ve got a beautiful carnelian ring. only with a hundred thousand rupiahs. the seller offered it five hundred thousands. it‟s beautiful and cheap.‟ g: kalau seratus ribu ya ndak murah. saya dapat lebih bagus dari itu, bahkan hanya dengan harga lima puluh ribu. „a hundred thousands are not cheap. i can get the more beautiful on than it, even with only fifty thousands.‟ in the underlined expressions, the tour guide does not show his sympathy to the tourist‟s happy feeling. instead of expressing solidarity to what has been obtained by the tourist, he is even umuk „conceited‟ and nggunggung diri „brag or indulge in showing himself off‟ by claiming that he is able to get the carnelian ring which is cheaper and more beautiful than one obtained by the tourist. therefore, it can be inferred that the tour guide‟s utterances kalau seratus ribu ya ndak murah. saya dapat lebih bagus dari itu, bahkan hanya dengan harga lima puluh ribu. „a hundred thousands are not cheap. i can get the more beautiful on than it, even with only fifty thousands‟ do not follow tepa slira (showing feeling of sympathy or solidarity). both foreign and indonesian tourists stated that the s‟s underlined utterances have an impolite level. it seems that g does not pay attention in the form of praise to t. d. andhap asor 'giving a high respect, appropriate appreciation' an example of andhap asor implementation is as follows. (7) context: conversation between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) at mangkunegaran palace g: bapak ibu, kita sudah sampai pintu keluar istana mangkunegaran. demikian yang bisa saya sampaikan. 38 mudah-mudahan bapak ibu berkenan. bila ada kekurangan dalam memandu bapak ibu, saya mohon maaf yang sebesar-besarnya. „ladies and gentlemen, we have arrived at the exit gate of mangkunegaran palace. that was the information i can provide about this palace. hopefully you are pleased with it. i apologize if i could not satisfy you during the guiding.‟ t: terima kasih, mbak ifah. kami semua merasa puas dipandu oleh mbak. mbak ifah sangat berpengetahuan luas mengenai istana ini. „thank you miss ifah. we are satisfied guided by you. you‟re very knowledgeable about this palace.‟ g: terima kasih kembali. itu sudah menjadi tugas saya. „you‟re welcome. it has become my duty.‟ in the first underlined expression, the tour guide shows her „low and humble‟ utterances by apologizing if she could not satisfy the tourists during her guiding service. in the second underlined expressions, she is still humble by saying that her satisfaction service felt by the tourist group is a kind of her duty. in other words, she does not act umuk „conceited‟, ngunggung diri „indulge in showing herself off‟ and degsura „self-centered‟. therefore, it can be inferred that tour guide‟s utterances bila ada kekurangan dalam memandu bapak ibu, saya mohon maaf yang sebesar-besarnya „i apologize if i could not satisfy you during the guiding‟ and terima kasih kembali. itu sudah menjadi tugas saya „you‟re welcome. it has become my duty‟ follow andhap asor (giving a high respect, appropriate appreciation). both foreign and indonesian tourists stated that the g‟s underlined utterances have a polite level. in both cultures, utterances that indicate politeness markers to apologize and to gratitude are accepted. an example of a violation of andhap asor implementation is as follows: 39 (8) context: conversation between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) at kasunanan palace g: kanjeng sinuwun pakubuwono xii disebut juga sinuwun hamardhika, karena tak lama setelah beliau naik tahta, indonesia memproklamirkan kemerdekaan. „the king pakubuwono xii was also called the king of independece, because not long after he reigned, indonesia declared its independence.‟ t: wah saya belum lahir? „say, i was not born.‟ g: lha ibu usianya berapa to? „so, how old are you?‟ t: rahasia dong… „it‟s secret…‟ in the underlined expression, the tour guide asks the tourist‟s age which is not considered proper in relation to the speech event. furthermore, asking private things like an age to the tourist is considered impolite. in other words, the tour guide is benyunyak-benyunyuk „improper and unwelcome speech initiater‟. therefore, it can be inferred that the tour guide‟s utterance lha ibu usianya berapa to? „so, how old are you?‟ do not follow andhap asor (giving a high respect, appropriate appreciation). the english speaking tourists considered that the above utterance has an impolite level, but the indonesian speaking tourists considered that it has a normal level. in the former culture, asking someone who has not been closed to about his/her age is impolite because it is privacy matter, but in the latter culture asking the similar question is normal. e. empan papan 'matches with the setting and occasion' an example of empan papan implementation is as follows: (9) context: conversation between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) at the parking area of mount merapi national park g: bagaimana pak, bisa dilanjutkan perjalanan kita? „so, can 40 we continue our trip?‟ t: lha menara pandangnya mana? apa masih jauh? „where is the observation tower?‟ g: itu tu kelihatan dari sini … cuma di sebelah bukit itu kok. „that‟s seen from here … it‟s only besides the hill.‟ t: bagaimana kalau jalan kaki saja ke sana? „how about we walk there?‟ g: ya boleh. berarti mobilnya kita parkir di sini saja. „it‟s okay. so, we park the car here.‟ in the underlined expressions, the tour guide‟s utterances suit the speech event and agree with the mood of the tourist. his agreement to go on foot and then the idea to park the car is nyambung „connected with‟ the tourist‟s request. therefore, it can be inferred that the tour guide's utterances ya boleh. berarti mobilnya kita parkir di sini saja „it‟s okay. so, we park the car here‟ follow empan papan (matches with the setting and occasion). both foreign and indonesian tourists considered that the g‟s underlined utterances have a normal level. to seek agreement in safe topics is common in both cultures. an example of a violation of empan papan implementation is as follows: (10) context: conversation between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) at kauman batik village t: aduh ternyata berat juga ya bawa belanjaan segini banyak. „ouch! it‟s apparently heavy to carry as many as this merchandise.‟ g: tapi jalannya agak dipercepat, bu. kita buru-buru melanjutkan perjalanan ke tempat lain. „but rather quick your walk, madam. we‟re in hurry to continue our trip to another place.‟ 41 in the underlined expressions, the tour guide‟s utterances do not agree with the setting and occasion. he does not care about the tourist‟s bustle carrying the items purchased. his request to the tourist to walk quickly does not suit the speech event and agree with the tourist‟s mood. in other words, the tour guide‟s utterances do not nyambung „connect with‟ the finest sign of the woman‟s want who needs a help. therefore, it can be inferred that the tour guide‟s utterances tapi jalannya agak dipercepat, bu. kita buru-buru melanjutkan perjalanan ke tempat lain. „but rather quick your walk, madam. we‟re in hurry to continue our trip to another place‟ do not follow empan papan (matches with the setting and occasion). the english speaking tourists stated that the above utterance has a normal level, but the indonesian speaking tourists stated that it has impolite level. in the former culture, giving direct warning statement can be accepted, but in the latter culture giving such kind of statement is impolite, especially to person who is implicitly asking for help. f. nuju prana 'pleasing, satisfying' an example of nuju prana implementation is as follows: (11) context: conversation between a male receptionist (r) and a female hotel guest (g) in front of reception counter during check-out service. the guest has appropriated certain hotel belongings g: why should i pay for these items? r: yes, madam. this bill is for two night stay, this is for food and this is for laundry. g: but why you include two kinds of souvenir from this hotel? what do they mean? r: all right, madam. for guests who want to have souvenirs in guestroom, we charge them the same price as in souvenir shops. (r hands documents to g) so, please check this price list. for this item we charge five dollars and this one ten 42 dollars. g: oh, umm … okay. do you mean you charge fifteen dollars for the towels in my bag? r: you‟re right, madam. g: why don‟t you put this price list in my room? i thought they‟re free of charge. in the underlined expressions, it can be seen that by indicating to the guest that guests who want to have souvenirs from guestrooms can pay for them at the same price as in souvenir shops in fact the receptionist is hinting to the guest that she has taken hotel belongings. by that hint it is expected that the guest be tanggap ing sasmita 'responsive toward the finest sign'. as a javanese, the receptionist still ngajeni 'treats her with respect' because in the hospitality industry the guest is the king. the problem solving expected by the receptionist, and also by the guest is ing buri tiba penake 'a happy outcome'. in other words, the receptionist has applied tepa slira 'showing a feeling of sympathy or solidarity' related to the use of above unggah-ungguh, english speaking tourists considered that the above utterance has an impolite level, but the indonesian speaking tourists considered that it has a polite level. english speaking guest want the receptionist to answer directly why she should pay the hotel souvenir. on the other hand, with the high-context language, the receptionist answers indirectly and formally by stating the general rules of the hotel concerning the hotel‟s belongings. in the lowcontext culture, speaking indirectly and implicitly does not satisfy the hearer. unlike the english speaking guest, the indonesian speaking guest has the same culture as the receptionist, i.e. high-context, collectivist culture. indonesian people, especially javanese like to speak indirectly if they have a different opinion/conflict with a respected/high social status 43 person. in the context of host-guest relationship, the guest has higher social status than the receptionist. moreover the receptionist who has lower social status would like to try to speak formally and modestly as a sign of deference. in the tradition of collectivist culture, people would like to end the conflict in harmony. an example of a violation of nuju prana implementation is as follows: (12) context: conversation between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) at radya pustaka museum t: wah kerisnya bagus-bagus banget, ya? koleksinya juga lengkap. „wow, the daggers are beautiful, aren‟t they? their collection is also complete.‟ g: sudah-sudah. waktu kunjungan hampir habis. sebentar lagi museum akan ditutup. „that‟s enough. the time to visit is almost up. for a few moments the museum will be closed.‟ t: lho gimana to, pak? kita kan belum lama lihat-lihatnya? „how come, sir? we‟re still not long to look around.‟ in the underlined expressions, it shows that the tour guide‟s utterances are not ngresepake „causing pleasant feeling‟. the content of the speech is nglarani ati „causing heart irritation‟ because he does not let the tourist has opportunity to see the collection of dagger he is interested in. furthermore, the tour guide‟s expressions make the tourist‟s complaint. therefore, it can be inferred that the tour guide‟s utterances sudah-sudah. waktu kunjungan hampir habis. sebentar lagi museum akan ditutup „that‟s enough. the time to visit is almost up. for a few moments the museum will be closed‟ do not follow nuju prana (pleasing, satisfying). the english speaking tourists considered that the above utterances 44 have a normal level, but the indonesian speaking tourists considered that they have impolite level. in the former culture, stopping sightseeing activity to tourists because of the time of visit is up can be accepted, especially for people come from rules-obedient countries but in the latter culture giving such kind of statement is impolite. they like indirect statements better than direct ones. conclusion this research has been able to answer the two research questions articulated in the introduction. first, the tourism service providers in central java use various unggah-ungguh „politeness norms‟ to serve their tourists. the unggahungguh „politeness norms‟ they use comprise (1) sumanak „friendly‟, (2) sabar lan sareh „patient and with ease, calm‟ (3) tepa slira „showing a feeling of sympathy or solidarity‟, (4) andhap asor „giving a high respect, appropriate appreciation‟, (5) empan papan „matches with the setting and occasion‟ and (6) nuju prana „pleasing, satisfying‟. besides that, there are some violations in using sumanak, sabar lan sareh, tepa slira, andhap asor, empan papan and nuju prana. secondly, there are similar and different perspectives on unggahungguh „politeness norms‟ between english speaking western tourists and indonesian speaking tourists with indonesian backgrounds towards the politeness norms used by the tourism service providers in central java. english speaking tourists tend to like tourism service providers to speak directly, explicitly, verbally, informally and spontaneously in their communication. on the other hand, indonesian speaking tourists tend to like tourism service providers to speak indirectly, implicitly, formally, 45 modestly and be emotionally controlled in their communication. the findings imply the needs of energizing unggah-ungguh „politeness norms‟ which is discovered from well known noble javanese values used by the tourism service providers for tourism service improvement. to support the purpose, it is suggested that the local government of central java should campaign, disseminate and educate unggah-ungguh „politeness norms‟ to their people, especially to tourism service providers as the ways to act, to behave and to talk during working in tourism industry. particularly in central java, the dissemination program will support the local government to brand the province with its cultural heritage, and spread it throughout the world. with this program, not only the tourismhuman resources, but mostly the central java people are supported to preserve their local values as an intangible cultural heritage. this notion will also encompass living expressions that has inherited from their ancestors and transmit to their descendants. since 2001, intangible cultural heritage has received international recognition and its safeguarding had become one of the priorities of adoption of the convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage (unesco, 2011:1). the findings can also be used in teaching language and ethics for tourism service providers in indonesia, especially in central java, in serving international tourists who speak some english and local tourists who speak indonesian. moreover, the findings can be used as materials to develop models for improving quality of service to tourists using appropriate nuances of politeness in english, as well as in indonesian for tourism service providers and students of tourism schools to improve 46 their competence in cross-cultural communication. references astika, gusti (2004). syllabus design for tour and travel management department at satya wacana university salatiga: a policy research to develop an alternative english syllabus. surakarta: sebelas maret university. brown, penelope and levinson, stephen c. (1987). politeness: some universal in language use. great britain: cambridge university press. chan, s. (1992). families with asian roots, eds. e. lynnch & m. hanson, developing cross-cultural competence: a guide for working with young children and their families, paul h. brookes, baltimore. departemen pariwisata dan budaya. tourism development in indonesia. retrieved 9 january 2010 from http://www.tourismindonesia.com. dinas kebudayaan dan pariwisata pemerintah kota surakarta. perkembangan pariwisata kota solo. retrieved 12 january 2010 from http://www.visit-solo.com. hofstede, g. (1994). cultures and organizations: software of the mind. london: harpercollins. house, j. and kasper, g. (1981). politeness markers in english and german in coulmas f. (ed.) conversational routines. the hague: mouton. irwin, harry (1996). communicating with asia: understanding people and customs. new south wales: allen & unwin. knapp, m. l. and hall, j. a. (1992). nonverbal communication in human interaction. usa: thomson wadsworth. poedjosoedarmo, soepomo (2009). language propriety in javanese. journal fenomena, vol. vi no. 2, march – may 2009. yogyakarta: lembaga penelitian, sanata dharma university. purnomo, budi (2009). aspects of politeness when serving tourists in indonesia, in proceedings of the symposium of discourse analysis. melbourne: school of languages, cultures and linguistics, monash university. 5 th : 14. purnomo, budi (2011). politeness in tourism-service register in central java: a sociopragmatic study. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university. http://www.tourismindonesia.com/ http://www.visit-solo.com/ 47 roberts, celia et al. (2001). language learners as ethnographers. london: cromwell press ltd. samiati, m. sri, nurkamto, joko, and purnomo, budi (2010). english for tourism based on local needs. surakarta: sebelas maret university press. thomas, j. (1995). meaning in interaction: an introduction to pragmatics. london: longman. unesco (2011). convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage. retrieved 12 january 2012 from http://www.budpar.go.id. http://www.budpar.go.id/ 48 woro retnaningsih register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 37 applicability of model assessment for learning (afl) in classes of vocabulary and pragmatics in english teaching learning at stain salatiga woro retnaningsih iain surakarta jl. pandawa pucangan kartasura, sukoharjo, central java, indonesia woro_solo@yahoo.com abstract the research objective is to see the applicability of assessment for learning (afl) in the classes of vocabulary and pragmatics. the subjects of the research were students and lecturers of vocabulary 3 and pragmatics classes. the research was conducted in state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga, central java, indonesia. the results of the research indicate that afl could assess the class activities comprehensively. it could assess teacher and students‘ behavior in the class. the teacher guides the class from preparing the class, delivering materials and evaluating the class. meanwhile students‘ behavior in the classes of pragmatics is better then in vocabulary. students who express positive behavior in the classes of vocabulary are in the range of 30% 60% and around 80 – 90s % in pragmatics. keywords: assessment for learning, evaluation, vocabulary, pragmatics, english teaching learning abstrak tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk melihat kehandalan penerapan assessment for learning (afl) di kelas vocabulary dan pragmatik. subyek penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa dan dosen di kelas vocabulary 3 mailto:woro_solo@yahoo.com applicability of model assessment for learning (afl) in classes of vocabulary and pragmatics in english teaching learning at stain salatiga 38 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 dan pragmatics di sekolah tinggi agama islam negeri (stain) salatiga, jawa tengah, indonesia. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa afl dapat menilai aktivitas kelas secara menyeluruh. afl dapat menilai perilaku pengajar dan mahasiswa di kelas. pengajar memandu kelas mulai dari persiapan, penyampaian materi, dan evaluasi.sementara itu, perilaku mahasiswa di kelas pragmatik lebih baik daripada kelas vocabulary. mahasiswa yang menunjukkan perilaku positif di kelas vocabulary berada pada kisaran 30% 60% dan sekitar 80 – 90an% di kelas pragmatics. keywords: assessment for learning, evaluasi, vocabulary, pragmatik, pembelajaran bahasa inggris introduction evaluation is one of a series of activities to enhance the quality, performance or productivity of an organization in carrying out a program. the purpose of evaluation is to see and know the processes that occur in the learning process. through evaluation, information about what has been accomplished and what is not will be obtained (djemari mardapi, 2008: 19). there are three terms that are often used in the evaluation: measurement, assessment and evaluation. according to griffin & nix (1991) measurements, assessment and evaluation are hierarchical. the criteria of measurement to compare observations, assessment describes and interprets the results of measurement, while the evaluation is the determination of the value or behavioral implications. quality of learning can be seen from the results of the assessment. atkin, black, & cofey (2001) distinguished a judgment based on the goal of formative assessment and summative assessment. woro retnaningsih register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 39 in general, the formative assessment has not been done properly because there are three factors. the first is the method of assessment. teacher-made tests like the one in the faculty handbook, and replicate tests contained in the collection is still a matter of choice used. the forms of such tests have not been designed as part of the learning process yet. the second factor, the use of data assessment has not been carried out. the ability of teachers to use assessment results for the purpose of improving the quality of learning is still low. assessment data is only used by faculty to determine grades (level or achievement) and students‘ feedback is rarely given. the third factor is a student, as a result of learning and formative assessment performed by lecturers, as noted above, students become lazy to learn and practice. the results of presurvey by using questionnaires and informal interviews were conducted on teaching english in makassar and yogyakarta (diy) indicate: (1) that the general teaching (teacher/lecturer) understand formative assessment as the assessment of the results of tests given each end of subject and done 4-5 times in a semester, (2) a test that is used for the description and assessment of the multiple-choice test that is made, taken from handbook or collection matter, (3) feedback on assignments and exams are rarely given, (4) teaching (teacher/lecturer) rarely involve learners in their selfassessment process, (5) remedial (mansur: 2009: 10). afl is the assessment that occurs in the classroom and involves students in every aspect of the assessment to build their confidence and maximize achievement. this assessment was suitable for all situations and provides benefits, for faculty and students in identifying next learning steps necessary to make progress, strengths and weaknesses are applicability of model assessment for learning (afl) in classes of vocabulary and pragmatics in english teaching learning at stain salatiga 40 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 owned by faculty and students (cea, 2003; assessment reform group, 1999). the afl draft has to provide insight into the learning benefits to students and teachers (stiggins, 2002: 9). benefits derived by lecturers, namely (1) they will become confident learners because they were able to see themselves and (2) they are able to understand what the meaning of the responsibility for their own learning to monitor greater success in the future. benefits for students are: (1) students are motivated to learn, (2) faculty instructional decisions about student learning progress can be delivered with accurate information. the rapid global communication and interaction put english as one of the media is absolutely necessary. without adequate english proficiency, stain salatiga graduates will face many problems in establishing global interaction. crystal (2000: 1) states ―english is a global language." this statement has a meaning that english is a global language, used by different nations to communicate with other nations around the world. english is a tool to communicate orally and in writing. understanding is intended to communicate is to deliver, accept, understand, and express information, thoughts, feelings and develop science, technology, and culture in the english language. ability to communicate in a full understanding is the ability of discourse (departemen pendidikan nasional, 2003: 13). similarly, in the context of education, the english language serves as a tool to communicate in order to access information, and in the context of everyday life, as a means to foster relationships, share information and enjoy the aesthetics of language in english culture. given the importance of mastering english, hopefully english could be woro retnaningsih register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 41 mastered by stain salatiga students. therefore, teachers need to devise innovative methods of learning english in order to explore, understand, explain, or describe learning english as well as explore innovative methods tested in overcoming learning english. one of the innovative methods that can be done to address the problem of learning english using the model above is assessment for learning (afl). afl is a model of assessment that can clearly reveal student mastery of the english concept step by step. assessment for learning model assessment for learning(afl) was developed through a combination of assessment and classroom practice. the principles underlying the birth of the afl conclusions drawn from the results review formative assessment conducted by blackand william (assessment reform group, 1999:4-5), namely: "(a) the active involvement of children in their own learning, (b) the provision of effective feedback to children, (c) a recognition of the profound influence assessment has on motivation and self-esteem of children, both of roommates are crucial influence of learning, (d) the need of children to assess and themselves understand how to improve; and (e) adjusting teaching to take account of the result of assessment." based on the conclusions drawn by william black, the underlying principle of the afl include active student involvement in learning, improve the effectiveness of feedback, the use of assessment results to motivate and sensitize studentsto want tolearn so that they overshadow success. lecturer gives the students the opportunity to assess themselves applicability of model assessment for learning (afl) in classes of vocabulary and pragmatics in english teaching learning at stain salatiga 42 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 and adjust teaching strategies to get the results. afl gives emphasis on the process undertaken by the faculty to seek information related to the problems faced by students. to obtain such information, it requires assessment instrument sthat can clearly reveal the problems and needs faced by students as shown below: low self-esteem high self-esteem failure i can‟t success i can a b emotional flooding stress learning relaxed alertness in this regard, lecturer suggests afl cycle of self-esteem. students are able to learn, face new challenges in a state of preparedness, a statement of the maximum to take risks and learn.afl goal by cea (2003: 2) are: a) give insight into student learning to faculty and students, b) increase success for all, c) assist in the establishment of learning goals, d) allowing continuous reflection on what students know today and what they need to know next, e) measure what is valued, and f) improve the standards obtained by the students on adages of capability. the principle of the afl is an effective part of the learning plan. a plan needs to provide opportunities for teachers and learners to acquire and use information on the progress of learning objectives. in addition, the plan must be flexible to respond to the emerging skills and ideas. planning should include strategies to ensure that learners understand the goals they want to achieve and the criteria that will be used to assess their woro retnaningsih register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 43 work. how students receive feedback, how they can take part in assessing their learning and how they will help to make further progress should also be planned. based on the study of theory, the results of pre-surveys conducted and the results of the preliminary study, the model "assessment for learning (afl)" developed in this study consists of several components, namely: 1). observation consists of observations of students and faculty behavior: at the beginning and during the teaching learning proses. observations made by a lecturer in english that is used exclusively during the learning process. 2). task two phase (t-d-t). in phase-1 (stage-1), the teacher gave the package to students about 10-20 minutes to complete. the results of the work carried out as a stag-1 basis in providing the questions on the stage-2 (stag-2) to be completed at home. 3). self-assessment given to students to assess themselves during the learning process by using the strategy of traffic light (tl).4). feedback. besides developing the instruments above, the assessment criteria and scoring rubric were also developed. component model described above can be seen in the following figure: afl model t-d-t guided observatio n pd lecture r students tl kp rp feed back applicability of model assessment for learning (afl) in classes of vocabulary and pragmatics in english teaching learning at stain salatiga 44 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 research method the subjects of the research were students and lecturers of vocabulary 3 and pragmatics classes. the research was conducted in state institute of islamic studies (stain) salatiga, central java, indonesia. the classes of pragmatics were selected because of the variety of background knowledge that could explore students‘ language competence in different contexts and cultures. meanwhile, selecting of vocabulary classes was based on facts that there are many new foreign words. the research had quantitative and qualitative data. quantitative data were collected from test, closed students‘ self assessment, and observation. meanwhile, qualitative data were open students‘ self assessment. the instruments to collect data were observation sheets to observe behavior and students‘ scoring sheet. the research applied repeated measures analysis and principal component analysis (mansur, 2009: 433) discussion assessment for learning (afl) is an assessment model used to assess students' progress so that teachers can modify learning to the real needs of students. the following data are about teacher‘s behavior, students‘ behavior and applicability of afl. teacher’s behavior the assessment of teacher‘s behavior informs the teacher‘s activities in delivering material in the classroom. woro retnaningsih register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 45 table 1 teacher‘s behavior in the classroom no indicators yes no 1 teacher opened the class v 2 teacher and students shared the basic competence to obtain v 3 teacher and students shared grading criteria v 4 teacher and students shared achievement indicators v 5 teacher and students motivated each other v 6 teacher delivered materials and their examples v 7 teacher observed the students behavior in class v 8 teacher gave assignment 1 v 9 students did the assignment v 10 teacher observed the students behavior in doing the assignment v 11 teacher gave self assessment sheets v 12 students completed the self assessment v 13 teacher checked the students‘ work of the assignment 1 v 14 teacher gave written feedback for the assignment 1 v 15 teacher returned the result of the assignment 1 to students v 16 teacher gave classical feedback of the assignment 1 v 17 teacher gave assignment 2 as homework v 18 teacher closed the class v applicability of model assessment for learning (afl) in classes of vocabulary and pragmatics in english teaching learning at stain salatiga 46 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 students’ behavior the following data are the assessment of students‘ behavior in classes of vocabulary (v) andpragmatic (p). table 2 students‘ behavior no indicator v p 1 students listened intently to the teacher's explanation a looking forward to the board or to the teacher 30% 80% b drowsy 33% 0% c shaking 30% 1% d frowning 45% 1.2% e smile 55% 99% 2 students took note ofthe important information from teacher‘s description a taking note of what is written or drawn on the board teacher 30% 80% b recording oral explanation of teachers that are not written on the board 30% 80% c taking note of the answers given to the student 30% 80% 3 students‘ question a it is informative 30% 90% b it is analytic 30% 90% c it is significant questions 60% 80% 4 students‘ opinion a delivering information that relate to class materials 30% 80% b giving proposals 23% 87% 5 students‘ behavior a sitting calmly 78% 98% woro retnaningsih register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 47 b not interfering classmates 30% 86% c doing assignment quietly 30% 84% affectivity of afl effectiveness model assessment for learning is classified into 1 (poor), 2 (less effective), 3 (good), 4 (very good) in classes of vocabulary (v) and pragmatics (p). they are (a)instrument model can be used to assess the attitudes, experiences, skills and attitudes in the english language learning or validity, v: 1 and p: 4; (b) instrument model if use dto assess the attitudes, experience, language skills and behaviorin learning will repeatedly give the same resultsor reliability, v: 1 and p: 4; (c) this model canbe used to obtain information as it is about the attitudes, experiences, skills and attitudes in learning english or objective, v: 4 and p: 4; (d) this model is used in a systematic and continuous learning in every classroom or systematic, v: 4 and p: 4; (e) this model ispractically used to collect information relating to the implementation of learningand teaching classroomor practicality,v: 2 or p: 4. applicability of afl based on the data above, model assessment for learning is applicable for the class of vocabulary and pragmatics and can be used to observe classes comprehensively. it can be used to observe teacher and students activities. as the above data, the teacher prepared the class, delivered materials, and evaluated the class. meanwhile, the students‘ behavior in the classes informs their attitudes toward class and it applicability of model assessment for learning (afl) in classes of vocabulary and pragmatics in english teaching learning at stain salatiga 48 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 indicates the problems and strengths of the class as well as students record. conclusion the information displayed when using model-afl in learning is accurate and in accordance with the real needs of students in terms of student understanding of the learning materials, student behavior during learning, and english language skills of students. afl can be used through feedback and reflection. student learning abilities are displayed by individual profiles and class profiles. both of these profiles show an understanding of the development trend of the individual (or class) of the learning materials, student behavior during learning, and the students' english language abilities for each meeting. afl model has several advantages, namely: this model can display the individual profiles in the form of student understanding, behavior, and self-assessment. this model can be used to diagnose learning difficulties or misconceptions on students on subjects that can give help and guidance, obtaining adequate information and according to the real problems faced by students and faculty, establishing good communication between faculty and students through student selfassessment applied, building awareness and responsibility in a professional faculty with a reflection on the results achieved at each meeting, raising awareness, responsibility, motivation, confidence, and independence of students in learning, providing a sense of justice to students through feedback, encouraging faculty and students to continue to make improvements and increase the quality of teaching and learning woro retnaningsih register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 49 continuously, fostering mutual trust between faculty and students in the assessment, avoid subjectivity lecturer in providing assessment decisions for students and increasing accountability for public universities. references atkin, j.m., black, p., & cofey, j. 2001. classroom assessment and the national science education standards. new york: national academy press. assesment reform group. 1999. assessment for learning: beyond the black box. university of cambridge school of education. retrieved 1 december 2010 from http://www.assesment-reformgroup.org.uk. cea. 2003. quality statement on assessment practice (second). retrieved 5 desember 2010 from http://www.aaia.org.uk crystal, d. 2000. english as a global language. cambridge: cambridge university press. departemen pendidikan nasional.2003. kurikulum 2004, stándar kompetensi, mata pelajaran: bahasa inggris sekolah menengah atas.jakarta: pusat kurikulum, balitbang depdiknas. djemari, m. 2008. teknik penyusunan instrumen tes dan nontes.yogyakarta: mitra cendikia press. griffin, patrix and nix, p. 1991. educational assessment and reporting.sidney: harcout brace javanovich publisher. mansur. 2009. pembelajaran bahasa inggris. yogyakart: uny press stiggins, r.j. 2002.assessment eurasia: the absence of assessment for learning.india: phi delta kappan. http://www.assesment-reform-group.org.uk/ http://www.assesment-reform-group.org.uk/ http://www.aaia.org.uk/ applicability of model assessment for learning (afl) in classes of vocabulary and pragmatics in english teaching learning at stain salatiga 50 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 153 implementing a student-centered pedagogy: doing so in the indonesian teaching-learning context tabitha julia kidwell regional english language office (relo) center at aminef 3rd floor, cimb niaga plaza jl. jenderal sudirman kav. 25 jakarta 12920 tabithajulia@yahoo.com hanung triyoko relo counterpart jl. tentara pelajar no. 02 salatiga, central java, indonesia hanungina@yahoo.co.id abstract today‘s educators must be willing to shift from the teacher-centered paradigm, which was in place when they themselves were students, to the new paradigm of student-centered education. this article was inspired by the challenges and opportunities experienced by the writers while attempting to implement a student-centered pedagogy. we will share some of our experiences as educators to provide a context for various aspects of student centered-learning. understanding some of the successes and failures we have experienced in our careers may help to highlight the potential and importance of student-centered pedagogy in its many facets. based on the vignettes from our teaching experiences, we have identified four major ideas about how to adopt a more studentcentered approach: planning lessons that encourage student interest; adapting the curriculum to meet student‘s needs; using technology in the classroom; and developing mutually respectful relationships. keywords: student-centered pedagogy, student’s interest, student’s needs, mutually respectful relationships mailto:tabithajulia@yahoo.com mailto:hanungina@yahoo.co.id 154 abstrak pendidik saat ini harus rela berpindah dari paradigma yang berpusat pada guru, yang pernah mereka alami saat mereka masih mahasiswa, dengan paradigma baru pendidikan yang berpusat pada siswa. artikel ini terinspirasi oleh tantangan dan peluang yang dialami para penulis ketika mencoba untuk menerapkan pedagogi yang berpusat pada siswa. kami akan berbagi mengenai beberapa pengalaman kami sebagai pendidik dan menyediakan konteks yang sesuai untuk berbagai aspek pembelajaran yang berpusat pada siswa. dengan memahami beberapa keberhasilan dan kegagalan yang kami alami dalam pengalaman mengajar kami bisa memungkinkan untuk menjabarkan potensi dan kepentingan pedagogi yang berpusat pada siswa dalam banyak sisi. berdasarkan sketsa pengalaman mengajar kami, kami telah mengidentifikasi empat ide besar tentang bagaimana mengadopsi pendekatan yang lebih berpusat pada siswa: merencanakan pelajaran yang yang mendorong minat siswa, mengadaptasi kurikulum untuk memenuhi kebutuhan siswa, menggunakan teknologi di dalam kelas, dan mengembangkan hubungan yang saling menghormati. kata kunci: pedagogi yang berpusat pada siswa, minat siswa, hubungan yang saling menghormati introduction in education today, there are often discrepancies between what teachers plan and what students actually do in their learning process. this conflict is absolutely one of the things to consider when teachers want to improve the teaching-learning process in their classrooms. today‘s educators must be willing to shift from the teacher-centered paradigm, which was in place when they themselves were students, to the new paradigm of student-centered education. this article was inspired by the challenges and opportunities experienced by the writers while attempting to implement a student-centered pedagogy. we hope to give a better picture of the necessary conditions for student-centered teaching and learning and to find local wisdom that enables all teaching staff at 155 stain salatiga, and at universities throughout indonesia, to adopt this new paradigm of education. we will share some of our experiences as educators to provide a context for various aspects of student centered-learning. understanding some of the successes and failures we have experienced in our careers may help to highlight the potential and importance of student-centered pedagogy in its many facets. our shared teaching careers include students on all 6 (inhabited) continents, with ages ranging from primary school students to adults, and we believe that the common themes evident in quite disparate situations speak to the universality of the power of student-centered pedagogy. discussion interest vignette 1: tabitha kidwell i began my career in 2004 as a peace corps volunteer english teacher in a secondary school in a small town in madagascar. the school was quite underresourced; there were up to 70 students in one class, many of the classrooms did not have electricity, and there were no textbooks available. i had little teaching experience and limited knowledge of the local language and culture. as such, i relied heavily on the national curriculum and teacher-centered classroom activities. some students were motivated and were able to excel, but far more were disenchanted with my class, the english language, and school in general. classroom management, with so many students in one small room, was a major issue. i found i had the most successful time when i built lessons around aspects of the students daily lives. for example, the ―food‖ 156 lesson in the national curriculum included apples, bread, and beef as sample vocabulary items, but these did not correspond to the variety of foods that students ate on a daily basis. i adapted the lesson to include rice, mangoes, beans. and other foods more familiar to students, and i brought in a shopping basket full of the actual items. i presented the vocabulary by removing one item from the basket at a time, slowly and suspensefully. students were engaged in the presentation and enthusiastic about using their new vocabulary – many said they were going to teach their family over dinner that evening. by including content that was interesting to the students, as well as teaching methods that elicited their interest, i began to see the power that a student centered pedagogy could have. research review: interest researchers have identified three basic types of interest that contribute to learning: individual interest, situational interest, and, more recently, topic interest. individual interest reflects students‘ personal preferences, which are primarily influenced by their unique personalities. these interests develop over time and have long-lasting effects on a person‘s preferences, knowledge, and values. this type of interest can be focused on a specific school subject (e.g. science or literature) or specific activites within pop culture (e.g. music, sports, or movies) (ainley, hidi and berndorff, 2002). hidi‘s (1990) review of early research on the effects of individual interest showed that, when provided with material that individual students found interesting, students exhibited higher comprehension and recall, as well as more positive affect, and higher 157 levels of perseverance and attention. this was generalizable across a variety of research studies involving various ages, levels, and subjects. situational interest is the inherant interestingness of a certain situation. this type of interest often is elicited by something in the environment, such as a text or conversation, and may have only a shortterm effect (hidi, 1990). this type of interest plays an important role in learning when students do not have pre-existing interest in or knowledge about a certain academic area that is in the curriculum (hidi and harackiewicz, 2000). in a review of the research, flowerday, schraw, and stevens (2004) identified several factors that lead to situational interest: text novelty, good organization, ease of comprehension, text coherance, vividness, and imagery. as situational interest increases, engagement also increases, and attitudes become more positive (flowerday, schraw, and stevens, 2004). interesting stories and texts motivate people to read and positively influence their attitudes, comprehension, memory, depth of processing, and learning (hidi, 1990). this is true for lectures, as well; lectures that are well constructed and include connections to student‘s expereinces were shown to be more effective at maintaining student interest levels (tin, 2008). if individual interest (which is generated by the student) and situational interest (which is generated by the environment) can be seen as a dichotomy, topic interest can be seen as the interestion of the two. topic interest can be defined as the interest elicited by a word, title, or initial text that presents the reader with a topic. a study by ainley, hidi, and berndorff (2002) confirmed that the development of topic interest comes from both individual interest (i.e., students who had previously 158 identified a certain topic as an interest of theirs were more likely to be interested in topics connected to that domain) and situational interst (i.e. an interesting title might ―grab‖ students‘ attention and get them started on the path to learning). the same study also examined the processes inherent in developing topic interest and manifesting its effects. interest in the topic of a text contributed significantly to positive student affect, which in turn encouraged persistance in working with the material, which then led to improved learning. interestingly, shirey and reynolds (1988) found that adults actually tend to allocate less attention and fewer cognitive resources to information they find interesting, but remember it better, suggesting that they are efficient readers, and do not expend energy on information they will learn without extra effort. all three types of interest can be expected to have positive effects on learning, and they are likely to interact and influence each other‘s development (hidi, 1990). an individual‘s well-developed personal interests can evoke strong feelings of situational interest should a topic come up related to his or her individual interest. on the other hand, one specific experience of situational interest might lead an individual to take up a long-lasting individual interest in the topic. no matter the type of interest involved, ―the key to maintaining interest lies in finding ways to empower students by helping them [find] meaning or personal relevance‖( hidi and harackiewicz, 2000). one powerful way to do this is by presenting material in a more meaningful context that shows the importance of the learning or makes it personally relevant to students. practical suggestions: interest 159 the more that we can do as teachers to encourage and sustain student‘s interest, the more success our students will have. identifying and using individual interests, such as giving music-related texts to students who enjoy playing guitar, can be highly effective. this can, however, prove quite time-consiming for teachers, especially if there is a high teacher-student ratio (hidi, 1990). additionally, not all students have unique and well-developed interests on which to draw (hidi and harackiewicz, 2000). individual interests can best be incorporated on a large scale through student-choice. students can be given a choice of reading topic, or the opportunity to give a presentation on a topic of interest to them. efl class, where so much communication centers on the students‘ own beliefs and experiences, leads itself easily to this kind of adaptation. rather than requiring all students to present or write about the same topic, like “the importance of education,” teachers can allow for individual variation by selecting topics like “how education has affected my life.” add to this the potential for students to communicate about their preferences, habits, families, aspirations, past experiences, and opinions, and you can see that efl class offers many opportunities for the incorporation of individual interest. an even more cost-effective strategy for teachers with large classes is to focus on developing situational and topic interest. if the class environment stimulates situational interest, students will be more motivated and are likely to make cognitive gains in areas where they initially had very little interest (hidi and harackiewicz, 2000). focus on situational interest is more likely to lead to learning gains for all students. to do this, teachers must adapt materials or presentation modes to maximize situational interest. 160 regarding texts, if the provided text is very dry and uninteresting, situational interest will be an impossibility; replacing these texts with more interesting ones may be your only option. familiarize yourself with english texts available in your school‘s library or language office, and keep an eye out for interesting stories online or in the jakarta post that could make for interesting alternate texts. keep a file of these texts on hand to replace the truly unsalvagable texts. often, however, texts can be adapted to encourage more situational interest. teachers need not be afraid to modify texts if the outcome is better learning! remember the elements that lead to situational interest: text novelty, good organization, ease of comprehension, text coherance, vividness, and imagery (flowerday, schraw, and stevens, 2004). structural modification, such as adding or deleting information, can increase good organization and text coherance. additional details and imagery can be inserted to make texts more vivid. some texts could also be modified to a context like ―space aliens‖ (as in the research by cordova & lepper, 1996, discussed above) simply by changing the names or places. to create text novelty, try to vary the texts used in class, and present them in different ways. vividness and imagery can also be created by reading texts with students in class and having students act out or illustrate the stories they hear; you might even ask students to close their eyes and imagine the story as you read it aloud. for class activities that do not involve texts, remember the power of novelty and suspense. try to vary class activities so that students are not always stuck in the same routine; while some routine is helpful for classroom management, too much will make student‘s ‗zone out.‘ one way to do this is to offer students meaningful choices, like choosing 161 between writing an essay about the life of a historical figure, about an event in their own life, or about a recent television program they saw. all three options will practice the simple past tense, but the choice will satisfy students‘ needs for autonomy and will keep them more interested. lastly, the simplest changes to your presentation style can do wonders to increase student learning. a student once told me about her favorite english teacher, but only detail that she could remember was that the teacher had a ―magic bag‖ that she would pull items from when introducing vocabulary. what a basic but powerful way to make vocabulary presentations more engaging! cultural contextualization and adaptation of the curriculum vignette: h. triyoko when i was in junior and senior high school, every school in the province of jawa tengah used the same english textbook. at that time, teachers, not exclusively english teachers, were required to teach from books recommended by a higher authority, at the provincial level or even at the national level. these textbooks and the curriculum behind them had little significance to students‘ lives outside school, since the english textbooks were situated in a culture different from their own. it was not easy for me to understand names and events told in those books because those names and events were outside my own culture. even though i was in many ways supported by teachers, friends, and other available resources of learning in the school, i often found learning english as inapplicable to my life. had i not had a great intrinsic motivation to master english, i would have stopped learning english because of the many things i could not understand in my english textbooks. many of 162 my friends in junior and senior high schools only studied english to get a good grade; they saw english as compulsory subject that influenced their school achievement and no more than that. to compound the problem, teachers who were required to teach by the prescribed curriculum and textbooks were out of touch with the actual needs of the students. when i became an english teacher myself, i realized that english was not a priority for many students. to remedy this, i attempted to expose students at stain, an islamic university, to english for islamic studies as a branch of english for specific purposes. i hoped that there would be more opportunities for students to be aware that english is used not only to understand people from other cultures and religions, but that english can also be used to explain their own religion and cultures. for this course, i could not simply depend on a pre-determined curriculum or textbook because each class session came to follow the path of students‘ needs as they came up. there was no curriculum or textbook that could satisfy all the needs that occured during the classroom meeting. creating resources to teach students was a burden for me, but it lead to increased student learning and insight. my students shared the understanding that english could be part of their life as a muslim, and not solely a symbol of the western culture. most of my students were really enthusiastic to talk in english about many concepts, values, and practices inherent in the study of islam, since they generally learned and discussed those things in arabic. many of them were also challenged by the prospect of english as a means of sharing their muslim faith. secondly, my students could find more opportunities to contribute to the sharing of knowledge in the classrooms because we were discussing their own lives, experiences, and beliefs. i believe that many english teachers would improve their 163 practice by providing more opportunities for students to personalize the learning materials and learning activities so that they can learn english in contexts familiar to their daily lives. literature review: cultural contextualization and adaptation of the curriculum in this paper, curriculum is defined as ―…the content and purpose of an educational program together with their organization‖ (walker, 1990). the governments of many nations have made efforts to have one common national curriculum. supporters of the establishment of a national curriculum argue that a national curriculum serves as a symbol of nation‘s collective endeavours to improve education and protects the nation against individual choice led by the textbook market (whitty, 1989). with the indonesian government‘s limited education budget, many expenses are avoided by asking all provinces and districts to implement the same curriculum and to have national exams (theisen, hughes, and spector, 1990). however, use of the national examination as a means to standardize the indonesian education has been critisized by many educational practitioners in indonesia as unfair and misleading. according to wirdana (2008), one of the flaws in organizing national exams is its potential to devalue students as individual beings. the gap between regions in indonesia, in term of education facilities, is wide; therefore, students‘ performances in the disadvantaged regions should not be measured with the same criteria used for students in the cities. perhaps more importantly, the cultures of various students across the archipelago are ignored when all are taught using an identical curriculum that does not match their own background. 164 indonesia is missing out on a powerful phenomenon, for extensive research has showed that cultural contextualization and personalization has a significant effect on student learning. ross (1983) conducted an interesting study of the effect of adapting the content of a presentation to student background. his context was math story problems, which were adapted to deal with education or health care for groups of pre-service teachers and nurses, respectively. students who received content that was contextualized to match their background scored higher on post-tests. therefore, assimilating new information to previous knowledge will be easier if the context is familiar, and therefore meaningful learning will be more likely. in a similar study, cordova and lepper (1996) showed that even simple embellishments to contextualize a topic (in their study, a math game designed to practice aritmetic operations was either contextualized in ―outer space,‖ ―fantasy,‖ or was not contextualized.) can lead to significant learning gains and higher motivation. additionally, the personalization of the process (some students had the opportunity to personalize their computer programs, by adding their name and personal details) led to even greater learning gains, as well as, again, increased motivation and involvement. personalization can be applied at the cultural level as well students who read stories from their own culture have better understanding and recall than those reading stories from an unfamiliar cultural background; indeed, the cultural background has a greater effect than the syntactic or semantic difficulty of a text (freimuth 2008). cultural familiarity improves reading comprehension in many ways, such as ―the speed of reading, reader perspective, recall of information, critical thinking, main idea construction processes as well as other reading 165 processes‖ (freimuth, 2008). this suggests that readings and classroom topics should be derived from the students‘ own culture and experience so that they can draw upon background knowledge. practical suggestions: cultural contextualization and adaptation of the curriculum cultural contextualization is a balancing act. it is clear from contextualization research that when our texts and discussions are situated in a local context, they are more meaningful (ross, 1983, cordova and lepper, 1996). on one hand, we want students to be successful on the national exams, and therefore we need to teach the national curriculum. on the other, we want students to be able to draw on their background knowledge (which is mostly situated in their local culture) to encorporate new knowledge to already existing schema. schraw, flowerday, and lehman‘s (2001) suggestion is to ―use texts that student‘s know about.‖ at first, you will probably need to situate texts, lectures, and vocabulary presentations within the students‘ own culture. this is what brought me success in the english for islamic studies class, when i adapted my lessons to teach about topics of concern to students‘ own lives. as student‘s gain more language skills, you can move to teaching using texts and vocabulary that address the needs of the national curriculum. for more culturally-loaded texts, you will need to explicitly teach the aspects of culture that are unfamiliar by providing pre-reading background information. in order to contextualize the curriculum, you must know the students‘ sociocultural background. for instance, if many students are from families of famers, an example sentences should be “rudy’s father 166 plants rice.” rather than “rudy’s father goes to the office.” you should also keep an awareness that every class is unique – this helps teachers to be willing to review the curriculum at anytime they find it necessary. though it may create more work for us to adjust the curriculum to anticipate students‘ needs, it is not a waste of time compared to the many hours spent teaching ineffective classes when we insist on applying identical curricula to all classes. in addition, the anticipation that every class is unique can give us the pleasure of expecting different learning situations, and can prevent our teaching jobs from becoming boring. in this way the curriculum serves students more in their learning processes in the classroom as students are put as the dominant factor in the design of curriculum. what is the best resource in identifying student‘s sociocultural background, needs, and uniqueness? of course, it is the students themselves! teachers should negotiate with students how to change the classroom situation for the sake of learning. in order to encourage more students to openly express what they think of the learning situations in the classrooms, teachers can always provide time in the beginning of the class for students to reflect on their learning experiences in the previous classes and at the end of the class to collect ideas of what learning materials they want to bring to classrooms for the next meeting. through students‘ reflection, teachers learn how they think the teaching went. especially when teachers encourage students to reflect on their learning experiences, teachers will be able to gain more insights on the needs of students and to change the situation of learning in the classroom by choosing classroom activities that best suit students preferences. meanwhile, by openly discussing the learning objectives and 167 by asking openly what learning materials students like to bring to class, teachers position themselves more as facilitators of learning than as the sole provider of knowledge. though it may sound ridiculous for us teachers to involve students in preparing what to learn in classrooms, as many of us regard this process as exclusively the teacher‘s responsibility, it it will instill the feeling of responsibility to students for their own learning based on the materials they agreed upon. furthermore, this can also be a good strategy to cope with the boredom students may feel when teachers use same old materials again and again, especially when they compare this to the plentiful interesting learning materials they can find on the internet. 168 technology vignette: h. triyoko it takes more than just learning in the classroom for students to see the significance of their lessons. if students seldom find opportunities to connect what they learn at school with their lives outside school, what is the purpose of learning? this was the situation when i learned english in school. i seldom found english used outside school except when i struggled to listen to english pop music broadcasted by local radio stations or english news broadcasted by a few international radio stations; of course, these were receptive media and did not provide any sort of interactive learning. the chances for me to meet english speaking people were also very limited as i lived in a village far away from the city and tourist locations. today, however, we face a very different situation. thanks to the ubiquity of the internet, students can find many english learning materials and many opportunities to communicate in english. as a teacher, i know i can‘t compete with the internet, so i chose instead to benefit from it and therefore work smarter, not harder. i can always depend on the internet to provide students with abundant materials and media, but i know that i need to be smart in my choice of the materials to be used in my english classrooms. many times, i brought with me list of some very useful websites that students could browse themselves at home to help them improve their english mastery. among my favorite sites were http://quizlet.com, http://www.vtrain.net, http://www.byki.com/fls/fls.html, (for developing students‘ vocabulary), and http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/learnenglish, http://australianetwork.com/learningenglish, http://quizlet.com/ http://www.vtrain.net/ http://www.byki.com/fls/fls.html http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/learnenglish http://australianetwork.com/learningenglish 169 http://www.abc.net.au/transcripts, (for developing students‘ reading and listening skills). rather than letting my students surf all the english learning websites that come up on internet search engines such as google or yahoo, i spent considerable time discussing with my students the keywords to help them hit the most appropriate websites for their learning objectives, learning styles, and level of english mastery. by doing so, students are able to use much of their time to learn, rather than wasting it on browsing each of the websites listed. literature review: technology indonesian students learning english nowadays will find many opportunities to expose themselves to english as more programs on radios and shows on tv stations are delivered fully or dominantly in english. the chances become even greater when students access the internet, since students can select many multimedia materials (i.e. music, videos, and texts) in english related to any topic that the student wants to learn about. through the use of the internet in students‘ learning, warschauer (2003) asserts that learners will become autonomous and goal-directed, that classrooms will become centers of ―collaborative and critical‖ inquiry, and that technology will have finally transformed schools to match the needs of the information society. besides this, the internet also offers chances for students to get connected to english native speakers or other english learners around the world, creating an authentic communicative situation. felix (1998) argues that the web offers a wide variety of experiences beyond the confines of the curriculum. the web brings the target culture and language not only into the classroom, but also potentially into the daily lives of students. the http://www.abc.net.au/transcripts 170 internet can also provide students with suitable materials related to their personal preferences and at the appropriate level of difficulty as long as students develop appropriate browsing skills. wood (1999) says that ―what is often missing from the huge array of internet materials for pedagogic purposes is any clear identification of the new pedagogical opportunities that the internet offers‖. this is definitely the area where teachers can get involved in order to help students get the most benefit from using the internet, and if students share what they find, the teacher will benefit, too. many teachers spend a lot of time selecting and incorporating materials from the internet, but it can be more efficient when teachers seek student contribution in the process. teachers add rich materials to their own resources by accepting student contributions (felix, 1998). regarding internet-facilitated learning, the roles of teacher may vary. at times they serve as facilitator and guide, or even as coresearcher and a co-learner, for instance when they work with the students to find the most suitable materials to meet student learning objectives, teach to many learning styles, and use in classroom activities. as the facilitator of learning, teachers need to ascertain that the materials agreed upon by students and teachers will be neither too difficult for students to understand, (therefore discouraging them from involvement in the learning process), or too easy (so that students are not challenged in the learning activities). with teachers‘ greater experience in learning english themselves, they can locate the materials exactly in their students‘ zone of proximal development, the challenge level proposed by vigotsky as the most potential level for learning to occur. 171 at other times, teachers need to be authoritative (but not authoritarian): they need to be a leader and a direct instructor who builds more systematic knowledge than the scattered materials accessed by students through the internet. in coping with the internet-facilitated learning, there are times when teachers are highly recommended to shift the pedagogic orientation from highly student-centered to a more guided investigation and direct instruction and vice versa (unsworth, 2008) the power of the internet to connect people from all parts of the world will not only change the way teachers teach, but also shape the whole structure of the english teaching and learning processes at schools as the internet also gives many influences in curriculum design, evaluation of student learning, and even the politics of education. thanks to the many possibilities of the internet to play a part in english teaching learning at schools, teachers are increasingly aware that traditional efl classrooms remain a bounded context providing limited opportunities for communicative engagement (thorne, black, and sykes, 2009). for instance, teachers cannot expect students to learn cross-cultural communication skills by having an english conversation with their classmates, as all of them are foreign to the target culture. by using the internet, however, students can make direct contact with native speakers and be involved in inter-cultural communication with various native speakers of english. in addition, the time for practicing english in classrooms is limited, whereas students have more flexibility in terms of time when communicating in english through the internet. teachers can also encourage students to join a community of learners that share the same interests with them. this will engage them 172 in english communication in a borderless classroom, since the members of the learning communities may come from many regions of the world. internet usage can also, unfortunately, become a serious distraction. when students engage in activities on particular websites, such as reading pornographic texts or listening to speeches that provoke hatred and extremism, these activities have the potential to disconnect students from their learning objectives. to support students‘ educational goals for english learning, english teachers will need to be sensitive to existing priorities of use (levy, m., 2009). the more freedoms that students have in terms of choosing the english learning materials provided by the internet shall not mislead students to attain to other unprecedented results as prescribed in the curriculum or as previously discussed by teachers and students in the initial stage of the course. when the focus of the course is to develop students‘ speaking abilities, for example, teachers need to ensure that students have the criteria to select good websites for developing their speaking skills. teachers have to find ways to openly communicate with students the risks of the careless use of the internet so that students will develop their personal protections against those risks. teachers will be challenged not merely to replicate what they are accustomed to doing in their classrooms, now with the aid of digital tools, but rather to maximize the benefits unleashed in this new learning environment (black, r.j., 2009). practical suggestion: technology with all the ease of getting multimedia materials from the internet and with the existence of a new learning environment that absorbs more 173 and more of students‘ time, many teachers are tempted to shift their traditional teaching practices drastically to new teaching practices. they hope to make the learning in classrooms as enjoyable as students‘ learning outside classrooms and to do so; they must involve information and communication technology. they often forget the irreplaceable roles of teachers in facilitating, managing, and controlling the learning in the classrooms this gives us as significant an influence as the materials and the activities of learning. thus, english teachers who like to promote internet-facilitated learning as the new alternative to accelerate students‘ english learning process must first develop the awareness that they will and certainly can play an important role in students‘ learning; since the internet will not do all the things they do as teachers. as mentioned earlier, the internet provides many possibilities both to help and to distract students‘ learning because the use of the internet is not an end in itself but it is just a means to an end. when students do no set particular goals for their engagement with the internet, and when teachers fail to make these ends clear to students before an internet-based activity, students‘ use of the internet will not give many advantages to their learning in particular. indeed, the internet will engage students in more activities which are not necessarily meaningful or helpful for their learning. in order to play those irreplaceable roles in students‘ learning, particularly when in internet facilitated learning, the suggestions of quinlan (2011) may be very useful: be well prepared before applying the internet-facilitated learning, be ready for surprises while applying the method, and be wise in selecting ways to measure students‘ learning outcomes. 174 it is not wise to believe that all teachers applying the internet facilitated learning in their classrooms will turn out to be perfect teachers, since these kind of classrooms are not made in one night. never expect that you will be able to successfully deliver lesson plans including the use of the internet if you do not give your self sufficient time to get familiar with the kinds of materials provided by the internet and to judge if the materials are really useful and appropriate to achieve students learning objectives. quinlan (2011) suggests that teachers shall not be trapped by the lure to show off what the internet can do to make their classroom interesting and thus forget about students‘ learning objectives. every website is designed for particular users and goals and thus not all websites have the potential to help students learn. teachers need to evaluate whether the particular websites they intend to visit during their class really address students‘ needs and whether the activities are valuable. teachers need to determine the possible usage of each website so that students will actually engage in purposeful learning process and not be distracted by the many other activities provided by the internet. while evaluating each website before using it in their classroom, put yourself in your students‘ shoes by anticipating various situations that students will face during their learning. will all students be able to access the materials and be involved in the activities? are they all familiar with the internet, or will some of them become confused with what to do since they are not trained to use it? the degree of experience and expectations that the students have related to the use of the internet can become a serious problem when teachers ignore it. many students may resist the use of the internet because they expect to be taught traditionally and they are not ready for the more autonomous learning experience. for some 175 students it is strange to let the internet control or guide their learning in the classrooms. be ready for surprises while applying the internet, and try to plan ahead for the situations that may occur due to the use of the internet in your classroom. you also must be ready to apply a contingency plan when the internet is not accessible due to poor connections or when the electricity is cut off. last but not least, while letting students experience the new learning facilitated by the internet, evaluate the learning process using the same kinds of activities that students are engaged in online. if students are evaluated by measures that do hot relate to their work online, they will not see the value of the online work. for example, teachers can encourage students to spend time watching instructional cooking videos presented in english on you tube if teachers then assess student performance through role plays where they themselves pretend to be chefs telling how to cook their favorite recipes in english. this is far superior to just assessing their cooking vocabulary mastery through quizzes or written examinations! relationships vignette: tabitha kidwell my first salaried teaching position in the united states was teaching secondary students french and spanish. my first year, like so many teachers‘ first years in the classroom, was a nightmare, mostly because of one class. as the most junior language teacher, i was asked to teach the class of students repeating their first year of spanish. the first year of a language is fairly easy for most students, but these were all students with low academic abilities, behavior issues, and major family 176 problems. they had already attempted spanish and had failed, and therefore many of them not only were disinterested, but were actively opposed to learning the language, for fear of failing again. teaching this class was a near-impossible feat, especially for a novice teacher. very little learning took place. my attempts to coerce, cheerlead, or punish them into learning were all met with off-task behavior and disruptiveness. i stuck with it all year, though, and had the support of an excellent principal and colleagues. the school had adopted the educational philosophy of william glasser, which holds that students (and all people) have five needs: survival; love and belonging; power or recognition; freedom; and fun. this framework helps explain many of the behaviors i saw that year. for one, many of the students‘ needs for survival were not being taken care of at home, so they came to school already in a distressed frame of mind. on top of that, the most efficient way for them to achieve their other four needs was to torture their teacher. they self-identified as members of the ―crazy‖ class (belonging), tried to hijack my lesson whenever possible (power), often refused to do work (freedom) and generally did whatever they felt like during class (fun). my principal helped me to see that, to teach these students successfully, you had to find a way to fulfill these needs in the classroom. the most effective teachers at that school were those who have a relationship of warmth and respect with students, and who used that relationship to ensure that all students‘ needs were met. in subsequent years, i also taught the ―repeater‖ class, but did not find anything near to the difficulties of that first year. i credit this to the fact that i entered the classroom those years with the needs of the students at the forefront of my thinking. i thank 177 those difficult students for teaching me just how important it is to know and value each student as an individual; the difficulties in that class my first year helped me to become a much more effective teacher in subsequent years. research review: relationships while william glasser‘s work, described above, certainly highlights the importance of quality teacher-student relationships, many other researchers have also emphasized this topic in recent years. arum (2011) claims that recent educational reform efforts in the us, which had focused on relationships between adults or between adults and the curriculum, have failed because of their lack of focus on relationships between teachers and students. of course, the indonesian teaching context is markedly different from that in america, and some readers may wonder if the idea of a realtionship is even appropriate for indonesian society, where teachers have traditionally commanded a position of respect. hargreaves (2001) acknowledges this, pointing out that ―there is no ideal or optimal closeness of distance between teachers and others that transcends all cultures.‖ rather, there will be cross-cultural variations, and we must seek the appropriate balance for the indonesian context. teachers may initially balk at the appropriateness of having a relationship with their students, but this is often due to the misunderstanding of the word ‗relationship‘ as ‗friendship.‘ it would indeed be inappropriate to put students at the level of peer or friend, or to spend the long hours outside of class that students tend to spend with friends, but there is still a relationship inherant in the teaching-learning 178 context. teachers can improve student learning by striving to make this realtionship meaningful; indeed, it would be foolish to leave this important relationship to chance (marzano & marzano, 2003). frymier and housier (2003) examined the communication skills important to teacher-student relationships. they found that many of the communication skills important to a good friendship are also essential to classroom relationships; this was particularily true for referential skill (explaining things clearly and facilitating understanding) and ego support (giving encouragement, making students feel like valued, empowered participants in the class). while referential skills represent those abilities that are traditionally associated with a good teacher, the importance of ego support skills suggest that there is more to being a good teacher than merely being qualified in the subject matter. when teachers endeavor to create a caring relationship with their students, they create a safe learning environment, where students are more likely to participate, ask questions when they do not understand, and achieve higher levels of learning. having conducted a meta-analysis of research related to effective classroom management, marzano and marzano (2003) found that a quality teacher-student relationship is the key to good classroom management; in fact, ―teachers who had high-quality relationships with their students had 31 percent fewer discipline problems… over a year‘s time than did teachers who did not.‖ part of establishing this type of relationships builds upon teachers‘ traditional roles; they show an appropriate level of dominance, meaning that they establish clear expectations and consequences, communicate clear learning goals, and display assertive behavior. successful teachers, therefore, make the terms of their relationships clear and comprehensible to students. in 179 addition to this, however, successful teachers also establish appropriate levels of cooperation. they do this by providing flexible learning goals that sends the message that they care about student needs and interests. they take a personal interest in students‘ lives outside of school. they have positive classroom interactions with all students, letting each student know that their learning matters to the teacher. practical suggestions: relationships sometimes, teacher-student relationships develop organically, thanks to personalities of the teacher or the students. that, however, is not always the case, so teachers must consciously attempt to build relationships by adopting certain behaviours. for one, get to know students as people. learn each students‘ name and use it to greet them and call on them in class. chat with students about their interests and lives before, during, and after class. if you hear about an important event in students‘ lives, like a drama production or athletic competition, make an effort to attend, or simply wish them luck and then follow up by asking how it went. secondly, teachers must show the students that they matter. giles (2011) cites the example of a teacher who, before a lecture on child abuse, made a point of apoligizing if the lecture touched on any painful personal histories; this shows that the teacher cared about the student as a whole being rather than just as the recipient of academic knowledge. think about how students might react to sensitive topics, and acknowledge this in class. if a student has been absent, ask them where they have been and if they have talked to classmates to get caught up. students who are often absent usually are missing class for a good 180 reason, such as a family or personal issue, and being aware of that situation can help you to teach that student more effectively. lastly, establish a climate of mutual respect. strive to start class on time, avoid cancelling class, and fill classtime with meaningful activities; this shows students that their time matters to you. allow and encourage all students to participate, and acknowledge student‘s participation. for example, you could say ―ratna just added to fitri‘s idea by saying that…‖ (marzano & marzano, 2003). make eye contact with each student so that they know that you are aware of their presence and are expecting them to contirbute. give each student an opportunity to feel successful in each class session, and be sure to call on students who do not commonly participate. also, help students to avoid failure or embarrassment in front of their peers nothing shuts down learning faster. 181 conclusion based on the vignettes from our teaching experiences mentioned above, we have identified four major ideas about how to adopt a more student-centered approach: planning lessons that encourage student interest; adapting the curriculum to meet student‘s needs; using technology in the classroom; and developing mutually respectful relationships. while we treated each topic under a separate heading, the reader may have noticed that the research and practical suggestions were quite similar throughout the article. in truth, establishing a studentcentered approach does not rely solely on the implementation of one new teaching method or style; it is a shift to focusing on student‘s needs and building the entire curriculum and educational situation around them. the many interrelated ideas presented in this article will each bring educators one step closer to meaningful student-centered pedagogy. ultimately, though, the successful implementation of this new style of education will depend on each individual educator and their individual students. it will be an on-going process of negotiation and learning for each party, and its ultimate goal will be increased student learning. we wish you luck and success as you begin your journey towards this very worthy goal. references ainley, m., hidi, s., & berndorff, d. 2002. interest, learning, and the psychological processes that mediate their relationship. journal of educational psychology, 94, 545-561. arum, r. 2011. improve relationships to inprove student performance. kappan, october 2011, 8-13. 182 black, r.j. 2009. the use of technology for second language distance learning. the modern language journal, 93, 822-835. cordova, d. i., & lepper, m. r. 1996. intrinsic motivation and the process of learning: beneficial effects of contextualization, personalization, and choice. journal of education psychology, 88, 715-730. felix, u. 1998. language learning on the web: finding the gems amongst the pebbles. ascilite98 conference proceedings. 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ratini_setyowati@yahoo.com abstract this article is aimed to know about the spirit of american dream and its influences. the study is a qualitative study using library research and the data were obtained from texts. the data are analyzed and presented descriptively. the researcher finds that the american dream has influenced people around the world because america has very effective ways to promote their ideology through soft power ―five big ideas‖. the power is more powerful than military power. meet the robinson has been a provocative film; it can be media to promote the spirit of the american dream. keywords: the american dream, soft power, five big ideas abstrak artikel ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui tentang semangat dan pengaruh dari american dream (mimpi orang amerika). penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kualitatif dengan menggunakan studi kepustakaan dan data yang berasal dari teks. data dianalisis dan disajikan secara deskriptif . peneliti menemukan bahwa the american dream telah mempengaruhi orang di seluruh dunia karena amerika memiliki cara yang sangat efektif untuk mempromosikan ideologi mereka melalui soft power "lima ide mailto:skarestu@yahoo.com mailto:ratini_setyowati@yahoo.com 242 besar" . kekuatan ini lebih kuat daripada kekuatan militer . para robinson telah menjadi film yang provokatif ; mereka juga dapat menjadi media untuk mempromosikan semangat dari american dream. kata kunci: mimpi amerika , soft power , lima ide besar introduction what do you think when you watch some american kids movies like finding nemo, ratatouille, up and others? do you find some good teaching or not? perhaps the films inspire you to do more than what have you done now. of course when we watch films we get something, although everybody has different reasons to watch films such as spending their leisure time, forgetting their problems, killing time, time for sharing happiness with peers or getting information. people do not realize that watching films is like being influenced by the film maker about their beliefs or ideology. film is a media to transfer information to public about when, where, how, what and why the film is made. as a media to share information, it is like a book, it has a document that can be used as references for students‘ studies. they can get data from film. they can see pictures of some era such as understanding the condition in the late of eighties or nineties; it can be seen from some film the real life of the age. when we watch ―titanic‖ we understand about how the life in that era, how women dress up and how about social condition in the era. it is described clearly about the differences between the rich and the poor. through film they can promote and spread their product, lifestyle (fashion, hairstyle), tradition even ideology. 243 without forcing the watchers, the watchers want to imitate the tradition of the country. it will be easier to provoke children because of their tendencies to imitate what other people are doing. thus, producing kids movies is the most effective way to influence children such as if they watch finding nemo, they can imitate the dialogue or songs from the film ―keep swimming, keep swimming, keep swimming‖ listening to the song that was sung by dorry, (in finding nemo) children will imitate directly without realizing that they have been influenced by the spirit of the film maker. therefore the writer is going to analyze the spreading of the spirit of the american dream through a walth disney‘s film meet the robinson. the american power the united states is a superpower nation that has shaped international condition by exploiting the unites states‘ five big ideas. the five big ideas are peace, hegemony, capitalism, democracy and culture. they were very effective to shape the unite states‘ position in international relations. the world respects the united states as well as imitates americans life style because the united states can effectively apply five big ideals. besides having the five big ideas the united states has some powers such as economic, cultural, and military powers. the united states‘ powers brought peace in the world and constructed as well as designed the united nations. the hegemony brought relative security and laid the foundation for progressively more open trade and capital markets. the united states‘ capitalism taught the world how to create unprecedented wealth. democracy inspired people around the world to 244 change their relations with political authority and american culture is a magnet for the world‘s youth (jentleson & weber, 2008: 44-45). as a powerful country, america has many ways to promote those five big ideas to every country around the world. those ways have been done by america to succeed the promotion, but those ways are covered by american powers to persuade other country to follow america. the american powers are hard power and soft power. according to joseph s. nye (2002) in the paradox of american power, he defines hard power and soft power. nye states that there are actually two powers in america, they are hard power and soft power. hard power is a power that applies military and economic power to persuade others to change their position (nye, 2002: 27). in nye‘s another book, the title of the book is the power to lead, he states almost similar definition. hard power is a power to induce and threat others. he also explains that there are some other powers that are used as indication of hard power such as population, territory, natural resources, economic strength, military forces and political stability. nye in his two books provides more explanations that there is soft power as well. soft power is a power that getting others to want what you want it co opts people rather than coerces them (nye, 2002: 27). soft power: getting the outcomes one wants by attracting others rather than manipulating their material incentives. it co-opts people rather than coerces them…. soft power rests on the ability to shape the preferences of others to want what you want (nye, 2002; 28). soft power is interesting because if it is applied well, other countries want to obey the nation, admire its values, emulate its examples, and aspire to its level of prosperity and openness. soft power 245 rests on the ability to set the political agenda in a way that shapes the preference of others. the ability to establish preferences tends to be associated with intangible power resources such as attractive culture, ideology and institution. the concept of soft power is if someone can get you to want to do what s/he wants, then they do not have to force you to do what you do not want to do. if the united states represents values that others have, it will cost u.s less to lead. soft power is not merely the same as influence though it is one source of influence. nye adds that soft power is more than persuasion or the ability to move people by argument; it is the ability to entice and attract. supported by those powers, america can be more super power country that can influence other country to be like america. american democracy has inspired people to be democratic. america can be world police and keep the world peace after world war ii and the spirit of capitalism can support other country to be wealthier. american can attract other country by using its soft power especially its culture. american culture value according to nachbar and lause in their book, studying about culture (in this case is popular culture) is as a reflective mirror of its audience that must focus upon two aspects of the zeitgeist – the ―transitory‖ and the ―concrete‖. the zeitgeist which characterizes a particular era is composed of ―transitory‖ attitudes and perspectives which last only as long as the era itself and then fade from view. in this era culture expresses highly significant concrete belief and values that transcend the specific time period and represents the fundamental character of the culture itself. moreover they add that popular culture 246 reflects change and stability… ,… it does not merely reflect our hearts and minds but it manipulates them. (nachbar and lause, 1992:5-7). american culture is very popular around the world such as american habits, film, music, actors/actress, dramas, food and so forth. because of the popularity, america tries to spread its five big ideas through its culture such as film, music, dramas and so forth. every thing that has been made by american must have good purpose to promote the american five big ideas because through those products american can persuade other country without inducing and threatening them. international community can be influenced well without any conflicts. america has many kinds of culture but in this chance the writer is going to discuss about the american film especially film for children. there are many film may be billion films that had been made by american. the wonderful thing for this case is those films are not only created for entertaining the watchers but also giving knowledge and spreading the american five big ideas. film still becomes a favorite for people to spend their spare time. besides enjoying the story of the film people can get moral teaching with or without their awareness. on the other hand, most of american films are considered bad for our country because they contain violence, sex, pornography, etc. that is why there are many statements from some influential people in our country that america is a bad and arrogant country. they state anti-america, they provoke students of universities who have not understood yet about the goodness and badness of america to demonstrate. it cannot be denied that everything in this world has goodness and badness. both goodness and badness can be learned for our improvement and betterment as well. 247 america is like other things, it has goodness and badness. if it is learned more deeply and seriously we can get improvement and betterment for our lives and our country. it is not easy for america to be the biggest, the most influential country in the world and even the world police. the american dream american has a very good spirit to face this life. the spirit has been a heritage from their founding fathers. they have magical spell that can inspire all of american who came from different backgrounds and ethnics. it is like a myth for them. it is called ―the american dream‖. the phrase inspires american to reach their ambitions, willing, fancy and dream as well. the american dream is viewed as the lofty ideals for all american to gain the best in their lives. it supports them to have easy and comfortable lives, which makes them stand on their own feet and become a boss for themselves. according to turner, 1986, “the american dream means a promise of freedom and chance, i.e, “the chance to be wealthy, even to those who start without anything as a reflection of pioneers in subjecting the wilderness of the new world.” these promises have provoked many people from europe, asia, africa, and australia to come to america to have new life although not all of them can reach their dreams. the american dream has been a national issue for centuries starting from the early settlers of america to the modern day. it is a dream of having an opportunity to get better job, status or life. these have inspired all of americans. 248 there are some opinions about the history of the term of american dream. it was first used by james truslow adams in his epic of america written in 1931. “he stated that dream of land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone with opportunity for each according to his/her ability and achievement. but according to gary colombo in his rereading american cultural context for critical thinking and writing ―the dream of individual opportunity has been at home in a since the puritans discovered the new world in the western hemisphere (17)‖. beside that, according to craven and johnson (59), the key word of the american dream is opportunity and success in which life, liberty and happiness become the last goal. both opportunity and success can be gained by all without looking at the status, the gender or the race. as stated in the united states‘ declaration of independence, the founding fathers of america say: ―we hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their created with certain unalienable rights that among there are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness‖ for black american, they have different opinion to others because the term was first popular in 1963. the american dream is having equal position to the whites in all fields of life. the spirit of the black american dream firstly appeared when dr. martin luther king jr gave speech at a demonstration by 200, 000 people for civil rights for blacks entitled‖ i have a dream‖ to his black followers at the lincoln memorial in washington dc, on august 28, 1963. ... in spite of the difficulties and frustration of the moment i still have a dream. it is a dream deeply rooted in the american dream ... i 249 have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.” dr. king had keynote speech before he delivered his speech in front of more than 300, 000 followers. his keynote was ―i have a dream‖. it could provoke the followers (demonstrations). (thomson, 1973:12) this new black rhetoric, therefore was consciously or unconsciously developed to achieve two main goals essential to the success of the ambitious and daring direct-action civil rights…, to create a viable interclass unity…, to inspire and convince the hitherto powerless…(thomson, 1973:12) because of the reasons above the writer is going to discuss about the influence of the magical phrase ―the american dream‖ in a movie titled meet the robinsons. the american dream influenced to an orphan boy who wanted to be adopted and to reach his dream as a scientist. research method the writer applies library research to find the data about the spirit of the american dream. the writer will utilize bibliographical sources (printed materials) containing information related to the topic. the data is gathered from printed materials such as books, magazines, journals, newspapers, literary works, and other written materials and also data from video and electronic media or websites. both of the media have important role to support the writer to complete the data. the printed materials are taken from the american studies library of gadjah mada university general library. 250 discussion unites states has more powerful power than their military power is. america was popular for their wars and their hard power. nowadays america has tries to influence other nations by maximizing their five big ideas (peace, hegemony, capitalism, democracy and culture) that are really effective to influence other country. it has already been proven, through business, technology (computer and internet) fashion, film and others. in this chance the writer sees the influential of american‘s power from popular culture because it can not only reflect but also manipulate our minds. in this case, the reflection is through film especially kids movies. through kids movies america can spread their ideology, culture and tradition. one of them is american‘s spirit that can inspire america into very influential country around the world. it is the american dream. this spirit has been spreader through popular culture one of them is film, in this case is kid movies meet the robinson. through meet the robinson film, it shows about the progress of technology in america. technology can solve some problems, mr. robinson can create a time machine that can be used by lewis to meet his family in the future and can see his past, his dream to meet his mother who left him in the orphanage. besides technology the film describes about the spirit of the american dream. the american dream means a promise of freedom and chance, i.e, ―the chance to be wealthy, even to those who start without anything as a reflection of pioneers in subjecting the wilderness of the new world.‖ the spirit of the american dream can be seen from the beginning of the film. 251 around here, however, we don‘t look backwards for very long. we keep moving forward, opening up new doors and doing new things, because we‘re curious and curiosity keeps leading us down new paths. walt disney forget your past and keep moving forward‖ ―don‘t focus on your bad luck but keep moving forward‖ ―from failure you learn‖ meet the robinson those expressions above show that how strong the director of the movie wanted to introduce the spirit of american dream to all of the children in america even around the world. the motto of the character ―keep moving forward‖ has been known in american because it is like their motto ―the american dream‖, a dream to reach opportunity, liberty and happiness. its influence has influenced all of american to be success not based on who you are but what is your creation that can support your life itself and for all american as well. therefore, those expressions are expected to be learnt by some children or someone who have watched the film, it means that don‘t give up before you reach your dream. your failure can even support your future. the statements above are like the magical phrase that can inspire and provoke all american‖ the american dream‖. one of the dialogues in the film that shows of the spirit of the american dream is a dialogue between wilbur and lewis, when wilbur explains about laszlo robinson did. 252 wilbur: ―he keeps working and working until finally, he gets it! the first working time machine! then, he keeps working and working until finally, he gets it again! the second working time machine!‖ the spirit is ―keep working‖. keep working means no giving up until you can reach what you dream of. in the film ―keep moving forward‖ is mr. robinson motto that is taught to his son wilbur. wilbur always support and give spirit to lewis by saying keep moving forward. lewis : i don't even know what i'm doing. wilbur : keep moving forward lewis : i mean, this stuff is way too advanced for me wilbur : keep moving forward lewis : and what if i can't fix this, what are we going to do? wilbur : keep moving forward lewis : why do you keep saying that? and don't just say keep moving forward! wilbur : it's my dad's motto lewis : why would his motto be keep moving forward? wilbur : it's what he does besides inspiring many successful men in america, in the film the american dream has inspired two boys who were orphans. as orphans, they do hope for being adopted by a good family, having harmonious family with lovely parent like other children. besides having the dream, they had different dreams for their futures. they are a close friend, they always share everything and help each other. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1130617/ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1627748/ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1130617/ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1627748/ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1130617/ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1627748/ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1130617/ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1627748/ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1130617/ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1627748/ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1130617/ 253 they are lewis (after he was mature, he was known as cornelius robinson) and goob (yagoobian) in his future he became lewis‘ enemy. lewis and goob are really different, lewis is very smart boy who always creates something especially a machine to rewind his past but goob is a very stupid boy who likes eating and sleeping. in the future he becomes a very bad man who enemies lewis. they had individual dreams, they focused on how to reach their dreams. they also learnt from their experience that they had got. (american‘s spirit) lewis could be successful after his long trip to meet his future family with his future son wilbur robinson by using time machine. he could learn many things including how to appreciate his friend. he met goob his roommate who became a very bad man because of his selfishness. american never forgets their experiences and learns from the experience because they don‘t want to make same mistakes. it can be seen when america had last presidential election. they did not vote for mc cane because they remember when he betrayed american in vietnam war, it is much better for american to vote for obama, ―from failure you learn‖ after getting the experience in his trip, lewis cared much about goob‘s dream and helped him to reach it. goob could win in a baseball game because he woke goob up so goob could catch the ball. it was a very great thing for goob. lewis as a unique boy was eager for being adopted, he never gave up until more than one hundred adopters came and rejected him. he was really upset for the 124th adopters rejected him but at that time he got new dream to meet his biological mother. orphan in america got the first right to be adopted and cared by others since abraham lincoln 254 stated it was his second inaugural on march 4, 1865, lincoln made a speech that stands among the greatest pronouncements in history. at the threshold of victory, lincoln spoke only of peace and of ending the nation's sectional differences. his closing lines are among the most eloquent in the english language: ―with malice toward none, with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as god gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just, and a lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.‖(microsoft ® encarta ® 2009) the speech has given a big hope to all of orphan, they can have a family if they can be adopted. there are some reasons in america to adopt a child such as they don‘t have a child at all or they don‘t want to have children just adopted children or foster children because of american culture. they think that children are sometimes disturbers in their lives. in the film, it is described that every orphan wanted to be adopted and they were worried if they hadn‘t been adopted in their tens they would hard to get adopter. it is stated that ―it has been 124 adopters and next year i will be 13 years, it will be hard for me to be adopted‖. it means that after they have been teenagers, it will be hard to get adopter. it happens not only to lewis but also to goob. he had been rejected many times. goob looked very stupid because he was very tired to support lewis every night to make his experiments. in this case, goob wanted to show his loyalty as a friend until he had to lose his dream as a 255 professional baseball player but it must be emphasized on that he never gave up reaching his dream. besides the spirit of american dream, the film also shows some criticisms about american. black is slave and it must serve the white. in the film after lewis became a father (he came to his future by his time machine), he created a hat and its color was black and it was created to serve the white as the owner. ―i was created to be slave to serve them forever, it was a slave of human‖. because of some conditions, the hat became different thing and it controlled the white, the owner must follow what the hat said. it is like america nowadays. they are being controlling and governing by the black president obama. it is not a good condition for all americans, some of them feel not comfortable. it is like the condition of the movie. beside that ―goob‖ the nickname of lewis‘ roommate, means a peanut. it is an african language. it is to express someone who is useless and stupid. in the film also expressed the characteristic of america as the biggest country. america always thinks that they are always right so that they can do what they want to do. it was stated in the movie that there was a character who was always right (mrs. robinson). ―i am always right even when i am wrong‖ on the other side we can learn from american culture that they can be successful because they always work or do something with good discipline, they are hard worker. it was like lewis‘ condition. he worked so hard even he didn‘t sleep to do his experiment. he made them on time. beside that american people are human beings who always plan what 256 they want to do even for bad purposes. they always have ―things to do‖ it shows that they are very discipline. finally, lewis in the film could reach his dream to be adopted and had a good and happy family. he could be a professional scientist supported by his family, so did goob, he could win a competition. he could be successful because he learns from his experiences. conclusion besides having military power america has another power that is more powerful to induce other country. the power is soft power, by using american big five ideas including peace, hegemony, capitalism, democracy and culture, they can spread their ideology. one of them is the term of american dream. the term has inspired and provoked all american to be successful more than other countries around the world like nowadays. through a film ―meet the robinson‖ america can spread their spirit of the american dream well. the writer hopes that we can learn from the experience of america and american life, learn from sides, goodness and badness, select the right one for our country. we have own culture that must be suitable for our country. references adam, james truslow. 1932. the epic of america. boston: little brown & co.. craven, avery and walter johnson. 1952. a documentary of american people. new york: ginn and company. 257 colombo, gory, robert culler and bonnie lisle. 1995. rereading american cultural context for critical thingking and writing. st martins microsoft ® encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 microsoft corporation. all rights reserved. nackbar, jack and lause, kevin. 1993. popular culture.bowling green, oh: bowling green state university popular press. thompson, daniel c. 1973.sociology of the black experience. london: greenwood press. turner, frederick jackson. 1986. the frontier in american history. tucson: the university of arizona press. 258 1 phonological analysis of indian language adiprana yogatama universitas muhammadiyah semarang jl. wonodri sendang raya no 2a semarang 50242 adiprana.linguist@gmail.com abstract the aims of this research are to find out the language sounds produced by india speakers, to enrich the scientific realm of language sounds and to stimulate the students to deeply examine other foreign language sounds. for the purpose of the study, the researcher collected data from several sources. the data which were in the form of theoretical research literature were obtained from books in general linguistics, especially on phonology, both english and indonesian. for data or material which were in the form of research material to be studied, the researcher presented a native speaker of indian language named kour herbinder. this research is a qualitative research with recording and note technique. to analyze the data, the researcher used phonetics chart, both for cconsonants and vowels. from the analysis result, the researcher found that the sounds in india language are dominated by alveolar sounds like usually pronounced by speakers of indonesian balinese dialect. the researcher also found that there are many variations of indian language sound as allophones, such as sound [k '] is an allophone of [k], and sound [d h ] is an allophone of [d]. the pronunciation of sound [t], [d] and [k] dominantly resembles with [t], [d] and [k] on indonesian balinese. keywords: phonetics, phonemics, alveolar, allophone abstrak tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui bunyi bahasa yang dihasilkan oleh penutur bahasa india, memperkaya dunia ilmiah bunyi 2 bahasa dan untuk merangsang siswa untuk mempelajari bunyi dalam bahasa asing lainnya. untuk tujuan penelitian, peneliti mengumpulkan data dari beberapa sumber. data yang berupa literatur teoritis penelitian diperoleh dari buku-buku dalam linguistik umum, terutama pada fonologi, bahasa inggris dan indonesia. untuk data atau materi yang berupa bahan penelitian kemudian dipelajari, peneliti menyajikan penutur asli bahasa india bernama kour herbinder. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kualitatif dengan rekaman dan teknik catatan. untuk menganalisis data, peneliti menggunakan grafik fonetik, baik untuk konsonan dan vokal. dari hasil analisis, peneliti menemukan bahwa suara dalam bahasa india didominasi oleh suara alveolar seperti biasanya diucapkan oleh penutur dialek bali indonesia. peneliti juga menemukan bahwa ada banyak variasi suara bahasa india sebagai alofon, seperti suara [k] merupakan alofon dari [k] , dan suara [dh] merupakan alofon dari [d] . pengucapan suara [t] , [d] dan [k] dominan mirip dengan [t] , [d] dan [k] di bali indonesia. kata kunci : fonetik, fonemik, alveolar, alofon introduction language is said as the sound system that is intentionally released by someone in order to convey an idea or ideas that exist in his mind. the referred language is spoken language because language is basically an uttered sound. the development of the written language is a sound recording of the spoken language. the studies of the sounds were investigated by the branch of linguistic named phonology. by phonology, the sounds were studied with two points of view, those are phonetic and phonemic. draw attention to the variety language, linguists can find the tools to know the kinds of sounds, meanings and what is symbolized by the sounds. 3 the study of language sounds is very useful for linguists to enrich their knowledge, especially in language sounds. the sound of a single language has a significant difference to other languages. this is the main attraction to determine the language sounds produced by language that researchers do not use in daily life. on this occasion, the researcher is focusing the research in language sound study (phonetic and phonemic) produced by speakers of india. phonetics phonetics refers to the articulation of language sounds. phonetics experts have managed to determine the articulation of the various sounds of language and make the international phonetic alphabet that making it easier for someone to learn and pronounce sounds that do not exist in their mother tongue. for example, in english there is a marked difference between the sound of tin and thin, and between they and day, but not in indonesian language. by studying phonetics, indonesian will be able to pronounce the two sounds correctly. learning phonetics is important not only for linguist and language students but also for all country leaders. international phonetic alphabet, which is supported by the phonetics laboratory, department of linguistics, ucla, is important to learn by all leaders, especially the country leaders. with the ability to accurately read the phonetic alphabet, one can give a speech in hundreds of languages. phonetics is a field of linguistics that studies the sounds of language regardless of whether the sound has a function as a distinguishing meaning or not. according to the sound of the language, phonetics can be divided into: 4 a. articulatory phonetics/organic phonetics/physiological phonetics it is the study of how human speech organs work in producing the sounds of language, and how the sounds were classified. b. acoustic phonetics learning the sounds of language as a physical event or a natural phenomenon. c. auditory phonetics learning how the language sounds acceptance mechanism by our ears. (david crystal, 2003) phonetic chart table 1 consonants phonetic chart bilabial labio dental dental alveolar post alveolar palatal velar glottal plosive p b t ť d d h k k h g ? fricative s x h ħ affricate f v c c h j nasal m n ŋ lateral r ř l semi vowel w y table 2 vowels phonetic chart i o o u i u e ə ε a 5 minimal pairs (sounds that phonetically similar) sounds are said to have phonetic similarity when the sounds are included on the same row, same column, or in the same row and column. here is the examples in india language. table 3 minimal pair in india language [ met‟a ] “forehead” [ mot‟a ] “fat” [ dandə ] “teeth” [ k h andə ] “sugar” [ hattə ] “hand” [ sattə ] “thigh” [ per ] “leg” [ par ] ”read” [ pař ] ”read” [ k h ař ] ”car” [ kola ] ”bowl” [ koli ] ”cup” [ sona ] ”handsome” [ soni ] ”beautiful” [ bet*a ] ”boy” [ bet*i ] ”girl” [ kanə ] “ear” [ kamə ] ”work” [ gallə ] “cheek” [ galləh ] “neck” [ luna ] ”salt” [ rona ] ”don‟t cry” [ begja ] ”sit” [ ogja ] ”stand” [ a?k*ə ] “eye” [ na?k*ə ] “nose” [ he?k*ə ] “chest” phoneme phoneme is the smallest unit of sound of a language that serve to distinguish meaning. kennet l. pike (1963: 63) says, "a phoneme is one of the significant units of sounds, or a contrastive sound unit.". while l. bloomfield (in muslich, 2008: 77) says, "a minimum unit of distinctive sound feature is a phoneme." from the above description, the most basic of phonemes is that phonemes have "distinctive function" that is as meaning differentiator 6 (muslich, 2008:77). the way in which to prove that a phoneme serves to distinguish meaning is by proving empirically, by comparing the linguistic forms of the language that is studied. phonemes identification (premisis) basic analysis of phonemes is the main ideas used to analyze the phonemes of a language called premise. the premises used are as follows: 1. the sounds of a language tend to be influenced by the environment. in indian language, the sounds can be seen in the evidence of the following premise: both [tk] in [patke] and [tt] in [hatte] are plossive both [?k] in [na?ke] and [?k] in [he?ke] are plossive the row of sounds influence to each other for the ease of pronunciation. 2. the sound system of a language tend to be symmetrical in indian language there are sounds that are symmetrical: there is a bilabial [p] and [b], also a bilabial nasal [m]. there are the sound of inhibitory dental [t] and [d] and there is also dental nasal [n]. 3. the sound of a language tends to fluctuate 4. sounds that have a phonetic similarity is not classified as contrast if complementary distributed and when varied independent. 5. sounds that have same phonetic are classified into different phonemes when contrasted in the same environment or similar (muslich, 2008: 7983). 7 research method for the purpose of the study, the researcher collected data from several sources. the data which were in the form of theoretical research literature were obtained from books in general linguistics, especially on phonology, both english and indonesian. meanwhile, for data or material which were in the form of research material to be studied, the researcher presented a native speaker of indian. from these two sources, the researcher collected the sounds that had been in the form of phonemes, words, or phrases. the research method applied in this research was a qualitative method by using recording and note technique. recording technique was used to record sound from indian speaker directly to obtain sound symbols and the transcription. furthermore, the transcription was obtained by writing down the recorded sounds and used it as data. the data acquired was still in form of written recorded sounds. then it was transcripted into text using sound symbols that was commonly used. discussion phoneme analysis procedures preliminary prosedures 1. phonetic data table 4 “dialect of indian” [wãl] [siře] [meťa] ‟hair‟ ‟head‟ ‟forehead‟ [gend h e] [chol] [k h a] ‟onion‟ ‟rice‟ 'will‟ 8 [broke] [a?k h ə] [næ?k h ə] [gallə] [bolə] [mu] [d h and h ə] [jəban] [galləħ] [kannə] [mod h e] [he?k h ə] [ed h ə] [hattə] [uŋgəl] [no] [sattə] [pəř] [gud h e] [ədd h i] [ťali] [c h imc h a] [kard h ə] [kola] [koli] [balťi] ‟eyebrow‟ ‟eye‟ ‟nose‟ ‟cheek‟ ‟lip‟ ‟mouth‟ ‟teeth‟ ‟tongue‟ ‟neck‟ ‟ear‟ ‟shoulder‟ ‟chest‟ ‟stomach‟ ‟hand‟ ‟fingers‟ ‟nail‟ ‟thigh‟ ‟leg‟ ‟knee‟ ‟heel‟ „plate‟ „spoon‟ „knife‟ „bowl‟ „cup‟ „pail‟ [soja] [karə] [k h ař] [bε?] [bε?ja] [bo?ja] [pař] [pila] [nãlo] [jao] [kamə] [etae] [cega] [peťe] [pok h ə] [soni] [sona] [oc h a] [medra] [moťa] [sukra] [beťa] [bəťi] [kitap] [rona] [cholk h ala] ‟go to sleep‟ ‟house‟ ‟car‟ ‟bag‟ ‟sit down‟ ‟stand up‟ ‟read‟ ‟drink‟ ‟take a bath‟ ‟go‟ ‟work‟ ‟board‟ ‟gown‟ ‟grass‟ ‟hungry‟ ‟beautiful‟ ‟handsome‟ ‟tall‟ ‟short‟ ‟fat‟ ‟thin‟ ‟boy‟ ‟girl‟ ‟book‟ ‟do not cry‟ ‟eat rice‟ 9 [k h and h ə] [luna] [merc h a] [puce] [p h uce] [duk h e] [neng h i] [sou] [bar] „sugar‟ „salt‟ „chili‟ ‟ask‟ ‟tail‟ ‟suffer‟ ‟bare, naked‟ ‟oath, promise‟ ‟outside‟ [k h iyal hal c h a] [keterjana] [kilena] [mec h e] [mece] [duke] [nengi] [s h ou] [s h ona] ‟how are you?‟ ‟where are you going to go?‟ ‟what do you want?‟ ‟size‟ ‟desk‟ ‟sick‟ ‟through‟ ‟sleep‟ ‟gold‟ data source: kour herbinder; age: 26 years; job: college student; language status: native speaker of indian language; bilingual: indian language and bahasa indonesia 2. phonetic chart table 5 consonant phonetic chart bilabi al labi o dent al de nta l alveol ar post alveola r pal ata l velar gl ota l plosive p p h b b h t ť d d h k k h g g h ? fricativ e s s h h ħ affricat e c c h j nasal m n ŋ lateral r ř l semi vowel w y 10 table 5 vowel phonetic chart 3. suspicious pairs sounds which have the same phonetic similarity of the above data are as follows: a. consonant [p] – [b] [t] – [d] [k] – [g] [k] – [?] [g] – [?] [c] – [j] [n] – [ŋ] [p] – [p h ] [k] – [k h ] [g] – [g h ] [s] – [s h ] [l] – [r] [c] – [c h ] b. vowel [i] – [i] [e] – [æ] [e] – [ə] [u] – [u] [o] – [u] [ə] – [a] [a] – [ċ] u i u i e o ə ε ċ æ a 11 4. non suspicious pairs [w] [y] [m] separating procedures 1. for [p] – [b] environment : identical evidence : [par] „read„ [bar] „outside„ phonemic conclusion: [p] and [b] are separated phonemics since they contrast in identical environments. 2. for [p] – [p h ] environment : identical evidence : [puce] „ask„ [p h uce] „tail„ phonemic conclusion: [p] and [p h ] are separated phonemics since they contrast in identical environments. 3. for [k] – [k h ] environment : identical evidence : [duke] „suffer„ [duk h e] „sick„ phonemic conclusion: [k] and [k h ] are separated phonemics since they contrast in identical environments. 4. for [g] [g h ] environment : identical evidence : [nengi] „bare, naked„ 12 [neng h i] „through„ phonemic conclusion: [g] and [g h ] are separated phonemics since they contrast in identical environments. 5. for [s] – [s h ] environment : identical evidence : [sona] „handsome„ [s h ona] „gold„ phonemic conclusion: [s] and [s h ] are separated phonemics since they contrast in identical environments. 6. for [c] – [c h ] environment : identical evidence : [mece] „size‟ [mec h e] „work‟ phonemic conclusion: [c] and [c h ] are separated phonemics since they contrast in identical environments. 7. for [ε] [o] environment : analogous evidence : [bε?ja] „sit down‟ [bo?ja] „stand up‟ phonemic conclusion: [ε] and [o] are separated phonemics since they contrast in analogous environments. 8. for [ə] – [a] environment : analogous evidence : [bəťi] „girl‟ [balťi] „pail‟ „ phonemic conclusion: [ə] and [a] are separated phonemics since they contrast in analogous environments. 13 9. for [t] – [d] environment : analogous evidence : [meťa] „forehead‟ [medra] „short‟ „ phonemic conclusion: [t] and [d] are separated phonemics since they contrast in analogous environments. 10. for [e] – [æ] environment : analogous evidence : [he?k h ə] „chest‟ [næ?k h ə] „nose‟ phonemic conclusion: [e] and [æ] are separated phonemics since they contrast in analogous environments. 11. for [ə] – [e] environment : analogous evidence : [ədd h i] „heel‟ [ed h ə] „stomach‟ phonemic conclusion:[ə] and [e] are separated phonemics since they contrast in analogous environments. uniting procedures 1. for [d] – [ď] the occurrence of [d] and [ď] in word-final open syllables before [e], and [ə]. table 6 the occurrence of [d] and [ď] 14 submember /d/ in word-final open syllables before [e] and [ə] elsewhere [d] …… 5 x 3 x [ď] …… 2 x never phonemic conclusion: [d] – [ď] are submember of a single phonem since they are phonetically similar and mutually exclusive in distribution. phonemic norm: [d] residue data that can not be analyzed by separating procedure and uniting procedures are as follows: a. consonant [k] – [g] [k] – [?] [g] – [?] [c] – [j] [n] – [ŋ] [l] – [r] c. vowel [i] –[i] [u] –[u] [o] –[u] [a] –[ċ] conclusion there are three characteristics of the phonology of india language, namely: 1. the sounds in india language are dominated by alveolar sounds like usually pronounced by speakers of indonesian balinese dialect. 2. based on the above analysis, the phoneme is produced: consonant : 28 phonemes vowel : 11 phonemes 15 diphthongs : 1 phonemes there are many variations of the language sound as allophones, such as sound [k'] is an allophone of [k], and sound [d h ] is an allophone of [d]. 3. the pronunciation of sound [t], [d] and [k] dominantly resembles with [t], [d] and [k] on indonesian balinese. references crystal, david. 2003. the cambridge encylopedia of the english language, 2nd ed. new york: cambridge univ. press. kushartanti, et al. 2005. pesona bahasa: langkah awal memahami linguistik. jakarta: pt. gramedia pustaka utama. muslich, masnur. 2008. fonologi bahasa indonesia – tujuan deskriptif sistem bunyi bahasa indonesia. jakarta: bumi aksara. pike, kenneth l. 1978. phonetics: a technique for reducing language to writing. canada: the university of michigan press. ramelan. 1999. english phonetics. semarang: ikip semarang press. roach. p. 1990. english phonetics and phonology: a practical course. new york: cambridge university. 16 siti asiyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 285 transgender community and its slang words siti asiyah english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 02 salatiga, central java, indonesia bembybee@yahoo.co.id abstract the purpose of this research is to describe slang words used in transgender community in salatiga, the meaning, how to form and the functions. this is the descriptive qualitative method. the data are from natural communication taking among transgenders. the source of data is transgender community in the form of oral data. the results of the study shows that transgender slang words is formed by borrowing syllables of javanese and indonesian language, adding with specific affixes, or changing into other common words. transgender community inserts the slang words into javanese language and use javanese language structure to form their utterances. they use it as a secret code and also solidarity marker inside the groups or between the group and other groups. keyword: slang words, transgender community, functions of slang words abstrak tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan kata-kata slang yang digunakan oleh komunitas transgender di salatiga, artinya, mailto:bembybee@yahoo.co.id transgender community and its slang words 286 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 bagaimana membentuknya, dan fungsinya. penelitian ini adalah penelitian deskriptif kualitatif. sumber data adalah komunitas transgender dalam bentuk kalimat lisan. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kata-kata slang transgender dibentuk dengan meminjam suku kata dari bahasa indonesia dan jawa, menambahinya dengan imbuhan tertentu, atau merubahnya menjadi kata-kata lain yang biasa dipakai. komunitas transgender menyisipkan kata-kata slang ke dalam bahasa jawa dan menggunakan struktur bahasa jawa dalam membuat kalimat. mereka menggunakannya sebagai kode rahasia dan juga sebagai penanda solidaritas sesama anggota atau dengan kelompok lain. kata kunci: kata-kata slang, komunitas transgender, fungsi dari kata-kata slang introduction there are so many communities in indonesia and so many variations in language to make the communication easier; one of them is the transgender community. almost everyone knows transsexual or transgender. the transgenders are minority group in society but the number of transgenders is growing, especially in big cities. the transgender communities are generally unique and exclusive because their code is the result of creativity in language. they usually have specific code which is usually known as slang words. kridalaksana (1982: 156) states that slang is a variety of language, it is not official, used by young people or particular social group for internal communications in order to make people in the other groups do not understand, formed in new vocabulary and always changing. meanwhile, according to chaer and agustina (1995:87-88), as the secret and special social variation, slang can only be understood by siti asiyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 287 certain people in a limited area and may not be known by the people outside the group. soeparno (2002:73) argues that slang is a manifestation or realization of the language that is specific and secret. specific means used by certain groups that is very limited. secret means people outside their group should not understand. as a step to maintain the confidentiality, slang is always modified or changed, so it is temporal. meanwhile, according to chaer and agustina (1995:87-88), as the secret and special social variation, slang can only be understood by certain people in a limited area and may not be known by the people outside the group. therefore, the vocabulary used in slang always changes. slang emphasizes more on vocabulary than the phonology or grammar. slang is temporal. according to keraf (1994:108-109), slang word is a kind of a pure or high conversation word. slang consists of words that are nonstandard and informal and created exclusively. sometimes slang is a result of accidental mistake, or sometimes in the form of destruction of a common word to fill in other field meaning. transgender according to atmojo (1986:2), in general, transgender is a man who dresses and acts as women. fassinger and arseneau in bieschke (2007:22) argues that the transgenders are people who have gendervariant or gender-"transgressive". they express their gender in a different way from the appropriate behaviors and acts based on their (perceived) transgender community and its slang words 288 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 biological sex. meanwhile, cook (2004:7) defines a transgender as persons who strongly identify themselves with the opposite sex. yustinus (2006:81-82) states, psychologically, the transgenders are included in gender identity disorder. he describes that gender identity is the individual subjective feelings about being a man or a woman. most individuals have a gender identity in accordance with identification of physiological sex but there are some exceptions. for example, a person may have a penis, has all the features of secondary male sex (eg, high voice and mustache) and play the traditional role of men in public, but may feel that he is actually a woman. if there are incompatibilities between the identification of physiological sex of individuals with gender identity, the individual diagnosed as having gender identity disorder. research method this research used descriptive qualitative research. sudaryanto (1992:62) argues that the term of descriptive has relation with language study "descriptive linguistic". it is a study based on facts or phenomena empirically exists on the speakers, so the result or noted in form of language used. so it is like portraits (explain as they are). the data source of the study is transgender community in salatiga. the objects of this study are slang words, phrases, sentences. to collect the data, the researcher observed and interviewed the transgender community using recording technique. the writer did an interview with the members of transgender community in salatiga to get information about slang words. according to moleong (2008:186), interview is a conversation with a certain purpose. siti asiyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 289 discussion word changes the way the transgender create their slang words are not too clear. it seems that they create it and memorize it. some words can be traced its original words in javanese language or indonesian language. slang words javanese indonesian anguage language (1) skul-skul sekolah (school) (2) sinyol nyolong (steal) (3) sinja njaluk (request) (4) pulonia pulang (go home) the bold syllables are part of javanese or indonesian language which is borrowed in slang words. another way to form slang words is by changing the words into different words. javanese meaning slang words language (5) ketemu meet ketumbar (food ingredient) (6) cium kiss cumi (sea animal) other words seem arbitrary, it is difficult to trace its original word, such as singer (understand) grammar the data obtained informs that transgender community in salatiga is bilingual (javanese language and indonesian language). according to nur indah and abdurrahman (2008:73), the existence of bilingualism affect the existence of code switching and code mixing, switching from one code (e.g language) with another or mixing some codes together. the transgender community and its slang words 290 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 pattern or structure of the sentence used by transgender follow the pattern of indonesian or javanese sentence. it can be found from the pattern subject – predicate – object and include suffix, affixes, prefixes etc that are usually used in javanese and indonesian language. the data of slang words are from oral communication. according to widjono (2007:24), oral communication has some characteristics, such as: the diction of vocabularies are informal, there is a tendency not to use affixes, the form of sentences are incomplete (without subject, verb or object). the meaning of sentences is influenced by context when that sentences stated. the meaning can be understood although the structure of the sentences is ungrammatical. for instance: (7) sing rembonge disisam-sisam sing sirup’e jreng, eyes that the hair extended hat the face nice beautiful koyo lidia kandau like lidia kandau (someone whose hair is extended has beautiful face like lidia kandau (an actress)) this sentence includes code mixing between javanese language and slang. sing is javanese language. rembonge is a slang word from rembong + e; rembong means hair (rambut in javanese or indonesian language) and e is suffix in javanese language that indicate possessive. disisam-sisam (di+sisam-sisam) is a slang word constructed of prefix dishowing passive voice and sisam-sisam showing repeated activity. sirupe (sirup + e) is slang word for face and e is suffix in javanese language that show possessive. siti asiyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 291 (8) ―neng kene ki iso lima-lima brendi ne sandong ki tinta in here ki can see young man in there ki not besikan‖ can ((i) can see young men here, (i) can not see young men there) the sentence is constructed by javanese vocabularies (italic) and slang words (italic and bold). the sentence is incomplete, it does not have subjectalthough this is consisting of many words, actually this speech is not complete. when it includes subject such as ―i‖, it should be: (9) aku (akika) neng kene ki iso lima-lima brendi ne sandong ki tinta besikan‖ aku is javanese language for i, meanwhile akika is a slang word for the same pronoun. the structure of the sentence follows the pattern of javanese language. the phrase tinta (not) besikan (can) reflects it, the negative ―not‖ before ―can‖ is javanese pattern (compare to english ―can not‖!). (10) “lha mau ketumbar ning mandre?” lha past meet in where (where did (you) meet?) this is another example of incomplete utterance. the sentence does not include subject and object of the sentence. in fact, this phenomenon is common in daily javanese or indonesian languages; a speaker usually omits common information shared with a hearer. function of slang words according to the informants, the general reason of transgender community to use slang words is to hide the meaning of their transgender community and its slang words 292 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 conversation from others. they insert slang words into language of everyday conversation (e.g javanese language). (11) ― ngemese ki gowo bahasa macica speak use language name for transgender group we, gen do tinta singer.‖ let not know ((i) speak in transgender language, so they don‘t understand) (12) t3: aku neng kono ki tinta singer kok. i in there not understand aku malah ket mbiyen ki tinta singer nek ndekne i from the beginning not understand if he/she gaweane sinyol-sinyol ngono-ngono kui to her/his job steal like that (i did not know. from the beginning, i did not know if she/he stole like that) t2: tapi ndeke ki mbek timong but he/she with a guest (but he/she was with guest) t3: oo..mbek tamara with guest (oh .. he/she was with a guest) it is clear that there are negative assumptions from society about transgenders community. it is because people assume that the transgender often related with the prostitution. based on this reason, transgender use the code that different from common society in their conversation. one of their goals to use this code in order to make people outside their group does not understand what they are talking about. they will be more comfortable if they talking about something that important, siti asiyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 293 or just gossiping someone. so it is like a kind of password that is only understood by that group‘s members. the transgenders create their own language to communicate especially to hide their conversation from other community. the use of transgender‘s slang words can also be extended to other group who also understand the code. the participants of the conversation (5) are a man (m1), the member of motor club, and the member of transgender community (t1) (13) t1: mawar dadi pecongane? hahaha kowe ki ndek want become her boyfriend? laugh you are in sandong we,halaah, hahahahaha there laugh (will you be her boyfriend? you are there) m1 : hii ya allah, ya allah, ya allah, ya allah. hahahahahaha (hiii .. oh my god, oh my god. hahaha) t1 : dicumi-cumi tho yo… kiss marker for sugestión (kiss her …) this conversation expresses close relationship and solidarity between two different member groups. another function is for self identity. between the two people, t1 as the member of transgender inserts slang words into her/his language but m1 do not use the slang words. the language used differentiate the member and non member of transgender community. solidarity can also be expressed by member of non transgender community by using transgender‘s slang words. (14) t2: pecong-pecongan kie ? boyfriend / in love question marker (are you in love relationship?) transgender community and its slang words 294 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 t3 : ember (that‘s right) t1 : mawar, mawar pecong-pecongan? want boyfriend (i‘d like too) m1 : tintaaaaaaa….. (oh, no ….) other two persons joining the conversation use transgender‘s slang words and then t1 also use the slang. it seems that the two group have close relationship and understand the language each other. references atmojo, kemala. 1986. kami bukan lelaki. jakarta: pustaka grafitipers. bieschke, kathleen j., ruperto m. perez, and kurt a. debord. 2007. handbook of counseling and psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender clients. washington, dc: american psychological association chaer, abdul dan leonie agustina. 1995. sosiolinguistik suatu pengantar. jakarta: pt rineka cipta. keraf, gorys. 1994. diksi dan gaya bahasa. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. kridalaksana, harimurti. 1982. kamus linguistik. jakarta: pt gramedia. moleong, lexy j. 2008. metodologi penelitian kualitatif. bandung: pt remaja rosdakarya. nur indah, rohmani and abdurrahman. 2008. psikolinguistik konsep dan isu umum. malang: uin malang press. soeparno. 2002. dasar-dasar linguistik umum. yogya: pt tiara wacana sudaryanto. 1992. metode linguistik. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. widjono. 2007. bahasa indonesia. jakarta: pt grasindo. 51 standard javanese causatives in online editorials and short stories noor malihah state institute for islamic studies (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 2 salatiga noormalihah_itah@yahoo.com abstract this paper explores the distinctive features of the standard javanese causatives in on-line editorials and short stories. this research is based on written corpus. this written corpus was compiled from articles published in an online newspaper solo pos. to analyze the corpus, i have developed a system of manual annotation to identify the features of verb transitivity, the animacy and humanness of the verb, the presence of active, passive and ergative-like clauses and the number of other grammatical and semantic features using a system of tags. using this annotation, i analyze the data based on dua anlaysis: genre analysis, functional analysis using a quantitative method. the findings show that genre influences the selection of causative types (markers). also, there exists gawe used as a verb of causation in both editorials and short stories which contradicts to the canonical rule of the javanese active verb and malihah‘s (2014) findings. the finding also shows that the standard javanese causative in online editorials and short stories occurs with intransitive verbs. the last finding is that active clause is the relative prominent type of clause which occurs in all marker. in conclusion, the above findings have made contributions to knowledge to javanese grammar. keyword: javanese, causatives, causation types, genre 52 abstrak artikel ini mendiskusikan tentang fitur pembeda pada causative bahasa jawa standar di kolom editorial dan cerita pendek pada media online. penelitian ini bersumber pada korpus tertulis. korpus tertulis ini dikumpulkan dengan mengkompilasi beberapa artikel yang diterbitkan pada surat kabar local online solo pos. untuk menganalisis korpus ini, peneliti mengembangkan system anotasi manual untuk mengidentifikasi fitur-fitur transitivitas verba, animacy dan humanness dari verba, penggunaan kalimat aktif, pasidan ergative-like dan mengidentifikasi jumlah fitur gramatikal dan semantis lainnya dengan menggunakan sistem pengkodean. dengan menggunakan anotasi ini, peneliti menganalisis data melalui tiga analisis, yaitu analisis genre dan analisis fungsional dengan metode kuantitatif. temuan dalam penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa genre mempengaruhi pemilihan jenis kausatif yang digunakan. penelitian ini juga mendapatkan fenomena bahwa kata gawe digunakan sebagai verba pengkausatif pada editorial dan cerita pendek yang bertentangan dengan aturan umum verba aktif dalam bahasa jawa dan juga temuan malihah (2014). temuan dalam penelitian ini juga menunjukkan bahwa kausatif bahasa jawa standar pada editorial dan cerita pendek dalam media online ini hanya terjadi pada verba intransitive. temuan terakhir dalam penelitian ini adalah bahwa klausa aktif adalah klausa yang paling menonjol penggunaannya pada semua tipe kausatif bahasa jawa. kesimpulannya adalah bahwa temuan-temuan dalam penelitian ini memberikan kontribusi keilmuan dalam bahasa jawa. keywords: bahasa jawa, kausatif, tipe kausatif, genre introduction javanese verbal morphology is rich; however, it is understudied, for example javanese causative, javanese applicative and javanese passive constructions. javanese speakers are mostly bilingual in indonesian and javanese. the official language in indonesia is indonesian. indonesian is used in some official situations, for example in 53 court, in school, in a governmental office, at a wedding party and so on. indonesian is also used as a lingua franca when javanese speakers communicate to other ethnics in indonesian. being bilingual, javanese speakers have a tendency to use more indonesian rather than javanese. javanese is less favoured than indonesian and is less prestigious (rukiah 2010: 82; rahayu and listiyorini 2013: 122-3). using javanese instead of indonesian is also a mark of a lack of education (smith-hefner 2009: 59). javanese speakers speaking javanese is also considered to have a lower status in society (rahayu and listiyorini 2013: 132). this situation leads to the javanese speakers not to learn and use javanese but indonesian. as a result, there are very few studies on javanese. due to this reason, it is necessary to conduct a research on javanese to preserve the language. in addition to the above reason, it is also worthy to look at javanese language since it has some distinctive features crosslinguistically. there are several features of a language which can be investigated, for example lexicon, phonology, morphology and syntax. to identify such as lexical and phonological features are easy. however it needs more effort to distinguish some morphological and syntactical differences (sudaryanto et al. 1991 and see e.g. hollmann and siewierska, 2006: 22). one feature that i would like to discuss in this article is javanese causative constructions. the javanese causatives are very much among the aspects of the grammar that are understudied. as noted above, a critical point to be aware of, and one that makes the javanese causative perhaps unusual, is that the causatives are another use of the same 54 morphemes that mark the applicative 1 . therefore, there is no separate causative morphology. conners (2008: 214) argues that the causative is a function of the javanese applicatives. he does not distinguish the applicative and the causative as separate constructions. however, he notes that in many languages, causatives tend to behave differently from applicatives, and have unique morphology. other authors have treated the causative separately to the applicative, and i will do likewise. in the following paragraphs, i will discuss an overview of a causative construction, models of causation and the javanese causative construction. causative constructions have been an important focus of study in many areas of linguistics (comrie 1989: 165). comrie suggests that causatives are important because they involve some complex interactions among semantics, syntax, and morphology. several definitions of causative have been proposed by some linguists. however, there is no precise definition of a causative is taken. comrie (1989) argues that in a causative, a new argument, an entity who causes the action or event to take place, is added as the clause subject. thus, the function of a causative construction is to encode the semantics of causation. a simple example of an english causative is shown in (1b) and the equivalent noncausative is in (1a). (1) a. john left the room. b. the man caused john to leave the room. 1 haspelmath and bardey (2004: 1134) describe the applicative as a valency-increasing phenomenon where a direct object is added to a verb. applicatives give the status of a direct object to oblique noun phrases of different kinds. 55 causatives involve two events (in the broadest sense of event): (i) the causing event, in which a causer does something to cause the occurrence of the caused event and (ii) the caused event, in which a causee performs an action in consequence of the causing event (shibatani 1976: 1-2; comrie 1989: 165; dixon 2000: 30). in this situation, a causer is someone or something that controls an activity, while a causee is someone or something that does an action controlled by the causer. thus, without the causation, the effect would not have occurred. however, there is a situation in which the caused event does not necessarily come about. for example, shibatani illustrates such a causative as in i told john to go which may be followed by a clause but he actually didn’t go. this causative is different from i made john go which the caused event took place. to accommodate these two causatives, linguists often use the terms non-implicative and implicative causative respectively. many studies on causatives only consider implicative causatives, and i will also restrict myself to considering implicative causatives. having discussed the definition of causatives, i will now turn to discuss models of causation. talmy (1972, 1976, 1985, 1988, 2000) discusses a lot about models of causation. talmy (1985, cited in croft 1991: 166-7) points out that ‗causation is the relation between events, but he argues that the relevant classification of causation types is based on the status of and change in the entities that participate in the event‘. causation is seen as an instance of force dynamic interaction 2 . talmy (2000: 414) introduces a system of diagramming to represent different 2 read further about the concept of force dynamics in talmy (2000). 56 patterns within this framework of force dynamics. based on this understanding, talmy distinguishes causation types based on what type of entity is acting on what other type of entity (i.e. physical entity or mental entity) as listed in (2) (2) talmy‘s causation types (after talmy 1972, 1976, cited in croft 1991: 166) a. physical causation : physical object acting on physical object b. volitional causation : volitional entity acting on physical object c. affective causation : physical object acting on entity with mental state d. inducive causation : volitional entity acting on entity with mental state. a ‗volitional entity‘ in (2) is possible to be considered the same thing as an ‗entity with mental state‘ (croft 2012: 202). then, the animacy hierarchy 3 can be used to distinguish physical and mental entities. different from talmy who focuses on the typology of causation, comrie discusses different types of causative constructions. comrie argues that causative constructions involve two parameters: (1) formal typology and (2) semantic typology. based on the first perspective, there are three types of causative construction: syntactic/periphrastic/analytic 3 read further about the animacy hierarchy in comrie (1989) and whaley (1997). 57 causatives, morphological causatives and synthetic/lexical causatives. 4 the first type of causative construction is biclausal in nature while the second and third are monoclausal. based on the second perspective, comrie focuses on (i) the distinction between direct causation and indirect causation, and (ii) the degree of the control held by the causee. 5 similar to comrie, croft (1991) also discusses the distinction between periphrastic and morphological causatives. croft argues that in a periphrastic causative, two verbs are involved: causal verb and source verb. croft also notes that periphrastic causative is usually applied to a transitive verb while morphological causative is used with an intransitive verb base. in discussing these types of causatives, croft emphasizes on the use of animal hierarchy 6 to differentiate volitional entities from physical entities. like talmy (1976, 2000) and croft (1991), dixon (2000) also consider the importance of volition in distinguishing types of causations (see above). as comrie has proposed, dixon also uses the terminology of periphrastic causative, morphological causative and lexical causative. in looking at the javanese causatives in this research, i will use comrie and dixon‘s terminology in distinguishing periphrastic causatives and morphological causatives. to look at the causation types existing in the javanese causatives, i will use talmy‘s model of causation. to limit my research, i aim to look at only the functions and usage of the javanese causative in on-line and editorials. the findings of 4 read further about these types of causatives in comrie (1989) 5 ibid. 6 for more detailed explanation about animacy hierarchy, see croft (1991). 58 this research are to contribute the description of javanese causative which is still rare in the references. therefore, the questions that i will answer in this research is: what are the distinctive features of standard javanese causative constructions in editorials and short stories; what is the distribution across genres of these causative constructions; and what are the functional features of the standard javanese in editorials and short stories?‘ to answer these questions, i will base my research on the functional-typological grammar framework in a corpus-based linguistics that i will discuss in the later section. . functional-typological grammar according to hawkins (1990: 95), while each language is unique and distinct each other, it is possible to observe some regular crosslinguistic patterns of variation and generalization among those languages. greenberg (1966) discuss this cross-linguistic comparison in a linguistic typology. greenberg (1966: 73-5) argues that language universals ate the limits on cross-linguistic variation. he argues that universal can be to look at language universals, a comparison among languages can be undertaken. this comparison is aimed to look at the differences among languages. at this point, greenberg uses an inductive approach to undertake a cross-linguistic generalization. haspelmath et al. (2001: v) argues that comparison among languages in a linguistic typology reveals patterns and differences among languages, while the study of language universals aims to look at the general patterns existed in all languages. chomsky (1972), as greenberg does, also talks about language universals. however, chomsky views language universals differently. 59 chomsky uses a deductive approach to look at language universals based on a formal syntactic analysis on a single language. with two different perspectives above in looking at language universals, i will be following greenberg‘s view to see the variation of language structure within languages and not based on a single language as chomsky has argued. turning to functionalism which cannot be separated from typology, croft (1995: 505) argues that the basic strategy in functionaltypological analysis is: to examine a correlation between syntax and semantics (or perhaps discourse function), and seek a functional prototype that is found across languages, and construct implicational universals (particularly implicational hierarchies) holding between nonprototypical semantic types and the prototypical ones. (croft 1995: 505) this means that although a particular language may have some specific language properties, it is still possible to compare crosslinguistic major syntactic categories. this comparison can be undertaken by looking at the function of the inflections and the frequency of the words co-occurs in each language. like croft, givón (2001: 23), the leading scholar in functionaltypological grammar, also argues that functional-typological grammar views that cross-linguistic structural variation can perform the same type of function. this means that languages can code the same function with more than one structural means. however, it should be noted that there is always a constraint which make them different. based on the above discussion, both croft and givón argue that the relationship between structure and function, and the degree to which 60 the relationship is non-arbitrary is the focus in functional-typological grammar (malihah 2014: 27). therefore, i adopt this functionaltypological grammar in my analysis because i will analyse the relationship between the structure and the function of the javanese causative constructions. methodology to answer my research question (see above), i need examples of the javanese causative constructions. in order to get the relevant examples, i collected the data from online local newspaper solo pos including short stories and editorials. the reason of using solo pos as the source of the data is because this newspaper is published in solo or surakarta which is the central of javanese culture beside yogyakarta (poedjosoedarmo, 1968: 58). for this reason, the assumption is that this newspaper uses the standard javanese in its publication, especially in column jagad jawa. after i collected the data, i annotated each causative construction by labeling several markers: causative markers (<caus>), transitivity of the verb (<tr>, <itr>), animacy of the nouns (<hum>, <nonh>, <anim>, <ina>), and causation types (<phys>, <vol>, <aff>, <ind>). to analyze the data, i used two steps. first, i counted all the annotations manually. this is to count the occurrences of every tag in the data in order to analyze the data statistically. second, i looked at the frequencies of co-occurrence between different grammatical features in the causatives. to answer my first research question, i will provide the distribution of the four javanese causative markers across genres in my 61 data. for the second question, i will analyze my data by looking at the functional features of the constructions. this analysis is aimed to look at if functional features that exist in the javanese causatives affect the selection of each causative marker. it is also to look at the verb transitivity. this analysis is based on talmy‘s causation type (see above). discussion the distribution of the javanese causative across genre to answer my first question in this research, i present the distribution of the javanese causatives in editorials and short stories that i collected in table 1 below. table 1 the distribution of javanese causative in editorials and short stories marker editorial % short story % -i 6 14.0 5 13.5 -(a)ke 16 37.2 19 51.4 -ne/na 3 7.0 0 0.0 akon 4 9.3 0 0.0 marahi 1 2.3 0 0.0 gawe 5 11.6 8 21.6 njalari 1 2.3 0 0.0 ndadekake 7 16.3 4 10.8 marakake 0 0.0 1 2.7 total 43 100.0 37 100.0 62 figure 1 the distribution of javanese causative in editorials and short stories from table 1 and figure 1 it can be seen that there is an important difference between the corpus of editorials and short stories in terms whether –na and –(a)ke exist in both corpora or not. in editorials, there appears not only the standard javanese morphological causatives –i and – (a)ke but also the non-standard javanese marker –na (see malihah 2014). however, in short stories, there were only –i and –(a)ke. there might be a genre effect that occurs in these corpora. although it is actually assumed that the writers of these articles are conscious to use the morphosyntactic features of the standard javanese –(a)ke. the writers of the short stories might have higher consciousness to use the standard javanese rather than the writers of editorials. thus, the appearance of –na in editorials contradicts to what malihah (2014) has argued that –na is the dialectal form. table 1 and figure 1 also demonstrate that although –(a)ke exists in both editorials and short stories, however, the relative prominence of – (a)ke is higher in short stories rather than editorials. the high number of editorials short stories 14.0 13.5 37.2 51.4 7.0 0.0 9.3 0.0 2.3 0.0 11.6 21.6 2.3 0.0 16.3 10.8 0.0 2.7 -i -(a)ke -ne/na akon marahi gawe njalari ndadekake marakake 63 –(a)ke in short stories is caused by the absence of –na which is the equivalent form. it can also be seen from table 1 and figure 1 that in editorials, more variants of verb of causation in the periphrastic causatives are used: akon ‗ask‘, marahi ‗cause‘, gawe ‗make‘, njalari ‗cause‘ and ndadekna ‗cause‘. on the other hand, in short stories, there are only three verbs of causation: gawe ‗make‘, ndadekake ‗cause‘ and marakake ‗cause‘. what is surprising in this data is the use of gawe which contradicts to the canonical javanese active transitive verb (robson 2002: 45). morphologically, an active transitive verb is characterized by the adding of nasal prefix. thus, the absence of the nasal prefix is not expected to happen in periphrastic causatives in this corpus. although, malihah (2014) has found that gawe exists in the spoken data of javanese dialect of kudus. darmadi et al. (2006: 13) argues that the use of gawe and nggawe in the javanese periphrastic causatives are seen from the feature of volitionality of the verbs. therefore, the fact that there is only gawe in my corpus needs further investigation for future research to see the volitional feature of the verbs. to illustrate the use of gawe in the dataset, consider the example below. (1) causative : f6 apa sing wis di-kekep, sanajan akehe banget, ora bakal what rel perf pass-hold, although much very not fut bisa gawe mareme nepsu mod make satisfy anger ‗what has been got, although they are a lot, will never make the anger satisfy‘. 64 example (1) shows how gawe is used as verb of causation in periphrastic causative. the canonical javanese active transitive is …..nggawe mareme nepsu. a functional analysis of the jdk causative there are two causative markers in standard javanese: –(a)ke and –i (see malihah, 2014). however, the non-standard affix –na also occurs in my dataset. to look at the functions of these three markers and of the periphrastic causative, i analyze each of them based on the transitivity of the verb bases it causativizes, and according to the interaction of each with talmy‘s four causation types, which includes looking at semantic features of the causer and causee. the transitivity of the verb base across the 80 examples in my dataset, i examine the transitivity of the verb bases as shown in table 2 and figure 2. table 2 shows that the transitivity of the verb base across the different causative markers is homogenous. for 95% of the causatives tend to occur with an intransitive verb. conversely, only 5% of the causatives tend to occur with a transitive verb. these findings fit to what davies‘ (1995: 22) has stated that in javanese, only intransitive verbs can be causativised by morphological and periphrastic means. table 2 the distribution of verb base transitivity across to the standard javanese causatives 65 marker intransitive transitive total n of token % n of token % n of token -i 11 100.0 0 0.0 11 -(a)ke 35 100.0 0 0.0 35 -na 3 100.0 0 0.0 3 akon 3 75.0 1 25.0 4 marahi 1 100.0 0 0.0 1 gawe 11 84.6 2 15.4 13 njalari 1 100 0 0.0 1 ndadekake 10 90.9 1 9.1 11 maraake 1 95.0 0 0.0 1 total 76 95.0 4 5.0 80 i also examine how often active, passive and ergative-like clauses occur alongside the causative in my dataset. i show the distribution of this cooccurrence in table 3 and figure 3. table 3 and figure 3 show the occurrence of each causative marker and periphrastic causative in active, passive, and ergative-like clauses. table 3 the frequency distribution of the causative‘s co-occurrence with active, passive, and ergative-like clauses marker active passive erg-like -i 90.9 9.1 0.0 -(a)ke 74.3 17.1 8.6 -na 0.0 100.0 0.0 akon 0.0 75.0 25.0 marahi 100.0 0.0 0.0 66 gawe 84.6 7.7 7.7 njalari 100.0 0.0 0.0 ndadekake 90.9 0.0 9.1 marakake 100.0 0.0 0.0 all causative 75.0 17.5 7.5 figure 3 the frequency distribution of the causative‘s co-occurrence with active, passive, and ergative-like clauses as a percentage the overall picture is that the difference between active, passive clause and ergative clauses in terms of how often they occur with four causatives is not significant. all types of causative are rare alongside passive clause and very rare with ergative-like clauses. 90.9 74.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 84.6 100.0 90.9 100.0 75.0 9.1 17.1 100.0 75.0 0.0 7.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 17.5 0.0 8.6 0.0 25.0 0.0 7.7 0.0 9.1 0.0 7.5 active passive erg-like 67 talmy’s causation types in this section, i will start by discussing whether or not there is a relationship between talmy‘s causation types and preferences among the different causative markers. then, i will create a semantic map for the functions of the javanese causative in editorials and short stories. the relationship between talmy’s causation types and the different causative markers in this sub-section, i aim to investigate the javanese causative in editorials and short stories based on talmy‘s causation types, as summarised by croft (1991:167). as detailed the earlier section, there are four semantic types of causation according to talmy: inducive, affective, volitional, and physical. for the sake of brevity (malihah, 2014), i provide table 5 as a reminder of talmy‘s causation types. table 5. summary of talmy‘s causation types animacy of type of causation causer causee + + inducive + volitional + affective physical i present the distribution of causation types across different causative constructions in table 6. 68 table 6 the distribution of the jdk causative markers across talmy‘s causation types figure 5 the distribution of the jdk causative markers across talmy‘s causation types as a percentage 18.2 28.6 0.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.1 100.0 45.5 28.6 0.0 25.0 0.0 30.8 0.0 9.1 0.0 18.2 17.1 100.0 25.0 100.0 30.8 0.0 54.5 0.0 18.2 25.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 38.5 100.0 27.3 0.0 inductive volitional affective physical marker inductive volitional affective physical total n of tokens % n of tokens % n of tokens % n of tokens % n of tokens % -i 2 18.2 5 45.5 2 18.2 2 18.2 11 100.0 -(a)ke 10 28.6 10 28.6 6 17.1 9 25.7 35 100.0 -na 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 100.0 0 0.0 3 100.0 akon 2 50.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 4 100.0 marahi 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 100.0 0 0.0 1 100.0 gawe 0 0.0 4 30.8 4 30.8 5 38.5 13 100.0 njalari 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 100.0 1 100.0 ndadekake 1 9.1 1 9.1 6 54.5 3 27.3 11 100.0 marakake 1 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 100.0 total 16 20.0 21 26.3 23 28.8 20 25.0 80 100.0 69 the overall points considering all causatives together (i) the frequencies of all causation types to occur with each causative marker are not consistent; (ii) frequencies of all causatives to prefer talmy‘s causation types are approximately equal; (iii) inductive and volitional are approximately equally frequent in –i, -(a)ke, gawe and ndadekna; (iv) inducive is absent in –na, marai, gawe, njalari and in marakake, which is only 1 example is an inducive; (v) affective are the only causation type used in –na and marai. table 6 also shows how causation types interact with different markers. if we look at the column in this table, we see that the instances of the four causation types are equally frequent. this means there is no preference for a particular causation type to occur in a particular marker or type of causatives. this contradicts to malihah‘s (2014: 332) finding which shows that causation types influences types of causative. however, she needs more data to develop her suggestions due to her limited number of data. an instance for the use of inducive causation with–(a)ke is shown in example (2) below. (2) a1 causative with –(a)ke in an inducive dene pelatih-e sawijining nom-nom-an aran sugeng although trainer-def one youth-youth-red name sugeng sing di-tekak-ake adoh-adoh saka wewengkon blitar rel pass-come-caus far-far from place blitar 70 ‗although the trainer has made sugeng come from far away, blitar.‘ example (2) shows the use of –(a)ke in a causative construction. the non-causative is sugeng teka adoh-adoh saka wewengkon blitar. the equivalent non-causative is shown in an active corresponding to the passive in (2). the causee sugeng is animate and the causer pelatihe which is also animate. thus, the two nouns which are animate here confirm that this is an example of an inducive causation. conclusion the aim of this study is to contribute the literature of javanese causatives. i have fulfilled this aim by answering the question: what are the distinctive features of standard javanese causative constructions in editorials and short stories; what is the distribution across genres of these causative constructions; and what are the functional features of the standard javanese in editorials and short stories?‘ i have shown that the distribution of each construction across genres varies. editorials have more various causatives used, for example the existence of –na, akon, marahi, and njalari. however, there is still a tendency that –(a)ke is the most prominent variant occurs in both editorials and short stories. this might be because both data are written in which the assumption is that the writers of these articles are aware of the use of standard javanese causative –(a)ke. i also found that gawe exists in both editorials and short stories. this finding contradicts to the canonical rule of active verb argued by robson (see above). 71 turning to my finding on verb transitivity, i found that causative tends to occur with intransitive verb. this finding fits to davies (see above). likewise, all causative also prefers to occur in active clauses. dealing with talmy‘s causation types, i found that s frequencies of all causatives to prefer talmy‘s causation types are approximately equal. however, looking at each marker to occur with a particular causation type is not consistent. although i have made a contribution to knowledge on javanese grammar, however this research needs to into detail on every possible questions and findings. therefore, this paper also needs further questions remain to be answered with future research. references chomsky, n. 1972. language and mind. in cashdan, a and grudgeon, e (eds.). language in education. london: routledge & kegan paul. chomsky, n, belleti, a and rizzi, l (eds.). 2002. on nature and language. cambridge: cambridge university press. comrie, b. 1989. language universals and linguistic typology: syntax and morphology (second revision). oxford: blackwell and chicago: university of chicago press. comrie, b. 2001. different view of language typology. in haspelmath, m, könig, e, oesterreicher, w and raible, w 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1985. force dynamics in language and thought. in eilfort, wh, kroeber, pd and peterson, kl (eds.). cls 21. papers from the parasession on causatives and agentivity at the twenty-first regional meeting of the chicago linguistics society. chicago: chicago linguistic society talmy, l. 1988. force dynamics in language and cognition. cognitive science 12(1): 49-100. talmy, l. 2000. toward a cognitive semantics. volume i: concept structuring systems. cambridge, ma: mit press. wedhawati, nurlina we, setiyanto e and sukesti r. 2006. tata bahasa jawa mutakhir. yogyakarta: penerbit kanisius. adi purnomo register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 245 improving descriptive writing skill through mind mapping technique adi purnomo smp muhammadiyah 15 kemusu jl. wonoharjo – bulu, kemusu, boyolali ady22ap@gmail.com abstract this is a classroom action research. it is aimed to find out the improvement of descriptive writing skill of 8 th years students of mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan in the academic year of 2013/2014 through mind mapping. besides that, it is also to describe the process of teaching writing using mind mapping to 8 th years students of mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan. the data is obtained by giving pre-test and post-test in each cycle. the result shows that there are improvements in students‘ writing skill. it can be seen at the mean of pre-test and post-test. in the cycle i, the mean pre-test and post-test are 57,03 and 65,15. the mean of the pre-test and post-test in cycle ii are 64,05 and 73,00. the process of research took place for two weeks, precisely it is four meetings. students followed the teaching-learning process well. they showed their interest in the lesson. based on the analysis the writer concludes that the 8 th years students of mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan can improve their writing skill through mind mapping technique. keywords: mind mapping, writing skill, classroom action research abstrak penelitian ini adalah penelitian tindakan kelas. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menemukan peningkatan kemampuan menulis teks descriptive siswa kelas viii mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan tahun pelajaran mailto:ady22ap@gmail.com improving descriptive writing skill through mind mapping technique 246 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 2013/2014 melalui teknik mind mapping (peta konsep). selain itu, penelitian ini juga bertujuan untuk menjelaskan proses mengajar writing menggunakan teknik mind mapping pada siswa kelas viii mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan. data diperoleh dengan memberikan pre-test dan post-test di setiap siklus. hassilnya menunjukkan bahwa terdapat peningkatan pada kemampuan menulis siswa. ini dapat ditunjukkan dari rata-rata nilai pre-test dan post-test. di siklus pertama, diperoleh rata-rata pre-test dan post-test sebesar 57,03 dan 65,15. sedang rata-rata pre-test dan post-test di siklus kedua adalah 64,05 dan 73,00. proses penelitian dilaksanakan dalam empat kali pertemuan dengan rentang waktu total dua minggu. para siswa dapat mengikuti proses belajar mengajar dengan baik. mereka dapat menunjukkan minat mereka pada pelajaran. berdasarkan hasil analisa, penulis menyimpulkanbahwa siswa kelas viii mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan dapat meningkatkan kemampuan menulis mereka melalui teknik mind mapping (peta konsep). kata kunci: mind mapping (peta konsep), kemampuan menulis, penelitian tindakan kelas introduction writing is the most difficult language skill. it is also considered as the most complicated language skill to be learned, compared to other language skills. in writing process, students always involve creative thinking skill. it is also supported by tight rules. endang (2005: 147) claims that ―writing as one of four language skill, writing has always occupied a place in most english language course, and one of the reasons is that more and more people need to learn to write in english for occupational or academic purposes and the most difficult skill to master for foreign language learners.‖ mastering vocabularies and tenses become the main key to get a good writing. students have to choose appropriate vocabularies to arrange words to be a sentence and develop it to be paragraph. besides that, students also have to use a compatible adi purnomo register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 247 tense to express an event in certain time. writing skill is the one which has to be mastered by students. since writing is the most difficult language skill, students face a lot of problem. in this research, the writer will focus on descriptive texts. the students could not describe things, places, and a person in detail because they do not have any ideas when they are asked to describe them. they were lazy and bored if the teachers asked them to write something even it just writes a descriptive text. there were many students that lack of motivation in writing, so there are many of them got bad score in writing. besides that, some of them did not know what they should write. the other problems which also emerged are choosing the topic, arranging paragraph and using of vocabulary. the problems above are also faced by students of mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan in second years. based on the interview with mrs. asri pamungkas as the english teacher, the writer concluded that the students of mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan faced serious problem in constructing and arranging sentences as well. they were still confused to determine words to describe something. they used to do mistake when they used simple present tense. sometimes, they forgot to add ―-s / -es‖ on the verb when they used third personal pronoun as a subject. they usually used pattern of past tense to make a paragraph of descriptive text. besides that, they were in difficult to express their memory about things which they wanted to describe. in the other case, they wrote similar description with their chair mate. they did not have enough selfconfident to make their own sentences. mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan has been decided 70 for their students‘ score of minimal passing grade criteria. though all of them had improving descriptive writing skill through mind mapping technique 248 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 to pass the minimum score, they were still in low range in 50 to 65. in order to solve the problems, the researcher tries to apply a teaching model named mind mapping technique. “mind mapping merupakan alat paling hebat yang membantu otak berpikir secara teratur.” (mind mapping is the most excellent tool which helping mind to think regularly.) (buzan, 2006: 4). this strategy can make students easily to remember things which they want to described. it can be supported with several things such as color pencil, paper, picture, etc. the, it can be connected with lines in order to make their imagination colorful and more interesting toward writing skill. this research is focusing on the ability in writing descriptive text especially in describing people and animal. the subject of the research is the second years students of mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan. the researcher concerned on the students‘ improvement of grammar and vocabulary mastery in writing descriptive texts. it will be known by pretest and post-test phases. mind mapping buzan (2005: 6) claims that a mind map is a powerful graphic technique which provides a universal key to unlock the potential of the brain. it harnesses the full range of cortical skills – word, image, number, logic, rhythm, color, and spatial awareness – in a single, uniquely powerful manner. in so doing, it gives you the freedom to roam the infinite expanses of your brain. the mind map can be applied to every aspect of life where improved learning and clearer thinking will enhance human performance. the human brain works to process information adi purnomo register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 249 through observation, reading or hearing about something organized as functional relationship between concept and keyword. it is not partially separated from each other and is not in narrative form complete sentences. the mind mapping strategy can be used to explore almost topics in writing such as narrative, descriptive, recount, persuasive, argumentative, essay, and etc. students can improve their ideas and lend themselves to discussing ideas in groups. according to buzan (2006: 31), mind mapping can be used in many activities, such as mind mapping to communicate and do presentation, to plan family activities. writing skill the term of skill is defined as ability. concisely, writing ability is the skill to express idea, thought, and feeling to other in writing symbol to make other people or readers understand the idea conveyed. larry (2003: 121) states that writing is the process of transferring thoughts from mind onto paper to share with readers while readily admitting that composing text to communicate their ideas is tough sledding. on the other hand, gelb (1962) explains that writing is clearly a system of human intercommunication by mean of conventional visible mark. writing began at the time when man learned how to communicate his thought and feeling by means of visible signs, understandable not only to himself but also to all other people more or less initiated into the particular system. research methodology the research was conducted at mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan, boyolali. it was located on small village that rounded by four villages. improving descriptive writing skill through mind mapping technique 250 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 the subject of this research was the students of class viii that consisted of 34 students in the academic year of 2013/2014. they were chosen by the researcher based on the purpose of the research. there are 14 students who graduated from madrasah ibtida’yah (islamic elementary school) and 20 students graduated from elementary school. most of their parents are farmer, and some of them work in jakarta. the students had a less motivation to study. it was supported by the parents‘ education. most of them who just stopped in junior high school, could not take higher education especially in formal education. this research has been done from september 2013 to october 2013. the researcher acted as the teacher and the learning process was observed by the english teacher of mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan. the writer arranged it in two cycles, each cycles consist of planning, action, observation and reflection. the classroom action research was applied in viii class of mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan. discussion the data was obtained from the teaching learning process and evaluation. the analysis is to measure students writing skill improvement in teaching learning process. it was consisted of two cycles, as follow: cycle i 1. planning the writer made lesson plans for cycle 1. he planned two topics. the topics were person and animal. in deciding them he had discussion with english teacher in mts muhammadiyah 1 cekelan. he planned two meetings in each cycle because of the limitation of time and it was consisted of two cycles. he made one lesson plan for adi purnomo register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 251 each cycle. he planned little different activities of each cycle. he planned pre-test and post-test to know their writing improvement after the action. students were asked to produce descriptive text. it was given in every meeting. in this step, the writer prepared some other preparation. he also prepared materials, students‘ attendance, teaching aid, sheet for classroom observation sheet and process observation sheet. 2. action a. first meeting the first activity was conducted on friday, september 20 th 2013. before the writer began the class, he gave pre-test to obtain the data before the students got the treatment. then, the writer led them to the lesson, he focused on introducing mind mapping and re-teaching descriptive text. he took topic ―describing person‖. the students were still confused about materials and the method. in order to the writer/teacher should teach more in next meeting. b. second meeting the second meeting in cycle 1, on wednesday, september 25 th 2013, the writer continued the lesson in first meeting. in this meeting the writer focused to combine descriptive text and mind mapping. he led the students to practice to make their hand writing using mind mapping. the students could practice well, it was better than first meeting. before closing the meeting, the writer who took place as the teacher gave post-test to know the students‘ difference before and after got treatment. the data was gotten as follows: improving descriptive writing skill through mind mapping technique 252 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 table 1 the students‘ scores no name pre-test post-test d d 2 1 adisaputra 63 72 9 81 2 ajiprasetyo 61 64 3 9 3 anita 62 64 2 4 4 ari awan 52 57 5 25 5 ayunovita s 65 72 7 49 6 ermanprasetyo 54 56 2 4 7 erna sari 53 61 8 64 8 erna yulianti 59 70 11 121 9 indri mulyani 54 59 5 25 10 irwangunawan 48 58 10 100 11 iswanto 63 70 7 49 12 lailanovita sari 72 81 9 81 13 m. dandi s 60 72 12 144 14 m. sholeh f 49 71 22 484 15 m. ali mahfud 70 72 2 4 16 muhfahmi 47 53 6 36 17 muhmuhajir 43 61 18 324 18 m. sholeh 45 54 9 81 19 nunungariyani 64 71 7 49 20 nurlaila 64 72 8 64 21 reza aditya pm 66 72 6 36 22 rieinwijayanti 60 70 10 100 23 rudi ardiyanto 49 61 12 144 24 saprilwiji a 75 82 7 49 25 sellyrahayu 60 67 7 49 26 sitinurhaniah 52 62 10 100 27 sofimgi 64 70 6 36 28 sri wulandari 54 59 5 25 29 tri utami 47 58 11 121 30 tri wahyuningsih 42 55 13 169 31 wahyu anton w 51 61 10 100 32 wahyu rio a 47 55 8 64 33 wahyususenoaji 54 60 6 36 34 widiyanti 70 73 3 9 ∑ 1939 2215 276 2836 adi purnomo register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 253 3. observation in the process of observation in cycle 1, the writer got the data presentation from the english teacher (mrs. asri) as collaborator. she made the observation more objective and easier. by monitoring the students‘ activity in this action, we could see that they were enthusiastic although in the fact there were some students who were confused about the material given. it was caused by the first time for them in english class using mind mapping technique. although, they were confused, they were interested in this lesson. it could be seen in their effort to understand the lesson by asking their friend. 4. reflection after analyzing the result of action in cycle 1, the writer and the observer (mrs. asri pamungkas) can conclude that the researcher should give brief explanation about the function of mind mapping to improve writing skill because there were some students cannot practice well. some students did not understand yet about descriptive well, so that they made mistakes in constructing sentences. cycle i also has shown that there were little improvements from students. it can be seen from the average of post-test that shows 65,15. it increased from the test before. although it was not big improvement but it is better from the pre-test, because the average of pre-test just gets 57,03. based on the passing grade criteria (kkm) which decided at 70,00, the post-test shows there were 13 students who could pass from kkm, it is twofold bigger then pre-test with the result 4 students. improving descriptive writing skill through mind mapping technique 254 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 therefore in the next cycle the researcher should give more motivation to the students in order to they can improve their achievement. cycle ii 1. planning in cycle ii, the writer made similar preparations like in cycle i. 2. action a. first meeting as cycle i, the writer gave students pretest to obtain the second data. in this cycle the writer focused on practice to produce text using mind mapping method. b. second meeting it was last meeting; the students could show good improvement. they could practice the method well. although, they could show good improvement, but there were three students who cannot pass the passing grade criteria. in order to close meeting, the writer gave last test, it was post-test. it was obtained data as follows: table 2 the students‘ score no name pre-test post-test d d 2 1 adisaputra 66 74 8 64 2 ajiprasetyo 64 71 7 49 3 anita 64 73 9 81 4 ari awan 58 71 13 169 5 ayunovita s 64 75 11 121 6 ermanprasetyo 52 71 19 361 7 erna sari 63 71 8 64 adi purnomo register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 255 8 erna yulianti 69 76 7 49 9 indri mulyani 65 71 6 36 10 irwangunawan 61 70 9 81 11 iswanto 66 77 11 121 12 lailanovita sari 75 86 11 121 13 m. dandi s 59 75 16 256 14 m. sholeh f 56 63 7 49 15 m. ali mahfud 70 80 10 100 16 muhfahmi 58 65 7 49 17 muhmuhajir 50 70 20 400 18 m. sholeh 59 70 11 121 19 nunungariyani 71 73 2 4 20 nurlaila 67 72 5 25 21 reza aditya pm 71 73 2 4 22 rieinwijayanti 71 74 3 9 23 rudi ardiyanto 53 72 19 361 24 saprilwiji a 80 88 8 64 25 sellyrahayu 71 72 1 1 26 sitinurhaniah 62 72 10 100 27 sofimgi 71 76 5 25 28 sri wulandari 63 74 11 121 29 tri utami 64 71 7 49 30 tri wahyuningsih 59 60 1 1 31 wahyu anton w 63 70 7 49 32 wahyu rio a 57 72 15 225 33 wahyususenoaji 58 71 13 169 34 widiyanti 78 83 5 25 ∑ 2178 2482 304 3524 3. observation in the end of the meeting, the teacher asked the students about what they had learned. some students answered, ―descriptive text using mind mapping‖, but there were students that just kept silent. then, the writer concluded what they learned. he also asked whether they were happy with all learning activity today. almost all students said that they were happy, but some others just kept silent. then, he closed the teaching learning process by saying good bye to them. improving descriptive writing skill through mind mapping technique 256 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 4. reflection cycle ii showed the significant differences than cycle i. almost of the students can pass the passing grade criteria (kkm). there are 31 students have passed kkm and 3 students have not passed yet. after analyzing the result of cycle i and cycle ii it can be concluded that the research got good result from activities of teaching descriptive text using mind mapping. it can make students easier in understanding the lesson. they also become more active to answer teacher‘s questions. table 3 observation sheet no activity distribution excellent good fair 1. pre-teaching a. opening  greeting t : ―assalamu’alaikumwr.wb” s : “wa’alaikumsamwr.wb” t : “good morning” s : “morning sir”   asking condition t : ―how are you today?” s : “i am fine, and you?” t : “very well, thanks”   attendance t : “how is absent today” s : “none sir”  b. motivation t : “now day, english is very important, everything use english. so it is important for you to learn it”  c. apperceptions t : “anybody knows what is this picture?”  adi purnomo register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 257 s : “pasha ungu sir,” t : “can you tell me who is he and what does he look like?” s : “he is singer, vocalist of ungu band and he has white skin….” 2. whit teaching a. explanation  teaching descriptive text t : “now, we will learn about descriptive text. . .”   introducing mind mapping t : “is there who ever heard mind mapping. . .”   combining descriptive text and mind mapping t : “we have learned about descriptive text and mind mapping. now let’s combine them.” s : “does it make descriptive text with mind mapping sir?” t : “yupp, i will explain, so please pay attention‖  b. practice  dividing into some groups t : “to practice it. i will divide you into 6 groups. please count 1 until 6 started from front of left corner and ended in back right corner”   describing the topic t : “i have given a topic to each group, please describe your topic using method which have been learned” s : “yes sir‖   writing on the whiteboard t : “please write your result on the whiteboard. ….”  3. post-teaching a. concluding t : “mind mapping makes us easier to describe something in particularly. you can develop it again. any question before i close our meeting?” s : “no sir”  improving descriptive writing skill through mind mapping technique 258 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 b. post-test t : “i will give you post test to check your understanding, there is improvement or not. . . .”  c. closing t : “if you have cleared i will close this meeting. if there are mistakes please forgive me. thank for your attention. wassalamu’alaikumwr. wb.” s :”wassalamu’alaikumwr.wb” t : “see you” s : “see you too”  table 4 process observation sheet no process distribution excellent good fair 1. teacher prepares the material  2. students describe picture which shown by teacher  3. teacher clarifies the students‘ answers  4. students pay attention teacher‘s explanation  5. teacher explains about descriptive text  6. teacher introduces mind mapping to students  7. teacher combines descriptive text and mind mapping  8. teacher asks the students‘ difficulties  9. students understand the teacher‘s explanation  10. students practice to make descriptive text using mind mapping  11. students write their result on the whiteboard  12. the students become active in the class  13. teacher corrects the students‘ answer  14. students are brave to ask and answer  15. students feel happy and enjoy during the lesson  adi purnomo register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 259 discussion most of students have good attitude and understanding. they can follow the teaching learning process well. it can be concluded that they are interested in this method. the researcher analyzed the students‘ improvement based on the result of analyzing in cycle i and cycle ii. the improvement as follow: 1. the mean of the pre-test in cycle i is 57,03 and increase to be 65.15 in the post-test. 2. the mean of pre-test in cycle ii is 64,05 and increase to be 73,00 in the post-test. from the explanation above shows that by applying mind mapping method students can improve their writing skill. moreover the result of t-test shows that there is significant influence between pre-test and post-test mean. the results of post-tests (cycle i and cycle ii) are greater than pre-tests (cycle i and cycle ii). it means that students‘ achievement in english has improved. it can be concluded that most of students of mts muh 1 cekelan were enjoy to study with something that can express their creativity. table 5 the scores percentage of cycle i and cycle ii no graduation cycle i cycle ii percentage students percentage students 1. passing grade 38% 13 92% 31 2. un-passing grade 62% 21 8% 3 based on table above, we can see that in cycle i the students who can pass criteria minimum grade (kkm) just 38% or 13 students. mostly the students cannot pass the kkm , it is about 62% or 21 students cannot get the goal. however, in cycle ii there are improvements of the students. improving descriptive writing skill through mind mapping technique 260 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 31 students or 31% can pass the kkm. although, there are 3 students in cycle i who cannot get kkm yet. conclusion based on the data above, the writer explains the conclusion of this research as the follow: 1. based on the data of research, the students‘ writing skill can improve through mind mapping method. the data shows that improvement of students‘ writing skill is significant after the students got writing practice using mind mapping. the mean of pre-test and post-test in cycle i are 57,03 and 65,15 and the mean of pre-test and post-test in cycle ii are 64,05 and 73,00. besides that, it can be seen the comparison between t-calculation of all the score of cycle t and cycle ii. in the cycle i the t-calculation is 11,11 and cycle ii is 10,51. in addition, the mean improves i every cycle. the mean of post-test in cycle i is 65,15 that is different from the mean of pre-test in cycle i is 57,03. the mean of pre-test cycle ii is 64,05 which improves in the post-test becomes 73,00. 2. the process of teaching and learning descriptive writing using mind mapping method is going smoothly. most of the students are enthusiastic to make hand writing in mind mapping that collaborated with colors pen. it can be seen on the result of observation in the class that is most of the students feel enjoy and happy in the teaching and learning process. it also can be proven of the students are active to answer some questions and create their own hand writing using mind mapping. the implementation of mind mapping method in writing descriptive of the second year students of mts muh 1 adi purnomo register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 261 cekelan can be done effectively. the students can make their own writing project using their creativity. references buzan, t. 2005. mind map untuk meningkatkan kreativitas. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. ______ . 2006. mind map untuk meningkatkan kreativitas. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. fauziati, e. 2005. teaching of english as a foreign language. surakarta: muhammadiyah university press. gelb, i.j. 1952. a study of writing. chicago: the university of chicago. lewin, l. 2003. paving the way in reading and writing (strategies and activities to support struggling students in grade 6 – 12). san fransiso: jossey bass. improving descriptive writing skill through mind mapping technique 262 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 register, vol. 1, no. 2 november 2008.1.1 anis mawati register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 197 factors influencing failure of reading anis mawati mts n ngemplak jl. waduk cengklik, ngesrep, ngemplak anismawati42@yahoo.com abstract the objective of this research are: to find out the forms of failure of reading in english texts in english learning, to find out the factors influencing the failure of reading english texts in english learning, to find out how does the failure of reading english texts influence english learning process, to find out the ways of teacher to overcame failure of reading english texts in english learning among students. the result of the research are: the less time allocation of teaching and learning, the lack of students‟ self-confident in english learning because of the lack of vocabulary. the dominant factor influencing the failures of reading english texts in english learning are: the students‟ weak understanding of grammar and vocabulary. the teacher‟s effort to overcame reading failure are: asking the students to make exercise of english learning by working in groups, asking the students to read english text and then asking the other students to scrutinize it. keywords: failure of reading, english text, english learning, teacher’s effort. abstrak tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah: mengetahui bentuk kegagalan membaca teks bahasa inggris dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris, mengetahui faktor yang mempengaruhi kegagalan membaca teks bahasa inggris dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris, mengetahui seberapa jauh kegagalan membaca teks bahasa inggris mempengaruhi proses pembelajaran bahasa inggris, mengetahui cara-cara guru untuk mengatasi kegagalan siswa dalam membaca teks bahasa inggris dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris. hasil penelitian ini adalah: sedikitnya alokasi waktu pembelajaran, kurangnya percaya diri pada diri siswa dalam belajar bahasa inggris mailto:anismawati42@yahoo.com factors influencing failure of reading register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 198 karena kurangnya kosa kata. faktor dominan yang mempengaruhi kegagalan membaca teks bahasa inggris dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris adalah: lemahnya pemahaman siswa dalam hal tata bahasa dan kosa kata. upaya guru untuk mengatasi kegagalan membaca adalah: meminta siswa untuk membuat latihan pembelajaran bahasa inggris dengan bekerja dalam kelompok, meminta siswa untuk membaca teks bahasa inggris dan kemudian meminta siswa lain untuk mengoreksinya. kata kunci: kegagalan membaca, teks berbahasa inggris, pembelajaran bahasa inggris, upaya guru. introduction in this globalization era, english is very important to study, since it is an international language. before discussing further, the writer will describe about the language. english is an international language used in countries through out the world including indonesia. here it is not only considered as the first foreign language, but it is taught as compulsory subject from the junior high school up to senior high school. although it has been taught for a long time, the result of teaching english is still considered unsatisfactory. language has complex role in communication. therefore, they do not need just one language, but also two or more. related to with the statement, language is divided into three part. first, language is called “mother tongue” which is used to communicate daily in the family and surroundings. the second language is the national language. this language is determined by government, for example indonesia language for indonesian people. the language is a language which is used at school and official, it also taught to the student. then the third is language is foreign language taught at school and formal and information institution. the foreign language is like english. english will not be difficult for tudents who have enough time to anis mawati register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 199 study. it is because they have found suitable ways of doing it. many indonesian people nowadays keep trying to improve their english by taking either formal or non formal courses. english is introduced in to the curriculum and considered as the first foreign language to be taught at school in indonesian. it has been going on up to now the understand skill, the goal teaching english is to develop student english communication, which consist of reading, listening, writing and speaking. but in the language learning, we often find difficulties to understand it. same people with severe physical problems have no physical impediment, good home, a nice neighborhood and good teacher, do not learn as well as might be excepted them. questions that way some people do not learn to read at all, or why they read as well as might be expected, or how we can determine what causes may be most influence in producing failure in reading, may be answered by investigating physical, educational, and psychological factors, three broad areas of causation we can included almost all of the known reasons for reading failure, certainly enough to be practically useful in classroom. in the english learning we often difficult to understand it. in this research we will explain some of the factors reading failure in the english language learning that make we difficult to learn it. beside that reading is the thing important in the english language learning, because with the reading the learner will get information. based on the problem statement above, the objective of the study are as follows: (1) to find out the forms of failure of reading in the english texts in english learning. (2) to find out the factors influencing the failure of reading english texts in english learning. (3)to find out the how far failure of reading english texts influence english learning process. (4) to find out the teacher ways to overcame failure of reading english texts in factors influencing failure of reading register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 200 english learning among students. theoretical framework the american heritage dictionary of the english language gives the meaning of cognition as “the mental process by which knowledge is acquired. there are several basic characteristic of cognition (fauzi, 2004:24). one of them is cognition process. this process is mental. this process is purposive. by implication, this process is internal. by implication this process is ultimately under the control of the learner, even if one is coerced in to learning by external pressure. “thus, the term cognitive process refers to the individual internal mental operation. it my involve conscious attention to some point the teaching is making, conscious reorganization of material to understand better the concept being learned information. one of the leading cognitive psychologists is david ausubel. in this book, the states that there are two types of learning: root learning and meaningful learning. the crucial factor determining whether learning is rote or meaningful is the manner in which the material is learned arbitrary and verbatim. the key concept in ausubel cognitive theories of learning is that learning must be meaningful. the learner must understand what is to be learned. the implication is that learning must involve active mental process in order to be meaningful learning can student acquire significant amount of knowledge (ibid:25). although specifics theories of the nature of language may provide the basis for a particular teaching method, other methods derive primarily from a theory of language learning. a learning theory underlying an approach or methods responds to two questions. anis mawati register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 201 a. what are the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning? b. what are the conditions that need to be met in order for this learning process to be activated? learning theories associated with a method at the level of approach may emphasize the nature of the human and phsycal context in which language learning takes place (richards and rodgers: 16). stephen d. krashen‟s monitor models of second language development is an example of learning theory on which a method (the natural approach) has been built. monitor theory addresses both the process; krashen distinguishes between acquisition and learning. acquisition refers to the natural assimilation of language rules through using language for communication. learning refers to the formal study of language rules and is a conscious process. in this classic work on the conditions of learning, robert gagne say that ably demonstrated the importance of identifying a number of different types of learning which all humans use. types of learning vary according complex task such as language learning involves every one of gane‟s types of learning-from simple signal learning to problem solving (brown,1980:80 ). gagne‟s identifies eight types of learning: (c) signal learning, (d) stimulus-response learning, (e) chaining, (f) verbal association, (g) multiple discrimination, (h) concept learning, (i) principle learning, (j) problem solving. since all eight types of learning are relevant to second language learning, the implication is that certain “lower”-level aspects of second language factors influencing failure of reading register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 202 learning may be more adequately treated by behavioristic approaches and methods, while certain “higher”-order types of learning are more effectively taught by methods derived from a cognitive approach term by means of the types of learning. in language learning we can distinguish two basic categories of strategies: learning strategies and communication strategies. a learning strategy is a method of perceiving and storing particular items for later recall. a communication strategy is a method of achieving communication, of encoding or expressing meaning in language. the two types of strategies are quite different in their manifestation, though there is obviously is strong relationship between them (ibid: 83). most definitions of reading given in professional text books are of this second type. de boer and dallman consider that reading “involves the comprehension and interpretation of ideas symbolized by the written or printed page”. in later book the authors note that their emphasis is on “reading as a process involving meaningful reaction to printed symbols (dechant:4). “bond and tinker point out that” reading involves the recognition of printed or written symbols which serve as stimuli for the recall of meaning built up through the reader‟s past experience. “harris and sipay define reading as “the meaningful interpretation of written or printed verbal symbols”. gibson says that reading is receiving communication: it is making discriminative responses to graphic symbols: it is decoding graphic symbols to speech: and it is getting meaning from the printed page”. these definitions of reading have certain elements in common: particular, they all note that reading is an interpretation of graphics symbol. reading is thus perceived as a twofold process: 1. identification of the symbols anis mawati register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 203 2. association of appropriate meaning with them. reading requires identifications and comprehension. reading always involves an interaction between the writer and reader. it is the culminating act of the communication process, initiated by the thoughts of the writer and expressed thought the symbols on the page. thorndike maintained years ago that the reading of a paragraph involve the same sort organization and analysis as does thinking. it includes learning, reflection, judgment, analysis, synthesis, problem, solving behavior, selection, organization, comparison of date, determination of relationships, and critical evaluation of what is being read. examine now more closely two important aspect of the reading process: 1. the language or sign system of reading which the reader must identify and recognize and in which the message are formulated or encoded. 2. the decoding or comprehension process in which the reader must engage. reading failure is something that make impede the process of language learning activity which causes of same problems that have negative influence toward a learner in english learning. the other factors influencing failure of reading english text is: (a) physical factors, includes in this group are all auditory and visual problems: physiological factors in the organism, especially the brain and nervous system, which are defective or dysfunctions perceptual anomalies, retardation, celebral palsy, aphasia, and alexia are all physical problems which have been studied for their relationship to reading and other language disabilities. factors influencing failure of reading register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 204 (b) educational factor, in this group is included what schools, teachers, administrator, circular, parent, community and society do for us in the name of education. as john half suggest, make children stupid in school? do the complaints of disciplinary problems and delinquents and drop-outs mean anything when they say that the school, the teacher, did not care about them or what they were doing? obviously, all of the factors make same difference (howards, 1980:160). we simply cannot believe that any one is all right or all wrong in these circumstances. (c) psychological factor, in this group all else merges. our cognitive are permitted with effect, and our effective responses are somewhat altered by our cognition. emotion such as pride, fear, anxerty, trust, love and note are powerful under currents pulling is unexpectedly. it is difficult to identify the exact emotion which may be affecting us at a given time, and it is even more difficult to say just how much anxiety or fear, for example may be distracting us from our tasks. we know that emotion do directly affect all learning and behavior, and their effects, but feelings evade measurement and controlled study. complete reading is said to in value four steps: recognition, understanding, reaction and integration. ultimately, it is hoped that the reading a child does will influence and direct same future activity children. integrate what they are reading, they are studying. this may be the ultimate in comprehension. gray point out that integration is “the heart of the learning act in reading. the reading is complete only when that which is read becomes assimilated”. integrative reading is commonly identified with study-related reading. herber defined study skills in reading as work skills that produce useful knowledge for a learner; they are reading skill especially adapted to anis mawati register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 205 execute particular tasks. they help the students to develop ideas, to remember ideas and to use ideas. research methodology a. research methodology: (1) type of research. research is about inquiry, and its product is knowledge. in this research, the writer uses qualitative and quantitative research. but qualitative research is dominant in this research. qualitative research is a type of research which does not include any calculation or enumerating (brannen,1997 :11). if there is any calculation in this research, they just to answer the third problem. more of them calculation are as data. in this research descriptive is dominant. to answer the first, second and fourth problem, the writer uses description and explanation. this graduating paper is discussing about problem occurs in the english learning. that is why the writer believes that qualitative research is more appropriate to this research. (2) population, the population of research is all the members of the research subject. they are the students of the second year of mtsn i gondangrejo karanganyar surakarta in academic year 2005 / 2006. the total of students of six classes in the population are 264 students, each consist 44 students that year in mtsn gondangrejo karanganyar. (3) sample, a sample is part of population that represent the whole population (nadzir: 325). in this the writer take class ii mtsn gondangrejo karanganyar in the year 2005 / 2006 as sample. a research may take one class of the population, it equal to 44 students. b. method of data collecting: (1) questionnaire method, questionnaire is written question used to get information from respondent. it is report of their private of their private of other things they know (kartono,1990:217). the study uses the closed questionnaire and it can be factors influencing failure of reading register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 206 used get the data about how far failure of reading english text, forms reading failure and the influence in english learning. (2) interview is “percakapan dengan bertatap muka dengan tujuan memperoleh informasi actual, untuk menaksir dan menilai kepribadian individu, atau untuk tujuan-tujuan konseling / penyuluhan, atau tujuan suatu masalah tertentu” (ibid:187). or interview is the dialogue is face to face with purpose or the problem purpose. in the other ward interview is dialogue between interviewer and interview to get information by asking english teacher about his methods teaching english texts among his students with direct. data analysis, the writer analyzed the data using following steps: 1. identifications step, the writer identified the result of the students‟ test in reading english text and comprehension. with way correction of the result that it was given to the students. 2. analysis step, the data has been identified. the writer analyzes the students answer in test. 3. finding the result, after it is classified into table of the result, so the writer can count the result of students‟ text with formula as follow: p = x explanation: f : frequency is looked for the percentage n : number of cases (number of frequency of number of individual) p : percentage 4. analyzing the result of the students after it counted. 5. find out the forms, factors and how far the influence of reading failure in english learning. anis mawati register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 207 6. analyzing the result of the interview of english teacher about the ways overcame reading failure among his students. 7. all of conclusions of the test an interview result are analyzed again using deductive and inductive to make sure and valid. 8. the data are interpreted. discussion the student‟s failure in reading english texts table vii the student‟s failure in reading number of question percentage of correct answer percentage of false answer 1 100 % 0 % 2 81 % 19 % 3 84 % 16 % 4 72 % 28 % 5 97 % 3 % 6 72 % 28 % 7 75 % 25 % 8 52 % 48 % 9 90 % 10 % 10 61 % 39 % 11 75 % 25 % 12 50 % 50 % 13 59 % 41 % 14 68 % 32 % 15 50 % 50 % 16 25 % 75 % 17 93 % 7 % 18 32 % 68 % 19 18 % 82 % 20 59 % 41 % factors influencing failure of reading register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 208 this is the analysis of the answer from 20 items in the question. from the percentage of students answer correct and false in the table above, the writer can analyzes the first question until the last question. (a) in the question number one, all of the students answer correctly. because in this question is a group of easy question. it is just to know carefulness of students in the reading of text. (b) in the question number two 19% student‟s answer false. because every student, they are have different knowledge, and in question number three, four and five. most of the students less careful in reading text, this happened because some of the students misunderstanding with the vocabulary in the text about the meaning names days. (c) in the question number six 28% students give a false answer it happens because many students didn‟t know the meaning or the use of word “always” and “every morning”. it is make students failure in the answer of question. (d) in the question number seven 25% students give a false answer it happens because, students defrauded with the answer, the students forget with the conjunction “then” in the answer, the students forget with the conjunction “then” in the answer. (e) in the question number eight 48% students give a false answer it happens because, the student less of careful in the answer. the although the answer has available in the text, but students still defrauded with the other answer. (f) the question number nine, most of the student‟s answer are correct. it happens because the number in the first sentence and the last paragraph. so the students not difficulted to seek answer it. (g) from the question number ten 39% students give a false answer it happens, because in this question, the write use apostrophe in to make question. so this make student confused in the answer it. (h) in the question number eleven, they are many students give a false answer it happens, 25% students answer false, this happen because students didn‟t know how to use subject as anis mawati register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 209 object or natural subject. (i) the question number twelve 50% students give a false answer it happens, this case like in the number thirteen, fourteen and fifteen. they are also use apostrophe. most of them false answered while they found the questions the use apostrophe. it is caused by misunderstanding in grammar. (j) in the number sixteen only quarter percentage students that answer correctly. this happens because most of the students didn‟t know how to differences about using subject as object in the singular or plural. (k) in the question number seventeen almost are answer correct, this happens caused the students has understood in the reading text. (l) this question is different with number seventeen, the although in the question number eighteen has the some level of difficulty, but in this question 82% students give a false answer it happens. this happens because student‟s nervous and afraid if the time not suitable has decided. so, the concentration was disturbed. (m) the question number nineteen thus case like the previous question number, they fail in the use apostrophe. (n) in the last question 41% students give a false answer it happens, this happens because the students less of careful in the execution it. because this is last question the students may be are also are weak. the analysis answer from four questions. a. the form of reading failure in english learning and how far its influence. the writer gives question to answer the problem. if we look at the result of the students test, we know that there are various answer. many students who failed in reading english text. it is caused by less time allocation. besides they also difficult in reading. they could not understand the meaning english text. such errors interfere their comprehension as well as the ability to understand what they read. factors influencing failure of reading register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 210 good reading is the readers must attend their pronunciation and grammar. besides the most important, the reader must understand with what they read. by this way students what they read as good as that they read as good as that they want. for seventh students answer that the dominantly they are confident or not sure with their answer. their reasons are they little vocabulary that they known. the form of the fourth that failed in reading is misunderstanding in english text. from the forms of reading failure above the writer conclude that dominant factors reading failure in english texts are caused by less understanding students about grammar and vocabulary in the meaning english texts. beside the above forms, the writer also gave question about how far the failure of reading english texts influenced the process of english learning to students. and from 40 student‟s answers, they influence english learning process. so, we know the effect of its. and it is also any of the hazard of english learning that we should avoid with give students more examination, so that it will increase their ability to master new vocabulary. b. factors dominant of reading failures in english texts. to answer this problem, the writer gave question about dominant factors of reading failure. there are 20 students whose answer are grammar and vocabulary. their reasons are english learning is difficult to study. there are 13 students who answered that environment influence the learning. their reasons are english is foreign language in indonesia it is not our own language. in other hand we different methods to understand it. for 11 students whose answers are physical. their reasons are that they have inadequacy of the brain. it is caused by inactivity of the brain to anis mawati register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 211 think. and it makes them often failure in reading. from the answers above, the writer conclude that the dominant factor of reading failure is mastery of grammar and vocabulary. it c. the english teacher ways to overcame reading failure among his students. to answer the problem about the ways to overcame reading failure in english learning, the writer interviewed english teacher. the teacher says that in some he overcame by careful process of education under a competent tutor. beside that he also makes a group from students to examine english learning. for example to make students enjoy english learning a teacher uses games. he also often ask students to read english text and ask the other student to scrutinize. and if there students didn‟t know in their group about what the teacher explain to them, the reader of the group must be responsible with give explain to friend his group to know. the teacher is sure, that the explain from friend themselves are, more affective them their teacher. and besides the teacher also gives priority to personal approach with his students. but in out of the class, the control is family, environment and their attitude. drilling and giving a good model is also his way to overcame reading failure. a good model is teacher with good example of student. this study also can show to the reader that the most influence of reading failure, which often happens among students of the second year of mtsn 1 gondangrejo karanganyar suarakarta in the academic 2005/2006, is difficult to understand the meaning of texts. and the dominant factor is misunderstanding about grammar and vocabulary in english learning. the way to overcame it is suitable with the case. factors influencing failure of reading register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 212 conclusion from the research, that researcher did in mts i gondangrejo karanganyar surakarta, the writer concludes as fallow. 1. the forms of failure of reading text in the english learning and now it‟s influence according to the statement‟s answer, the influence of the reading failure to english learning are: (a)the less time allocation, (b)the less of self confident in english learning because of minimum vocabulary, (c)misunderstanding in the meaning of reading english texts 2. the dominant factor influencing the failures of reading english texts in english learning. the students answered that the dominant factor of reading failure are: (a) the understanding of grammar and vocabulary are weak. (b) physical, for example sick, nervous, inactivity of brain and tired. (c) environment of student. because english is foreign language in indonesia. 3. the teacher ways to overcame reading failure. from the result of interview with teacher use overcame reading failure, there are: (a) a careful process of education under of competent tutor. (b) ask the students to exercise english learning white a make of the groups. (c) ask the students to reading english text and ask the other students to scrutinize. (d) the teacher also gives priority to personal approach with students him. (e) the teacher makes of group and every group one leader. (f) drilling and giving a good model to students. references brown, douglas. 1980. principle of language learning and teaching. new jersey: prentice hall. inc. anis mawati register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 213 fauzy, endang. 2004. reading on appliedlinguistics. muhammadiyah university press. ricard, jack c. and rojers theodore s. approach and methods in language teaching. new york. part chester. melbourne. sidney: cambridge university press.. dechan, emeral v. improving the teaching of readin. new jersey: prentice hall. inc. howard, melvin.1980. reading diagnosis and instruction. reston. virginia: a prentice hall. company, branen, julia.1997. memadu metode penelitian kualitatif kuantitatif. jakarta: pustaka pelajar. nadzir, muh. ph. d. metode penelitian. indonesia: galia. kartono, kartini.1990. metodologi riset sosial. bandung maju. factors influencing failure of reading register, vol. 1, no. 2, november 2008 214 199 the impact of structural competence towards speaking competence of the fourth semester students of english department muhammad nafi annury iain walisongo semarang jl. walisongo 3-5 semarang nafiannury@gmail.com abstract this paper tries to define any impact of structural competence towards speaking competence. in this research, the writer used descriptive co-relational method. it was used to describe whether there was an impact between two variables, i.e. structural competence (x) as independent variable and speaking competence (y) as dependent variable. the subject of study was the fourth semester students of english department of tarbiyah faculty iain walisongo semarang. after the data had been analyzed, it was found that there was significant impact of structural competence especially in appropriateness. it helped students to arrange words into sentences that they utter. keywords: structural competence, speaking competence abstrak makalah ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui apakah ada dampak kemampuan berbicara terhadap kemampuan struktur berbahasa. pada penelitian ini, penulis mengunakan metode deskriptif korelasi. hal tersebut digunakan untuk mengetahui apakah ada dampak antara kedua varibel tersebut; kompetensi struktur bahasa (x) sebagai variabel yang 200 tidak berpengaruh dan kompetensi berbicara (y) sebagai variabel yang terpengaruh. subyek penelitian adalah mahasiswa semester empat progdi tadris bahasa inggris fakultas pendidikan iain walisongo semarang. setelah dianalisa, ditemukan bahwa ada dampak yang signifikan terhadap kompetensi stuktur berbahasa terutama pada ketepatan pada penyusunan tuturan. hal tersebut membantu mahasiswa dalam merangkai kata untuk menyusun kalimat yang mereka tuturkan. kata kunci: kompetensi struktur berbahasa, kompetensi berbicara introduction english is an international language which used all over the world. many people learn to master it because many aspects in modern life cannot be separated from english. nowadays we can find everything is written in english. as one of the aspects of globalization, english is now considered more and more important. english is spoken throughout the world and in most of multilingual societies; it has been adopted as the official language of law, administration, commerce, and education. in nearly every country in the world, english is taught in school as the major second language (gathered, 1996: vi) there are four skills in mastering english, they are speaking, listening, reading and writing. speaking is considered primary (finocchiaro, 1973:3) because people learn to speak their native language several years before they learn to read and to write it. people judge one‘s english competence through his speaking. if a student can speak english well, it indicates that he masters english. there are some elements of language such as vocabulary, structure, pronunciation, spelling, etc. structure, as one of the elements of 201 english is very important in language teaching. it is the system of language (byrne, 1979), how the language is organized and used in communication. we can understand the language if we know its structure. some other time, the writer finds some students who understand structure, but in fact, they seem have difficulties in english especially in their speaking class. for instances: students still making mistakes on defining present and simple past tense. they often do this cause they are not realized when they have to change some activities which done in the past, therefore, they speak it in the present tense. it means that students knowledge of structural competence which they have do not support them much. since structure is a fundamental in mastering english, and speaking is considered primary, the writer formulates a problem. the writer tries to define any impact of structural competence towards speaking competence of fourth semester students of english department of tarbiyah faculty iain walisongo semarang in the academic year of 2010/2011. nature of structure as one of the elements of language, structure is very important learning, since it is the basic framework to master the production and comprehension of the typical sentences of the language. when people communicate with others, they may utter a word or some words to convey their ideas, thought or feelings. the words, which are form then, are called sentence. the sentence can be defined as a group of words joined together by grammatical agreement (relating device) and which, 202 not grammatically dependent upon any other groups, are complete in themselves (fries, 1952:20). quirk and greenbaun (1976:12) stated that a sentence may alternatively be seen as compromising five units called of sentence; structure, i.e: subject, verb, complement, object, and adverbial abbreviated as s, v, c, o, a. a. elements of sentence the elements are simply explained below: 1. subject is a noun or pronoun that comes before the verb in an ordinary affirmative sentence. it usually says (in an active sentence) who or what does the action that verb refers to. 2. verb is word, which is used with a subject to form the basics of a clause. most verbs refer to actions or states. 3. object is a noun or pronoun that normally comes after the verb (in active sentence). there are two kind of object: a) direct object it refers to a person or thing affected by the action of the verb. b) indirect object it usually refers to a person who receives the direct object. 1) adverbial is a group of words that does the same job as an adverb phrase or adverb clause. 2) complement is a part of sentence that gives more information about subject (after be, seem and the same after verbs) or in some structures, about object (swan: 1980). b. the sentence classification sentence is divided according to their structure into class simple, compound and complex sentence. 203 1. simple sentence a simple sentence is a group of words, which express a single independent thought or contains one independent clause only. quirk and greenbaun (1976: 191) divided simple sentence into four major syntactic classes, whose use correlates with different communicative functions: a) statements are sentences in which the subject is always presented and generally precedes the verb, example: a student comes to the class. b) questions are sentences marked one by one or more of these criteria: 1) the placing of the operator immediately in front of the subject, example: does a student come to the class? 2) the initial positioning of an interrogative or whelements, example: who comes to the class? 3) rising intonation, example: a student comes to the class? c) commands are sentences, which normally have no overt grammatical subject and whose; verb is in the imperative, example: come on the class! d) exclamations are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by what or how, without inversion subject and operator; example: what a diligent student! 2. compound sentence compound sentence is a sentence that combined from two or more simple sentences (main clause) joined coordinately by 204 punctuation alone, by coordinate conjunctions or by conjunctive adverbs. a) joined by punctuation alone john was sick; he did not come to school main clause main clause punctuation b) joined by coordinative conjunction; and, but, or. john was sick, but he came to school main clause main clause coordinative conjunction c) joined by conjunctive adverb; moreover, in addition, otherwise, however, nevertheless, therefore, etc. john was sick, however he came to school main clause main clause conjunctive adverb 3. complex sentence a complex sentence is a sentence that consisting of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. for example: they watch the television whenever they like main clause subordinate clause 205 4. compound complex sentence compound complex sentence is a sentence that consists of two or more main clauses and one more subordinate clauses. for example: since i had seen her the day before, i knew that he was unhappy, but i did not guess that he would give up this plan. language skills anyone who uses languages well has a number of different abilities. he/she may read books, write letters, speak on the telephone, listen to the radio, and so on. generally, we can identify four major skills such as; listening, speaking, reading and writing (hammer, 1978: 16). those skills are classified into productive and receptive skills. speaking and writing are productive skills and involve some kinds of production on the part of the language user. listening and reading understanding belong to receptive skills and involve the language user is receiving written or spoken language. when two people carry out a conversation, they very often use a combination of skills, for example speaking and listening skills. as we know that speaking is a part of language skills which should be mastered by students. as stated in the 2006 national curriculum states that students should master the four language skills besides speaking, there are: listening, writing and reading. therefore, english still becomes one of the compulsory subjects which have been afraid by students. nature of communication when two people are in talking to each other, we can fairly be sure that are so far a certain reason. the reasons they may have are as follows: 206 a. they want to say something. ―want‖ is used here in general way to suggest that speakers make definite decisions to address other people. speaking may be forced upon them but we can call still say they feel the need to speak, otherwise they would keep silent. b. they have some comunicative purposes. speakers say things because they want something to happen as a result of what they say. they may want to give information or express their ideas. they may decide to be rude or flatter, to agree communicative purpose, or succeed in conveying the message and the effect they want it to have. c. they select from their language store. speakers have an infinitive capacity to create new sentences (especially if they are native speakers). in order to achieve their communicative purpose, they will select the language they think is appropriate for this purpose. d. they want to listen to ―something‖. once again ―want‖ is used in general way. but the listeners in order to understand what they are listening to they must have some desire to do so. e. they are interested in the communicative purpose of what is being said. in general people listen to because they want to find out what the speaker is going to say – in other words what ideas they are conveying, and what effect they wish the communication to have. f. the process a variety of languages. although the listener may have a good idea of what the speaker is going to say next in general terms, he has to be prepared to process a great variety of life grammar and vocabulary to understand exactly what is being said. as we see from the explanation above that oral communication is a two-way process between speaker and listener, involving the productive skill of speaking and receptive skill of understanding. both 207 speaker and listener have a positive function to perform. the speaker has encode the message to be conveyed in appropriate language, while the listener has to decode (or interpret) the message. the message itself, in normal speech, usually contains a great deal of ―information‖ which is redundant. at the some other time, the listener is helped by prosodic feature, such as stress and intonation, which accompany the spoken utterances and form part of its meaning, hence, by facial and body movement. oral production the main goal in teaching the productive skill of speaking is oral fluency that is the ability to express oneself intelligibility, reasonably, accurately and without undue hesitation. to attain this goal, the students will be brought from the stage where they merely imitate a model or respond to cues to the point where they can use the language to express their own ideas. two complementary levels of training will therefore be required practice in the manipulation of the six elements of the language (principally the use of grammatical patterns and lexical terms) and practice in the expression of personal meaning. for the purpose the teacher cannot depend on written texts as basic for oral practice. audio – visual aids, on the other hand, provide at all levels a powerful way of stimulating and developing oral ability without resource to the written language. interdependence of the oral skills in communication although in the class practice it is often necessary to concentrate at certain times developing one of the oral skills more than others, we 208 should not lose sight of the fact that oral comunication is two-ways process between speaker and listener. thus, the speaker does not always imitate: he also responds to what he has heard, while the listener does not always remain silent: he is normally expected to make some sort of response. in classroom, therefore, appropriate provision has to be made to see that the two oral skills are integrated through situations, which permit and encourage authentic comunication. intelligibility intelligibility is usually defined in phonological sound such as /i:/ and /i/. at a level of basic understanding this aspect of intelligibility is unquestionably important but for the purpose of oral fluency, the terms need to be able to communicate effectively, the leaners need an adequate matery of grammar and vocabulary as well as phonology. in the arrea of grammar, learners should not be expected to master grammatical items simply because the exist in the language, but not only those essential for communication. oral ability and motivation the development of oral ability is a good source of motivation for most learners who normally much concern to be able to speak and uderstand a foreign language. satisfaction at being able to say a small number of sentences after a few lesson must be sustained by demonstrating to the students that they can say progresively more and more through the language as the course continues. motivation can often be improved in large classes by placing greater emphasis on the receptive skill of listening. this has the additional advantage of getting the students 209 accustomed to understanding the language without reference to a written text as well as providing opportunities the meaningful repetition of known. communicative competence from the baby onwards, everybody starts to learn how to communicate effectively and how to respond to other people‘s communications. some people are better at communicating than others, but common people learn to communicate through language. one of the importance factors in context is the nature of the participants. the age, sex, social status and educational level of the speaker and listener, all affect that the mode of expression used. the next two factors are closely connected with each other. they are actual situation in which the language occurs and the kind of contact between the participants. the importance of the situation itself has always been recognized, and it is heavily emphasized in situational language courses, as well as in travelers; phrase books, where it becomes clear that the language varies according to whether one is shopping, or asking direction, or booking at the hotel and restaurant. depending on the situation, the contact between the participants could either in speech or in writing, and at any points on the range of proximity, i.e. face to face, not face-to-face (two ways contact by telephone or correspondence), or one way contact (radio, tv, advertisement, notice). simply by observing the choice of expression, one can postulate circumstances‘ in which one or the other would be likely to be written rather than spoken, used in one place rather than another. 210 another parameter is the nature of the subject matter or topic or field of discourse. its influence has been recognized for extreme of english special purposes such as technical usage, international aviation english, legal terminology, etc. mod and purpose the way people communicate, as well as what they communicate is a matter of choice. it is restricted by the conventions of the speech community and the language itself. the external factors governing usage play their part in decreeing what is appropriate to different circumstances. a speaker is free to choose the mood as he wishes to convey as well as what he wants to say, he is constrained by the available resources of the language to fulfill his aims. that‘s why he must select not only a correct expression but one that is appropriate to his intentions. regarding the function of communication, there are five general functions, which can usefully be isolated: personal. the speaker will be open to interpret as polite, aggressive, in a hurry, angry, pleased, etc., according to how he speaks directive. the speaker attempts to control of influence the listener in some ways. establishing relationship: the speakers establish and maintain contact the listener, often by speaking in ritualized way in which what is said is not as important as the fact that is said is not as important as information to the listener. enjoyment: the speaker is using language for its own ‗sake‘ in poetry, rhymes, songs, etc (corder, 1973:42-9). 211 basic assumption structure is the rule of language that enables speakers to express and organized their ideas through sentences or utterances or in the other words to carry out a communication with others. therefore, students must understand the english structure in order to speak english. without understanding its structure, it is very hard to get the meaning of the message conveyed. research method in this study the writer used descriptive co-relational method. it was used to describe whether there was impact between two variables, i.e. structural competence (x) as independent variable and speaking competence (y) as dependent variable. the population of this research was the fourth semester students of english department tarbiyah faculty iain walisongo semarang in the academic year of 2011/2012. the number of the population was sixty (60) students. the sample was taken from the all students of fourth semester because the total number of population was less than 100 subjects. in collecting the data of this research, the writer used test as the instrument. there were two kinds of tests. the structure oral test was used to measure students‘ competence in structure. the other test, oral test was used to collect data of students‘ speaking competence. the tests had been carried out at june 27th 2011 and june 29th 2011. 1. structure test structure test of 40 items, and the test contains multiple choice ones. the test is compiled from toefl. the consideration of 212 compiling it is that toefl, is a standardized test and admitted by people to measure one‘s english competence. table 1 the content of structure test no materials item numbers 1 duration: since 1 2 used to 2 3 numerical order the 3, 4 4 not only .............. but also 5 5 causative have, make 6,7,8 6 conditional type i 9, 10 7 conditional type ii 11 8 had better 12 9 paralel structure 13, 14 10 anticipatory ii 16 11 uncountable noun 17 12 countable noun 18 13 degree comparison 19, 20 14 adjective clause 22, 23 15 would rather 24 16 passive voice 25 17 indirect question 26, 27 18 infinitive to 28, 29 19 verb + ing form 30, 31 20 verbal modifier – ing form 32 21 either; neither 33, 34 22 clause 35, 36 23 because 37 24 reflexive pronoun 38 25 because of 39 26 adverb 40 2. oral test underhill (1987: 44-81) states there are twenty techniques to test speaking skill, i.e.: discussion oral report, learner-learner joint 213 discussion, role-play, interview, learner-learner description and recreation, form filling, making appropriate responses, questions answer, reading blank dialogue, using picture, giving description, i.e.: tell story or text from aural stimuli, reading aloud, translating/interpreting sentence completion from aural or written stimulus, sentence correction, sentence transformation and sentence repetition. from those techniques, the writer taught that using picture was effective and the most efficient to conduct the test. the components of language proficiency used are: a. fluency it refers to one‘s ability to speak a language smoothly and easily b. grammar it concerns with one‘s ability to organize words into sentences grammatically correct and to measure one‘s ability in applying grammatical rule as well. c. vocabulary this item is designed to measure one‘s skill to remember or retake any words from his memory. d. pronunciation it measures one‘s ability to pronounce english sounds correctly, includes its aspects like stress, intonation, etc. 3. scoring systems a. scoring of structure test the structure test consists of 40 items and all are multiple choice. the score of each number is one for the right one. so we can get a maximum score around 40. 214 b. scoring of oral test as mentioned above that the test type used is using picure. there are seven pictures that must be retold by the students for about ten minutes. the components of language proficiency, grammar, vocabulary and pronounciation. the maximum score of each is 20, thus the total score is 80. table 2 the speaking score no language aspects number of items score 1 2 3 4 fluency grammar vocabulary pronounciation total 5x4 5x4 5x4 5x4 20 20 20 20 80 to make it easier, the writer gives criteria for each components and it is applied by score 1 – 5. the criteria are mentioned below: 1. fluency 5: speak smoothly and easily without any grooving 4 : speak with only accational hesitation 3: frequently have to think first before speak but enable to continue to speak 2: often stop speaking 1: say a word then stop speaking 2. grammar 5: the sentences are all grammatically correct 4: making mistakes but not destroy the meaning 215 3: making mistakes and destroy the meaning 2: the utterances are difficult to be understood 1: the speech cannot be understood at all 3. vocabulary 5: using appropriate vocabulary 4: using some innapropriate words 3: frequently using innapropriate 2: having very limited vocabulary 1: stop speaking at all 4. pronounciation 5: pronounce all words correctly 4: understandable although having certain accent 3: paying attention a lot of and making understanding 2: often making misprouncing 1: the speech is not understandable discussion students’ structural competence 1. classical structural competence in measuring the classical structural competence is 50.4%. thus the classical structural competence is 50.4%. it can be said that the students structural competence is fair. to know the precentage of students‘ competence, arikunto (1991: 67) suggested five categories the students‘ competence as follows: a. very good: if 81-100% the answer are correct b. good: if 61-80% of the answer are correct 216 c. fair: if 41-60% of the answer are correct d. bad: if 21-60% of the answer are correct e. very bad: if 0-20% of the answer are correct 2. frequency distribution of structural competence the computation of frequency distribution of students‘ structural competence is as follows: table 3 the length of class interval class interval fi xi fixi 30 – 32 3 31 93 27 – 29 5 28 140 24 – 26 8 25 200 21 – 23 12 22 264 18 – 20 16 19 304 15 – 17 10 19 160 des – 14 6 13 78 total 50 157 1239 a. determining the range of scores by substracting the highest score by lowest score. the range of students‘ structure is the highest score: 31, and the lowest score: 12. the range is 19. b. the number of class interval by using the formula 1 + 3.3 log 50. the result is 6.606. so the number of class internal is 7. c. length of class interval is 2.71 in this case the length of class interval used is 3 217 3. measure of central tendency of structural competence table 4 the structural competence mean median mode 20.31 20.125 19.3 a. the mean of students‘ structural competence has been compurized by frequency distribution is 20.31 b. thus the median of structural competence is 20,125 c. mode 19.3 students’ speaking competence table 5 the students‘ speaking competence class interval fi yi fi . yi 72 – 74 3 73 219 69 – 71 9 70 630 66 – 68 13 67 871 63 – 65 3 64 192 60 – 62 15 61 915 57 – 59 5 58 290 54 – 56 5 55 275 51 – 53 5 52 260 total 58 62 3652 1. classical speaking competence is 80. 125% thus the classical speaking competence is 80.125%. we can categorize that the classical speaking competence is good. it can be seen in arikunto (1991: 67) in the previous pages. 218 2. frequency distribution the computation of frequency distribution of students speaking competence is as follows: a. the range of students‘ speaking competence is, the highest score: 73, and the lowest score: 51. the range is 22. b. the number of class interva by using the formula: 1 + 3.3 log 50, the result is 6.606. so, the number of class interval is 7 c. the length of class interval (p) is 3.14 in this case the length of class interval used is 3 3. measure of central tendency of speaking competence a. the mean is 59,868 thus the main of speaking competence is 59.868 b. median thus, the median of speaking competence is 66,4 c. mode the mode of speaking competence is 66.357 product moment correlation the computation of product moment correlation coefficient is done after we find the values of n, ∑x, ∑y, ∑x 2 , ∑y 2 , and ∑ xy score. the result of computation using pearson‘s formula is 0.990 table 6 the respondents respondents r y x^2 y^2 xy r1 20 60 400 3600 1200 r2 16 56 256 3136 896 r3 19 59 361 3481 1121 219 r4 23 63 529 3969 1449 r5 19 59 361 3481 1121 r6 17 57 289 3249 969 r7 17 57 289 3249 969 r8 18 58 324 3364 1044 r9 18 58 324 3364 1044 r10 18 58 324 3364 1044 r11 22 62 484 3844 1364 r12 20 60 400 3600 1200 r13 24 64 576 4096 1536 r14 20 60 400 3600 1200 r15 19 59 361 3481 1121 r16 21 61 441 3721 1281 r17 27 67 729 4489 1809 r18 26 66 676 4356 1716 r19 24 64 576 4096 1536 r20 13 53 169 2809 689 r21 15 55 225 3025 825 r22 23 63 529 3969 1449 r23 19 59 361 3481 1121 r24 21 61 441 3721 1281 r25 15 55 225 3025 825 r26 26 66 676 4356 1716 r27 24 64 576 4096 1536 r28 20 60 400 3600 1200 r29 20 60 400 3600 1200 r30 20 60 400 3600 1200 r31 22 62 484 3844 1364 r32 21 61 441 3721 1281 r33 19 59 361 3481 1121 r34 21 61 441 3721 1281 r35 19 59 361 3481 1121 r36 23 63 529 3969 1449 r37 16 56 256 3136 896 r38 23 63 529 3969 1449 r39 18 58 324 3364 1044 r40 20 60 400 3600 1200 r41 19 59 361 3481 1121 220 r42 20 60 400 3600 1200 r43 20 60 400 3600 1200 r44 23 63 529 3969 1449 r45 26 66 676 4356 1716 r46 19 59 361 3481 1121 r47 22 62 484 3844 1364 r48 21 61 441 3721 1281 r49 18 58 324 3364 1044 r50 21 61 441 3721 1281 r51 22 62 484 3844 1364 r52 21 61 441 3721 1281 r53 21 61 441 3721 1281 r54 20 60 400 3600 1200 r55 24 64 576 4096 1536 r56 17 57 289 3249 969 r57 25 65 625 4225 1625 r58 20 60 400 3600 1200 r59 15 55 225 3025 825 r60 20 60 400 3600 1200 r61 20 60 400 3600 1200 1240 3680 25726 222526 75326 from this table above we know that the computation of product moment correlation coefficient is done after we find the values of n, ∑x, ∑y, ∑x2, ∑y2, and ∑ xy score. the result of computation using pearson‘s formula is 0.0990. conclusion the classical structural competence of fourth semester students of english department of tarbiyah faculty iain walisongo semarang is 50.4%. it can be catgorized in fair level and the mean of structural competence is 20.125. the classical speaking competence of fourth semester students of english department of tarbiyah faculty iain 221 walisongo semarang is 59.868% and it is good category. the mean of speaking competence is 63.76. it occurs because structure is a small element in speaking besides vocabulary, pronounciation, and fluency that work together. the result showed that there was significant impact of structural competence especially in appropriateness because they are able to arrange words into sentences when they utter. references arikunto, suharsimi. 2006. prosedur penelitian: suatu pendekatan praktik. jakarta: pt. rineka cipta. byrne, james. 1973. principles of language learning and teaching. new york: addison wesley longman corder, dale. 1973. how to develop self-confidence and influence people by public speaking. london: vermilion. fries, cc. 1952. speech communication made simple. new york: addison wesley longman. guthered, tim.1996. the study of second language acquisition. oxford: oxford university press. harmer, jeremy. 2001. the practice of english language teaching. great britain: pearson education limited. underhill, m. 1987. principles of language learning and teaching. new york: addison wesley longman. swan. 1980. writing english language tests. london: longman. 222 register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.157-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ rhetorical perspectives of undergraduate students’ theses abstracts siyaswati university of pgri adi buana surabaya siyasw@gmail.com dyah rochmawati university of pgri adi buana surabaya dyahrochma@unipasby.ac.id doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i2.157-169 submission track: received: 18-11-2017 final revision: 29-11-2017 available online: 01-12-2017 english abstract the present article aims at describing the students‟ theses abstracts viewed from the rhetorical perspectives. it examines whether the abstracts provided in the university website include the essential rhetorical moves and whether the moves are presented in the sequence according to hyland‟s five-move classification (introduction, purpose, method, product, and conclusion) of rhetorical moves. eighty abstracts of the research articles written by the students were collected using purposive sampling. the frequency of occurrence of each move was statistically calculated and tallied. two esl (english as a second language) researchers validated the data classification. the findings revealed that 53.75% of the abstracts were found out to be written in accordance with the structure. most abstracts give information on the purpose, methodology, and findings of the associated article. about half of the articles omit introduction of the topic and discussion of the findings. moves “product” and “conclusion” were missing in a few abstracts. the students‟ lengthy “introduction” move and over brief “product” move were found in most abstracts. some rhetorical moves appeared to have higher incidence of occurrences than the others. the findings lend further insights into the needs of professional development among academics, particularly in academic research report writing. key words: rhetorical moves, student’s article abstracts indonesian abstract artikel ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan abstrak skripsi mahasiswa dilihat dari sudut pandang retorikmeneliti apakah abstrak-abstrak tersebut memiliki „rhetorical moves‟ yang esensial dan apakah http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i2.157-169 siyaswati & dyah rochmawati 158 „rhetorical moves‟ dipresentasikan dalam urutan sesuai dengan klasifikasi lima langkah hyland (pendahuluan, tujuan, metode, produk, dan kesimpulan) gerakan retoris. delapan puluh abstrak artikel penelitian yang ditulis oleh siswa dikumpulkan dengan menggunakan purposive sampling. frekuensi terjadinya setiap „move‟ dihitung. dua peneliti esl (bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa kedua) memvalidasi klasifikasi data. temuan menunjukkan bahwa 53,75% abstrak ditemukan ditulis sesuai dengan strukturnya. sebagian besar abstrak memberikan informasi tentang tujuan, metodologi, dan temuan dari artikel yang terkait. sekitar setengah dari artikel menghilangkan pengenalan topik dan diskusi tentang temuan. tidak terdapat move "produk" dan "kesimpulan" dalam beberapa abstrak. ditemukan pula move "pengantar" yang panjang dan "produk" yang singkat pada kebanyakan abstrak. beberapa move tampaknya ditemukan lebih banyak daripada yang lain. temuan ini memberikan wawasan lebih lanjut mengenai kebutuhan pengembangan profesional di kalangan akademisi, terutama dalam penulisan laporan penelitian akademis. kata kunci: „rhetorical moves‟, abstrak artikel mahasiswa introduction an abstract is the most important part of a research article because it represents the summary of the entire article. an abstract is the first part of an academic article that readers will read in order to determine the relevancy of the article to the readers (hongwei & yuying 2011). hence, it acts as readers‟ screening device (huckin, 2006). therefore, the quality of an abstract and its persuasiveness is essential in attracting readers‟ interest to read the entire article. it is therefore crucial for writers to ensure that they use effective rhetorical choices in their abstract and follow appropriate sequence of the rhetorical moves when developing their abstracts in order to increase the rate of their article being read in its entirety. in addition, it still reflects the writer‟s academic credibility (sidek, et.al, 2016). previous studies (gessesse, 2016; khansari, et.al., 2016; nikpei, 2016; chalak & norouzi, 2013; sabouri & hashemi; ren & li, 2011) have shown the indispensable importance of abstracts in the contemporary flow. it has received considerable attention in academic written genre among the international community. many researchers have recently turned to the relevant research in relation to genre analysis, thematic organization, formulaic language, rhetorical structure, etc. research in terms of rhetorical structures such as moves and steps is register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.157-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ also regarded as one of the recommendations for further research expansion (tu & wang, 2013). there have been extensive studies on abstract in published articles and graduate theses (ibid.). the studies on undergraduate students‟ abstracts in their research articles and theses seem to be rather scarce. taking into account the importance of quality of academic writing and the scarcity of studies on abstracts for undergraduate students, the current study attempted to analyze undergraduate students‟ abstract writings in their undergraduate theses as to the extent to which they meet the standard abstract rhetorical moves. the purpose of the current study was to examine whether the students‟ abstracts provided in their undergraduate thesis include the essential rhetorical moves and whether the moves are presented in the sequence according to the selected classification. therefore, the study pursued the following research following: research question 1: do the abstracts in the undergraduate students‟ research articles include the required rhetorical moves? research question 2: do the abstracts in the undergraduate students‟ research articles follow the rhetorical moves sequence? methods the current study examined abstracts in the selected undergraduate students‟ theses written in english and of their relevant academic discipline or topics. in selecting the samples for the study, the first section of the thesis, which comprises the abstract written in english and indonesian, was first screened according to the language of each abstract. in the initial screening phase, all abstracts in indonesian were excluded. the second phase was to identify the rhetorical moves of the abstracts for empirical studies. therefore, all abstracts for theoretical and conceptual papers were excluded. the screening yielded 80 abstracts for studies, which are empirical in nature. the reason of selecting only abstracts for empirical studies was due to the use and the sequence of rhetorical moves, as suggested by hyland (2000), in abstracts for empirical studies papers are more explicit and relevant than abstracts siyaswati & dyah rochmawati 160 in theoretical or conceptual papers (chalak & norouzi, 2013).the abstracts from thesis were examined according to hyland‟s (2000) five-move classification (introduction, purpose, method, product, and conclusion) of rhetorical moves as shown in table 1. table 1 hyland‟s five-move model of abstract analysis introduction establishes context of the paper and motivates the research purpose indicates purpose, thesis or hypothesis, outlines the intention behind the paper methods provides information on design, procedures, assumptions, approach, data, etc. product states main findings or results, the argument, or what was accomplished. conclusion interprets or extends results beyond the scope of the paper, draws inferences, points to applications, or wider applications (hyland, 2000, p. 67) the data analysis is twofold following the procedure by wu and tang (2013). the former was the quantitative analysis focusing on the investigation of verb tense, especially set out for the types of moves. the latter was the qualitative analysis to assess the rhetorical structure in accordance with hyland‟s (2000) five-move classification. the moves were applied in reviewing the moves structure of the selected abstracts in acquiring the data for the study. to insure the consistency of the analysis, a subset of abstracts was given to the selected coder, an expert in discourse analysis, to independently conduct the individual move identification (saeeaw & tangkiengsirisin, 2014). the validity index was 0.98 as shown in table 2. the validity index is an “index of inter-rater agreement that simply expresses the proportion of agreement, and agreement can be inflated by chance factors.” (polit & beck, 2006: 491). the value means that the classification was judged to be quite or highly relevant since lynn (1986) recommended that the index should not be lower than .78 to be rated as quite or highly relevant. table 2 summarized results of inter-coder reliability analysis in percentage moves coded units agreement disagreement percentage introduction 51 51 0 100 purpose 58 58 0 100 methods 49 48 1 97.95 product 62 60 2 96.77 register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.157-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ conclusion 52 50 2 96.15 total 272 267 5 98.16 in order to answer research question 1, the selected abstract were analyzed by tabulating the moves structure of each abstract according to the revised hyland‟s (2000) moves category. to answer research question 2, the data were analyzed by marking the presence and absence of each rhetorical move as in the revised hyland‟s (2000) moves classification. therefore, the coding used to analyze sequence was introduction move (either the presence of problem move or theory move or both moves), purpose move, method move, product move and conclusion move. hence, an abstract that has at least either component of the introduction move (problem move or theory move) was considered to have sufficed the introduction move. all missing moves in each abstract were recorded to determine if the abstract‟s moves structure in sequence or not. abstracts that contain all the moves were categorized as abstracts with rhetorical moves sequential structure. on the other hand, abstracts that have missing moves were categorized as abstracts without rhetorical moves sequential structure. discussion rhetorical moves classification the research findings are presented in two parts: (1) certain variations of the move frequency, and (2) the move sequencing. the rhetorical moves frequency section presents the findings for research question 1 while rhetorical moves sequence presents the findings for research question 2. table 2 shows the rhetorical move analysis for the introduction move, consisting of the problem move and the theory move. out of 80 abstracts, about 51 % presented the research problem as the introduction moves in their abstracts while approximately 35 % use theory as their introduction move. only 18 % of the selected abstracts incorporate both problem and theory moves as part of their introduction move. table 2 introduction rhetorical move analysis siyaswati & dyah rochmawati 162 moves introduction move problem theory problem & theory total abstracts (f) 41 28 11 inclusion yes no yes no yes no percentage (%) 51 49 35 65 18 82 table 3 presents the rhetorical move analysis for the purpose move. approximately 73 % of the selected abstracts contain the purpose move and about 27 % excluded the purpose move. table 3 purpose rhetorical move analysis moves purpose move total abstracts (f) yes no inclusion 58 22 percentage (%) 73 27 table 4 demonstrates the method rhetorical move analysis. it reveals that approximately 61 % of the selected abstracts comprise the method move and only about 39% of the selected abstracts did not include the method move. table 4 method rhetorical move analysis moves method move total abstracts (f) yes no register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.157-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ inclusion 49 31 percentage (%) 61 39 table 5 provides the statistics of the product rhetorical move analysis. the majority of the selected abstracts (78%) included the product move. only 18 abstracts (22%) did not include the product move. table 5 product rhetorical move analysis moves product move total abstracts (f) yes no inclusion 62 18 percentage (%) 78 22 table 6 depicts the findings of the conclusion rhetorical move analysis. approximately, 78 percent of the abstracts included the conclusion move while about 22 percent of the abstract were without the conclusion move. table 6 conclusion rhetorical move analysis moves product move total abstracts (f) yes no inclusion 52 28 percentage (%) 65 35 rhetorical moves sequential structure siyaswati & dyah rochmawati 164 this section presents the findings for research question 2. the findings are in the forms of overall analysis of rhetorical moves sequential structure and the types of missing moves structure. table 7 shows that that the majority of the selected abstracts (54%) did not follow the rhetorical moves sequential structure. only 37 abstracts (46%) followed the sequence. table 7 overall analysis of abstract rhetorical moves sequential structure abstract with sequential structure abstract without sequential structure 37(f) 43(f) 46% 54% n=80 table 8: analysis of types of missing moves structure missing moves structures frequency percentage (%) (int)-pur-met-pro-con 18 22.5 int-(pur)-met-pro-con 12 15 int-pur-(met)-pro-con 8 1 int-pur-met-pro-(con) 9 11.25 (int)-pur-(met)-(pro)-con 12 15 (int)-pur-met-pro-(con) 11 13.75 int-pur-(met)-pro-(con) 5 0.625 int-(pur)-met-pro-(con) 4 0.5 n=80 key: (int)= missing introduction move; (pur)= missing purpose move; (met)= missing method move; (pro)= missing product move; (con)= missing conclusion move register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.157-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ table 8 exhibits that there were 8 types of missing moves structure which the authors of the selected abstracts committed. the most prominent was the (int)-pur-met-pro-con type (22.5%) followed by the int-pur-(met)-pro-con and (int)-pur-(met)-(pro)-con types. both carried 15% in weight. they were then followed by (int)-pur-met-pro-(con) type (13.75%), int-pur-met-pro-(con) type (11.25) and int-pur-(met)-pro-(con) type (1%). the other types, int-pur-(met)-pro-(con) and int-(pur)-met-pro-(con)] carried a similar percentage (.625% and .5%). the findings of this study show that all of the abstract writers have one or more missing rhetorical moves in their abstracts. this finding is despite the rhetorical moves identified by hyland (2000) being commonly used in abstract writing. providing the introduction moves seems to be disregarded by most of the authors. based on the finding of this study, the majority of the authors (79%) began their abstracts with the purpose move. this phenomenon could be due to the author‟s belief that providing the background of the study in the abstract is not necessary for readers to get the essence of their studies. when a move falls below 60 percent, such move can be considered as optional rather than conventional. in this study, three types of introduction moves structure were identified, namely problem move, theory move and a combination of problem and theory move. the existence of various forms could be because there are no explicit standard rules for decision on moves for abstracts (sidek, et.al, 2016). the findings is consistent with the ones of tu and wang (2013) that the majority of the randomly selected from jslw corpus employed the ipmprc structure, which was found out to contain 28.8% of the ja abstracts written in this structural pattern. kanoksilapatham (2005) as quoted in saeeaw & tangkiengsirisin (2014) suggested that the presence of the introduction move reflects the richness of current literature in the fields and, on the other hand, the absence of the move may be due most likely to the relatively short history in the fields. the introduction move is not considered as conventional (sidek, et.al, 2016). in this study, the purpose move carries 73 percent, a finding, which suggests that this move is a conventional rhetorical move, structure in abstract (kanoksilapatham, 2005 in sidek, et.al, 2016 ). there were 27% of the authors who did not include the purpose move in their abstracts although the purpose of a study is a pivotal part that is to inform readers of the siyaswati & dyah rochmawati 166 main reason the study was conducted. sidek, et.al (2016) further suggested that the readers should be informed of the purpose of the study since the absence of the purpose move might be at the expense of the article not being read. hence, although within the context of this study the abstracts that do not have the purpose move is regarded as minority comparatively, this finding prevails as an issue of concern as to the reasons those academics overlooked the inclusion of the purpose move. regarding the inclusion of the method move, 61% of the abstracts contain the method move. there were 39% of the authors who did not include the method move in their abstracts. since the abstracts selected for this study were for empirical studies in nature, if the method move is absent, an abstract can be considered obscure because the methodology of a research is the index of the legitimacy of the findings of the research (sidek, et.al., 2016). the absence of the method move makes the findings presented in the abstract to be questionable because it is missing the basis of how the findings were derived. in addition, this may reflect the author‟s deficit as an academic author and a researcher. this missing move could also result in the article not being read regardless of the actual quality of the study in the article since an abstract is a gateway to the full article (hartley & benjamin, 1998; swales, 1990 as quoted in sidek, et.al., 2016). in relation to the provision of product move in the abstract, the findings in the present study indicated that the majority of the authors whose abstracts were selected for this study acknowledge the importance of including the product move in their abstracts. this finding also reflects awareness among the authors that the output of this study must be included in an abstract. only one abstract is without the product move; a statistic that can be waived because it could be due to unintentional human error (sidek, et.al., 2016). as in the case of the finding of the purpose move analysis, the majority of the selected abstract (65%) consist the conclusion move. the conclusion move comes primarily in the form of a statement of the discussion of implications. this form of conclusion move is a common concluding remark in an academic research abstract. since this study does not involve interviewing the authors of the selected abstracts, it is inconclusive as of the reason of the exclusion of the conclusion move in about 35 percent of the selected abstracts. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.157-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ in terms of the findings for rhetorical moves sequential structure analysis, the prominent finding is in alignment with the finding for introduction move analysis. the most prominent moves structure sequence is purpose-method-product-conclusion (22.5%). the missing moves pattern seems to vary, ranging from a minimum one to maximum three missing moves. in this study, although the three missing moves such as in the purposeconclusion moves structure was only found in one abstract, this finding has a significant adverse notion because it reflects an academic‟s knowledge and awareness of what an abstract should constitute, which is one of the basic knowledge in research report writing. in general, the various missing moves structures against hyland‟s (2000) commonly identified moves structure raises the question on the level and extent of academic research report writing knowledge and skills among academics. conclusion from the previous discussion, it can be concluded that the students‟ abstract writing is thus instrumental in constructing an impression of a writer who has a legitimate place in the scientific discourse community. the structure of i-p-m-pr-c is most prevalent in the students‟ abstracts. the analysis also shows that the rhetorical strategies deployed by the scholars in these two applied disciplines are relatively similar. the last deviation from hyland‟s model is the move cycling patterns in the field of the english language teaching. when several results are reported serially, some such moves as methods, product, and conclusion are likely to recur in the text a number of times (saeeaw & tangkiengsirisin, 2014). the implications of this study are valuable for didactic purposes, i.e. writing pedagogy. there is a need for language teachers to empower learners with strategies in response to the academic writing. in addition, the implications deal with the description of undergraduate writing. explicit discussion of language features in moves can be enabling or empowering for student writers who are trying to join a particular scientific community. the third implication concerns future research based on the findings of the present study. it will be interesting to compare the language choices that are made by undergraduates in their abstracts and the ones of expert writers in similar subjects. references siyaswati & dyah rochmawati 168 chalak, & norouzi. (2013). rhetorical moves and verb tense in abstracts: a comparative analysis of american and iranian academic writin. international journal of language studies, 7 (4), 101-110. gessesse, c.m. (2016). an investigation into the macro rhetorical structures of the efl research abstracts of graduates of 2013: the case of bahir dar university in ethiopia. online journal of communication and media technologies, 6(1), 1-22. hyland, k. (2000). disciplinary discourses: social interactions in academic writing. london: longman. lynn, m.r. (1986). determination and quantification of content validity. nursing research, 35, 382– 385. khansari, d., heng, c. s., yuit, c.m., yan, h. (2016). regularities and irregularities in rhetorical move structure of linguistics abstracts in research articles. 3l: the southeast asian journal of english language studies, 22(1): 39 – 54. nikpei, h. (2016). rhetorical moves of abstracts written by tefl students and molecular biology graduate studentsa comparative study. international journal of english language & translation studies. 4(4), 172-179. retrieved from www.eltsjournal.org. polit, d. f., & beck, c. t. (2006). the content validity index: are you sure you know what‟s being reported? critique and recommendations. research in nursing & health, 29, 489–497. ren, h. & li, y. (2011). a comparison study on the rhetorical moves of abstracts in published research articles and master‟s foreign-language theses. english language teaching, 4 (1), 162-167. saboori, f. & hashemi, m. r. (2013). a cross-disciplinary move analysis of research article abstracts. international journal of language learning and applied linguistics world (ijllalw), 4 (4), 483-496. sidek, h.m., saad, n. s. m., baharun h., & idris m. m. (2016). an analysis of rhetorical moves in abstracts for conference proceedings. ijasosinternational e-journal of advances in social sciences, ii (4), april 2016, 24-32. http://www.eltsjournal.org/ register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.157-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ saeeaw, s. & tangkiengsirisin, s. (2014). rhetorical variation across research article abstracts in environmental science and applied linguistics. english language teaching, 7 (8), 81-93. tu, p. & wang, s. (2013). corpus-based research on tense analysis and rhetorical structure in journal article abstracts. proceedings of the 27th pacific asia conference on language, information, and computation, 102-107. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.13-27 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.13-27 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 13 factors contributing to efl students’ speaking anxiety herri mulyono university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, indonesia hmulyono@uhamka.ac.id ferawati university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, indonesia ferawati1996@gmail.com ratih novita sari university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, indonesia ratihnovitasari@uhamka.ac.id sri kusuma ningsih university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, indonesia sri_kusuma@uhamka.ac.id doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.13-27 submission track: received: 14/03/2019 final revision: 15/05/2019 available online: 01/06/2019 corresponding author: herri mulyono hmulyono@uhamka.ac.id abstract this small-scale qualitative study aimed to examine factors that contributed to english as a foreign language (efl) students’ speaking anxiety. seven international students studying at three universities in indonesia were interviewed and the collected data were transcribed and analysed using thematic analysis. the results revealed that the student participants experienced both facilitative and debilitative speaking anxiety when interacting with their peers during classroom learning. language barriers, negative attitudes, and intercultural communication apprehension were identified to provoke foreign language speaking anxiety among the students. more importantly, these three factors also contributed to students’ feeling of anxiety when communicating with people on a daily basis. keywords: english as a foreign language (efl), foreign language speaking anxiety (flsa), facilitative and debilitative speaking anxiety, http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.13-27 herri mulyono 14 introduction in foreign language education, foreign language anxiety (henceforth fla) has been recognised as a major factor influencing foreign language (fl) students’ learning achievement and performance (awan, azher, anwar, & naz, 2010; bekleyen, 2009; hewitt & stephenson, 2012). numerous studies have explored the critical roles of fla in fl students’ learning to read (rajab, zakaria, rahman, hosni, & hassani, 2012; sari, 2017; zarei, 2014), learning to listen (cheng, 2005; tahsildar & yusoff, 2014; xu, 2011), learn to speak (suleimenova, 2013; tóth, 2011; zhiping & paramasivam, 2013), and students’ learning to write (balta, 2018; cheng, 2004; meng & tseng, 2013). horwitz, horwitz, and cope (1986) perceive fla as a unique type of anxiety that describes a complex facet of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviours related to the fl learning process. students who face the facet tend to encounter anxiousness, apprehension, even alertness, have difficulty concentrating, become forgetful, remain silent, have palpitations and sweat while in fl settings. in addition, students tend to exhibit avoidance behaviour, such as postponing homework and being absent to alleviate their anxiety. this facet is also experienced by international students in indonesia yet only has attracted little research in the country. therefore, this study is intended to provide new insights on flsa among international students in an indonesian context by addressing the factors contribute to speaking anxiety encountered by international fl students in indonesian universities. the present study would benefit english practitioners and fl students in identifying factors that restrict the success in spoken communication. with regards to the role of fla in students’ oral performance, a study by choubey (2011) has found that fla discouraged students from producing the tl. interestingly, such anxiety emerges during communication between english as a foreign language (efl) learners and native speakers, but also when efl learners were engaged in communication with english native-like accented interlocutors. in the study, choubey presented an interview situation wherein the participant confidently answered the interview question spoken in hindi, but when the interviewee switched to english, the participants’ face impersonated tantalised mimics. this indicates that fla restricted the students from giving their best oral performance in the tl. in addition, suleimenova (2013) showed that students’ speaking anxiety has a debilitative effect, which hinders learners from speaking, causing them to face ‘mental block’, stay quiet and feel inferior to others. they suddenly started to panic, which led to them forgetting words register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.13-27 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.13-27 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 15 and phrases, undoubtedly demotivating them to speak english and remain silent. similarly, ebrahimi (2013) reported that speaking anxiety as a deterring element occurred among 100 students at an iran university who had ten years of learning english. according to the questionnaire measuring the foreign language anxiety scale (flas) consisting of 33 items, almost all participants felt anxious while speaking english, with most of them panicking when they had to speak english without preparation, half of them felt unsure about themselves, and the rest were incredibly nervous when speaking english. despite the negative effects of fla on students’ language learning achievement and performance, the literature also suggests the benefits fla. selvam, kamal, swaminathan, and baskaran (2016) believe that fla plays a significant role in motivating students to learn more from their deficiency in producing fl. they investigated 100 efl students using a 4-point likert scale questionnaire at a malaya university to identify facilitative effects caused by their anxiety, finding that the learners with moderate speaking anxiety (sa) felt motivated to learn from their failures, and willing to try to speak better. another study by pong (2010) investigated if facilitative or debilitative sa exists among 32 efl students at a taiwan university. student participants were asked to make their speech’ videos and upload them on youtube. then he asked them to write two journals on their thoughts of posting their own videos along with suggestions for the second semester. the results revealed that the students prepared better and practised harder when the speaking was not in a direct communication but recorded. interestingly, both positive and negative effects of fla on fl students’ sa are not only experienced by fl students who stay in their home countries but also international students studying abroad, as many international students must adapt to new languages and diverse cultures. a study by hellsten and prescott (2004) explored internationalism of an australian university’s curriculum, and how this affects 48 international efl students from from 16 countries. the findings highlighted international students’ commentaries on communication issues between teachers and their peers, with some participants suffering debilitative sa and others experiencing sa as a facilitative facet. several factors have been identified in literature concerning international students who experience both facilitative (fsa) and debilitative speaking anxiety (dsa) on their efl herri mulyono 16 learning, including language barriers, negative attitudes and intercultural communication apprehension (amiri & puteh, 2018; azarfam & baki, 2012; yang, salzman, & yang, 2015; zhiping & paramasivam, 2013). these factors have interfered with their speech performance, not only when the learners generate ideas but also during speaking, but under other conditions (i.e. moderate sa), it assisted the learners to perform better orally. factors contributing to flsa among international students numerous studies (blume, 2013; seyitoglu, guven, & kocabulut, 2015; stewart & tassie, 2011; zhiping & paramasivam, 2013; zhou, 2014) have explored several factors contributing to flsa, some of which are language barriers, negative attitude and intercultural communication apprehension. language barriers such as poor grammar, lack of vocabulary, unclear pronunciation, and interlocutors’ language deficiency have been considered as major factors that contribute to international fl learners’ anxiety to speak in a target language. blume (2013) examined sa as a barrier to undergraduate students’ leadership, adaptability, and multicultural appreciation in a mid-western university. the results showed that sa was negatively associated with their willingness to take on leadership opportunities, multicultural appreciation, and adaptability to new environment, which accordingly prevented the students from reaching their full potential. for instance, a student may be quite good at communicating in english, but when sa arises, it prevents them from actively engaging in conversation opportunities that may serve to their benefit. in addition, brown (2008) conducted an ethnographic study of 150 international postgraduate students at a university in the south of england, performing in-depth interviews with 13 students and 150 students’ observation during a twelve-month academic year. she utilised purposive sampling to choose specific participants and was a lecturer in english at the university. one of the major themes which emerged from her study was students’ anxiety due to their level of english language. they felt embarrassed, inferior, and anxiety, often being distressed by their poor spoken english even though they had enrolled in their course with a minimum level of ielts 6. low self-confidence also arose as they perceived that they were ill-equipped to engage in class discussion and in social interaction that used english as a means of communication. a typical reaction to stress caused by language problems was to retreat into collateral communication with students from the same nations, further hindering progress in the language. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.13-27 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.13-27 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 17 the literature also suggests the role of students’ negative attitude in promoting flsa. some negative attitudes, such as fear of being in public and shyness, unwelcoming gestures and facial expressions, interlocutors’ corrections, and high expectations towards the learners have been drivers for the students not to involve in fl communication. hammad and ghali (2015) examined 340 palestinian efl pre-service teachers sa level, and its potential causes. they distributed 61 open-question item questionnaires and 279 closed-question item questionnaires among the students, showing that their sa was excessive. most students felt afraid of committing mistakes and they insisted on a high level of efl oral performance, tending to speak in the tl on a standard level discourage them as they think much of inaccuracy they were going to make. in addition, zhiping and paramasivam (2013) investigated the factors of international students anxiety and how to alleviate their anxiety. the data consisted of observations and semi-structured interviews of eight international postgraduate students at a malaysian university. the interviews were administered before and after the class, and during the class break. the data were analysed using discourse analysis. the findings revealed that when speaking in a fl, anxious students did not want to make mistakes, feeling that they were tested all the time and every correction they received meant a failure. moreover, amiri and puteh (2018) explored factors that contributed to sa among international doctoral students from several malaysian universities. applying a qualitative method, they conducted observations and interviews, analysing the students’ experiences in communicating with the examination panel during academic presentations (e.g., proposal and viva). the results showed that the doctoral students were apprehensive of the academic presentation, and that the examination panels were severe, strict and moody leading to students’ reluctance to speak. intercultural communication apprehension may also play a role in international fl learners sa. the learners with different cultures are gathering pace with their hosts when they try to exchange information verbally (i.e. seyitoglu et al., 2015; zhou, 2014). the link between the different cultures and communication has formed intercultural communication. these students usually have different world views, norms, and behaviour patterns as evidenced by seyitoglu et al. (2015). indeed, this condition may cause anxiety, fear and worry among the learners during communication with their hosts. according to zhiping and paramasivam (2013), learners have a concept of “saving face”, so when addressed by someone who commits herri mulyono 18 a face-threatening act, they save face loss and the communication breaks down. also, in comparison to westerners, they tend not to make eye contact while conversing, as confirmed by stewart (2011), that cultural differences and misunderstandings certainly influence public speaking encounters. gopang and bughio (2015) explored the intercultural communication apprehension (ica) and fla among students in a university in balochistan, collecting data via questionnaires and interviews. the results indicated that despite having positive views about other cultures, some students still encounter anxious feelings, often being distracted and confused if they communicate with people who have distinct beliefs and values. they also revealed that they tend to feel shy speaking in front of people and are less interested to know about their set of beliefs and values. research methodology design and participants the current study employed a qualitative approach by applying a case study design to obtain in-depth information regarding the phenomenon of flsa in an indonesian tertiary context. eight international students studying at three universities in indonesia participated in the study. they were selected randomly on a voluntary basis and ease of access. they were two males and six female students. prior to the study, it was established that they started learning english in kindergarten and primary school up to tertiary level, they also attended english courses in their spare time in their home countries, so were familiar with english for approximately twelve years. none of them had ever visited any english-speaking country and their background is detailed in table 1. table 1. background of the participants name* nationality age sex major languages year of stay sokha cambodian 21 m management english, khmer, indonesia 2 years mirjam yemen 20 f indonesian language english, arabic, japanese, indonesian 1 year akara thai 22 m english teacher training & pedagogy english, thai, indonesian 3 years bormey cambodian 23 m geo engineering english, khmer, french 8 months register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.13-27 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.13-27 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 19 gianna ecuadorian 21 f english english, spanish, indonesian 10 months mai vietnamese 22 f indonesian english, indonesian, vietnamese 1 year nassima algerian 23 f indonesian english, french, arabic, indonesian 1 year *the participants have been given pseudonyms data collection and analysis in the current study, students’ anxiety to speak in a fl was explored through a semistructured interview. eight interview questions were developed under four topics as suggested by tóth (2011, p.43) and shown in table 2. the interviews were audio-recorded and each interview lasted between six until thirty-seven minutes. table 2. four topic areas adapted from tóth (2011, p.43) topics language learning history starting when, where, what language, memories of english in primary/secondary school, time spent in english speaking countries, frequency of contact with native english speakers attitudes to english effort expended, satisfaction with competence, ease or difficulty impression of and to university english classes atmosphere likes and dislikes, teacher personality, problems/difficulties when being a first-year student attitudes to communication in english in and outside classroom, ease of communication, problem areas, aspects to be improved the qualitative data from the interview were transcribed verbatim, with non-verbal expressions such as pauses, hesitations and intonations also highlighted in the transcript. the transcript from the audio were read and re-read to allow the researchers to be familiar with the data, then the data were coded and themed. herri mulyono 20 results and discussion the findings from the semi-structured interviews revealed that all student participants experienced fsa and dsa when using english for daily communication. several contributing factors to flsa were identified, including language barriers, negative attitude, and ica. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.13-27 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.13-27 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 21 language barriers language barriers such as poor grammar, lack of vocabulary, less exposure, pronunciation, and interlocutors’ language deficiency were identified as the drivers for flsa. gianna for example, expressed her communication problem related to grammar by saying: the only thing i am not working is, past tense and future. i tend to… i tend to…mix tenses. like present with past, past with future. i’m mostly thinking “omg did i say the verb with -ed or omg” every time, every time. (gianna). in addition, limited vocabulary was identified as a factor contributing to flsa, as expressed by two other students, nassima and bormey suggesting that they: i feel confused when they talk about subject or concept i don’t have too much vocabulary. i’ll let them finish my sentence, i cannot… i cannot speak any more and i’ll be just quiet. (nassima) “learning english is fun but i’m a bit…you know, i hate to speak because sometimes my brain’s not flexible. i have learned a little vocabulary that’s why i cannot speak fluently”. (bormey) another problem was less exposure due to infrequent contact with english speakers, with participants expressing that they were not able to practice or communicate in english with peers. some students such as akara, mai and bormey said: i’m lazy to talk in english since i’m used to talk in indonesian daily. i feel worried cause i barely talk in english. (akara) i didn’t have chances to talk to people in english when i was in vietnam. so, it’s making me worried to speak english. (mai) i am not often speaking english at my school or somewhere else, so i cannot improve my speaking. (bormey) herri mulyono 22 another common issue leading to the student’s flsa relates to students’ perception of their inappropriate english accents. mai asserted that her vietnamese background influenced the way she pronounced english words, she stated: i feel nervous about my pronunciation, how my speaking in certain sentence. because the way i speak english isn’t natural. (mai) the final factor was interlocutors’ language deficiency. many of the students interviewed mentioned their unwillingness to communicate in english due to the interlocutors’ incompetence in english, for example, mai and gianna commented: i don’t use much english because i think for me here english isn’t really popular for everyone. (mai) i just feel like “omg i don’t know they [host people] are gonna understand or no”. (gianna). language barrier as a key contributor to flsa is in line with a study by brown (2008), who found that language barrier is one of the factors that successfully diminishes students’ oral performance due to english incompetence. poor grammar and inadequate vocabulary are supported by ahmed (2016), who found that students would remain silent during english speaking because of deficient vocabulary and not clearly understanding the grammar rules. pronunciation also contributes to flsa. indeed, azarfam and baki (2012) suggest that pronunciation is one of crucial aspects of fl learning by many students. in the present study, one participant stated that she did not like her own pronunciation due to differences in her tones [mai, vietnamese] compared to english. along with less opportunity to speak english, the students tended to refrain from communicating in english simply because it is unusual for them to talk in english daily. this could be also be because they were not satisfied with their speaking proficiency. moreover, interlocutors’ language deficiency made the students reluctant to engage in conversation or interact with their hosts. similarly, amiri and puteh (2018) found that the incompetency of examiners in the english language was one of the major concerns of the international doctoral students at several malaysian universities. the student was increasingly anxious during his proposal presentation when he discovered that the examiners were not proficient in the second language, hence had difficulty in understanding his accent. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.13-27 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.13-27 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 23 negative attitude in addition to language barriers, the present study also revealed that negative attitudes influenced students’ speaking performance. in the interviews, it was revealed that students’ negative attitudes were often affiliated with their emotions and some conditions involving interlocutors’ unwelcome attitude, afraid of making mistakes, shyness, and interlocutors’ judgemental view. with regards to the interlocutor’s negative attitude, gianna and akara expressed: i don’t feel included especially when i don’t relate with the jokes [in indonesian]. if we’re [she and her myanmar friend] outside the class, they [host students] wouldn’t talk to us in english. it’s okay i don’t, i just…(silence) it would be nice if like, um… they make a little effort to include us in their comments or things. (gianna) i started learning english, but no one wanted to be my friend. i talked in english when i first came to this university, but no one responded, only some. so, i tried to learn bahasa indonesia and until now, i’m talking bahasa indonesia. (akara) furthermore, being afraid of making mistakes was also considered as a factor which reduced students’ enthusiasm in speaking english, as evidenced in the following excerpts: i always feel worried about making mistakes when i’m speaking english. (mai) i’m afraid of making mistakes about speaking. i feel worried when i make mistakes while speaking english. (bormay). i don’t like, to.. to… make mistakes, so i’m quite like, i’m.. a.. little perfectionist so i don’t like making mistakes. (gianna). i’m afraid of speaking wrong. because of the fear, it leads me to make me quiet”. (akara) herri mulyono 24 the interlocutors’ judgemental view was also been identified as a contributing factor to flsa. during the interviews, students were observed to pay attention more to people’s opinions that they considered inappropriate. sokha for example asserted: when someone mocks or curses me while evaluating my speaking, i don’t want to. i don’t like it! (shakes his head). (sokha) the final factor was concerned with shyness, a prevalent issue experienced by three out of seven students. in the interviews, students were shown to be confused, nervous and frustrated about their own self. gianna expressed: when i have to give a presentation in front of the class, i definitely super nervous, super nervous. really-really nervous and i super insecure totally all the time. all the time that i normally try to think before i’m speaking and because of that i get a little frustrated. (gianna). the findings above are in line with many theories discussed in the literature. azarfam and baki (2012) suggest that students’ negative attitude plays a prominent role in influencing their oral performance in english. amiri and puteh (2018) highlighted the roles of unwelcoming interlocutors’ attitude and judgemental view that influence students’ speaking performance. the literature also discusses the role of other aspects that affect flsa, such as feeling afraid of making mistakes (ebrahimi, 2013; hammad, & ghali, 2015), shyness (zhiping, & paramasivam, 2013), and psychological factors like stress and pressure (tóth, 2011). these factors have driven the students to feel reluctant to speak, negatively impeding successful communication. intercultural communication apprehension ica is concerned with efl similarity and social context issues experienced among the interlocutors. efl similarity can happen when people come from the same area (i.e., malaysiaindonesia; africa-gambia and america-canada), so there are few differences. conversely, if they come from a different country with peculiar cultures and a distant perspective of the world, they may experience some problems to interact. according to the present study, the thai and algerians feel anxious to talk to british and american people due to english being their native language, but when the algerians come to talk to koreans or japanese, they feel genuinely fine register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.13-27 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.13-27 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 25 as the korean and the japanese are fl of english. this occurs because of the differences of languages, the british and american use english as a mother tongue, whereas algerians use english as their fl: when i talk to european, you know, the sound of english from europe and america. i feel sometimes scary if i will do some mistakes because their language is english. but when i speak to korean and japanese, i feel fine. i feel comfortable when i speak with people whose english isn’t their mother language. (nassima) i’m worried to talk with american due to my less exposure. (akara) with respect to social context issues, the students’ background/culture plays a pivotal role contributing to their flsa, due to their social environment being different to the country they are living in. sokha discussed the difference in english teacher’s methods in cambodia and indonesia, in his home country, the english teacher teaches his students full english, while in indonesia, the english teachers tend to use a mix of bahasa indonesia with english. this bothered sokha, he preferred his english teacher to use full english, whereas mai thought it was more acceptable if she talked to indonesians in english rather than vietnamese. in fact, the environment in vietnam is intensely judgemental in giving opinions to english non-natives who want to try to speak in english, consequently her willingness to talk in english with indonesians is understandable. as stated sokha and nassima: in english class here, i want all my friends and teachers leave the class in english. no bahasa is spoken. it’s like my class in cambodia, no khmer is spoken. if someone speaks khmer, the teacher will give him something to write at least 100, 200 words to punish my school mate. (laughs hard) (sokha) i am afraid about people judging me. especially with vietnamese people. because you know, vietnamese people always judge you, judge your english, more than foreigners. (mai) all these findings are corroborated by earlier studies on sa among host and international students as well as its factors, such as those discussed by akkakoson (2016); herri mulyono 26 selvam, kamal, swaminathan, and baskaran (2016); suleimenova (2013); zhiping, and paramasivam (2013). conclusion in summary, this study has qualitatively investigated flsa among seven international tertiary students in an indonesian context, showing that all students experienced sa, despite learning english for between nine to twelve years. the data analysis demonstrated that many factors contributed to their sa, both in their daily and school environment. there were three main themes of fsa and dsa, such as language barriers (blume, 2013), negative attitudes (hammad & ghali, 2015), and ica (seyitoglu et al., 2015; zhou, 2014), which deter them from fulfilling their full potential performance in speaking, but not successful enough to stop them learning and communicating in english. most of them still struggle to learn english and advance their oral communication skills. references: ahmed, n. f. 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(2013). speaking anxiety in a foreign language classroom in kazakhstan. social and behavioral sciences. tahsildar, m., & yusoff, z. (2014). investigating l2 students’ listening anxiety: a survey at a malaysian university. international journal of language education and applied linguistics, 1, 43–52. tóth, z. (2011). foreign language anxiety and advanced efl learners: an interview study. wopalp, 5, 43. xu, f. (2011). anxiety in efl listening comprehension. theory and practice in language studies, 1(12), 1709–1717. yang, s., salzman, m., & yang, c. (2015). exploring the adjustment problems among international graduate students in hawaii. horizon research publishing. zarei, a. (2014). the effect of reading anxiety and motivation on efl learners’ choice of reading strategies. journal of applied linguistics and language research, 1(1), 12–28. zhiping, d., & paramasivam, s. 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(2014). a study of the first year international students at a canadian university: challenges and experiences with social integration. canadian and international education, 43(2). ulin nuha register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 205 transactional and interpersonal conversation texts in english textbook ulin nuha stain kudus getas pejaten rt 9 rw 4 jati kudus e-mail: nuha.kds@gmail.com abstract in this study, the researcher analyzed the transactional and interpersonal conversation texts found in grade viii english textbook entitled ―eos english on sky 2‖ and i also analyzed the linguistic features of the transactional and interpersonal conversations in the english textbook. this study focuses on the issues of structuralfunctional approach which analyzes the speech function, structural approach which analyzes linguistic features. this is a qualitative study. in calculating the data and the final result of data percentage, quantification was used to support this study. units of analysis in this study are moves and clauses. the conversation texts are presented in 8 units. the moves were analyzed functionally and the clauses were analyzed structurally. the result shows that the speech functions of the transactional conversation texts are 54.5% matching the standard of content, the speech functions of the interpersonal conversation texts are 2.1% matching the standard of content. the linguistic feature applied in the transactional and interpersonal conversation texts uses the linguistic feature in functional literacy level. the speech functions of conversation texts introduced in eos english on sky 2 for junior high school grade mailto:nuha.kds@gmail.com transactional and interpersonal conversation texts in english textbook 206 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 viii are less compatible with the standard of content based on the compatibility levels. keywords: transactional and interpersonal conversation texts, speech function, and linguistic features abstrak dalam penelitian ini, peneliti akan menganalisis teks percakapan transaksional dan teks percakapan interpersonal yang ada di dalam buku bahasa inggris kelas viii yang berjudul ―eos english on sky 2‖ dan juga menganalisis fitur linguistik (linguistic feature) dari percakapan transaksional maupun interpersonal dalam buku tersebut. penelitian ini fokus pada pendekatan fungsional dan struktural yang menganalisis fungsi bicara (speech function) dan linguistic feature. ini merupakan penelitian kualitatif. untuk membantu dalam menghitung data dan hasil akhir prosentase data, maka digunakan kuantifikasi. unit analisis penelitian ini adalah move dan clause. teks percakapan dipersembahkan dalam unit 8. move dianalisis secara fungsional dan clause dianalisis secara struktural. hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa speech function dari teks percakapan transaksional adalah 54,5% yang sesuai dengan standar isi, speech function dari teks percakapan interpersonal adalah 2,1% yang sesuai dengan standar isi. linguistic feature yang diterapkan dalam teks percakapan transaksional maupun transaksional menggunakan linguistic feature pada tingkat literasi fungsional. berdasarkan tingkat kompatibilitas, speech function dari teks percakapan yang ada dalam buku ―eos english on sky 2 for junior high school grade viii‖ kurang sesuai dengan standar isi. kata kunci: transactional and interpersonal conversation texts, speech function, and linguistic feature introduction the improvement and development of foreign language in indonesia is mostly conducted in teaching and learning process. the ulin nuha register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 207 teaching-learning process of english is the branch of language education. as language education, in indonesia english is formally taught in the levels of education. the basic rules that regulate the education in indonesia are government regulation no 22/2003 on national education system (sistem pendidikan nasional) and no 19/2006 on national standard of education (standar nasional pendidikan). the implementation of those regulations is socialized into the curriculum that is conducted in the teaching and learning program in each educational institution from elementary and secondary schools to college. basically, the indonesian government through the ministry of education has attempted to improve the quality of language teaching. in the last two decades, in terms of english teaching, the attempt has resulted in several curricula. some of them are the curriculum of 1994 implemented in 1994 to 2003, competency-based curriculum (kbk or kurikulum berbasis kompetensi) implemented in 2004 and 2005, and school-based curriculum (ktsp or kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan). recently, there are many english textbooks widely published and distributed both in junior and senior high schools. those textbooks themselves claim to have conformed with the arrangement of ktsp. most of the teachers often use the textbooks as handbooks without paying attention to the core of the textbooks. the question is whether the textbooks published and distributed really conform to those of ktsp‘s arrangement based on the regulation of the ministry of education. in this study, i will discuss the englis textbook based on the national standard of education implemented in junior high school. the english textbook that transactional and interpersonal conversation texts in english textbook 208 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 will be anailyzed is about the transactional and interpersonal coversation texts at junior high school grade viii. the statement of the problem in this study is formulized in the following research questions : to what extent does the transactional conversation in eos english on sky 2 match speech function of the standard of content (standar isi)? , to what extent does the interpersonal conversation in eos english on sky 2 match speech function of the standard of content (standar isi)? , how do the linguistic features serve the communicative purposes in the conversation texts? discussion the regulation of ministry of education no. 22/2006 explains the standard of content (standar isi) for elementary and high school levels. this regulation is a basic guide for the implementation of school-based curriculum (ktsp or kurikulum tingkat satuan pelajaran). the discussion of this study is to find out speech function and linguistic features of the transactional and interpersonal conversation texts that are used in grade viii suggested by the standard of content. for junior high school, the teaching or learning process is aimed at bringing the students to the functional literacy level so they can communicate orally and literally to overcome the daily problems. especially for english lesson, the objectives in the teaching or learning process according to the standard of content are that the students will have ability in: a. improving their communicative competence orally and literally to reach the functional level; ulin nuha register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 209 b. understanding the importance of english to increase their ability in global competition; c. raising their understanding for the relationship between language and culture (standar kompetensi dan kompetensi dasar bahasa inggris, 2006). language competency the language competency revealed by the standard of content for elementary and high schools refers to the model suggested by celcemurcia, dornyei, and thurrell (1995) which is compatible with the assumption that language is communication, rather than a set of rules. therefore, the model of competency suggested in this curriculum is a model that encourages junior high school students to communicate in english. this model is called communicative competence by celcemurcia et al. (1995). levels of literacy the standard of content follows weel‘s opinion (1987) on the different development of literacy levels among the leaners. it is stated that there are four levels of literacy: performative, functional, informational, and epistemic levels. in the level of performative, people are able to read and write; within the level of functional, people are able to use the language to meet their daily necessities, such as reading newspaper, manuals, magazines, etc. within the level of informational. people are supposed to be able to use the language to access knoeledge they study; and within the level of epistemic, people are supposed to be able to transfer their knowledge in the foreign language they study. in transactional and interpersonal conversation texts in english textbook 210 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 terms of the literacy levels, hammond et al. (1992) illustrates them clearly as follows: levels of literacy suggested by wells in hammond (1992: 11) figure 1. indicators of speaking competency in the standard of content the indicators of speaking teaching materials suggested by the standard of content are supposed to be able to conduct various speech acts in transactional and interpersonal spoken discourses such as asking for service, giving service, refusing service, asking for things, giving things, refusing things, admiting facts, denying facts, and asking for opinion and giving opinion; inviting, accepting, and refusing offer, agreeing or not agreeing, praising and giving congratulation; asking for service, giving/refusing services, asking for things, giving things, asking for information, giving/denying information, admiting opinion, asking for opinion, giving opinion, and offering/accepting/refusing things; asking for agreement and giving agreement, responding statement, giving attention to speaker, starting and lengthening, and closing telephone conversation. performative functional informational epistemic ulin nuha register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 211 transactional and interpersonal conversations transactional conversation is conducted for the purpose of information exchange, such as information-gathering interviews, role plays, or debates. it is an interaction which has an outcome, for example, buying something in a shop, enrolling in a school. in such contexts the range of language used is relatively limited and therefore reasonably predictable because speaking happens in real time and is often characterized by unfinished utterances, reformulation, overlapping utterances, grammatically incorrect utterances. participants must follow cultural conventions which include factors such as gesture, body language and facial expression. decisions have to be made about the direction of the exchange and how to deal with unexpected difficulties. speech events differ from each other according to characteristics such as the degree of distance, formality, spontaneity and reciprocity. for example, a job interview would be characterized by distance, formality, some reciprocity and relatively little spontaneity. at the other extreme, meeting someone informally for the first time is reciprocal and spontaneous. however, even those events which seem spontaneous can in fact be predictably organized and do incorporate set phrases. so, greetings, introductions and conclusions follow predictable lines. students at this level need to be made aware of conventions of transactional exchanges and introduced to the particular language which they might expect to hear and use. while interpersonal conversation is to establish or maintain social relationships, such as personal interviews or casual conversation role plays. according to celce-murcia, interpersonal conversations are usually used to express : (celce-murcia et. al. 1995) transactional and interpersonal conversation texts in english textbook 212 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 a. greeting and leave-taking b. making introductions, identifying oneself c. extending, accepting and declining invitations and offers d. making and breaking engagement e. expressing and acknowledging gratitude f. complimenting and congratulating g. reacting to the interlocutor‘s speech h. showing attention, interest, surprise, sympathy, happiness, disbelief, disappointment. this conversation can be done to fulfill the social interaction to the society like in socialization. the topic is free and people just produce the talk to involve in the community. communicative competence one can communicate each other by using language. he can catch our idea after we express it by language, spoken or written but it is not so simple. to be able to communicate in a language, one should know the communicative competence such as the ability how to use the linguistic system effectively and appropriately. as quoted by celce-murcia, et. al (1995) from widdowson (1978) and savigon (1983, 1990), communicative competence can be used as the basis of communicative language teaching (clt) implicitly or explicitly. actional competence the competences developed by celce-murcia above are very important but the actional competence has more important rule and more ulin nuha register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 213 closely related to this study. it is closely related to oral communication. therefore, i would better discuss it in this sub chapter. as mentioned above that celce-murcia, et. al (1995) defined actional competence as the competence to convey and understand communicative intent by performing and interpreting speech acts and speech act sets. it means that actional competence is quite needed by the learners to accomplish the communicative functions of language. it is normally a prime objective of the language teacher to encourage the learners to develop natural conversation skills in the target language. then, in order to be able to use language functions in context, language learners need to be familiar with how individual speech acts are integrated into the higher levels of the communication system. celcemurcia divides the actional competence into two main components. they are knowledge of language function and knowledge of speech act sets. the components of actional competence are presented below. speech function eggins and slade (1997 ) say that speech function is the functional analysis that tries to find what purposes the utterances are expressed, and the relationship between interactants in a situation, particularly in terms of the distribution of power among the interactants speech function classes it is necessary to classify the speech functions based on the situations in which they are used, in oredr to capture the speech function types. speech function classes in casual conversation according to eggins and slade ( 1997: 192) are defined not only functionally but also transactional and interpersonal conversation texts in english textbook 214 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 grammatically in terms of predictable selections of mood and modality, semantically in terms of predictable appraisal and involment choices. they can be analyzed from the move. the speech function classes, in subsequent, are presented in figure 4. it can be seen that basically there are two types of move, they are opening move amd sustaining move. the each move is developed into many branches of move. opening move this move is used to begin conversation around proposition. it involves a speaker in proposing terms for interaction. it is indicating a claim to a degree of control over the interaction, and is not dependent on previous move because it is the first move in conversation. there are two classes of opening moves, attending and initiating moves. attending moves, as said by eggins and slade (1997: 193), include salutations, greeting, and calls, e.g.: “how are you?”, whereas, initiating moves which are used to initiate a conversation can have various functions, to offer, e.g.: “candies?”, to command, e.g.: “listen!”, to give (opinions and factual information), e.g.: i saw him going alone‖, and to ask questions (about facts and opinions), e.g.: “what can i do for you?”. sustaining move this move functions to keep negotiating the same proposition. it can be conducted either by the speakers who has just been talking (continuing speech functions), or by other speakers who take a turn (reacting speech functions). sustaining moves can be divided into two types of moves, continuing and reacting moves. ulin nuha register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 215 linguistic features the linguistic features that are used in grade viii english textbook according to standard of content depend on the target in the teaching and learning process. the target of the learning process in grade viii of junior high school students is that the students can reach functional level which make them able to communicate orally to solve their daily activities. wells (1987) calls functional as he states that this perspective emphasyses the uses that are made of literacy in interpersonal communication. to be literate, according to this perspective, is to be able as a member of that particular society to cope with demands of everyday life that involve written language. according to eggins and slade (1997) there are four main types of linguistic pattern which contribute to the achievement of conversation : grammatical, sematic, discourse and generic patterns. grammatical patterns are revealed by studying the types of clause structures chosen by interactants and are displayed within each speaker‘s turns. the major grammatical resource which english offers for making these interpersonal meaning : the clause system of mood. we will show how the analysis of mood choices in conversation can reveal tensions between equality and difference as interactants enact and construct relations of power through talk. mood in conversation at the clause level, the major patterns which enact roles and role relations are those of mood, with the associated subsystems of polarity and modality. mood refers to the patterns of clause types, such as transactional and interpersonal conversation texts in english textbook 216 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 interrogative, imperative and declarative. these patterns have to do with the presence and configuration of certain ‗negotiable‘ elements of clause structure. polarity is concerned with whether clause elements are asserted or negated, while modality covers the range of options open to interactants to temper or qualify their contributions (eggine and slade, 1997:74). mood classification, eggine and slade (1997: 75) basic clause constituents each mood type involves different configuration of a set of basic clause constituents. full english clauses, that is clauses which have not had any elements left out or ellipse. they generally consist of two pivotal constituent : a subject and a finite. in addition to these pivotal constituents, (eggins and slade, 1997: 75) also generally find a predicator, and some combination of complements or adjuncts. below they briefly define and exemplify each of these elements, indicating their typical functions in conversation. no mood types example 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 declarative : full declarative : elliptical imperative : full imperative : elliptical wh-interrogative : full wh-interrogative : elliptical polar interrogative : full polar interrogative : elliptical exclamative : full exclamative : elliptical minor he plays the guitar. this year. look at this man ! look ! when are you gonna do…? who ? yeah but what is it ? does he ? what rubbish you talk, brad ! what rubbish ! right ulin nuha register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 217 research methodology in this study it was conducted the structural and functional analyses on the conversation texts in the textbook entitled ―eos english on sky 2‖ for junior high school students year viii. subsequently the texts were divided into transactional and interpersonal conversations. the units that were analyzed are moves and clauses. one move usually comprises more than one clause. the clauses are then analyzed based on theory suggested by eggins and slade (1997) about structural-functional approach. this approach is relevant to be applied to two major approaches, structural and functional analysis. structural analysis was applied to analyze the linguistic features in the conversation texts. functional analysis on the other hand, was conducted to find out speech function of every clause in conversation text. qualitative analysis qualitative analysis in this study as explained above was applied to interpret and compare speech function contained in mood system of every clause to indicator in the standard of content and to interpret linguistic feature contained in mood system of every clause based on the standard of content. in this study, quantification was applied to support qualitative analysis in calculating data. the use of ―quantification‖ is the term that was especially applied to calculate numerical data obtained from structural analysis such as linguistic feature elements in the conversation texts, and to calculate the final result of the speech function comparison between the conversation texts in eos english sky 2 and indicators in the standard of content. transactional and interpersonal conversation texts in english textbook 218 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 data refer to a collection of facts usually collected as the result of experience, observation or experiment, or processes within a computer system, or a set of premises. this may consist of numbers, words, or images, particularly as measurements or observations of a set of variables. data is often viewed as a lowest level of abstraction from which information and knowledge are derived (wikipedia.com). the data of this study are the total number of the written conversation texts were taken from 8 units presented in the textbook, eos english on sky 2 for junior high school students year viii. unit of analysis the term of unit of analysis is also explained by suzana and helen (2002), according to them unit of analysis is what a researcher will collect data or observations in order to answer their research question (suzana and helen, 2002: 1). dealing with the unit analysis oh this study, halliday (1994) suggests that the discourse patterns of speech function are expressed through moves. he explains that dialogue sets up speech function as a separate discourse level of analysis, expressed through grammatical pattern. the grammatical pattern is clause. moves and clauses do not relate to each other in terms of size or constituency. moves are not made up of clauses and clauses are not parts of moves. the relationship is one of expression, or more technically realization, moves which are discourse units, are expressed in language through clauses, which are grammatical units. the units of analysis of this study were moves and clauses. this study was conducted in march 2012. the data analyzed were collected with the following processes: http://www.answers.com/topic/experience http://www.answers.com/topic/experiment-3 http://www.answers.com/topic/premise http://www.answers.com/topic/number http://www.answers.com/topic/word http://www.answers.com/topic/image http://www.answers.com/topic/measurement http://www.answers.com/topic/variable-1 http://www.answers.com/topic/information http://www.answers.com/topic/knowledge ulin nuha register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 219 1. reading the materials of the english textbook 2. classifying the sub-materials of speaking 3. typing the conversation texts as the sub-materials of speaking 4. coding the texts 5. segmenting the conversation texts into speech function and linguistic features. 6. providing moves and clauses as the data analysis of speech function and linguistic features the data of each analysis were provided in a set of file and then they were encoded based on the purpose of analysis. each number of the text was encoded by mentioning the unit, number of text and page from the english textbook:eos english on sky 2. compatibility levels the result of speech function analysis was compared to the indicators stated in the standard of content. from the comparison, it could be drawn that some clauses are compatible with the standard of content and the rest are not. they were calculated to find out percentage to which conversation texts presented in the eos english on sky 2. the standard of compatibility levels were used to conclude the final result of the comparison among the speech functions in the textbook, eos english on sky 2 and the indicators in the standard of content refers to semantic differential scale suggested by osgood in kerlinger‘s (1973). compatibility levels of conversation texts no percentage (%) level 1 0-25 not compatible 2 26-50 low compatible 3 51-75 less compatible transactional and interpersonal conversation texts in english textbook 220 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 4 76-100 compatible discussion the functional analysis on the english textbook was conducted on the clauses of which the speech function are compatible with the indicators of the standard of content. from the analysis, it can be found that there are 40 conversation texts which consist of 111 moves and 143 clauses in eos english on sky 2. there are 34 texts presented in the transactional conversations, one text presented in the interpersonal conversations and 5 texts presented in both transactional and interpersonal conversations. from the functional analysis, there are 111 moves containing 143 clauses which are compared to the speech function introduced in the standard of content. there are 105 clauses which are compatible with the indicators introduced in the standard of content and there are 38 clauses which are not compatible with any indicators introduced in the standard of content. linguistic features the structural analysis was conducted to find out the types of mood. from the analysis, it can be found that the mood types presented in the conversations are 67 declarative full types; 18 declarative elliptical types; 2 imperative full types; 1 imperative elliptical type; 21 wh-interrogative full types; ulin nuha register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 221 1 wh-interrogative elliptical type; 19 polar interrogative full types; and 23 minor types. the structural analysis in this study was also conducted on basic clause constituents. a set of basic clause constituents can be found from the full clauses which have two pivotal constituents, a subject and a finite, and in addition to these pivotal constituents, there are also a predicator, and some combinations of complements or adjuncts. from the analysis, it can be found that there are: 22 clauses with a set of basic clause constituent: subject, finite and complement; 10 clauses with subject and finite; 14 clauses with subject, finite, predicator and complement; 13 clauses with subject, finite or predicator, and complement; 2 clauses with subject, finite and predicator; 5 clauses with subject, finite, complement and circumstantial adjunct; 2 clauses with subject, finite, complement and interpersonal adjunct; 5 clauses with subject, finite and circumstantial adjunct; 5 clauses with subject, finite or predicator and circumstantial adjunct; 1 clause with subject, finite, predicator, complement and interpersonal adjunct; 1 clause with subject and finite or predicator; 5 clauses with subject, finite or predicator, complement, and circumstantial adjunct; 1 clause with subject, finite or predicator, complement and interpersonal adjunct; 2 clauses with subject, finite and textual adjunct; 1 clause with subject, finite, predicator, and textual adjunct; 7 clauses with subject, finite, predicator and circumstantial adjunct; 7 clauses with subject, finite, predicator, complement and circumstantial adjunct; 1 clause with subject, finite, predicator, complement and textual adjunct; 1 clause with subject, finite, complement, textual adjunct and circumstantial adjunct, 1 clause with subject, finite, predicator, complement, circumstantial adjunct, and textual adjunct, and 1 clause with subject, finite, complement, circumstantial adjunct interpersonal adjunct transactional and interpersonal conversation texts in english textbook 222 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 conclusions after having conducted the analysis on speech function and linguistic features in eos english on sky 2, some conclusions can be presented as follows 1. the transactional conversations found in the english textbook, eos english on sky 2 for junior high school grade viii are 34 texts or 85% from the total number of conversation texts. 54.5% of speech functions of the transactional conversation texts match the standard of content. 2. the interpersonal conversation found in the english textbook is only 1 text or 2.5% from the total number of conversation texts. the speech functions of the interpersonal conversation texts are 2.1% which match the standard of content. meanwhile, the combination of both transactional and interpersonal conversations are 5 texts or 12.5% from the total number of conversation texts. 16.8% of speech functions of the interpersonal conversation texts match the standard of content. 3. the linguistic feature applied in the transactional and interpersonal conversation texts uses the linguistic feature in functional literacy level. the speech functions of conversation texts introduced in eos english on sky 2 for junior high school grade viii are less compatible with the standard of content based on the compatibility levels. ulin nuha register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 223 references celce-murcia m, dornyei z, thurrell s. 1995. communicative competence: a pedagogical motivated model with content specifications. issues in applied linguistics, 6 (2), 5 – 35. cohen, a. 1996. developing the ability to perform speech acts. "studies in second language acquisition, 18" (2), 253-267. eggins and slade. 1997. analysing casual conversation in advances in spoken discourse analysis. malcolm coulthard (ed). london: routledge. halliday, m.a.k and hasan. 1976. cohesion in english. london: longman. halliday , m.a.k.,and hasan, r. 1989. language, context, and text: aspect of languagein a social semiotic perspective. victoria: deakin university. halliday, m.a.k. 1994. an introduction to functional grammar. london: edward arnold. hammond, j., burns, a., joyce, h., brosnan, d., gerot, l. 1992. english for social purposes; a handbook for teachers of adult literacy. sydney: macquarie university. kerlinger, f.n. 1973. foundation of behavioral research. 2 nd ed. new york: holt, reinhart and winston inc. kern, r. 2000. literacy and language teaching. hongkong: oxford university press. mayring, ph. 2000. qualitative content analysis. retrieved april 4 2007, from http;//www.qualitative-research.net/fqs-texte/2-00/200mayring-e.htm mukarto. 2007.eos english on sky 2; for junior high school students year viii.‖ jakarta: erlangga. nunan, d. 1992. research methods in language learning. cambridge: cambridge university press. nunan, d. 1993. introducing discourse analysis. england: penguin english. panduan penyusunan ktsp jenjang pendidikan dasar dan menengah 2006, jakarta: bnsp peraturan menteri pendidikan nasional no 11 tahun 2005 tentang buku teks pelajaran. 2005. bandung: diperbanyak oleh fokusmedia. peraturan pemerintrah nomor 19 tahun 2005 tentang standar nasional pendidikan tahun 2005.2005. bandung: diperbanyak oleh fokus media. transactional and interpersonal conversation texts in english textbook 224 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 richards, j. 2001. curriculum development in language teaching. cambrigde: cambridge university press. tuckman, b.w. 1978. conducting educational research. new york: hbj publishers. undang–undang no 20 tahun 2003 tentang sistem pendidikan nasiona. 2005. bandung: diperbanyak oleh fokusmedia . weels,g. 1987 . apprenticeship in litarcy. in interchange 18, 1/2: 109– 123. widdowson, h.g. 1978. aspect of language teaching. oxford: oxford university press. wikipedia encyclopedia. 2007. www.wikipedia.com wikipedia data. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/data brown, h.d. 1994. teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice hall regents. http://www.wikipedia.com/ http://www.wikipedia.com/ register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.1-12 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.1-12 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 1 exploring the potential of online english websites in teaching english to non-linguistic major students: breakingnewsenglish as example viktoriia s. abramova perm state university abramovavictoria@yandex.ru saad boulahnane hassan ii university saad.boulahnane@fulbrightmail.org doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.1-12 submission track: received: 22/04/2019 final revision: 15/05/2019 available online: 01/06/2019 corresponding author: saad boulahnane saad.boulahnane @fulbrightmail.org abstract the internet has captured the attention of teachers and language instructors from all over the world due to its online teaching materials. the internet-based material has allowed distance-learning projects. this article explores the potential role of efl websites as a supplement in classroom instruction. as an example, an englishlanguage based news website, www.breakingnewsenglish.com, has been designed to teach english to non-linguistic major students. the authors of this article offer methodological recommendations on using internet-based materials, describe stages of work with authentic texts, and note linguistic and communicative skills developed in the course of work. the recommendations have been formed based on teachers and students’ descriptions of the materials provided by the website in question. this descriptive article will hopefully contribute to the literature on online teaching and learning materials, particularly in the field of efl. keywords: foreign languages, online educational resource, news website, communicative skills http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.1-12 viktoriia s. abramova, saad boulahnane 2 introduction of all the services the internet has made available over the last two decades, websites providing access to new methods of communication, research, and education represent a substantial share of the market. the internet has become of significant importance in the context of distance and self-learning, which has been enabled and enhanced via many educational applications (baron & bruillard, 1996). this significance has therefore become a locus of interest for universities from all over the world, which are now involved in distance learning projects supported by websites. the mélange of computers and websites with well-evaluated pedagogical materials has resulted in substantial education-related potential (kartal & uzun, 2010). language learning websites have the potential to develop both learners‘ proficiency and other skills closely connected with language. it is therefore noted that websites on foreign language teaching and learning are considered unavoidable elements of call, which stands for computer assisted language learning. the internet‘s substantial contribution and potential must then be utilized more efficiently (kartal & uzun, 2010). barnes (2009) believes that social networks and virtual worlds are now inextricably linked with people‘s everyday life, which correlates with the constant curiosity of how people interact with each other. more specifically, parks (2009) points out the rapid growth of internet-based applications and computer games in the last fifteen years and how this increased interest has led to research on communication in this realm. further studies on web-based learning regard the field as clearly beneficial for both educators and learners alike. mkrtchian et al. (2019) examined the development of distance learning and digitization of training with a particular focus on the stages of development and processes leading to new quality methodologies in education. the study focused on effective factors for achieving high levels of development, depending on certain university criteria. the study investigated whether a media-based reading program would have a significant contribution to students' reading comprehension. it adopted a web-based reading training program designed and implemented to measure efl university students‘ reading skills. in the quasi-experimental study, the experimental group scored significantly higher than the control group. the students also provided positive and encouraging feedback on the use of the web-based program (chang & lin, 2019). another study investigating the role of english teaching websites showed english language learners resorted to the internet for help regarding their learning, general information, and games. these factors would therefore constitute the prevailing characteristics of an ideal english language learning website (kir & kayak, 2013). register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.1-12 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.1-12 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 3 in spite of existing abundantly on the internet, foreign language teaching websites need to be investigated based on their organization, pedagogy, and methodology, according to lancien (1998a), who maintains that there is still a paucity in standardized unity and management in most language teaching websites. in the same vein, mangenot (1998a) adds that these foreign language teaching sites are diverse at the structural and the contextual levels, leading to them deviating from their preliminary aim. the majority of language learning websites do not utilize the full potential of the internet, with the pedagogical approach reduced to certain basic reading skills. learning sites, according to kartal (2005), still need to reflect pedagogical scenarios and learning theories, which are absent on most websites, including the learning objectives, proficiency levels, and the target audience. despite what has been said, researchers recognize several pedagogical benefits offered by the internet regarding foreign language learning, suggesting that online authentic materials, provided in any format, boost the learning and teaching processes (lancien, 1998a; mangenot, 1998b). the internet, therefore, remains supplemental to education and provides learners and teachers with an easily accessible environment with diverse practice materials. from the didactic point of view, internet-based technologies for teaching a foreign language optimize mental load of students, stir up their cognitive activity, direct and control both processes – formation and development of speech skills and abilities when mastering foreign language activity. they also develop activeness and independence when addressing communicative and problem tasks. (starodubtseva, 2017, p. 2) educational news websites, with their materials, are especially effective in creating linguistically diverse options in foreign language classes and are successful in illustrating components of the foreign language competence—namely, the grammatical, the lexical, the sociocultural, the compensatory, the educational, and the informative. research method the data described in this article consist of both the authors‘ observations and data resulting from semi-structured interviews with teachers and students using the website in question. the respondents were asked a variety of questions regarding their views on the potential that the website offers. although the interviews were analyzed to elicit information viktoriia s. abramova, saad boulahnane 4 about how the respondents use the website, and hence attempt to achieve generalizability, the authors of this article offered their own observations and methodological steps and recommendations to usher the reader into the ideal use of the english language teaching website potential. the data were collected through a convenience sample, which consisted of 35 teachers and students using the online english teaching website. a total of 26 students and 9 teachers were interviewed to elicit data regarding the teaching and learning features of the website. results & discussion this article describes the potential of the educational news website www.breakingnewsenglish.com in teaching english as a foreign language to university students of non-linguistic majors. this news website provides worldwide breaking news in english and reports about new experiments and discoveries in a wide range of disciplinary backgrounds, including—but not limited to—chemistry, biology, physics, mathematics, economics, astronomy, social sciences, religion, philosophy, art, medicine, and many others. the website presents more than 2000 lessons based on current news—a number that is constantly increasing. selecting one news story for a lesson over another depends on the proficiency ranking of the story, which is expressed on a scale of 0-6 scale, with 0 representing what the website considers suitable for rudimentary reading skills, and with 6 representing an independent reading level. along with the website offering news article lessons tailored to the seven levels, it gives its learners the opportunity to make use of a variety of twenty-page long tasks. on the other hand, for those interested in a two-hour lesson, a two-page mini-lesson suffices. each news lesson is followed by an audio recording, playable under different speech rates, including slow, an average native speaking pace, and a faster native speaking pace, in both british and american english pronunciation styles in addition to pronunciation exercises. additionally, the news articles are accompanied by references and resources for further reading activities. this news website can be efficiently utilized to solve students‘ educational problems. this article offers stages of work with the use of the news material taken from the website. it also notes linguistic and communicative skills developed in the course of work. the news materials are used in classes on the subject ―general english‖ with university students of non-linguistic majors, namely: majors of philology, philosophy, general register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.1-12 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.1-12 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 5 psychology, clinical psychology, sociology, culturology, and majors in youth activism. the news lessons are addressed to students with a minimum of pre-intermediate language proficiency—expressed as a2 level according to the common european framework reference. using www.breakingnewsenglish.com as a resource is expedient, particularly as a concluding session on a topic that would allow the learners to generally improve their english language and specifically enrich their lexicon by learning both general and situational vocabulary in context. the choice of the news lesson is connected not only to the topic studied e.g., healthy lifestyle, shopping, leisure activities, family values, locations and directions, cultural attractions, internet communications, learning and memory, water resources, etc., but also to the presence of specific vocabulary and grammar related to the topic. the ideas and exercises presented on the website are grouped on the basis of class activities. they are adapted and presented to students according to the teaching style and the classroom atmosphere. the following paragraphs will present the authors‘ recommended use of the website. working on an article lasts one university unit, which translates to 90 minutes. at the beginning of the class, 2-page mini-lesson handouts are given to the students, who are asked to think of keywords associated with the article heading. for example, working on the article entitled ―who says cut music to an hour a day?‖, students express what springs to their mind when they hear the word ‗music.‘ the heading is written on the board, and both the teacher and the students discuss it together. the students make assumptions about what the news article could be about and ask questions that they think are relevant and pertinent to the text. these exercises contribute to the building of an atmosphere of trust in the classroom, provide a further perspective on how the news can be read, and actively recycle the learned vocabulary on the topic. the next step is studying the article‘s vocabulary. in this news resource, authentic vocabulary and collocations are used. it is advisable to write down new words, phrases and expressions, reductions, and idioms on the board with synonyms pertaining to the students‘ level opposite each expression. in this context, one of the students interviewed said: i find the website material very useful. the reading passages are varied. they enriched my vocabulary. also, the phrase match and the new words and synonyms and meanings viktoriia s. abramova, saad boulahnane 6 […] they have helped me to widen my vocabulary use. the reading passages have also helped me to improve my writing skills. learning new vocabulary from the website can take several forms. the teacher can ask the students to recycle sentences, thereby consolidating the newly acquired words. 1 vocabulary can also be acquired through the learning of synonyms, sentences, and phrase match. for instance, the phrase match exercise is a substantial way of learning ready-made chunks of language. banville (2015) suggests: take phrases or word pairs from the text and split them. students have to match the beginnings with their endings. alternate between keeping collocation pairs or phrasal verbs intact and splitting them on either side of the match. there may be cognitive value in the surprise students experience in seeing the two parts of a phrasal verb or strong collocate being matched. decisions need to be made regarding where best to make the split for the match. (p. 46)
 not only does the phrase match exercise help remind the students of what follows an expression from the text, it also helps strengthen language collocations or any linguistically common string of words. for example, after the first or second reading of a passage, the students should know what certain words are followed by, depending on the grammar structure—e.g. the expression ‗in accordance‘ is followed by ‗with‘ and not by a verb, a noun, or another part of speech. phrase match helps ingrain these linguistically glued chunks. the students can learn this structure from the text and from memory as being words pre-organized in a certain way. the phrase match exercise can also be designed by the students using three columns rather than two. the exercise is more fun because it mixes both matching and constructing sentences. banville (2005) elucidates: create a phrase match with three columns. students must match from left to middle to right in order to complete the match. […] the words in the first and third columns are correctly placed. the words in the middle column are in the wrong order. (p. 3) another teacher respondent explained: learning synonyms is necessary to grow your english vocabulary. they also make it easy to understand native speakers, since they will use a lot of associated words in their register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.1-12 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.1-12 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 7 speech. phrase and synonym match are great exercises that provide students with a fun, engaging way to learn. such activities help students improve their vocabulary and spelling abilities. they give an opportunity to learn object/word definitions as well as challenge learners logically. by using such techniques as inversion, diversion, and the process of elimination, learners are able to greatly increase the probability of answering questions correctly. following the vocabulary stage comes article scanning. as noted by kirsanova (2001), ―reading is an independent type of speech activity which provides a written form of communication‖ (p.85). students are assigned the task of looking through the text before they answer the comprehension questions. they state which of the provided statements correspond to the text content (true) and which do not correspond to the text content (false). if the statement is incorrect, then it is necessary to explain why and correct the statement. asking the students about the main idea of the article can also elicit interesting results, particularly if the questions are intentionally skewed towards the students‘ experiences. it is recommended that students be asked how the lesson theme relates to their life, which allows them more opportunity for expression. if the teacher notices that the students are at loss or have difficulties trying to understand certain parts of the text, he/she asks them to find keywords, outline the main idea, or translate the part of the text causing difficulty. in strong groups, a full translation of the article may be unnecessary. in low-level groups, on the other hand, translating the content of the studied text and working on the main grammatical structures can lead to appreciable results. students can be offered additional tasks; e.g. finding synonyms for certain words from the text or giving definitions to the words in english. this would serve as valuable practice. such exercises involve students both quantitatively and qualitatively; the activities correlate positively with the students‘ sense of independence and creativity. subsequently, both strong and weak students are asked to retell, in pairs, the content of the text in english. one student retells the first paragraph—the other, the second. this exercise helps assimilate the meanings of the new words in their context and acquire lexical and grammatical structures. during this phase—the oral reproduction of the text—students listen to each other carefully, correct each other‘s mistakes, and also ask questions related to the general understanding of the text. viktoriia s. abramova, saad boulahnane 8 a new stage of work is listening to an audio recording based on the news article. audio tracks of educational exercises and tasks provide simultaneous support on acoustical, visual, and motor memory (starodubtseva, 2017). students usually listen to recordings in british english, which is often played on average speed. they also have a printed version of the audio script in front of them. the first listening exercise helps form the complete image of the sounding text, which also improves their english pronunciation, namely: sounds, rhythm, intonation, and other sound-related peculiarities and skills. after the first listening exercise, the teacher focuses the attention on the students‘ pronunciation of certain words. during the second listening exercise, students orally reproduce the audio text consecutively after the speaker. the verbal production gives students the chance to automate a skill of adequate reproduction of the original text in the foreign language and also helps fulfill a natural rhythm and speed of pronunciation. as another option, instead of the students familiarizing themselves with the printed version of the text and the subsequent listening of an audio recording, the teacher can distribute the studied text, with gaps for the students to fill with words and expressions heard during the listening exercise. this step is done within the stage of the consecutive reproduction of the audio text. the aforementioned tasks are executed in a way that allows the students to address and work on authentic texts. by the end of the class, students should be able to give a short review of what the article is about and talk about its main idea. the transition from the text to the practice of speaking skills is done through a class discussion, which is based on communication between two students. communication-based situations are helpful in creating analogs in the classroom, leading to the students assimilating the use of certain language functions (starodubtseva, 2017). in this context, the website offers synonym match and blank-filling exercises that corroborate the students‘ use of language units in certain contexts, rather than merely uttering words or expressions translated from the students‘ source language. two-page handouts always contain two sets of questions (discussion – student a, discussion – student b) intended for work in pairs. each question relates to the studied problem. this type of work is of special interest as it motivates communication in a foreign language, allows students to form their own point of view on various current problems, promotes the development of cognitive activities, and helps show intellectual and creative activity and individuality. during the activity, the teacher approaches each pair of students register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.1-12 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.1-12 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 9 and helps them. he/she monitors how well they practice new vocabulary and corrects their speaking mistakes and errors. the teacher can also help the students ask each other additional questions and discuss how the issue in question is approached in their own culture. on the importance of speaking, malihah (2010) emphasizes that ―speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching‖ and that it is ―not merely to let students repeat or memorize dialogues, but they should be able to use the utterance to communicate in real situations‖ (p. 85). the following stage is working in mini-groups for participation in a role-play game (role play). in teaching, role-play method is of key importance. shanlar et al (2012) note: role plays enable students to place themselves in the situation of another person and may help to develop empathy. role plays early in the course can expose students to different situations they are likely to face in their future career. (p. 3) the importance of role play lies in preparing the students, who are shy at times, to speak as an imaginary person, which spares them from opening up about their own opinions and views that they might be reluctant to speak about. the purpose of role-play in teaching is to allow students to create an imaginary situation and communicate according to what is expected both verbally and socially. this grants them more freedom to voice their opinions and express arguments since they are not constrained by the social rules and ethics existing in their society. for example, students who do not engage in shopping for alcohol—irrespective of the reasons behind their choice—can imagine a different context, which allows them to practice freely since the objective is speaking and communication. practicing this method can take different forms. for instance, listyani & kristie (2018) note: the first strategy was role-play, in which students played a kind of roles and practiced a dialogue with their pairs. this activity can encourage students to speak and increase their vocabulary. (p. 150) the authors of this article provide a slightly different method, in which the students are divided into groups, and each participant enacts one of the roles listed in the handouts. the group members make statements and act in accordance with the given role. for example, viktoriia s. abramova, saad boulahnane 10 discussing an article under the heading ―study shows money makes us worry‖, four groups enact the following four roles: ―money expert‖, ―shopaholic‖, ―big spender‖, and ―exadvertiser.‖ correctly chosen and properly distributed, the roles motivate students to collaborate and interact with each other, program their speech behavior, and create a necessary communicative framework for developing social and speaking skills. for example, the ―shopaholics‖ will have to prepare, within 10 minutes, a talk of 7-10 sentences in length on why they buy everything they see. they also speak of three reasons for their addictive shopping behavior. the performance of each group should last around five minutes. it is also important to prepare strong arguments that would convince other groups. the exercise is very effective and enables the development of communicative and speech skills. in addition to that, it develops the students‘ imagination and acting skills. as homework, students are usually asked to make a speech using new words and expressions from the article. for example, after work on the article ―study shows money makes us worry‖, students prepare, under the theme of ‗shopping,‘ an oral presentation about a gift that they got for one of their family members, with a detailed description of the purchasing process. conclusion in conclusion, practice with educational news website materials helps efl teachers in many ways. they improve all types of linguistic activities and learning skills—i.e., reading, writing, listening, and speaking. they also develop students‘ communicative and cognitive abilities—e.g. accessing information, generalizing it, classifying it, analyzing the obtained information, representing it, and discussing it. educational websites stimulate students‘ speaking activity and help them solve communicative and informative problems (starodubtseva, 2017). moreover, they can increase the students‘ motivation to learn english through these educational news articles. a further reason would be that they make students curious to learn more about current world issues and push them to read more in english. finally, these websites prepare students for studying other subjects, such as english for specific purposes (esp). this article has provided some useful methodological steps for teachers with little experience in online teaching materials. since online educational materials have been around register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.1-12 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.1-12 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 11 only recently compared to other traditional materials, the steps offered above can benefit many teachers interested in internet teaching materials. references banville, s. (2012). www.breakingnewsenglish.com 1000 ideas and activities for language teachers. barnes, s. b. (2009). relationship networking: society and education. journal of computermediated communication, 14(3), 735-742. baron, g.l., & bruillard, e. (1996). l‗informatique et ses usages dans l‗education. paris: puf. callahan, e. (2006). cultural similarities and differences in the design of university web sites. journal of computer-mediated communication, 11(1), 239–273 chang, m.-m., & lin, m.-c. (january 01, 2019). experimental study on strategy-oriented web-based english instruction for efl students. journal of educational computing research, 56, 8, 1238-1257. kartal, e. (2005). the internet and autonomous language learning: a typology of suggested aids. place of publication not identified: distributed by eric clearinghouse. kartal, e. & uzun, l. (2010). the internet, language learning, and international dialogue: constructing online foreign language learning websites. turkish online journal of distance education-tojde april, vol.11, number 2, pg. 90-104 kirsanova o.f. (2001). ispol'zovanie autentichnyh materialov na urokah anglijskogo yazyka kak sredstva formirovaniya inoyazychnoj kul'turologicheskoj kompetencii/url: https://xn--i1abbnckbmcl9fb.xn-p1ai/%d1%81%d1%82%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8c%d0%b8/509250/ kır, e., & kayak, s. (december 10, 2013). the evaluation of websites teaching english as a foreign language (efl). procedia social and behavioral sciences, 106, 2788-2795. lancien, t. (1998a). seau et fran ais langue etrang re. conf rence virtuelle sur les pplications des tic dans l enseignement du fran ais langue etrang re. gence intergouvernementale de la francophonie, du 7 au 18 d cembre 1998. http://ciffad.francophonie.org/conffle/ressources/contrib-lancien.html listyani, l. ., & kristie, l. s. (november 29, 2018). teachers‘ strategies to improve students‘ selfconfidence in speaking: a study at two vocational schools in central borneo. register journal, 11, 2, 139. https://открытыйурок.рф/%d1%81%d1%82%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8c%d0%b8/509250/ https://открытыйурок.рф/%d1%81%d1%82%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8c%d0%b8/509250/ viktoriia s. abramova, saad boulahnane 12 malihah, n. (june 01, 2010). the effectiveness of speaking instruction through task-based language teaching. register journal, 3, 1, 85. mangenot, f. (1998). classification des apports d‘internet à l‘apprentissage des langues classification of the internet contribution to language learning. adalsic. mkrttchian, v., krevskiy, i., bershadsky, a., glotova, t., gamidullaeva, l., & vasin, s. (january 01, 2019). web-based learning and development of university's electronic informational educational environment. international journal of web-based learning and teaching technologies, 14, 1, 32-53.. parks, m. (2009). what will we study when the internet disappears?. journal of computermediated communication, 14(3), 724-729. shankar, p. r., piryani, r. m., singh, k. k., & karki, b. m. s. (december 13, 2012). student feedback about the use of role plays in sparshanam, a medical humanities module. f1000research. starodubceva e.a. (2017) primeneniya internet resursov pri obuchenii inostrannomu (anglijskomu) yazyku // elektronnoe nauchnoe izdanie «trudy mehli» / url: https://refdb.ru/look/2305701.html ter-minasova s.g. (2000) yazyk i mezhkul'turnaya kommunikaciya / s.g. ter-minasova. m.: izd-vo moskva. p. 261 https://www.google.com/url?q=https%3a%2f%2frefdb.ru%2flook%2f2305701.html&sa=d&sntz=1&usg=afqjcneoe8qhnmf4vw8dpce-dlvpkwwnmq 271 grammatical interference from english into indonesian language made by english native speakers in salatiga ratih asti supriyanto english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 02 salatiga, central java, indonesia nature.asti@gmail.com abstract this research was carried out the syntactic interference from english to indonesian language made by english native speakers in salatiga. this study was also intended to find out morphological interference from english to indonesian language made by english native speakers in salatiga. the research method used was interviewing, recording and transcribing. this method was applied by interviewing english native speakers, then the writer recorded and transcribed to find out the interference that they made. after the data had been collected and analyzed, the writer finds several sub-classifications in syntactic interference as the following: (1) sentence; (2) phrase; (3) diction; and syntactic interference are dominated by phrase, because the phrase construction of english and indonesian language is different. the construction phrase of indonesian language is head word + modifier, but in english head word is put after the modifier. meanwhile for morphological interference is dominated by applying the base form in using the verbs in sentence. the construction of verb in english does not need the inflectional morphology to make the sentence clear as the indonesian language. the speakers have a tendency to use the base form to show the verb in indonesian sentence. keywords: interference, syntactic interference, morphological interference. mailto:nature.asti@gmail.com 272 abstrak penelitian ini menyajikan interferensi sintaksis dari bahasa inggris ke bahasa indonesia yang dibuat oleh penutur asli bahasa inggris di salatiga. penelitian ini juga dimaksudkan untuk menemukan interferensi morfologi dari bahasa inggris ke bahasa indonesia yang dibuat oleh penutur asli bahasa inggris di salatiga. metode yang digunakan adalah wawancara, rekaman dan transkrip. metode ini diterapkan dengan mewawancarai penutur asli bahasa inggris, kemudian penulis merekam dan mentranskrip hasil wawancara untuk mengetahui interferensi yang mereka buat. setelah data dikumpulkan dan dianalisis, penulis menemukan beberapa sub klasifikasi interferensi sintaksis sebagai berikut : (1) kalimat, (2) frase, (3) diksi, dan gangguan sintaksis didominasi oleh frase, karena konstruksi frase bahasa inggris dan bahasa indonesia berbeda. susunan frase dalam bahasa indonesia adalah kata + modifikator , tapi dalam bahasa inggris kata diletakkan setelah modifikator. sementara itu interferensi morfologi didominasi dengan menerapkan bentuk dasar dalam menggunakan kata kerja pada kalimat. dalam bahasa inggris konstruksi kata kerja tidak memerlukan infleksi morfologi untuk membuat kalimatnya jelas sebagaimana yang berlaku dalam bahasa indonesia. para pembicara memiliki kecenderungan untuk menggunakan bentuk dasar pada kata kerja yang mereka gunakan dalam kalimat bahasa indonesia. kata kunci : interferensi, interferensi sintaksis, interferensi morfologi introduction communication is the requirement of life. as social creatures, people need it, and language is perfect tool to communicate. recently learning language, especially more than one language is important for people in the world, because it can be the bridge to communicate with others in different places, even different countries. in fact, there are some constraints to do it, people who learn different language will find difficulties to learn the grammar, vocabularies, even phonetic aspect in that language. as the result, they will mix the same aspects from their 273 mother tongue to language that they learn. in linguistics, this phenomenon is called interference. the first scholar who introduces interference is weinreich in 1953. he used interference to clarify the systemic change in language because of contiguity between that language and the other language that made by bilingual speaker (chaer and agustina, 2004:120). meanwhile according to robert lado, bilingualism is individual capability to use two languages equally well or almost equal technically referred to the knowledge of two languages whatever its degree (chaer and agustina, 2004:86). almost bilingual people make interference in the beginning when they speak in their target language. for example, indonesian who learns english, they will make interference in their writing or their speaking skill in the target language, in this case english. according to pudiyono‘s research (2012:6), the structural of indonesian language can be influenced in practice by indonesian students; it‘s like the following sentence: dia sangat mencintai adiknya. with such grammatical pattern as the example, an indonesian learning english could capably express the idea just like in indonesian pattern as the following: she very loves her brother. definitely, this utterance is not grammatically acceptable in english. the correct grammatical rule is the word very cannot be used to explain adverb such very loves. very in english is used to modify an adjective. therefore, the morpheme very is linked directly before an adjective, for instance: very busy, very beautiful, very angry, very important, very much, very little, very handsome, etc. in short, the word very cannot stand alone. on the contrary, the word, which can be used to modify an english verb, is very much. 274 on the other hand, english native speakers who learn indonesian language could also experience language interference, not only indonesian who learns english. when the writer met english native speakers, the writer heard that consonant ―t‖ will be ―c‖ when they spoke in indonesian language. for example, the word tahu/tempe will be cahu/cempe, it is called phonic interference. besides, language interference could also appear in morphological and syntactical areas which could be included in grammatical interference. considering the situation above, the writer curious to find and identify kinds of syntactical and morphological interference from english to indonesian language made by english native speakers in salatiga. interference the first scholar who used interference is weinreich in 1953, he formulated interference to clarify the systemic change in language because of contiguity between that language and the other language that are made by bilingual speaker (chaer and agustina, 2004:120). then, more than a decade ago, fishman in 1971 decried the extensive and arbitrary employment of the term ‖interference‖ by many linguists in reference to any number of bilingual phenomena. (poplack, 1983:11) instead of making the usual field work assumption that the underlying structures of the varieties encountered in bilingual speech communities were unknown, linguists have usually assumed that they were known, but basically nothing more than x ―interfering‖ with y and vice versa. as a result they frequently failed to familiarize themselves with the communities and speakers from which they obtained their corpuses of speech. 275 alwasilah (1985:131) explored the notion of interference based on hartman and stonk that interference is a mistake caused by the propensity of habitually used pronunciation (speech) of a language to another language pronunciation unit includes sounds, grammar, and vocabulary. meanwhile, valdman‘s opinion in 1966 as cited by hayi, et.al (1985) mentions that interference is an obstacle because of speaker habits on mother language (first language) in the study of language acquisition (second language). consequently, there will be transfer of negative elements from the mother language into the target language. suhendra yusuf (1994:67) stated that the main factors of interference are the differences between the source language and the target language. the differences are not only in structure but also the variety of vocabularies. another notion advanced by jendra (1991:187), he declared that the interference is the infiltration system of a language into another language. interference arises from implementing unit system of sounds (phonemes) by bilingual in a first language into a second language sound system, which causes chaos or irregularities at the phonemic system of the recipient language. interference is a common symptom in sociolinguistic that occurs as a result of language contact, the use of two or more languages in the speech multilingual community. this case is an issue that attracted attention for linguists. syntactic interference interference occurs when the syntactic structure of a language is absorbed by the other language (suwito, 1983:56). interference can be seen in the use of syntactic fragments of words, phrases and clauses in 276 sentences (chaer and agustina, 2004:124). for example, english and indonesian phrases. english indonesian santika hotel hotel santika salatiga kota kota salatiga the other example can be seen in the sentences, dina reads the poetry with beautiful. in english this sentence is not exist, because the right form is dina reads the poetry beautifully. from this case, the interference can be proved, cause the sentence “dina reads the poetry with beautiful” is the translation from the sentence “dina membaca puisi dengan indah” morphological interference according to suwito (1983:55) morphological interference occur if the formation of word in a language absorbs the affixes from other languages. the affix of a language used to spell a word in another language, while affixes consist of prefix, suffix, inserts, as well as combinations of affixes. for examples, morphological interference from javanese into indonesian language. in words ketrabak/ kebawa and kebagusan/ keasinan javanese indonesian english ke-tabrak tertabrak accidentally crashed into ke-bawa terbawa taken along (accidentally) ke-asin-an terlalu asin saltiness ke-bagus-an terlalu bagus too good research method the type of this research was qualitative research. the specific thing that observed and analyzed was the utterances comprise of words, 277 phrases, clauses, and sentences made by english native speakers in salatiga. the writer took the subjects of research to get the data through purposive sampling technique. according to arikunto (2006: 183) purposive sampling is a technique of sampling based on some consideration. there are ten subjects in this research. they are nine americans and one dutchman who speak english since they were child. their names are peter greenwald as a pilot; ashley greenwald as housewife; peter anderson neal as a pilot; joy marcie neal as housewife; melissa jean kroneman as housewife; klaash christian kroneman as a pilot; karren fosdahl and tabitha julia kidwell as a lecturer; shad chris deal as a constructor; and sarah christine shad as a housewife. the writer did the interview, then recording and transcribing to get the data. after data had been collected, the writer analyzed the data based on the syntactical and morphological interference in order to find out their classification. discussion syntactic interference sentence suhendra yusuf (1994:67) states that the main factors of interference are the differences between the source language and the target language. the differences are not only in structure but also in the variety of vocabularies. thus, the structure of the target language always influences the interference made by bilinguals. meanwhile, structure of english and indonesian language in the sentence has similarities: 1) kemudian saya bekerja sebagai instruktur pilot untuk pilot, baru murid ya. s p o 278 (then, i worked as a pilot instructor for a pilot, the new student) it is s + p + o which make foreigners easier to learn indonesian language. hence, there is limited interference in structure of sentence. kemudian saya bekerja sebagai insruktur pilot untuk pilot, baru murid ya from the sentence, then, i worked as a pilot instructor for a pilot, the new student. the structure is right. there are; i / saya as a subject, worked / bekerja as a predicate, as a pilot instructor / sebagai instruktur pilot as an object, and complement is for a pilot, the new student / untuk pilot,baru murid. the sentence structure is complete, subject, predicate, object, and the complement existed in the sentence above,but for the level of phrase, interference exists in the phrase baru murid. the phrase interference will be discussed in the next sub topic. phrase there is a tendency, english native speakers made syntactic interference in the phrase construction and the diction in the sentence. phrase interference occured due to the construction of the phrase in the english language interference into indonesian used by english native speakers in salatiga. there is the difference between english phrase and indonesian phrase, in english construction, phrase consist of modifier + head word for example the new + student, while the indonesian structure is head word + modifier for example murid + baru (student + new). it seems that the difference cause phrase interference from english to indonesian language. as data below; 2) kemudian saya bekerja sebagai insruktur pilot untuk pilot, baru murid ya. (then, i worked as a pilot instructor for a pilot, the new student.) the pattern of baru murid is modifier + head word. it is clear that the speaker used english phrase construction. when he spoke in indonesian, the correct pattern is head word + modifier or murid baru. it should be, kemudian saya bekerja sebagai instruktur 279 untuk pilot, murid baru ya. (then, i worked as a pilot instructor for a pilot, the new student.) 3) menjelaskan bagaimana kami rencana membantu orang yang hidup disini.(explain how our plan to help the people who live here) there is interference from english pattern in kami rencana (our plan). the pattern of the noun phrase is modifier (possessive pronoun) + head word (noun). it is english pattern compare to indonesian phrase head word + modifier. the phrase should be rencana kami. menjelaskan bagaimana rencana kami membantu orang yang hidup disini. (explain how our plan to help the people who live here) 4) oh food, kesukaan makan, banyak kata panjang ya ?(oh food, favorite food, a lot of long words huh? ) actually in the phrase kesukaan makan (favorite food), the interference is not only in the structure, but also in the morphological aspect that will be discussed in the sub chapter two number 23. as the previous data, there is english interference in kesukaan makan (favorite food). using english pattern modifier + head word. conversely, indonesian phrase construction is head word + modifier, so the sentence should be, oh food, (makanan) kesukaan, banyak kata panjang ya ? (oh food, favorite food, a lot of long words huh? ) 5) em..lincoln kota.(em.. lincoln city) lincoln kota is the english phrase modifier + head word, so it is phrase interference. it will be correct if the speaker use indonesian pattern head word + modifier. so the phrase should be, em..kota lincoln.(em.. lincoln city) 6) saya hanya anak di orang tua. (i am the only child of parents) as the previous data, the phrase hanya anak (the only child) has been interfered by english pattern, modifier + head word. the correct pattern is head word + modifier or anak hanya (the only child). in addition, hanya anak (the only child) has also interference in diction that will be discussed in the sub chapter 1b, so the right sentence should be, saya anak (tunggal) di orang tua. (i am the only child of parents) the other interference in phrase is dating, while there are some ways to inform the date for english native speakers depend on the orientation, british or american, 280 british: day-month-year american: month-day-year the twenty sixth of july, 2013 july the twenty sixth, 2013 26 th july 2013 july 26 th , 2013 26 july 2013 july 26, 2013 26/7/2013 7/26/2013 26/7/13 7/26/13 26/07/13 07/26/2015 because the subjects of this research are american, so they commonly used the second type in dating. meanwhile, it is common in indonesian language to use the first type / british type. the interferences are caused by american speakers who use the second type in indonesian language. as the data below; 7) sekarang baru tiba sama dengan istri saya, januari 1 2013. (recently arrived, same with my wife, january 1 st 2013) it should be, sekarang baru tiba sama dengan istri saya, 1 januari 2013.(recently arrived, same with my wife, january 1 st 2013) mostly, except phrase construction and dating, the interference was also happened in the preposition. most of data stated that speakers had incorrect translation for english preposition to indonesian preposition. they considered that it has same meaning. for examples are diand ke-, diis the preposition of place relation (at), but keis refers to direction of the place (that will go). (moeliono, 1997:230). in the sentences below, the words came here is translated by datang di sini. it is incorrect translation, because came / datang explains the place that will be, as the data below; 8) waktu kami datang di sini. (when we came here) it should be,waktu kami datang ke sini. .(when we came here) 9) saya sebelum datang di sini saya murid univesitas. (before i came here, i am a university student) it should be, saya sebelum datang ke sini, saya murid universitas. (before i came here, i am a university student) 281 10) di tempat jauh sekali, jadi saya bisa pergi ke sana dengan rencana kedutaan. (in the far place, so i can go there with the embassy schedule) as like the previous data, di tempat jauh sekali .(in the far place) is followed by go, and go explains the place that will be. so the correct translation is ke tempat jauh sekali .(in the far place) the sentence should be, ke tempat (yang) jauh sekali,jadi saya bisa pergi ke sana dengan rencana kedutaan. (in the far place, so i can go there with the embassy schedule) 11) tetapi saya naik pesawat, eh untuk organisasi dan em di satu tahun. (but i get on the plane for organization in one year ) different from the previous data, in this sentence, the speaker explains how long he will work in his organization. in indonesian language, the preposition used selama as a sign of the relation of time era. and it should be,tetapi saya naik pesawat, eh untuk organisasi dan em selama satu tahun. (but i get on the plane for organization in one year ) the next preposition is kepada to replace for in english language. in indonesian language, kepada is the preposition that indicates the relation of direction, conversely in sentences below the speaker has tendency to indicate the relation of allocation. so the appropriate word is untuk, bagi, guna, or buat to replace for in english. 12) saya membaca admission application kepada orang-orang. (i read admission application for people.) it should be, saya membaca admission application untuk orangorang. (i read admission application for people.) 13) ya ramayana atau ada baru untuk popok diaper popok ya kepada anak saya ya. (yes ramayana or adabaru for diapers, diapers for my child) in this context, it should be, ya ramayana atau ada baru untuk popok diaper popok ya buat anak saya ya . (yes ramayana or adabaru for diapers, diapers for my child) 14) saya pergi ke kalimantan sudahsaya belajar indonesian indonesia untuk satu tahun. (i go to kalimantan after i studied indonesian language for a year ) 282 the interference in sentence above is for that was translated by untuk, but has a meaning selama as a sign of the relation of time era. actually, in the sentence above has interference in morphological aspect too that will be discussed in the sub chapter two. in this context, for has a meaning selama and it should be, saya pergi ke kalimantan (sesudah)saya belajar indonesian indonesia selama satu tahun. (i go to kalimantan after i studied indonesian language for a year ) the interference in the sentence below is incorrect translation for the word by. whereas, by or oleh is preposition that indicates the object relation, while the speaker explained the preposition of manner and the appropriate word is dengan. 15) saya belajar oleh internet aja. (i learned by internet) in the context of sentence above, oleh internet is the preposition of manner. it should be, saya belajar dengan (menggunakan) internet aja. (i learned by internet) diction in the level of sentence, the writer found the interference in the relative clause as the data below; 16) saya punya teman, teman di pasar siapa punya warung atau toko. (i have a friend, a friend in the market who has a stall or store) in english sentence, relative pronoun used who to explain the object a friend in the sentence. the relative pronoun who cannot be interpreted directly in indonesian language siapa. who or siapa in indonesian language that used in the interrogative sentence, and the speaker supposed to use yangto translate the relative pronoun who, kamus besar bahasa indonesia (2007), the word yang used to clarify the previous word in the sentence as the 283 function of relative pronoun above. hence, it should be, saya punya teman, teman di pasar yang punya warung atau toko. (i have a friend, a friend in the market who has a stall or store) another interference in sentence is diction which was influenced by english language as a native language of the subjects, as the data; 17) saya mohon maaf suami saya tidak bisa dipanggil. (i am sorry, my husband cannot be called ) dipanggil in indonesian language means ask for coming, but in the context of sentence above is contact via phone. and call itself in the dictionary has some meanings, there are memanggil, menyebut, mengadakan, menelepon and etc. the appropriate diction for the sentence should be ditelepon or dihubungi. so the sentence should be, saya mohon maaf suami saya tidak bisa dihubungi. (i am sorry, my husband cannot be called ) 18) waktu kami selesai di imlac kami pergi ke banda aceh untuk suami saya.(when we finished in imlac we will go to banda aceh for my husband) in this context, when is time of chronological. meanwhile in the dictionary when has some meaning, there are kapan, ketika, waktu, and etc. the appropriate diction for the sentence is sesudah/ setelah because the context is chronological time. it should be, setelah kami selesai di imlac kami pergi ke banda aceh untuk suami saya. (when we finished in imlac we will goto banda aceh for my husband) 19) tidak makan orang indonesia.(it is not indonesian food) tidak in the sentence above means abjuration. the sentence will mean, if the speaker use the appropriate diction bukan in this context, because bukan in kamus besar bahasa indonesia (2007) means abjuration. in addition, the sentence above has other interference in morphological aspect that will clarify in the next 284 discussion. so the sentence should be, bukan (makanan) orang indonesia. (it is not indonesian food) morphological interference actually, morphological process between indonesian and english language is absolutely different. morphological aspect is divided into two kinds, there are inflection and derivation. verhaar (1983:66) explains that inflectional morphology is the alteration of morpheme which defends the lexical identity. in english, inflectional morphology altered by suffixes, examples cat + s = cats (would be plural form of nouns), play + ed = played (would be the past form of regular verbs). meanwhile, in indonesian language, inflectional morphology is often in the verb by adding prefixes and konfixes (the combination of prefixes and suffixes). as the example, by adding prefix me + tulis(verb) = menulis(verb) / di + tulis = ditulis, by adding konfix me + tulis + kan = menuliskan(verb). later, derivational morphology according to (verhaar, 1983:65) the alteration of morpheme that produces the word with the different lexical identity. english and indonesian language have the same way to derivate the word, adding the prefix, suffix, and the combination of them. in english as examples, bi + cycle(verb) = bicycle (noun), play (verb) + er = player (noun), and dis + grace (noun) + ful = disgraceful (adjective). meanwhile, examples in indonesian language are pe + main (verb) = pemain (noun), makan (verb) + an = makanan (noun), and per + main + an = permainan (noun). the morphological interference in the data below is the using of base form. speakers used the base form / basic word more regular than the word with affixes. 285 20) saya terbang pasien untuk rumah sakit. (i flew the patient for hospital) there is no morphological process in the verb flew, just the alteration from fly – flew, without affixes. whereas, in indonesian language those sentences above need the morphological process to build the verb as a context. and the speakers translated the word fly directly. terbang is flying to himself, but in the context of the sentences above mean bring something to fly, so the speakers must add the prefix meand suffix –kan (menerbangkan) to make it appropriate with the context above.the morphological interference in this sentence existed because the speaker used english principle to translate the sentence above by using the base form. so the sentences should be; saya menerbangkan pasien untuk rumah sakit.(i flew the patient for hospital) 21) kami membawa apa makan dan obat.(we bring food and medicine) 22) tidak makan orang indonesia. (it is not indonesian food) 23) oh food, kesukaan makan, banyak kata panjang ya ?(oh food, favorite food, a lot of long words huh? ) in sentences above food is the noun without morphological process, but in indonesian context makanan/ food is the derivative word from the word makan. and the speakers used the base form makan to show makanan. the morphological interference in this sentence existed because the speaker used english principle to translate the sentence above by using the base form. so it should be; kami membawa, apa makanan dan obat; (bukan) makanan orang indonesia; of food, makanan kesukaan, banyak kata panjang ya?. (we bring food and medicine; it is not indonesian food; oh food, favorite food, a lot of long words huh?) 286 24) waktu saya lahir anak saya. (when i gave birth to my child.) in sentence above, gave birth is the verb without morphological process. meanwhile, according to indonesian language morphological process of building the verb happens in the word lahir. lahir is out of uterus, but in the sentence above, it means put outside the baby from uterus, so the speaker need affixation me-kan (melahirkan). the morphological interference in this sentence existed because the speaker used english principle to translate the sentence above by using the base form and it should be; waktu saya melahirkan anak saya. (when i gave birth to my child.) 25) saya mundur diri karena gak ada visa. (i back off because i do not have a visa) in the sentence above, the speaker used the base form mundur to show back off. mundur diri in indonesian language is meaningless, the right form is mengundurkan diri, mengundurkan is derivative word from mundur by adding me + kan. it means retire or back off. the morphological interference in this sentence existed because the speaker used english principle to translate the sentence above by using the base form so it should be; saya mengundurkan diri karena gak ada visa. (i cancel because i do not have a visa) 26) saya tidak ucapan betul ya? (i did not say right ya?) in the sentence above say is the verb, but in indonesian language ucapan is noun from the base form ucap, there is derivational morphology to alter the word ucapan become mengucapkan (verb). so the speaker must add meng-kan to make it become a verb, so it should be; saya tidak mengucapkan betul ya? (i did not say right ya?) 27) saya pergi ke kalimantan sudah saya belajar indonesia untuk satu tahun. (i go to kalimantan after i studied indonesian language for one year) 287 after in the sentence above is not the result of morphological process. in indonesian language sudah is finished, but in this context sudah means after, so prefix seis needed to make the sentence clearly become sesudah (after). the morphological interference in this sentence existed because the speaker used english principle to translate the sentence above by using the base form. the sentence should be; saya pergi ke kalimantan sesudah saya belajar indonesia untuk satu tahun. (i go to kalimantan after i studied indonesian language for one year) 28) sangat sulit menjelaskan hidup di negara lain kalau orang belum pernah ke sana. (it is hard to describe the life in the other country if someone has not gone there.) the life in the sentence above means condition and there is no morphological process in that word. meanwhile, hidup in indonesian context is the verb, there is derivational process to built the word hidup (verb) become kehidupan (noun) by adding prefix keand suffix –an. the morphological interference in this sentence existed because the speaker used english principle to translate the sentence above by using the base form. so it should be; sangat sulit menjelaskan kehidupan di negara lain kalau orang belum pernah ke sana. (it is hard to describe the life in the other country if someone has not gone there.) conclusion in the research findings, the writer found some categories of syntactical interference. it consists of three classes, there are in sentence, phrase, and diction. the dominant interference was in the phrase class. 288 interference was found in phrase construction (modifier and head word). the construction phrase of indonesian language is head word + modifier, but in english head word is put after the modifier. except the phrase construction, interference was found in the application of preposition in the sentences. especially when the speakers interpreted here and for. in addition, the writer also found the morphological interference in application of base form for invention the verb and some nouns. most of them, the interference in this case happened because the morphological process in english language, especially in the verb construction. in english, verb does not need the inflectional morphology to make the sentence clear as the indonesian language that needs inflectional morphology in the sentence. as a result, the speakers inclined to use the base form to show the verb in indonesian sentence. references alwasilah, a chaedar. 1985. beberapa madhab dan dikotomi teori linguistik. bandung: angkasa. arikunto, suharsimi. 2006. prosedur penelitian suatu pendekatan praktik. jakarta : pt rineka cipta. departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. 2007. kamus besar bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. chaer, abdul & leonie agustina. 2004. sosiolingistik: perkenalan awal.jakarta: rineka cipta. hayi, abdul, et.al. 1985. interferensi gramatika bahasa indonesia dalam bahasa jawa. jakarta. pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. jendra.i wayan. 1991. dasar-dasar sosiolinguistik. denpasar: ikayana. moeliono, anton. 1997. tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. suwito. 1983. pengantar awal sosiolinguistik teori dan praktik. surakarta: henary offset. 289 verhaar, j. w. m, 1983. pengantar linguistik. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. poplack, shana. 1983. bilingual competence: linguistic interference or grammatical integrity? . new york: university of new york. pudiyono. 2012. educational research: grammatical interference towards the students‟ spoken and written english. jakarta:international journal for educational studies. yusuf, suhendra. 1994. teori terjemah: pengantar ke arah pendekatan linguistik dan sosiolinguistik. bandung: mandar maju. register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.1-18 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.1-18 1 the influence of students’ creativity to construct sentences toward their speaking skill mukminatus zuhriyah hasyim asy’ari university zoehrea@gmail.com ria kamilah agustina hasyim asy’ari university riakamilah88@gmail.com maskhurin fajarina hasyim asy’ari university emfajarina@gmail.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.1-18 submission track: received: 29-03-2018 final revision: 19-05-2018 available online: 01-06-2018 corresponding author: mukminatus zuhriyah zoehrea@gmail.com abstract having capability to speak english well is not an easy task. there are some factors influencing the speaking competence. one of them is creativity. therefore, this research concerns on investigating the influence of students’ creativity in arranging sentences toward their speaking skill. this quasi-experimental research discusses whether the students having high creativity have high speaking skill. the population of the research was 109 students (5 classes). the research used cluster randomsampling to choose two classes as the samples of this research.the data of this research consisted of scores of creativity test and speaking test. the data of thespeaking scores comprises of the scores of the students having high and low creativity. after those data were normal and homogeneous, then, the data were analyzed using f-test anova. the difference between rows is significant because fo between rows (1125.64) is higher than ft (4.11) at the level of significance α= 0.05. the mean score of speaking test of students having mailto:zoehrea@gmail.com mailto:zoehrea@gmail.com mukminatus zuhriyah, ria kamilah agustina, maskhurin fajarina 2 high creativity (78.9) is higher than that of students having low creativity (60.85). it means that the speaking skill of students having high creativity is higher than those who have low creativity. thus, it can be concluded that students’ creativity influences their speaking skill. keywords: influence, students’ creativity, speaking skill introduction this quasi experimental research discusses whether or not the students who have high creativity have high speaking skill.some researchers have conducted the research about the relationship between the creativity and the students’ achievement (e.g. trivedi and bhargava (2010), baghaei and riasati (2013), and ramezani, larsari, and kiasi (2016)). however, a few researchers focused on the students’ creativity toward their speaking skill. there have been limited studies concerned on exploring the influence of students’ creativity to create sentences toward their speaking skill. therefore, this research focuses on the neglected influence of students’ creativity to construct sentences toward their speaking skill. trivedi and bhargava (2010), baghaei and riasati (2013), and ramezani, larsari, and kiasi (2016) have found the significant relation between the creativity and the students’ achievement. trivedi and bhargava (2010) in their study found that adolesences who have high achievement have higher level of creativity than those who have low achievement. other three studies inform the existence of creativity in teaching. yager, dogan, hacieminoglu, and yager (2012) concludes that teachers using science/technology/society (sts)approach are aware of the capability of their students to use their creativity in their classrooms. thestudy conducted by baghaei and riasati (2013) suggests that the the creativity of the teachers register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.1-18 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.1-18 3 may affect the achievement of students. additionally, ramezani, larsari, and kiasi (2016) find that english learners having higher critical thinking had better speaking skill. creativity has close relation with the ability of someone to produce and create something new or different from others. eragamreddy(2013) defines creativity as a kind of thinking that can bring us to something new, novel, and fresh consisting of insight, approaches, perspectives, ways of understanding and conceiving of things. trivedi and bhargava (2010) say that creativity is a critical aspect of human’s lifebeginning from the embryonic level up to adult people. meanwhile, lin (2011) argues that in the beginning of the twentieth century, the perception about the creativity source has undergone the shifting from inherited genius owned by the individuals with high talents to diverse human abilities. additionally, mkpanang (2016) states that creativity is a process involving some cognitive and affective factors which influence one another. furthermore, thakur and shekhawat (2014) present five levels of taylor’s hierarchy of creativity, namely (1) an expressive creativity, (2) a technical creativity, (3) an inventive creativity, (4) an innovative creativity, and (5) an emergent creativity. another significant aspect in communication, particularly in english classes, is speaking competence. as human being, people always interact with others in fulfilling their daily need. in this case, they communicate one another. people commonly express and communicate their willingness, feelings, ideas, and thoughts to others through speaking. mulya, adnan, and ardi (2013) state that someone can deliver his or her information and ideas, and keep his or her social relationship by communicating with others through speaking. speaking is one of the communication ways to express ideas and thoughts orally(efrizal, 2012). thus, it can be said that speaking becomes an mukminatus zuhriyah, ria kamilah agustina, maskhurin fajarina 4 important part in human daily life. afrizal (2015) argues that speaking is a process which is interactive to make and receive information. meanwhile, becker and roos (2016) state that speaking is usually considered as the language skill which is reproductive and imitative in the classroom so that the activities done are prepared to produce the output which is closely supported accurate. with regardto speaking english for efl learners, oradee (2012) presents the idea that efl learners usually do not use the language in authentic situations so that they often speak incorrectly and inappropriately.afrizal (2015) presents five components of speaking skill, namelycommunication, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension speaking is one of the basic skills for english students. with regard to the role of english, arham, yassi, and arafah (2016) argue that speaking skill is the requirement to interact and communicate in this globalization era, e.g. indonesian workers must master english speaking skill to work overseas. therefore, it is very important to teach english as foreign language (efl) to indonesian students.ramezani, larsari, and kiasi (2016) point outthat, for efl learners, speaking skill becomes the most important skill because of technology improvement and the need to interact with others in their community.additionally, dewi, kultsum, and armadi (2017) say that efl learners must master speaking skill as the basic english language skill because it is useful for their knowledge improvement and making them easier to get a job. kaminskiene and kavaliauskiene (2014) state that in the twenty first century, english learners should be able to talk about professional issues. in line with this condition, most of universities in indonesia put english as one of compulsory courses for non english department students. hasyim asy’ari university, as other universities in indonesia, put english as a compulsary course for non english department students. english skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing)as a compulsary course for register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.1-18 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.1-18 5 non english department students is taught integratedly. they usually focus on speaking skill when they are studying english. learning speaking skill enables them to study listening, reading, and writing indirectly.listening occurs when they listen to their lecturer’s speech and other students’ talk. reading, then, takes place when they read the materials of the speaking topics. meanwhile, students learn writing skill happens when they write their ideas and thoughts or scripts to prepare their talk. the speaking materials studied by non english department students are still the basic one. it is still about how to express their ideas, feelings, and thoughts in their daily conversations and discussions. they often practice speaking by talking with their partners and sometimes by discussing some topics in their groups. although it is still speaking about the daily life, the students also need to use their creativity to produce the comprehending conversations and discussions with their friends. the students’ creativity has an important role in their speaking. mkpanang (2016) states that creativity can contain the ability of a person to think and to imagine. meanwhile, trivedi and bhargava (2010) explain that something to be done for creativity is to keep and encourage it in order that its appearance can be full and real. research methods this study is a quasi experimental research. quasi experimental research is done with the consideration that it is impossible to create an experimental group in the school with a full control (amir, 2015). meanwhile, the independent variables of this study is teaching models, the attributive variable is students’ creativity), and the dependent variable is students’ speaking skill. the teaching models used in this research were problem-based learning (pbl) which was implemented in an experimental mukminatus zuhriyah, ria kamilah agustina, maskhurin fajarina 6 group and direct instruction which was implemented in a control group. the design of this research is a simple factorial design 2 x 2. population, sample, and sampling it is important for the researcher to determine the population before the sample is taken and treatments are given. the population of this research was the second semester students of non english departement of education faculty of hasyim asy’ari university (unhasy) in the academic year of 2017/2018. the total number of the population in this research was 109 students who are divided into 5 classes. based on the characteristics of the population, which were grouped into classes, the sample of this research was class or cluster. there were two classes as the samples of this research. one class was the experimental group and the other class was the control group. in determining the sample, the researcher took cluster random sampling because it was impossible to change the classroom arrangement or to use random assignment. because of this condition, this research is classified as a quasi experimental research. meanwhile, the steps to take the samples in this research were (1) making a list of the five classes; (2) writing the name of each class on five pieces of paper; (3) rolling five pieces of paper and then put them into a can and shake the can well; (4) dropping the two rolled pieces of paper. the next step after getting the two classes was to determine which class would be the experimental group and the control group by using the lottery. the number of the students who became the sample in both experimental class and control class in this research was 40 students. the experimental class consisted of 20 students and the control classcomprised of 20 students. techniques of data collection and data analysis the data of this study was collected from creativity test and speaking test. the first test was conducted to collectthe primary data of the students’ register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.1-18 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.1-18 7 creativity scores. the creativity test was about the test of making sentences based on given criteria. this test consisted of four main questions to create sentences. of all, the students should wrote twenty sentences in creativity test. the detail of these four main questions were (1) five questions asking the students to makesentences based on the initial letters of the providedwords; (2) five questions requesting them to make sentences based on the middle letters of the givenwords; (3) five questions instructing them to make sentences based on the final letters of the prepared words; and(4) five questions telling them to make sentences which contained the last words of the previous sentences. thesecond test, i.e.speaking test,was administeredto get the primary data of the students’ speaking scores. the speaking test was the test of making conversations in english with their partners. the lecturer provided the topics of the test and the students were able to choose one of them to be the topic of their conversations with their partners. the testswere conducted after the students attended four sessions of each treatment and control classes. there were five indicators of speaking test’s scoring, namely comprehension, vocabulary, grammar, fluency, and pronunciation. to check the readability of the tests materials, the researcher administered test to students outside the treatment and control classes. it was to know the readibility of those two tests. meanwhile, the creativity test itself was first validated by two experts. after getting the result of the preliminary test informing that the creativity test was readable, the creativity test was distributed and tested to the experimental class and the control class. then, the scores of creativity test were used to classify the students into students having high creativity and students having low creativity. this kind of classification was applied in the experimental class and the control class. mukminatus zuhriyah, ria kamilah agustina, maskhurin fajarina 8 hence, there were two classifications of students in those two classes: students who have high creativity and students who have low creativity. the speaking test also got the same treatment as the creativity test. this speaking test was tested to the other class to know its readibility before it was distributed and tested to the experimental class and the control class. then, the speaking scores were analyzed based on high creativity and low creativity. after knowing that the data of students’ speaking skill of students who have high creativity and students who have low creativity in both the experimental class and the control class was normal and homogeneous, then the research hypothesis was tested. to test the research hypothesis, inferential analysis was used. it was also used to test whether the null hypothesis is accepted or rejected. ho is rejected if fo > ft or fo is higher than ft. if ho is rejected, the analysis is continued to know the significant difference of mean using tukey test. the speaking scores of both the experimental and the control groups were first analyzed using the f-test anova. the result of data analysis was consulted to the ft at the significance level of α = 0.05 to know whether the result is significant or not. if fo between rows is higher than ft at the significance level α = 0.05, the difference between rows is significant. it means that the students who have high creativity differ significantly from those who have low creativity in their speaking skill. after that, the data was also analyzed by using tukey test to know the significance between rows. results & discussion the normality and the homogeneity of the data of speaking test of students who have high creativity and students who have low creativity in both the experimental class and the control class were firstly analyzed. it was register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.1-18 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.1-18 9 done as the prerequisite before analyzing the data by using f-test anova. after knowing that the data of the experimental class and the control class (the data of speaking test scores of students having high creativity and students having low creativity)were in normal distribution and homogeneous, then the data was analyzed by using f-test anova. the result is described as follows. table 1. summary of a 2x2 multifactor analysis of variance sources of variances ss df ms fo ft between rows (creativity) 2892.9 1 2892.9 1125.6 4 4.11 between groups 3241.1 3 114.04 within groups 92.4 36 2.57 total 3333.5 39 based on the table above, it can be seen that fo between rows (1125.64) is higher than ft (4.11) at the level of significance α= 0.05, so that ho is rejected. this result means that the difference between rows is significant. thus, it can be concluded that the difference between the speaking skill of the students who have high creativity and those who have low creativity is significant. because the mean score of speaking test of students who have high creativity (78.9) is higher than the mean score of speaking test of students who have low creativity (70.25), thus, it can be said that the students who have high creativity have better speaking skill than the students who have low creativity. next, to find the significance of the difference between rows, the data was analyzed by using tukey test. the result of tukey test shows that qo between rows (50.14) is higher than qt at the level of significance α= 0.05 (2.95). it means that the difference between rows is significant. therefore, it can be concluded that the students who have high creativity in constructing sentences have better speaking skill than those who mukminatus zuhriyah, ria kamilah agustina, maskhurin fajarina 10 have low creativity. the students’ creativity in creating sentences has significant influence toward their speaking skill. based on the above result, it can be said that students’ speaking skill was influenced by their creativity. creativity relates to the ideas and products which are unusual, new, and efective (runco and jaeger, 2012). creativity which is discussed in this study is students’ creativity. it is closely related to their creativity in their learning. in line with this, lin (2011) argues that students can learn and think creatively when they are given opportunity to do them. then, creativity which is possessed by students gives a great influence to their ability in learning, especially in learning to speak. it is because learning to speak requires the students to be more creative and critical.thelearning to speak needs the ability to analyze and determine whether the ideas are appropriate with the topics of conversations or discussions and whether the vocabularies used are suitable withthe topics of conversations or discussions. in this case, the students who have high creativity speak better since they have high ability to analyze and determine the appropriate ideas for their talk. they may also choose appropriatevocabulary so that they can produce the meaningful and comprehensive conversations having a lot of argumentations and opinions based on the topics given by the lecturer. in addition, tsai (2012) states that there are some factors affecting creativity, which can be described as (a) personality traits, (b) knowledge and expertise, (c) motivation and self-efficacy, (d) learning styles and thinking styles, (e) teaching approaches, (f) assesment and reward, and (g) environment. thus, it can be said that the students who have high creativity have more knowledge and expertise, more motivation and self-efficacy, and more thinking styles. all those factors make the students who have high creativity become more active in speaking class. students having high register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.1-18 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.1-18 11 creativity give more argumentations and opinions during the speaking class. as the result, the situation of learning speaking in the classroom becomes more interesting. having more knowledges and expertise makes the students who have high creativity easier to find and get ideas related to the topics of the conversations. they also can understand the topics of conversations easily. they are able to have conversations with whoever inviting them to talk. they have ability to join the conversations not only as the information takers but also as the information givers. that is why more knowledges and expertise that they possess makes them able to handle the conversations well. the knowledge can be knowledge of the topics of the conversations, knowledges of vocabularies, which are needed in the conversations, and knowledges of grammar to make comprehensive and meaningful sentences, which are produced in the conversations. knowledges about the topics of the conversations enable the students to have opinions and argumentatations as well as the explanations about the topics which are given. whereas, knowledges of grammar enable the students to produce the meaningful and comprehensive sentences for the conversations. meanwhile, knowledges about the vocabularies make the students able to express and communicate their feelings, ideas, and thoughts in the right context. dealing with knowledges of grammar and vocabulary, mart (2012) states that the knowledge of vocabulary and grammar makes the students able to understand the conversations. when the students are able to understand the conversations, they will be able to create the understandable conversations. then, more motivation and self-efficacy which are owned by the students who have high creativity make them able toenjoy joiningthe speaking class. they are motivated to come to speaking class. it means that mukminatus zuhriyah, ria kamilah agustina, maskhurin fajarina 12 they are voluntarily to join the speaking class, even though they are nonenglish department students and it is obligatory course to take. besides, they are also highly motivated to involve in the conversations which were created in the speaking class. they never feel ashamed of the given topics that they do not fully understand. thus, they come to the class with high motivation and self-efficacy to be involved in the speaking activities. according to al othman and shuqair (2013), the learners’ motivation has great effect to their willingness to be involved in the learning process. additionally, students having high creativity has more thinking styles. according to gacar, altungul, and nacar (2015), there are five thinking styles: (a) intuitive thinking style, (b) experiential thinking style, (c) ideational thinking style, (d) conceptual-rational thinking style, and (e) analytical thinking style. those thinking styles have close relationship with the people’s ways to face and solve the problems that they get in their life. therefore, the students with high creativity are easily able to find the solutions of the problems in their speaking class. by having more thinking styles, the ways how the students have the solutions, opinions, ideas, as well as argumentations in their conversations will be varied. then, the students are always curious with the problem solving of the topics of the conversations given. this condition makes them have high spirit to present their ideas in the speaking class. besides, the students are also able to think something new differently with the various ways of thinking that they have. it makes them easier to understand and adapt every knowledge in whatever the condition of the learning process is. so that something new that they get and find is not the problem at all for them. they can adapt and handle this kind of this thing easily. thus, they can manage and handle whatever they find and face in their conversations without any doubt. register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.1-18 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.1-18 13 meanwhile, students who have low creativity have less knowledge and expertise, less motivation and self-efficacy, and less thinking styles. they usually are not interested in joining the teaching and learning process. they just count on the lecturer and their friends and are often passive in learning to speak. they seldom give their argumentations and opinions in their discussions. they follow their friends’ argumentations and opinions without any objections. moreover, some of them also just sit, listen to what their friends say, and keep silent without giving any comments at all. dealing with this situaation, adriana, melendez, gandy, zavala, and mendez (2014) state that low english level students often experience shaking, sweating, being silent for long time, sitting back to their seats and not going on their speaking, or crying because of no word coming out from their mouth when they are asked to speak. therefore, it can be concluded that the students having high creativity have better speaking skill than the students having low creativity. it means that creativity has influence toward students’ speaking skill. having less knowledge and expertise makes the students feel not get through with the conversations made in the class. they feel know nothing to contribute in that speaking. then, they also cannot comprehend the conversations well. they often feel anxious when they are involved in the teaching and learning process because of their low knowledge. zhu and zhou (2012) states that many students feel anxious when being asked by their teacher to answer questions. they are afraid if their answers are incorrect.therefore, what they can do is just listening and agreeing what their friends talk about. sometimes they will speak one or two sentences as far as what they know about the topics of the speaking. mukminatus zuhriyah, ria kamilah agustina, maskhurin fajarina 14 meanwhile, less motivation and self-eficacy makes the students feel lazy to involve in the teaching and learning process of speaking in the class. they come to the speaking class since they are obligated to join. it is because they have already taken this course. that is why they attend the meeting. then, they are less motivated to take a part in the class of conversations.dislen(2013) states that the students’ motivation is damaged becausetheir self-confidence and self-esteem are low andtheir anxiety and inhibition are high. when the students experience those two things, they are absolutely less motivated. therefore, they are often just acting as the good listeners by keeping silent or just as the good supporters by saying one or two sentences of expressing agreements in their conversations. less thinking styles that the students have also make them difficult to feel free in every situation of conversations created in the class. for instance, the students who only can learn by thinking of what they see, it is very difficult for them to catch and understand something said by others. the students who only can find ideas while moving their parts of their bodies, while loittering for instance, they will get difficulty when they are ordered to express their ideas in their speaking with the setting of a certain place and a certain condition prohibiting them to have many movements. this kind of students cannot find opinions and ideas or argumentations as soon as possible in this condition.this case is supportes by negahi, nouri, and khoram (2015) who explain that styles become the stem of the success and the failure of the ability. thinking styles are included in it. that is why less thinking styles make the students having low creativity fail to have high speaking skill. thus, the students who have low creativity tend to have low english level. considering with the conditions happening to the students having low english level above, it is very necessary to encourage those kinds of students to be able to speak english well and fluently. it can be done by encouraging register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.1-18 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.1-18 15 their creativity related to their english speaking skill. the questions of creativity test used in this research can be applied to these students. they can be asked to do the creativity test as much as possible. so that they are accustomed to using their creative thinking in expressing their feelings, ideas, thoughts, opinions, as well as argumentations by constructing english sentences. this activity is meant to make them used to having creative thinking. it is because basically everyone can become creative;being creative is the potential that is owned by everybody(lin , 2011). conclusion based on the research result above, it can be inferred that the students who have high creativity have better speaking skill than those who have low creativity. it happens because the students who have high creativity have more motivation and knowledge, more self-efficiacy, more learning styles, and more thinking styles. because of those, they have high ability to comprehend the topics of speaking and are able to produce different and meaningful ideas and opinions as well as argumentations with the appropriate vocabularies and good grammar. they are able to express what they want to communicate with others fluently. they have ability to produce the meaningful and understandable sentences in their conversations. they have logical ideas and opinions when they held discussions with their partners. they are easy to create comprehensive communications with other people. thus, it can be known that students’ creativity has important role in students’ speaking skill. therefore, it is very crucial to encourage the creativity of the students in order that the students do not feel difficult in speaking anymore. the result of this study shows that thestudents’ creativityinfluences their abilities to create sentences in speaking classes. the students who have mukminatus zuhriyah, ria kamilah agustina, maskhurin fajarina 16 high creativity feel as the right men in the right place. it means that they are ready to face anything happening to their speaking class. they are not worried about whatever topics of the speaking that they will get and find. they have the key to solve every problem taking place. they are strongly motivated to be included in thespeaking activities. all of those can happen because they have high creativity. but the creativity in this study is still limited to the creativity of the students to create sentences based on the instructions provided by the lecturer. that is why it is recommended for other researchers to explore the other parts of creativity that can influence the students’ speaking skill. there are still many areas of creativity that can contribute to the students’ speaking skill. it is suggested to the future researchers to explore those areas relating to the students’ speaking skill. references adriana, r., melendez, m., gandy, m., zavala, g. q., & mendez, r. f. (2014). teaching speaking strategies to beginners. european scientific journal, 1(february), 1857–7881. afrizal, m. (2015).a classroom action research: improving speaking skills through information gap activities. english education journal, 6(3), 342–355. al othman, f. h. m., & shuqair, k. m. (2013). the impact of motivation on english language learning in the gulf states. international journal of higher education, 2(4), 123–130. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v2n4p123 amir, m. f. (2015). menulis tesis & disertasi. jakarta: mitra wacana media. arham, r., yassi, a. h., & arafah, b. (2016). the use of role play to improve teaching speaking.international journal of scientific and research publications, 6(3), 239–241. baghaei, s. & riasati, m.j. 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(2012). a study on students’ affective factors in junior high school english teaching. english language teaching, 5(7), 33–41. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v5n7p33 https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v9n6p189 223 the influence of digital games based learning on students’ learning outcomes and motivation rahmat yusny uin ar raniry aceh jl. syech abdurra’uf kopelma darussalam banda aceh ryusny@gmail.com sarah fitri uin ar raniry aceh jl. syech abdurra’uf kopelma darussalam banda aceh sarah_fitri24@yahoo.com abstract there is no doubt that the emergence of today's digital age greatly affects the human life including students in their educational life. in order to simplify the process of studying languages, especially english, many scientists and experts continue to find new and innovative methods. one of them is the method of digital games based learning (dgbl). however, the implementation effort of dgbl method to improve english language skills of students is still a matter of controversy. it is mainly caused by the use of game which is assumed by the public just as merely means of entertainment rather than as a medium of learning. judging on this reason, researchers are interested highlighting them to be their research. this research was conducted in order to view the significance and influence of dgbl in improving english language skills of students particularly the ability to hear and read as well as their motivation to learn. the study was conducted over five sessions in march 2013 with a sample of 13 students were selected at random stratification of 68 second -year student population pbi , ar raniry uin .researchers collected data by applying the experimental use of games in the classroom , provide pre-test and post-test , as well as distributing 224 questionnaires dealing with motivation. from the analysis of quantitative data, it can be concluded that the method of digital games based learning (dgbl) can be used to improve student‘s achievement and learning motivation in learning english. keywords: digital games based learning (dgbl), learning outcome, motivation abstrak kemunculan era digital dewasa ini, tidak dapat dipungkiri, sangat berpengaruh terhadap kehidupan manusia—termasuk siswa dalam mengenyam pendidikan mereka. guna mempermudah proses mempelajari ilmu bahasa, terutama bahasa inggris, banyak ilmuwan dan para ahli yang terus berupaya menemukan metode baru dan inovatif. salah satunya adalah metode digital games based learning (dgbl). akan tetapi, upaya pengimplementasian metode dgbl untuk meningkatkan kemampuan berbahasa inggris siswa masih menjadi kontroversi. hal ini tidak lain disebabkan oleh penggunaan game—yang diasumsikan oleh publik sekedar alat hiburan semata—sebagai media pembelajaran. menilik pada alasan tersebut, peneliti tertarik mengangkat permasalahan ini ke dalam penelitiannya. penelitian ini dilakukan guna melihat signifikansi serta pengaruh dgbl dalam meningkatkan kemampuan berbahasa inggris mahasiswa—terutama kemampuan mendengar dan membaca—serta motivasi belajar mereka. penelitian dilakukan selama lima sesi pada bulan maret 2013 dengan jumlah sampel 13 mahasiswa yang dipilih secara stratifikasi acak dari 68 jumlah mahasiswa pbi tahun kedua, uin ar-raniry. peneliti mengumpulkan data dengan mengaplikasikan penggunaan game di kelas eksperimen, memberikan pretest dan posttest, serta mendistribusikan kuisioner motivasi. dari hasil analisis data secara kuantitatif, dapat disimpulkan bahwa metode digital games based learning (dgbl) dapat meningkatkan prestasi serta motivasi belajar mahasiswa dalam mempelajari bahasa inggris. kata kunci: digital games based learning (dgbl), prestasi, motivasi 225 introduction the method in which student‘s speaking, listening, writing and reading abilities can be improved are becoming critical issues in which english is used as foreign language. therefore, developing effective method to increase students‘ performance as both language learner and language user, and thus, enhancing students‘ english learning achievements has become an important topic. to assist students with developing foreign language proficiency, second language teaching methods have begun to embrace the use of technology, specifically computers-assisted language learning (call) tools (alatis, 1983; pusack, 1981; soper, 1982; stevens, 1983, as cited in levent, 2009: 45). one of methods that use computer-assisted language learning tools is learning through digital games. prensky (2001: 5) used term ―digital games based learning‖ to denote the use of computer game in educational content. digital games based learning is a profoundly new learning method that integrates the use of digital game on learning environment. although game is most often thought as a pure entertainment, it is important to actually know that it can be enormously powerful tool used to learn. prensky (2006) stressed that digital game works as learning tool since ―all games [basically] already cause player to learn‖. findings from many researchers strengthen such acclaim as they found that digital game has enormously increased students‘ learning achievement, especially in learning language (liu and chu, 2010; muller, n.d.; panoutsopoulos and sampson, 2012). prensky (2001:3) described ―the process of game playing [as] engaging,‖ so much that it brings together a great deal of motivation. 226 therefore, combining games with learning can add potential motivation, massive enough to let the learners stick with their learning process. levent (2009: 46) further remarked that digital game helps the process of learning to become more engaging as it adds fun and excitement to help students feel more relaxed and comfortable. purushotma (2005) has suggested that games can be so highly motivating that they can even cause addictive behavior as cited in levent (2009: 46). as cited in prensky (2006: 1), akerman (n.d.) affirmed that ―play (game) is our brain‘s favorite way of learning things.‖ thus, learning new things by playing game can be one of the most engaging as well as effective ways to perceive data to our brain. the fact that people feel better, get less tired, and are highly motivated when they do things they enjoy, such as playing games, is the main idea of creating digital games based learning method. greatly interested with the use and development of digital games based learning (dgbl) method in english language learning— especially in enhancing students‘ reading and listening skills as well as their learning motivation—the researchers decided to strive this research to address the following two major aims: 1. to know if adventure game enhances students‘ english receptive skills 2. to find out the influence of dgbl towards students‘ learning motivation hypothesis the hypothesis of this research is formulated as follow: 227 ―digital games based learning does influence students‘ learning outcomes and motivation‖ digital games based learning there were two essential premises explaining the existence of digital games based learning (prensky, 2006: 1). the first premise is that today‘s learners have changed in some fundamental ways. the fact that students nowadays living in digitally enhanced world, are somewhat have different way of thinking than what former students had. the second premise is that computer can provide new way to motivate today‘s students to learn. if one could think what game is actually best at, it would be based on the fact that it could provide motivation to its players. as mentioned by anyaegbu (2012) ―games are often used for motivational or fun purposes.‖ therefore, keeping the students motivated enough (to stick with their educational life) is a very critical matter faced nowadays. learning methods that were effective in motivating learners in the past might not be able to motivate the learners of today. that is why the proponents of digital games based learning believed (prensky, 2001; pivec&dziabenko, 2003) that digital games based learning is the learning method that could foster not only students‘ learning achievement but also their inner motivation. however, the use of game as a profoundly new learning method has been thoroughly criticized. as per saying goes ―there are always two sides of a coin.‖ while one side sees the emergence of digital games based learning as a bright light and solution in improving both students‘ achievements and motivation, the rest sees it as a merely exaggerated 228 misled effort in combining two radically different things: serious, bookoriented, fixed purposed, rigid activity named learning, with carefree, fun-oriented, time-wasting activity called game. positive effect of gaming in learning games are effective not because of what they are, but because of what they embody and what learners are doing as they play a game (richard van eck, 2006). ―games create an environment where education is mostly learner-centered, with a good opportunity for socialization when they are well-organized, and awakening the will to win and competitive desire inside people‖(squire, 2003: 5).moreover, game presents simulated situation that often extracted from real world. students think and understand better when they learn something they have been familiar with. gee (2003) as cited in mcclarty et al. (2012) pointed out ―games present a similar situation through simulation, providing us the opportunity to think, understand, prepare, and execute actions‖. another learning benefit one can get from game playing is derived from the fact that game provides opportunities to continue practice despite repeated failures. it also presents immediate feedback and clear objectives. this allows players to change their game play in order to improve their performance and reach their goals. game is said to be particularly effective when ―designed to address a specific problem or to teach a certain skill‖ (mitchell and savill-smith, 2004: 19), for example in encouraging learning in subjects areas such as math, physics and language, where specific objectives can be stated, or when chosen selectively to fulfill the objective intended 229 aforementioned of playing the game, for instance: playing game to enhance spatial, problem-solving and strategic ability or to obtain new knowledge. negative effect of gaming in learning as highlighted by clark (2003) as cited in mitchell and savillsmith (2004), there are a number of risk factors that can negatively give impact on learning via computer games: 1) game objectives may not be compatible with learning objectives. 2) games can distract from learning as players concentrate on completing, scoring, and winning instead of focusing on learning. 3) games require suspension of belief; it may be difficult to retain learning acquired in that state 4) failure to reach male and female players to the same extent 5) games risk the learners becoming non socialized people as gaming world is then literally seen as their world instead of their societies (pp. 22-23). aside from the bad effect of game is causing on learners, game in general induces severe effects of frequent playing for gamers. this includes health issues, psycho-social issues, and changes in behavior. hence, players definitely in need to have a control and a good selfmanagement in playing the game and also a good sense of selection in choosing age and task appropriate game. 230 learning outcomes learning outcomes measure final result of intervention or program given to the students. it should be measurable as it will identify or observe what the students will achieve, should be able to do, and will know as the effect of the intervention given beforehand. thus, immediate evidence of these collected knowledge, skills, and ability gathered after intervention is what is called outcomes. a learning outcome is a written statement of what the successful student/learner is expected to be able to do at the end of the module/course unit, or qualification. the key aspect each of the definitions has in common is the desire for more precision and consideration as to what exactly a learner acquires in terms of knowledge and/or skills when they successfully complete a period of learning (adam, 2004, p. 6). game and reading comprehension aside from the importance of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, a few studies have addressed the issues related to ―motivation‖ and ―engagement‖ when it comes to reading comprehension and the way to enhances it. as guthrie et al. (2006) put it: engaged reading is based on motivational and cognitive characteristics of the reader…who is intrinsically motivated, builds knowledge, uses cognitive strategies, and interacts socially to learn from text. these engagement processes can be observed in student‘s cognitive effort, perseverance, and self-direction in reading (p. 404). encouraging learners to reading comprehension can be done by selecting appropriate materials, especially for young readers in their early stages of learning. this selection is very crucial considering the number of selected 231 readers in recent times. that is why—in motivating readers of today— many educational practitioners have begun to embrace game as one of the methods used in enhancing students‘ reading achievement. being labeled as one of solutions in motivating language learner, games as carlson (1952) as cited in meizaliana (2009:53) described ―. . . are activities used to provide a fun and more relax atmosphere especially . . . for student to acquire a second or foreign language.‖ thus, games are believed to help enhancing students‘ motivation to learn to read and later to read to learn by providing various contexts of learning materials in a more fun and engaging way. game and listening comprehension listening as an active process requires conscious attention and interests as well as physical involvement. students who indicated high levels of motivation appeared to engage in listening more. ―motivation and metacognition appear to be elements that are part of clusters of variables contributing to variance in l2 listening‖ (vandergrift, 1997: 196). listening to what learners want to listen to and want to try to comprehend might motivate them to listen and to keep on learning. these want and interest might appear in when someone touches with different, unusual way of learning, thus commended on using game in learning language. as verdugo and belmonte (2007: 87) pointed out: ―digital technology for students, if appropriately selected and organized, can offer a range of opportunities to develop foreign language listening and proficiency in a playful and enjoyable context.‖ therefore, in order to 232 motivate and to enhance students‘ listening ability, one can afford to use appropriate, task-oriented, listening-produced game. game enhances learning motivation the first thing one might expect to see while playing game is an increasing motivation. common wisdom suggests that games are at least motivating, if not educational. game embodies aspects and characters that engage learners to play. games contain the pieces necessary to engage students and help them enter a state of flow where ―they are fully immersed in their learning environment and energized and focused on the activity they are involved in‖ (csikszentmihalyi, 1990, as cited in mcclarty et al., 2012: 14). when complete attention is devoted to the game, a player may lose track of time and not notice other distractions. purushotma (2005) as cited in levent (2009: 46) further added that ―games can be so highly motivating that they can even cause addictive behavior.‖ on the other hand, game also creates fantasy, imaginary world which has rich visuals and plenty aesthetics aspects. such things might attract awe and excitement from its players as it is considered as unique and recognizable feature. another aspect of game that attains interest is its clear objectives. ―games are played to win or achieve a goal … the key to motivation is winning while remaining challenged‖ (becta, 2001: 1). eventually, all ―these components can increase student engagement, and student engagement is strongly associated with student achievement‖ (mcclarty et al., 2012). 233 research design participants the population of the study was 68 english department of iain ar-raniry students year 2011. the researchers used stratified random sampling technique to specify and determine the final samples of this research. stratified random sampling is sampling technique which was based on diversities or stratified qualifications and characteristics that targeted population has (prasetyo & jannah, 2009). the researchers stratified population based on students‘ game playing frequency and students‘ interest in game playing. the researchers used preliminaries questionnaire as a basis to determine their strata. the researchers distributed the questionnaire to all english department students year 2011and there were 68 students responded to the questionnaire. final samples were 13 students whom the researchers selected after careful consideration based on end result of preliminaries questionnaire. data collection this study was a quantitative research. it also applied preexperimental design with one group pretest-posttest design. according to sugiyono (2008), one-group pretest-posttest design is a design in which the experimental group experiences both pretest and posttest during the experiment. further, the data was collected through experimental treatment using digital game, pretest and posttest, and motivational questionnaire. the process of collecting the data would be picturised as follow: 234 figure 1: diagram outlining the procedure of the case study digital game the game used in this research was ―dream sleuth‖. the game was comprised as adventure, point-click, and hidden-object game. this game used as an intervention for five-meeting research. figure 2: ―dream sleuth‖ screenshot the selection of dream sleuth as intervention in this study was for the very reason of finding out appropriate game to foster english preliminaries questionnaire pre-test session 1 discussion session 2 motivational questionnaire session 3 discussion session 4 & 5 post-test 235 language learners‘ ability. looking at how the game had in plate, this game offered mysterious storyline, unique mini games, exciting game play, and the foremost reason of having quite plenty of language learning benefits—especially reading and listening benefits. tests the researchers handed out two tests for the experimental class: pre-test and post-test. pretest was given at the beginning of the meeting, before the treatment conducted. whereas post-test would be given at the end of the meeting, immediately after giving class treatment. pre-test was distributed with the aim of measuring the students‘ initial learning achievements before given the treatment. on the other hand, post-test had a purpose of measuring the improvement or differences in students‘ learning outcomes after being treated with the game. both were necessary for the researchers to obtain the data as in to analyze whether there would be influences of digital game based learning on students‘ learning outcomes or not. the researchers intended to see students‘ learning outcomes. in particular, they wanted to find out two mainstream students‘ english learning outcomes, which were listening and reading. therefore, in designing the test, the researchers created two parts of the test: listening comprehension and reading comprehension test. listening part consisted of four sections: section i, ii, iii, and iv. each section of listening test comprised of five questions. in designing the listening part, the researchers excerpted the audio materials originated from dream sleuth game. they used audacity, an audio editing 236 software, to record, select, part, and save listening part in one complete format of listening material. meanwhile, reading part consisted of two reading texts: reading text i and ii. each reading text has ten comprehension questions. in selecting reading texts, the researchers carefully examined reading texts and their correlation with the treatment. reading text i was aesop fables story, while reading text ii was selected based on the theme used in ―dream sleuth‖ game. table 1 sample of test listening part grandma : happy birthday grandma! catherine : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ catherine! thank you. it‘s going to be a crazy day today with so many _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ coming. reading part according to the writer, what is the true nature of the nurse? (a) she is caring (b) she is tricky and mean (c) she is evil and hateful (d) she is truthful questionnaire the researchers applied questionnaire in order to perceive students‘ learning motivation. questionnaire was distributed in the middle of treatment, right after the third session of game playing. questionnaire used in this research was learning motivation through game playing questionnaire (lmgp-q). the questionnaire was adapted from keller‘s arcs model used by kebritchi (2008). the questionnaire consisted of 20 questions with 14 non reversed questions and six reversed 237 questions. each item of arcs model (attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction) comprised of five questions. table 2 lmgp-q‘s list of questions 1. i think this game will be challenging, but neither too easy, nor too hard for me. 11. the game is relevant to my interests. 2. there is something interesting about this game that will capture my attention. 12. it is clear to me how people use the game to improve their english skills 3. this game seems more difficult than i would like for it to be 13. i will really enjoy completing the task in this game 4. i believe that completing the task in the game will give me a feeling of satisfaction. 14. after working on this game for awhile, i believe that i will be confident in my ability to successfully improve my english skills 5. it is clear to me how this game is related to things i already know. 15. i think that the variety of materials, tasks, illustration, etc., will help keep my attention on this game. 6. i believe this game will gain and maintain my interest 16. the technology used to deliver this the game may be frustrating/ irritating. 7. i believe that the tasks contained in this game will be important to improve my english skills 17. it will feel good to successfully complete this game. 8. as i learn more about this game, i am confident that i could learn english through playing 18. the contents of this game do not include information that will be useful to me. 9. i believe that i will enjoy this game so much that i would 19. i do not think that i will be able to really understand 238 like to know more about the learning i got while playing the game what i learn from the game 10. the game seems dry and unattractive. 20. i do not think that this game will be worth my time and effort. this questionnaire used likert scale measurement. there were five scales used in this likert scale, namely: not true = 1; slightly true = 2; moderately true = 3; mostly true = 4; and very true = 5. there were the items marked reversedwhich are stated in a negative manner. for the reversed questions (item 3, item 10, item 16, item 18, item 19, and item 20), researcher would use reversed scoring. that is for these items, 5=1, 4=2, 3=3, 2=4, and 1=5. the range of score for this questionnaire is: 20 – 35 indicates very low learning motivation; 36 – 51 indicates low learning motivation; 52 – 67 indicates moderate learning motivation; 68 – 83 indicates high learning motivation; and 84 – 100 indicates very high learning motivation. table 3 reversed and non-reversed motivational questionnaire‘s questions items questions non reversed reversed attention 2, 6, 15 10, 16 relevance 5, 7, 11, 12 18 confidence 1, 8, 14 3, 19 satisfaction 4, 9, 13, 17 20 research result students’ learning outcomes through the use of tests, the researchers found necessary data needed to figure out the answer whether game method applied was 239 significantly influential to enhance students‘ learning outcomes. in analyzing the data from the tests, the researchers would use statistical computing program called spss (statistical product and service solution). table 4 frequencies table of pre-test and post-test pretest posttest n valid 13 13 missing 0 0 mean 54.2308 71.3462 median 57.5000 72.5000 std. deviation 9.48599 6.00481 variance 89.984 36.058 minimum 40.00 60.00 maximum 70.00 80.00 based on the analysis of pretest and posttest, the researchers found that there was difference between mean of pretest (54.23) and posttest (71.35). from these data alone, it can be inferred that there was difference of students‘ learning outcomes before and after getting the treatment. to further analyze the improvement of students‘ learning outcome, the researchers used formula of paired samples t test, finding that t value was significantly different from t table and p value was much more less than standard sig. value of 0.05. with -t value< -t table (-6.683 < -2.179) and p value< 0.05 (0.000 < 0.05), meaning that the alternative 240 hypothesis stating significant improvement in learning outcomes following the treatment using digital game was statistically accepted. table 5 paired samples t test paired differences t df sig. (2tail ed) mean std. devia tion std. erro r mea n 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pai r 1 pretest – posttes t 17.115 4 9.233 4 2.560 9 -22.69510 11.5356 7 6.683 12 .000 as many proponents of dgbl claimed that game is significantly influential to students‘ achievements if it is appropriately selected. thus, in regard of such statement, the researchers used the formula of effect size to confirm digital game‘s treatment significance. in classifying the criteria of effect size number, the researchers used classification designed by glass (n.d., as cited in sutrisno, 2010): : classified as low : classified as medium : classified as high 241 with score 1.80, it can be concluded that game did have significant influence on students‘ learning outcomes. above all, according to scale of effect size range from glass, this number of effect size indicated high effect. students’ learning motivation the researcherss distributed motivational questionnaire to their participants. the questionnaire was adapted from keller‘s arcs model employed by kebritchi (2008), indicating students‘ learning motivation toward the use of digital game. to suit the purpose of their study, the researcherss adapted questions and scales in their designated questionnaire. learning motivation through game playing (lmgp-q), as it was named, was distributed during the treatment. the researcherss used both numerical and descriptive analysis to explain the questionnaire. after getting the result for questionnaire, the researcherss found that among 13 samples, one student was classified as moderate level of motivated learner, eight as highly motivated learners, and four as very highly motivated learners. table 6 the description of students‘ questionnaire results no. initials score level 1. n.f 82 high 2. i.p 79 high 3. y.a 94 very high 4. s.f.y 88 very high 5. i.r 86 very high 6. n.u 80 high 242 7. aul. 71 high 8. d.r.r 69 high 9. r.a 60 moderate 10. o.r.p 83 high 11. m.d.u 75 high 12. n.m 87 very high 13. n.h 80 high mean 79.54 high in accordance of each items in arcs model, with attention (m= 4.14), relevance (m = 3.88), confidence (m = 3.89), and satisfaction (m = 4.02) resulting in positive attitude and motivation from participants in general. these result demonstrated participants‘ positive interest, confidence, satisfaction, and attitude toward using game to enhance their learning experience and motivation. table 7 mean of arcs model items items score average (mean) attention 4.14 relevance 3.88 confidence 3.89 satisfaction 4.02 hypothesis now that the result of the research had been found, the researcherss could analyze the hypothesis. statistically speaking, hypothesis ―digital games based learning does influence students‘ learning outcomes and motivation‖ was accepted, as the result indicates improvement on students‘ learning outcomes (-6.683 < -2.179) and positive indicator for learning motivation (m = 79.54). eventually, it can be summarized that digital game based learning has significant influence 243 on students‘ learning outcomes and motivation. in the end, concluding that formulated hypothesis is accepted. conclusions the purpose of this study was to examine the influence of digital games based learning on students‘ learning outcomes and motivation. the population of the study was 68 english department students year 2011. the total 13 samples were derived from the use of stratified random sampling which divided the population into three, from which the researchers selected her samples. this study was a quantitative research. it also applied preexperimental design with one group pretest-posttest design. the data was collected through experimental treatment using digital game, pretest and posttest, and motivational questionnaire. the process of collecting the data was held for five sessions in march, 2013. in analyzing the data from the tests, the researchers used paired sample t test to find out if there was difference of score following students‘ engagement in game-playing. further use of effect size formula was also considered in order to find out how big of effect was actually the digital games based learning method had in enhancing students‘ learning outcomes. moreover, in analyzing the data of motivational questionnaire, the researchers was setting out standard value for each item and reversed item, accumulating them into final score and describing them into three level group of students‘ learning motivation. since the researchers used keller‘s arcs model, the researchers then analyzed each arcs item—considering its dimensional difference 244 within learning motivation. after analyzing the data and discussing its result, provided below are the conclusions of study: 1. there was significant improvement of students‘ learning outcomes, in particular reading and listening skills, after indulging within the treatment using digital game. the significance of digital game to enhance students‘ english skills was shown through the result of data analysis. the difference of pretest‘s mean (m = 54.23) to that of posttest‘s (m = 71.35) signaling that there was difference of students‘ before and after treatment‘s score. further use of paired samples t test strengthened the difference, by resulting in -t value (-6.683) lower than that of -t table‘s (-2.179). the significance of students‘ improvement were statistically calculated using effect size which resulted in high significance level of influence of digital games based learning on students‘ learning outcomes. in summary, it can be concluded that dgbl did enhance students‘ learning outcomes. 2. there was influence of digital games based learning toward students‘ learning motivation since the result of motivational questionnaire showed that students mostly reacted positively toward the use of game to learn english. mean score (m = 79.54) was the proof that in average, participants indulged in this research were indicated as highly motivated learners. this indication of high learning motivation was clearly shown during the researchers‘ research—having seen her participants playing continuously with a lot of curiosity; breaking in joy for finishing certain levels; or simply seen them focusing intensely since the level was pretty difficult. in the end, it all proved that digital games based learning indeed has effect on students‘ learning motivation. 245 3. through the analysis of keller‘s arcs items, the researchers could deduce the following assumptions: (1) majority of students believed that digital games based learning could increase their interest and attention toward english learning as it provided various tasks, rich visuals, and challenging levels, all provided in english; (2) students realized that the game, if appropriately selected, could enhance their english learning, especially in reading and listening; and (3) students would feel satisfaction, excitement, challenge, and accomplishment once they finish the game. these resulting in students‘ feeling more motivated and enthusiastic toward learning english through gameplaying. future works for future researchers, the researcherss suggest to ensue further exploration toward the effect of digital games in learning environment. the following issues can be considered for future research: firstly, it is helpful to examine the effects of the same or similar game used in this study with different participants. secondly, various findings for the influence of the games in this study, justify further investigation to better identify the cause of the game effects on achievement and motivation. thirdly, as this study relied only on statistical calculation, further and deeper investigation using qualitative instruments on effects of the games on motivation should be conducted. finally, the researchers recommended other researchers to work on the same background with a more complete design and a greater number of participants. 246 references adam, s. 2004. using learning outcomes. in report for united kingdom bologna seminar, bologna. guthrie, j. t., wigfield, a., humenick, n. m., perencevich, k. c., taboada, a., & barbosa, p. 2006. influences of stimulating tasks on reading motivation and comprehension. the journal of educational research, 99(4), 232-246. levent, u. 2009. an evaluative checklist for computer games used for foreign language vocabulary learning and practice: vocaword sample. novitas-royal, 3(1), 45-59. mcclarty, k. l., orr, a., frey, p. m., dolan, r. p., vassileva, v., &mcvay, a. 2012. a literature review of gaming in education. london: pearson pubs. meizaliana, m. 2009. teaching structure through games to the students of madrasyah aliyah negeri 1 kepahiang, bengkulu (doctoral dissertation). universitas diponegoro, semarang, indonesia. mitchell, a., &savill-smith, c. 2004. the use of computer and video games for learning: a review of the literature. wales: learning and skills development agency. prasetyo, b., &jannah, l. m. 2006. metode penelitian kuantitatif. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. prensky, m. 2001. the digital game-based learning revolution. retrieved from http://www.marcprensky.com/.../prensky%20%20ch1-digital%20gameon october 9, 2012. prensky, m. 2006. computer games and learning: digital game-based learning.retrieved from http://www.marcprensky.com/.../prensky%20-%20ch1digital%20game-... on october 9, 2012. squire, k. d. 2003. video games in education. int. j. intell. games & simulation, 2(1), 49-62. sugiyono. 2008. metode penelitian pendidikan. bandung: alfabeta. vandergrift, l. 1997. the comprehension strategies of second language (french) listeners: a descriptive study. foreign language annals, 30(3), 387-409. verdugo, d. r., & belmonte, i. a. 2007. using digital stories to improve listening comprehension with spanish young learners of english. language learning & technology, 11(1), 87-101. register journal vol. 11, no. 2, vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.154-167 154 teaching speaking for professional context using prezi in the relation with students’ creativity marisa fran lina iain salatiga marisafl@iainsalatiga.ac.id doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.154-167 submission track: received: 05/07/2018 final revision: 25/11/2018 available online: 01/11/2018 corresponding marisa fran lina marisafl@iainsalatiga.ac.id abstract this study is purposed to know whether prezi is useful to teach speaking class and the high creative students are more superior speaking skill than low creative students. this study was conducted for second semester students of english education departmentat iain salatiga in 2016. in this study, the writer used experimental research method. she examined two classes as the experimental class and control class. there were two groups in each class (high and low creative students). the students’ creativity test and speaking test became the research instruments. both tests were readable with the result of more than 75 %. the analysis used was (anova). the results are: (1) prezi is useful for teaching speaking for professional context; (2) the high creative students are more superior in speaking skill than low creative students. thus it can be summed that: prezi is a useful media to teach speaking for professional context, so the learning goal will be accomplished namely make students can make, use, or apply the material creatively therefore english teacher should use it. prezi is also appropriate for high and low creative students since it has flexible movement which helps students can organize the topic into the meaningful sentences. then, the students can deliver their idea smoothly through oral performance. key words: prezi, teaching speaking, and creative students mailto:marisafl@iainsalatiga.ac.id http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.154-167 mailto:marisafl@iainsalatiga.ac.id marisa fran lina 155 introduction one of important skills that should be owned by university students, especially in english education department, is speaking. according to sharif (2012: 2) speaking is the act of delivering information or expressing someone’s ideas and senses in oral language. it is definitely crucial while it came into teaching time for the students as teachers in the future. the reason is they have to use this skill to teach their students in order to deliver the material, give instructions and feedback to their students, and do some other teacher’s activities in the classroom. thus, producing speech fluently and confidently will be necessary as an english teacher, since the teacher will be the model for the students. based on the experts’ descriptions about assessing speaking, the writer determines to use massachusetts department of education assessment of basic skills’s scoring rubric (sujiyana, 2010: 36) since the scoring scale is more suitable to examine individual presentation as one way communication. the total of maximum score got by one student is 20 since the maximum point of every aspect is 4. after that, the student’s score is converted into 100 points scale by multiplying it with 5 so that it is easier to calculate. massachusetts department of education assessment of basic skills in also describes about aspects for assessing students’ speaking performance, they are (1) fluency, (2) vocabulary, (3) pronunciation, (4) grammar, and (5) content. meanwhile, there is micro and macro skills of speaking as stated by brown (2003: p. 142-143). the micro skills refer to making the smaller parts of language namely phonemes, morphemes, words, collocations, and phrasal groups. the macro skills mean the speakers focus on the bigger elements: discourse, fluency, function, cohesion, style, nonverbal communication, and strategic options. from the explanations, the researcher tried to create construct. the construct is explained as follows: speaking is an activity to make speech orally to express thought and communicate them to others. by speaking, people attempt to create words and even smaller chunk of words. speakers also have larger elements of speaking skill namely fluency and nonverbal communication. to assess someone’s speaking skill, it needs some aspects, and they are vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency, content, and grammar. those aspects also have their own characteristics to assess speaking. in addition, the researcher creates elements and indicators of speaking which are explained as follows: the speakers are denoted having speaking skill if they have obtained skill to perform speaking activity appropriately that includes five speaking elements. they are vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency, content, and grammar. then, the indicators of speaking ability that indicates the speaker can accomplish speaking skill are in register journal vol. 11, no. 2, vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.154-167 156 detail: (1) the speaker produces extensive vocabularies, (2) the speaker uses very clear pronunciations, (3) the speaker can speak fluently, (4) the speaker performs superior relevance and coherence of ideas and (5) the speaker is able to produce very few grammatical mistakes. still in line with this, technology as the development of human’s activities today has also impacted to english teaching specifically in speaking area. boonkit, 2010 in pujasari (2014: p.1) states that the sophisticated world media, mass communication, and internet asks an english excellent skill, especially for oral english. therefore, it is hoped that a university student who is going to be an english teacher can apply appropriate technologies in teaching speaking. this reason also underlies the importance of conducting a research in speaking especially in the aspect of technology. the contribution to knowledge the syllabus of tadris bahasa inggris (tbi) or english education department at iain salatiga under religous ministry demands that the standard competency as a second semester of university student in english department program in speaking in professional context is that students are hoped to make and apply the material of speaking in professional contexts creatively (tbi: 2016). meanwhile, there is a new presentation software namely prezi. it is a free online visual presentation device launched in 2009 that permits the audience to connect with the content by changing around, zooming in and out on a big canvas that can be filled with text, images, and video (fransson & holmberg 2012 in brock, 2013: 96). on the other hand, powerpoint presentations look standard and linear. white (2012: 16) says that powerpoint has problem in getting to a specific slide when presentation has begun. additionally, the powerpoint presentation is arranged in a linear order, so it limits the presenter to show her content of the presentation at once. it is also because in powerpoint, that is difficult for the user to simply click the background with mouse to make the presentation zooms out to a big overview, and the presenters cannot zoom into the area they want (lorang, in white (2012: 12)). these conditions certainly influence the flow of information of the presenter in presenting their ideas. to prove its usefulness, the researcher compares prezi with powerpoint. in powerpoint, as stated by sari (2014: 933), the university students ordinarily use powerpoint. it is one of presentation media; it is based on standard slides. on the other hand, prezi is considered more attractive since the features are interactive and visually helpful appliances that practice zooming and dimensional relations to show information. it is going to please the university students be successful in delivering a fair idea orally. manning, et al. (2011 in sari, 2014: 933) also adds that prezi is virtually akin to powerpoint. however, prezi has the capability to combine various distinct kinds of media. meanwhile, ansori (2012: 18) marisa fran lina 157 states microsoft office powerpoint is a computer program for presentation developed by microsoft. it is one package of microsoft office and run under microsoft windows system operation. the plus point of powerpoint has been stated by barber (2013: 1) that more people are familiar with the powerpoint format. furthermore, the writer found facts in her preliminary research in a speaking class that in delivering explanations to others using english orally, pupils feel difficult. it appeared especially once the students presented their topic in powerpoint software. they felt unpleasant to show and explore the topic using this software. in a presentation activity, a student looked unconfident. she inclined to read the presentation rather than talk or explain. when the teacher asked her to describe one part of slides, she could not say something, she only ordered the audiences to read the slides by themselves. the student looked troublesome to present in the activity using powerpoint. additionally, the audiences inclined to concentrate on the powerpoint slides rather than toward what the speaker said. afterward, creativity is a significant part of speaking and it can influence students’ speaking skill. magno and ouano (n.d.: 229) defines creativity as the innate ability of the person to produce or create something out of local substances or resources, having the ability to state oneself wants, wide imagination and high tendency to music arts and culture. harris and mccan (1994: 21) also mention creativity in presentation. it presents initiative, original thought, inventiveness and it shows work tidily and in an ordered manner. meanwhile, craft, jefrey and leibling (2007 in alajaili, 2014: 36) explain that creativity is a process of fashioning, shaping, molding, refining and managing the creative idea or activity. it can be summed up that creativity is thinking actively to create something new and attractive in order to solve problems. therefore, the use of teaching media such as prezi and powerpoint will encourage students to indulge their creativity in speaking activities. the writer proposes that prezi as the most update product of presentation tool is determined to be more useful than powerpoint in teaching speaking. consequently, this study tries to prove which media is appropriate to teach speaking in the campus level. this study also highlights on the use of technology in teaching filed since it should be propagated specifically in teaching speaking. moreover, it is very important for the students in the campus who will be teachers in their future. additionally, this study emphasizes on students’ creativity which is connected tightly to produce a good product of speaking by the teaching media. the reason is because the implementation of prezi and powerpoint as the learning media demands students’ creativity to elaborate the speaking material. register journal vol. 11, no. 2, vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.154-167 158 purpose of the study the purposes of the research are to know whether: (1) prezi is more useful than powerpoint to teach speaking for professional context; (2) the high creative students are more superior than low creative students in speaking skill. review of related studies there are some related researches about prezi, among of them are: 1. prezi: an online and offline zooming presentation tool in oral english for academic speaking pupils. the writer is sari (2014) who concludes that the implentation of prezi in oral english specifically for academic speaking students is hoped to create a good presentation. by using prezi, students can use an attractive media to present message clearly. prezi owns more superior visual designs which have an important role for an audience’s attraction and attention span. prezi in oral presentation is going to increase the students’ speaking abilities. 2. a story of two cultures: cross cultural comparison on learning the prezi presentation software device in the us and norway. this research was conducted by brock and brodahl (2013) and the result shows that prezi was presented to pupils in a norway class and in the same way to the u.s class to find out whether there might be different responses to prezi and powerpoint depending on the cultural background from the user. results showed that both software used by the students, then finally it is found that the new tool ran well in spite of the minimal direct instruction used by the teacher. most made their presentations less linear rather than they would have made it in powerpoint. they generally practiced the prezi technique of grouping components and constructing a pathway between groups. many students inserted multimedia such as links, photos, and videos. some especially appreciated the prezi features of more than one user is being able to work on a presentation in the same time. peers enjoyed each other’s presentations and found them fascinating. however, open-ended comments were more aimed at actual content than use of prezi. 3. powerpoint vs. prezi: finding the right device for the job. white (2012: 37) as the writer who mentions on his research that the finding of using prezi in presentation involves two main parts: (a) understanding of information, 78% understood the message and there were no question, vice versa 22% understood a lot of the information and had question.; (b) flow of information, 89% idea of the information make sense and it was delivered smoothly, vice versa 11% thought the information was understood, but it did not flow smoothly 4. using prezi in the classroom by rogers, et.al. (2011) as the writers of this article have all applied prezi as an instructional tool and they are offering advice to instructors who might be interested in marisa fran lina 159 mustering up the motivation to try prezi. the authors states about the positive sides of prezi used in the classroom. prezi offers the capability for students to collaborate in class while using the program online. up to 8 people can edit the prezi in the same time. for those in bigger classes, this could be accomplished by splitting students into groups. this allows for the construction and presentation of students' knowledge that could appeal to different learning manners. prezi is made more accessible for pupils and instructors through its free online style. students can view the prezi while and after class by practicing an online link. 5. pedagogically sound use of prezi: making beneficial use of prezi in a class. the writer is houska (2010) who mentions that he has received positive responses cane from his students as audience members regarding the use of prezi in the classroom. he has not yet to have any students apply prezi for a class presentation, but the writer is sure that he will create it in the years to come true. this type of presentation software permits to many new options relative to slide ware namely powerpoint or keynote. 6. tech tools for teachers, by teachers: connecting teachers and students written by manning, et al. (2011) who state that incorporating 21 st century technology to the classroom can be messy and problem at first, but with consistency, teachers are able to help students use these tools critically plus usefully to meet literacy goals. for instance, they can use prezi to show information in a completely different format. by using innovative tools such as prezi in order to approach learning, students and teachers can do it together to re-envision how school is going to function for the century to come. research gap in this writer’s research, she could find some important points that were different from the related studies above. for instance, the first research is about a classroom action research for academic speaking students which used prezi as the media, and the purpose is to find improvements in students’ speaking skill. after that, the second research is a research that prezi was proposed to pupils in a norway’s class and in the u.s class at the same way to know whether there might be various responses to powerpoint and prezi. the third research is about a comparative research between prezi and powerpoint in general presentations. this research does not explain specifically about the use of prezi and powerpoint as the teaching media to teach a particular subject. the fourth, it mainly discusses about pros, cons and suggestions to apply prezi in the classroom. the fifth, the researchers talk about developing beneficial ways to practice this activity in the english/language arts in a class. the last study is about students’ responses as audience members about using prezi in the classroom. meanwhile, in the writer’ research is about an experimental research which register journal vol. 11, no. 2, vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.154-167 160 compares prezi and powerpoint as the teaching media to teach speaking viewed from student’s creativity. the purposes are to find which one is more superior and more useful to teach speaking. thus, it can be said that this research is new and different from other studies. research method. techniques or procedures of the research the technique used in this research was descriptive s plus inferential analysis. the descriptive one was used to know the mean, mode, median, and standard deviation of students score for each group. inferential analysis was used to test the hypothesis. in this research, the writer also used anova that requires normality test to know whether the data from population is distributed normally and homogeneity to know whether the groups that are compared are homogenous. to be clearer, it is designed as follows: table 1. research design teaching media creativity prezi (a1) powerpoint (a2) high creativity(b1) a1b1 a2b1 low creativity(b2) a1b2 a2b2 note: independent variable : teaching media (prezi and powerpoint) experimental group : the class taught by prezi control group : the class taught by powerpoint dependent variable : speaking skill moderator variable : students’ creativity in this study, test of speaking and creativity test became the instruments of collecting data. they were used to explore the experiences, measure the skill and knowledge. the blueprint of speaking skill as a design, which explains how speaking skill was achieved. it explains as follows: (1) the speaker can speak fluently; (2) the speaker produces extensive vocabularies; (3) the speaker uses very clear marisa fran lina 161 pronunciations (4) the speaker is able to make very few grammatical mistakes and (5) the speaker performs superior content of the task. furthermore, the creativity test which was used to determine the low and high creativity is adapted from munandar creativity test (munandar: 1999). validity and reliability in order to get students’ speaking skill data, the writer arranged some following steps: (1) students prepared a laptop with prezi or powerpoint software inside, (2) students chose one of the topics through lottery, (3) students collected the data and information to be presented based on the topic, (4) students designed the substantial of presentation linked to the topic by making prezi or powerpoint, (5) students presented the material by using prezi or powerpoint in front of the class, and (6) the students’ speaking was recorded and scored by two scorers. before the research is carried out, the instrument of collecting the data must be well prepared and tried out to ensure that the instruction of the test of speaking is readable. this shows that the instructions of the two tests are readable since the percentages of the readability are more than 75 %. the instructions used in speaking test were as follows: (1) present the material by using prezi or powerpoint in front of the class; (2) you have around 10-15 minutes to present the material. in detail, the first three minutes is for preparation, opening, self-introduction and delivering the topic’s title, around ten minutes for maximum is to present the major topic, two minutes left is to draw conclusion and closing; (3) do it as seriously as possible. normality and homogeneity test are done by using inferential analysis and they must be done before analyzing the data. the normality test functions to investigate whether the data is within normal distribution or not and the test of homogeneity is done to investigate whether the data are homogeneous. it shows that all of the samples (lo) are lower than (lt). thus, the conclusion showed the data are in normal distribution. then, it also shows that the χo 2 (1.49) is fewer than χt 2 (7.81). thus, the conclusion showed the data are homogenous. results & discussion table 2. the summary of anova source of variance ss df ms fo ft(0.5) meaning between columns 267.969 1 267.9688 4.831 4.08 significant between rows 1915.29 1 1915.29 34.529 significant register journal vol. 11, no. 2, vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.154-167 162 columns by rows (interaction) 0.11161 1 0.111607 0.002 not significant between groups 2183.37 3 727.790 within groups 2884.38 52 55.46875 total 5067.75 55 according to the above figure, the summaries are: a) since fo between columns (4.831) is bigger than ft at the level of significance α= 0.05 (4.08), ho is rejected and the distinction between columns is significant. since the mean of a1 (74.55) is bigger than that of a2 (70.18), so the conclusion showed prezi is more useful than powerpoint to teach speaking. b) since fo between rows (34.529) is bigger than ft at the level of significance α= 0.05 (4.08), ho is rejected and the distinction between rows is significant. the conclusion is the speaking ability of high creative students and low creative students are undoubtedly distinctive. furthermore, since the mean between b1 (78.21) is bigger than b2 (66.51), the inference is the high creative students are more superior than low creative students in speaking ability. this research is one of the efforts to generate some improvement to teach speaking for professional context toward university students. it has been discussed in the previous chapter that prezi is one of the alternatives to obtain the intention. these are the elaboration discussions of the study results. 1. prezi is more useful than powerpoint. based on data description of students’ score in experimental class (a1/prezi), it shows that the mean is 74.75. meanwhile, in the data description of students’ score in control class (a2/powerpoint), it shows that the mean is 70.35. thus, the fact shows the mean of students’ score taught by prezi (74.75) is bigger than the mean of students’ score taught by powerpoint (70.35), so the inference means prezi is more useful than powerpoint to teach speaking. prezi implementation in teaching speaking helps students practice speaking usefully. prezi is suitable in teaching speaking because the goal of teaching speaking in professional context is to make students able to make, use, or apply the material of speaking in professional contexts creatively. students are encouraged to make the speaking material by using prezi. it is considered that prezi is more attractive than powerpoint if it is used to present the material, so the audiences are more interested in paying attention to the presentation. it is in line with sari (2014: 932) who states marisa fran lina 163 that prezi owns more superior visual creation which can attract audiences to stay and enjoy the performance and through practicing prezi, the users can elaborate the features to perform their ideas. furthermore, the plus point of prezi is the zooming feature which presents an idea of a big picture as a framework for the audiences. it can be zoomed in and zoomed out amazingly. students can use this zooming feature to emphasize and explain clearly small parts of their presentations. using prezi as an useful presentation tool is also supported by white (2012: p. 37) who mentions that the effect of applying prezi in presentation includes two major things: (1) flow of information: 89% idea of the information understood and flowed well, and (2) understanding of information, 78% understood the message and had no question. then, the prezi map and the templates allow students to organize the content of the presentation material. they can do it by grouping the similar topic and connecting some topics in order to be easily understood. thus, those activities avoid students add irrelevant content. fortunately, those activities can also be seen only in one screen capture. naturally, the zooming feature, prezi map, templates, and other unique prezi features do not exist in powerpoint. these findings are supported by manning, et al. (2011: 4). they say that prezi allows students to have choices of making more scopes, to examine an issue, and to combine their thinking and ideas into a direct site. in addition, if students want to make a truly distinguish prezi, they would rather start blank prezi and use their creativity to gather and connect the topic into well-organized presentation.the purpose is to make the students deliver their idea and material in the well oral presentation. they also can use the zooming feature of prezi to emphasize their explanation and convince the audience during speaking. it is related to what white (2012: 1) states that prezi is a device that allows the students to insert concepts, pictures, and video onto a big empty canvas then zoom in and out on particular things so that it can stress the significance. many students who were taught used prezi were able to improve their speaking skill. it could be examined during the treatment where some pupils performed presentations and their friends examined them personally by using an assessment sheet. this was applied to measure the speaking indicators from the presenters. the indicators of speaking involving vocabulary, fluency, pronunciation, content, and grammar were developed through an activity where pupils were asked to make a presentation related to a topic. in performing a presentation, pupils produced extensive and appropriate vocabularies, they could speak fluently in using expressions according to the topic, they used very clear and appropriate register journal vol. 11, no. 2, vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.154-167 164 pronunciations, and they performed relevant ideas in performing their works about the topic, and they were able to use proper grammars,. in addition, based on students’ interview, the author also found that the implementation of prezi features in designing texts namely limited color and font options were naturally made students’ presentations looked simple plus easy to be understood. afterward, the zooming features of prezi also made students an ease to move directly to a specific explanation. for example, once they had to present about their ending session by showing a quote, students were able to move or go directly into the specific destination, then closing the presentations by coming back with the big picture of their concepts. on the contrary, powerpoint is a standard-based presentation tool. this teaching media makes students less cheerful in teaching learning process because they admit that it is just ordinary presentation tool. additionally in performance time, students have difficulty to zoom out a specific part of the topic. it is true because powerpoint does not have zooming feature such as white’s opininion that (2012: 16) in powerpoint the students have problems in grabbing to a particular place one while the presentation was running, and it cannot zoom the small part. then, the large size of letter and color options in powerpoint makes students overuse it. it becomes unclear and it influences their fluency in speaking. in a survey taken in 2003, the effects highlighted on special features of a powerpoint presentation that users felt troublesome, such as; ... the text cannot be seen, it is too small, ... and the color options on the slide cannot be seen too. (paradi, 2003 in white, 2012: 11). according to the explanations, it can be summed that prezi is more useful than powerpoint to teach speaking, because prezi has the concept that present information in concise ways that underline the organization of the idea which influences students’ speaking aspects in their presentations. 2. the students having high creativity have more superior speaking skill than those having low creativity based on the data description of pupils’ score in speaking test, the mean between students having high creativity (b1 is 78.29) is bigger than students having low creativity (b2 is 67.36), it can be concluded that the high creative students are more superior than low creative students in speaking ability. theoretically, the high creative students are more superior influence in teaching and learning speaking skill. the students will be more active in participating in the class, because those who have high verbal creativity will be easier in analyzing visual information, designing new format and marisa fran lina 165 presenting their creation in a skillful way. it is strengthened by benlamri’s statement (2013:8) that creativity is a natural part of everyone's mental process, any act of producing something new, even something as simple as a sentence that has never been spoken before, is an act of creation. in contrast, inferior creative students inclined to be inactive when they are asked to speak up in the speaking class. they are ashamed to perform because they are affraid of doing errors. they do not like an openness to learn and try new things, they carry out something ordinaryly, and they do not try to expand their thought well. they also have less effort to achieve a more superior product of creativity especially in speaking class. they have a monotonous concept, idea, creation in solving the problem. the matters stated in the previous are since the pupils do not concentrate on their works, guest (1987, in paauwe 2004: 55) mentions that low creative students trivialize their value, consider less of themselves, and concentrate on their drawbacks. furthermore, mcghee in safertzi, 2000: p. 21 defines that many people consider less creatively when they are not solemnly and intenty concentrate on the duty. thus, the inference is high creative students are more superior than low creative students in performing speaking ability. conclusion it has been clearly described on the previous chapter that the research findings are as follows: (1) prezi is more useful than powerpoint in teaching speaking for professional context; and (2) the high creative students are more superior than low creative students in speaking skill. according to the research finding, the conclusion is that prezi is more useful than powerpoint to teach speaking. prezi is suitable in teaching speaking because the goal of teaching speaking in professional context is to make students able to make, use, or apply the material of speaking in professional contexts creatively. students are encouraged to make the speaking material by using prezi. they have to create prezi presentation to show their works by presenting them in front of the class. in prezi activity, students have to make a presentation with their groups based on the topic. prezi is also appropriate for high and low creative students since it has flexible movement which helps students can organize the topic into the meaningful sentences. in the relation to speaking skill for planning process, the function of prezi is to help the presenter to generate ideas easily, because it provides the concept of information related to the topic that is presented. thus, the writer suggests that: (1) for the teachers, they should use prezi to teach speaking to improve students’ speaking skill but the teachers have to be able to prepare prezi properly and understand the potency and drawback of prezi so that they can implement this teaching media usefully in the teaching and learning process in the classroom; (2) for the students, they are expected to be more active in the class so that it can improve their speaking ability. then, it is suggested for the students who have low skill in register journal vol. 11, no. 2, vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.154-167 166 speaking to involve more in joining the activity in class; (3) for further researchers, they can apply the finding of this study as the beginning for conducting the next investigation and they can also develop the teaching media used in this research as a way of making revision to the weaknesses of this research. references alajaili, hetham m. a. (2014). the usefulness of graphic organizers to teach speaking viewed from students’ creativity (tesis). surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. ansori, m. iksan. (2012). efektivitas pembelajaran yang menggunakan hypermedia dan slide powerpoint terhadap prestasi belajar mata pelajaran pendidikan agama islam ditinjau dari kemampuan visuospasial di sma negeri se-kabupaten nganjuk tahun ajaran 2012/2013 (tesis). surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. barber, cam. (2013). prezi versus powerpoint for presentation visual. retrieved from http://vividmethod.com/prezi-versus-powerpoint-for-presentation-visuals/ benlamri, fatima. (2013). creative teaching to increase students’ achievements in speaking (a dissertation). retrieved from http://dspace.univbiskra.dz:8080/jspui/bitstream/123456789/4805/1/cover%20page_r%c3%a9sum%c3%a9.pd f brock, sabra and brodahl, cornelia. (2013). a tale of two cultures: cross cultural comparison in learning the prezi presentation software tool in the us and norway. journal of information technology education: research, volume 12. brown, douglas h. (2003). language assessment: principles and classroom practices. -: longman harris, michael and paul mccann. (1994). assessment. -: macmillan oxford houska, jeremy ashton. (2010). pedagogically sound use of prezi: making useful use of prezi in the classroom. retrieved from ttp://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/ptn/2013/05/prezisound.aspx hughes, arthur. (2003). testing for language teachers (second edition). new york: cambrige university press. magno c. & ouano j. (n.d). designing written assessment of student learning. manning, et al. (2011). tech tools for teachers, by teachers: bridging teachers and students. the wisconsin council of teachers of english, 53, 1-27. http://dspace.univ-biskra.dz:8080/jspui/bitstream/123456789/4805/1/cover%20page_r%c3%a9sum%c3%a9.pdf http://dspace.univ-biskra.dz:8080/jspui/bitstream/123456789/4805/1/cover%20page_r%c3%a9sum%c3%a9.pdf http://dspace.univ-biskra.dz:8080/jspui/bitstream/123456789/4805/1/cover%20page_r%c3%a9sum%c3%a9.pdf marisa fran lina 167 munandar, utami. (1999). pengembangan kreativitas anak berbakat. jakarta: depdiknas dan rineka cipta. paauwe, j. (2004). hrm and performance: achieving long-termviability. oxford: oxford university press. pujasari, ratu sarah. (2014). the usefulness of community language learning in teaching speaking viewed from students’ creativity (thesis). surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. in text: pujasari (2014) rogers, e.m., settle, q., abrams, k. m., baker, l. m. (2011). teaching tips/notes: using prezi in the classroom. north american colleges and teachers of agriculture (nacta) journal. december 2011, 105-106. safertzi, eleni. 2000. creativity. innergio: dissemination of innovation and knowledge management technique. sari, dwi rosita. (2014). prezi: an online to offline ‘zooming’ presentation software in oral english for academic speaking students. the 61 teflin international conference (proceeding 3). surakarta: uns solo. in text: sari (2014) sharif, brwa rasul. (2012, november 12). teaching speaking [powerpoint slides]. retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/brwarsharif/teaching-speaking-15225983 sujiyana. (2010). implementing group presentation using powerpoint (gpppt) to improve the students’ speaking competence (thesis). surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. tadris bahasa inggris (tbi). (2011). silabi mata kuliah program studi tbi (tadris bahasa inggris). salatiga: institut agama islam negeri. in text: tbi (2011) white, nicole. (2012). prezi v. powerpoint: finding the right tool for the job. new york: state university of new york institute of technology http://www.slideshare.net/brwarsharif/teaching-speaking-15225983 register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.185-199 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ game localization: loss and gain in visual novel subtitles etty syafa’ati english literature department, iain surakarta email: ettysyafa@gmail.com umi pujiyanti english literature department, iain surakarta email: uphaupho@gmail.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i2.170-184 submission track: received: 13-08-2017 final revision: 10-11-2017 available online: 01-12-2017 english abstract this research discussed about loss and gain in the context of game localization with the limitation on subtitles. the objectives are to present the loss and gain in the visual novel game adaptation subtitles entitled a child in the forest and to identify reasons of the loss and gain happen. a child in the forest is a kind of game which consists of static and background images also music soundtrack with storylines and dialogues. it was made and translated from english into indonesian version by english letters students of iain surakarta. the method used in this research is descriptive qualitative. the method of collecting data, researcher gets english and indonesian subtitles script from the game packages. after that, the researcher analyses the data which consist of loss and gain and also make interview with translator. the researcher uses informant to make data validation which is expert in translation and in the world of visual novel game. the result of this research, researcher found 63 data about loss and 55 data about gain. the reasons of loss and gain in visual novel game subtitle is mostly because of the translator wants to reach the goal of game localization in order the visual novel can be easy to be played and to be understood. keywords: game localization, loss and gain, subtitle of visual novel game. indonesian abstract penelitian ini membahas tentang loss dan gain dalam konteks game lokalisasi dengan fokus hanya pada subtitle. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menunjukan loss dan gain yang ditemukan serta mengidentifikasi alasan mailto:ettysyafa@gmail.com http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i2.170-184 etty syafa’ati & umi pujiyanti 186 kenapa loss dan gain bisa terjadi di subtitle visual novel game adaptasi berjudul a child in the forest. a child in the forest adalah sebuah permainan yang terdiri dari gambar statis dan latar belakang juga suara music dengan alur cerita dan dialog. visual novel ini dibuat dan diterjemahkan dari bahasa inggris ke bahasa indonesia oleh siswa jurusan sastra inggris semester 2 iain surakarta. metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah penelitian deskriptif kualitatif. metode pengumpulan data, peneliti mendapatkan naskah terjemahan bahasa inggris dan bahasa indonesia dari data paket permainan. setelah itu, peneliti menganalisis data yang mengandung loss dan gain dan juga melakukan wawancara dengan penerjemah. peneliti menggunakan informan untuk melakukan validasi data yang ahli dalam dunia penerjemahan dan ahli dalam game visual novel. hasil penelitian ini, peneliti menemukan 63 data tentang loss dan 55 data tentang gain. alasan loss dan gain dalam subtitle game visual novel ini sebagian besar karena penerjemah ingin mencapai tujuan lokalisasi permainan agar visual novelnya mudah dimainkan dan dipahami. kata kunci: lokalisasi game, loss dan gain, subtitle di visual novel game. introduction studies on interlingual subtitles in the context of screen translation revolve around subtitle and subtitling standard differences between film and games (sajna: 2013), constraints and challenges (mangiron and ohagan: 2006), comparative study between tv, dvd, and game (mangiron: 2013) and also strategies in translating video games in the context of game localization (costales, 2014). the gap left by those studies is the study of subtitle in the context of video game localization with loss and gain as the perspectives. to reveal the loss and gain in video game subtitles in game localization and to figure out the reasons why this happens are the objectives of this research. different characteristics on media and how the media is accessed contribute to the possibilities of loss and gain emergence. in the case of subtitling for example, subtitles appearing on different media, film, for instance, are mechanically different from subtitles on video game screen. game subtitles are generally longer than subtitles for film. according to mangiron (2013:44-45), the length of time game subtitles are displayed on screen is variable. mostly, user controlled in games while in film or tv, time on screen rule is only for 6 seconds. furthermore, in the parameter of the character per line for film are 35-37 and for game subtitling are 30-143 characters. mangiron also adds that general subtitling guidelines are not applied in games and it describes the different features such as mentioned above, time variable displayed on the screen, number of lines and also font type, font size and reduction. she adds that reduction in game subtitling must be little for interlingual subtitles as compared with tv subtitling. however, it does not rule out the possibility that another factor might register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.185-199 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ cause loss and gain such as the ability of the translator in understanding the both language and also special skill in understanding the rule and the concept of the game. in fact, because of those reasons, researcher will find whether the loss and gain are caused by the use of different media or there are other reasons applied. this paper tries to present the loss and gain in the visual novel game adaptation entitled a child in the forest. visual novel (vn) typically articulates its narrative by means of extensive text conversations complemented by lovingly depicted (and mainly stationary) generic backgrounds and dialogue boxes with character sprites determining the speaker superimposed upon them (cavallaro, 2009:8). in other words, visual novel is a general type of game with storyline and dialogues. there are also elements such as characters, background images, and sounds. the vn of a child in the forest itself has storylines which are the adaptation from the story entitled a child in the grave by hans christian andersen. it made by english letters students of iain surakarta. they made it from english into indonesian and that it is used as the object of study for this research which focus only in subtitles. the reasons why researcher chooses a child in the forest visual novel game because it is unique visual novel for it is combining pictures of people with animation as the element in the game. it is actually new challenge in the visual novel as usulaly vn employs only animations to be displayed on the screen. furthermore, the translator and the maker of the visual novel game is students of english letters in second semester in academic year 2015/2016. at this level of age and in the context of iain, producing such kind of work is massive achievement. visual novel entitled a child in the forest tells about a little girl who lives in the village with her parents. this girl was beautiful, kind and smart. her father was a carpenter and the mother was a florist in the city. the girl always obeyed her parents. until one day, she entered the forest without permission of her parents. then, she was kidnapped by witch who acted as old woman. she regretted and realized her mistakes. one day, a fairy appeared and helped little girl to come back home. the moral value is already familiar or known as children must obey their parents. in this case, the visual novel game entitled a child in the forest ready made in english language as a global product and then the translator worked to localize it in indonesian language. furthermore, in making subtitles in this vn, localizer or translator must etty syafa’ati & umi pujiyanti 188 be able to running software of this game which name livin maker. livin maker is one of engines by iaftersmile company to make the visual novel game. it shows that this visual novel game could be a part of localization or gilt practice. localization is a part of gilt (globalization, internalization, localization, and translation). o‟hagan (2005:76) states that “the term gilt has been introduced reflecting the complexity involved in making a product or content global-ready”. she added that gilt places language transfer in the wider context of globalization and also in the process there is specific criteria have to deal with electronic content or computer software. meanwhile mangiron and o‟hagan (2006) added that game localization is combining language translation and software engineering, where translated text strings need to be appropriately placed within the software. that is why the ability of translating and also special skill in running software of the game is required to the translator or localizer. if not, the possibility of loss and gain might happen without consideration. the definition of loss according to bassnett (2013) is a situation in which terms or concepts in the sl text do not find their substitutes in the tl text and gain exist for the translator at times to enrich or to clarify the sl as a result of the translation process. in other words, loss is the disappearance of certain features in the tl text which are present in the sl text. whereas, gain is the emergence of certain feature in the tl text which rendered from sl. several reasons arise due to the issues of loss and gain such as the characteristics of media in visual novel game. another reasons appear such as the ability of translator in understanding the both language including cultural knowledge; the goal of game localization or to make visual novel easy to be played and to be understood; the translator itself that deleted and added certain elements to make it more natural in target language; and the problems that are encountered by translators in understanding the words, messages or meaning. (melis and albir, 2001). furthermore, the goal of the localized game must be innovative and exciting, and, at the same time, it has to be easy to be played and to be understood. in game localization, the feeling of the original 'gameplay experience' needs to be preserved in the localized version so that all players share the same enjoyment regardless of their language of choice (o‟hagan and mangiron, 2004). they added that no oddities should be present to disturb the interactive game experience, and this is the reason why game localizers are granted quasi absolute freedom to modify, omit, and even add any elements which they deem necessary to bring the game closer to the players and to convey the original feel of game play. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.185-199 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ from all the reasons, it can be classified into two types. first, it included of narrative aspects, second it is about mechanical aspects. according to cavallaro (2009) narrative aspect is about the materials such as characters, structures and events of a potential or virtual story. in other words, it is about the text. from the mechanical aspects, it is about engine and mechanic process. in subtitles, the mechanical aspects are included the dialog box, the use of fonts, the pictures effect and the restriction such as space availability. research methodology descriptive qualitative method is applied in this research. bogdan & taylor in moleong (2014) state that “qualitative method is a research procedure which produces descriptive data in the form of written or oral words from people and their behaviors that are observed”. (p. 4). in qualitative research, the data may be in the form of word, phrase, clause or even sentences. in this particular research, the indonesian and english data script are taken from the visual novel game packages as the sources of data. then, the researcher compared the indonesian subtitles with the original english story to find loss and gain. after the data of loss and gain arecollected, the data are validated by expert to see whether the data are true belong to loss and gain. after that, the researcher classified them based on the linguistics unit.furthermore, the researcher also used the method of analyzing the content and make interviewing the translator of the game to reveal the reasons why of loss and gain happen. discussion in this part, researcher shows the results of the research or the data analysis of loss and gain in indonesian subtitle of visual novel entitled a child in the forest. from the results of research, the researcher found 118 data about loss and gain. for the brief explanation, the researcher explains it into the following tables below. table 1. data loss in the subtitles of visual novel a child in the forest. no. level of loss quantity 1. word 38 2. phrase 17 etty syafa’ati & umi pujiyanti 190 3. clause 6 4. sentences 2 total 63 from the table above, it can be seen that 63 data are belong to loss. from the 63 data, it covers 4 form linguistics units, they are: 38 data at the level of words, 17at the level of phrase, 6at the level of clause, 2 at the level of sentences. table 2. data gain in the subtitles of visual novel a child in the forest. no. level of gain quantity 1. word 32 2. phrase 23 total 55 from the results, the researcher found 55 data which belong to gain. they cover into 2 form linguistics unit: 32 data at the level of word and 23 at the level of phrases. loss at the level of word researcher found loss at the level of word. they are not translated or it means loss in the target text. the discussion and reason of loss at the level of word level can be seen through examples below: example 1, lw 20 st: how many times i told you, the forest is toodangerous for you. tt: berapa kali harus ibu katakan, hutan itu berbahaya untukmu. from the example 1 above, translator removed the word “too” in the tt. the word “too” in st confirms that the forest which visited by the little girl is not only dangerous but very dangerous. the emphasis of the word “too” is different with the meaning is just dangerous. the researcher analyzed that if the word “too” is deleted there has been a loss of register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.185-199 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ meaning in tt but it is not such a big deal. the translator also agree with this because if it seen further, the target language and storylines are for children. it is better if the translator make the tt as simple as possible. thus, the loss of word “too” helped the meaning looked simpler and it helped the reader easy in catch the whole story. if it translated using literal translation strategy it must be “berapa kali harus ibu katakan, hutan itu sangat berbahaya untukmu”. example 2, lw st: because i want to go home. i wanna meet my family tt: karena aku ingin pulang kerumah dan bertemu kedua orangtuaku. in the example number 2, there is a word “i” in the second sentence of st that could not be found in tt. translator did not translate it. the loss at the level of this word is happened because translator said, she wanted to make the meaning as simple as possible. the translator translated two sentences into only one sentences. in this case, the target text already adjusted and it has different structure with the source text. she deleted the word “i” and the word “and” is added. certainly, in indonesian language structure when two sentences with the same subject are combined, the repetition of the subject no longer needed. if it repeated the structure of sentences will not neutral in target language. thus, the adjustment of the structure from english to indonesian is applied. furthermore, by combining and changing the structure will make the target text simpler. so that, this has something in line with the goal of game localization which to make visual novel subtitles easy to be read, played and understood. after analyzed all the data loss, the researcher found the total data about loss at the level of words are 32 data. the mostly reason why loss at the level at words happen because of translator wants to make the target text look simple. it will help the reader to reach the goal of visual novel which to make it easy to be played and to be understood. etty syafa’ati & umi pujiyanti 192 loss at the level of phrase phrase is a group of words acting as a single part of speech and not containing both a subject and a verb. it is a part of sentence and does not express a complete thought. the phrase form contains a broader meaning when compared with the word level, so that if there is a meaning that is loss in this level, the meaning lost in st will be wider. however, the translator has reasons why loss in this case happen. here the analysis: example 3, lp 2 st: there was a happy family in the village. tt: kisah itu tentang keluarga bahagia. phrase “in the village” is a prepositional phrase which the meaning explain the place of the family. the writer has a specific purpose by mentioning “in the village”. when the phrase is not translated, so not all the meaning of the sl fully conveyed. the reason of the loss in this phrase, the translator said she confused about the meaning “in the village”. this sentence itself is a part of second utterance by the narrator which the first utterance the narrator said “today, i will read you a story about a child and her family who lived in the border of the forest”. the narrator already told that the family lived in the border of the forest and then the next utterance “there was a happy family in the village” is mentioned. the translator thought it has different meaning if “in the village” is translated into di sebuah desa. it will make the readers confused too because of the different information of the place. however, when the phrase “in the village” has been loss, the reader still know the context and understand the full picture of place by the utterance before and also picture of visual novel which supported it. there is not only the phrase of “in the village” which has been lost but the phrase of “there was” also deleted and it changed into kisah. then, the researcher analyzed that the translator used the strategy of free translation in translating the source text into target text. example 4, lp 3 st: it's too dangerous, just go back to the house, ok? tt: disana terlalu berbahaya, sayangku. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.185-199 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ the meaning of the phrase “just go back to the house” is not conveyed to tt so the meaning of the tt is not entirely equal with st. in that phrase, the translator translates “just go back to the house” to “sayangku” which means very much different. the context of the story is about a mother who remind a little girl not to go far away from home. the reason why this phrase has been loss is because in the text before her mother already said about the little girl to go home. the translator did not want to repeat it again. because of those reason, she preferred to reduce it. in addition, the researcher analyzed that the word sayangku is added to emphasize that the prohibition from the mother is not a sign of angry but it is a sign of love to her daughter. from the total of loss at the level of phrase in the subtitle of a children in the forest visual novel game, researcher found 17 data. loss at the level of clause in this research, researcher found loss at the level of clause. here the analysis below: example 5, lc 6 st: after the witch left her house, she tried to go out from the house, but the door was locked. tt:setelah si penyihir meninggalkan rumahnya, si anak perempuan itu mencoba untuk melarikan diri. there is utterance by narrator which explain about the little girl condition after she was kidnapped by the witch. by those full utterance from st and its subtitle in indonesian, it can be seen that the last sentences of utterance above “but the door was locked” is not translated in tl. in this case, the loss happened because the translator intentionally deleted just to make visual novel subtitles easy to be understood. furthermore, the space that available after this sentence is limited. although visual novel game have wider space compared to tv subtitles but when the dialog box of subtitles is full it will make the translator cannot added another words or clause. in this case, the clause has been loss because the translator abolished it to fit the dialog box of subtitles. the total data of loss at the level of clause is 6 data that could be found by the researcher. etty syafa’ati & umi pujiyanti 194 loss at the level of sentences in a child in the forest subtitle, there are 2 data loss found at the level of sentence. example 6, ls 1 st: please forgive me for everything i have done. tt: example 7, ls 2 st: i did not do what my father and mother said. i‟m very sorry about that... and i.... tt: aku tidak mematuhi apa yang kedua orangtuaku katakan dan aku..... from the example number 6 above, translator did not translate full sentence into target language whereas from the example number 7, the sentence of “i‟m very sorry about that” is loss. loss occurs because of a sentence that is not translated into the tl by the translator. the translator may assume that the non-translated sentence does not affect the plot of the existing story in the visual novel and does not affect the comprehension of the meaning. in fact, the loss of a sentence can make the reader confuse about the storyline. in this case, those sentences are come from the little girl‟s utterance. the context of the story is to tell about the feeling of little girl which she did not obey the words of her parents, so that she felt very sorry. the utterance of very sorry already spoken by little girl four times before. the researcher analyzed that the reason of this loss at the level of sentence because the translator does not want to repeat the same message repeatedly. furthermore, the messages of very sorry before already successfully represent the apology messages from the number 6 and 7 which has been loss. gain at the level of word the researcher found 32 gain data in the subtitle a child in the forest visual novel game at the level of words. for further discussion, the researcher explain about the details in the analysis below: example 8, gw 13 st: okay, let's go back to the house and prepare the meals for you and your mother tt: baiklah, ayo kembali kerumah dan menyiapkan makanmalam untukmu dan ibumu. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.185-199 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ from the example above the source text “prepare the meals” it has been translated into target text menyiapkan makan malam.the underlined word is the word that added by the translator although this word cannot be found in the st. the reason of the gain at the level of word is because of the translator make some adjustment between the pictures of visual novel with the indonesian subtitle displayed. the picture can be seen in figure 1 below. figure 1 in the figure 1 above, there is afternoon atmosphere depicted. therefore, the translator intentionally added the word malam in tt to clarify the description of the meal that it was for dinner. another example of the gain in the word level can be found in the following example: example 9, gw 20 st: the old woman brought candy tt: si wanita tua itu membawa banyak permen. etty syafa’ati & umi pujiyanti 196 in the example number 9 above, the source text said “the old woman brought candy” meanwhile in the target text it is written in subtitles si wanita tua itu membawa banyakpermen. thus, the translator was gained a wordbanyakin the target language which does not exist in the source language. it has the same reason with the example number 8. the reasons of the gain word happened is also because the translator wanted to make adjustment of the subtitles with the picture of the visual novel. figure 2 in the figure number 2, the witch who wear the purples clothes brings many candies. the translator found that the candy in the picture is more than one. because of that, the translator add the word banyak althought in the st, the meaning of the “candy” should only one. the researcher concluded that the characteristics of visual novel media and picture in the visual novel caused the gain words occur. gain at the level of phrase the researcher found 23 data about gain at the level of phrase in the subtitles a child in the forest visual novel game. for the further analysis are below: example 10, gp 15 st: it‟s okay grandma, let‟s find the way to go your home. tt: tidak apa-apa, nenek. ayo aku bantu mencari jalan menuju rumahmu. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.185-199 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ in the example 10, the little girl says in the source language “it‟s okay grandma, let‟s find the way to go your home” meanwhile in the target language it can be read in the subtitle tidak apa-apa, nenek. ayo aku bantu mencari jalan menuju rumahmu. the translator added the phrase of aku bantuin the target language. the reason about the gain in this case is because the translator intentionally added the phrase aku bantu. this phrase added by the translator just to make the emphasis of the meaning. the researcher also analyzed that it makes the sentences is more natural in the tt and the phrase aku bantu also can be sign of respectful utterance from the younger to the elder. after analyzed all the data of loss and gain in the subtitles. the researcher classified the reasons of loss and gain are into two aspects namely narrative aspects and mechanical aspects. the reasons which belong to narrative aspects are because it has to do with the text or the story such as the ability of the translator in understanding and translating the messages. meanwhile, the reasons which belong to the mechanical aspects are something that related to dialog box, the images effects and the restriction of space or limitation. conclusion as mentioned above, this presented paper is about loss and gain found in the subtitle ofa child in the forest which is transferred intothe same title, a child in the forest. there are 118 data of loss and gain found in a child in the forest subtitles consisting of 55 data of gain and the 63 data of loss. from the 63 data loss, it covers 4 form linguistics units such as 38 data at the level of words, 17at the level of phrase, 6at the level of clause, 2 at the level of sentences. while in the gain, it covers into 2 form linguistics unit such as 32 data at the level of word and 23 at the level of phrases. in this case, the dominant linguistics units which loss and gain occurred is word. the reasons why words are dominant in loss and gain because translator sometimes sees a word need to be deleted as it will make the meaning sounds natural in target language. in addition, at etty syafa’ati & umi pujiyanti 198 the level of word in the form of a small case such as pronoun, conjunction, adjective, auxiliary, determiner, adverb, preposition not considered as an important if it eliminated in the target language. the discussion ends at the conclusion that the most reasons of loss and gain happen is part of mechanical aspects in which translator wants to reach the goal of game localization and the translator wanted to make the meaning simple so it fixed to the dialog box. so that, it will easy to be played and to be understood. mechanical aspects are caused loss and gain because it deals with to dialog box, the images effects and the restriction of space or limitation. there are some suggestions that could be drawn from the discussion above. first, for the translators that they have to be more careful in making subtitles for visual novel games. in some cases, it was found that loss also causes subtitles text looks confusing because there are missing parts, so that the message delivered is less clear. at the same time, translator should make the audience understand of the full meaning in the st story without add the excessively long and trivial subtitles. the researcher also suggests for the further research to make standardization of subtitling for visual novel game. in order to guide the future translator, subtitler of visual novel game. references bassnett, s. 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(2004). the audio-visual text: subtitling and dubbing different genres. meta: journal des traducteursmeta:/translators' journal, 49(1), 25-38. sajna, m. a. t. e. u. s. z. (2013). translation of video games and films–a comparative analysis of selected technical problems. homo ludens 1 (5)/2013, 219-232. stemler, s. (2001). an overview of content analysis. practical assessment, research & evaluation, 7(17), 137-146. syalies, f. n. (2016). a loss and gain in equivalence analysis of noun phrases in strawberry shortcake bilingual series dandanan kacau makeover madness. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.200-220 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 200 a translation study on responding of requesting speech act in the heroes of olympus series dewinta khoirul anis dewinta.remenaweh@gmail.com universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia mangatur nababan universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia amantaradja@gmail.com djatmika universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia djatmika@uns.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v9i2.696v[]i[].1-15 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i2.200-220 submission track: received: 31/10/2017 final revision: 23/11/2017 available online: .01/12/2017 english abstract this research aims to find the translation techniques and evaluate the translation quality in the form of acceptability assessment on responding of requesting speech act in the novel the heroes of olympus series. this is a qualitative descriptive research. the primary data sources are the novels the heroes of olympus series. meanwhile, the secondary data sources are derived from minute meeting of two raters who have competencies in assessing translation quality and in evaluating the translation. the methods to collect and analyze the data are content analysis and focus group discussion (fgd). the study found 13 translation techniques applied in translating the responding of requesting speech act. they are establish equivalent, variation, borrowing (pure borrowing and naturalized borrowing), modulation, amplification (explicit, addition, and paraphrase), adaptation, discursive creation, transposition, generalization, reduction, literal, substitution, and linguistic compression. dealing with the translation quality in the form of acceptability assessment, 77 data (86.51%) are acceptable translations and 12 data (13.48%) are less acceptable. the majority of acceptable translations use establishes equivalent technique. the less acceptable translations apply modulation, amplification addition, and discursive creation techniques. keyword: responding of requesting speech act, translation techniques, translation acceptability indonesian abstract penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menemukan teknik-teknik http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i2.200-220 dewinta khoiru anis, mangatur nababan, djatmika 201 penerjemahan yang digunakan dan menilai kualitas keberterimaan terjemahan pada respons tindak tutur meminta pada novel the the heroes of olympus series. penelitian ini adalah penelitian deskriptif kualitatif. sumber data utamanya adalah novel the heroes of olympus series. sedangkan, sumber data sekunder adalah catatan diskusi oleh dua orang penilai yang memiliki kompetensi dalam menilai kualitas terjemahan, mengevaluasi terjemahan. metode untuk mengumpulkan dan menganalisis data adalah simakcatat (content analysis) dan focus group discussion (fgd). penelitian ini menemukan 13 teknik penerjemahan yaitu padanan lazim, variasi, peminjaman (peminjaman murni dan peminjaman alamiah), modulasi, amplifikasi (eksplisit, adisi, dan paraphrase), adaptasi, kreasi diskursif, transposisi, generalisasi, reduksi, literal, peminjaman alamiah, substitusi, dan kompresi linguistik. berkaitan dengan penilaian kualitas keberterimaan terjemahan respons tindak tutur meminta, 77 (86.51%) data memiliki tingkat keberterimaan tinggi dan 12 (13.48%) data kurang berterima. mayoritas terjemahan berterima menggunakan teknik padanan lazim. terjemahan kurang berterima menggunakan teknik modulasi, amplifikasi adisi dan kreasi diskursif. kata kunci: respons tindak tutur meminta, teknik penerjemahan, keberterimaan terjemahan introduction in the process of translating, translation includes the transfer of meaning from the source text to the target text. translation can be a liaison in the process of transferring information between target and source language users. to correlate the relationship between two different cultures and languages, qualified translations are urgently needed, so the transfer and disclosure of messages from the source text to the target one can be well conveyed, for example, in the field of literature, such as novels. for western literature readers, translations will be helpful when reading it in a familiar text, familiar to the target language audience. translating literary works is not easy. although the translators are able to translate well, they cannot fully assure that they make good interpretation upon the text. for example, translators are often unable to translate difficult terms in the source text, and they cannot find the equivalent meanings in the target text. whereas the task of a translator is to transfer language and culture of the source text into the target one in order to make the reader understands the message and the meaning of the source text. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.200-220 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 202 furthermore, a translator should comprehend the definition of translation. (brislin, 1976) says that the translation is the general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to another (target), whether the languages are in written or oral form: whether the language has established orthographies or do not have such standardization; or whether one or both languages are based on sign, e.g. sign language of the deaf. (larson, 1984) also states that translation is basically to transfer a meaning of the source language into the target language. moreover, (catford, 1965) explains that translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source text) by equivalence textual material in another language (target text). (newmark, 1981) also says that translation is a craft consisting of the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language. according to (catford, 1965) and (newmark, 1981), translation is the process of replacing meaning from the source language into the target language. from those definitions above, it can be deduced that translation is the activity of transferring thoughts, ideas from the source language into the target language either written or spoken language. besides understanding the definitions of translation, a translator that translates a text from the source text to another text in order to look natural and meaningful translation involves many factors, like using translation techniques, context, and understanding of communication aspect. (keith davis, 1993) states that communication is a process of passing information and understanding from one person to another. hence, we concern that communication is a dynamic process that takes place around us all the time. in fact, we spend many times receiving and sending messages. furthermore, in order to make communication runs effectively, communication must be built on the basis of openness that is the key to trust and credibility. the ability to listen and read effectively is an effort that manifests through empathy, interaction, and response. so that, the speaker and hearer can share, approve and response the message and the utterance. using language as a tool of communication has a specific purpose that the hearer can understand our intentions. therefore, in this case, the response of the hearer is our main concern. (austin, 1962) argues that by saying or in saying something we are doing something. to get a goal, the speaker tries to transfer the message briefly, clearly and meaningfully to the hearer. then, the hearer supposed it by giving a response directly. dewinta khoiru anis, mangatur nababan, djatmika 203 accordingly, the focus of this study is on translation techniques usage and translation acceptability on responding of requesting speech act. responding to requesting speech act is a response to requesting speech act, it is a part of directive speech act. (searle, 1979) reveals that the main point of requesting speech act in communication indicates the hearer’s response (count as an attempt to get how to do something). then, the speaker hopes that the hearer can give a response either in the form of verbal or in the form of non-verbal language. although, the researcher maps out only on the verbal response in this study. (sarlito, 1995) says that response is the activity or inhibition of the previous activity of an organism resulting from stimulation. (gulo, 1996) also states that response is the reaction of the receiver after perceiving or understanding the message (depend on stimulation). then, we can say that response plays an important role in communication. it is essential for the completion of the whole communication system. it enables the sender/speaker to evaluate the effectiveness of the message. it is also inevitably essential in case of two-way communication. without a response, two-way communications are either ineffective or incomplete. review of previous study several types of research of translation with the topic of speech act are in the following. (kuncara, 2012) analyzes the translation of directive speech act in the novel sang godfather in the whole types of illocutionary. then, (wahyuni, 2014) analyzes the translation of directive speech act in different data source i.e. in the film of alice in wonderland/ in her study, she finds the literal translation technique as the dominant technique and the translation quality in the form of accuracy and acceptability tends to be outstanding. (fitriyana, 2014) analyzes the technique and quality translation of expressive speech act in the novel stealing home by sherryl woods. the results unveil 19 types of expressive speech act and 11 translation techniques. whereas, the literal translation technique is similarly as the dominant technique, and shows the impact of applying translation techniques toward the translation quality i.e. by applying literal, amplification addition, pure borrowing, compensation and linguistic compression techniques. the quality of translation accuracy tends to be qualified /accurate. several studies above are still general and lack of focus because they describe all types of speech act, directive, expressive, and have not exposed the aspect of giving responses from speech acts. in terms of speech act, there are two studies of translation on this topic. the former, (valensia, 2014) analyzes the politeness strategy on requesting of speech act in the novel register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.200-220 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 204 breaking dawn. the results state that there are four types of politeness strategy i.e. negative politeness, positive politeness, bald on record and on record, finds the friction of politeness strategy in the target text caused by applying amplification addition and reduction techniques. the later, (mansur, 2014) analyzes the mitigation on commanding of speech act in the two novel series by harry potter. the two studies above have focused on a single topic of speech acts, but none has yet exposed the aspect of giving of responses from speech acts. for this reason, the researcher considers this issue as an opportunity to conduct this research focusing on responding of requesting speech act in the novel the heroes of olympus series by rick riordan. the research benefits this study is expected to provide benefits to the translators in understanding more about the translation process, assessing the acceptability translation, and the translation techniques used in translating the response of requesting speech act especially novel translators that face many genres of the novel. then, it gives references for translators to pay more attention to the context of situation before translating a text. translation process the translation process is a series of activities performed by a translator as the one transfers the message from the source language to the target language (nababan, 2003). another meaning is that the process of translation is a series of steps that must be passed by the translator to get to the end result (machali, 2000). there are three steps of translation process namely, analysis, transfer and restructuring (nida & taber, 1969). this process begins with analyzing the source language into the grammatical and semantic structure of the target language, transferring the meaning and reconstructing the grammatical and semantic structure into the appropriate target text in order to create an equivalent target text. translation techniques translation techniques are defined as procedures to analyze and classify how translation equivalence works. in this study, the researcher uses 18 translation techniques written by (molina & albir, 2002) to analyze the data. the researcher uses this theory because those translation techniques are quite complete and clear to classify each data studied. the dewinta khoiru anis, mangatur nababan, djatmika 205 following are the techniques: (a) adaptation: this technique is replacing a source text (st) cultural element with one from the target culture, for example, st: her skin as white as snow, then in tt: kulitnya seputih kapas. (b) amplification: this technique introduces details those are not formulated in the st e.g. information, explicative paraphrasing. footnotes are a type of amplification. amplification is in opposition to reduction, for example, ramadan is coming underway (st). bulan puasa kaum muslim segera tiba (tt). (c) borrowing: this technique takes a word or expression straight from another language. it can be pure (without any change), for example, st: my mother asks me to take mixer, then in tt: ibuku memintaku untuk mengambil mixer. naturalized borrowing (to fit the spelling rules in the tl), for example, st: my mother asks me to take mixer, then in tt: ibuku memintaku untuk mengambil mikser. (d) calque: this technique is literal translation of a foreign word or phrase; it can be lexical or structural, for example, st: directorate general, tt: direktorat jenderal. (e) compensation: this technique introduces a st element of information or stylistic effect in another place in the tt because it cannot be reflected in the same place as in the st, for example, st: you can let your imagination go wild with a vision board, tt: melalui papan visi, anda bias membiarkan imajinasi mengembara sejauh mungkin. (f) description: this technique replaces a term or expression with a description of its form or/and function, for example, st: she eats panettone, tt: dia makan kue traditional italia yang dimakan pada saat tahun baru. (g) discursive creation: this technique establishes a temporary equivalence that is totally unpredictable out of context, for example, st: she’s got a great spike, huh?, tt: dia cantik bukan?. (h) established equivalent: this technique uses a term or expression recognized (by dictionaries or language in use) as an equivalent in the tl, for example, st: let’s see, tt: mari kita lihat. (i) generalization: this technique uses a more general or neutral term, for example, st: i’m going to make a pie, tt: aku akan membuat kue. (j) linguistic amplification: this technique adds linguistic elements. this is often used in consecutive interpreting and dubbing, for example, st: its parents have run off. give it to me, tt: orangtuanya telah melarikan diri. berikan anak itu padaku. (k) linguistic compression: this technique synthesizes linguistic elements in the tt. this is often used in simultaneous interpreting and in sub-titling, for example, st: yes, i can, tt: ya. (l) literal translation: this technique translates a word or an expression word for word, for example, st: killing two birds with one stone, tt: membunuh dua ekor burung dengan satu batu. (m) modulation: this technique changes the point of view, focus or cognitive category in relation to the st; it register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.200-220 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 206 can be lexical or structural, for example, st: i cut my finger, tt: jarikuteriris. (n) particularization: this technique uses a more precise or concrete term. it is in opposition to generalization, for example, st: i see the air transportation, tt: aku melihat pesawat. (o) reduction: this technique suppresses a st information item in the tt. it is in opposition to amplification, for example, st: that’s kind of perfect, tt: ini sempurna. (p) substitution (linguistic, paralinguistic): this technique changes linguistic elements for paralinguistic elements (intonation, gestures). it is used above all in interpreting, for example, st: (gesture: thanking by putting hand on the chest), tt: terima kasih. (q) transposition: this technique changes a grammatical category, for example, st: my brother works at the bank, tt: pekerjaan adikku di bank. (r) variation: this technique changes linguistic or paralinguistic elements (intonation, gestures) that affect aspects of linguistic variation: changes of textual tone, style, social dialect, geographical dialect, for example, st: let’s join us, dude!, tt: bergabunglah bersama kita, mas!. translation acceptability acceptability is the second aspect of assessing the translation quality. in this case, the term acceptability refers to the context of whether a translation has been disclosed in accordance with the rules, norms, and cultures that exist in the target language or not, and that aspect of acceptability must be both macro and micro. if a translation has a high degree of accuracy, it does not necessarily have a high degree of acceptability as well. it means the content or message is not appropriate to the rules, norms, and cultures prevailing within the scope of the target language audience. so that, it will be rejected by the target reader. in short, the aspect of acceptability has important functions and roles in making work of translation to be good quality. table1. the instrument of acceptability assessment of translation translation category score qualitative parameters acceptable 3 translation is natural; technical terms used are commonly used and familiar to the reader; phrases, clauses, and sentences that are used are in accordance with the rules of indonesian. less acceptable 2 in general, translations are already natural; but there is little problem with the use of technical terms or a few grammatical errors. dewinta khoiru anis, mangatur nababan, djatmika 207 unacceptable 1 translation is unnatural or feels like a work of translation; the technical terms used are not commonly used and are not familiar to the reader; the phrases, clauses, and sentences used not in accordance with the indonesian rules. (nababan, nuraeni & sumardiono, 2012) research method this is a qualitative descriptive research. the data sources are the novels the heroes of olympus series and the minute meeting of fgd (focus group discussion). there are two kinds of data in this research; primary and secondary data. primary data in this research are the utterances that contain responding of requesting speech act which is uttered by the characters in the novel the heroes of olympus series in the source text and the translation technique can be found by comparing the findings of data from the source text and target text in order to determine the translation techniques. then, the translation quality assessed by setting up fgd (focus-group discussion) with two raters to discuss all data that researchers have obtained in determining the quality of the translation (accuracy, acceptability, and readability). then, the minute meeting of fgd plays as secondary data. the accumulating of the data is applying a content analysis. the procedure of content analysis are (1) reading. the researcher reads the novels and its translation, marks the utterances that contain responding of requesting speech act, understands the context of the utterances. (2) identifying. the researcher identifies the translation techniques used. (3) calculating. the researcher calculates the frequency of application of translation techniques in translating. (4) analyzing. the researcher analyzes the impact of translation techniques used toward the translation quality. (5) reporting. the researcher retells the data which had been analyzed in the form of conclusion (santosa, 2014). findings and discussion based on the theory of micro-translation (molina & albir, 2002), the researcher finds some translation techniques in translating the heroes of olympus series into bahasa. the researcher decides to take the theory of translation techniques by molina &albir because they register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.200-220 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 208 allow us to describe the actual steps taken by the translators in each textual micro-unit and obtain clear data about the general methodological option. furthermore, the researcher also shows the effect of using translation techniques toward the translation quality in the form of acceptability assessment. since this research is a translation research with utterances data, the context must be familiarized. the context of a speech is very influential on the interpretation of speech acts by speakers and hearers. (sudaryat, 2009) says that context is a feature of nature outside the language that fosters meaning in speech or discourse (the non-linguistic environment of discourse). kleden in (sudaryat, 2009) explains that context is the specific space and time facing a person or group of people. context becomes important when it is experienced in a way that becomes open to readers and interpreted by anyone. context is an object or thing that resides with text and becomes the environment or situation of language usage. the context can be a linguistic context and extra-linguistic context (sudaryanto, 2009). the linguistic context is the context of the elements of language. the linguistic context includes of the preposition, the nature of the verb, the auxiliary verbs, and the positive proposition. the context of extra-linguistics is a context that is not a linguistic element. the extra-linguistic context includes the context of utterances that include prejudice, participants, topics or topic frameworks, settings, channels, and codes (sudaryanto, 2009). therefore, the use of any form and nature of the discourse must pay attention to the context in order to use the language appropriately and to determine the meaning appropriately as well. in other words, language users are always context-bound in using language both linguistic contexts and extra-linguistic contexts because it is very important in understanding the meaning between speakers and hearers. the findings of translation techniques the researcher finds some translation techniques from the results of the translation research of responding of requesting speech act. from analyzing 89 data, the researcher finds 13 translation techniques and 564 times applied at the micro level. then, in calculating the frequency of application of translation techniques, the researcher has to compare the findings data in the source text and target text to find the translation techniques used. furthermore, the sum of frequencies is made up of the average dewinta khoiru anis, mangatur nababan, djatmika 209 that is based on the application of translation techniques. so that, the technique that dominates will be seen. below is the table of findings of translation techniques and frequency of application in translating the responding of requesting speech act in the novel the heroes of olympus series. table 2.the findings of micro translation techniques no translation techniques ∑ percentage 1. establish equivalent 339 60.10% 2. variation 97 17.19% 3. borrowing a. pure borrowing 30 5.31% b. naturalized borrowing 2 0.35% 4. modulation 26 4.60% 5. amplification a. amplification (explicit) 22 3.90% b. amplification(addition) 9 1.59% c. amplification (paraphrase) 2 0.35% 6. adaptation 6 1.06% 7. discursive creation 5 0.88% 8. transposition 5 0.88% 9. generalization 4 0.70% 10. reduction 10 1.77% 11. literal 4 0.70% 12. substitution 2 0.35% 13. linguistic compression 1 0.17% total 564 100% the examples of findings of translation techniques 1. establish equivalent: there are 84 data found in this technique and 339 times applied at the micro level, for example: register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.200-220 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 210 st: “we have to help them,” “can you…” “let’s see.” tt: “kita harus menolong mereka,” “bisakah kau__” “mari kita lihat” on responding of requesting speech act above, “let’s see” is translated into “mari kita lihat”. this is appropriate, because the translator translates by using familiar language. so, the message contained in the source text has been well conveyed into the target text. 2. variation: there are 46 data found in this technique and 97 times applied at the micro level, for example: st: “ma’am,” “you don’t mind helping us one more time, do you?” “i don’t mind,” tt: “bu,” “ibu tak keberatan membantu kami sekali lagi, kan?” “aku tak keberatan,” in translating "-n't" which has a negative meaning, the translation can be “tak”, “tidak”, “bukan” dan “enggak”. however, by considering the context in conversation in which an older person responds to someone younger than her, then the translator translates"-n't" in an informal language. 3. pure borrowing: there are 24 data found in this technique and 30 times applied at the micro level, for example: st: “wish me luck” “fight well, percy jackson,” tt: “doakan semoga aku berhasil.” “selamat bertarung, percy jackson,” dewinta khoiru anis, mangatur nababan, djatmika 211 the words "percy jackson" is the name of the person. the name is in the source text and translated into the target text with the same word or the name is borrowed without any change at all. naturalized borrowing: there are 2 data found in this technique and 2 times applied at the micro level, for example: st: “next time, can i take a polygraph?” “you’re not a typical recruit.” tt: “lain kali, boleh aku minta tes pendeteksi kebohongan saja?” “kau bukanlah recrut biasa.” 4. modulation: there are 23 data found in this technique and 26 times applied at the micro level, for example: st: “would you keep it for me?” “i’m pluto’s daughter. everything i touch goes wrong.” tt: “maukah kau menyimpankannya untukku?” “aku ini putri pluto. aku merusak semua yang kusentuh.” the translation of responding of requesting speech act on the target text is the application of modulation techniques thoroughly by changing the point of view. the word “goes wrong” in the source text is an adjective, and then it is translated into “merusak” in the target text as a verb. 5. amplification (explicit): there are 16 data found in this technique and 16 times applied at the micro level, for example: st: “thank you, gleeson. take care of him, please.” “i got this mclean,” tt: “terima kasih, gleeson. tolong jaga ayahku.” “aku bisa mengatasi ini, mclean,” the word "got" in the source text is the hidden information. therefore the word "got" is translated into the target text to "bisa mengatasi" which aims to add the information in order to the target reader can more easily understand. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.200-220 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 212 amplification (addition): there are 16 data found in this technique and 16 times applied at the micro level, for example: st: “okay, give me a safety whistle. they got that in lots of machine shops.” “coach hedge would be jealous! okay, festus, listen.” tt: “oke, beri aku peluit bahaya. yang seperti itu banyak dibengkel mesin.” “pak pelatih hedge bakalan iri!oke festus, dengarkan.” the addition of word "pak" to the target text is the wasting-word because by simply translating "coach" to "pelatih" the target reader can already understand its meaning. amplification (paraphrase): there are 2 data found in this technique and 2 times applied at the micro level, for example: st: “could you move?” “you’re ruining the view.” “right, great view,” “happy to move,” tt: “bisakah kau bergeser?” “kau merusak pemandangan.” “benar, pemandangan yang bagus,” “aku akan bergeser dengan senang hati.” 6. adaptation: there are 6 data found in this technique and 6 times applied at the micro level, for example: st: “that’s great, leo. now, can you fix her foot?” “i’m a mechanic, man. maybe if she was a car…” he snapped his fingers. tt: “hebat leo. nah, bisakah kau obati kakinya?” “aku ini mekanik, bung. mungkin kalau piper mobil…”leo menjentikkan jari. dewinta khoiru anis, mangatur nababan, djatmika 213 the word "man" in the source text is translated to "bung" in the target text. it shows that the translator translates by adjusting to what is in the culture of the target language. 7. discursive creation: there are 5 data found in this technique and 5 times applied at the micro level, for example: st: “tell me, why are you worthy of a share in our spoils?' 'what spoils?' tt: “beritahu aku kenapa kau layak mendapatkan sebagian dari pampasan kami?" "pampasan apa?" the words "what spoils?" is translated to “pampasan apa?” becomes slightly ambiguous, because the target reader is not familiar with its translation, but they understand better if "spoils" is translated into "rampasan". 8. transposition: there are 4 data found in this technique and 5 times applied at the micro level, for example: st: “can you recalibrate the aim – like, towards the other onagers’ firing lines?” “oh, i like the way you think. they sent me because i excel at messing things up.’ tt: “bisakah kau mengalibrasi ulang bidikan senjata ini—misalnya kejalur tembakan onager lain?” “oh, aku suka cara berpikirmu. mereka mengutusku karena aku jago mengacau.” the word "i excel at messing things up" in the source text is a verb phrase. then, it is translated into “aku jago mengacau” which can be categorized as a noun phrase in the target text. in this case, the transposition technique occurs because of the change of form from the verb phrase to the noun phrase. 9. generalization: there are 4 data found in this technique and 4 times applied at the micro level, for example: register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.200-220 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 214 st: “please tell me you have a plan,'. “this was the players' entrance. tt: “tolong katakana padaku kau punya rencana,” “ini adalah jalan masuk peserta.” 10. reduction: there are 4 data found in this technique and 4 times applied at the micro level, for example: st: “could we please not talk about him in the past tense?” “i’m sorry dear. i didn’t want to leave your father, of course. it’s always so hard, but it was for the best. tt: “tolong, bisakah kita tidak memakai kata’dulu’ untuk membicarakan ayah?” ‘maafkan aku, sayang. aku tidak ingin meninggalkan ayahmu, tentu saja. melakukannya selalu saja berat, tapi itulah yang terbaik. 11. literal: there are 4 data found in this technique and 4 times applied at the micro level, for example: st: “then help me, or you’re all dead!’ “group hug!” tt: “kalau begitu, bantu aku atau kalian semua bakal mati!” “pelukan kelompok!” 12. substitution: there are 2 data found in this technique and 2 times applied at the micro level, for example: st: “can you get ready?” “yeah...” tt: “bisakah kau bersiap-siap?” “iya...” 13. linguistic compression: there are 1 data found in this technique and 1 timeapplied at the micro level, for example: dewinta khoiru anis, mangatur nababan, djatmika 215 st: “could you and ella escort the coach back to camp half-blood safely?” “yes!” “we can do that!” tt: “bisakah kau dan ella mengantar pak pelatih ke perkemahan blasteran dengan selamat?” “ya!” “kami bisa!” the findings of acceptability translation table 3.the findings of acceptability translation acceptability translation score ∑ average a. acceptable 3 77 (3x77) + (2x12) + (1x0) 89 = 231+24 89 = 255 89 = 2.86 b. less acceptable 2 12 c. unacceptable 1 0 of the 89 data obtained from this study, 77 data (86.51%) were acceptable translations and 12 data (13.48%) were less acceptable. so, the average of acceptable translations is 2.86. the value indicates that the translation of responding of requesting speech act in the novel the heroes of olympus series tends to be acceptable. it can be said that with the results of this study, the messages contained in the source text can be well conveyed into the target text. register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.200-220 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 216 table 4. the examples of responding of requesting speech act in the form of acceptability assessment. no source text target text acceptability 1 annabeth turned to the guy with the bow. “will, would you take leo, give him a tour? introduce him to his bunk-mates in cabin nine.” “sure, annabeth.” annabeth berpaling kepada cowok pembawa busur. “will, maukah kauantar leo keliling-keliling? perkenalkan dia kepada teman-teman sekamarnya di pondok sembilan. “tentu saja, annabeth.” acceptable 2 “he needs to go straight to chiron,” annabeth decided. “drew, would you__” “absolutely.” drew laced her arm through jason’s. “dia harus menemui pak chiron sekarang juga,” annabeth memutuskan. “drew, maukah kau__” “pasti.” drew mengaitkan lengannya ke lengan jason. acceptable 3 “we have met,” he decided. “i don’t remember when. please, if you can tell me anything__” “first things first,” reyna said. “i want to hear your story.” “kita pernah bertemu.” percy memutuskan. “aku tidak ingat kapan. tolong,kalau kaubisa memberitahuku— “ “pertama-tama,” kata reyna, “aku ingin mendengar ceritamu.” acceptable 4 “next time, can i take a “lain kali, boleh aku minta tes less dewinta khoiru anis, mangatur nababan, djatmika 217 polygraph?” reyna stood. “even if i accept that you’re not an enemy,” she said, “you’re not a typical recruit. the queen of olympus simply doesn’t appear at camp, announcing a new demigod.” pendeteksi kebohongan saja?” reyna berdiri. “sekalipun aku menerima bahwa kaubukan musuh,” kata reyna, “kau bukanlah recrut biasa. ratu olympus tidak pernah muncul begitu saja di perkemahan, mengumumkan kedatangan demigod baru.” acceptable 5 “frank,” percy said, “it’s up to you. can you help them?” “oh, gods,”he murmured.“okay, sure.” “frank,” kata percy, “semua bergantung padamu. bisakah kautolong mereka?” “demi dewa-dewi, ”gumam pemudaitu, “oke, tentusaja” less acceptable 6 “ma’am” piper said with her best smile. “you don’t mind helping us one more time, do you” “i don’t mind,” the pilot agreed “bu,” kata piper sambil menyunggingkan senyum terbaiknya. “ibu takkeberatan membantu kami sekali lagi, kan?” “aku takkeberatan,” sang pilot setuju. acceptable from the table, it can be clearly seen that data 1, 2, 3 and 6 show the acceptability of translation. in this study, among the researcher and 2 raters give 3 of the score. it happens because of its data, the translator used 3 translation techniques; establish equivalent, pure borrowing, and variation. by using 3 translation techniques above, the source text can be well conveyed into target text exactly. then, data 4 and 5 show the less of acceptability of translation which the researcher and 2 raters give 2 of the score on the translation results. in register journal vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp.200-220 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 218 this study, the translator used 3 translation techniques, modulation, amplification addition and discursive creation which make the target text less natural by the addition of slightly exaggerated language and the message of the source text translated in opposition to the prevailing culture within the scope of the target reader. conclusion based on the findings of this study, the researcher finds 13 translation techniques applied in translating the responding of requesting speech act i.e. establish equivalent, variation, borrowing (pure borrowing and naturalized borrowing), modulation, amplification (explicit, addition, and paraphrase), adaptation, discursive creation, transposition, generalization, reduction, literal, substitution, and linguistic compression. establish equivalent technique is the most dominant technique with the application of 339 times. afterward, the translation quality in the form of acceptability assessment in this study tends to be good because the average is 2.86. based on an acceptability assessment made by two raters and researcher in a focus group discussion (fgd), there are 77 acceptable data from 89, with the majority of applying establish equivalent technique. it can be concluded that the use of establish equivalent that dominates in translating the novel series has a positive impact on the translation quality especially in the form of acceptability assessment. references austin, j. l. 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(1995). psikologi lingkungan. jakarta: grasindo. searle, john. r. (1979). expression and meaning. london: cambridge university press. sudaryat, yayat. (2009). makna dalam wacana prinsip-prinsip semantik dan pragmatik. bandung: cv. yrama widya. valensia, ariana. (2014). analisis strategi kesantunan tindak tutur permintaan (request) dalam novel breaking dawn dan terjemahnnya awal yang baru. tesis surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. wahyuni, ari. (2014). analisis teknik penerjemahan tindak tutur direktif dalam film alice in wonderland dan pengaruhnya terhadap kualitas terjemahan. tesis surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 107 let the game begin: ergodic as an approach for video game translation sf. lukfianka sanjaya purnama, iain surakarta sastrainggrisiainska1@gmail.com sf. luthfie arguby purnomo, dyah nugrahani abstract this paper attempts to propose ergodic as an approach for video game translation. the word approach here refers to an approach for translation products and to an approach for the translation process. the steps to formulate ergodic as an approach are first, aarseth’sergodic literature is reviewed to elicit a basis for comprehension toward its relationship with video games and video game translation secondly, taking the translation of electronic arts’need for speed: own the city, midway’s mortal kombat: unchained, and konami’s metal gear solid, ergodic based approach for video game translation is formulated. the formulation signifies that ergodic, as an approach for video game translation, revolves around the treatment of video games as a cybertext from which scriptons, textons, and traversal functions as the configurative mechanism influence the selection of translation strategies and the transferability of variables and traversal function, game aesthetics, and ludus and narrative of the games. the challenges countered when treating video games as a cybertext are the necessities for the translators to convey anamorphosis, mechanical and narrative hidden meaning of the analyzed frame, to consider the textonomy of the games, and at the same time to concern on gilt (globalization, internationalization, localization, and translation). keywords: ergodic, translation approach, video game translation, textonomy, anamorphosis introduction approaches designed for video game translation revolve either around ludological and narratological perspectives, or the combination of both as formulated by esselink (2000), by mangiron and o’hagan’s transcreation (2006), by bernal-merino (2009) and by costales (2012). either approaches applied, they share, though they do not state it explicitly, similar perspectives in the way that they treat video games as a cybertext, as an ergodic literature. ergodic derives from greek words ergon which means work and hodos which means path (aarseth, 1997) from which ergodic literature, a type of literature requiring nontrivial efforts to allow the reader to traverse the text (1997), emerges and from which type of discourse whose signs emerges a path produced by a non-trivial element of work like i ching, hypertext, interactive media, computer games, automated poetry generators, and multiuser discourse register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 108 (mud’s) (aarseth in rush, 2005). from the aforementioned etymological meaning and definition, ergodic denotes indexical, benefactive, and configurative relationships. indexical relationship emerges, for instance, when video games, the focus of this article, hints the players to solve some puzzles or presents the players some tutorials to solve the puzzles. it implies that when the players solve the puzzles either from hints or tutorials, contiguity and factoriality, part/whole relationships (trifonas, 2015), are eminent. this indexical relationship is selected based on benefactive function from which benefactive relationship between the games and the players in the embodiment of winning or losing surfaces. the choices to solve the puzzles as implied by indexical relationship and the selection toward the choices as signified by benefactive relationship are mechanized through the employment of configurative relationship. when the players, for instance, decides to take the hint as a resolve for their puzzles, they automatically and axiomatically proceed to perform configuration upon the games in the manner of procedurality, to respond to the mechanics of the game (bogost, 2007), or of instrumentality, to exercise procedure-free responses (sicart, 2011).this ergodict triangular relationship is embodied through scriptons, textons, and traversal functions. scriptons are strings appearing to the readers, textons as existing in the text, and traversal functions are the mechanism by which scriptons are revealed or generated from textons and presented to the user of the text (aarseth, 1997). the strings mentioned in the definition refer to linguistic units delivered by programming language.the connection between scriptons, textons, and traversal function with the aforementioned triangular relationship is illustrated as follow: players, when immersing into the games, focus on the scriptons displayed through the existence of textons previously designed by the developers. the different focus the players and register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 109 the developers have trigger different initiation from the triangular relationship. the players experience indexical relationship, first, before they engage in the configurative one. in the phase of configurative relationship, the players respond the game world through the avatars they are playing by mechanically executing either procedural or instrumental configuration. this actions by the players defining the configurative relationship are what rush terms as ergodic-direct (2005) from which ergodic-represented, the result of the user action (2005), emanates to evoke a benefactive relationship. this relationship is eventually evoked to the players in the visual representation of winning and losing. a different causal flow occurs on the developer side. on the developer perspectives, the focus is directed to the textons to which the developers compute programming language from which linguistic units are blended. through the textons transcribed into the scriptons, the developers attempt to deliver indexical relationship to the players. the designed textons and scriptons, in game for instance, whether they are in ascii or unicode, also contain configurative aspects from which the indexical relationship is constructed via game mechanics. through this game mechanics, the expectation the designers have on benefactive relationship the players are expected to experience is embodied. the implication acquired from the aforementioned relations between the triangular relationship and the ergodic variables is that any text appearing from cybertext media generates mechanical impacts. these mechanical impacts are what frasca highlights as ludology, the science of play, (1999). in the perspectives of video games, ludology attempts to place video games as games not as another form of narrative as what narratologists claim (2007) and video games as rule-based system (juul, 2005). these claims by ludologists imply that video games are mechanical in nature and thereby any elements video games possess emanate and evoke mechanical impacts to the game worlds, the avatars, and the players from which the ergodic triangular relationship and their connection to scriptons, textons, and traversal functions emerge. this mechanical implication observed from its traversal function is realized into seven variables: dynamics register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 110 in a static text the scriptons are constant; in a dynamic text the contents of scriptons may change while the number of textons remains fixed (intratextonic dynamics, or itd), or the number (and content) of textons may vary as well (textonic dynamics, or ttd) determinability this variable concerns the stability of the traversal function; a text is determinate if the adjacent scriptons of every scripton are always the same; if not, the text is indeterminate. transiency if the mere passing of the user's time causes scriptons to appear, the text is transient; if not, it is intransient. perspectives if the text requires the user to play a strategic role as a character in the world described by the text, then the text's perspective is personal; if not, then it is impersonal. access if all scriptons of the text are readily available to the user at all times, then the text is random access (typically the codex); if not, then access is controlled. linking a text may be organized by explicit links for the userto follow, conditional links that can only be followed if certain conditions are met, or by none of these (no links). user functions besides the interpretative function of the user, which is present in all texts, the use of some texts may be described in terms of additional functions: the explorative function, in which the user must decide which path to take, and the configurative function, in which scriptons are in part chosen or created by the user. (aarseth, 1997). either texts the cybertext is categorized into, they revolve around the indexical, configurative, and benefactive relationships between the games and the players. this ergodic triangular relationship is differently and variedly responded by the players depending on the text types they engage. in the perspectives of video game translation, the focus of analysis revolves around the transferability of the text variables from source language to the target one. ergodic, video game translation, and the problems of transferability munday (2008) places video game translation as new media requiring new directions in the manner of functionalist approach and thereby by functionalist approach, it indicates that the translation is of specialized translation (nord, 2006) which requires a special treatment to register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 111 approach it. this functionality signifies the necessity to treat the product of translation as functional in itself and functional to itself since being functional involves being functional to whom functionality applies and from whom functionality derives. in the perspectives of video games, the to-whom variables, their gaming activities. meanwhile the from-whom variables refer to the presented problems in the games and the interactions between the players with the games in the scope of hci (human-computer interaction). it further suggests that in the ergodic perspectives of cyber-text, functionalist approach for video games denotes the significance of ergodic triangular relationship and the ergodic variables from which texts are classified. ergodic and the transferability of variables and traversal function the focus of implementing ergodic approach in translation studies in the domain of video game translation is to reveal whether variable shifts and shifts on traversal function occur when a text is translated. to reveal the shifts on ergodic variables, mechanical comprehension toward each variable should be considered. in the perspectives of video game translation, the steps taken to approach video game translationare to describe the assets of the video games. assets range from in-game text, art, audio, cinematics, and printed assets (chandler (2005) in mangiron and o’hagan, 2013). in ergodic-textonomy, the assets have features differentiating each asset from the others. table 1. assets and textonomy typology assets features traversal function textonomy ideology of influence in-game ost (on screen text), ui (user interface), narrative and descriptive passages, dialogue, npc’s conversation textonic configurative explorative interpretative intratextonic dynamics (itd) textonic dynamics (ttd) static anamorphosis metamorphosis art graphics and images textonic configurative interpretative itd ttd static anamorphosis metamorphosis audio songs, cutscenes textonic configurative interpretative itd ttd static anamorphosis metamorphosis register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 112 cinematics cutscenes textonic configurative explorative interpretative ttd itd static anamorphosis metamorphosis printed assets guide, sketch, biography interpretative static metamorphosis (adapted from chandler (2005) in mangiron and o’hagan, 2013) dynamics refers to the number and format of textons and scriptons. if the number of textons and scriptons share equality, the dynamics is static. if the textons are non-diegetic text based and so are the scriptons, the dynamics is static. if the number of textons is constant, but the number of scriptons is varied, the dynamics is intratextonic dynamics. if the textons are formatted in non-diegetic text, but the scriptons are in diegetic text, the dynamics is also intratextonic and vice versa. if the number of textons is varied and the number of scriptons is also varied, the dynamics is textonic. if the texton is in image and diegetic , and the scripton is in either of the format, the dynamics is textonic. departing from the assumption that non-diegetic text, from the perspective of data processing, embeds technical and operational difficulties, it arrives to a comprehension that: table 2. dynamics variables textonomy spatiality performativity static definite singular intratextonic dynamics indefinite plural textonic dynamics indefinite plural definite spatiality provides a limited access to the textonomy and thereby the translators have to be selective in applying the linguistics units or images for their translation. in contrast, intratextonic and textonic dynamics enable the translators to access a susceptible amount of space for their translations but due to the existence of complex combination of non-diegetic and diegetic texts, the translators are required to execute a plural performativity, a multi tasking revolving around non-diegetic and diegetic textprocessing. on the other hand, static textonomy requires the translators to do a singular performativity: working on the diegetic s or images. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 113 therefore, in the perspectives of video game translation, this dynamics is vulnerable to alter and thereby a shift might occur. the understanding on textonomy and text type contributes to the translation selection strategy from which considerations on the ideologies of anamorphosis and metamorphosis are taken. the following example from might help clarify the statement: the textons from need for speed carbon: own the city are of intratextonic as the constant textons provide, as indicated by the circle, an opportunity for the scriptons to change though only for three spaced characters. the translators might utilize the opportunity to select the dictions from which anamorphosis ideology could be transferred. the anamorphosis ideology is noticeable from the implication of the frame demanding the players to check the gps as they speed up exceeding 60 miles an hour. this anamorphosis requires both procedural and instrumental configuration from the players. in the case of the racing game, the players are instructed to preserve their concentration to the track by examining the signal displayed in a flashing arrow. the followings are the translated version of the racing game by two different groups of translation with each group consisting of three members. the three members were taking the roles of translator, editor, and typesetter. the following translation is not intended to violate the copyright as the translation is register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 114 intended purely for educational purposes. the following translation will indicate that intertextonic, though flexible for executing a rewriting on the textons, still has some limitations. the intertextonic characteristic the textons have in the aforementioned game evokes a flexible translation strategy selection. the changes on text display, as perceived from the above screenshots, indicate that the scriptons are varied and thereby signifying the intratextonic characteristics of the textons. in the case of the anamorphosis of the game, the left screenshot is able to transfer the configurative implication regarding with the emergence of an arrow shaped signal translated into ‘tandapanah’ while the right one does not cope the configuration optimally due to the absence of the translation of the word ‘arrow’. though the right screenshot misses the word ‘arrow’, it pertains ‘corners’ translated into ‘tikungan’ from which configurations from the players entail. meanwhile, the left screenshot does not preserve ‘corners’ on their translation. it implies that inter-textonic characteristics of the textons are proven to be less beneficial when, as dietz(200, said about the requirement to be a video game translator the translation and computer ability are not of quality. in the relation with translation techniques, the deletion employed on the word ‘arrow’ and ‘corners’ triggers significant impact on the holistic apprehension of the traversal function. the deletion ignites a traversal function shift from procedural/instrumental to instrumental configuration only. four scriptons contributing to the emergence of traversal function are figure 1 indonesian version of need for speed carbon: own the city register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 115 ‘corners’, ’60 miles an hour’, ‘arrow’, and ‘flash’. these four units suggest mechanical implication in the form of procedural and instrumental configuration. procedural configuration emerges from: acceleration | if | >60 | corner | arrow.sign | flash acceleration | if | <60 | corner | arrow.sign | not.flash the above logical string suggests that a configuration from the players will occur procedurally as suggested from the scriptons. the players have to hit the acceleration button to hit over 60 miles an hour to evoke the emergence of the flashing arrow. the absence of a scripton, as pointed out by the string above, signifies the reduction on the completeness of a sequence to make an event happen. this condition is what rehak terms as suture, a condition by which spectators are ‘stitched into’ the signifying chain through edits that articulate a plentitude of observed space to an observing character (in isigan, 2013). in the case of the aforementioned translation, the problem of being ‘stitched into’ occurs when the translation technique of deletion is applied and thereby ludological observation by the players is assumed to be reduced. ergodic and the transferability of game aesthetics aesthetics in video games is concerned on the audiovisual style the games employ (jarvinen, 2002). the styles oscillate around three elements: (1) space/environment (2) different objects, and (3) symbols (jarvinen, 2002). in the case of need for speed carbon: own the city translation, the aesthetic element experiencing a shift is on the symbol. the influence of translation techniques is assumed to trigger an impact on the on screen text display of the game. as perceived from the game screenshots, the text display experiences a technical shift of presentation. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 116 the jumbled structure of the translated versions indicate that the translation focuses mainly on transferring the message by examining the probable space intratextonic dynamics offers.from aesthetics viewpoint, this jumbled structure is assumed to contribute to the shift of game experience knowing that transferring a similar game experience is what game localization (and translation) prioritizes to convey (o’hagan, 2009). in the case of the dynamics, the flexibility the dynamics offers is not yet considered for aesthetic function of the game as the flexibility itself is still character restricted. this condition is implied by alexander o’smith, the translator of various square enix’s games. he said that there were often strict character limits for ui elements in the english translation, so diving straight into dialog and narrative text could be dangerous when the translators eventually realized none of the ui terms they wanted to use there would actually fit (in jayemanne, 2009). it implies that the applied translation techniques will, in a direct manner, influence the graph structure of the text in frame. it further suggests also that the knowledge and skill of restructuring in translation studies should touch the domain of graphology and typeface restructuring since aesthetics influence the physical form of play, sensory relationship between the players and the games (myers (2009) in zimmerman, perron and wolf, 2009). therefore, translation techniques, traversal function and game aesthetics (audiovisual style) construct a causal relationship. figure3 the influence of translation techniques in traversal function and game aesthetics figure2 different text display register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 117 asset refers to the analyzed game element, text to whether the format is diegetic (linguistic unit) or non-diegetic (image), textonomy, as discussed before, to the dynamicity of a text, traversal function to the method the players respond to the text, orientation to whether the asset has only ludic, narrative, or both elements, dialogue box to the type of box on which the textons appear as scriptons to the players, text visualization to the techniques information is visualized, and display effect to aesthetic effects regarding with the scripton appearance. as seen from figure 4 of which the construction is based on the translated version of need for speed carbon: own the city, deletion applied on a diegetic text triggers a shift on the traversal function of the frame and the alignment as the display effect from which symbol element of game aesthetics is observed. if the text had been shifted from diegetic to non-diegetic, the nonalignment display effect would have not occurred and thereby the game aesthetics on symbol would have been preserved. non-diegetic text, though requiring plural performativity, could be beneficial for preserving game aestheticsin the translation process if utilized optimally. one of the examples is the non-diegetic alteration in capcom’s mighty final fight: figure 4 non-diegetic to non-diegetic with diegetic style the reason of violence is behind the shift of non-diegetic text from the japanese version to north american version on the profile of haggar (purnomo and purnama, 2013). the nondiegetic text of the north american version, as seen from the screenshots, is able to visualize more information about the character. this situation indicates that non-diegetic, to some extent, is flexible to be utilized to cover diegetic information. it further suggests that plural performativity of the intratextonic and textonic dynamics is not a hindrance to convey the message intended to deliver. in the perspectives of translation techniques, the above case reflects register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 118 that the translation technique applied is amplification. in ergodic perspectives, the question is whether the amplification occurs on the information given,on the data used, or both. by the amplification of information refers to the addition of new information not found on the source language. by the amplification of data implies that any texton addition triggers the addition of certain amount of space from which the amount of data inclines. this condition suggests that any selected translation techniques will have any consequence on the inclination of the data usage from which production cost might experience a hike. other translation techniques as seen from figure 4 denote that their relationship with traversal function and game aesthetics still requires a close examination because modulation, adaptation, and literal are not conscientiously observable in the term of character number impact. in the perspectives of video game translation as a restrictive translation (mangiron and o’hagan, 2006), it is assumed that distinctive translation techniques possess spatiality in terms of character number. description, amplification, linguistic amplification, and substitution might convey a larger space as they have magnification function in which new information is added for the clarity of meaning. meanwhile reduction, deletion, and linguistic compression are assumed to trigger a smaller space as they have simplification function in which the information is reduced, deleted, and compressed. on the other hand, adaptation, borrowing, discursive creation, established equivalent, literal, modulation, calque, transposition, variation are paradoxical as they are relative in generating the character number. departing from this assumption, translation techniques, in video game translation, contribute to any ergodic elements and variables involving character numbers. in the case of game aesthetics, the translation techniques have a role in the shift of game aesthetics. ergodic and the transferability of ludus and narrative of video games ludus, play in english word, owes its fame from homo ludens, a term introduced by huizinga (1944) to refer to men as playful creatures. in the context of video games, ludusis studied by ludology, the science of play (frasca, 2007), to refer to positioning video games as system of play not as a system of narrative (juul, 2015) while narratology, the study of narrative (bal, 2009), remarks that video games are a narrative which takes a different form like movies (simons, 2007). due to its position as a game system, ludus revolves aroundthe studies on game register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 119 mechanics from which games pertain their function as a system. this game mechanics is one of the ludology principles video games have: 1. games should be considered as systems, with elements interacting between each other within certain boundaries. 2. games involve a conflict, which means that players will have to face some sort of challenge. this conflict is artificial in the sense that it is apart from real life. 3. games are defined by rules. rules are what delimit both the player's actions and the system's characteristics. 4. games generate a quantifiable outcome. this can be a score or simply a judgment (winning or losing.). (simon, 2007). in the context of video games, ludus and narrative are ergodically diffused to suggest the emergence of anamorphosis, hidden meaning (aarseth, 1997). this anamorphosis is vividly reflected from video game elements configuratively operated. they are pre-battle dialogue (pbd), command list, skill/ability, job, and equipment. one of the examples is from metal gear solid the above screenshots occur in pbd (pre-battle dialogue) between solid snake and revolver ocelot. the word ‘revolver’ refers to his habit and skill in arming himself with a revolver. the emphasis that his arsenal is a revolver is strengthened by his statement about the arsenal which is a handgun and it has six bullets. the information about revolver, handgun, and six bullets, besides emphasizing in a narrative manner about the character of revolver ocelot, also signifies the ludus of the games from which the players could benefit from. the ludus figure 5 revolver ocelot and his colt single action army register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 120 which is in the form of game mechanics suggests that revolver has six bullets only and thereby when revolver ocelot will reload a lot. the reloading condition opens the players to control solid snake, the main character, to shoot revolver ocelot. this anamorphosis, in the perspectives of video game translations, is a message the translators need to convey in their translation. this anamorphosis, to some extent, opens a challenge to the translators if they are asked not only to perform translation but also localization. if the name of the character and the image of the gun are localized, the translators have to ensure themselves that the anamorphosis message is transferable. the problem of ludus and narrative transferability exposes a greater challenge when the anamorphosis resides on a word level such as in the name of an equipment as discussed in purnomo (2015). one of the examples regarding with this is the translation of midway’s mortal kombat: unchained translated by two teams for educational purposes. sub zero, the iconic character of the series, is a ninja with an ice based attack. his ice element, besides being reflected from the azure fighting gear he wears, is also reflected from mostly of the names of his moves. as seen from his source moves, middle screenshot, his special moves consist of rib breaker, ice clone, freeze ball, and cold shoulder. each name of the moves is either the connotation or the denotation of the movements received by the viewers. freeze ball, for instance, is a move in which sub zero bursts cold ball like energy, from which the name ‘ball’ is derived, to freeze his foes, from which the word ‘freeze’ comes from. therefore, it implies freeze ball shares a linearity between the name and the visual movement. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 121 when freeze ball is translated into meriam es (ice cannon) and bola salju (snow ball), the linearity is diverted. the former translation to which compensation is applied ignites non-linearity because sub zero does not use any cannon. the latter translation to which modulation is applied has a problem of non-linearity also because sub zero does not burst snow ball. from the perspectives of narrative, both translations pertain the iciness of sub zero and aesthetics alignment with sub zero’s attributes. meanwhile, from the perspectives of ludus, game mechanics, it might deteriorate the players in playing the game, to some extent, when the players rely on the preliminary knowledge they attempt to obtain from the move nam e. the two aforementioned cases signify that anamorphosis finds itself in the diffusion of the ludus and narrative of the games with meta cognition of the players as the traversal mode. another interesting finding is on sub zero’s cold shoulder, a move in which sub zero attacks his enemy by sliding and forwarding his shoulder to hit the enemy. the first translation is srudukan es (ice ram) and the second one is dorongan es maut (deadly ice push). there are three similarities of the two translation versions. first is that they modulate the perspectives from an object, which creates an impact to a process, which creates an impact. second, they modulate also in their translation of cold, which is the sensation one feels when touching something icy into es (ice), which is the source of cold. third, they omit some words to maintain the spatial stability for the words. the pattern of omission is the same. they omit vocals. this happens due to, as discussed before, spatial problems textons have. for the case of second translation, it is not just only modulation but also discursive creation visible from the word maut (deadly). this discursive creation ignites an intriguing finding regarding with loss and gain. instead of vocalizing dorongan (push), the translator chose to add a word discursively to the translated move to emphasize the deadliness of the move. it implies that, to some extent, stylistics and aesthetics of the move are the priorities the translator decides to maintain. though stylistics and aesthetics of the game arrive to consideration, the translator fails to notice the aesthetics of the move in narrative sense. the phrase cold shoulder also refers to an english idiom meaning ‘total ignorance’. this aesthetic register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.107-123 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 122 value is primarily concerned on the narrative life of sub zero himself. sub zero’s real name is kuai liang. his life is identical to the phrase cold shoulder as he lives his own life after his parents and brother are dead. people ignore his existence and he lives just for revenge. this aesthetic value in a narrative manner, though revealed hermeneutically, is an anamorphosis, which deserves an attention to the translator as it constructs a holistic relationship between the ludus and the narrative from which metamorphosis and anamorphosis are evoked. conclusion ergodic as an approach for video game translation revolves on the discussion of the transferability of variables and traversal functions, of game aesthetics, and of ludus and narrative of the games. the transferability of the three elements poses a problem revolving around scriptons and textons possessing a close relationship with characters and their number. the problem also hails from the existence of anamorphosis aarseth claims as an ideology of influence from which the players’ game experiences are defined. anamorphosis, due to its hidden nature, requires a specific attention from the translators while at the same time they have to consider gilt (globalization, internationalization, localization, and translation) and translation strategies that could bridge the two considerations. the problem also occurs when translation techniques are applied. translation techniques are taken as a consideration not only for their purposes to transfer meaning but also for their possibility to consume extra spaces. references aarseth, e. j. 1997. cybertext: perspectives on ergodic literature. johns hopkins university press baltimore, maryland. bal, m. 2009. narratology: introduction to the theory of narrative. university of torontopress. toronto. bernal-merino, m. á. 2009. video games and children’s books in translation.the journal of specialised translation, 11, 234-247. london. bogost, i. 2007. persuasive games: the expressive power of videogames. massachusetts institute of technology (mit). massachusetts. dietz, f. 2007. 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(2) building interrogative word question sentences in translation the words “apa”, “kapan”, “milik siapa”, etc. that are related with the use of “what”, “when”, “whose”, etc. (3) completing the tag question sentences with the proper auxiliary based on tense of the sentences. the most difficulties in building question sentences are especially in yes-no question form by using the word “apakah”. in the term of interlanguage, the students‘ errors are mostly included in expressing meaning by the words and grammar of the first language. the source of difficulties which have been analyzed are mostly caused by inter lingual and intra lingual transfer. mailto:sarifamularsih01@gmail.com 120 keywords: interlanguage, question sentence, interlingual transfer, intralingual transfer abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menguraikan interferensi interlanguage dari kesulitan yang dihadapi 40 siswa kelas dua ma as soorkaty salatiga tahun ajaran 2004-2005 dalam menyusun kalimat tanya dan akar-akar kesulitannya. penelitian ini dilakukan melalui tes dengan total 20 butir soal, terdiri dari 5 soal yes-no questions, 5 soal w-h questions, dan 10 soal tag questions yang dikerjakan dalam bentuk tes tertulis. berdasarkan analisis, hasilnya menunjukkan beberapa kesimpulan. pertama, peneliti menemukan kesulitan yang dihadapi siswa dalam menyusun kalimat tanya, seperti: (1) menyusun kalimat yes-no questions dalam terjemahan kata "apakah", yang berhubungan dengan penggunaan to be. (2) menyusun kalimat tanya dalam terjemahan kata "apa", "kapan", "milik siapa", dll yang berkaitan dengan penggunaan “what”, “when”, “whose”, dll (3 ) melengkapi tag questions dengan tambahan auxiliary yang sesuai berdasarkan tense kalimat. kesulitan yang paling sering dijumpai dalam menyusun kalimat tanya terutama pada yes-no questions dengan menggunakan kata "apakah". berkaitan dengan tema interlanguage, sebagian besar kesalahan siswa adalah dalam mengungkapkan makna dengan kata-kata dan tata bahasa dari bahasa pertama. akar kesulitan yang telah dianalisis sebagian besar disebabkan oleh interlingual transfer dan intralingual transfer. kata kunci: interlanguage, kalimat tanya, interlingual transfer, intralingual transfer introduction teaching english in any grades of institutions cannot leave one element, which support the students‘ mastery that is grammar. it plays important roles to control students in using sentences or phrases. their mastery in english grammar will make their sentences comprehensible 121 and acceptable. the students are able to fit the words in sentences with others. in syntactical construction the students have to know the appropriate form suits with meaning and context. the students understand that learning english needs to understand the rules of grammar. the grammar is integral part of learner‘s knowledge. it is related with other subject. grammar is a body of empirical rules which explain and regulate the structure of english sentences. structure serves as a guide for students in building english sentences correctly (mahani and siswantoro, 1987: 53). the systematical rules of english grammar have become integral part of the students‘ knowledge. it will enhance them to provide english sentences that are grammatically acceptable and therefore comprehensible. some rules are extremely complex, including question sentences. it is one of the subject matter that the students learn in school. there are three kinds of question sentences of english; they are yes-no question, interrogative words, and tag questions (nuryanto, 1986: 118123). seeing the kinds of question sentences above, it is understood that most of students find the difficulties in mastery of building and construction question sentences. it can be seen in the phenomenon such as: “where we eat?” it should be: “where do we eat?”, or they may write “who book own?” it should be: “whose is it?” based on their english proficiency level, the students have learned about question sentences from junior up to senior high school. the students find many problems in building question sentence. here the writer wants to elaborate the difficulties faced by the students in building questions and the sources of difficulties in building sentences. 122 interlanguage of second and foreign language learners the term interlanguage (il) was introduced by the american linguist larry selinker to refer to the linguistic system evidenced when an adult second language learner attempts to express meanings in the language being learned. the interlanguage is viewed as a separate linguistic system, clearly different from both the learner‘s ‗native language‘ (nl) and the ‗target language‘ (tl) being learned, but linked to both nl and tl by interlingual identifications in the perception of the learner. a central characteristic of any interlanguage is that it fossilizes – that is, it ceases to develop at some point short of full identity with the target language. thus, the adult second-language learner never achieves a level of facility in the use of the target comparable to that achievable by any child acquiring the target as a native language. there is thus a crucial and central psycholinguistic difference between child nl acquisition and adult second language (l2) acquisition: children always succeed in completely acquiring their native language, but adults only very rarely succeed in completely acquiring a second language. the central object of interlanguage research is to explain this difference – essentially, to describe and explain the development of interlanguages and also to explain the ultimate failure of interlanguages to reach a state of identity with the target language (tarone, 2006: 747). according to richards (1992: 186), interlanguage is the type of language produced by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a language. in language learning, learner‘s errors are caused by several different processes. these include: (1) borrowing patterns from the mother tongue; (2) extending patterns from the target 123 language; and (3) expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known. foreign language learner difficulties in learning foreign language, learner will encounter some problems in mastering the rule of language. they often produce erroneous utterances whether in their speech or their writing. exactly those problems are caused of differences between the rule of the mother tongue and the foreign language. so, this matter makes difficulties to them in learning the target language. one of the difficult terms related with this research is building question sentences. there are two sources of difficulties in building question sentences namely inter lingual transfer and intra lingual transfer. inter lingual transfer is caused by the interference of the learners‘ mother tongue. interference from the mother tongue is clearly a major source of difficulties in second language learning. in consequence, a lot of mistake in studying foreign language is caused by mother tongue. while intralingual is the negative transfer of item within the target language. ricard states the intra lingual errors consist of four categories, namely (1) over generation, (2) ignorance, (3) incomplete application of the rules, and (4) semantic error (richards, 1976: 35). fourth of this big enough matter is influence in studying foreign language. in consequence, studying foreign language is very important to be emphasized on this matter. english question sentence question can be divided into three major classes according to the types of answer that expect (qirk, 1973: 191), they are yes-no question 124 (that expect only affirmation or rejection), w-h question (that expect a reply supplying an item of information), and tag question (that invite the listener to respond the question). 1. yes-no question these are the simple questions elicit the answer yes or no only (frank, 1972: 88). usually all of these questions begin with an auxiliary or a single form of be that has been reversed with the subject. 2. tag question these are also yes-no question, but the special form into which they are put, shows of these two answers is actually expected. if the statement part of the question is positive, the question part is negative. if the statement part is negative, the question part is positive. 3. w-h question these are questions that elicit specific information of a person, place, time, etc. as in negation, the verb in each of these questions is handled differently depending on whether the verb is or is not accompanied by an auxiliary in the declarative sentences. w-h questions are formed with the aid of the following interrogative words (question words), who for persons, whom for object, whose for possessive, which for things or subject or object (thomson and martinet, 1986: 71). some experts also mention w-h question as interrogative word question, as frank stated (1972: 88). 125 the rules of building question yes-no question the pattern of an interrogative sentences as follows: auxiliary + subject adverb + verb + c / adjunct + modal. verbal pattern examples: 1) does your friend study hard? yes, he does. / no, he doesn‘t. 2) shall she give us the book? yes, she shall. / no, she shan‘t. non-verbal pattern examples: 1) are the nurses always busy? yes, they are. / no, they aren‘t. 2) is one of the students sick? yes, he is. / no, he isn‘t. for the verbal pattern, there must be an agreement between subject and auxiliary used. when the subject is singular, it uses auxiliary does and verb with s is omitted. for instance, there is a statement “she runs alone every morning.”, its interrogative sentence will be “does she run alone every morning?”. the do auxiliary is accompanied with the simple present which follows its verb with s. for example, there is a statement “i have much money.”. in interrogative sentence form will be “do you have much money?” then, modal auxiliary generally has no s suffix for third person and no infinitive there is used for singular and plural subject. for example the statement “they can climb the mountain carefully.”. it will be “can they climb the mountain carefully?” in addition to personal pronoun, the expletives there and it may also appear in a short answer to yes-no question. 126 is there my father? yes, there is. in negative yes-no question, not is contracted with the auxiliary that starts the question. in formal usage, not is placed in adverbial position right after the reversed auxiliary and subject. isn’t sari reading? didn’t sari read newspaper? is sari not reading? did sari not read newspaper? in highly informal conversation, the auxiliary and the subject of a yes-no question are frequently omitted. get lunch? for do you get lunch? thinking serious problem? for are you thinking serious problem? tag question the tag question consists of operator plus pronoun, without a negative partite, if the super ordinate clause is positive, the tag is negative, and vice versa (frank, 1972: 88-91). for example, “he likes his job, doesn’t he?”, the meaning of this sentence, like its form, involve a statement and question, each of them asserts something then invites the listeners response to it. azar said that a tag question added at the end of a sentence (1993: 16). speaker uses tag question chiefly to make sure their information is correct or seek agreement. tag question may be spoken:  with a rising intonation if the speaker as truly speaking to ascertain information, idea, believe, is correct. example: ann is in apartment, doesn’t she? 127  with a falling intonation if the speaker is expressing an idea which is almost certain listener will agree. example: it’s nice day today, isn’t it? tag question expects agreement with the statement (frank, 1972: 89). it‘s containing the regular question auxiliary plus the personal pronoun that stand the subject. for example, “it’s not raining, is it? no, it isn’t.” krohn writes his pattern (1984: 21) as follow: table 1. non verbal tag question statement negative tag there are birds, they are clever, tuti is diligent, aren‘t there? aren‘t they? isn‘t she? table 2. non verbal tag question (negative statement) negative statement affirmative tag you aren‘t sick, it is not your book, hari is not in the home, are you? is it? is he? table 3. verbal tag question statement negative tag he went to school, she runs alone, we write a letter, didn‘t he? doesn‘t she? don‘t we? 128 table 4. verbal tag question (negative statement) negative statement affirmative tag annie didn‘t read well, toni doesn‘t go to school, they don‘t bring my book, did she? does he? do they? interrogative word question interrogative word question is question begin with either interrogative adverb (why, when, where, how) or pronoun (who, whom, what, which) (frank, 1972: 91). this type of question begins with a question word (such as who, what, when, or where), the rest of word order pattern is auxiliary is placed before the subject (krohn, 1984: 67). below is the usage spread:  who substitutes for a noun phrase which refers to a person.  who substitutes for a noun phrase which refers to thing.  when substitutes for an adverbial which refers to time.  when substitutes for an adverbial which refers to place.  why substitutes for part of the predicate phrase.  the question words as substitutes for the subject. (note: who in this pattern is informal standard english. it is used in conversation also in notes or letters to friends and relatives. whom is formal standard english. it is used in speech and formal writing, such as papers which students write in college.) nuryanto notes that the question word question may function as the interrogative pronoun (1986: 21). the interrogative adverbs consist of 129 when (adverb of time), where (adverb of time), how (adverb of manner) may be combined with preposition. for instance, the interrogative pronoun of who, what, whom, and whose are normally used for person. what is used for things, which is used for thing and person when a choice involved. the use of word questions azar gives some explanations about the use of word question (1981: 1-3) as in the table below: table 5. kinds of word question and its function word question function example when it is used to ask question about time. when will you come? where it is used to ask question about place. where i get ticket for the show? why it is used to ask question about reason. why do you go? how it is generally ask about manner, but has many idiomatic uses. how does he drive? it is used with many and much. how much money does it cost? it also used with adjective and adverb. how old are you? how fast were you driving? how long asks about how long have you been in 130 length of time. this city? how often asks about frequency. how often do you write in home? how far asks about distance. how far is to miami from here? who it is used ask the subject of a question. who wants to come with me? whom it is used ask the object of a verb or preposition. whom did you see? whose it is used ask the question about possession. whose book did you borrow? what it is used at the subject of a question. it refers to things. what made you are angry? it is also used as an object. what do you need? it sometimes accompanied a noun. what classes are you talking? the interrogative sentence with auxiliaries there are three types of auxiliaries, each of them serve different purpose: tense auxiliary it consist of be, have, will, and shall. the tense auxiliaries perform a structural function only. be occur with the –ing present participle in the 131 progressive forms on the tenses and with –ed in the passive tenses. have is used for the perfect tense. will and shall are used for the future tense. do auxiliary the do auxiliary is accompanied with the simple form of the verb (infinitive without to). it is used only in simple present tense (do or does offer) and simple past tense (did offer). it provides an auxiliary less verbs to enable then to function in the following grammatical patterns. a. question do you like a new hat? b. negative statement i don’t like your new hat. c. abridgment-omission or substation i don’t like your coffee and neither does my wife. d. emphasis my teacher thinks i didn’t study for my test, but i did study. e. entreaty do come to the party tonight. modal auxiliary frank said that modal auxiliaries are added to the verb as special semantic component such as ability, obligation, and possibility (1981: 94). some of them express the same kinds of semantic coloring of verbs in the subjective mood. in general, they have no –s suffix for third person and no infinitive of participle form. they have only two formal tenses, the present and the past, which are used with the simple form of the lexical verb. modal auxiliary does not change their form for person or 132 number, that is, there is ni –s form for the third person singular. the modal position in the sentence is after the subject and before the rest of the sentence (krohn, 1974: 109). research methodology the data of the research was taken from the students‘ sentences about yes-no questions, w-h questions, and tag questions which were made by the students in building question sentences through translation and complete the sentence according to each type of question. their sentence was done through examination in the classroom of 40 second year students of ma as soorkaty salatiga along the research. the research was conducted on 1-12 june 2004 in the effective learning time from 07.00 a.m. to 01.00 p.m. the sources of data were taken based on the result of the test. the research was conducted by quantitative and qualitative study respectively. a quantitative was used to calculate the number of errors of each kind of sentences. than qualitative one was used to analyze the source of difficulties and its cause of errors. in this research, the writer used a test as the instrument in collecting the data. by giving the test, she wanted to know the difficulties that faced by the students in building question sentences construction. the total number of test were 20 items, consist of 5 yes-no questions, 5 w-h questions, and 10 tag questions. the test was done by the students in a written essay form in the piece of paper prepared. to make easier in classification of the test, the writer classified the data based on the kinds of english questions. she wrote and calculated the total number of errors of each kind of question sentences. 133 then, she tried to conclude the difficulties in building question sentences construction which are related to the question sentences element. at last, the writer analyzed the source of difficulties based on the final test result which were presented in percentage formula: p = x 100 % p = percentage f = number of individual n = frequency (anas, 1994: 40) discussion and finding based on the analysis, the writer found that the students mostly done the errors on translating the meaning from native language to target language. they were remain used the words and grammar from the mother tongue. in the term of interlanguage, it was included in the third type of error that was expressing meaning using the words and grammar which are already known. the writer separated the difficult points into three points of description result, they were: the difficulties in building yes-no question sentence in this type of question, the learners built yes-no question through translation. based on the data involved, it can be analyzed that they have difficulties in building yes-no question through translation from indonesia into english sentence, namely (1) apakah / what and (2) choosing to be. 134 apakah / what in translation the word “apakah”, the students have made error repeatedly. it is influenced by their mother tongue to translate “apakah”. the learners tend to make addition, it is an error which characterized by the presence of an item which is not appear in a well form utterance. they tend to translate “apakah” in yes-no question sentences with the word ―what‖. such kind of error is categorized include into addition because the students rise an item which not appear in correct form of english contraction. examples : 1) apakah mereka siswa ma as soorkaty salatiga? 2) apakah kamu kemarin makan di restoran itu? the students‘ translation : a) what are they student ma as soorkaty salatiga? b) what are you eat in restaurant yesterday? seeing the students‘ translation above, the learners are very poor in translation mastery from indonesia into english sentence. it is not similar to translate from indonesia into english. the students prefer to use word ―what‖ to translate indonesian word of “apakah”. it is not appear in well form utterance. the students should put auxiliary verb for the target language “apakah”, so the correct forms are as follow: 1) are they students ma as soorkaty salatiga? 2) did you eat in restaurant yesterday? choosing to be the second difficulties in building yes-no question sentences through translation is choosing to be on auxiliary verb with the subject used in the 135 sentences. the learners are still obvious in using was, were, is, are, do, does, etc. examples : 1) apakah mereka siswa ma as soorkaty salatiga? 2) apakah dia seorang perawat? the students‘ translation : a) what are they student ma as soorkaty salatiga? b) what does she a nurse? the learners do not pay attention in using to be from the example (a) the students made errors in choosing to be which must be related with the time or action happened. they should not put ―are‖ for the example above, because the adverb of time which is used is past tense. in the example (b) the students also made error in choosing to be. they should not put ―does‖ in the sentence, because the students above are not verbal pattern. they should put to be according to the subject used, so the correct sentence are: 1) are they students ma as soorkaty salatiga? 2) is she a nurse? table 6. the result of yes-no question translation from indonesia to english no test item the sum and percentage of correct answer the sum and percentage of wrong answer 1. 2. apakah dia seorang perawat? apakah kita datang ke 15 10 37,5 % 25 % 25 30 62,5 % 75 % 136 3. 4. 5. kantor kemarin? apakah kamu kemarin makan di restoran itu? apakah mereka siswa ma as soorkaty salatiga? apakah kita akan belajar bersama di rumahku besok? 12 17 11 30 % 42,5 % 27,5 % 28 23 29 70 % 57,5 % 72,5 % the difficulties in building w-h question sentence in this type of question, the learners built w-h question through translation. based on the data involved, it can be analyzed that they have difficulties in building w-h question through translation from indonesia into english sentence, namely (1) choosing word question and (2) choosing to be. choosing word question the learners of ma as soorkaty salatiga are still bad to translate from indonesia into english. in this type of question, the word questions which are used should suit and relate with an adverb of time and place. there are some words question in english such as who, whose, whom, where, when, etc. each of them has function according to the right person. it is not correct to use ―who belong‖ to transfer the meaning of “milik siapa”. examples : 1) milik siapa buku ini? 2) milik siapa buku-buku di sana? 137 the students‘ translation : a) who belong book is this? b) who belong books is there? the students have mistakes in using the word question ―whose‖. many students use ―who belong‖ to translate indonesian words “milik siapa”. it is influenced by their mother tongue to transfer from l-1 to l-2. they think to everything in l-1“milik siapa” consist of two words, then they translate it word by word ―who belong‖. the students tend to presence the items which are not appear in correct pattern, so the correct form will be: 1) whose book is this? 2) whose books are there? choosing to be the second difficulties in building question sentences through translation is refer to choosing to be. besides the learners have difficulties to use ―who‖, they also make an error in choosing to be. example : milik siapa buku-buku di sana? the students‘ translation : who belong books is there? the learners‘ translation is still far from perfect. the learners should not put ―is‖ in the form of plural noun. such kind of error is made because they have not paying attention with ―-s‖ added at the end of the word ―books‖. they should put ―are‖ for its to be, so the correct sentence will be: whose books are there? table 7. the result of w-h question translation from indonesia to english 138 no. test item the sum and percentage of correct answer the sum and percentage of wrong answer 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. apa yang dia makan? milik siapa buku ini? milik siapa buku-buku di sana? kapan kamu mengerjakan pr ini? berapa jam kamu belajar dalam sehari? 14 8 14 20 18 35 % 20 % 35 % 50 % 45 % 26 32 36 20 22 65 % 80 % 65 % 50 % 55 % the difficulties in completing tag question sentence in this type of question, the learners completed the tag question follow the sentences. based on the data involved, it can be analyzed that they have difficulties in completing the tag question follow the sentences, namely choosing auxiliary verb. choosing auxiliary verb the learners are still obvious and confuse in using suitable auxiliary verb based time form in the sentences, such as is, am, are, do, does (present), was, were, did (past), will, shall, should, etc. (future), etc. examples : 1) you like coffee, . . . ? 2) they arrived yesterday, . . . ? the student‘s translation : a) you like coffee, doesn’t you? b) they arrived yesterday, don’t they? 139 the learners do not pay attention in using auxiliary verb. from the example (a) the students made error in choosing auxiliary verb which must be related with the time or action happened. they should not put ―does‖ for the example above though the adverb of time indicates of present tense form. they did not consider that the subject is ―you‖. it is a plural subject, so the proper auxiliary is ―do‖. in the example (b) the students also made error in choosing auxiliary verb. they should not put ―do‖ in the negative tag, because the adverb of time which is used is in past tense, so the correct sentences are: 1) you like coffee, don’t you? 2) they arrived yesterday, didn’t they? table 8. the result of completing tag question based on sentences no. test item the sum and percentage of correct answer the sum and percentage of wrong answer 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 they arrived yesterday, . . . ? you have heard about that, . . . ? you like coffee, . . . ? i may speak to him, . . . ? you‘d rather i didn‘t say anything, . . . ? he didn‘t have to speak to me, . . . ? i have to buy some matches, . . . ? he was not fall down, . . . ? you will come, . . . ? you would like the window to open, . . .? 20 25 18 16 17 25 14 27 21 20 50 % 62,5 % 45 % 40 % 42,5 % 62,5 % 35 % 67,5 % 52,5 % 50 % 20 15 22 24 23 15 26 13 19 20 50 % 37,5 % 55 % 60 % 57,5 % 37,5 % 65 % 32,5 % 47,5 % 50 % 140 from the finding result above, it can be conclude that there are two sources of difficulties in building question sentences namely interlingual transfer and intralingual transfer. interlingual transfer the learners have made interlingual error because of the mother tongue interference. they usually transfer the system of their mother tongue into foreign language in placing what for the each want “apakah”. examples : 1. false : what is she a nurse? true : is she a nurse? 2. false : what we will study together in my house? true : do we will study together in my house tomorrow? from the examples, these are transfer from l-1 (first language / mother tongue). the errors are such kind of interlingual transfer, because the students admit one of the element of the correct sentences in building yes-no question. intralingual transfer it is the negative transfer of items within the tongue language or put another way the incorrect generalization of the rule within the target language. it has been found that the early stages of language are characterized by a predominance of interlingual transfer is manifested. negative intralingual transfer can be illustrated in utterance. examples : 1. false : who belong books is this? 141 true : whose book is this? 2. false : when you do homework? true : when do you do this homework? according to dulay, the constructive diction where the structure in the first language would be product (1982: 97). it is influenced by the first language habit. in other word, the students‘ difficulty is by an interference of the learners that are used to think himself by using their mother tongue. the sentences above are errors in the use of grammar because the students still cannot recognized the subject and put ―are‖ for its to be. conclusion based on the analysis, the result shows some conclusions. firstly, the researcher finds the types of difficulties problems are faced by the students in building question mastery, such as: (1) building yes-no question sentences in translation the word “apakah”, that is related with the use of to be. (2) building interrogative word question sentences in translation the words “apa”, “kapan”, “milik siapa”, etc. that are related with the use of “what”, “when”, “whose”, etc. (3) completing the tag question sentences with the proper auxiliary based on tense of the sentences. those are related with choosing suitable to be or auxiliary. the most difficulties in building question sentences are especially in yesno question form by using the word “apakah”. the source of difficulties which have been analyzed are mostly caused by inter lingual and intra lingual transfer. the errors of inter lingual transfer is affected by the students‘ mother tongue interference. it is a major source of difficulty in second language learning. while the errors of intra lingual transfer is 142 caused by the students‘ lack of knowledge about grammar. in the term of interlanguage, the students‘ errors are mostly included in expressing meaning by the words and grammar of their mother tongue. references azar, betty schrampfer. 1993. understanding and using english grammar. prentice hall regent: new jersey. dulay. 1982. language two. oxford university press. new york. frank, marcella. 1972. modern english: a practical reference guide. englewood cliffs: new jersey. _____________ . 1981. modern english: a practical reference guide. englewood cliffs: new jersey. krohn, robert. 1984. english sentence structure. the university of michigan press: new york. mahani, setyo and siswantoro. 1987. pengkajian kurikulum sma. universitas sebeles maret: surakarta. murphy, raymond. 1985. english grammar in usage. cambridge university press: cambridge. nuryanto. 1986. essential of english sentence structure. yayasan ikk: yogyakarta. qirk. 1973. a university grammar of english. longman: england. richards, jack c. 1976. error analysis. columbia university press: new york. _______ et.al. 1992. dictionary of language teaching & applied linguistics. longman: uk. sudjiono, anas. 1994. pengantar statistik pendidikan. raja grafindo: jakarta. tarone, e. 2006. interlanguage. university of cartenbury: new zealand. thomson, a. j. and a.v. martinet. 1986. a practical english grammar. oxford university press: hongkong. register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.192-209 192 ideational intersemiotic relation in tempo’s magazine cover representing setya novanto andriana vita nurjannah indonesia university of education andrianavita@upi.edu doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.192-209 submission track: received: 29/04/2018 final revision: 25/11/2018 available online: 01/12/2018 abstract magazine cover is an image that accommodates the readers with a critical value information of a news story. the essence of a particular story is able to be represented in a single page of magazine cover. it indeed covers not only the surface or real meanings, but deeper meaning soon to be analysed by the readers. the recent politician case relating setya novanto is one of the trending topic in news event as it impacts in the massive reaction from the indonesian citizens, like making particular memes and even an android game. in this case, the illustrators of one of news magazine, tempo, have to make a cover representing that event through the visual and verbal composition. therefore, despite his trial status, this research is aimed at examining the extended meaning depicted from his picture from one national media by identifying visual and verbal elements in the image as the effort to reveal intersemiotic relation between those multimodal modes. this research employed qualitative method, by administering six covers published in 2017 representing setya novanto as the news topic. the image and text elements from the cover were identified based on one of metafunctions initially proposed by halliday (1994), the ideational function. thus, the intersemiotic analysis were done by relating the visual and verbal meanings (royce, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2015). keywords: magazine cover, multimodal, intersemiotic corresponding author: andriana vita nurjannah andrianavita@upi.edu +6285647225745 introduction generally, people literally give value at something by its cover, no exception for the cover of a magazine. thus, cover or the front part of a magazine plays a critical role in leading the readers‟ perception. a cover is usually designed meticulously so that one single page can accommodate the whole story. in this case, a cover does not only hold surface meaning but it http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.192-209 andriana vita nurjannah 193 also involves deeper meaning. every single part of the elements, both visual and verbal, are specifically designed to meet the intended message. recently, an indonesian politician, setya novanto became a trending topic in social media because of his case. what makes this case interesting is that it leads to unique responses from indonesian citizens, like memes and an android game. despite concerning his trial session, it is intriguing to know the perception of people regarding him and the case. thus, an analysis of the magazine cover which mainly reports him and his case was necessary since magazine is seen as the representation of some people‟s point of view. in addition, the cover can be an indicator of the different perspective in current issue in environment (dodd, foerch, and anderson, 1998). magazine cover is seen as the right means to deal with that since one of the functions is to catch the interest of the potential readers (tseronis, 2015). this paper is aimed at examining the extended meaning depicted from his picture from one national media to reveal intersemiotic relation between those multimodal modes. to achieve that goal, visual and verbal elements in the image must be identified. in this case, the visual elements relate to the participants pictured on the magazine cover, both animate and inanimate object, while the verbal elements associates to the headlines and the lexical items followed. in this paper, ideational metafunctions is the only metafunctions involved in identifying those multimodal modes, without breaking down those multimodal modes in interpersonal and textual metafunctions. multimodal analysis most of printed news media, like news magazine, is filled not only with verbal but also visual means of communication which usually draws an illustration towards the story in verbal senses. it is apparently clear that the producers do not arrange the diverse images along with the writing on the text randomly, but it is full of semantic purposes (royce, 2002). according halliday (1994), those semantic purposes are able to be expressed through metafunctions. there are three communication metafunctions: ideational, interpersonal, and textual. the first, ideational, concerns with the sign being the representation in the real life. while interpersonal is the connection of the signs available in the text, between the sign producer and receiver. and textual explores the sign which is more complex, relating the sign with the context. register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.192-209 194 this paper only focusses on ideational metafunctions which represents what happens in the image and text which is also known as representational meaning (kress and van leuween, 2006). therefore, even though that verbal and visual modes of communication adopt specific meaning-making resources to each particular mode, they also cooperate to realize meaning of intersemiotic relation and to create a clear multimodal text for the readers (royce, 1998, 1999). ideational intersemiotic relation the framework of intersemiotic relation derives from the metafunctional form of communication initiated by halliday. in achieving the objective of this paper, a framework proposed by royce (1999) is used which is presented in image 1. this framework derives from halliday‟s metafunctional communication, relating the visual message element (vme) and the lexical item. in this case, the vme is limited on participant, process, circumstance, and attributes which represents the ideational metafunction. the lexical item refers to the phrase or word of the text that is associated semantically with the vme‟s experiental meaning. besides, it is clearly seen that there is a gap between a multimodal text which is then called intersemiotic relation. image 1 intersemiotic relation from royce (1999) the type of intersemiotic relation would be analysed to get the picture of how the image producer makes use two semiotic resources in projecting the intended meaning and what impacts of that action. in this paper, the ideational is the only metafunctionals explained, which refers to tell „what‟s going on‟ in the image. the starting point to break down the visuals is by identifying the participants represented in the image or the whole elements, both animate or inanimate. andriana vita nurjannah 195 there are procedural steps in examining the ideational intersemiotic relation. in the first stage, the visual analysis was conducted. it was done by doing several steps. the initial step was done by identifying the image in connection with the portrayed participants (identification), process (activity), context (circumstances), and participant‟s characteristics (attributes). the second was by interpreting those aspects depending on the context of creation, situation, and history (halliday, 1994; royce 1998, 2002, 2015). later, those aspects were assigned into visual message element (vme) label. in the second stage, the verbal modes were analysed by identifying each clause in the represented lexical items in which semantically related to each identified vme and later making lexical inventories of the verbal modes which are semantically reflected to the vmes‟ experiental meaning. in the last stage, the intersemiotic relation was analysed by some steps. first, it was done by identifying each clause in the inventory by considering the vme. second, the semantic relationship was interpreted between each vme and the verbal item by classifying the relation of repetition, antonymy, synonymy, meronymy, hyponymy, and collocation. later, the verbal items were labelled as „r‟, „a‟, „s‟, „m‟, „h‟, „c‟. finally, the frequency and relations were interpreted. the intersemiotic relation in terms of ideational examines at how the visual resources semantically link to the verbal resources, in which both visual and verbal elements can work complementarily to convey meaning. there are various lexico-semantic means of communication that links the logical and experiential content projected in the multimodal modes (royce, 1998, 2002). they are presented as follows: a. repetition (r): identical relations an example of intersemiotic repetition is realized when the visual contains the figure of setya novanto. (the vme is explained as setya novanto) and the lexical item “setya novanto” also occurs in the verbal element of the text. b. synonymy (s): similarity relations an example of intersemiotic synonymy is when a visual represents the figure of setya novanto and the lexical item in verbal aspect is realized with the wording “house of representative‟s chairman”. c. antonymy (a): opposite relations register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.192-209 196 an example of intersemiotic antonymy is when a graphic visual shows a condition of being locked up and the lexical item in the verbal text is accommodated with the word “free”. d. meronymy (m): part-whole relations an example of intersemiotic meronymy is when a visual represents a table listing the corruption in indonesia and the verbal item shows electronic identity card associating specific sector in indonesia‟s corruption. e. hyponymy(h): class-subclass relations an example of intersemiotic hyponymy is realized when a visual showing indonesian politicians and the lexical item of the text is accommodated with wording “setya novanto”. f. collocation(c): expectancy relations the example of intersemiotic collocation is when the visual represents the setting of court, and the lexical item is realized with the wording suspect, judge, prosecutor. tempo’s magazine cover a cover of a magazine plays a critical role because frankly it works to capture the readers‟ attention (sumner and rhoades, 2006 in jenkins and tandoc, 2015). to gain this objective, the publisher of a magazine will certainly create a sophisticated cover design that can persuade the readers. moreover, the cover is considered as the face of the print that functions as the image building of a magazine (losowsky, 2007 in jenkins and tandoc, 2015). hence, to maintain the image of a magazine, the publisher will utilize the similar style in presenting the news on the cover. besides, magazine cover also serves as cultural markers, which demonstrates the cultural and social fact happened in the area where the magazine is published (abrahamson et al., 2003). thus, it can be a reminder of the social phenomena in the societies. in addition, the objects in a magazine cover, either living or not, can be a symbol of culture as it is exhibited, reprinted, and immortalized in books, displays, or other magazines (jenkins, 2015). tempo magazine is one of news magazine from indonesia which is known for its critical thinking in reporting a news. it was banned for several times because of its „judgement‟ over andriana vita nurjannah 197 certain cases. the unique thing from this magazine is the caricature for the cover page as the visual resources. the caricature serves as superportraits, making it more recognisable than the common photograph (benson and perret 1994; rhodes and tremewan 1994; rhodes at al., 1987). it provides exaggerated accent to the people or things caricatured (rosielle and hite, 2009). royce (2015) adds that caricature employs prominent role in visual element. besides, caricatures increase the faces‟ distinctiveness (rhodes et al., 1997) so that the readers are able to picture who is being described accurately. thus, the use of caricature in portraying the visual mode is not merely for aesthetic purpose but it is indeed purposely design for giving accentuated meaning. methods this research utilized qualitative descriptive method, by employing six covers published in 2017, from january to november. the figure 1 is the newest magazine, while the last figure is the latest one. purposive sampling which is the type of sampling technique that selects the objects intentionally based on particular purpose was employed to maintain those six covers. the selected images were the covers for published magazine which employ setya novanto as the news topic. this was done considering the aims of the study, examining the extended meaning depicted from setya novanto‟s figure by revealing intersemiotic relation between those multimodal modes. the image and text elements from the cover were identified based on one of metafunctions initially proposed by halliday (1994), the ideational function. thus, the intersemiotic analysis was done by relating the visual and verbal meanings (royce, 1998, 1999, 2002). figure 1 figure 2 figure 3 register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.192-209 198 figure 4 figure 5 figure 6 table 1 selected magazine covers discussion this section represents the finding and discussion of the research. it first describes the visual and verbal modes from each figure. later, the intersemiotic relation is examined. the caricatures represented in each figure are the typical visual modes in tempo magazine. figure 1 visual analysis the identification, representing who or what is depicted in the image, portrays a facial feature caricature of a well-known politician, setya novanto, who is known because of his case. his popularity is proved by the actions by the citizen like creating android game. the visual also displays two trophies which is clearly denoted as winning. the physical appearance of the trophies is distinct, representing the trophies used as the symbol of best actor from a movie. moreover, the trophies are pictured more than one, meaning that is the best actor capable of achieving two trophies in one event. thus, he is pictured of having good skill in acting. there is also a flying shoe directing at him which denotes insult. this can further depict the lack of respect from the people around him. the interaction of these participants seems creating meaning that the man is the best actor of a movie, but not many people seem to like it as the existential of the flying shoe closing to him. the shoe has metaphorical meaning as the offensive action done. related to the action which takes place, or the activity, it is quite clear that it portrays a man getting two trophies at once because of his skill. the impression conveyed is that he is great at acting (his skill) even though not many people seem dislike it as the representation of the flying shoe. andriana vita nurjannah 199 the attributes, relating to the characteristics and qualities of the participants, in this figure is shown in the man‟s facial expression, depicting satisfaction as he laughs in joy. in addition, the black suit he wears symbolizes position, wealth, power because of the expensive cost of the costume and because it is used for people in high social class. it reflects to his work, as a politician having great power and authority. the yellow shirt also emphasizes his position (power) in golkar party. from the circumstances or the context, it can be seen that the man and the trophies are not just placed anywhere. by considering the suit he wears, the trophies, and the flying shoe, it can be interpreted that it happens in a stage, a place where actors usually receive trophies because of their act. the flying shoe accentuates this interpretation as the shoe comes from public space representing audience which can be depicted as citizen. he is being on the stage does not only have locative meaning but it carries metaphor meaning as the one being the spotlight (the centre of attention) since he was the house of representative (hor)‟s chairman. verbal and intersemiotic analysis the analysis of verbal elements was done after the visual elements of the image being analysed. the verbal elements later are broken down into clauses so that each clause can be related to the identified vme having intersemiotic relations of repetition, antonymy, synonymy, meronymy, hyponymy, and collocation. in this case, the attributes is subsumed to the process that having similar interpretation. table 4 ideational intersemiotic relation represented participants circumstances attributes s’s setya novanto trophies (good acting) flying shoe (offensive action) stage (house of representative) laughing (satisfied) suit (position/ power) yellow shirt (part of golkar) 1. thousand dramas (c) 2. setya (r) being caught (c) disappeared (c) 3. leaks (c) insiders (c) register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.192-209 200 by analysing these multimodal resources, the evidence of intersemiotic relation can be seen, as implied by a number of lexical items related to the news topic on setya novanto‟s case. as shown in table 4, there is a relation in which the lexical items intersemiotically repeat and collocate with the visual items. it is clear that there is repetition relation as the use of lexical item setya and the use of setya‟s representation as the visual item. in addition, the trophies shown in the visual collocate with the wording dramas since there are many awarding events held by film industry that give appreciation (trophies) to the one having good act in his/ her drama. the other significant visual attribute is the flying shoe which collocates with the lexical item of being caught since the flying shoe in this case connotes offensive action. the intersemiotic relation is also seen from the attributes in which the figure wears a black suit. in reality, he was the house of representative‟s chairman, having such a power and authority to get something not ordinary people can. this has collocation meaning with the lexical items leaks, insiders, and disappear. it is because his power enables him to have insiders to acquire information leaks so that he can disappear before getting caught. figure 2 visual analysis the identification in this second picture portrays a caricature image of a middle-aged man having facial representation figure of setya novanto. not far from him, there are two middleaged men carrying bows as the foreground of the image. they are caricatured as two wellknown public figures that serves as the chief and vice chiefs of corruption eradication commission (later cec), agus raharjo and saut sitomorang respectively. as they hold bows, they seem confused as it is seen from their gestural act. in addition, there are 14 arrows landed around the sleeping man in which both the man and the arrows are positioned as the salience elements. there is also a plank depicted behind the sleeping man, connoting an object being the target, setya novanto as the target. while the activity seen from this visual communication is depicted from the bows and arrows. the men in uniform seem shooting the arrows using the bows to a man sitting in a couch. in this image, the man seems not bothered with the arrows as he sleeps comfortably and all the arrows are scattered around the man without hitting him. andriana vita nurjannah 201 as for the circumstances, the setting of this picture can be interpreted as in an office since there is a couch similar with the one in an office and the formal suit the man wears provide metaphor meanings as the officers do such a thing as the impact of what the man did at work. the attributes is depicted from the expression of the participants. the sleeping man symbolizes being in a peaceful condition although he is being targeted (the present of the arrows). the suit he wears emphasizes the power, having a high position in his office. while the two-people wearing uniform means that they work for an organisation representing indonesia‟s corruption eradication commission. they seem having such an authority to target someone/ something (bows). the arrows located around the sleeping man without hitting him even an inch reveals that he is the target that is hard to get. verbal and intersemiotic analysis the intersemiotic relation is seen by relating the visual and verbal modes. in this case, the vme of activity is included in identification, while the attributes is subsumed into the identification except for the gestural acts of the two men represented in the text. table 7 ideational intersemiotic relation represented participants circumstances attributes (two officers) s’s setya novanto agus raharjo and saut sitomorang (cec’s chiefs) bows and arrows (targeting suspect) plank (target) office couch (being targeted because his office work) look confused (being confused after targeting suspect) 1. accusation (c) 2. setya novanto (r) corruption eradication commission‟s chiefs (c) convicting (c) suspect (s) were charged with crime (c) 3. little lizard (s) the intersemiotic relation is mostly on collocation, representing agus raharjo and saut sitomorang as the corruption eradication commission’s chiefs (the position they held), while register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.192-209 202 little lizard (metaphoric term for cec institution) has intersemiotic synonymy. the bows and arrows visual representation also collocates with lexical items accusation and convicting since they are related to the metaphoric meaning, targeting suspect. besides, the attributes of two officers also intersemiotically collocates with lexical item “were charged with crime”. in this second figure, the visual image of setya novanto is realised in the lexical items “setya novanto” having repetition relation. the plank behind the salient figure has intersemiotic synonymy with the word suspect, as the one being targeted. figure 3 visual analysis the identification from this image is a caricatured man as the representation of setya novanto, having the primary visual element in this text. the activity from this third image is clearly seen as the man climbs the two supports of a building without using any tools to help him, being skilful. the visual metaphor from this cover is that the man is capable of doing something that not many people can, by doing an acrobatic movement as he climbs the supports of a building by himself. from the real context, he is having a legal case and being chased by the prosecutors. thus, it connotes that he is powerful enough to hide from them. the circumstances in this case referring to the place, the accompanied person or the other fact presented in a picture. in this image, there are two white supports of a building which is akin to the one in indonesia‟s state palace. thus, it can be inferred that the illustrator wants to depict government‟s role in this activity. related to the attributes, the picture denotes that he looks cautious as he looks behind him. this movement infers that he hides or waits for somebody (prosecutor) to come. thus, it has metaphoric representation as having great ability to hide in public places as the existential of white supports connoting the state palace. the figure in a suit also connotes power/ authority he has. verbal and intersemiotic analysis the intersemiotic relation from figure 3 has diverse relation compared to the previous images. the cautious gesture portraying hiding movement from prosecutors has intersemiotic antonym with the lexical catch, and intersemiotic collocation with suspect status. the participant is pictured both in visual and verbal modes, representing setya novanto, showing andriana vita nurjannah 203 repetition and synonym relation. the collocation is proved in the verbal item me as he acts as the sole participant. in addition, the state palace is depicted as having synonymy relation with the white supports of the building connoted as indonesia‟s state palace. table 10 ideational intersemiotic relation represented participants circumstances attributes s’s setya novanto white supports (indonesia’s state palace) looks cautious (hiding from prosecutors) brown suit (having power/ authority) 1. me (c) catch (a) 2. setya novanto (r) suspect status (c) 3. state palace (s) figure 4 visual analysis the identification represented in figure 4 is a caricature of a middle-aged man represented as setya novanto, being literally tied up by the chains and handcuffs. this contains metaphoric meaning as being restricted from doing whatever he wants. actually, it also connotes as being punished or being in hard situation. the activity seen from this visual mode is that he is being upside down in water while holding his breath. the condition of him being upside down metaphorically means that his life is being upside down, from having freedom to do anything into being locked up. in this caricature, his right-hand moves closing to the handcuffs in his left-hand. this movement can be described as the effort to escape. for the circumstances aspect, the aqua colour in background setting is obviously pictured as water surrounding the man. the water adds the hard situation being described previously. moreover, such situation provides harder condition of being free. thus, it metaphorically means that it needs enormous effort to be free. if the man can escape, it depicts the power he has. the attributes represented in this caricature is depicted from air bubbles around him also indicate that although he is in water, he still tries to survive, by holding his breath. therefore, it provides symbolic meaning that he is not giving up. verbal and intersemotic analysis from the verbal and visual elements, the intersemiotic relation can be captured. from table 13, it is clear that setya novanto is portrayed in both multimodal modes, giving repetition intersemiotic relation. another interesting fact is that there is antonymy relation from the register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.192-209 204 lexical item free and with the chain and handcuffs represented in the picture, having meaning of being jailed. in addition, the process of right hand move collocates with the lexical item strategy the movement, having connoting as the effort to escape. table 13 ideational intersemiotic relation represented participants process circumstances attributes s’s setya novanto chains and handcuffs (being jailed) right-hand move (effort escape from prison) aqua colour representing water (being in hard situation) air bubbles (not giving up to get freedom) 1. setya novanto (r) free (a) strategy (c) figure 5 visual analysis from this figure, the identification is derived from a man caricatured as setya novanto, wearing a suit and a watch. he holds a smart phone in his left hand. the visual also illustrates the messages appearing on his screen that informs some people leaving the chatting group and makes setya novato as the administrator. thus, it implies that his colleagues are no longer want to be connected with the case, demanding him to take sole responsibility. the activity shown here is that he looks at his phone, a device symbolizing source of information. it describes that he receives information from the device, informing that his colleagues are leaving him. he also looks in surprised as his right hand covers his mouth with glaring eyes. the visual metaphor from this can be described as he shows surprised reaction as the impact of what he reads/sees from it. thus, the information he got seems unpredicted by him, giving him shocking information. the circumstance in this image is quite interesting as it lacks of backgrounded setting considering the fact that the man is the only element in the picture, providing salience effect, without any other animate or inanimate participant. the lack of circumstantial aspect then serves to accentuate things shown in the display. the attributes from this participant is the surprised emotion as explained from the way he covers his mouth. his fierce glared eyes also add the representation of being shock. in this case, the suit and watch he wears depicts the power and welfare of the man. andriana vita nurjannah 205 verbal and intersemiotic analysis the verbal elements of this image are presented in table 15. in this case, the lexical item s of left group are mentioned three times, depicting more than one people sending the messages. therefore, it can be interpreted that there are many people involved in his case. concerning the last sentence, mandating the man who is called papa as administrator, it indicates that the others do not want to deal with it anymore, deciding to leave the case and leaving the man behind. thus, the man is the one responsible for it. from table 16, the intersemiotic relation between the multimodal modes can be analysed. in this case, the activity is subsumed into identification having the same interpretation. setya novanto in visual mode is being mentioned again in verbal mode as setya representing intersemiotic repetition, and papa, having synonymy meaning of him. the lexical item left group and administrator commonly appears in messaging system in smartphone, giving collocation relation with the visual element of smartphone on the image. table 16 ideational intersemiotic relation represented participants attributes s’s setya novanto smart phone (giving information) suit and watch (power, wealth) expression (surprised) 1. left group (c) 2. left group (c) 3. setya (r) 4. left group (c) 5. papa (s) administrator (c) figure 6 in this figure, the identification representation is a crowd of people wearing various colours of suit and dress, like blue, yellow, orange, red, green, black, and white indeed representing various parties. the illustrator pictures the people as several politicians in indonesia, including setya novanto (the focus of this study). the most salient participant is caricatured as setya novanto, as he stands in the centre, having frontal angle. the yellow suit he wears connoting to golkar party. there are also cards represented in the picture carried by some of the people which are in broken condition because of literally being eaten by the people. the colour of the card is blue with red and white stripes on it, representing indonesia‟s electronic identity card. register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.192-209 206 from the activity, they are having conversation while laughing. however, there are two people pictured in black and white shirt on each top corner of the page who do not seem happy as the others do. in addition, they act as if they „ate‟ the cards. it has metaphoric meaning as the project of electronic identity card was corrupted by those people represented on the cover. the circumstances in this text can be examined from the suit and dress they wear, referring to formal occasion, a kind of formal meeting or party attended by powerful people. the attributes depicted here can be classified into two, the black and white men having neutral facial expression, while the others who wears colourful clothes show enthusiasm and joy. verbal and intersemiotic analysis the intersemiotic relations shown in the last figure are shown in table 19. the people on the cover page have collocation relation with the word legislators. the card representing electronic identity card has intersemiotic repetition, in the first and second sentences. it also shows collocation in the lexical item program. the process of interacting and literally „eating‟ the card depicted in the image shows collocation relation to the word were suspected, since the people involved were finally suspected. the visual circumstances in which described from the clothes they wear relates to the word party (occasion), showing collocation relation with the lexical item celebration in which written twice. this implies that the celebration is emphasized in the news, as it is pictured in visual and twice in verbal aspect. table 19 ideational intersemiotic relation represented participants process circumstances s’s several people (politicians) broken card (electronic identity card) interacting and eating (involved in corrupting the project) suit and dress (formal meeting/ party) 1. indonesia‟s electronic identity card (r) celebration (c) 2. indonesia‟s electronic identity card (r) program (s) celebration (c) 3. legislators (s) were suspected (c) andriana vita nurjannah 207 the sketch caricature setya novanto one of the focal objectives of the caricature on the magazine‟s covers is the identification of participants involved in the captured image. it is clear that setya novanto is the main character in this case reflected from the frequent intersemiotic repetition of his name and intersemiotic synonym of papa and lexical item of me which have intersemiotic collocation. the stance of this magazine is also seen from the attributes which may seem unimportant aspect, like the suit he wears in almost every single cover connoting deeper meaning than it is actually seen. it seems that the publisher wants him to be pictured as a metaphorically powerful person who capable of dodging of what being accused. the authority he has depicted from the clothes he wears intersemiotically connotes to the lexical items, like disappeared, leaks, and insiders in which person having high position, wealth, and power is the one who is able to do that. thus, it can be concluded that despite his trial status, the perception of this magazine towards him is as the one having power, connection and the one should take the responsibility towards the case being mentioned in figure 6 which picture him having salience image among the other caricatured legislators. other parties this case seems involving many other parties as denotes in figure 6, showing the visual of some people and intersemiotically relates to the word legislators (synonymy relation). figure 5 certainly shows that he did not work alone regarding the case, but he needed colleagues to run the program as the visual shows a smart phone which have intersemiotic collocation with “left group” said by some group members. it also denotes that the colleagues with whom he used to work with were leaving him alone. however, it seems that he has invincible power even some of his colleagues leaving him. in this case, he is able to make the other parties (corruption eradication commission‟s chiefs) being charged with crime by the police because of trying to take him to court. therefore, it can be generalized that even though mostly setya is caricatured alone, being the salience without any other animate objects, it can be inferred that he is not alone in succeeding the project. figure 1, for example, shows setya as the only animate objects, but it has deeper register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018 , pp.192-209 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.192-209 208 meaning portrayed from the lexical item “insiders” which intersemiotically collocates with the suit he wears. conclusion from the analysis above, it can be concluded that tempo‟s magazine involves visual-verbal relations on its cover relating to setya novanto. the illustrator employs 56%, the biggest scale, on intersemiotic collocation, reflecting expectancy relations. considering the other relations, collocation seems holding the broader relations so that the readers can easily grasp the intended message from the multimodal. thus, the use of this relation holds the biggest percentage. the second biggest relation is intersemiotic repetition, having 25%. this indicates that the producer wants to accentuate the things being discussed. in this case, the repetition is mostly on the actor, setya novanto, emphasizing that he is the main focus of attention. the image and text does not merely work separately. they work together in order to build uniform message, the combination of those multimodal modes allows the creators in completing the vision implied in the text (goodnow, 2017). besides, the combination of the multimodal modes is the best way in creating extended meaning since they are completing each other. thus, it proves that the magazine illustrator designs the cover intentionally so that the relation between those multimodal elements, visual and verbal, can be identified by the readers. references abrahamson, d. a., bowman, r. l., greer, m. r., et al. 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(2006). reading images: the grammar of visual design. new york, ny: routledge rhodes, g., brennan, s., carey, s., (1987). identification and ratings of caricatures: implications for mental representations of faces. cognitive psychology 19 473-497 rhodes, g., byatt, g., tremewan, t., kennedy, a. (1997). facial distinctiveness and the power of caricatures. perception, 26, 207-223. rhodes, g., tremewan, t. (1994). understanding face recognition: caricature effects, inversion and the homogeneity problem. vision cognition 1 275-311 rosielle, l. j., hite, l. a. (2009) the caricature effect in drawing: evidence for the use of categorical relations when drawing abstract pictures. perception, 38, 357-75 royce, t. (1998). synergy on the page: exploring intersemiotic complementarity in pagebased multimodal text. jasfl occasional papers, 1, 25–49. royce, t. (1999). visual-verbal intersemiotic complementarity in the economist magazine. unpublished doctoral dissertation, university of reading, england royce, t. (2002). multimodality in the tesol classroom: exploring visual-verbal synergy. tesol quarterly. royce, t. (2015). intersemiotic complementarity in legal cartoons: an ideational multimodal analysis. international journal for the semiotics of law tseronis, a. (2015). multimodal argumentation in news magazine covers: a case study of front covers putting greece on the spot of the european economic crisis. discourse, context & media, 7, 18-27. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.215-237 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 215 the global – local planes of english needs in indonesian contexts christine manara graduate school of applied english linguistics universitas katolik indonesia atma jaya christine.manara@atmajaya.ac.id doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.215-237 submission track: received: 11-03-2019 final revision: 21-11-2019 available online: 01-12-2019 corresponding author: name & e-mail address: christine manara christine.manara@atmajaya.ac.id abstract this article reports one part of a larger study on exploring the global and local english needs in nine secondary-level schools in several indonesian regions (i.e. sumatera, sulawesi, and east nusa tenggara). the study investigates: 1) teachers’ and students’ perceived understanding of the existence of english in their local contexts; 2) opinions of their current local and global needs of english in today’s globalized era; and 3) their opinions of the teaching and learning of english. data were collected from questionnaires and interviews. the results show that students in different regions have slightly different views and perceptions of english use and how it needs to be learned and taught for their current and future needs for english. although slightly different in their perceptions of needs, there seems to be a coordinated understanding of english needs between the students and teachers. the findings also indicate that there is a growing awareness of the need to teach the communicative aspects of english via online activities. therefore, the teaching of english needs to be conducted by providing more english exposure, integrating blended learning, adopting the esp approach (english for specific purposes), and teaching pragmatics knowledge and intercultural skills. keywords: global and local english needs esp approach, pragmatics knowledge, intercultural skills, elt. https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.215-237 christine manara 216 introduction globalization is the buzzword in the literature of english language teaching today. the existence of globalization can be immediately felt in many local contexts around the world. along with globalization, english has often been given prestigious statuses, such as the language of globalization, prosperity, and modernity. numbers of english learners and speakers are growing and have even outnumbered the inner circle countries (crystal, 2003). the wider use of english as a lingua franca has also been perceived as one of what is considered to be 21st-century skills. contrary to this positioning of english in the globalization flow, the allocated time for the english subject is reduced to 2 hours/week in the framework of indonesia's current 2013 curriculum (often referred to as k13). this controversial decision of limiting english lessons to 2 hours/week was a result of a bipolar tug-of-war between the fear of english as a threat to bahasa indonesia (and local languages) and the needs of english as a lingua franca. teachers are left alone with their judgment and available resources to fit themselves into the new policy. this study was inspired by these dilemmatic conditions and perspectives in the teaching of english in indonesia. it is specifically interested in investigating the local-global gravity force of the use, learning, and teaching of english in several indonesian local contexts. this study particularly focuses on the high school level of education in several contexts in indonesia. therefore, this research is guided with the following research questions: 1. what are the indonesian teachers’ and students’ perceived understanding of the existence of english in their local contexts? 2. what are the teachers’ and students’ opinions of their current local and global needs to teach and learn english in today’s globalized era? 3. what are the teachers’ and students’ opinions on ways to teach and learn english? the making of english as the language of globalization the development of english language teaching has also responded to that of the status and roles of english from past to present. from the perspective of sociolinguistics, the positioning of language use and status in a particular context is always influenced by nonlinguistics factors (namely, power and ideology). crystal (2003) mentions two major factors that contribute to the spread of english. in the beginning, it was the result of the expansion of british and american colonialism and the migration of english-speaking individuals to other register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.215-237 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 217 areas in the world, which peaked towards the end of the 19th century. in relation to this, phillipson (1990) coined the term “linguistic imperialism” in describing the early expansion of english as the language of colonialism through military, political, trading, and economic power of the british empire during the colonialism era. he describes how english, at that time, was mandated to be used as the official language in the colonized countries. some scholars (canagarajah, 2005; graddol, 1997, 2006; phillipson, 1990) view this colonization act as the first wave of globalization that helped the spread of english to different parts of the world. by mandating english as the official language to be used in those countries, the language was taught to the locals to accommodate communicative purposes and other needs of the colonizer. the teaching of english is, therefore, orientating to the so-called "standard english" as set by the colonizer. the development of english teaching methodologies and learning theories in the early years until the late 80s had drawn heavily from the perspective of english as the first language acquisition for monolingual speakers, excluding the fact that bilingual speakers approach the acquisition of languages differently. the second major factor is the emergence of the united states as the leading economic power of the twentieth century (crystal, 2003). globalization, at that time, was associated with the idea of westernization and ‘americanization’ with the expansion of many leading american-based transnational corporations across the world establishing “global supply structures in mass market conditions” (schneider, 2011, p. 52). schneider (2011) describes that the wave of american cultural dominance was also brought by the media (through american tv series and hollywood movies) as well as political influence. canagarajah (2006) adds that the advancement in digital technology and information has intensified the widespread of english in a very complex way. the rapid flow of information, languages, cultures, ideas, technology, and people has increased across borders, making languages, cultures, contact, and interaction a common phenomenon today. along with this border-crossing phenomenon (physically and/or virtually), english has often been used as a lingua franca for intercultural communication in this globalization era. the users of english today are mostly bilingual (mckay, 2002). as a lingua franca, english is "far removed from its native speakers' linguacultural norms and identities” (seidlhofer, 2001, p. 134). additionally, english today has been used for utilitarian purposes (feak, 2013) to serve local needs and functions. therefore, the teaching of english grounded on native-speakerism ideology has been christine manara 218 questioned since it is no longer relevant to the present time. the attention in english language teaching (elt) has shifted from teaching learners to acquire english native-speaker competence to specific and contextual english communicational needs (feak, 2013). english in 2013 national curriculum (k13) the decision to have english as a foreign language within the national curriculum dated back to the time following indonesia’s independence. surviving the dutch military aggression i and ii (1945-1949), the government was able to reorganize the country’s education sector in the early 1950s. during this time, as buchori (2001) explained, the government felt the importance of acquiring another language for the country’s international relations and encouraged the learning and acquisition of a foreign language. due to the long dutch colonization in indonesia, the dutch language was obviously not an option to be included in the country’s language learning and acquisition planning. the government, then, turned to english as the preferred foreign language to be included in the national curriculum. in the early 1950s, the indonesian government approached the us and uk embassies for assistance in teacher education, which marked the beginning of a long history of, what phillipson (1992) termed, the “english language teaching aid” programs in indonesia (as cited in manara, 2014b). within the national education framework, english is still taught as a foreign language. it is a required subject to be learned at public and private schools all over indonesia starting from grade 7 up to grade 12. english within the national curriculum framework has been one of the main subjects tested in the national exam (ne). however, for a subject that is being tested in the ne, english is only given 2 hours/week—now two hours short compared to the previous curriculum (ktsp). this decision seems to go against the reality today in which english, as canagarajah (2005) explained, is being used as a medium for the locals to express their identity and culture to the global audience or participants. the reduction of the time allocated for english in k13 has created a range of reactions and responses from teachers, parents, schools, and communities. to some parties, it is considered necessary to enhance the sense of nationalism. the argument is that indonesian learners need to first be proficient users of indonesian instead of other languages, and this can happen when bahasa indonensia is used from an early age in higher frequency and with maximum exposure at school. for this reason, english is considered to be a threat for the youngsters who are still learning and developing their bahasa indonesia. from this perspective, register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.215-237 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 219 a direct link between language and the sense of nationalism is assumed. the learning of other languages at an early age may be considered a hurdle in the acquisition of the ‘pure’ first language (l1) and first culture (c1). therefore, l1 learning needs to be treated in isolation with a high l1 exposure environment (closer to a monolingual environment, instead of a plurilingual one). the existence and use of other languages are seen as tainting the purity of l1 and c1 (hence, the sense of nationalism). the other parties, however, question the idea of adopting this monolingual perspective towards language learning. they consider that minimizing english in a context with little and limited english speech domain means limiting the opportunity to english learning and use. in indonesia, english use domains are mostly limited to schools (either learned as a subject lesson or used as the medium of instruction at some schools), transnational companies (mostly in big metropolitan cities), and tourism sites. considering the scarcity of these english use domains in indonesia, the decision of reducing english lessons to 2 hours is not accommodating the learning and acquisition of english, making it challenging for some teachers and schools to provide an english use environment during the lesson in the classroom. to complicate matters, the contexts of english learning and use in indonesia is also very diverse, ranging from schools located in areas with high access and exposure to english, wellestablished it infrastructure, and tourism sites and schools located in rural areas with lower access and exposure to english. some schools, especially private ones with high fees, offer an intensive english-speaking environment and treat english as a second language to be used at their schools (inside and outside the classroom). other schools choose to apply two-hour english lessons in their classrooms whereas other ones experience teaching english as something so foreign to their immediate context (rural schools). considering these different teaching conditions, english learning and teaching will certainly be perceived, valued, and approached differently. knowing the diversity of contexts in indonesia, this study is an attempt to explore the contextual needs of english use and learning in several indonesian local contexts in today’s globalized era as perceived by the local teachers and students. it is hoped that the information gained from this study will provide a contextual understanding of the interaction between local and global english communication. christine manara 220 research methods this article is one part of a larger research project. the project adopts the mixedmethods research framework combining quantitative and qualitative approaches in its investigation. as explained by hansen, creswell, clark, petska & cresswell (2005), mixed methods “involve[s] the collection, analysis, and integration of quantitative and qualitative data in a single of multiphase study” (cited in hesse-biber, 2010, p. 3). the quantitative approach is adopted in the attempt of understanding the trends in english language needs while the qualitative approach is adopted to gain specific information on particular aspects of the english language needs in the schools' context. both quantitative and qualitative data are triangulated and worked to complement each other to gain better insights into the foci of the research. the quantitative research instrument used a questionnaire to survey the general trend in english competencies needed for english communication in today’s globalized era. the questionnaire consists of two major sections that look at the current use of english in the participants’ local context and the future use of english as well as the competencies that the students and teachers perceived as needed in the two settings (present and future use of english). to avoid any language barrier in filling out the questionnaire, the questionnaire is written in bahasa indonesia. the qualitative research instruments used in-depth semi-structured interviews and classroom observation field notes. the interviews were adopted to gain a deeper understanding of the issues and concerns in teaching english in the globalized era. the interview participants were volunteers. among the 32 teachers who filled out the questionnaire, nine teachers stated their willingness in the last section of the questionnaire to be interviewed and observed. the interview was conducted after the classroom lesson. for ease of communication, the interviews were conducted in bahasa indonesia. the interviews were audio-recorded and were approximately 40– 45 minutes long. a classroom observation scheme was also adopted as an instrument to record the teaching and learning activities of the participants. due to conflicting schedules between the researcher and the teacher participants and limited available time of the teachers, classroom observation was only conducted once for each teacher. most teacher participants had to attend to their additional responsibility of preparing third-year students for the national exam (un) after school hours. in trying to understand the contexts of each school, more background information on the school was sought out in the interview sessions. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.215-237 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 221 participants and settings a total of 18 participants of this study were recruited during the “english teaching assistant (eta) and co-teacher short enriching program” by the american indonesian exchange foundation (aminef). eta program is a 10-month program offered to american citizens to be english teaching assistants in schools in indonesia (lawson, 2018). in their fifth month, aminef holds a mid-year enriching program for both the etas and their co-teachers (high school teachers). it is in this event that the researcher distributed the questionnaire to the co-teachers. a consent form was also distributed and explained to the teacher participants. the explanations covered the participants’ rights to participate and to withdraw from the research at any stage in the research process. a guarantee of anonymity was also explained to the teacher participants to protect the identity of the teacher participants. from 18 participants who fill out the questionnaire, nine participants agreed to be further interviewed and observed at their schools. after requesting their permission, more questionnaires were distributed to their english colleagues (teachers) in their school. in total, 32 teachers and 248 students of nine senior high schools in five provinces (i.e. north sumatera, west sumatera, east nusa tenggara, north sulawesi, and gorontalo) in indonesia participated in this study. the types of schools visited were quite varied and unique with their particular characteristics, i.e. public school, private school, and boarding school (man). the demography and socio-economic contexts of the schools also range from urban to rural areas. table 1 displays a brief profile of the nine schools visited, and table 2 provides background information of the teacher participants being interviewed. table 1. schools profile school code school type location teaching context exposure to and use of english 1 school a (sa) sma (top public high school) north sulawesi rural very low christine manara 222 2 school b (sb) man (public boarding school) north sulawesi rural very low 3 school c (sc) sma (top private high school) north sulawesi urban quite high 4 school d (sd) sma (public high school) west sumatera semi-rural very low 5 school e (se) sma (top public high school) west sumatera semi-rural very low 6 school f (sf) sma (private high school) north sumatera rural very low 7 school g (sg) sma (top public school) north sumatera rural very low 8 school h (sh) sma (private high school) east nusa tenggara semi-rural (tourism site) high exposure 9 school i (si) smk (private secondary vocational school) east nusa tenggara semi-rural (tourism site) high exposure table 2. interview teacher participants profile participant (pseudonym) gender school code qualifications teaching experience 1 eli f school a (sa) ma-tefl 16 y 2 nia f school b (sb) ba-tefl 12 y 3 ernest m school c (sc) ba-english lit 9 y 4 lea f school d (sd) ma-tefl 14 y 5 tini f school e (se) ma-tesol 21 y 6 ari m school f (sf) ba-tefl 6 y 7 dita f school g (sg) ba-tefl 14 y 8 neli f school h (sh) ba-tefl 10 y 9 tomi m school i (si) ba-tefl 5 y register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.215-237 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 223 findings and discussion students’ and teachers’ perceived opinions on english use in their local contexts one of the aims of this research is to investigate the students’ and teachers’ perceived opinions on english use in their local contexts. this data is obtained from the questionnaire (section 1). despite the different teaching conditions, there are similar views among students and teachers across contexts. table 3 displays the comparison of the average score of students’ answers between those who live in the area with high (and active) exposure to english (shee) and those in the area with low exposure to english (slee). table 3. students’ opinions on english use in different local contexts (in average score) q1. english in my local contexts is mostly used: high exposure low exposure a. in education (learned as a subject matter) 3.4 3.6 b. to upgrade someone’s social status 2.7 2.8 c. in economy 3.0 3.0 d. in marketing (branding) 2.8 2.8 e. as elf between the local and international institutions 3.2 3.0 f. in politics 3.0 3.1 g. in social media 3.3 3.2 h. for socio-cultural purposes to promote local cultures 3.3 3.2 i. as professional english (language of profession) 3.1 3.0 j. in intercultural communication with foreigners 3.1 3.1 k. in tourism 3.4 3.1 there is a slight difference in the average score between shee and slee in item a (education), e (elf), and k (tourism). education sector receives the highest average score compared to other items in this section. this indicates that their real active encounter with and use of english is mostly at school during the english lesson rather than in other domains. for shee, the christine manara 224 average score among the items is quite evenly spread out. the five domains that received a higher score as reported by shee are in education, in tourism, in politics, in social media, for socio-cultural purposes, and in intercultural communication and as the language of professional english. this is quite acceptable since shee has more opportunities and exposures to use english among these different contexts. surprisingly, the average score of slee among the items is also evenly spread out just as shee. this may indicate that slee has the awareness of other english use beyond formal schooling, or at least their “imagined” (anderson, 1983) use of english. interestingly, the average score of the teachers’ answer is quite close to the students'. table 4 shows the calculation of the average score of the teachers’ response to questionnaire item 1. table 4. teachers’ opinions on english use in the local contexts (in average score) teachers’ opinions on english use in their local context average score a. in education (learned as a subject matter) 3.4 b. to upgrade someone’s social status 2.8 c. in economy 2.9 d. in marketing (branding) 3 e. as elf between the local and international institutions 3.2 f. in politics 3.1 g. in social media 3 h. for socio-cultural purposes to promote local cultures 3.4 i. as professional english (language of profession) 3.3 j. in intercultural communication with foreigners 3.3 k. in tourism 3.2 five areas that obtained higher scores are english use in education, for socio-cultural purposes, as professional english, in intercultural communication, as elf (local-international institutions), and in tourism. there seems to be a coordinated understanding between the register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.215-237 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 225 teachers and students about the growing functions of english in other sectors although still limited in its use for most areas in indonesia. the highest score within this range of use was in the education field especially in the context of english lesson in class. this is a highly common response that the teachers shared in the interview sections, in particular, teachers who taught in the low english exposure area. this is best represented in tini’s account as follows, [english is used] in education… but, in this context, english is not even used for communication in class. the teachers communicate or to teach english to the students using indonesian. (tini, 12/02/18) several teachers (ernest, tomi, and neli) in high english exposure area (thee) shared the immediate reality of english presence in their context and perceive english as the language of tourism and intercultural exchange. tomi, a teacher at vocational high school (smk), express his view on the role of english in his teaching context as follows: honestly, english is a basic need here. aside from the fact that english is studied as a subject lesson here, and, well, since this town is a tourism site, english, for this young generation, becomes a medium to enter this industry [tourism]. so, the learning needs to be professional-based english learning. i’m talking about the context of vocational high school. it needs to be tailored to the needs in the field [of local tourism], but it doesn’t mean that we need to ignore the curriculum’s demands. so, i’m thinking of mixing the two because tourism atmosphere is strongly felt here. in high english exposure areas where english is quite actively used, teachers have very high positive attitudes on english. these teachers assign additional values to english as the language of opportunity, prosperity, and international communication. therefore, these teachers (tomi, ernest, and neli) feel the need to teach intercultural skills side-by-side with the basic competence demanded by the national curriculum. christine manara 226 students’ and teachers’ opinions of their current local and global english needs questionnaire item 2 aims to find out the students’ and teachers’ perceived current needs of english in their local context. in this section, there is a significant difference in the average score between shee and slee answers as displayed in table 5. table 5. students’ opinions on their current english use in different local contexts (in average score) q.2. my current english needs high exposure low exposure a. to pass national exam 2.5 3.3 b. to study other subjects 3.1 3.2 c. to participate in academic activities outside of school 3.1 3.1 d. to speak out my voice at social media 2.7 2.7 e. to participate in international academic discussion through the internet 3.0 3.1 f. to introduce local culture internationally through social media 3.3 3.2 g. to enjoy other foreign cultures through the internet 2.9 2.9 h. to socialize with other foreign speakers of english through the internet 3.2 3.2 it can be seen from the table that slee reported higher urgency in learning english to pass the standardized national exam (ujian nasional) than shee. this result supports slee perceived view (from questionnaire item 1) that english is mostly felt in the education sector and learned as a subject lesson at school. for other items of question 2, the average scores are quite similar in nature. there is a slightly higher score result for slee for item b, e, and f compared to the shee result. this may indicate that students feel the importance of english for the purposes of studying other subjects, participating in international academic discussion, and introducing local culture internationally through social media through the medium of the internet. when asked to rank the language skills and knowledge that they urgently need in the order of importance, both shee and slee still rank basic language skills, vocabulary, and register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.215-237 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 227 grammar knowledge as the five important skills. table 6 shows both groups perceived language skills and knowledge of their current needs. table 6. rank of english skills and knowledge for students’ current needs q.3. rank the language skills & knowledge that you need right now based on the order of importance (1 = most important to 9 = least important) high exposur e low exposure reading 4 2 writing 5 1 speaking-listening 1 3 grammar 3 4 vocabulary 2 5 communication strategies 6 6 pragmatics 7 7 intercultural communication skill 8 8 transfer skill 9 9 the result may not be a surprising result since these language skills and knowledge (grammar and vocabulary) have been given so much attention in the national curriculum that they experienced since grade 7. it is, therefore, quite understandable that communication strategies, pragmatics knowledge, intercultural communication skill, and transfer skill are less recognized by both groups. comparing the result of both groups, it can be seen in table 4 that writing and reading are placed to be the two most important skills to be learned by slee group. this result is in line with their reported urgent need for passing the national exam that tends to test their reading and writing skills. shee, however, place speaking-listening skill and vocabulary as the two most important learning skills to be learned for their current english needs. the focus on vocabulary and spoken production skill can be related to the two highest scores on question 2 (see table 3): to introduce local culture internationally through social media (item 2f) and to socialize with other foreign speakers of english through the internet (2h). the connection christine manara 228 seems reasonable since these two language aspects are needed to serve the purpose of social communication through social media on the internet that is interactional by nature. teachers, however, have quite different perceptions of the students' current english needs. the average score of the teachers' response on the questionnaire shows that the students heavily need english for their virtual activities through the internet (item f, g, and h) as shown in table 7. table 7. teachers’ opinions on their students’ current english needs my students' current english needs average score a. to pass national exam 3 b. to study other subjects 2.9 c. to participate in academic activities outside of school 2.8 d. to speak out my voice at social media 2.7 e. to participate in international academic discussion through the internet 2.8 f. to introduce local culture internationally through social media 3.2 g. to enjoy other foreign cultures through the internet 3.2 h. to socialize with other foreign speakers of english through the internet 3.3 the teachers believe that their students spend more time on the internet rather than in real life studying at school or at home. therefore, they view that item f, g, and h are more relevant and realistic needs for the students today. students interact more online rather than face-to-face interaction. this is quite a common theme that the teachers shared during the interview. this belief is best depicted by eli’s account in which she compared her time as a student with her current students’ life. …if i looked back to my time as a student, i studied english just to be able to answers the questions of the test in english lesson. but, today's generation, they are so curious about everything they see and find on the internet, or even the apps they use on the internet. all are in english. (08/02/18) register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.215-237 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 229 students’ and teachers’ opinions of their future local and global english needs to understand students’ attitudes towards english learning, the questionnaire also seeks information on students’ opinions of their near future needs of english. table 8 shows the average score of students’ responses. table 8. students’ opinions on their future english use in different local contexts (in average score) q.4. my future english needs high exposure low exposure a. to participate in academic activities in local/national university 3.3 3.5 b. to study abroad at countries that use english as the first language (e.g. usa, uk, australia, etc.) 3.3 3.5 c. to study abroad in other countries that use english as a lingua franca (e.g. thailand, singapore, german, etc.) 3.2 3.3 d. to work abroad in countries that use english as the first language (e.g. usa, uk, australia, etc.) 3.1 3.4 e. to work abroad at other countries that use english as a lingua franca (e.g. thailand, singapore, german, etc.) 3.1 3.3 f. to work in transnational companies in my local area 3.1 3.3 g.to enjoy foreign products and culture 3.0 3.0 h. to create and promote local culture internationally 3.1 3.3 surprisingly, slee gives a slightly higher score in almost all the categories compared to shee score. the three categories that received the highest score by slee are to participate in academic activities in local/national university (item a), to study (item b) and to work (item d) abroad at countries that use english as the first language (item b). slee projection of their future english need to participate in the local/national university may indicate their awareness that english has been one of the basic requirements for university entrance and that they will still have to learn english in the university level. item b and d may indicate slee long term desire to use english for studying or work abroad particularly in the so-called inner circle christine manara 230 countries. it may also indicate their high exposure to english which they perceived as coming from the inner circle countries. for shee, three categories that received the highest score are almost similar to slee. these categories are to participate in academic activities in local/national university (item a), to study abroad at inner circle countries (item b), and to study abroad at other countries that use english as a lingua franca (item c). the focus is more on continuing further education either in or out of the country. there is no specific preference of either being in an inner or outer circle abroad. as regards their future english needs, students were asked to rank the language skills and knowledge that they would need to acquire in the near future. interestingly, there is a slight change in priorities that the students set for their future english needs. this shift of priorities can be seen in table 9. table 9. rank of english skills and knowledge for students’ future needs q.5. rank the language skills & knowledge that you need in the near future based on the order of importance (1 = most important to 9 = least important) high exposure low exposure reading 4 2 writing 6 6 speaking listening 1 1 grammar 3 4 vocabulary 2 3 com. strategies 5 5 pragmatics 7 7 icc 8 8 transfer skill 9 9 in the previous section (table 6), both shee and slee reported higher priorities in learning the five basic skills and knowledge (grammar and vocabulary). in table 9, it can be seen that “writing” has been pushed down by “communication strategies”. this is an extreme shift reported by slee group that voted writing at the first place in their current english skill need, and now being placed on the sixth place for their future english need. slee score shows that register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.215-237 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 231 “speaking-listening” skill was given the first priority. there is also an interest in including communication strategies in their main five categories. although the ranking order of current and future english needs does not change that much for shee, there is a similar tendency as slee for preferring communication strategies to writing skills. in the current english needs section, writing was previously put in fifth place and now it is being placed in the sixth-placed. there seems to be a growing awareness in the two groups of the communication function of english today and in the future requires the knowledge of communication strategies. different from the students’ view of their future english needs, teachers assigned a quite different projection of needs. table 10 shows teachers’ view on their students’ future english needs. table 10. teachers’ view on their students’ future english needs my students’ future english needs average score a. to participate in academic activities in local/national university 2.9 b. to study abroad at countries that use english as the first language (e.g. usa, uk, australia, etc.) 3.1 c. to study abroad at other countries that use english as a lingua franca (e.g. thailand, singapore, german, et.c.) 3.1 d. to work abroad in countries that use english as the first language (e.g. usa, uk, australia, etc.) 3.1 e. to work abroad at other countries that use english as a lingua franca (e.g. thailand, singapore, german, et.c.) 3.1 f. to work in transnational companies in my local area 3 g.to enjoy foreign products and culture 3 h. to create and promote local culture internationally 3.1 the average score of the teachers' response shows almost equal attention to the different use of english. most future english situations that the teachers imagined are related to the use of english (for studying and working) abroad. this is understandable since english has no official christine manara 232 status in indonesia and that its intensive use is mostly found in the context of english being taught as a lesson in class. there is still very limited domains of use for english in indonesia. even in the big cities like jakarta and surabaya, the domain use of english exists mostly in transnational companies or in international transactions through the media of internet, and bilingual schools (as the language of instructions and language of socialization at schools among the students). students’ preferred learning style and teachers’ opinions on english teaching methodology based on the students’ reported view on their future english needs, the students were asked about their preferred english learning style to accommodate their needs. table 11 provides the details of the questionnaire items with the students’ response average score. table 11. students’ preferred learning style my learning methodology high exposure low exposure a. taking extra english lesson outside of school 3.2 3.2 b. taking english lesson online 2.9 3 c. joining an english-speaking community 3.3 3.1 d. using english with friends or family members 3.2 2.9 e. reading english texts or news online 3.2 3 f. listening to english songs and watch english movies 3.5 3.3 g. using english applications on my mobile phone 3.3 3.1 h. making friends with foreigners through the internet 3.2 3.1 i. writing a journal or diary in english 2.9 2.7 j. writing a blog in english 2.7 2.8 the preferred learning styles that received a higher score by shee and slee are almost similar in range. both groups seem to agree that exposure to english is very important that both groups preferred learning through pop culture (listening to english songs and watch english movies) register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.215-237 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 233 more than the others. both groups also seem to agree that learning english at school is not enough for their needs and that both reported the need to take extra english lesson outside of school. other traces of exposing themselves with more english can be seen from their preferences of wanting to use english apps on mobile phone, join an english speaking community, read english texts or news online, and make friends with foreigners through the internet. these activities are in line with what the teachers pointed out during the interview in which students today has depended so much on it advancement in most of their daily activities. these teachers' observation can actually be captured from their reported opinions on how english teaching needs to be learned and taught in the following paragraph. in finding out the teachers' understanding between the needs and ways of teaching english, the questionnaire also asks teachers to give their opinions on ways to approach the teaching and learning of english. table 12 lists the average score on teachers’ approach to the teaching of english. table 12. teacher’s opinions on english teaching methodology english teaching methodology strongly agree agre e disagre e strongly disagre e averag e score a. english should be learned since elementary school level 20 11 0 1 3.6 b. using english as the medium of instruction in class 11 15 6 0 3.2 c. creating an english environment (e.g. bilingual indonesian-english announcement, signs, billboard) 17 15 0 0 3.5 d. providing more english resources (e.g. reading books, textbooks, video, etc.) 16 16 0 0 3.5 e. integrating technology and media into english teaching in class 15 17 0 0 3.5 f. adding more lesson time than 3 hours/week for english lesson 11 21 0 0 3.3 christine manara 234 g. adopting english for specific purposes approach 13 19 0 0 3.4 h. teaching pragmatics knowledge 8 24 0 0 3.3 i. teaching intercultural skill 8 24 0 0 3.3 j. teaching intercultural communication strategies 8 23 1 0 3.2 k. introducing varieties of genres (multimodal texts) often encountered in the internet 8 23 1 0 3.2 concerning the teachers' opinions on limited english use domain in most part of indonesia, they view that this condition provides little opportunity for students to intensively learn, practice and use english for real-life purposes. moreover, teachers shared their concerns about the short allocation of time for the english lesson at school (2 hours per week). this explains the teachers' view on the importance of teaching english from early age at the elementary school level (item a). the limited time of english lesson students received from grade 7 to 12 is considered insufficient in helping learners to learn and acquire english once they graduated from high school. this belief is further reinforced by providing higher exposure (item c and d), integrating blended learning (item e), and adopting english for specific purposes approach (item g). there is also raising awareness on the teaching of pragmatics knowledge and intercultural skill that are in line with their projection of students' future needs in table 10 (for studying and working abroad). the teachers realize that it is likely for their students in the future to use english in a more interactive nature in such context of studying and working abroad in which pragmatic knowledge and intercultural skill are highly needed. in the interview, all nine teacher participants described that students need more time and exposure to english in order to catch up with the demand of using english in this globalized world. while remaining faithful to k13, teachers pointed out that 2 hours/week was not enough to provide students opportunities to practice using english in class. as a response to the need for creating an english exposure media at school, the teachers and together with aminef etas (english teaching assistants) organized an english club (an extra-curricular activity) for students who are motivated to upgrade their english knowledge and performance. this english register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.215-237 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 235 club, as the teachers explained, focuses more on english communication skill since this is the skill that the students have little opportunity to do in the classroom. conclusion this study found that there are slightly different perceptions between students in high english exposure areas (shee) and those in low english exposure areas. it is understandable that shee would have a wider perception on the use of english besides the education sector since the use of english in other sectors (e.g. transnational companies, and tourism sites) is visible in their immediate surroundings. although they may have to encounter english through the internet or other media, it is only in the classroom that slee experienced exposure to english (through the medium of instruction in indonesian or a mixture of indonesian and english). there is also a corresponding result between the students’ perception of the use of english and their current needs. since english is intensively encountered by the students at school, slee reported their immediate needs for learning english to pass the national exam. in contrast, shee reported other needs that lean towards the learning of english for communicational purposes (especially through the medium of the internet). these english needs, however, are still being received from a traditional learning standpoint. both groups still rank the learning and acquisition of english by focusing on basic language skills and knowledge (grammar and vocabulary). this may not be a surprising result since the focus on english language teaching at school is mostly on these basic skills and knowledge. this result is also quite linear with the teachers’ questionnaire results in which they perceived english to have communicative functions in students’ social activities in the virtual world. students’ perceptions of their future english needs also display quite similar results. both groups seem to be aware of their near future english needs after their high school life. the highest score was assigned to the activities of studying in local/national universities, studying abroad, and working abroad. for these purposes, interestingly, there is a slight change in priorities of learning for both groups. slee, who reported earlier to give the highest importance on learning writing (in question 3: current english needs section), only ranked this skill sixth and promoted speaking-listening skill as their priority, and the inclusion of communication christine manara 236 strategies as the fifth priority. a similar tendency can also be captured in shee response for preferring communication strategies to writing skills. interestingly, students and teachers seem to agree on how english should be learned and taught. in general, students (of both groups) realize the need for exposure to a lot of english use through various media (namely, taking extra lessons outside of school, online courses, using english apps, listening and watching english movies, and having foreign friends online). teachers are also of the opinion that english needs to be taught by providing higher exposure, integrating blended learning, and adopting english for specific purposes (esp) approach. there is also a growing awareness of teaching the pragmatics knowledge and intercultural skill to accommodate the students' future english needs for intercultural communication use. in their effort to providing more opportunities for english use, these teachers organized an english extra-curricular activity, the english club. the activity is held once a week (90 minutes) in which the teachers focus on developing students' spoken communicative skills. despite the results explored in this study, there are a few limitations for future projects to consider. firstly, the study only surveys nine schools in several contexts in indonesia with very limited time to conduct classroom observations without interviewing the students. therefore, it would be more interesting if further studies targeted an individual school in a more holistic manner that includes several classroom observations, students' interviews, and providing a more contextual background of individual school's condition. this holistic approach of studying the school, teachers, students, and the local use of english will provide much deeper insight into the understanding of the local-global attractions and how teachers and students respond to such conditions. acknowledgment the author would like to thank universitas katolik atma jaya, jakarta and aminef for funding this project. references buchori, m. (2001). notes on education in indonesia. jakarta: the jakarta post. canagarajah, a.s. (2005). reclaiming the local in language policy and practice. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.215-237 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 237 canagarajah, a.s. (2006). tesol at forty: what are the issues?, tesol quarterly, 40(1), 934. crystal, d. (2003). english as a global language (2nd edition). cambridge: cambridge university press. feak, c.b. (2013). esp and speaking. in paltridge, b & starfield, s. (eds.). the handbook of english for specific purposes (pp. 137-154). chichester: john wiley & sons ltd. graddol, d. (1997). the future of english: a guide to forecasting the popularity of the english language in the 21st century. london: the british council and the english company ltd. retrieved from https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/ pub_learning-elt-future.pdf graddol, d. (2006). english next: why global english may mean the end of ‘english as a foreign language’. london: the british council. retrieved from https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/pub_english_next.pdf hansen-thomas. h., richins, l.g., kakkar, k. and okeyo, c. (2016). i do not feel i am properly trained to help them! rural teachers’ perceptions of challenges and needs with englishlanguage learners, professional development in education, 42(2), 308-324. hesse-bibber, s.n. (2010). mixed methods research: merging theory with practice. new york: the guilford press. lawson, s. (2018). english teaching assistants in indonesia: an examination of their intercultural experiences and co-teaching partnerships. an unpublished research report for the ministry of research and technology, jakarta, indonesia. manara, c. (2014). intercultural dialogue on english language teaching: multilingual teacher educator’s narrative of professional learning. newcastle upon tyne: cambridge scholars publishing. mckay, s.l. (2002). teaching english as an international language. oxford: oxford university press. phillipson, r. (1990). linguistics imperialism. oxford: oxford university press. schneider, e.w. (2011). english around the world: an introduction. cambridge: cambridge university press. seidlhofer, b. (2001). closing a conceptual gap: the case for a description of english as a lingua franca. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/%20pub_learning-elt-future.pdf https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/pub_english_next.pdf register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.49-61 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.49-61 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 49 developing students’ reading skills on islamic texts through sq3r method in an efl class abdul gafur marzuki iain palu gbudiperwira@gmail.com submission track: received: ……………… final revision: ……………… available online: ..................... corresponding author: name & e-mail address abstract this study aims at analyzing the development of students’ reading skills on islamic texts in efl class in indonesia through sq3r method. the research was designed as a collaborative classroom action research which was carried out at tbi-4 ftik iain palu. the subject of the research was the third semester students of tbi-4 ftik iain palu consisting of 24 students. the research was conducted in one cycle through stages of planning, acting, observing and reflecting. the cycle consists of three meetings. the researcher with his collaborator collected the data by using observation checklists, field notes, camera recording, and test. the result showed that the sq3r method could develop students’ reading skills. this fact was supported by the result of achievement test. there were 19 students out of 24 (75%) who got score greater than 80, there were 6 students who could not reach the score. the research was stopped after the third meeting of cycle 1 in which the result of students’ achievement test had met the criteria of success. based on this finding, the researcher concludes that the implementation of sq3r method in teaching and learning process can develop students’ reading skills on islamic texts. keywords: developing, reading skills, sq3r method. introduction english has long been the prominent foreign language studied by the students from schools up to university level in indonesia. the teaching of english in indonesia, particularly at university level is intended to develop the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) (marzuki, 2016). to attain those ultimate skills, the lecturers of english are always encouraged to find out an effective teaching method that he or she may apply in the teaching of english. mailto:gbudiperwira@gmail.com abdul gaful marzuki 50 the teaching of english to university students, in particular is strongly encouraged to bring the students to be able to perform written and oral communication fluently and accurately both individually and in groups (marzuki, 2017). moreover, there is a tendency that reading text has become the main component of english since the students meet many texts regarding to their study subject (gersten et al., 2001; jitendra, 2011; marzuki et al., 2018). this has forced the english lecturers to maximize their efforts on performing the teaching techniques in the area of reading text to enable students to capture the information conveyed by the text (harmer, 2007; wei et al., 2012; gunning, 2013; joseph et al., 2016). the lecturers must be aware of students needs including their motivation for reading and the purpose that reading has in their daily lives. learning to read for a variety of purposes is essential to success in studying and to learning in general, especially for efl students. for them, the ability to read may open new worlds and opportunities. it enables them to gain new knowledge, enjoy literature, and do everyday things that are part and parcel of modern life, such as, reading the articles, magazines, brochures, and so on. through reading they can share the challenges, fears, thrills, and achievements of those they are reading about (radcliffe, 2004; williams, 2005; harmer, 2007; morgan-thomas, 2012; li et al., 2014). the main target in teaching reading is to enable the students comprehend the reading texts. comprehension is the main part in reading. basically, reading is conducted for the purpose of conveying meaning through comprehension. when reading comprehension breaks down, the students need to find ways to improve their understanding. this is where the importance of knowing the methods and strategies of how to teach reading come in, so as to facilitate the reading process and give students a clear sense of what they are reading. students get frustrated when they do not understand what they are reading and as the matter of fact, they become unmotivated. a lecturer needs to design and teach different methods or strategies in order to help students close the gaps in their understanding. the ultimate challenge for the lecturer knows exactly which approach, method or strategy is useful, workable, joyful and most beneficial to teach, since each student needs something different. in line with the previous statement, the researcher shares his considerations of why they are interested in terms of teaching reading. first of all, the researcher register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.49-61 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.49-61 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 51 recognizes what happen relating to the teaching and learning process when he was conducting pre-observation at tbi-4 ftik iain palu. he also interviewed several lecturers of english who were teaching the students and who had ever taught those students. the real problems faced by most of students in relation to reading skills include determining the main idea of a paragraph, identifying the generic structure and answering comprehension questions of a text. they also cannot do their exercises or evaluation exactly in the time determined by the lecturer. hence, the students need an extra time to finish their works. these problems were identified by the researcher based on the pre-observation of teaching and learning process in the classroom and the result of students’ works of both exercise and evaluation. the researcher finds that the students get the problems not only because they find unfamiliar word(s), then, they are wasting time to open the dictionary or ask their friends about the meaning of the word(s), but also because they cannot comprehend the content of the text. the phenomena pointed out that the majority of the students of tbi-4 ftik iain palu have low ability and motivation in reading comprehension. second of all, the students have to read and answer the question related to the text as fast as possible. for this reason, the researcher considers that lecturers of english should be able to motivate the students in order that they can capture messages conveyed by the text. finally, to solve the problems stated previously, the researcher is eager to implement sq3r as an effective method to improve students’ reading skills. the sq3r is a useful method for fully absorbing written information. sq3r stands for “survey, question, read, recite and review.” it provides the students with a systematic approach for studying a text assignment. by using the sq3r to actively read a text, the students can get the maximum benefit from their reading time. it also enables them to comprehend the reading texts as well as answer the reading questions precisely (artis, 2008; holes, 2008; feldt et al., 2009; baier, 2011; carlston, 2011; ari, 2014; alghazo, 2015). since the researcher has a great interest in solving the problems in teaching reading especially at university, he conducted his research involving the students of tbi-4 ftik iain palu and designed it in the form of classroom action research (car). to be more specific, the research question that is necessary answered was how abdul gaful marzuki 52 can the students’ reading skills of tbi-4 ftik iain palu be developed through sq3r method? research method the research was designed as a collaborative classroom action research which was carried out at tbi-4 ftik iain palu. the subject of the research was the third semester students of tbi-4 ftik iain palu consisting of 24 students. the researcher and the collaborator would collaboratively design lesson plan, prepared instructional material and media, and implemented the action plan. the research was conducted in cycle through stages of planning, acting, observing and reflecting (stringer, 2008; bogdan & biklen, 2010; fraenkel et al., 2011; kemmis, mctaggart & nixon, 2013; mcniff, 2013; mckernan, 2013). the cycle consists of three meetings. the researcher with his collaborator collected the data by using observation checklists, field notes, camera recording, and test. the criteria of success in this research focused on the area of concerned. since the researcher conducted the research in the area of teaching reading through sq3r, the criteria of success covered the classical achievement on reading test. in other words, this research was successful if 70% of the students get scores equal or greater than 80. it is based on the minimum criteria of success used in this classroom. results & discussion the result of evaluation during cycle 1, the students were assigned evaluation of each meeting after they were treated through the sq3r method. the results were described as follows: meeting 1 in the first meeting there were 23 students joined the class. all of them were given evaluation after the researcher implemented the method in teaching process. the researcher limited the time for the students to complete the evaluation in order to avoid them to do another activity that is not dealt with the evaluation. the students were enthusiastic to finish it. he asked the students to change their sitting position because the evaluation was individual work. all of the students had answered the questions punctually. the researcher collected their evaluation sheets. he also checked their register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.49-61 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.49-61 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 53 answered and scored the result based on the scoring system that he already prepared. it was found that there were 7 students who got the score less than 80. the highest score that had been achieved by the students was 90 and the lowest score was 65. meeting 2 in this second meeting, there were 23 students who attended the class. all of them joined actively the teaching and learning process. they were also asked to accomplish the evaluation to measure their understanding about the material that they had learned. they had to finish their work properly in the time that has been determined by the researcher. it is because he would not hesitate to collect the unfinished worksheets. as a result, the students concentrated and were active in answering every question that was appeared in the evaluation. it was found that there were only 3 students who got the score less than 80. the highest score was 100, and the low score was 70. meeting 3 in the third meeting as the last meeting of implementing the plan, there were 24 students who attended the class. the researcher asked the students to indentify the main idea and answered 6 comprehension questions. as in the two previous meetings, the students were obligated to finish their work punctually. they seemed enthusiastic and happy to conduct their evaluation. it was found that all the students collected their works at the same time and all the questions were answerable. it was proved by the result of the evaluation that there was only 1 student who got the score less than 80. the highest score was100 and the low score was 75. the result of the observation on lecturer’s performance the observation was done at the same time the researcher and the students conducted teaching and learning process in the classroom. the observation was done in order to know how far the researcher in this case as a lecturer of english performed the action that he has already constructed in lesson plans. there were 29 items would be observed by collaborator through the observation checklist. the collaborator putted a abdul gaful marzuki 54 tick ( ) on one of option columns for each item. the options were yes or no the items were conducted by the researcher. since this research was planned for three meetings, the researcher wants to carry out the results in three parts; meeting 1, meeting 2 and meeting 3. the results are as follows: meeting 1 based on the result of observation checklist in meeting 1, it could be seen that the researcher did not implement all the items. he did not give reward to the students who have done the given task. for example: praise, compliment or thank. it is very important to do in while-activity because the students were motivated to join the lesson. thus, they can find out the answer of their curiosity by following the lesson until the end. another important point that the researcher did not asked the students about their opinion toward the in while activity. finally in post activity, he also did not draw orally the materials were carried out for the next meeting. based on the result, the researcher evaluated himself and thought more for the better performance to the next meeting. meeting 2 in meeting two, all the items were conducted by the researcher. he managed the time well and he was energetic enough to present the lesson. he asked the students prequestions related to the topic. he implemented the sq3r method carefully and systematically. he was also more active to control and guiding the students during the implementation of method. what he did in this meeting was much better than the previous meeting. but he still has to work hard and prepare himself well to enter the next meeting in which it was the last meeting to teach. it also meant that the third meeting was the last chance for the lecturer to apply the sq3r method in cycle 1. meeting 3 in meeting three, the researcher did all the items. he implemented the sq3r method step by step as what he has already planned. it means that he has done all the aspects suggested in this method. he also controlled and guided the students actively during the implementation of the method. it indicates that the researcher at the time was in well preparation. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.49-61 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.49-61 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 55 the result of the observation on students’ behavior the investigated components of the table above are related to students’ behavior during teaching and learning process in meeting 1 up to meeting 3. the findings show that in meeting 1 none of the students asked questions related to the lecturer’s instruction toward the topic. they did not pay attention to the topic because there was not an opening question to trigger their interest. in while activity, half of students could neither hear the lecturer’s voice clearly nor grasp the lecturer’s instruction. the students often asked about what they had to do after having an instruction. then in post activity, only some of students responded actively the lecturer’s questions related to the reflection of the lesson. the same scales from meeting 1 until meeting 3 are in the implementation of sq3r method. since the class was the english reading class and it was difficult to have student’s concentration on reading, the researcher applied the sq3r method carefully, a little bit slowly and energetically. he raised her voice in order to have the students’ attention. especially in meeting 1 which the first opportunity for her to introduce the method and he failed to conduct several important points in pre-activity. although, the students were not given a stimulus question at the first meeting, they still focused on reading. that is one of the benefits of the sq3r is that it may enhance motivation to reading. it is easy to use and adapt ourselves in this case was the students. they were comfortable with its components. what were happened at the second and the third meetings during teaching and learning process in the classroom were the same. on the other hand, the result of the observation had no different. the lecturer’s performance at the last two meetings of implementing action was much better than her performance at the previous meeting. so, it also affected the students’ behavior in reading class. they could hear the lecturer’s voice as well as grasped the instructions given to them. they also could respond or answer the lecturer’s pre-questions in pre-activity. then, they could interact and involve actively in the implementation of the sq3r method in while activity. finally, in post activity, they could respond the lecturer’s questions related to the reflection to previous lesson and finish their evaluation punctually. abdul gaful marzuki 56 the result of the observation on lecturer’s document preparation the investigated items of table above is related to lecturer’s preparation on lesson plan, teaching materials, teaching media, evaluation sheet and scoring sheet during the class activities. the data show that, first, all the items in meeting 1 were available. the researcher prepared the lesson plan included the implementation of sq3r method. he also prepared the teaching materials in the form of power point, so he needed in-focus and notebook to show the materials to the students. the lecturer used the projector and the notebook to show the pictures in order to support the implementation of the method as well as to entertain the students. for post activity, the researcher also prepared evaluation and scoring sheets. second, the data shown in meeting 2 are same with meeting 1. it means that the researcher readied himself with all the observed items above before entering the classroom. third, the results in meeting 3 are almost same with the other meetings. the researcher had already equipped himself with those five components as shown in the table above, but unfortunately the electricity did not run well at the time. therefore, he could not use the teaching media optimally. he just showed the pictures which was needed in applying the sq3r to the students in pieces of paper. the result of achievement test an important point that should be done by the researcher when conducting a research in the form of classroom action research is that providing a test to the students. the researcher and his collaborator worked together to prepare an achievement test after implementing sq3r method. there were 24 students who joined the test. the provided time to finish the test was 60 minutes. it was aimed at knowing whether or not the students could achieve the criteria of success in this research. the test was also used to measure how far the students could pass the lesson after learning reading skills through the sq3r. the results of the test could be seen in the following table. the researcher has to explain firstly how to compute the individual score of each student before he computed the classical achievement. he used the formula, as follows: achievement score students’ score = x 100 maximum score register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.49-61 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.49-61 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 57 for instance, the student who is initialed “ar” obtained the score 26 as the result of adding the score that was gained in multiple choice and true false. it means that his correct answers on the test were 26 points where 18 points for multiple choice and 8 points for true false. after finding the obtained score (26), then, the sum was multiplied by 100 and divided by the maximum score (30). the individual score of “ar” is as follows: 100 30 26 xscore   86.6 the calculation of ar’s individual score was only as representative sample from other students’ scores on the test. after noting the individual score of the students, then, the researcher computed the students’ success in reading test classically by using the formula is as follows: the total of students who get scores greater than or equal to 80 classical achievement= x 100% the total of students who join the test it can be seen on the result of achievement test that there were 6 students who got score less than 80 and 18 students who got score equals or greater than 80. it means that the six students did not pass the lesson because their scores could not achieve the minimum criteria of success. so, the computation of the classical achievement is in the following: classical achievement the result above shows that the classical achievement 75% was greater than 70 %. it indicated that the result met the criteria of success. as stated previously in criteria abdul gaful marzuki 58 of success that if individual achievement score was equal or more than 80 and the total classical percentage was at least 70%, it means that this study was successful. reflection based on the data that were collected in three meetings in cycle 1, the researcher presented the findings in a reflection as follows: the lecturer implemented well the sq3r method in three meetings of action, the lecturer followed the steps suggested in the sq3r method, namely survey, question, read, recite and review, the lecturer provided the sq3r worksheet to help the students to manage their work well, the lecturer provided time limitation to apply every steps of the sq3r method. it aims at having students’ attention and concentration toward the implementation of the method, then the lecturer explained well the teaching materials to the students including the generic structure of narrative text and the main idea of a paragraph. next, the lecturer effectively controlled the time use, thus the teaching and learning process could be done punctually, after that he provided time limitation to have students attention and concentration toward the given task and evaluation, and finally the lecturer actively controlled the students during the implementation of the sq3r method and the finish of task. while the result from the students’ reflection are as follows: the students looked concentrating to read the text; most of the students could understand the text as a whole without opening the dictionary to find out the meaning of difficult words while some (four) students still needed to open their dictionaries; and most of the students (eighteen) could finish their task, evaluation and reading test punctually. it means that they were motivated to finish every work that was given to them, while some students (six) who could not finish their task punctually were given 10 minutes as an extra time. most of the students actively answer the questions from the lecturer; the students were enthusiastic and happy in joining the reading class especially in following the implementation of the sq3r method; for the first time, the students were curious about what the given text tells about, then, after actively involved in the implementation of the sq3r method, they were happy because they could answer their curiosity. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.49-61 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.49-61 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 59 conclusion the implementation of sq3r method performed by the researcher is effective to develop students’ reading skills of islamic texts. the primary criteria to judge that the students have developments are that from the score they gained from the test. the result of data analysis of achievement test shows that of 24 students who participated in this research, there were 18 students (75%) got the score greater than or equal to 80. it means that the students’ achievement on the reading test achieved the criteria of success (70%). references al-ghazo, a. (2015). the effect of sq3r and semantic mapping strategies on reading comprehension learning among jordanian university students. english and education, 4(3), 92-106. ari, g. (2014). the effects of sq3r and dr-ta reading strategies used by fifth grade students on comprehension. artis, a. b. (2008). improving marketing students' reading comprehension with the sq3r method. journal of marketing education, 30(2), 130-137. baier, k. (2011). the effects of sq3r on fifth grade students' comprehension levels (doctoral dissertation, bowling green state university). bogdan, r. c., & biklen, s. k. (2010). foundations of qualitative research in education. qualitative educational research: readings in reflexive methodology and transformative practice, 21-44. carlston, d. l. (2011). benefits of student-generated note packets: a preliminary investigation of sq3r implementation. teaching of psychology, 38(3), 142-146. feldt, r. c., & hensley, r. (2009). recommendations for use of sq3r in introductory psychology textbooks. education, 129(4). fraenkel, j. r., wallen, n. e., & hyun, h. (2011). how to design and evaluate research in education. new york: mcgraw-hill humanities/social sciences/languages. gersten, r., fuchs, l. s., williams, j. p., & baker, s. (2001). teaching reading comprehension strategies to students with learning disabilities: a review of research. review of educational research, 71(2), 279-320. abdul gaful marzuki 60 gunning, t. g. (2013). creating literacy instruction for all students. boston, ma: pearson. harmer, j. (2007). how to teach english. new edition. edinburgh gate, england: pearson education limited, longman. holes, f. 2008. revisiting the sq3r reading strategy. retrieved january 23, 2017. from http://www.starteaching.com/free.htm jitendra, a. k., burgess, c., & gajria, m. (2011). cognitive strategy instruction for improving expository text comprehension of students with learning disabilities: the quality of evidence. exceptional children, 77(2), 135-159. joseph, l. m., alber-morgan, s., cullen, j., & rouse, c. (2016). the effects of selfquestioning on reading comprehension: a literature review. reading & writing quarterly, 32(2), 152-173. kemmis, s., mctaggart, r., & nixon, r. (2013). the action research planner: doing critical participatory action research. springer science & business media. li, l. y., fan, c. y., huang, d. w., & chen, g. d. (2014). the effects of the e-book system with the reading guidance and the annotation map on the reading performance of college students. educational technology & society, 17(1), 320331. marzuki, a. g., alim, n., & wekke, i. s. 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(2012). construction of reading guidance mechanism on e-book reader applications for improving learners' english comprehension capabilities. in advanced learning technologies (icalt), 2012 ieee 12th international conference on (pp. 170-172). ieee. williams, s. (2005). guiding students through the jungle of research-based literature. college teaching, 53(4), 137-139. zhang, g., cheng, z., huang, t., he, a., & koyama, a. (2003). a distance learning support system based on effective study method sq3r. ipsj journal. mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 151 power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer mundi rahayu lia emelda siti aisyah english language and letters – faculty of humanities uin maulana malik ibrahim malang jl. gajayana no. 50 malang mundi_rahayu@yahoo.com abstract this article aims at comparing the ideas of power relation between the main female character and ―mother‖ in arthur golden‘s memoirs of geisha and ahmad tohari‘s the dancer. these two novels share the same main female character of traditional entertainers, as a japanese geisha and a javanese traditional dancer, respectively. as an entertainer in the traditional sphere, they are bounded with the other women and build close interaction as well as power relation with them who are called ―mother‖ in the geisha and ―ronggeng shaman‖ in the dancer. the power relation between them are unique and dynamics. this is analyzed through foucault‘s theory of power. the result of the analysis shows that the power relation is not stable, and the power practiced by each of them is influenced by the symbolic capital and economic capital they have. the negotiation and contestation come up between the actors in daily practices as geisha and the mother, as the ―ronggeng‖ and the shaman. as the entertainers, the geisha and ―ronggeng‖ build and shape their body and performance to attract men. this geisha and ronggeng culture reproduce many other cultural product such as ―mizuage‖ in geisha, and ―bukak klambu‖ in ―ronggeng‖ both of which refer to the same thing, selling the woman‘s virginity to the highest bidder. in geisha it is used to benefit the mother of okiya and no rebellion of the geisha. on the other hand, srintil does rebellious action in this ―bukak klambu‖ occasion. there seems to be different message from these two novels, the dancer mailto:mundi_rahayu@yahoo.com power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 152 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 is much more questioning the norms covering the ―ronggeng‖ tradition while the memoirs of geisha tends to be accepting the geisha tradition as what it is. keywords: power relation, geisha, ronggeng, norms. abstrak artikel ini bertujuan untuk membandingkan relasi kuasa antara karakter utama perempuan geisha dan ―mother‖ dalam memoirs of geisha dan srintil, penari ronggeng dan nyi kartareja (dukun ronggeng) dalam the dancer karya ahmad tohari. kedua novel ini dibandingkan karena keduanya sama-sama mempunyai karakter utama perempuan muda penghibur, geisha dan ronggeng, dalam budaya hiburan tradisional. sebagai penghibur, keduanya sama-sama terkait erat dengan tokoh perempuan lain yang disebut ―mother‖ dalam memoirs of geisha and nyai kartareja dalam the dancer. relasi kuasa di antara keduanya sangat unik dan berjalan secara dinamis. relasi kuasa inilah yang dianalisis dengan menggunakan teori kuasa foucault. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa relasi kuasa di antara keduanya berjalan tidak tetap, kuasa yang dijalankan oleh masing-masing tokoh dipengaruhi oleh modal simbolik dan modal ekonomi yang dimiliki. negosiasi dan kontestasi muncul di antara tokoh-tokoh tersebut dalam praktik sehari-hari, dalam relasi sayuri sebagai geisha dan ―mother‖, dan antara srintil si ronggeng dan dukun ronggeng. sebagai geisha dan ronggeng, para perempuan ini membentuk tubuh dan penampilannya untuk menarik dan menghibur laki-laki. budaya geisha dan ronggeng ini mereproduksi berbagai kultur lainnya seperti mizuage dalam geisha, dan ―bukak klambu‖ dalam ronggeng, yang keduanya sama-sama bermakna menjual keperawanan perempuan kepada penawar tertinggi. ―mother‖ pemilik okiya diuntungkan oleh praktik ini, di sisi lain, srintil berhasil mengelabuhi orang lain dalam peristiwa ―bukak klambu‖. muncul pesan yang berbeda dari kedua novel ini, dalam the dancer norma-norma dalam tradisi ―ronggeng‖ dipertanyakan sementara memoirs of geisha cenderung menerima tradisi geisha sebagaimana adanya. kata kunci: relasi kuasa, geisha, ronggeng, norma. mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 153 introduction in our daily interaction power relation in unavoidable, it exists between teacher and student, husband and wife, doctor and patient, policeman and policewoman, and any other human relation. power is not exclusively possessed by government or structural position. to understand the power that is omnipresent, foucault (1988) develops a model of understanding the power that operates through network around the institution, exists in social interaction and operated by anybody. power relation is more sublime than we realize. foucault differentiates between the power relation as ‖strategic games between liberties‖ and the other two kinds of power relation, domination and government (foucault 1988: 19). in general, the concept of power as ―the strategic games among the liberties‖ becomes the core to understand power. this research aims at portraying the power relation that operates between the traditional female artists, geisha and ―ronggeng‖ (dancer), and the ―mother‖ refering to the woman who has close relationship to the artists. in the novel memoirs of geisha by arthur golden, the woman is called mother, a woman who is in charge in the okiya, a geisha house. in ahmad tohari‘s the dancer, the woman is nyai kartareja, a ―ronggeng‖ shaman whose roles is constructing and nurturing a ronggeng as well as a managing the ―ronggeng‖ business. memoir of geisha tells the readers about the struggle of a little girl, chiyo, to be a geisha. at very young age, she was sold to the okiya. as a little girl she has to be discipline and loyal to the other older women in the house, mother, granny, hatsumomo, and a girl named pumpkin. chiyo tries to resistant against mother but she is not successful, until the power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 154 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 coming of a senior and reputable geisha, mameha, who wants to train and shape her to be a reputable geisha. the dancer is the english version of ronggeng dukuh paruk written by ahmad tohari. this novel tells us about the struggle of a poor little girl to become a traditional javanese dancer called ronggeng who lived in remote areas in java under the turmoil of political context of mid 1960s. she was constructed as a legitimate ronggeng with particular ritual guided by nyai and ki kartareja, the ―ronggeng‖ shaman. the power relation between srintil and nyai kartareja is dynamics and complicated. many times srintil is able to be resistant, and liberate herself from this ―ronggeng‖ world, but at the end this ―ronggeng‖ leads into tragic fate. in analyzing the power relation between the female characters in the two novels, the researcher considers the comparative literature approach. according to damono (2009:1) comparative literature studies two or more literary works from different countries, languages or different texts. wellek and warren (1989:47), also stated that practically comparative literature is a study about the relation of two literary works or more, to find the shared problem or conflict in the literary works. the novels in this study are the dancer that portrays the javanese culture of ronggeng. as an entertainer, the dancer or ―ronggeng‖ not only dances but she also serves as sexual worker. in the geisha culture, it is more complicated in the sense that the geisha has to be able many skills such as dancing, playing traditional music instrument as well as serving in the tea party. the geisha is limited in her relation with men, only a man who can buy her in the highest bidding can enjoy sexual relationship with her. mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 155 a geisha is allowed to have sexual relationship to the man who permanently give her much money and wealth, such a man is called danna. so, a geisha is not allowed to have sexual relationship for anybody but only for a particular man who pays the most. foucault‘s theories on power is closely related to the control system. foucault said that in capitalist society control is not operated from outside, instead the control system prevails upon the individual to self-monitor and self-discipline themselves by promoting norms and naturalizing them so that the individual will feel compelled to conform in order to gain acceptance and success. discussion power relation between sayuri and mother of nitta okiya memoirs of geisha tells the readers about chiyo, a little girl of a very poor family who is sold by her father and she ends in the nitta okiya, a geisha house. in the okiya, little chiyo learns many things especially from the most commanding persons, granny and mother, the owner of the okiya, the current geisha in the okiya, hatsumomo, and other little girl in the okiya called pumpkin. the power relation between chiyo and mother of okiya comes up along the story, and it will be the focus of this analysis in this article. the relation between them is a very dynamic one, involving negotiation and contestation between them. mother of the okiya has biggest power to control anything, especially the business that is kept alive in the house, the business of geisha. mother, used to be a geisha when she was young, has to manage the geisha, making her as a money machine. she is the most experienced woman in the house to make the geisha popular and draws much money power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 156 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 from the service the geisha does in the tea house and from men who likes her. to run the business of geisha, mother of the okiya also thinks about the regeneration of the geisha. she really understands that a geisha can not be a geisha anymore when she is older. she has to think the next generation of geisha in the house so that the okiya and the people inhabiting it will be survive and enjoy the comfortable life. for that regeneration purpose, mother buys little girls to work as maid in the house before she is selected to be sent to school of geisha if she is lucky, otherwise she will be a maid forever. the geisha culture is reproduced in this way, it is selected from the little girls in the okiya and then the geisha-to be is sent to school where the girls learn how to serve in the tea party, playing musical instrument, dancing, singing as well as how to make a good conversation, all of which is aimed at entertaining the men in the tea house. in such reproduction of cultural system, a geisha seems to be the highest position or the best reward for the girls. a geisha, depends on her beauty and popularity, is the only commodity of the okiya. the okiya mother will get much money from a geisha since the first time a girl is declared as a geisha, followed by many rituals and activities in which the geisha is the main player. in this novel, the okiya is portrayed as a house of geisha for many generation. granny and mother were used to be a geisha, and hatsumomo is the current geisha in the house. an okiya only has one geisha, who has to prepare herself with adorable make-up, many accessories, and kimono before going to the tea house. her main job is entertaining the customers, mostly wealthy men coming to the tea house. in doing her job she is completed with the skills of tea party, dancing, mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 157 playing traditional music instrument, and of course the skill of acting and speaking that pleases the men. for her service and relationships with the men, the geisha gets much money and wealth. the more popular a geisha the more money she will get. hatsumomo has to give the money she gets to mother as the manager of okiya. as a return, mother prepare all the geisha‘s necessities, meals, best bedroom in the house, the best collection of kimono and other accessories as a geisha, as well as managing the relationship a geisha has to make or allowed to make. since the first time, chiyo has been introduced with the structure of power in okiya, on the top of the pyramid is granny, and mother, and below them is auntie, and the geisha, hatsumomo. on the lowest level is pumpkin, a little girl as a maid who has to serve many things for the geisha and do a lot of house chores everyday. as the geisha, hatsumomo enjoys many facilities in the house to make her happy and comfortable. all of the maid have to serve her in day to day activities. chiyo as a new comer posts in this lowest rank of structure. consequently she has no other choice but to obey all the rules from the other elder women, especially mother. ―well, little girl,‖ mother told me, ―you are in kyoto now. you‘ll learn to behave or get a beating. and it‘s granny gives the beatings around here, so you‘ll be sorry. my advice to you is: work very hard, and never leave the okiya without permission. do as you‘re told; don‘t be too much trouble; and you may begin learning the arts of a geisha two or three months from now. i didn‘t bring you here to be a maid. i‘ll throw you out, if it comes to that.‖ (memoirs of geisha p. 43) the norms is made clear, that someone who wish to be a geisha should obey all the rules and on the contrary, who does not obey the rules power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 158 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 will get beating and will not achieve the highest position of geisha. paragraph above shows the power of which mother has, stated in command, prohibition, and threat to an obedient chiyo. chiyo learn that the norms is that she has to work hard, never leave the okiya without permission, does not make any troubles, and the reward is being sent to school to be a geisha. mother had told me i could begin my training within a few months if i worked hard and behaved myself. as i learned from pumpkin, beginning my training meant going to a school in another section of gion to take lessons in things like music, dance, and tea ceremony. all the girls studying to be a geisha took classes at this same school. i felt sure i‘d find satsu there when i was finally permitted to go; so by the end of first week, i‘d made up my mind to be as obedient as a cow following along on a rope, in the hopes that mother would send me to the school right away. (memoirs of geisha p. 45) however, since a very young age, chiyo has ―capital‖ that rarely possessed by the other girl, her very beauty eyes. all the people recognize it, but they did not appreciate it explisitly, instead, hatsumomo thinks this as a potential rival. as the only geisha in the okiya, hatsumomo assumes the biggest power and she always strengthens her power. in encountering with the potential rival, little chiyo, hatsumomo inflicts her power against chiyo. ―but if you touch them,‖ she said, ―they‘ll start to smell like you. and then the men will say to me, ‗hatsumomo-san, why do you stink like an ignorant girl from a fishing village?‘ i‘m sure you understand that, don‘t you? but let‘s have repeat it back to me just to be sure. why don‘t i want you to touch my make up?‖ i could hardly bring myself to say it. but at last i answered her. ―because it will start to smell like me.‖ (memoirs of geisha p. 48) mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 159 hatsumomo seems to highlight her position in front of chiyo, to declare her status as prestigious geisha and her top performance. the identity emphasized by hatsumomo also functions as the warning that chiyo not to close to her position, and as a threat for chiyo not to ever think that she would be able to rival her. hatsumomo builds clear gap between her and chiyo. i won‘t say that i believed her; but of course, hatsumomo had the power to make my life miserable in any way she wanted. i had no choice but to obey. (memoirs of geisha p. 72) chiyo has ever realized how much power hatsumomo has in the okiya beside granny and mother. hence, she has no choice except to submit to hatsumomo. even when hatsumomo does mistake, such as having and bringing her boyfriend to the okiya some day, nobody, including chiyo, tells mother, granny, or auntie. it happens because hatsumomo always has a trick to hide her action. she has power to convince mother, granny, and auntie in order to conceal her behavior. chiyo‘s opportunity to be a geisha has lost since she has big problem with mother. when chiyo tries to run away passing the roof, she falls down and have to come back to the okiya with her broken arm. since then, mother decided not to resume her lessons again, and chiyo will pay all her debts by becoming her maid, not to be a geisha. however, her life changes since she meets chairman iwamura, an owner of iwamura electric, of whom she falls in love with. this encourages her to build a purpose in her life, to be a geisha. if i were a geisha like the one named izuko, i thought, a man like the chairman might spend time with me. i‘d never imagined myself envying a geisha. i‘d been brought to kyoto for the purpose of becoming one, of course; but up till now i‘d have run away in an power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 160 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 instant if i could have. now i understood the thing i‘d overlooked; the point wasn‘t to be a geisha, but to be one. to become a geisha… well, that was hardly purpose in life. but to be a geisha… i could see it now as a stepping-stone to something else. (memoirs of geisha p. 113-114) the norms introduced to chiyo results in chiyo‘s obedience but this obedience becomes a strategy that benefit her, as she says, ―i‘d made up my mind to be as obedient as a cow following along on a rope, in the hopes that mother would send me to the school right away‖. this obedience is also the strategy which chiyo uses to get mother‘s trust. she keeps the plan to find the chance of looking for her sister and plan to run away together. however, when mother finds chiyo tries to run away, she stops all the investments of chiyo‘s training. mother decides to make chiyo becoming her slave, not as a geisha. chiyo‘s dream to be a geisha comes true with the coming of mameha, one of a few successful geishas in gion. mameha is also hatsumomo‘s rival. mameha opens the chance for chiyo to be a geisha, by arranging a negotiation with mother so that mother allows chiyo to go to school. ―now, chiyo, stumbling along in life is a poor way to proceed. you must learn how to find the time and place for things. a mouse who wishes to fool the cat doesn‘t simply scammer out of its hole when it feels the slightest urge. don‘t you know how to check your almanac?‖ (memoirs of geisha p. 126) mameha is smart enough and her saying that ―a mouse who wishes to fool the cat doesn‘t simply scammer out of its hole when it feels the slightest urge ‖ means that, it is not simple to win in a war; it needs a strategy to fight against mother decision and persuade her to resume mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 161 chiyo‘s training. the negotiation results in the agreement between mameha and mother, that mameha will bring chiyo to her apartment and train her as her younger sister, to be a geisha. she promises that chiyo will repay all her debts by the age of twenty. this makes mother surprised and she does not believe chiyo can do it because there is no geisha can be success and repay all the debts into okiya by the age of twenty in gion yet. ―after all, in chiyo‘s case, with you as her older sister, her debts will only grow worse before they get better.‖ mother wasn‘t just talking about my lesson fees; she was talking about fees she would have to pay to mameha. a geisha of mameha‘s standing commonly takes a larger portion of her younger sister‘s earning than an ordinary geisha would. (memoirs of geisha p. 134) finally, mother and mameha also agree on the amount of money will be got by mameha if she can make chiyo succeed by the age of twenty and nothing if she fails. ―you‘re quite right,‖ said mother. ―thirty percent is a bit low. i‘ll offer you double, instead, if you succeed.‖ ―but nothing if i fail‖ (memoirs of geisha p. 135) mameha‘s negotiation with mother about chiyo shows that the geisha or a geisha to be is a real commodity of which value is determined by the power of cultural reproduction. mameha shows herself the agent of cultural reproduction who has the symbolical capital in the form of expertise to train a geisha to be in a particular time and ensure the success of the geisha. with the asisstance of mameha chiyio gains her cultural capital and symbolic capital to be a successful geisha, named sayuri. in creating the geisha name, mameha has to go to her fortune teller to make sure that the name is a good one. power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 162 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 the cultural practice of geisha that is reproduced in this novel is the practice of mizuage, meaning selling the virginity of the apprentice geisha to the high bargainer. the ability to find the highest bidder will build geisha‘s reputation. mameha works hard to set the rules for finding the highest bidder and she is successfull having nobu and dr. crab as the highest bidder and this is announced and registered in the town tax administration as the highest price for the mizuage in gion y11,500. by having that money, mameha is able to pay back sayuri‘s debt to mother and this means that mameha wins the bet, paying back chiyo‘s debt before twenty years old, at that time of mizuage, sayuri is eighteen years. sayuri realizes this facts, that her values is determined by the ability to earn money. it goes without saying that this is why she adopted me. the fee for my mizuage was more than enough to repay all my debts to the okiya. if mother hadn‘t adopted me, some of that money would have fallen into my hands—and you can imagine how mother would have felt about this. when i became the daughter of the okiya, my debts ceased to exist because the okiya absorbed them all. but all of my profits went to the okiya as well, not only them, at the time of my mizuage, but forever afterward. (memoirs of geisha p. 279) the reproduction of mizuage practice can be seen as an important meaning for a geisha like sayuri, that it is the way to earn much money at one time. this mizuage can be done only once in a life time, that is why the geisha prepares herself much and mizuage is arranged seriously. this amount of money is able to pay the geisha‘s debt to the okiya, consequently the mother of okiya will adopt her as daughter because of valuing her ability of making money in the future. as the new geisha in the okiya, sayuri will get many facilities in turn of her big contribution mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 163 to the okiya. the amount of price in the mizuage also sets the reputation of the geisha in her future profession. all of these make sayuri hold new power in her relation to mother of nitta okiya. a successful mizuage, a reputable geisha gives her symbolical and economic power in the okiya and the geisha communities. the power relation between srintil and nyai kartareja in the dancer the power relation between srintil, the young female traditional dancer called ―ronggeng‖, and her ―ronggeng shaman‘ is built a unique way. srintil, at first did not know about her skill of dancing. it is the shaman, ki kartareja and his wife, nyai kartareja who found out her ability dancing through a specific ritual in the grave of ki secamenggala, the late elder in the dukuh paruk village whose grave is considered as sacred. in that grave, at one night they asked srintil to dance, and srintil proves herself to be able to dance, to be ―ronggeng‖. the shaman decides that srintil is proven to hold ―indang ronggeng‖, a spiritual ability to be a ronggeng. it is the knowledge in the village that a ronggeng can not be trained, a ronggeng has to hold ―indang ronggeng‖ and this is the power of the shaman to prove and make decision whether or not a girl hold ―indang ronggeng‖. the fact that srintil, a naïve little girl, was able to imitate a ronggeng dancer‘s style with considerable skill would not have come as a surprise to anyone from paruk. in the hamlet there was a powerful belief that a true ronggeng dancer was not the result of teaching. no matter how she was trained, a young woman could not become a ronggeng dancer without being possessed by indang spirit. in the world of ronggeng, the indang was referred as a kind of supernatural godmother. (the dancer, p. 8) power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 164 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 ―ronggeng‖ is the a dancer in traditional java whose role is not only entertaining people in a particular occasion, but also an agent of change. in this novel it is told that a ronggeng is a ticket to make the village prosperous. the village, dukuh paruk, in central java in the mid 1960s, was a poor village, the soil was not fertile enough and the people have no other economic access. no infrastructure built in the village, it is in remote area and no big road and other public facilities built. it is narrated in the novel that srintil‘s parents were committed suicide after the ―tempe bongkrek‖ (a kind of tempe made of soy and coconut pulp/coconut nucifera) they made caused some people in the village dead. this fact showed how poor and miserable the people in the village were. because of no educationtal access and long poverty they experienced, the people in the village perceived that the poverty was seen as the consequences of the lack of ronggeng in the village. that is why the elders think to find out the ronggeng to live up the village. for srintil, being a ―ronggeng‖ is the way to pay her parents‘ guilty to the people in dukuh paruk. moreover, srintil is able to prove to the shaman that she hold the ―indang ronggeng‖. she is then announced as the ronggeng by the shaman, ki and nyai kartareja. the ―ronggeng‖ is accompanied by a team of traditional music player, one of them is sarkum, an old and blind kendang player who is able to ―smell‖ the indang ronggeng held by srintil, and he happily accompanies the dancer because he is sure that srintil is the legitimate ronggeng. as a dancer, srintil is managed by the shaman, ki and nyai kartarejo in any performance she has to make. it is the shaman who make sure that the performance is safe and runs well. nyai kartarejo mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 165 functions as the manager for srintil, by managing all the schedule for the performance and any man who wants to be accompanied by srintil. it is nyai kartareja who manage the money and all income of the dancer. for nyai kartareja, srintil is like a money machine. it is nyai kartareja who makes decision on many business related to srintil‘s job. being a ronggeng is a big sacrifice for srintil because she has to accept the request of many men who want her, including making sexual relation. ki and nyai kartareja are experienced ronggeng shaman, so that it is easy for them to train srintil as the ronggeng for her performance. nyai kartareja has more job, that is managing the men who take the turns to sleep with srintil. srintil obey whatever nyai kartareja wants because nyai has the knowledge of anything about a ronggeng and she also applies a magic practice to influence srintil for many purposes all of which is beneficial for nyai. the power of nyai kartareja in deciding the ronggeng practice is also revealed in the practice of bukak klambu, literally means ―open the veil‖ and in the ronggeng practice it means a competition for men to obtain the dancer virginity. for this big occasion, kartareja was busy preparing for the bukak klambu. he travelled far away, spreading the news about this event expecting that the bidder is the most wealthy man, and he decided the winner, who gave him a gold piece. ―i have decided that the time will be next saturday,‖ said kartareja, addressing a large group of men at the market. (the dancer, p. 52) even though srintil disagree with that decision, nothing can be done by srintil except obeying ki and nyai kartareja‘s decision. mr. and mrs. kartareja use all tricks to make srintil submit to their decision. it is power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 166 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 important for the guardian to determine who will get srintil‘s virginity, it because the income will come into mr. and mrs. kartareja‘s family. in fact, there are two men who offer for srintil‘s virginity. one of them is dower who brings two silver and a big female buffalo, and the other one is sulam who brings a gold piece. seeing those offers, mr. and mrs. kartareja make a trick, receiving both offers (the gold and silver as well as bufallo), but he manipulates it by arranging competition of drinking ciu (traditional alcoholic beverage made of fermented coconut water) for them and the winner will sleep with srintil. both of them drink much ciu so that they does not fully realize what they do. on the other hand, srintil really does not want to have ―bukak klambu‖ after knowing that it means she has to sleep with the man, the highest bidder and makes a sexual intercourse with the man she does not familiar with. realizing this crucial moment, in which srintil can not avoid and safe herself, she decides to give her virginity to rasus, her childhood friend that srintil actually loves much. at the night before the ―bukak klambu‖, srintil gave herself to rasus, the man she loves. this action taken purposedly by srintil shows her rebellious nature, and she feels this is the best thing to do, at least she is able to make her own decision with her body at least once without kartareja‘s notice. ―i hate this. i‘d rather give myself to you, rasus. you can‘t turn me away like you did this afternoon. this isn‘t a graveyard and we‘re not going to be cursed. you do want to, don‘t you?‖ (the dancer, p. 77-78) it is said by mr kartareja that bukak klambu is the last requirement to be a ronggeng, and by passing that night srintil has been becoming a mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 167 true ronggeng. as the ronggeng does not only perform dancing, but she is also a sexual worker, it is mr. and mrs. kartareja‘s benefit to get much money selling srintil as commodity. it is the reason why it is important for them to keep her under their control. on the other hand, srintil begins realizing her feeling into rasus and her position which is under mr. and mrs. kartareja‘s control. sometimes, she refuses mrs. kartareja‘s order, but the kartarejas do everything to keep her into their control, including breaking srintil‘s feeling into rasus. mrs. kartareja realized that she had to do something to break the love that bound srintil to rasus. she decided to try some magic. she found an unhatched egg which had been left to rot in the chicken coop and secretly buried it under one corner of srintil‘s bedroom. over this spot she recited a spell to break the love. (the dancer, p. 122) it is kartarejas‘ interest to keep srintil as a ronggeng under their control, implying that srintil is not allowed to fall in love with rasus or other men. because, if srintil decides to get married, her status as a ronggeng is finished. consequently, kartarejas‘ income will be over. the contestation between kartarejas and srintil happens silently many times. the first time is the incident of bukak klambu, in which srintil is actually not a virgin anymore because she has given herself to rasus without kartareja‘s notice. how does srintil negotiate her position and struggle for her own interest? this is interesting because srintil who has the symbolic capital as a ronggeng in fact does not have power to decide her own destiny. she is stil under kartarejas, with the symbolical power as shaman. many times nyai kartareja do shamanic practice to make srintil obey to them. many times srintil refuses to perform dancing or entertaining men in the power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 168 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 bed. she wants to have freedom of her self and her feeling, but mr. and mrs. kartareja do not stop forcing her to perform, moreover to receive the guest. nyai kartareja blames srintil every single rejection from srintil to the man who wants to be with her. after political disturbances attacked dukuh paruk, srintil quits being a ronggeng. she and all people of dukuh paruk are accused of involving in the political turmoil. all people fall into detention. however trying to able to survive and prosper after the turmoil, mrs. kartareja persuades srintil again to be a ―ronggeng‖. ―i just want to talk about my situation. in the past, i suffered, but not the way i‘m suffering now. in the past, to tell you the truth, i was always able to follow your wishes. but now, young lady, it‘s a matter of whether there will be food on my table. so, i have a proposal: in return for the help i gave you in the past i would like you to give me the opportunity to join you in a better life.‖ (the dancer, p. 322) the power relation between the kartarejas and srintil shows that at the beginning, because of the symbolical capital as ‗ronggeng shaman‖ it is kartarejas‘ power to determine and dominate srintil. it is kartarejas‘ work that makes srintil a ronggeng, through the discourse of ―indang ronggeng‖, and other rituals such as ―bukak klambu‖. the knowledge of kartarejas produces the ronggeng and ronggeng as cultural product reproduces the culture in dukuh paruk in such a way that people acknowledge and agree to the ronggeng practice. personally, through persuasion and order, kartarejas maintain their control over srintil. however, the kartarejas‘ power over srintil and over the community is not a fixed, stable one. the power is destabilized through many factors, such as internal relationship factor (srintil‘s resistant) and mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 169 sociopolitical factor (political turmoil happens involving the people of dukuh paruk). these incidents, micro and macro, happen and destable the power domination of kartarejas to srintil. srintil learns much from sufferings and happiness she experienced during her times as a ronggeng. during this time as ronggeng, she learns how to be an obedient girl for kartarejas so that she becomes a popular ronggeng, under kartarejas‘ guidance and training, control and order. as a girl to be a ronggeng, she obeys whatever kartarejas say and order to her. the kartarejas build the power through the discourse of ronggeng norms that srintil and others have to obey. the first discourse is that ronggeng is badly needed by the village of dukuh paruk to be prosperous, alleviating the poverty. this gives a feeling of proud for srintil to be a ronggeng because she can pay her parents‘ mistakes in the past, giving back the feeling of being trust and honored by the people in the village. moreover, being a ronggeng also gives a feeling of being a ―hero‖ because the myth is the lack of ronggeng will make the village fall into long poverty. the meaning of being a hero, giving an important contribution to the village is a symbolical power built in srintil‘s self. the power of kartareja over srintil in the beginning phase of being a ronggeng results in suffering of being opressed but at the same time srintil realizes the power she gets and feels as a ronggeng. the next disourse is the ―indang ronggeng‖, which is only kartareja who knows that srintil has the ―indang ronggeng‖ embedded in her. this power to determine the ―indang ronggeng‖ possession is challenged by nobody. for srintil this gives a feeling of being a sacred and special person, because this is rarely happen, so that only a chosen power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 170 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 people has this spirit. this idea of ―indang ronggeng‖ also legitimate the behavior of a ronggeng being the entertainer of community, and giving sexual pleasure to many men. such sexual relation and practice is not accepted if it is done by women at large, but under the discourse of ―indang ronggeng‖ this behavior is accepted by community. the power of being a sacred and chosen person in srintil self is a proud, but at the same time it is felt by srintil not as a comfortable one. she feels that it is not easy for her to be the possession of many men. she feels that her existence is much determined by many interest, instead of her own interest. she wants to be a wife, a mother having a baby, but it is impossible as long as she is a ―ronggeng‖, because a ―ronggeng‖ is owned by the community, her body can be possessed by those who can pay. nyai kartareja and her husband do many efforts to maintain srintil status as a ―ronggeng‖ by prohibiting her to love someone or marry a man. srintil marriage will put the business into the final end. srintil obsession to be a wife is so strong and her innocence bring her to trust bajus and she expects to be married by bajus. this leads into the tragedy, because srintil can not bear the reality that bajus does not love her at all and he even planned to sell srintil to his boss. srintil gets frantic, hysterical, and she can not grasp the reality anymore until the rest of her life. the discourse of ―bukak klambu‖ is a kind of practice that can be interpreted as a commodification of woman‘s body and sexuality that is legitimate for a ―ronggeng‖. it is the ―ronggeng shaman‖ who gets benefit from this practice because mrs kartareja will get much money from the highest bidder. for srintil, realizing that this exploits her authority over her own body, she does resitance by giving herself to the mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 171 man she loves, rasus, before the night of ―bukak klambu‖. this resistence is done successfully and it is a very meaningful moment for srintil, feeling not guilty of giving her virginity to someone she loves, instead of giving it to the men of highest bidder. conclusion the two novels, memoirs of geisha and the dancer share some common things related to female traditional entertainer and their power relation built with the closest person. sayuri or chiyo has to struggle at the beginning of her life to survive in geisha house under the power of mother. srintil, an innocent poor village girl has to obey the shaman, nyai and ki kartareja to be survived and to be a ronggeng. both of the women, sayuri and srintil bear a duty to entertain and to make pleasure to the world, especially men. in doing this duty, they sacrifice by using their body as the main capital and supporting skills of the symbolic capital, such as dancing, singing, playing traditional instrument, but the most important thing is giving pleasure to the men. this shows that in the paternalistic world, men are in the power to be served, because of holding economic capital and the women use their symbolical power to make the men share their wealth. the other important thing to note from these two novels is that both of the young women, sayuri and srintil are commodified and dominated by the women, mother and mrs kartareja respectively, through controlling their body. as foucault explains that body is the main target of power, the mother of nitta okiya determines particular treatment for geisha‘s body to maintain the shape, beauty and the fabulous clothing and accessories as well as supporting ritual practice for the geisha to power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 172 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 make sure that the woman will draw much men‘s attention and money. on the other hand, the mother of okiya will beat the little girls who do not obey her. the punishment such as beating, prohibiting to go out and other physical punishment, all of which are aimed at the obedience of the girls to the norms enforced by the okiya. in the memoir of geisha , following her feeling, little chiyo tries to resist to the mother, by escaping from the okiya. she is caught and got physical punishment such as beating and forbiding her to go to school. this punishment is paralyzing her because she is not sent to school so that her dream to be a geisha is faded away. however, chiyo has a good fortune because there is a senior geisha, mameha who comes to the nitta okiya and offer to mother to train chiyo to be a geisha. mameha promised to mother to pay back chiyo‘s debt after chiyo becomes a geisha. mother agrees. mameha does this becasuse of two reason, she got the order from the chairman and she wants to defeat hatsumomo, her rival, by making chiyo the next geisha in the okiya. mameha is pretty sure of her success because she notices that chiyo actually has a very beautiful eyes. the important event of the woman commodification in the entertainment world is the selling and bidding of woman‘s virginity, which in geisha tradition is called mizuage. those who has highest bidding will be the winner and enjoy the girl‘s virginity. chiyo who turns to be sayuri as a geisha, noted the highest bidder for her mizuage. mameha professionally controls this game and defines the highest bidder for sayuri‘s virginity. all of money that sayuri can collect as a geisha can pay all her debt to the nitta okiya, the living cost while she is a slave in the okiya. moreover, sayuri has economic and symbolic power as the mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 173 most popular geisha and this fact changes her power relation to the mother of nitta okiya. considering sayuri‘s popularity as a geisha, mother decides to adopt her as the daughter, implying that sayuri becomes the only geisha living in nitta okiya, and hatsumomo has to go away. this position makes sayuri have bargaining power to mother. after the external turmoil of second world war that devastates the lives of the community, including the okiya lives, sayuri and mameha try to recover their life by once again becoming geisha on the request of chairman and nobu, their patron called danna, to help their company to be survived and developed after the war time. finally sayuri get a good chance to liberate herself and living as a free individual with her love. this story of geisha seems to say that being a geisha in a paternalistic society is a ―natural― thing. the novel portrays that the problems of the geisha is due to the poverty (chiyo is sold by her very poor father) suffered by the families. the tradition of geisha is built under the norms of entertainer not prostitute so that a geisha is not allowed to make love relationship with any man (if the mother of the okiya does not know). a geisha is differentiated from prostitute, from the robe and the kimono, the geisha usually wears much more beautiful kimono than that worn by a prostitute. however this is contradict to the fact that the geisha also has danna, a patron, a man who support geisha with money and wealth, so that the geisha lives in a luxury. as the return the danna gets full service from the geisha in a longer periode of time. the danna support all necessities of a geisha but he also determine and decide anything of the geisha whether the woman agree or not, such power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 174 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 as what happens to mameha who has to do abortion and she felt very sinful of killing her babies because her danna order this. this is a consequences of the geisha sells herself to the danna who buys her. the geisha is a commodity, and the author gives an ending that the geisha can liberate herself from this geisha life by the asistance of man with love. the geisha is represented as one of the way of life that respond to the social political context. in the dancer, kartareja‘s domination over srintil goes into the very basic control to the body and feeling, such as controlling how to be a ―ronggeng‖, what kind of body movement (dance) a ronggeng has to create, to whom srintil is allowed to make relation, to whom she has to make sexual relation, when and to whom srintil has to give her very precious virginity through the ―bukak klambu‖ ceremony. srintil ‗s enjoyment as a ronggeng is also accompanied by her rebellion as her response to the ―symbolic violence‖ she suffers. through the power domination that kartareja exercise over srintil, it is shown in this novel that srintil is not totally obedient. she resists in many ways, according to her feeling and experience. her resistence to have sexual relationship with the highest bidder in ―bukak klambu‖ ceremony is done in silent. she subverts kartarejo‘s plan by having sexual relation with rasus, the young man she loves much. her love, before the night of ―bukak klambu‖. she just does it encouraged by her feeling of betraying kartareja‘s domination. srintil also maintains her feeling and wishes to be a wife and having baby. kartareja can not crush her wishes. srintil is obsessed to get married and be a wife that is on the contrary to the interest of kartarejas who consider her as the economic assest. mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 175 in the two novels, power relation between sayuri and mother, srintil and kartareja comes up in a dynamics. the enjoyment and facilities as the ―women on the stage‖ for sayuri and srintil is obtained through strong effort, strugggle and suffering of domination and oppression. however, the young women are able to survive and get the position that is rarely enjoyed by common women. they built their power in many stages of their life that make the power domination changes. sayuri as the most popular geisha enjoys economic and symbolical power that makes her powerful in front of mother of okiya, and it is easy for her to win the wealthy man. after many incident of suffering and enjoyment, at the end of this novel, sayuri gets much better life and she is able to liberate herself by the asistance of the man who loves her. the good fortune of sayuri does not happen to srintil in the dancer. srintil enjoys much her life as a popular ronggeng and she makes the people around her prosperous, the kartarejas, the music players, and people in the village get benefit though a little, from the popularity of srintil as a ronggeng. the economy of the village is a little bit improved. the economic power that srintil brings about, makes her powerful in front of nyai and ki kertareja. srintil power enables her to resist to the shaman in many ways, convertly and overtly. however, srintil‘s obsession to be a wife and a mother makes her insane and out of mind because her big obsession meets with an evil bajus who plans to sell her instead of making her as wife. srintil is shocked in facing the realities that is completely out of her mind. she refuses to grasp the reality that is too hostile and brutal for her. this is the end of srintil life. power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 176 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 through this tragedy, it seems that the author of the dancer wants to send message that the life of a ronggeng is not a good, normal life to choose because this life is based on the irrational norms and leads to the commodifying women and sexuality in such vulgar ways. the ronggeng life is the promiscuous one that need to be abolished as revealed in this novel. this ―ronggeng‖ culture is also susceptible to the political power that seeks to spread its influence in the villages. although srintil is able to liberate herself from the ronggeng and from the kartarejas, she does not get a happy ending life, because of her meeting with bajus who destroy her dream to be a wife and normal woman. he end of srintil life in a very miserable condition and people just stare at her and mock her indicates that srintil is a victim of ronggeng tradition. a ―ronggeng‖ is admired when she is young and pleases many people, but she is scorned and mocked when she is in the miserable condition. this kind of admiration is not a real respect to human life. such unrespectfulness to each other is the real tragedy of humanity. references armstrong, aurelia.foucault and feminism.university of queensland. retrieved 6 july 2013 from http://www.iep.utm.edu/foucfem/ dabbas, k.j. 2009. life stories of women artists. retrieved 25 april 2009 from http://www.ashgate.com/default.aspx?page=1777&calctitle=1& pagesubject=309&title_id=7468&edition_id=9543 damono, s.d. 2005.pegangan penelitian sastra.jakarta: pusat pendidikan nasional pusat bahasa endraswara. suwandi. 2006. metodologi penelitian sastra.yogyakarta: pustaka widyatama http://www.ashgate.com/default.aspx?page=1777&calctitle=1&pagesub http://www.ashgate.com/default.aspx?page=1777&calctitle=1&pagesub mundi rahayu and lia emelda siti aisyah register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 177 foucault, m. 1978. the history of sexuality, translated by robert hurley, vol. i, new york: pantheon. __________ 1988. critical theory/intellectual theory, interview with gerard raulet, in kritzman, l. (ed.), michel foucault: politics, philosophy, culture: interviews and other writing, 1977-1984, london: routledge. golden, a. 1997. memoirs of geisha. new york: alfred a. knopf. haryatmoko. 2013. kekuasaan melahirkan anti-kekuasaan: paper pada seminar series di pascasarjana ugm. yogyakarta. lips, m.h. 2003. a new psychology of women.american: mc graw hill mahayana, s.m.. 2013. sastra bandingan: pintu masuk kajian budaya studi kasus romeo dan julia, sonezaki shinju, uda dan dara. retrieved 6 march 2013 from http://wahanasastra.blog.com/2010/11/17/sastra-bandingan-pintumasukkajian-budaya-studi-kasus-remeo-dan-yulia-sonezakishinju-uda-dan-dara/ rahayu, m. 2009. feminitas geisha dalam novel arthur golden, memoirs of geisha. egalita: jurnal kesetaraan dan keadilan gender vol.iv no.1 uin malang. ratna, n.k. 2007. estetika sastra dan budaya.yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. sasono, a. pengakuan geisha modern: sejarah berubah. retrieved 6 march 2013 from http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2008/04/30/09031458/pengakua n.geisha.modern.sejarah.berubah accessed on tuesday, march, 6, 2013. segura, c. 2012 scheduled post-foucault and marx. retrieved 14 may 2013 from https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/engl-090 fall2012/2012/10/29/scheduled-post-foucault-and-marx/ suyono, s.j. 2002. tubuh yang rasis; telaah kritis michel foucault atas dasar-dasar pembentukan diri masyarakat eropa.yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. thohari, a. 2003. ronggeng dukuh paruk. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka. thohari, a. 2003. the dancer. trnsl. rene t.a. lysloff. jakarta: lontar http://wahanasastra.blog.com/2010/11/17/sastra-bandingan-pintu-masukkajian-budaya-studi-kasus-remeo-dan-yulia-sonezaki-shinju-uda-dan-dara/ http://wahanasastra.blog.com/2010/11/17/sastra-bandingan-pintu-masukkajian-budaya-studi-kasus-remeo-dan-yulia-sonezaki-shinju-uda-dan-dara/ http://wahanasastra.blog.com/2010/11/17/sastra-bandingan-pintu-masukkajian-budaya-studi-kasus-remeo-dan-yulia-sonezaki-shinju-uda-dan-dara/ http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2008/04/30/09031458/pengakuan.geisha http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2008/04/30/09031458/pengakuan.geisha https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/engl-090power relation in memoirs of geisha and the dancer 178 register, vol. 7, no. 2, november 2014 73 the language of street children: a sociolinguistic study in the regency of klaten, central java prembayun miji lestari faculty of languages and arts state university of semarang sekaran campus, gunung pati, semarang prembayun@gmail.com abstract the object of this study is the street children in the region of klaten, particularly in the area of klaten. the purpose of this study is to determine how do the language variations and the characteristics of the communities of street children related to the contemporary multicultural culture. the data is obtained from direct observation which is taken from daily conversation. the data collection is collected by tapping/recording techniques, „simak bebas libat cakap‟ technique (uninvolved conversation observation technique), „simak libat cakap‟ (involved conversation observation technique), taking notes and recording technique. the result is the discovery of a unique variety of language in the community of street children, the more usage of the javanese particularly ngoko lugu level of speech containing “pisuhan” (words of profanity) and insults. keywords: street children community , unique characteristics, “pisuhan” (words of profanity) and insults. abstrak obyek penelitian ini adalah anak-anak jalan di kabupaten klaten,khususnya di daerah klaten kota. tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui dan mendeskripsikan variasi bahasa dan karakteristik 74 komunitas anak jalanan terkait dengan budaya multi-kultural kontemporer. data tersebut diperoleh dari observasi langsung yang diambil dari percakapan sehari-hari. pengumpulan data dikumpulkan dengan teknik merekam, „simak bebas libat cakap‟ technique (uninvolved conversation observation technique), „simak libat cakap‟ (involved conversation observation technique), pencatatan dan perekaman. hasil penelitian ini ialah penemuan adanya keunikan berbahasa dalam komunitas anak jalanan, ragam tingkat tutur jawa ngoko khususnya tingkat lugu yang berisi "pisuhan" (kata-kata tidak senonoh) dan penghinaan. kata kunci: komunitas anak jalanan, karakter yang unik, , “pisuhan” (kata-kata makian) dan penghinaan introduction in accordance with one of the dynamic natures of language, it is inseparated from the range of possible changes which may occur at any time. similarly, the language of a community cannot be separated from it. in a multicultural society, it appears many regional variations of certain social groups. linguistic diversity is influenced by age, educational level, gender, socio-economic status, profession, and origin of place. one of the diversities which appears in society is the language of the street children. it is a part of a community language, which has special characteristics in its use. the emergence of language variation in the community of street children cannot be separated from the multicultural background they are dealing with and the influence of mass media and television which give effects on their linguistic experience. it is interesting to study further since the condition of language that occurs in the community of street children vary in line with the changing times. problem statement in this study relates to the social phenomena 75 associated with the usage of language of street children in klaten bus terminal. the formulation of the problem in detail can be described as how language is used by street children in klaten bus terminal and what the characteristics of the language are used by street children in the regency of klaten. previous research several previous studies that relate to this the formulation of these research problems can be categorized as a sociolinguistic study. the following researches examine linguistic variations in language as used by the users in their society. those are conducted by berman (1998), triyoga utami dharma (2004), noviani (2004), and prembayun miji lestari (2010). furthermore, a study evaluating the diversity of languages is done by gumperz. the other studies which have relation with the diversity of language use: errington (1985), suwito (1987), markhamah (2000), and kundharu sadhono (2003). berman (triyoga in 2004: 19) in his study entitled speaking through the silence: narratives, social conventions, and power in java found some problems related to the language used by “wong cilik” ( the grassroots represented by women factory workers in yogyakarta) as influenced by the sustained values in javanese community. javanese women had the tendency to show more reticence as the philosophy of nrima (the attitude of acceptance/surrender) to the prevailing conditions in javanese community. the similar research was the research of triyoga utami dharma (2004). she concludes that 1) the existing social relations between the speakers and hearers are able to determine the use of community 76 languages of klewer market traders with the javanese and non-javanese hearers; 2) the discovery of two registers in the use of everyday language community ethnic javanese traders in the market klewer sala namely social activities and register in the register in trading activities; 3) the determinants of the merchant community of ethnic language use java to interact with mira said ethnic javanese and non-java language and fakor consists of non-language. noviani (2004) explains that the form of slang used by street children in the city of semarang is in the form of single words and complex. the process of these word formation has undergone some process such as 1) the creation of new words with new meanings, 2) borrowing words of local and foreign language, 3) affixation, 4) shortening, 5) reduplication, and 6) compounding. while the functions of the use of slang language among street children in semarang city are to familiarize, to conceal the secret, to invite, to convey emotions or feelings, joke, advises, threats, mocks, curses and commands. prembayun miji lestari (2010) reports that the use of the language of street musicians has particular characteristics and cannot be separated from the three forms of interaction: internal interactions, external interactions, and mixed interactions. it was found there were code mixing, code switching, the informal variety of language which was characterized by the presence of the language of syncope and aphaeresis. besides, it was found the forms of register within the society of street musicians such as: pengamen ngampung, pengamen estafet, babi arab, sepur kelinci, genthong, hongkong, brompit, brompit peluk, sektor, operasi, and other forms of registers. suwito (1987) in his study entitled berbahasa dalam situasi 77 diglosik: kajian tentang kendala pemilihan dan pemilahan bahasa di dalam masyarakat tutur jawa di tiga kelurahan di kotamadya surakarta the use of language in a diglosic speaking situations: a study of constraints of language selection in javanese speaker community in three village in the municipality of surakarta, elaborated that the tendency of the citizen of the city of sala in distinguishing the use of javanese and indonesian was based on social, cultural, and situational factors. the use of both languages are not mutually influencing one another even though the use of the javanese is able to form bilinguality and multilinguality. markhamah (2000) shows that there is a close connection between the use of javanese language and ethnicity. the ethnic of chinese as the part of the city of sala has a variety of language in making their interaction with the hearer. however, they still keep their attitudes to maintain their culture, so that the use of javanese is limited in use it is just as a mediating language to interact with speakers of javanese society. the specificity of the javanese use of the ethnic of chinese can be shown in the interference, code switching and borrowing. furthermore, kundharu saddhono (2003) reports that the habit of using the language used in the madurese ethnic in surakarta depends on the existing circumstances and situations, to whom they talk to has a great influence for the choice of language they used. there are at least three choices of languages used by the ethnic of madurese living in surakarta, madurese, javanese, and indonesian. both study conducted by kundharu and markhamah had provided a more powerful depiction dealing with the use of the javanese language in the multi-ethnic societies in the region of surakarta. the above 78 numerous studies have given a great contribution in providing the direction and rationale for researcher in understanding the usage of language in a particular speaker‟s community. street children as a speech community street children are individuals under 18 years old who spent some or most of their time on the streets in order to perform their activities in the aim of earning money or sustaining life. the context of “jalanan” or “the streets” here not only refers to the places like streets, but it also leads to crowded places such as bus terminals, railway stations, markets, shopping centers, parks, and squares (saladin, 2000:13). in sociolinguistic conception of dell hymes, there is no explicit distinction between language as a system and speaking as a skills. both refers to communicative skills or communicative competence. communicative ability covers language skills possessed by the speakers along with their skills in expressing language in accordance with the functions and settings and its usage in the context of social norms. communicative ability owned by both individual and group is called verbal repertoire. verbal repertoire can be categorized twofold, namely the verbal repertoire of the individual and community-owned. if a community has a relatively equal verbal repertoire and has the same appreciation of the usage of the language in their society it is called masyarakat bahasa (speech community). suwito and kloss (in the depdikbud, 1995: 163) states that speech community is all the speakers of a language who have the same mother tongue and particular system of language. in other words, a language reflects the social identities of speakers, whereas their speech is a speech signal of social identity. based 79 on the verbal repertoire owned by the people, speech community is divided into threefold, namely monolingual (one language), bilingual (two languages), multilingual (more than two languages). based on the above description, it can be concluded that the group of street children who were the subject of this study is one of speech community since it uses the same system of language signs and has the same paradigm to the norms of language usage. in this case, street children belongs to speech community which has a variety of language characterized by features of mutual understanding (mutual intelligibility). the existence of this aspect of mutual understanding leads to smooth communication running in line with the expectation and successful conveyed message. language variation language variation is caused by the existence of social interaction activities which is underwent by the society or a very diverse social groups whose speakers are not homogeneous. in terms of language variation, there are two views. the first, variation is seen as a result of social diversity of language speakers and the variety of language functions. so the language variation that occurs as a result of social diversity and the diversity of language functions. the second, the language variation which had already exists in the aim of fulfilling its function as a means of interaction in a wide range of community activities. however, halliday distinguishes language variation based on the language user (dialect) and the language usage (register). chaer (2004:62) said that the language variation at the initial was distinguished by its speakers and language users. 80 code switching code switching is the lingual occurrence of switching or transition from one code to another code. for example,a particular language speaker is using bahasa then he is switching to use the java language. code switching is one aspect of language dependency (dependency language) in a multilingual society. in a multilingual society it is very difficult for a speaker to absolutely uses only one language. in code switching each language tends to support each function and each function should be in accordance to the lingual context. appel gives a definition of code switching as the tendency of language switching usage since there is a change in circumstances. suwito divides over code switching twofold: 1) extreme code switching: code switching such as switching from indonesian to english or vice versa and 2) internal code switching: the code switching in a form of variant switching , such as from the java language ngoko then changes into krama( javanese honorific level of speech). code mixing code mixing occurs when a speaker‟s of language dominantly uses a language supporting utterances which is interspersed with elements of another language. it is usually associated with the characteristics of speakers, such as social background, level of education and religious spirit. the distinctive characteristic is in a form of relax conversation within an informal situation. this happened since there is a poor or limited vocabulary of a particular language, the expression on the language has no equivalence, so the language speakers were forced to use another language, although it only supports a single function. code 81 mixing belongs to linguistic convergence. the background of code mixing can be classified into two types: the attitudes (attitudinal type) and the background of the attitude of the speakers. research methodology the analysis of problems in this study used theoretical and methodological approaches. the theoretical approach used in this study is the sociolinguistic approach, the approach of the research related to the theories or language theories in relation to the community or society (chaer and agustina 1995: 3). the methodological approach used was qualitative descriptive approach. in this study, the researcher describes the use of the language of street children in the regency of klaten. the source of research data is the usage of the language of street children, especially the street musicians who are members of the community of muat (musisi anak jalanan terminal klaten or the street musicians of street children of klaten bus terminal) and street vendors. the setting of the place of research was in the bus terminal due to the fact that it is a central gathering place for street children. the techniques used in collecting data of this study were (1) technique of tapping or recording technique in order to obtain a natural conversation; (2) teknik simak bebas libat cakap or technique which was used to observe the speech used by street children when they communicate but the researcher did not participate in the conversation of street children in order to get natural conversation; (3) simak libat cakap (involved conversation observation technique) which means that the researcher involved in the process of conversation which of street children in the klaten bus terminal; (4) recording technique which was 82 done using handycam; (5) taking note technique or changing the recording data into written data. the data are grouped based on type of the use of language and context of the conversation. discussion the use of language of street children in klaten bus terminal the language used by street children community in klaten bus terminal in their communication is mostly in the form of javanese ngoko and tends to use swearing words or pisuhan. there is also possibility of mixing javanese-indonesian and even foreign language vocabularies. the use of street children was characterized by the use of informal language which is influenced by social background of javanese cultural context. the code chosen by the community of street children depends on the type of people they encounter. if they communicate with strangers, they very often prefer to use indonesian rather than javanese. this is done to respect others and make communication more neutral. a person who masters two or more languages will face problems when she/he chooses language to use when she/he communicates with others. the phenomena can be found within the community of street children in klaten bus terminal. in fact, there are three types of code choices: (1) using the same language variation; (2) using code switching or using one language on one purpose, and using another language for other purposes; (3) using code mixing which means using a particular language by mixing pieces of some languages. the followings elaborate the daily usage of street children speech community. the use of javanese language the community of street children commonly use javanese ngoko in 83 their daily communication. all of the selected vocabulary usage is the usage of ngoko lugu words. the reason is because among the fellow members of the community are already familiar, there is no distance in communication. they tend to use impolite or vulgar ngoko. more details data can be viewed on the following conversation. (1) p: “gandheng sak iki dina nyadran, diwenehi penumpang buah apel ya ra pa pa. (since today is nyadran day, if passengers give an apple it doesn‟t matter) mt: “kowe arep munggah ra, yu?” (you will get in the bus, won‟t you miss?) p: “rasah nyangkir, wayahe munggah ya munggah. nak pengin dhisik, ya munggaha!”(don‟t talk too much, just get in the bus. if you wanna go first, please ,go!) mt: “ampak, nak ngana aku tak sik yo, yu? kowe ngentenana limang-limang menit engkas.”(yes, if it is like that i will go first, miss? you just wait for five minutes) p: “ampak kana dhisika, mengko nak ketangkep pii rasakna!” (well , you may go there at first, you may feel misery if suddenly you have been caught by pii!) (2) p: “wit mau _ampak munggah-munggah, kapan arep munggah kingko?” (what are you waiting for?, when will you get in the bus then?) mt: “durung munggah, yu?” (haven‟t you get in the bus, miss?) p: “lha piye le arep munggah. lha ngadhek-ngadhek trus kok” (how can i get in the bus, there is no space left) mt: wah, saya awan saya kebak”( well, the day is getting longer, it‟s (the bus) getting fuller) p: “kae langen radha sela, takmunggah kae wae we. lumayan nak entuk kena nggo nothol ro nggo tuku handphone black berry.” (that langen (bus) has somewhat less space, i‟ll take that. it‟s not bad if i can get (some money) to eat and buy blackberry) meanwhile, the community of street children use of javanese language of krama when they deal with other people or people outside 84 their community. this was done to show a respect to the hearer. this can be seen in the following data. (3) mt: “nderek lenggah ya, om”(may i sit here, sir?) p: “nggih, mangga…” (yes, please ...). the use of indonesian as it has been explained above, the community of street children use bahasa (indonesian) when they encounter strangers or the people outside their community as a tribute or a respect to the persons. from the data obtained it can be found that the use of indonesian by the community of street children is characterized by the dialect of jakartan, for instance: nyari, nawarin. the following is the supporting data. (4) p: “mbak, dulu kuliah di mana?” ("miss, where did you go for study?) mt: “uns, om” (uns, sir) p: “kosnya daerah mana, mbak?” (where was your boarding house, miss?) mt: “awalnya di jebres daerah panggung, kemudian di daerah ngoresan dekat rsj, terus di palur menjauh dari kampus” (at first i was in the area of jebres, panggung, then i moved to ngoresan near rsj (mental ilness hospital), then i stayed in palur -far away from campus) p: “nyari suasana baru ya, mbak?” (looking for new atmosphere , mbak?) mt: “ya, om” ("yes, sir) p: ”dulu saya jadi anak jalanan dengan pengamen kapas, tapi sejak satu tahun ini saya pindah ke klaten. ada yang nawarin, lalu saya gabung di muat. makanya saya hapal daerah solo, mbak. daerah operasi saya dulu di penggung, jebres.” (i used to be a street children with kapas street musicians, but since the last year i moved to klaten. there was someone offering me this, then i join 85 muat. it‟s why i know solo area very well, miss. my working in the past was in penggung, jebres) the use of mixed languages the use of this mixed languages produces code mixing and code switching. from the data, it can be found that there is mixed language use of javanese, indonesian, english and arabic. for instance, the use of english vocabulary words like “sorry”, “shopping”, “traveling”, “hand phone blackberry”, and etc. the use of arabic words can be found in the expression of astaghfirllahu adhzim . the use of this mixed language usually comes naturally. these foreign language terms which emerged in the language use of the community are usually common and familiar vocabulary used by the public. the characteristic of the language of street children in klaten bus terminal the language characteristics of the community of street children are on the aspects of (1) a variety of oral language, (2) swearing words or pisuhan, (3) the use of language style, and (4) the specific vocabulary of the community of street children. the variety of oral language of street children in performing communication, the community of street children tend to use more verbal interaction. there are several characteristics of variety of oral language usage of street children: a. shortening (contraction) shortening or contraction is done by removing one part of the 86 word, for example, (m-) engko (m-)engko (or later on), (ke-)piye (or how), (o-)ra (or no), (ing-)nggih (or yes), (a-)su (or dog (swearing word)), w(a)e (or only), d(huw)it (or money), (dhi-)sik (or go first), (a)wit‟ (or since), (i)ki (me)ngko (or later on) and etc. this can be seen on the following data. (5) “kae sopire kaya ra nde dosa!” (the driver looks like innocent!) (6)“bocah bayi we kemaki” (you are just little kid but naughty) (7) “lha aku ngathung we ra entuk dit lho! sik ngenteni kramat.” (i have held out my hands but i didn‟t earn money. i am waiting for kramat) (8) “wit mau durung munggah-munggah, kapan arep munggah kingko?” (why are you still staying here? when will you get in the bus?) the use of shortened forms of speech as shown in the example above is a common things in the verbal and direct face-to-face communication. the shortening phenomenon is an evidence of the existence of restricted speech. another form of shortening can be found in the following data: pora from opo ora (it isn‟t)‟ nggo from dinggo (to be used) piye from kepiye (how) wis from uwis (already) bar from bubar (completed) sih from isih (still) ndanak from nduwe anak (having kids) nde from nduwe (have) 87 kingko from iki mengko (later on) b. acronyms and abbreviations the acronym is a combination of letters or syllables which are written and commonly used to make easy and to make it effective dealing with the conversation in the community of street children particularly in klaten bus terminal. in addition, the development of technology and mass media has a great influence on the language and vocabularies which emerge in the community of street children. it is undeniable that the slang language and sometimes western nuanced words also appear in that community. gentholet as the acronym of gentho klelat-klelet (lazy criminal) pulkam is the acronym of ”pulang kampung (returning home) gondes is the acronym of gondrong ndeso (the long-haired villager) the following supporting data which shows the existence of an acronym, it can be found at the data code [9] and [10]. (9) p :“ooo…dasar gentholet! gondes, kowe!” (“ooo…you‟re gentholet! gondes”) (11) mt2:“iya. lha sing kantoran masih pada bolos menikmati mudik pulkam kok!” (“yes. the blue collar workers are off enjoying their “mudik pulkam”(returning home”) meanwhile, a commonly used acronyms for the community of street children take the first letter of every word. the examples of such abbreviations are: sst (shopping-shopping and traveling), ssw (sorrysorry wae), pii (the “wicked thugs” officials wearing black uniform), kapas (the family of street singers of surakarta), muat (child street 88 musicians klaten terminal), kj (kramat jati ), lj (langsung jaya (bus name)), sh (suharno (bus name)), pj (putra jaya (bus name)), jp (jaya putra (bus name)), aj (anter jaya (bus name)). the data (12), (13), (14), and (15) give valuable contexts: (12) mt:“ampak, nak ngana aku tak sik yo, yu? kowe ngentenana limang-limang menit engkas.”(“ okay, i will go first, miss? you just wait for five minutes”) p : “_ampak kana dhisika, mengko nak ketangkep pii rasakna!” (“well, you may go at first, you will get trouble if pii catch you”) (13) mt : “ora ngenteni lj apa sh wae” (“why don‟t you wait for li or sh instead? p : “ora, kj apa pj wae” (”no, i am just waiting for kj or pj) (14) p :“waduh, penuh lagi, penuh lagi! masak dari tadi bis penuh terus, kapan longgare?” ("wow, it‟s full again! the busses are always full all the time, when are they free?") mt1 :“masih pada sst alias shopping-shopping and travelling, kaleee…” (“they are still having sst or shoppingshopping and traveling, may be..." (15) mt2 : “aku munggah sik yo, kae aj teka.”("i‟ll get in at first. aj is coming.”) (16) p: ”dulu saya jadi anak jalanan dengan pengamen kapas, tapi sejak satu tahun ini saya pindah ke klaten, gabung di muat. makanya saya hapal daerah solo, mbak. daerah operasi saya dulu di penggung, jebres.” ("i used to be a street children with kapas street musicians, last year i moved to klaten. there was someone offering me this, then i joined muat. it‟s why i know solo area very well miss. my working area was in penggung, jebres") 89 code mixing – code switching the usage of street children language is inseparable from the existence of the process of code mixing. this occurs because of the fast growing of cultural and linguistic technologies that affect the language behavior of the community. the following examples show the data that uses the lexicon of bahasa (e.g. gayamu sok suci (you just like a saint)), the jakartan dialect (e.g. nawarin (offering), nyari (looking for)), english expressions (e.g. sorry, shopping, shopping and traveling, mobile black berry) and arabic (e.g. astaghfirllahu adzhim (oh my god, please forgive me)). (17) p:“ walah…cangkem ngger marep ndhuwur ya kaya ngana kuwi! gayamu sok suci!” ("oh my dear ... your talk is not proper and wise, you just like a saint!") (18)mt: “astaghfirllahu hal adzhim … nyebut, yu, yu…!”("astaghfirllahu adzhim ... ask, allah‟s forgiveness, sister...!") (19) p :“waduh, penuh lagi, penuh lagi! masak dari tadi bis penuh terus, kapan longgare?”(" ("wow, it‟s full again! the busses are always full all the time, when are they free?"?") (20)mt1: “masih pada sst alias shopping shopping and travelling, kaleee…” ("they are still having their sst or shopping-shopping and traveling, may be..." the other data indicate the presence of jakartan dialect as it can be seen in the following data. (21) p: “nyari suasana baru ya, mbak?” (looking for new atmosphere , miss?" mt: “ya, om” (“yes,sir”) p : ”dulu saya jadi anak jalanan dengan pengamen kapas, tapi sejak satu tahun ini saya pindah ke klaten. ada 90 yang nawarin, lalu saya gabung di muat. makanya saya hapal daerah solo, mbak. daerah operasi saya dulu di penggung, jebres.” ("i used to be a street children with kapas street musicians, last year i moved to klaten. there was someone offering me this, then i joined muat. it‟s why i know solo area very well miss. my working area was in penggung, jebres") while for code switching, it is switching from bahasa to javanese krama. (22) mt: “lha pindah, kenapa om?” (why did you move, sir?) p : “sami kaliyan jenengan mbak, pados swasana enggal” ('just like you,sister, i‟m looking for a new atmosphere”) mt: “o, gitu ceritanya, om…” (”oh, i see, sir”) p : “iya, mbak” (“yes,sister”) besides, in the variety of oral language, expressions of sala dialect are often used by the community of street children, such as: ki (“this”), lho, ta, kok, no, we, lha and etc. the usage of sala dialect is also frequently found on the process of communication using indonesian language. the use of rude language and “pisuhan”(swearing) based on the research observation, the verbal interaction among the community of street children in the terminal of klaten was dominated by rude language and swearing. they usthe languageually communicate in javanese ngoko (informal language). this is used in everyday communication in order to be familiar and break the edges among them. sometimes they also mix other languages (such as indonesian, arabic and english), eventhough the javanese ngoko still dominate. 91 (23) p: “ngapa mlorok ngulatke aku, su!”(“why do you stare at me, doggy (swearing word like bastard)?' mt: “sapa sing ngulatke kowe, su! ssw, sorry-sorry wae lah yauww” (“who‟s looking at you, doggy! ssw, it‟s a pity and shame on you”) p :“bocah bayi we kemaki!”(you are naughty boy) mt: “ben, tho!” (i don‟t care!) p :“ooo…dasar gentholet! gondes, kowe!” the above data contains a conversation between an 18 years old senior street singer as the speaker (p) and the 17 th junior street singer as the speaking partner (mt). both of them have a quarrel so that the words they uttered is rude words which contain words of profanity. this was indicated by the usage of the word “asu” which is shortened by the use of the word “su” or „dog‟. the next one is the use of the sentence “bocah bayi we kemaki” and the sentence “ooo.. dasar gentholet! gondhes kowe!” those are forms of abuse to show the feeling of resentment. in addition, the sentence contains the elements of underestimating his partner speaker. the word „mlorok‟ “melirik” (“pierce,” “sharp glance”) is one of the rude or profane lexicon. the other frequent profanity language which emerged in the conversation are: anjing (dog), kirik (puppy), kucing (cat), matamu (your eyes), monyet (monkey), wedhus gibas (sheep), diancuk, setan (satan), iblis (devil), ndasmu (your head). the other profanity words are mostly from the names of animals and body parts of human beings. the words are derived from indonesian language, javanese language, english, or a mixture of two or more languages. language style in everyday conversation, the community of street children tend to 92 use metaphor and metonymy to communicate their intentions. the purpose and the use of this style of language is to keep their intentions from others; outsiders will not understand the real message of the conveyed words. metaphor metaphor is a kind of analogy that compares two entities directly in a short way along with using the words that already exists in everyday life. in other words, metaphor is the use of words or other expression to describe objects and conception which is based on figurative style, for example kaki meja (foot of table) is a comparison to the figurative style of human feet. from the conducted research, there are some words which comprise some words of metaphor. metaphor can be found in the form of living beings and inanimate objects. the metaphor in a form of inanimate objects takes the reference of inanimate objects to describe a situation or similar circumstances. the examples of this kind of metaphor of inanimate objects can be seen in the data [24] below. (24) p : “oalah, cangkirmu kuwi lho, waton mangap…” (your cup, it just talks and talks…) mt :“cangkirmu dhewe! mbok rasah misuh ngana kuwi, marai dosa lho! tenan kuwi.” (it‟s your own cup! end up your swearing, it is a sinful acts! i am serious) the above data contains inanimate metaphor. it describes about the word cangkirmu or “your cup”. the word “cup” in the context of the community of street children in klaten terminal designated to symbolize “human mouth”, since “the mouth of the cup” resembles the human 93 mouth. the word cangkir or “cup” has become a special vocabulary that is often used to communicate among the street singers in the community to replace the usage of the word mouth. this type of metaphor is intended to make it more polite instead of the use of the word cangkem or cocot; the javanese words to describe human mouth which is belong to the words of insult and profanity. the other metaphors found in the community of street children take living things and the referents are animal or beast. the metaphors are frequently used to express anger. the examples of these metaphorical words are: asu-asu (dogs) and bajingan-bajingan (the bastards) to describe the stingy/miserly bus passengers when they were busking and there is no passenger who gives them money. the javanese metaphorical words lawa ijo (green bat) refers to street children who like to wear a big jacket with green color. a more details elaboration can be seen in the following data. (25) p : “wingi penumpange asu-asu, bajingan kabeh! aku bengak-bengok ra ana sing ngeweki.” (yesterday the passengers are dogs, all bastards! i sung loudly but no one gave me money) (25) p : “sing arep munggah sapa?” (who is supposed to get in the bus now? mt:“kudune lawa ijo” (it should be green bats). (26) mt2: “aku munggah sik yo, kae aj teka. muga-muga wae isine dudu asu-asu” (i‟ll get in the bus first, that‟s the aj is coming. i hope its passengers are not dogs.) metonymy metonymy is the use of a name to describe another object which has particular associations or its attributive functions (kridalaksana, 94 2001: 137). this style of language is also used to give reference towards the street children of bus terminal who have specific features or characterization. for instance saying them as lawa ijo (green bats), bagong, etc. a more detailed elaboration can be seen in the data (27). (27) p : “awas lho dishooting, sesuk dilebokake tipi.” (look out ! you‟re being televised at now, tomorrow you‟ll be on tv news) mt : “sing metu dhisik lawa ijo, hahahaha….” (the first portrayal should be the green bat, hahahaha (laughing) ....) p : “rak, sing metu kowe kuwi lho. rupamu rak kaya grandong, dadine apik nak dilebokke tipi” (no, you‟ll first come up. your face is like bad monster. it‟s suitable to be on tv news) mt : “dapurmu kuwi sing kaya grandong, hahaha….” (your kitchen (face) is the more suitable to be like bad monster, hahaha (laughing)....) the javanese lexicon lawa ijo (the geen bat) refers to a street children who have the characteristics of liking or frequently using the attributes of green jacket or shirt. the word grandong is used to describe the street children who have a pockmarked face. this was taken from television portrayals about grandong which has horrible or creepy face. specific vocabularies of street children in general, particular lexicons used by community of street children is a vocabulary that has to do with the activity of the community. practicaly, the community of the street children choose certain words with specific meanings (isomorphic). the existence of 95 some different meaning is added to the lexical meaning of a word as the agreement of the community of street children. based on the collected data, the expression of street children in klaten bus terminal consists the units of lingual words and phrases. the lingual unit is a word which is able to stand alone and created from free morphemes or the combination of free and bound morphemes. to understand the linguistic behavior, it is inseparable with the context and accompanying circumstances. these are the particular lexicons of street children community: (28) p : “ooo…dasar gentholet! gondes, kowe!”(ooh you‟re such a criminal) (29) mt : “kowe arep munggah ra, yu?” (you will get in the bus, won‟t you, sister?” p : “rasah nyangkir, wayahe munggah ya munggah. nak pengin dhisik, ya munggaha!” (don‟t talk too much (a cup), i will get in the bus on just get in the bus. if ythe proper time. if you want to go first, please! ' mt :“_ampak, nak ngana aku tak sik yo, yu? kowe ngentenana limang-limang menit engkas.”'yes, if it is like that i will go first, sister? you just wait for five minutes ' p : “_ampak kana dhisika, mengko nak ketangkep pii rasakna!” (well , you may go there at first,you may feel misery if suddenly you have been caught by pii!) the word gentholet in the data (28) is an acronym of gentho klelat-klelet (a lazy criminal). this refers to street children who are lazy to work. the word gondes is an acronym of the words used to describe long-haired criminal who has weird-looking and are identical to those who belong to criminal or underworld people. the word munggah (get in) refers to the activity of street children 96 especially the street singers to start singing and offer their songs from bus to bus. the lingual unit of nyangkir” (a cup) refers to a person who talks too much. whereas, the word pii is the abbreviation of preman irengireng (criminals in black). pii is the term to describe the officials or police officers who is in charge to arrest street singers. (30) mt : “karo bala dhewe, masak kudu mbayar, bro!” (you‟re my own friends, will you ask me to pay, brother?) (31) p :“kok wajahe kabeh wajah romusa kabeh ngana!” (why all of their faces look like romusha (slaves when japan occupied indonesia)?) (32) mt : “sing metu dhisik lawa ijo, hahahaha….” (the first portrayal should be the green bat, hahahaha ....") p :“rak, sing metu kowe kuwi lho. rupamu rak kaya grandong, dadine apik nak dilebokke tipi” (no, you‟ll first come up. your face is like bad monster. it‟s suitable to be on tv news) (33) p :“kae langen radha sela, takmunggah kae wae we. lumayan nak entuk kena nggo nothol ro nggo tuku handphone black berry..” (that langen (bus) has somewhat less space, i‟ll take that. it‟s not bad if i can get it, i can afford to eat and buy blackberry”) the word bala dhewe (friends) refers to express the feeling of one family in the community of street children in the klaten bus terminal. meanwhile, the word romusha is used by the community of street children to describe people or bus passengers who have horrible or sinister face. the word lawa ijo (green bat) refers to street children who have the hobby of wearing big zine and green (baggy) shirt or jacket. the word nothol is used to describe eating activity. the word nothol is belonging to 97 rude words and usually refers to the activing of feeding animals. (34) mt: “kantong jatahe kapan?” (when kantong (shack) will get his turns?) p : ”puteran kedua paling” ((he) maybe will get the second round) (35) p : “oalah, cangkirmu kuwi lho, waton mangap…” (oalah, watch your cup (mouth), don‟t just speak up…..." mt : “cangkirmu dhewe! mbok rasah misuh ngana kuwi, marai dosa lho! tenan kuwi” ('your own cup (mouth). it is better not to say bad words like that, it is a sin! i am serious.) the word jatah (turns) and puteran (round) has almost similar meaning. what distinguishes them depends on the context with whom (the person) the speaker talk to. the word puteran has side by side meaning to the amount or the number of frequencies of the street singers have an opportunity to sing. in addition, the word cangkir (cup) is a word used by the community to replace the word of mouth. (36) mt2 : “aku munggah sik yo, kae aj teka. muga-muga wae isine dudu asu-asu” (i‟ll get in the bus first, that‟s the aj is coming. i hope its passengers are not dogs anymore) (37) mt1 : ”aku operasi jam pira, ya? antrine isih ngulo, ya” (when i‟ll get my turn to do my job? what a long queue,huh) p : ”sabar lik, lagi wae mudhun kok wis arep munggah meneh” (be patient, uncle. you‟ve just get off the bus then you want to get in again) mt3 : ”ngoyak setoran nggo apa, kok mempeng temen?” (you‟re so laborious in achieving the target of payment, why is that so?) the lingual unit of munggah describe the very beginning of the singing activity from bus to the bus which is carried by the community of 98 street children, especially the street singers. the antonym of munggah (get in) is mudhun (get off). they are used to indicate if the singers had finished singing from the bus. the word operasi in the street singer context is used to describe the activity to sing, whereas the word ngulo (it is like a snake) is used to describe long queue to get gturn. furthermore, the word setoran is used to describe the target payment or money which must be paid to the treasurer of the community of street children. conclusion the main conclusions drawn as the results of data analysis and discussion dealing with the language behavior of street children community in the klaten bus terminal are: first, the social environment of the community of street children can not be separated from the diversity of oral language. the use of variety of different oral languages indicated by the the existing characteristics like: shortening, acronyms and abbreviations that can not be separated from the activities of street children of bus terminal and language behavior of the various cultural faced by street chldren community which lead to code mixing and cosde switching. second, the verbal interaction found in the community of street children can not be separated from the community of street children themselves or by others or new people who are not part of that community. the visible verbal interaction in the community is dominated by rude, profane and insult language. meanwhile, in the choice of languages, most of them prefer using javanese ngoko (low level or informal), and they will switch to speak in bahasa when they deal with outsider or not the member of the community of street children. besides, 99 the linguistic behavior of street children also tend to use metaphor and metonymy in communicating with others. there are some specific lexicons found in the community of street children such as: gentholet, gondes, cangkir, pii, mudhun, munggah, bala dhewe, asu-asu, wajah romusha, setoran, ngulo, lawa ijo, grandong, puteran, jatah, and others. references chaer, abdul dan leonie agustina. 1993. sosiolinguistik perkenalan awal. jakarta: rineka cipta. depdikbud. 1995a. teori dan metode sosiolinguistik i. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. _________. 1995b. teori dan metode sosiolinguistik ii. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. dwi purnanto. 2001. register pialang kendaraan bermotor: studi pemakaian bahasa kelompok profesi di surakarta (tesis). surakarta: sebelas maret university press. gorys keraf. 2000. diksi dan gaya bahasa. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. gumperz, john.1971. language in social groups: essays by john j. gumperz (selected and introduced by anwar s dil). california: stanford university press. harimurti kridalaksana. 2001. kamus linguistik. jakarta: pt. gramedia pustaka utama. kundharu saddhono. 2004. etnik madura, perspektif integrasi linguistis kultural. surakarta: pustaka cakra. markhamah. 2000. etnis cina: kajian linguistis kultural. surakarta: universitas muhammadiyah press. ohoiwutun, paul. 2002. sosiolinguistik: memahami bahasa dalam konteks masyarakat dan kebudayaan. jakarta: kesaint blanc. shalahuddin, odi. 2000. anak perempuan jalanan. semarang: yayasan setara. sudaryanto. 2001. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. 100 sumarsono dan paina partana. 2004. sosiolinguistik. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. sutopo, h.b. 2002. metodologi penelitian kualitatif: dasar teori dan terapannya adalam penelitian. surakarta: sebelas maret university press. suwito. 1987. berbahasa dalam situasi diglosik: kajian tentang kendala pemilihan bahasa dan pemilahan bahasa di dalam masyarakat tutur jawa di tiga kelurahan kotamadya surakarta (disertasi). jakarta: universitas indonesia. _______. 1993. sosiolinguistik: sebuah pengantar. surakarta: sebelas maret university press. _______.1997. sosiolinguistik: pengantar awal. surakarta: fakultas sastra universitas sebelas maret. triyoga dharma utami. 2004. pemakaian bahasa komunitas pedagang etnik jawa dengan mitra tutur etnik jawa dan non-jawa di pasar klewer sala (kajian sosiolinguistik). surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. troike, murriel saville. 1989. the etnography of communication. oxford: basil blackwell. usdiyanto. 2003. register militer: kajian sosiopragmatik (studi kasus di sekolah menengah umum taruna nusantara magelang). tesis. surakarta: sebelas maret university press. wardaugh, ronald. 1988. an introduction to sociolinguistics. oxford: basil blackwell. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.28-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.28-48 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 28 corrective feedbacks and grammar teaching in a situated teaching context of process-based writing hartono hartono universitas islam sultan agung hartono@unissula.ac.id choiril anwar universitas islam sultan agung choirilanwar@unissula.ac.id afina murtiningrum universitas islam sultan agung doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.28-48 submission track: received: 22/04/2019 final revision: 21/05/2019 available online: 01/06/2019 corresponding author: hartono hartono, hartono@unissula.ac.id abstract this study was aimed at finding out 1) how learners in a specific teaching-learning context namely process-based academic essay writing perceived the importance of corrective feedbacks (cf); 2) what cf was expected the most; 3) in what way learners preferred to have their cf provided; and 4) how learners perceived the importance of grammar teaching. it was conducted at english literature department of a university in central java indonesia. forty-two students who were taking essay writing course served as the subjects for the study. the course itself was delivered in a process-based writing in which content development and rhetoric were given more emphasis than grammar accuracy was. data for the study were collected by questionnaire and a semi-structured interview with 5 guided questions. the findings suggest that learners still considered cfs as important and useful for their writing improvement. learners expected to have comprehensive cfs of grammar, vocabulary, spelling, organization and punctuation, and cf on grammar was the most preferred one. in terms of cf provision technique, underlying and making notes were the most preferred techniques. even though it was in a process-based writing classroom, grammar teaching was still perceived very important. finally, this study concludes that the shift of approach from a product-based to a process-based did not significantly change learners’ focus from forms to content. keywords: process-based approach, corrective feedbacks, grammar teaching, learners’ perception mailto:hartono@unissula.ac.id mailto:choirilanwar@unissula.ac.id http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.28-48 hartono hartono, choiril anwar, afina murtiningrum 29 introduction providing corrective feedbacks (cf) is a common practice and function of writing teachers especially writing in a foreign or second language (chen, nassaji, & liu, 2016). though it is a time consuming, tedious and painstaking task (al-jarrah, 2016; ferris, 2002; semke, 1984), teachers keep doing this since they believe that learners will be able to improve their writing with their feedback. theoretically, feedbacks have roles in both second language learning and language pedagogy. behaviorist and cognitive theories suggest that feedbacks contribute to language learning, while structural and communicative approaches view feedbacks as a means of fostering learners’ motivation and ensuring linguistic accuracy (ellis, 2009). feedback is provided not only for the purpose of assessment but also for assisting learners to work out of text’s potential. it assists learners to comprehend the writing context and to provide a sense of audience and their expectation of the texts (hyland & hyland, 2006a). it contributes to learners’ progress, the engagement of students in learning process, and the revision responses expected from the learners (parr & timperley, 2010). feedback provision may also serve as a means of creating effective teacher-learner and learner-learner interactions in teaching-learning context which finally can trigger revisions for language improvement (hyland, 1998; seker & dincer, 2014). broadly defined, cf is a response to a learner’s utterance that contains error (ellis & sheen, 2006), while written corrective feedback (wcf) is a written response to a linguistic errors, either provided directly or indirectly, that has been made in the writing of a text by an l2 learner (yamashita, 2017). direct wcf is the provision of correct linguistic forms or structure by the teacher, while indirect wcf is the provision of indication (through a symbol or an abbreviation) to the learners that an error has been made (storch, 2010). feedback can have motivational and informational meanings. motivationally, it affects the effort made by the learners, while informationally it tells learners the need to change their performance towards a particular direction. besides, it serves as re-inforcement by which rewards and/or punishment might be administered (ravand & rasekh, 2011). although, cf has become a common practice and a hot topic of study in second/foreign language writing for such a long time, the debate over its effectiveness in improving learners’ writing accuracy just started in 1996 with the publication of truscott’s work on the case against grammar correction (truscott, 1996). truscott has made a very strong claim that grammar correction is useless and should be eliminated from classroom practice because it has no empirical grounds on its effectiveness both practically and theoretically. ferris (ferris, register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.28-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.28-48 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 30 1999), however, keeps arguing that there have been a lot of research findings which show that error corrections can and do help. though the debate on its effectiveness is still going on until these days, the results remain inconclusive (alimohammadi & nejadansari, 2014; bitchener & knoch, 2009; bitchener, young, & cameron, 2005; diab, 2005; hyland, 1998; hyland & hyland, 2006a; jusa & kuang, 2016; karim & nassaji, 2015; maharani, 2017; storch, 2010; vyatkina, 2011; wahyuni, 2017). research in cf so far has been directed to at least 2 areas. the first area investigates the effectiveness of the cf both by the proponents which claim that providing cf is significant in improving learners’ writing (bitchener, 2008; bitchener & knoch, 2009; bitchener et al., 2005; chandler, 2003; ellis, 2009; ferris, 1999; k. hyland & hyland, 2006a; nakanishi, 2007), and by the opponents which claim that cf is not significant even harmful for learning (kepner, 1991; liu & carless, 2006; polio, fleck, & leder, 1998; semke, 1984; shin, 2008; truscott, 1996, 2007). the second area, rather than measuring its effectiveness, focuses the learners’ perception and preferences on it; how learners perceive cf and what types of cf learners mostly expect to have to improve their writing (amrhein & nassaji, 2010; black & nanni, 2016; a. v. brown, 2009; chen et al., 2016; diab, 2005; ghanbari, amiramini, & shamsoddini, 2014; karim & nassaji, 2015; park, 2010; seker & dincer, 2014). researchers in this area believe that learners’ preference is important to be investigated to avoid teachers being misled by their own perceptions since students may construe instructional techniques in different ways than the teacher may have expected (chen et al., 2016). in addition, teaching and learning will be more effective if there is no gap between what teachers do and what the learners expect. the gap will trigger learners’ discontent on the learning which further may impair the learning process itself (brown, 2009). different learning and situational contexts have made the results of research on teachers’ and learners’ perceptions and preferences on cf different. mostly, learners perceived that cf was useful for their language improvement and help them write better (karim & nassaji, 2015; listiani, 2017; seker & dincer, 2014). learners found out that wcf is an important aspect of their language learning experience because it can help them identify the recurring errors, provide opportunities for writing improvement, and help them give attention on language form and accuracy (chen et al., 2016; diab, 2005). research also found that learners considered teachers’ feedback more important than other types of feedbacks (amrhein & hartono hartono, choiril anwar, afina murtiningrum 31 nassaji, 2010), and that learners’ preference and teachers’ practice in providing cf were not much different (lee, 2005). learners were satisfied with cfs and wanted to have more because they facilitated their learning (ghanbari et al., 2014). concerning the types of errors to be corrected, studies found that students are varied in terms of preference (black & nanni, 2016; lee, 2005), but mostly they had positive perception about the corrections of form-focused errors such as grammatical errors, punctuation errors, spelling errors, and vocabulary errors rather than content-focused errors (amrhein & nassaji, 2010; ashwell, 2000; hyland, 2003; nanni & black, 2017). other studies found that students prefer to have content-related feedback (semke, 1984) and to have a comprehensive error feedback. previous research on learners’ preference on cf was mostly conducted under a general setting of teaching and learning. the study of chen at al. (2016) for example, was conducted in a public university, while karim and nassaji (2015) conducted a study in a general english classes of intermediate level. similarly, the study of seker and dincer (2014) was conducted in a preparatory education before students start studying university. this present study was different because it was conducted under a specific teaching-learning context namely processapproach writing where for one semester students were taught writing on academic essays by applying a process-based approach from planning, drafting, revising and writing for the final product. by definition, process-approach writing is an approach to writing in which learners focus more on their process of writing, what the writers do, rather than on their would-be-finished product look like. in the end, learners finally have to finish and have a written product, yet each step in the writing process itself gets more emphasis. by focusing on the process of writing, learners are expected to understand themselves better, and find how to work through the writing (onozawa, 2010). students’ ability in developing and organizing ideas or the rhetoric through the writing process is emphasized more than in other writing approach. this approach was born in l1 context in north american universities when writing teachers realized that their students needed to have another type of attention and instruction not just simply a final product (hyland & hyland, 2006b). in a process approach, writing is treated as a creative act and a thinking process, a writer produces a final written product based on his thinking after going through a series of thinking activities (brown, 2001). register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.28-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.28-48 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 32 there have been some studies investigating the effectiveness of process-based writing in improving learners’ writing competence. it was found that process-based writing approach had a great impact on the writing skill of learners and reduce their writing anxiety (arici & kaldirim, 2015). process approach writing could change the students’ negative attitude and behavior towards writing (setyono, 2014), and improved writing ability and enhanced students’ socio-cognitive development (ho, 2006; puengpipattrakul, 2014; rohmatika, 2014). the present study is significant because understanding the students’ preference and perception in learning from a situated perspective will help teachers to provide feedback on a specific context by identifying what students need and prefer under specific setting and contextual constraints of learning context (amrhein & nassaji, 2010; hyland & hyland, 2006a). furthermore, as suggested by hyland, students’ involvement in the decision making is important and needs to be acknowledged so that teachers can view students as active agents who are able to construct the terms and conditions of their own learning, respond and adapt their writing and revision strategies based on the feedback they receive (hyland, 2010). this is what referred as the humanistic aspect of writing teaching assessment (hamp-lyons, 2008). under this perspective, the study was conducted to answer the following research questions: (1) how did learners in a process-based academic essay writing class perceive the importance of corrective feedbacks? (2) what corrective feedbacks did learners in a processbased academic essay writing class expect most? (3) in what way did learners in a process based academic essay writing class prefer to have their cf from the teachers? and (4) how did learners in a process-based academic essay writing class perceive the importance of grammar teaching? research method setting and participants the study was conducted at english literature department of a university in central java indonesia. forty-two students taking essay writing course were selected as the participants of the study. they were grouped into two small classes with 21 students each, namely literature 1 (l1) and literature 2 (l2). the small size of the class was intended to facilitate better learning environment. one of the researchers was the lecturer of the course for the whole semester. the course actually came after two previous writing courses namely hartono hartono, choiril anwar, afina murtiningrum 33 intensive course for writing during their first semester, paragraph-based writing during their second semester. the class met once a week for 90 minutes but the students had a lot of writing assignments to be done independently outside the classroom. since the first day of the course, the students had been informed that the course would adopt process-based writing which involved planning, drafting, revising and final draft. in almost every week, students had to submit their work based on the progress of the process. the submitted work would be reviewed by the lecturer and returned to the students for improvement. feedbacks on various kinds were provided for them in the forms of comments, questions, cross signs, underlines, etc. written in the students’ papers and some were presented orally during the class session. in certain occasions, direct feedbacks were given, in the other occasions indirect feedbacks were chosen to replace the direct method. when students did not happen to understand the correct and appropriate forms of language, content or organization, the lecturer explained them in the classroom or asked the students to see the lecturer for discussion and explanation during class hours. students then revised the draft based on the feedbacks they received and resubmitted it to the lecturer together with their previous draft so that the lecturer could check what students did with the cf. the course covers topics of general description of essays, how to write essays, and essay writing practices of different genres as description, explanation, compare-contrast, causeeffect, and argumentation. final grading was based the students’ portfolio which consisted of the final draft and all previous and corrected drafts. instrument data for the study were collected by questionnaire and interviews. the questionnaire adopted the items used by chen et al. with modification (chen et al., 2016). it was designed in two parts and for the sake of comprehensibility and practicality was written in indonesian language as the mother tongue of the students. the first part collected information about the respondents’ personal information as name, study program, semester, and gender, while the second part consisted of 8 items. the first one collected information about respondents’ perception about the importance of grammar teaching. it was presented on 7 statements requiring responses in likert-type scales of agreement from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. item indicating that grammar teaching was not important was reversely scored. the second item collected information on respondents’ perception on the importance of cf with 5 register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.28-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.28-48 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 34 options from “absolutely unimportant” to “absolutely important”. item 3 collected information on respondents’ most preferred cf with 5 options of grammar, vocabulary, spelling, organization, and punctuation. item 4 dealt with what respondents expected their lecturers to do when there were many errors in their writing. item 5 inquired respondents’ preference on technique on cf provision. item 6 collected respondents’ opinion dealing with the importance of long comments made by the lecturers. item 7 was about respondents’ opinion on the importance of lecturer’s comments on content, grammar, organization, and overall quality, while the last item was about what respondents would do with the cf. for the semi-structured interview, 5 questions were used as guides. they were about the importance of grammar skill for writing, the benefits of having cf, the most preferred cf type, respondents’ follow up on cf, and respondents’ preference of direct vs. indirect cf. under consideration of representativeness and practicality, the interviews were conducted with only 7 students who were selected from the population using systematic random sampling. the purpose for the interview was to explore their further opinions and reasons of the preferences as well as their wider perspective about the topic. students’ responses were transcribed. data from the questionnaires were analyzed descriptively, while data of interview transcripts were analyzed interpretatively in relation to the information collected. findings and discussion result a. the importance of cfs the first part of the questionnaire includes data about the respondents’ perception on the importance of cf covering 6 statements namely the importance of cf in general, cf with long and detailed comments, cf on content, cf on grammar, cf on organization, and cf on the writing quality as a whole. the respondents rated the importance of those items in 5 scales of importance “absolutely not important”, “not important”, “no comment”, “important”, and “very important” which were scored 1 to 5 respectively. the results were presented in table 1. hartono hartono, choiril anwar, afina murtiningrum 35 table 1. respondents’ perception on the importance of cfs no items n minimu m maximu m mean std. deviatio n category 1 the importance of cf in general 42 3.00 5.00 4.12 .74 high 2 the importance of cf with long & detailed comments. 42 1.00 5.00 3.86 .89 high 3 the importance of cf on content 42 2.00 5.00 4.19 .86 high 4 the importance of cf on grammar 42 2.00 5.00 4.17 .79 high 5 the importance of cf on organization 42 1.00 5.00 4.21 .78 high 6 the importance of cf on the writing quality as a whole 42 3.00 5.00 4.21 .68 high valid n (list wise) 42 the categorization to “high”, “moderate”, and “low” as in table 1 was based on the hypothetical means where mean scores lower than 2.36 (the score of hypothetical means minus standard deviation) were categorized as “low”, while the scores above 3.66 (the score of hypothetical means plus standard deviation) were categorized as “high”. the mean scores between these two were categorized as “moderate”. the results as presented in table 1 show that most of respondents perceived cfs as highly important. of the 6 items, 5 of them had mean scores above 4 in which cf on organization and on the writing quality as a whole had the highest mean scores (4.21). respondents believed it was very important to get feedbacks in terms of his/her writing organization. in other words, they needed to know whether their ideas were structurally organized. in a process-based writing, organization is an aspect which is given much emphasis (onozawa, 2010), therefore, it is very good that learners were wondering whether they had been able to do well or not by expecting feedbacks. a well-organized writing helps readers follows the ideas; therefore, it is important to get feedbacks for improvement. item 2 namely cf with long & detailed comments had the lowest mean score (3.86). it is understandable because most writers actually do not expect long and detailed comments. all they need are simple comments and suggestion so that they can know what to do to improve register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.28-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.28-48 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 36 the writing. for some, long comments are more irritating than helping. an overwhelming comment is frustrating and may lead to the lowering of their self-confidence. b. mostly preferred cfs data of mostly preferred cf were collected by 3 items of questionnaire namely 1) types of cf mostly preferred by respondents with 5 options of grammar, vocabulary, spelling, organization, and punctuation. secondly, it was the mostly preferred correction. if there were many errors in the writing, what the respondents expected their lecturer to do with the errors/mistakes. this item was set with options that lecturer should a) correct all the errors/ mistakes, b) correct the major errors/mistakes, c) correct the errors/mistakes which influence the ideas being communicated, and d) only correct content errors/mistakes and ignore grammar errors/mistakes. the third was about the mostly preferred technique of cf provision with options of a) underlying without correction, b) underlying and making notes on reference for correction, c) only specifying the errors/mistakes but not correcting, d) indicating the errors/mistakes and specifying them, and e) underlying the errors/mistakes and correcting them, f) correcting and explaining the errors/mistakes, g) making cross sign (x) next to the errors/mistakes without correcting, and h) suggesting to get help from friends. the results are presented in table 2. table 2. mostly preferred cf and their provision techniques no item options provided number of response percent 1 mostly preferred cf type grammar 34 80.95 vocabulary 5 11.91 spelling 0 0 organization 3 7.14 punctuation 0 0 2 mostly preferred way of correction correcting all the errors/mistakes 32 76.19 correcting the major errors/mistakes 5 11.91 correcting the errors/mistakes which influence ideas 3 7.14 only correcting content errors/mistakes and ignore grammar 2 4.76 3 mostly preferred technique underlying without correction 2 4.76 underlying and making notes on reference for correction 10 23.81 hartono hartono, choiril anwar, afina murtiningrum 37 of feedback provision only specifying the errors/mistakes but not correcting 0 0 indicating the errors/mistakes and specifying them 8 19.05 underlying and correcting the errors/mistakes 12 28.57 correcting and explaining the errors/mistakes 8 19.05 making cross sign (x) without correcting 0 0 suggesting to get help from friends 2 4.76 for the first, the data in table 2 show that grammar cf was the first mostly preferred correction by having 80.95% of respondents. the second mostly preferred cf was vocabulary by having 11.91% respondents. three respondents (7.14%) chose to have organization cf as the most preferred one, while no respondent chose cf on spelling and punctuation. the data suggest that for the respondents grammar was an important issue in writing so that they had an extra attention on it. correction on it was the highest priority. this finding was in line with the previous data that grammar correction was the most demanding. for item 2, correcting all the errors/mistakes had become the most preferred correction the respondents expected from their lecturer. this option was chosen by 32 respondents (76.19%). correcting only the major errors/mistakes was preferred by 11.91% of the respondents, while two other ways of correction (correcting the errors/mistakes which influence ideas and only correcting content errors/mistakes and ignore grammar) were preferred by only few respondents. for item 3 of the technique of error correction, the three most preferred ways were underlying and correcting the errors/mistakes (28.57%), underlying and making notes on reference for correction (23.81%), indicating the errors and specifying them and correcting and explaining each was chosen by 8 respondents (19.05%). suggesting to get help from friends was chosen by only 2 respondents, while only specifying the errors/mistakes but not correcting and making cross sign (x) without correcting were chosen by no respondent. the very small number of respondents chose “suggesting to get help from friends” may mean that the potential cf to trigger learner-learner interactions (f. hyland, 1998; seker & dincer, 2014) did not really materialize. c. the importance of grammar teaching the third part of the questionnaire was about respondents' perceptions of grammar teaching. it has 7 items of statement (from “a” to “g”) requiring responses on the basis of their agreement. the result is presented in table 3. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.28-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.28-48 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 38 table 3. descriptive statistics of respondents’ perception on the importance of grammar teaching n minimum maximum mean std. deviation score total 42 18.00 31.00 25.17 2.95 valid n (list wise) 42 category category frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid moderate 22 52.4 52.4 52.4 high 20 47.6 47.6 100.0 total 42 100.0 100.0 table 3 shows that the minimum score in the descriptive statistics is 18, and the maximum is 31, while the mean and standard deviation are 25.17 and 2.95 respectively. for further analysis, the data were then categorized into 3 levels of perception of “low”, “moderate”, and “high” by using hypothetical mean and standard deviation. respondents having low perception of grammar importance are those with total score lower than 16.44, while for those having scores above 25.66 are categorized into having high perception of importance. respondents with moderate perception of grammar importance, therefore, are those with scores standing between the low and the high. as a result, overall it was found that the respondents of the research had moderate perception about the importance of grammar teaching but with a very close score to high level. the item analysis is presented in table 4. it displays the mean score of each item from (a) to (g) as the following: table 4. items’ mean scores of grammar teaching importance no statements mean score category a. grammar course is important to master writing skills. 4.19 high b. learning grammar improves my skills in writing. 4.02 high c. i believe that my writing skill will improve quickly if i learn and practice grammar. 3.85 high d. i like to study grammar 3.14 moderate e. i need more grammar teaching in writing class. 3.88 high f. i think of grammar rules when i am writing. 3.48 moderate g. i think that practicing english in the real contexts is more important than grammar learning. 2.60 low hartono hartono, choiril anwar, afina murtiningrum 39 the data show that item (a) “grammar course is important to master writing skills” has the highest mean score followed by item (b) which says that “learning grammar improves my skills in writing”. item (c) which is about respondents’ beliefs that learning and practicing grammar will improve writing skill and item (e) which describes respondents’ need for grammar teaching in writing class also have high scores. these indicate that learning grammar is really important for those who like to improve their writing skills. learners still firmly hold that grammar teaching correlates positively to writing skill. consequently, they need a grammar course so that they are able to enhance their understanding on grammar by having discussion with the teacher as well as their classmates and consulting with the teacher about some complicated grammatical issues. on the contrary, item (g) which states that practicing english in the real contexts is more important than grammar learning has the lowest mean score. this is very consistent as they believe that when they want to be good at writing, mastering grammar is a must and cannot be substituted. d. the interview the semi structure interview was guided by six questions namely 1) the importance of grammar knowledge to develop english writing skills and why; 2) how the respondents responded when writing teacher talked about grammar in his class; 3) the usefulness of cf for respondents, why or why not; 4) the cf respondents expected most from their lecturer; 5) respondents’ follow-up on the cf, and 6) respondents’ preferred method of cf provision, between direct and indirect method. the interview was conducted in the lecturer’s room in which interviewee was invited to see the interviewer one by one. the interview went on about five to seven minutes each. for question number 1 regarding the respondents’ perception about the importance of grammar knowledge to develop writing skill, the respondents stated that it was “very important” (6 respondents) and “important” (1 respondent). some points of their arguments were: first, if grammar was wrong, the meaning would be questioned; second, grammar correctness was about self-respect, students who wrote in poor grammar would be considered as not proficient in english; third, students of english literature needed to learn english writing for business in which sentences had to be grammatically correct; fourth, wrong grammar could mislead. besides, there were still many students not mastering grammar; fifth, without good grammar, writing would mean less. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.28-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.28-48 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 40 respondents also did not object at all to their writing teacher talking about grammar in his class. among the answers were: 1) writing could be considered as a kind of grammar in practice and so far there were still many mistakes and errors of grammar in students’ writing; 2) writing in good grammar was very necessary; 3) students still expected that their writing teachers explained or clarified grammar used in the writing; 4) students needed to write intelligible texts and grammar accuracy was necessary; and 5) one of the criteria of good writing was accurate grammar. however, there was one respondent who was against the idea that a writing teacher presented grammar by saying that writing teacher had many other important things to address in his classroom. for question on the usefulness of cf, respondents stated that it was very useful on the following reasons: 1) with cf, students could know their mistakes/errors, how the sentences should have been and how to correct them; 2) it helped students learn more; 3) it could improve students’ knowledge on grammar; 4) it informed students about their inappropriate grammar and encourages self-learning; 5) one of the respondent mentioned that he wanted to be a blogger whose writings were read by many people around the word. he wanted his writings were grammatically correct, therefore, he needed cf before the writings were published. the interview also confirmed the data of the questionnaire that among other aspects of writing, grammar feedback was highly demanded. they mentioned some points as grammar accuracy contributed to the attractiveness of the writing, readers would feel disturbed reading texts with poor grammar, good writing was the one written in good grammar, incorrect grammar could mislead, and readers might not continue reading if the language was difficult to understand. one respondent claimed that content was the most important because in the content students laid their own ideas and imagination and many readers were interested in the content not the language. as they got cfs, respondents claimed to do some of the following: reading, locating the errors/mistakes, finding references or learning, and rewriting. they mentioned that they felt fine even when their lectures gave them a lot of cfs. concerning their preference on the way cf was presented between direct and indirect, some preferred to have it directly presented while the other preferred to have it indirectly. those who preferred direct cf mentioned that they could learn better because they could really know the correct forms of the grammar. hartono hartono, choiril anwar, afina murtiningrum 41 besides, they had to rewrite the work as soon as possible while there were still many other things to do. those who preferred to have indirect cf mentioned that indirect feedbacks encouraged better learning. students could find their own ways to make the writings better as looking for reference or asking friends. discussion this research was conducted to find out the answers of four research questions namely 1) how learners in a process-based academic essay writing class perceived the importance of corrective feedbacks, 2) the corrective feedbacks learners expected most, 3) their preference on feedback provision technique, and 4) how learners perceived the importance of grammar teaching. a process-based writing approach was adopted as a kind of variable of context of learning situation where it was expected that it would affect a different sense of learning. contrary to a product-based approach, a process-based approach treats writing as a process rather than a product which evolves from planning, drafting, revising, and final product (seow, 2002). in addition, idea and rhetorical development and organization are emphasized more than any other aspects of writing as grammar and lexical accuracies (widodo, 2008). therefore, it was important to see how learners adjusted themselves to the approach since the shift of learning focus would not be effective unless it was supported by the shift of learners’ orientation. for research question 1 based on a simple statistic descriptive analysis, the study found that cfs were perceived by students as highly important. this suggests that students can get benefits from the practice of feedbacks provision by their teachers to improve their language mastery. this finding is in line with previous studies as the one by seker & dincer (2014) which suggested that students found feedbacks beneficial for their learning for their language improvement, by chen et al. (2016) which discovered that students found feedbacks positive, by karim & nassaji (2015) which indicated that feedbacks provided by lecturers were useful, and by ghanbari et.al. (2014) which found that students believed that cf was effective and useful to improve their learning. in this study, all types of cfs were considered as highly important. this suggests that students were expecting to have a perfect writing work and their lecturers were expected to comment to all aspects of their writing. though during the process of teaching and learning in the classroom, students were told that writing was a process and the quality of ideas presented would be valued higher than grammar accuracy, they still held register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.28-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.28-48 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 42 that grammar cfs were very important. as it was revealed from the interview, students believed that they could get benefits by the provision of feedbacks as it could help them know the errors or mistakes they had made as well as how to correct them, encouraged them to learn more, and also improved their knowledge of grammar. cf on grammar was the one that students expected mostly. this could be the result of their high perception of grammar importance in writing. students were of the opinion that grammar was about the meaning since messages written in wrong grammar may mislead. one of the students even said that for those who wanted to have a job related to business, writing in correct grammar is important. interestingly, based on the interview, there were also students who related the correctness of grammar in writing to self-respect of the writer. ungrammatical sentences may implicate low self-respect because readers will easily judge that the writer was not competent. this may suggest that even though the course had adopted process-based approach in which idea development and organization were highly emphasized, students still held the traditional belief that writing was about grammar. this could be the effect of their previous learning experience. for years, many english classes have been occupied by the presentation and discussion of grammar. vocabulary and organization were the second and third most preferred cf, while cfs on spelling and punctuation were not demanded at all. that no student demanded cf on spelling and punctuation could be attributed to the classroom practice. during the learning and teaching process, the lecturer did rarely provided cfs on those types because of the very errors /mistakes on them. interestingly, cf on organization was not highly demanded although during learning activities in the classroom, this type of cfs was provided very often especially concerning the text coherences. many students’ writings were organized in loose connection between and among paragraphs, besides many thesis statements were not fully elaborated in the body. mostly, students preferred to have all errors/mistakes corrected than to have content or major errors only. for students, this expectation seemed fine but from lecturer’s perspective, this practice could make students more dependent on the lecturer. fulfilling the students’ want is good, however, training and facilitating them to be independent learners who can find out their own solution to their problem would be better. students’ expectation that the errors should be directly corrected was based on the reasons that, as revealed from the interview, they could learn better because they knew exactly the correct forms of the mistakes. students hartono hartono, choiril anwar, afina murtiningrum 43 seemed to be “lazy” to find the right versions by themselves. the second reason was that they wanted to finish reworking quickly since they still had many other things to do. however, this kind of practice may not encourage them to do a more independent learning. lecturers will also be overwhelmed with this task which may reduce their allocated time for doing other teaching activities. consistent to the previous set of data, the first most preferred technique of feedback provision was underlying and correcting the errors/mistakes. secondly, it was underlying and making notes on reference for correction. the third and the fourth most preferred technique were indicating the errors/mistakes and specifying them, and correcting and explaining the errors/mistakes respectively. these four most preferred techniques could be grouped into two based directness and indirectness of the provision, as table 2 shows, direct technique (correcting errors/mistakes directly) was preferred slightly more than the indirect one as by indicating the errors/mistakes without correcting or writing notes of reference. for research question 4, the data show that learners’ perception about the importance of grammar was moderate with the score close to high (25.17 to 25.66). this shows that for the writing learners, even when they were learning writing in a process-based approach, grammar was still considered to be an important aspect of writing, therefore, was valued highly. for the respondents observed in this study, the importance of studying grammar was functional in the sense that grammar mastery is important to master writing skill, learning grammar improves writing skill, and practicing grammar will improve writing skill. the motive of learning grammar was actually encouraged by the functionality of grammar in improving their writing. this is the contrary to emotional motive as the data show that item “e” in the questionnaire stating “i like to study grammar” which suggest the desire of studying grammar just because of “like” was rated only moderate. the finding that grammar is important in writing and foreign language learning in general is in line with a study of pazaver & wang (2009) which found that students perceived the positive role of grammar in language instruction, and also the study of ismail which indicated that students considered grammar instruction as important for language learning (ismail, 2010). this high perception of grammar importance in writing had made students be able accept when writing lecturers talked about grammar. the processbased approach adopted during the instruction which emphasized more on the development of ideas and rhetoric had not changed the learners’ perception on the importance of grammar register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.28-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.28-48 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 44 because of learners’ previous experience which presumably emphasized too much grammar accuracy in language. conclusion the study finally concluded the answers to the four research questions set forth. firstly, learners in a process-based academic essay writing class still perceived corrective feedbacks highly important and useful for improving their writing in second/foreign language. secondly, learners expected to have grammar feedbacks the most since they believed that grammar accuracy in foreign language writing was not only about the meaning but also a selfrespect of the writers. poor grammatical sentences implicated the writer’s low competence in the language. thirdly, learners preferred to have corrective feedbacks provided directly by showing them the correct versions of the errors or mistakes under the reason that they could easily know the correct forms of the mistake so that they could learn better. fourthly, grammar teaching in a writing class was perceived important. for this reason, learners in writing class mostly did not have any objections when their lecturer talked about grammar during writing instruction. in the same time, grammar teaching was also rated highly important for learners since the learners believed that it could improve writing. as a response to the failure of product-based approach, process-based approach offers challenges for both foreign/second writing lecturers and students. lecturers need to find ways and strategies 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(2017). the effect of different on writing quality of college student with different cognitive styles. dinamika ilmu, 17(1), 39–58. https://doi.org/10.21093/di.v17i1.649 widodo, h. p. (2008). process-based academic essay writing instruction in an efl context. jurnal bahasa dan seni, 36(1), 111–125. yamashita, t. (2017). review of written corrective feedback for l2 development. journal of response to writing, 3(2), 1–7. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.62-80 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.62-80 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 62 trick of political identity: analyzing appraisal system on 212 movement reunion in online media fahmi gunawan institut agama islam negeri kendari, kendari, indonesia fgunawanp@gmail.com yopi thahara universitas abdurachman saleh, situbondo, indonesia yopi.thahara@gmail.com faizal risdianto institut agama islam negeri salatiga faizrisd@gmail.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.62-80 submission track: received: 31/03/2019 final revision: 27/05/2019 available online: 01/06/2019 corresponding author: fahmi gunawan fgunawanp@gmail.com abstract this study aims to investigate the appraisal system of the 212 movement reunion in online media. data were from the news of “trick of political identity” in tirto online media. to collect data, the researchers used observation and taking notes. content analysis was used to conduct the research. the result showed that the attitude in the article consisted of appreciation (60%), judgement (23,33%), and affect (16,67%). appreciation was the dominant attitude in this research. it meant that the author wanted to assess and evaluate the 212 reunion movement and the object related to the movement. meanwhile, the affect and judgement were used to assess the central figures in the 212 reunion movement. to write emotive feelings about the central figures and the events, the author dominantly used his own opinion, but he used the third person opinions to strengthen his opinion. technically, the author used monogloss (53,33%) and heterogloss (46,67%). the graduation was dominantly used force – raised with (100%). finally, the text about "political identity" in this research used the pattern appreciation^judgment^affect in the attitude system, the pattern monogloss^heterogloss in the engagement, and the pattern force^focus in the graduation system. keywords: media online; political identity; 212 movement reunion; appraisal system; systemic functional linguistics http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.62-80 fahmi gunawan, yopi thahara, faizal risdianto 63 introduction language and politics are closely interrelated because politics is realized through language (geis, 2012). all political activities are carried out by using verbal language. dealing with political discourse, before the general election, politicians will be careful to convey their ideas, opinions, or speech because their attitudes and expressions can be assessed by many people (loader, vromen & xenos, 2016). the expressions of attitude are not only possessed by the politicians, but also other professions such as journalists, reporters, etc. journalists' expressions can be seen from their articles. their articles can be objective or subjective. their articles have to be objective because of their capacity as journalists that is neutral and objective. meanwhile, their articles are subjective because the journalists are controlled by the owners (sa, 2009; gunawan & sumarlam, 2018) the 212 movement at national monument, jakarta was peaceful demonstration headlined by the journalists (kurniawan, 2018). the 212 movement was headlined on the printed or online media. the 212 movement was triggered by the massive demonstration against the jakarta ex-governor, basuki tjahja purnama because of his blasphemy (gunawan, & kadir, 2017). since the demonstration was held on december 2, the demonstration was called the 212 movement. the 2016 demonstration was addressed to demand justice for the blasphemy by basuki tjahaya purnama, while the 212 movement in 2018 was aimed to gather the alumni of 212 movement in 2016 (hadi & tirtosudarmo, 2016). the problems were the 212 movement 2018 was held in the political year and it was attended by the presidential candidate, prabowo subianto (ps). hence, the 212 movement in 2018 attracted media's attentions. one of mainstream media in indonesia that reported the news was tirto newspaper online. in delivering news, especially the 212 reunion movement, a jurnalist is required to be as objective as possible in reporting the news, but some of the journalists can be subjective in reporting the news (marchi, 2012). however the objectivity or subjectivity of the reporters in covering the news can be detected from their writings. the objectivity of the articles in t he news can be detected from the use of lexico-grammar of the articles. in linguistics, the use of lexico-grammar can be examined by using appraisal which is part of linguistic systemic functional. appraisal is simply interpreted as an assessment of something. appraisal is used to assess people, things, situation, etc. in general, the assessment is divided into two; good or register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.62-80 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.62-80 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 64 positive and bad or negative. the assessment to a person or object is relative. one thing is considered good by someone, but it can be considered bad by others. because this discourse is positively responded by several linguistic experts, an appraisal theory is created. the appraisal theory was founded by martin and rose in 2003 and developed by martin and white in 2005. appraisal which is part of linguistic systemic functional is a new theory, so that there is lack of references published. some of the journal articles are cited in martin and white's book as the reference in the literature review. thus, the discussion of appraisal in this study will also cite from the same books and articles. martin and white (2005) defined appraisal as "evaluation of kinds of attitudes that are negotiated in texts, how strong are feelings that are involved, and how values are sourced to the readers." in short, we can assess the author's feeling and assessment through texts or articles that they write. in 2005, martin and white stated that ―appraisal is about how evaluation is established, amplified, and targeted, or sourced.‖ in that definition, martin and white reiterated that appraisal deals with an assessment. appraisal is classified into three domains by martin and white (2005), namely attitude, graduation, and engagement. attitude is related to feeling which includes an assessment of emotions, behavior of a person and assessment of an object. graduation is a tool to measure person's emotional level, while engagement is the determinant of where and from which attitude arises. attitude is a system of meanings that includes three semantic features which include emotion, ethics, and aesthetics (martin and white, 2005). emotion deals with someone's feelings that have naturally been shaped since someone was born. the dimension of emotion in the attitude is called affect. ethics talk about a person's behavior that is realized in judgment, meanwhile aesthetics is a person's assessment of something which is realized in appreciation. the details of information can be seen in the following chart: fahmi gunawan, yopi thahara, faizal risdianto 65 chart 1: appraisal system (martin and white, 2005) researches about appraisal system have been conducted by several researchers. however, the research only focused on novel (dewi, 2015), state political speech (sukma, 2018; alvionita, 2018; rohmawati, 2016), advertisment text (yunus, 2018; nugraheni, 2011; tiani, 2017), information media on tourism (suryaningtyas, 2018), application of appraisal in teaching (mustadi, 2010) language evaluation (panggabean & lestari, 2018) and online media. research on the appraisal system particularly in online media has also been carried out by several researchers, such as nur & hadi (2017), pusparini, a., djatmika & santosa (2017), nazhira, r., sinar, s & suriyadi, s. (2016), and ellyawati (2016). they discussed the appraisal system from the different online newspapers and topics, but no one paper discusses the most phenomenal newsof 212 reunion movement in 2018on tirto as one of mainstream online media in indonesia.hence, this research aims to evaluate appraisal system on the news of 212 reunion movement in tirto online media. research method this study uses a type of qualitative research using an embeded case study on the news of ―jerat politik identitas”“trick of political identity” in tirto online media during three months, october to december, 2018. tirto online newspaper is chosen because it can attract the attention of the public eventhough it is a newcomer and regarded as the most read online news portal in the country competing with detik, kompas, media indonesia and jawa pos (cekaja.com). currently, tirto.id is considered as one of the online media that has deep register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.62-80 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.62-80 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 66 and investigative characteristic (cekaja.com). to explain the phenomenon of appraisal included in the news text, this study utilizes the percentage of quantitative calculation data to support the description and explanation of appraisal system. this study uses the appraisal system theory of martin dan white (2005) which is classified into three sections; they are, engagement, attitude and graduation. therefore, to collect data, observation and note were used. data were classified into primary and secondary data. primary data are lexis or group of words containing appraisal system in the news. secondary data are supporting data; such as data from authors' profile, website's profile, journals, or all information about the 212 reunion movement. to analyze data, the researchers used content analysis based on the theory of martin dan white (2005). results & discussion the news text trick of political identity contains 44 clauses and discusses the 212 reunion movement at national monument, jakarta. this text is classified as exposition text. exposition is a text that described authors' opinions about events (djatmika, 2018). it means that this political discourse is the authors' opinion about the 212 reunion movement that attracts world attentions. this text can be objective or subjective which depends on the authors' perspective. in fact, reporters are demanded to be objective in conveying the news. exposition text is classified into two; analytic exposition and hortatory exposition. the structures of analytic exposition is thesis declaration, argumentation, and reiteration, meanwhile the structures of hortatory exposition are thesis, argumentation, and recommendation. based on the research, this text is hortatory exposition text because it uses recommendation in the last part that is in the form of heterogloss (djatmika, 2018). appraisal system based on the data analysis, the appraisal system in the text is classified into three; attitude, graduation, and engagement. the attitude, graduation, and engagement in this research can be described as follow: fahmi gunawan, yopi thahara, faizal risdianto 67 attitude system attitude deals with feelings which contain emotions, judgment to people's character, and appreciation to the things. attitude is the system of meaning that is consisted of emotions, ethics, and aesthetics (martin and white, 2005). emotion deals with someone's feeling that is naturally shaped since someone is born. the dimension of emotion in the attitude is called affect. ethics talk about someone's behaviour that is realized in judgment, and aesthetic is someone's assessment to thing that is realized in appreciation. bock (2007) found the way to help researchers to distinguish the attitude. he used the keyword 'source' and 'target'. source refers to affect that consist of participant (individual, group of people, or institution). meanwhile, their behaviors or activities are the target of judgment. the targets of appreciation are object and process. based on the research, the text contained 5 (16,67%) affects, 7 (23,33%) judgmentss, and 18 (60%) appreciation. the text containing affect and judgement mean that the author shows his feelings about the central figures in the 212 movement reunion. this emotions aimed at someone or a group of people involved in the movement. the author gave his assessment to prabowo, jokowi and the supporters. the assessments are reflected in the words, phrases and clauses made by the author. meanwhile, the text containing appreciation was used to evaluate the event of 212 movement. the author assumes that the movement is such a political identity. politic of identity is politic that deals with diversities which is based on the assumption of physical appearance, politic of ethnicity or primordialism, and the conflict of religion, belief, or language (abdullah, 2019). politic of identity emerges as a resistance from marginalized groups due to the failure of the government to accommodate minority interests. positively, politic of identity is as a media of aspirations for oppressed people. politic of identity is centered on the politicization of shared identity which is the main base of collective group. in africa, political identity is well known as apartheid system (daud & besar, 2017).in indonesia, political identity tends to political beliefs and ethnic groups (fauzi, sudrajat, affandi & raditya, 2018). someone chooses a presidential candidate, for example, not based on a certain people but political beliefs and ethnic groups. in this case, prabowo was supported by a structural islamic community organization, such as front pembela islam (fpi), gerakan nasional pengawal fatwa (gnpf) while jokowi was supported by the goverment. affect subsystem register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.62-80 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.62-80 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 68 affect is an expression of feeling that is expressed positively and negatively. positive expressions include expression of joy, happiness, confidence, enthusiasm. negative expression is the expression of sadness which includes worry, boredom, prejudice, etc. the realisation of positive and negative expression can be directly or indirectly found in physical expression, unusual behavior and metaphor. based on the research data, there were 1 clauses of positive affect and 4 clauses of negative affects. positive and negative affects were addressed to the central figures in the 212 reunion movement. the use positive affect can be seen in the data below: 1. gaung dukungan politis itu tampak kala rizieq shihab, salah satu tokoh gerakan 212 yang hingga kini tak kunjung pulang ke indonesia menyerukan ―ganti presiden‖ pada pemilu melalui live streaming dari mekkah. the political support was seen when rizieq shihab, one of the leaders of the 212 movement who until now had not returned to indonesia called for ―change of president‖ in the 2019 election through live streaming from mecca. data 1 showed that emotively the news author tend to support prabowo and sandiaga uno as indonesia president and vice president candidate. the support is represented by the phrase ―menyerukan‖ (called for). the author wants the ―change of president‖ in the upcoming presidential election 2019 in indonesia. buya syafii maarif, et al (2010) stated that the issue of political identity emerged at 1970s in the united states of america, to face the issues of minority, gender, feminism, race, ethnic, and other social groups that were marginalized and persecuted. in its development, the scope of identity politic extends to issues of religion, belief, and diverse cultural ties. in indonesia, identity politics is more related to issues of ethnicity, religion, ideology, and local interests that are generally represented by elites with their own articulations (burhani, 2016). in his research, ichwan (2016) revealed that the islam support movement known as the 212 movement is a real example of the emergence of identity politic to demand justice by the majority of muslims in indonesia. this action was triggered by the statement of dki jakarta governor, basuki tjahaya purnama (ahok), at seribu island on september 27, 2016 which was considered as "desecration of the qur'an", "insulting the clerics" and even "insulting moslem in the world". the movement demanded ahok immediately to be accused and sentenced. this action was followed by various elements of the moslem community with seven million people who mobilized from various regions in indonesia. the islamist movements then mobilized themselves, maximizing networks and using social media and fahmi gunawan, yopi thahara, faizal risdianto 69 "cyber army" by framing "desecration of the qur'an and insults against cleric and moslems". sentiments of anti-non-muslim and anti-chinese united with the political agenda that was dki jakarta election. in such conditions, a "fatwa" (guidance) from the indonesian mufti council emerged which stated that ahok had carried out "desecration of the qur'an and humiliation of mufti and muslims". ahok-rizieq's feud later turned into the feud of the ahokmoslem, and even christian feuds (religious missions) and chinese (business) versus muslims. it was then able to convince many muslims to participate in the islamic supporting movement 1, 2 and 3 (abdullah, 2018). towards the presidential election, politic of identity shifted from the issue of religious to the issue of political choice in choosing the next president. the 212 reunion is now no longer purely a moral movement defending islam. the 212 reunion movement has become a political opposition movement that wants to fight for power and wants the administration of president jokowi to end in the 2019 presidential election. the guidance guards national movement (gnpf) is the main actor in the movement. the gnpf consists of several mass organizations, such as the front islamic defenders (fpi), hizb ut-tahrir indonesia and others. through ijtima ulama (mufti meeting), gnpf officially supports prabowo and sandi to be president and vice president. however, the author also used negative affect to describe his dislike of jokowi because it is considered an anti-islamic government, criminalization of mufti, providing employment opportunities to chinese people. these can be seen in the following data. 2. ―.... siap pilih partai hasil ijtima ulama? siap tenggelamkan mereka? takbir! takbir! takbir!‖ seru rizieq dengan suara lantang kendati ketua gnpf ulama yusuf muhammad martak telah berjanji politik praktis tak akan ada dalam reuni 212. ―... ready to choose the party from the result of ijtima ulama? ready to sink them? takbir! takbir! takbir!‖ exclaimed rizieq in a loud voice despite the chairman of the gnpf yusuf muhammad martak had promised that practical politics would not be in reunion 212. 3. sejumlah peserta reuni 212 pun kedapatan mengelu-elukan nam sang calon presiden. a number of 212 reunion participants were caught cheering on the name of presidential candidate. the author used the phrase ―tenggelamkan‖ (to sink) and ―mengelu-elukan‖ to show his negative affect in the article. the phrase ―tenggelamkan‖ was addressed to the other party out of the ijtima ulama result. the phrase ―mengelu-elukan‖ refered to the name of prabowo. the author intended to show that he wanted the change of the president in the upcoming presidential election 2019. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.62-80 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.62-80 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 70 judgement subsystem judgment is related to our assessment of others, especially in their attitudes, behavior, and character. martin and white (2005) divided judgment into two, namely assessments oriented to 'social esteem' and assessments oriented to 'social sanction.' by martin and rose (2003), both terms are called personal judgment and moral judgment. personal judgment is classified into swearing and praising, meanwhile moral judgment is classified into criticizing and admiring. based on the data, the judgements in the 212 reunion movement article were in the form of criticizing, admiring and praising. the author used negative judgment to criticize, while the author used positive judgment to admire and praise. for negative judgment, the authors used 3 clauses (10%), while for positive judgment the author used 4 clauses (13,33%). positive judgment can be seen in the following examples. 4. ―itu pagelaran demokrasi. tak ada politik identitas. ini menunjukkan umat islam yang toleran,‖ klaim juru bicara badan pemenangan nasional (bpn) prabowo-sandi, arief poyuono. ―that’s a democratic performance. there is no identity politic. this shows that muslim are tolerant, ― prabowo-sandiaga winnning team spokesman, arief poyuono. 5. ma’ruf amin sebelumnya adalah tokoh kunci aksi 212 pada desember 2016 lalu. ma’ruf amin previously was a key figure in 212 movement in december 2016. positive judgements are addressed to the muslim indonesia and ma’ruf amin by the author. in the data 4, the author gives positive judgement to the muslim in indonesia. the positive judgement is delivered to show author’s admirer to the muslim in indonesia. it refers to the movement that is held in peace by the muslim in indonesia. the reunion 212 movement which was attended by militant members of the social justice party (pks), one of islamic political party in indonesia, or the gerindra political party that showed a tolerant attitude during the event. meanwhile, the data 5 shows author’s positive judgement to ma’ruf amin. the author gives positive judgement because ma’ruf amin is one of key figure in 212 movement in december 2016. the author believes that ma’ruf amin is able to influence many muslim in indonesia. appreciation subsystem appreciation deals with the assessment of objects such as books, films, houses, etc. to identify appreciation, eggins and slade as quoted in bock (2007: 20) also make the same question with questions in judgment, namely "what do you do you think of that?". however, fahmi gunawan, yopi thahara, faizal risdianto 71 the expected answer to the question is not related to a person's behavior. besides things, appreciation also includes an assessment of a phenomenon or condition. martin and white (2005) stated that with appreciation, "we turn to mean construing our evaluations of things, especially things we make and performances we give, but also including natural phenomena what things are worth (how we value them)". based on the research data, appreciation is the dominant attitude in the article about the 212 reunion movement. there are 18 (60%) data that show the appreciation to the event, things, or object. there are 5 (16,67%) data of positive appreciation and 13 (43,33%) data of negative appreciation. the positive appreciation can be seen in the data bellow: 6. kehadiran ratusan ribu orang dalam reuni 212 menunjukkan gerakan ini mampu bertahan lama, tak seperti yang diprediksi banyak analis dan komentator. the presence of hundreds of thousands of people in the 212 reunion showed that this movement could last a long time, not as many analysts and commentators predicted. 7. gerakan 212 yang akhirnya mampu menentukan hasil pemilu itu menunjukkan bahwa elit politik lihai memainkan politik identitas dengan melihat kondisi ekonomi dan perubahan kelas menengah dalam memandang islam. the 212 movement which was finally able to determine the election results showed that the political elite was skilled at playing identity politic by looking at the economic conditions and changes the middle class in viewing islam. the data 6 and 7 show his appreciation to the 212 reunion movement. the author stated that this movement could last as in data 6, because the movement started from the morning prayer and ended in the afternoon. a strong physical and having adequate food, drinks and medicines was unavoidable even though there were many volunteers who provided all the facilities needed. in addition, during the reunion, the activity took place peacefully. the peace situation was depicted in none of the facilities was damaged, even the plants on the roadside were safe. on the other hand, the negative appreciations were addressed to the politic identity and the government. the negative appreciations can be seen in the following data: 8. dalam diskusi yang sama,. ia mengatakan jika gerakan-gerakan tersebut tak hanya menyebar persepsi bahwa pemerintah telah tidak adil terhadap umat islam di indonesia.... in the same discussion, he said if the movements had been spread of the perception that the government had been unfair to muslim indonesia...... 9. ―kita harus awas. ini terjadi di depan mata kita, dan ini merupakan tanggung jawab kolektif bagi masyarakat indonesia untuk mencerahkan [mereka]. we must be careful. this happened before our eyes, and this is a collective responsibility fo indonesian people to enlighten them. data 8 showed that the author gave negative appreciation to the government. he used the phrase unfair to show the negative assessment to the government. the author wanted to convey to the reader that the government was unfair to the muslim in indonesia. meanwhile register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.62-80 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.62-80 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 72 the data 9 showed that the author also gave negative appreciation to the identity politics i n indonesia. in this case, the identity politic influenced many people in indonesia to implement islamic law in indonesia. in this research, the use of negative appreciation is aimed to show that the author disagree with the 212 reunion movement because it contains political identity. the author said that political identity is rife in indonesia in recent years with the emergence of conservative movements. the conservative movement used the issue of religion for the purpose of political power. it should be acknowledged that since the dki jakarta elections in 2017, conflicts between groups with identity attributes occurred. this group can be identified as conservative islam and conservative nationalist groups. conservative islam as a religious group relies on scriptural verses about sacrifice to god, such as the doctrine of jihad, for example, or views on the system of islamic leadership or the caliphate. one of the supports on the implementation of islamic law is to prohibit choosing nonmuslim leaders during fighting against ahok. martin van bruinessen (2013) called this group a "conservative turn" in indonesian islam. the movement was led by the front islamic defenders (fpi) and supported by pks (one of political party in indonesia), hti, persis, the organization of salafi makassar wahdah islamiyyah (wi) which is the main force behind the rise of this group. this islamic movement has demanded the implementation of sharia law throughout indonesia, and has entered into moderate muslim organizations, islamic political parties, universities, islamic schools, and the media. the firmness of this movement continues to attack, especially by using social media. the phrase "the beauty of islam without shia, the ahmadiyya and the liberal islam network (jil)," is currently used generally on facebook to summarize this ideology. (woodward& nurish, 2016). azumardi azra added that the conservative movement in islam and politic of identity in indonesia has been increasing because it has been influenced by donald trump win in the 2016 presidential election in united states. this is because donald trump is able to use this identity politic to win the election in america (azra, 2016). however, azra revealed that this identity politic would not be effectively implemented in the upcoming 2019 elections. it is caused by many factors. one of them is the practice of progressive islam and nusantara islam by followers of muhammadiyah and nahdatul ulama, as well as the social cohesion of the indonesian people is still very strong (azra, 2016). fahmi gunawan, yopi thahara, faizal risdianto 73 engagement system in writing this news, the author did not only use his personal opinion about the 212 reunion movement, but also used others' opinions. the author used the opinions of others to protect himself from the haters. the author used people's opinions as hash tags and to imply what he wanted to convey to the public. based on the data, there were 14 (46,67%) heterogloss data and 16 (53,33%) monogloss data. monogloss is the sources of attitude that come from the author and heterogloss is the sources of attitude that come from others’ opinion. the others' opinions refer to the opinions of islamic studies experts and politicians in the 212 reunions movements including alwi shihab, azumardi azra, habib rizieq, chairman of the leimena institute jakob tobing, chairperson of the gnpf ulama yusuf muhammad martak, spokesperson for the national winning body (bpn) ) prabowo-sandiaga, arief poyuono, abdil mughis mudhoffir, luqman-nul hakim, and diatyka widya permata yasih, etc. graduation system graduation is the strength of evaluation (su, 2016; wang, 2017; surbakti, sinar & setia, 2018; zhang, 2018). zhang (2018) stated that graduation in attitude enables authors to convey greater or lesser degrees of positivity or negativity, while in engagement graduation scales authors' conviction in their propositions. graduation is concerned with resources for upscaling and downscaling the force and focus. the uses of graduation are classified into two subsystem, namely force and focus. force subsystem consisted of swearing, metaphor, lexis attitude, and intensifier. meanwhile, focus subsystem consisted of lower-raise word. in this research, force was the dominant graduation of the attitude with 30 (100%) data. the form of graduation was in the form of attitudinal lexis – raise. the nature of politic of identity was first introduced by l.a. kauffman (2001). he traced the origins of identity politic to the student non-violent movement known as the sncc (the student nonviolent coordinating committee), a civil rights movement organization in the united states in the early 1960s.substantively, identity politics is associated with the interests of members of a social group who feel squeezed and eliminated by the domination of large currents in a nation or state. this is where the idea of justice for all becomes very relevant. in the united states, the initiators of the theory of identity politic postulate that it is register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.62-80 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.62-80 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 74 the practice of extortion that builds awareness of the blackmailed group, especially the black community, spanish-speaking people, and other ethnic groups who feel marginalized by the wheels of capitalism that favor to the owners of capital, certainly white people. based on gutmann's view (2009), identity politics, which was also seen in the movement of martin luther king and catholic bishops in america, was actually more driven by social justice arguments, not for religious reasons. in this perspective, the black muslim movement in america was not much different from other ethno-religious movements. because they experienced unfair treatment and wanted to apply the principle of equality in the wider community, the idea of identity politics had become the topic of study among scientists by framing it in the various social theories. the extreme form of identity politics is the rise of ideas about separatism. this can be seen, for example, in quebeck, whose speaks french and is cultured french, want to separate from the english-speaking canadian nation. unlike america, identity politics in indonesia arises because of issues of religion and ethnicity. this phenomenon can be found in the dki jakarta election which is often associated with the dki jakarta community as religious betawi. the ban on the use of the national monument (monas) for religious activities by ahok, sparked a number of islamic groups to unite in order to produce their identity again by rejecting non-moslem candidate. the production of identity was success after the governor, anis baswedan allowed monas to be used for social, cultural, and religious activities. this phenomenon which later made anissandi supporters considered as a group of political islam and religious fundamentalism movements that did not accept diversity in society (kasenda, 2018). on the other hand, other political groups play themselves with diversity of identities. ahok-djarot pair supported by pdip, golkar, pkb, ppp, nasdem, and hanura always used the campaign tagline to fight for diversity. it was manifested on november 19, 2017 at a parade of bhineka tunggal ika or kita indonesian action at the hotel indonesia roundabout by ahok-djarot supporting parties. some consider that the parade is to counteract the 411 action that was first carried out by the gnpf-mui. the different groups reinforce the occurrence of political battles between ethnic minorities in the dki jakarta regional election. anis rasyid baswedan as part of the indonesian-arab ethnic against basuki tjahaya purnama as part of chinese-indonesia ethnic. fahmi gunawan, yopi thahara, faizal risdianto 75 social group polarization as an impact on the 2017 dki pilkada influences mobilization of support based on political identity (burhani, 2017). political identity was a viral headlined in several media including by tirto.id online media because it emerged during the 212 reunion movement at national monument, jakarta. the movement was clearly aimed at fostering brotherhood among fellow 212 alumni in 2016, despite many comments from political observers who said that the movement was a political movement supporting prabowo-sandi presidential candidates. the 212 movement was said political movement because the event was attended by prabowo. the movement was attended by more than 11 million people. all domestic and foreign mainstream media have published the event, so it was viral and was well-known throughout the world. in the level of discourse, political identity can be studied using linguistic systemic functional, especially appraisal system. this research shows that tirto.id's reporters use pattern affect^judgment^apreciation on the attitude system, heterogloss^monogloss on the graduation system and force^focus on the engagement system. this research is not in line with the research conducted by nazhira, r., sinar, s., & suriyadi, s. (2016) about the appraisal system in the news text of media indonesia, republika dan kompas daylynational newspaper. the results of the study indicate that the attitude system in the kompas daily uses affect ^appreciation^ judgment patterns. authors in kompas daily tend to use affect patterns because they have a tendency to tell sensitive events, such as disasters, corruption, the economy, and crimes that cause concern in society. the author can feel how dangerous the problem is if it cannot be resolved properly. on the other hand, media indonesia and republika newspapers use patterns of appreciation. media indonesia and republika tend to predominantly use appreciation patterns because by giving a direct assessment in the form of appreciation, the writer wants to influence his readers on something (if a positive appreciation) or criticize something to be conveyed to the public (if negative appreciation). in addition, news writers at koran media indonesia and republika were interested in appreciating the objects or objects they reported. it is in line with kompas, jakarta post in its opinion colomn also uses a pattern of affection, judgment and appreciationin reporting on the munir case entitled ―pollycarpus out on parole: resolve munir case‖ in the news of the disclosure of the special treatment of convicted corruption cases, the author in kompas.com online media, used judgment system in his attitude system. this pattern register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.62-80 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.62-80 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 76 is used to describe the existence of artalita luxury cells in pondok bambu and describe them neutrally and in detail without any tendency to highlight one part of the case (ellyawati, 2016) and not at all explain how the corruption case was carried out. this also means that kompas.com is considered to have a deep and complete analysis, using a neutral and good vocabulary choice that is suitable for a comprehensive reader. readers can listen to what is being discussed, how and why it happened. this is in accordance with the ideology of kompas.com which is indeed careful in its choice of vocabulary and neutral in the presentation of its news coverage. the findings of this study are different from previous research findings that kompas.com has a sharp analysis, objective in the assessment and uses good diction. this research was conducted based on the hypothesis of the appraisal system proposed by martin and white. the data were in the form of 64,000 words containing news about images of 2014 indonesian president candidates taken from the kompas online and republika online. the data sources were kompas online and republika online. the research findings showed that republika described the presidential candidates jw (joko widodo) and ps (prabowo subianto) in positive images. in contrast, kompas described jw's positive images rather than negative. meanwhile, ps was more depicted in negative than positive images. the finding also showed that republika was more objective than kompas in delivering data about the images of the presidential candidate. republika described jw and ps in constructive images. jw was described as a fair individual and had a compact team. ps was considered as a capable pioneer who had love and certainty. kompas described jw in a positive image. he was described as an individual that was strong, empathic, direct, inconspicuous, and close. conversely, ps was broadly depicted in a negative image. he was described as a pioneer who was unconfident, enthusiastic and showing off that he was important. republika was considered as more objective than kompas in announcing the 2014 image of the indonesian president's competitor (abdulameer & noor, 2018). finally, this study confirms that the use of certain pattern in a news text can be investigated using appraisal system and it reflects the author's ideology. conclusion the author's expression in writing news, religious, social, cultural, and political discourse can be traced through the use of language. the realization of languages use can reflect the feelings or emotions of the author towards the main actors or central figures, events fahmi gunawan, yopi thahara, faizal risdianto 77 that are conveyed and the process of the events. the news writing about the 212 reunion movement that took place at the jakarta national monument in 2018 also illustrated the same thing. in systemic functional linguistics, the news consisted an appraisal system. then, in writing the news, the author used (60%) appreciation, (16,67%) affect, and (23,33%) judgement. the appreciation in this research is dominantly used to assess the events and objects related to the 212 reunion movement. the appreciation is also in the form of negative and positive appreciation. there are 16,67% positive appreciation data and 43,33% negative appreciation data. the appreciation is dominated with negative appreciation because the author wants to convey that he diagree with the identity politic in indonesia because it is not appropriate to be implemented. affect and judgment are used to assess people characters that involved in the 212 reunion movement. the affect and judgement are in the form of positive and negative. positive affect in this research was 3,33% data and negative affect was 13,33% data. meanwhile, positive judgement in this research was 13,33% data and negative judgement was 10% data. the use of judgement and affect in the article showed that the author try to position himself in the neutral position. the sources of attitude in this research are coming from the author’s opinion and others’ opinion. in sfl technical terms, the author used more heterogloss (46,67%) than monogloss (53,33%). the source of attitude is dominated with monogloss system. it means that the auhtor dominantly used his own opinion to deliver his attitude about the 212 reunion movement. however, the author used third person opinion to strengthen his opinion about the 212 movement and objects related to the movement. the level of attitude can be seen from the graduation of the attitude. the graduations in the appraisal system consist of focus and force. in this research, the graduation is dominated with the use of force with 100% data. the force is in the form of attitudinal lexis – raised. finally, this research confirms that the news about the political identity used patterns of appreciation^judgment^affect on the attitude systems, patterns of monogloss^heterogloss on the engagement system, and patterns of force^focus on the graduation systems. however, this study still has a number of limitations. this research is only focused on one online media that highlights the issue of the 212 reunion movement in 2018 at national monument, jakarta without comparing it to other online media. therefore, further research can study the register 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(2013). the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post’s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir’s case‖ on december 05th, 2014.register journal, 6(1), 101-124. wang, m. 2017. a study on college english majors’ writings from the perspective of appraisal theory. theory and practice in language studies, 7(1): 65-69. register journal vol. 12, no. 1, pp.62-80 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i1.62-80 website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 80 woodward, m., & nurish, a. (2016). quo vadis fpi dalam aksi bela islam. maarif: jurnal arus pemikiran islam dan sosial, 11(2), 105-22. yunus, r. n. (2018). sistem apraisal pada teks iklan layanan masyarakat di kota tebing tinggi. jumant, 9(1), 105-113. zhang, y. 2018. attitudinal analysis of president xi’s remarks at press conference of brics xiamen summit from the perspective of appraisal theory. journal of language teaching and research, 9(2): 385-390. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp. 235-261 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 235 proposing a gaming language analysis procedure to reveal video game ideology through ludic linguistics sf. luthfie arguby purnomo* institut agama islam negeri surakarta theluthfie@gmail.com khristianto universitas muhammadiyah purwokerto kristian.topz@gmail.com doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.235-261 corresponding author* submission track: received: 21-07-2019 final revision: 21-11-2019 available online: 01-12-2019 abstract this study proposes a procedural analysis on the implementation of ludic linguistics to analyze gaming language with wordplay, the core of focus in ludic linguistics, as the point of departure. to formulate the procedural analysis, theories of language play by crystal ideology of influence and ludonarrative model by aarseth, wordplay in the gaming context by paul, intended meaning level by stiles, wordplay transmission by winter-froemel, game interface types by stonehouse, and indexical storytelling by fernándezvara were applied as the theoretical foundation. to provide a vivid application of the proposed procedural analysis, wordplays appearing on game assets from konami’s metal gear solid, metal gear solid 2: sons of liberty, and metal gear solid 3: snake eater were taken as examples of analysis. the fivestep procedure is able to show how wordplays in the gaming context are designed as mechanical cues to help gamers complete the games and as mailto:theluthfie@gmail.com mailto:kristian.topz@gmail.com register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.196-214 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 236 narrative cues to help them comprehend the story. moreover, this proposed procedure is able to indicate that the mechanical and narrative cues have a particular ideology of influence, which affects gamers in reacting and responding to particular problems presented by the games. the result of this study discloses future research on the roles of wordplays in the gaming context, signifying the importance of ludic linguistics as a bridge between language studies and game studies. keywords: wordplay; gaming language; ludic linguistics; game studies; metal gear solid introduction humans as homo ludens-playful creatures express their playfulness through games (huizinga, 1949). structurally games are classified into ludus, structured games, and paidia, unstructured games (caillois, 1961). in playing games, humans make use of language to formulate rules, devise tactics, and achieve goals. though game are diverse, in terms of types and how they are played, they share a common trait of the narrative. rules, tactics, and goals are the game elements that contribute to the emergence of game narrative. language intertwines itself with those elements to ensure that the game narratives are playful. perceiving how language is intertwined with playfulness, crystal (1996) urges the necessity to study how humans use language to express their playfulness, which he calls ludic linguistics. crystal (2001) emphasizes the relationship between language and playfulness in terms of language play for humorous purposes through wordplay as ludic rules. since playfulness is not only related to humor and the development of games, concerns on how games are explainable from linguistics perspectives are taken into account. before register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp. 235-261 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 237 crystal (2001) displays his concerns on the link between language and playfulness, sudnow (1983) has indicated how the language used in games plays a significant role in establishing gameplay experience, further implying that gaming language has particular power in influencing gamers. regarding this influence, aarseth (1997) emphasizes on how human language and programming language are molded to instruct gamers to traverse games cybertextually. the traversing act by gamers indicates the presence of guidance or system of traversal within the game. mäyrä (2008) argues that in games, language is a system that incorporates game rules and gameplays and provides meaningful playfulness for gamers. due to its status as a system, an interaction commonly called human-computer interaction (hci) occurs. ensslin (2011) specifies this interaction in terms of how linguistics contributes in displaying the relationship between language use and ludic activities gamers perform. concerning the linguistics implied by ensslin (2011), purnomo et al. (2016) emphasize the necessity to revisit ludic linguistics as argued by crystal by focusing on two major elements it offers namely patterns and preferences. patterns refer to how the game information is constructed while preferences to how gamers devise gaming strategies based on the information given. departing from the combination of both, gaming identity or what they call as luden is able to be revealed. the gap left by the aforementioned studies is how to incorporate the root of ludic linguistics, which is wordplay, in video game context to reveal how ideology of influence is transferred through the use of wordplays. this relationship might disclose a comprehension on the ideology particular games have and the influences they have upon gamers from language perspectives. to indicate how gaming languages have a link on the ideology of influence, register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.196-214 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 238 this article employs language play by crystal (2001), ideology of influence by aarseth (1997), wordplay in the gaming context by paul (2012), ludonarrative model by aarseth (2012), intended meaning level by stiles (1986), wordplay transmission by winter-froemel (2016), game interface types by stonehouse (2014), and indexical storytelling by fernández-vara (2011). to display how these theories are integrable for an analysis, konami’s metal gear solid, metal gear solid 2: sons of liberty, and metal gear solid 3: snake eater were used as an example. expected results would indicate how the use of particular lingual expressions has distinctive purposes in directing or distracting the gamers from achieving in-game goals. this study attempts to formulate a systemic tool of analysis, able to indicate how ludic linguistics is able to explain how wordplays, as its essence, contribute to the presence of ideology of influence. this tool will be beneficial for (a) linguists in comprehending the relationship between gaming language and the ideologies games have, (b) narrative designers in designing narrative cues or pathways to predict how the designed games are expected to trigger particular reactions and responses from the gamers, and (c) gamers in comprehending how language works in the gaming context. this study limits its scope on the phrase ‘gaming language’. gaming language might refer to computer codes, human languages delivered by computer codes, or human languages delivered by gamers to gamers. this study highlights the second with concerns over the first and the third to a particular extent. these three types of gaming languages, though being different in nature, share a common trait. they are constructed to indicate how game mechanics and narratives could contribute to the process of meaning making, from which gamers register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp. 235-261 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 239 embrace ludic values or commonly called as playfulness. in cognitive perspectives as suggested by lieberman (2014), playfulness is inseparable from one’s creative cognitive style. this definition implies that the degree of a product of being playful or not relies on the individual’s creativity through cognition upon the product. wordplays in the gaming context are designed to be playful in a different sense from that of the non-gaming context. the playfulness of a game might be revealed through replayability, ability games have to attract gamers to play the games over and over (newman, 2013). besides limiting the study on the types of gaming language, this study specifies its range of gaming language by referring to the root of ludic linguistics, wordplay. focusing on wordplay in the gaming context with consideration on its mechanical and narrative functions indicates a fusion between ludic linguistics and game studies, from which making sense is constructed in the sense that game mechanics and narratives are able to be analyzed from linguistics perspectives for uncovering the ideology of influence. research method this qualitative study employed giddings’ (2009) micro-ethnography approach for video game studies. this approach was selected since it focuses on the events resulting from the interaction between games and their gamers. this approach is linear to the essence of the ideology of influence and thereby employing this approach would generate a vivid picture of how wordplays, as the root of ludic linguistics, are constructed as such to influence the gamers in playing the games. the data of this study were the game assets of metal gear solid, metal gear solid 2: sons of liberty, and metal gear solid 3: snake eater comprising register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.196-214 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 240 tutorials, items, skills/abilities, equipment, non-battle, pre-battle, in-battle, post-battle dialogues, music and song, and map. metal gear solid was selected as the source of data since this game, labelled as one of the greatest video games of all time, laid the foundation of the so-called stealth genre, an action game, which instructs the gamers to complete any missions without being noticed. this game genre requires gamers to thoroughly consider every textual, visual, audial, and kinetic aspect to complete the game. the researcher played metal gear solid, metal gear solid 2: sons of liberty, and metal gear solid 3: snake eater, procured the game assets, stored and sorted them for analysis. the procured game assets comprise textual, visual, audial, and kinetic elements, from which a multimodal relationship is woven to generate meaning for the gamers. the game assets from metal gear solid, metal gear solid 2: sons of liberty, and metal gear solid 3: snake eater were taken based on the perspectives of genotype, in which the game elements do not stand by themselves in constructing a meaning but they work together to signify the presence of game assets, from which meaning is perceived. result & discussion to make it more practical, the result of this study is presented in steps on how wordplays as the essence of ludic linguistics, ludonarrative, intended meaning level, interface design, indexical storytelling, and the ideology of influence are intertwined to generate an underlying particular meaning for games. examples from metal gear solid, metal gear solid 2: sons of liberty, and metal gear solid 3: snake eater are presented to better illustrate the steps. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp. 235-261 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 241 gaming language analysis procedures kernel analysis to reveal video game ideology with wordplays as the core focus, five steps of gaming language analysis are constructed. the first step is to reveal the kernel of game assets. kernel is what cannot be omitted or replaced since its omission will totally change the narrative while the satellite is what can be replaced (aarseth, 2012). kernel in its simplest sense shares common traits as that of main idea of a text. the kernel of spider man, for instance, is spider bite, which turns peter parker into spider man. without that bite, there would never be spider man. thus, the kernel is spider biting. in the gaming context, kernel is uncoverable through the characteristic or the nature of game assets. the following table enlists regular game assets appearing on any game design and the kernel they are constructed from. table 1. game assets and their kernels game assets kernels tutorial tutoring items effecting skills/abilities effecting equipment effecting non-battle dialogues informing (in relation to the other game assets) pre-battle dialogues fighting/indicating in-battle dialogues fighting/indicating post-battle dialogues informing (in relation to the other game assets) music and song indicating map searching departing from understanding that each game asset has kernel, wordplays related to the kernel are uncoverable. in-game equipment is register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.196-214 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 242 onomastically named to indicate an aesthetic relationship between mechanics and narrative elements. chaff grenade, one of iconic equipment in metal gear franchise, is named after seeds separated by the process of winnowing. this meaning aesthetically indicates its mechanical function, in which by throwing the grenade, solid snake becomes unnoticed from any visual, camera-based recording, separating him from the surveillance view. interestingly when the grenade is thrown out, winnowing like sound effect and seed-like dots are heard and visualized on the screen. chaff grenade, as a part of the equipment, has an effecting kernel and thus the word ‘chaff’ is played for the gamers to think what effects it might have upon the player-controlled character, the computer-controlled proponent character, and the computer-controlled opponent characters. intended meaning level analysis an analysis of the intended meaning level proceeds after the kernels are revealed. intended meaning circumnavigates around attempts to recognize whether speakers disguise their hidden meaning through the use of particular expressions (stiles, 1986). in the gaming context, cues or hints to complete a game might be explicitly or implicitly delivered to the gamers and it befalls to the gamers to decipher them. this condition implies that games actually speak to the gamers in a particular manner. stiles (1986) classifies intended meaning into six levels namely level 0,1,2,3,4,5. in this classification, the higher the level the deeper the intended meaning is hidden. level 0 and 1 are literal, level 2 hint, level 3 manipulation, level 4 secret, and level 5 self-deception. in relation to the truth revealing functions, non-humorous wordplays in the register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp. 235-261 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 243 gaming context are designed as such to deliver their intended meaning to the gamers by requesting them to perceive the meaning of wordplays, not the way it is presented. in the case of chaff grenade, if a description on the grenade usage and function is not existent, the intended meaning on the wordplay is of level two since recognizing the usage and function of chaff grenade is not only obtainable from deciphering the word ‘chaff’ but also from trial and error by the gamers. in the game, chaff grenade is presented along with its description and thus making the wordplay falls into level zero, literal intended meaning. to give a better understanding of how stiles’ (1986) intended meaning level works in the gaming context, a table is presented as follow: table 2. intended meaning level classification intended meaning level name description level 0 literal no hidden intended meaning intended meaning is explicitly delivered through various assistive menu containing explanation, description, or procedure level 1 literal no hidden intended meaning intended meaning is explicitly articulated without the help of assistive menu level 2 hint intended meaning is hidden gamers are not required to reveal the intended meaning but revealing it discloses possibilities to play the game efficiently and effectively level 3 manipulation intended meaning is hidden gamers are required to reveal the intended meaning to proceed to next missions or stages register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.196-214 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 244 if gamers fail to reveal the intended meaning, the game will provide assistance level 4 secret intended meaning is hidden in the form of cheat gamers need to perform specific actions like button pressing, run special program over the game or download extra content to reveal the intended meaning level 5 selfdeception intended meaning is hidden in glitch or bug due to errors in the game gamers do not perform specific procedures to reveal the intended meaning since gamers accidentally bump over the glitches or bugs as seen from the table, that the criteria employed to indicate intended meaning level are game-to-gamer centric indicates that game acts as an addresser while gamers as an addressee. this addressing relationship points out that both attempt to communicate through a language with specific features. in the case of ‘chaff’, that its level of intended meaning is of level zero is not only indicated by the criteria of its level but also the way the played word is presented, wordplay transmission, the next step of the analysis. wordplay transmission analysis wordplays require media to transmit their meaning, implying that different media generates different approaches to comprehend the wordplays. winter-froemel (2016) classifies three types of wordplay transmission namely phonic, graphic, and combination of both. in relation to intended meaning, the attribution of image, sound, and motion on the played words signify different levels of intended meaning. in the case of chaff grenade, this weapon is register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp. 235-261 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 245 visualized and sound-effected and thereby assisting gamers in recognizing the mechanical function of the grenade. the presence of these visual and audial attributes is also another proof that ‘chaff’, played on chaff grenade, is of level zero in intended meaning. in the gaming context, visual and audial attributes are not only the concerns but the way the attributes are displayed is also taken into concerns. video games, like any other computer programs, utilize interface to allow gamers to interact with the game elements via visual and audial attributes. four types of interfaces video games utilize are diegetic, meta-diegetic, spatial, and non-diegetic (stonehouse, 2014). on the diegetic interface, the interface is blended within the narrative and game environment. in a simple understanding, the diegetic interface does not explicitly display the interface and thus making the immersion level of gamers high. meta-diegetic shares similar traits like diegetic in which the interface is not explicitly displayed. what makes the two different is that in meta-diegetic, the interface is designed in a 2d plane. if gamers want to chat with in-game avatars, for instance, the interface displayed on screen might take a real-life communication tool instead of symbols. the spatial interface relies on symbols to indicate where game avatars should go so that gamers would not miss the intended direction. the immersion level of this interface is lower than diegetic and meta-diegetic. the lowest in immersion among the four is non-diegetic in which movements, equipment, and other game elements are symbolized and thereby reducing the immersive level of gamers in the narrative. visual and audial attributes attached to the wordplay, in the gaming context, are dependent on these interface types. if immersion is graded like that of intended meaning, a register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.196-214 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 246 relationship between wordplay transmission, interface, and intended meaning level will be visible as follow: table 3. wordplay transmission scales (mechanical functions) interface types immersion level wordplay transmission intended meaning level diegetic high none 4 visual 3 audial 2 audial-visual 1 visual-audial 0 meta-diegetic medium none 4 visual 3 audial 2 audial-visual 1 visual-audial 0 spatial fair none 4 visual 3 audial 2 audial-visual 1 visual-audial 0 non-diegetic low none 4 visual 3 audial 2 audial-visual 1 visual-audial 0 intended meaning level 5 is not included in the scale since level 5 in the game deals with glitches and bugs, which indicate the presence of in-game mechanical errors and troubles. audial-visual and visual-audial refer to the cooperative relation both transmissions have with the first word being more emphasized than the second. as seen from the table, wordplays transmitted in a more detailed fashion have a more literal intended meaning. in addition, the register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp. 235-261 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 247 more diegetic an interface has in transmitting the wordplays, the higher the immersion level is. in chaff grenade case, the immersion level is low and the intended meaning is of level zero. this low-zero combination points out that chaff grenade is designed to have a direct influence on the gamers so that they might engage its mechanical functions in a responsive manner. in the context of narrative functions, wordplay transmission is delivered in regard to the storytelling or story building types the games have. fernández-vara (2011) proposes indexical storytelling, a story told through indications or indices, terms borrowed from peircean sign philosophy. indexical storytelling claims that stories in games are not only intended to tell something to the gamers but also to indicate the gamers to do something. in revolver ocelot case, for instance, the lines said by the gunman are not intended only to tell that he is an experienced colt user but also to indicate that the gun has only six bullets and it requires time to reload. the first function is what fernández-vara (2011) refers to as ‘what happened;’ the second, what should be done. in brief, the former is better termed event and the second, action. in event, the story attempts to immerse gamers in ‘telling’ while in action, the immersion lies on ‘building’. these different types of immersion signify a different level of engagement, how gamers are exposed to particular games or game elements (mcmahan, 2003). in telling, gamers are required to connect past and present events to predict and analyze what event will be occurring in the future of the controlled character. meanwhile, in building, gamers have to connect cues hidden or exposed in the game environment. in regard to wordplays and their transmissions, telling and building also share the same transmissions as what mechanical functions have. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.196-214 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 248 table 4. wordplay transmission scales (narrative functions) indexical storytelling types immersion level wordplay transmission inte nde d me ani ng lev el event telling none 4 visual 3 audial 2 audial-visual 1 visual-audial 0 action building none 4 visual 3 audial 2 audial-visual 1 visual-audial 0 in the case of chaff grenade, the indexical storytelling is action and thus building becomes the focus of the played word. as it falls into building, gamers are asked to reveal the cues of the grenade functions. to do so, gamers could rely on themselves to know how the played word is transmitted, whether the word is aided by visual, audial, both, or none. the way the word is transmitted, as discussed before, is connected to the intended meaning level. ideology of influence analysis the analysis on wordplay transmission encompassing both mechanical and narrative functions are brought together along with the analysis on kernel and intended meaning level to reveal the ideology of influence principle that register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp. 235-261 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 249 the analyzed played word has. the ideology of influence falls into two principles of delivery namely metamorphosis and anamorphosis (aarseth, 1997). the former attempts to influence gamers in a literal way, implying that gamers are free to configure any strategies with the existing features of the games to accomplish particular goals. meanwhile, the latter demands gamers to traverse the games in a specific way to complete certain objectives, hidden from the literal ones. in the context of wordplays, this specific traversal mode is also required. this is due to the fact that wordplay might be utilized to function as a veiled speech and a safe criticism (ahl, 1984), to which politics is primarily attached (mitsis and ziogas, 2016). wordplay might also be aesthetically employed to strengthen the poetic sides of art or the witty sides of fictional characters (mahood, 2003; louden, 1995). to provide a clear relationship among each step, the analysis is delivered through a hierarchical process chart: chart 1. wordplay analysis example equipment game asset chaff grenade chaff seed winnowing effecting register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.196-214 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 250 mechanical functions narrative functions non-diegetic action visual audial visual audial low-zero building-zero metamorphic principle metamorphic principle as seen from the chart above, the word played in chaff grenade is ‘chaff’. this word has an effecting kernel since it belongs to the equipment game asset. the effecting kernel occurs on the mechanical functions of the word only. the mechanics are non-diegetically displayed with visual and audial aids. these aids are the graphic and phonic realization of the meaning behind ‘chaff’, semantically related to ‘seed’ and ‘winnowing’. since the meaning is realized through the use of non-diegetic interfaced visual and audial aids, ‘chaff’ in chaff grenade is low in immersion and zero in intended meaning. this condition indicates that the metamorphic principle is applied in delivering ideology of influence, meaning that the word ‘chaff’ is not designed to be deciphered by the gamers. what occurs in the case of ‘chaff’, which emphasizes on the mechanism of using the equipment, is a type of equipment naming in military games. a different case might occur when the equipment naming is intended for a role-playing game (rpg) with all its derivative genres. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp. 235-261 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 251 chaff in its narrative functions, as seen from the above chart, focuses on action indexical storytelling. it implies, as suggested before, that the played word ‘chaff’ is not intended to provide information regarding the story occurring before and after the introduction of ‘chaff’. chaff is indicated to lead the gamers to perform particular actions through the controlled character. to perform this action, in the case of ‘chaff’, the indication is delivered in intended meaning level zero, meaning that the cues to operate the grenade are explicitly delivered or metamorphically delivered. in the context of ludo-narrative, the focus on mechanical function ‘chaff’ indicates that the mechanics of chaff grenade builds the weapon’s narrative. when a game asset relies on mechanical functions to establish its narrative, it points out that the game asset is not story-related but gameplay-related. when game assets dominantly have more focus on mechanics than narrative, it implies that the genre the game has is gameplay-driven. on the other hand, the game genre is narrative-driven genre when narrative functions dominate the game assets. if a game has a balanced portion for both functions, the genre is gameplay and narrativedriven. this classification of gameplay, narrative, and gameplay-narrative conforms to the theory of clearwater (2011) on game genre. the following table might illustrate how the ideology of influence principles are intertwined with mechanical and narrative functions: register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.196-214 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 252 table 5. ideology of influence and mechanical-narrative functions mechanical functions narrative functions metamorphic principle anamorphic principle metamorphic principle anamorphic principle dominance relationship superior x inferior x superior x x inferior x superior x inferior x superior inferior x inferior x superior x inferior x x superior x inferior x superior x inferior superior x the table shows that two types of dominance relationship are existent namely superior and inferior. superior dominance means that particular ideology of influence dominates more than the other in mechanical or narrative functions. if metamorphic and anamorphic principles are superior on mechanical functions, it implies that the game focuses primarily on gameplay with a different manner of presentations. gameplay delivered by metamorphic principle allows gamers to play the game without even learning it and vice versa for anamorphic principle. on the other hand, if metamorphic and anamorphic principles are superior in narrative functions, the game focus is on its gamestory (narrative). gamestory narrated through metamorphic principle indicates that the story is presented in a conventional formula, in which gamers are not required to perform a specific method to comprehend the story. in an anarmophic principle delivered gamestory, a specific method to traverse the register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp. 235-261 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 253 story is a requirement for the gamers to fulfill if they attempt to comprehend the story. gameplay and gamestory are intermingled in video games and thus, signifying that they are reliant to one another, meaning that gamers need to perform particular action to advance the story. in the context of metamorphosis, the action might be freely or conventionally exercised while in anamorphosis, since the action is hidden, the first thing gamers have to do is to reveal how to do it by connecting all the cues presented through wordplays. in metal gear solid, just like other aaa (triple a) game with role-playing elements, has what is called as secrets or easter eggs. these secrets are not delivered on the literal level of the intended meaning. in some cases, the cues to reveal the secrets are not visually or audially accompanied. hideo kojima, the creator of this franchise, is fond of employing references to famous films and games in his games. one of the films kojima refers constantly to is the james bond series. in metal gear solid: integral, the expanded version of metal gear solid, if the gamers are aware of this james bond reference, the gamers might be prompted to seek out for secrets by deciphering anything related to james bond and one of the game features which might provoke the gamers to experiment is the codec. this communication device is operated through frequency searching. it asks gamers to search for the correct frequency in five-digit inputs starting with 140. the last two digits disclose chances for gamers to experiment. if the gamers are aware of the james bond references in the games in forms of themes, motifs, and plots, they might try to input 140.07. 007 is james bond’s iconic number and by inputting it, the gamers will obtain a secret in the form of the game staff commentaries in japanese, containing some of the game production agenda. this example signifies how register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.196-214 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 254 anamorphosis influences the gamers to connect and relate all the cues to uncover the hidden action and story. wordplay function analysis the final step of this procedural analysis on gaming language is to identify how the functions of wordplay in the gaming context are realized through the played words. wordplay in the gaming context circumnavigates on rhetorical criticism, focusing on how particular artefacts weave a relationship with the rhetors, audiences, situations, and messages (foss, 2017). this rhetorical nature of wordplay in video games implies the positioning and functioning of words are in regard to the gamers, the symbols the games depict, and the influences the words have upon gamers. departing from this rhetorical nature, wordplay in the gaming context takes a different form and function from those of wordplay found in ludic linguistics or recreational linguistics yet serving the same purpose of playfulness. paul (2012) states that wordplay in the gaming context has three primary functions namely facilitating analysis of how games persuade, creating identifications, and circulating meanings. a descriptive analysis takes place to explain how wordplay functions namely persuasion, identification, and meaning circulation are embodied and exercised through the played word. in the case of ‘chaff’, since the word is attached to a grenade, the persuasion it has toward gamers is that it is used to explode something in a far range usage. recognizing the function, gamers are persuaded to use chaff grenade when a surveillance problem occurs. two types of persuasion are existent namely compulsive and resistible persuasion. in compulsive persuasion, the problems gamers meet have only one solution register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp. 235-261 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 255 and thereby in wordplay context, gamers have to locate and decipher the played word and its intended meaning. meanhwile, resistible persuasion frees gamers from solving the problems they meet with or without comprehending the wordplay. ‘chaff’ is the only solution for a surveillance problem since without having this grenade, solid snake will be detected by the surveillance camera and this condition makes the persuasion falls into a compulsive persuasion. if this type of persuasion ‘chaff’ case displays is wrapped in the metamorphic principle, it indicates that ‘chaff’ as the played word functions as an aesthetic attribute only. if the compulsive persuasion is delivered through an anamorphic principle, it points out that the wordplay works as a functional attribute. in metal gear solid, this type of persuasion is found from the aforementioned case of psycho mantis. another case showing compulsive persuasion in anamorphic principle appears on metal gear solid 3: snake eater when snake has to face the sorrow. this boss takes the shape of a ghost. snake cannot kill him but he can kill snake. if the gamers are observant, they will notice that the sorrow keeps on saying lines with the kernel ‘returning’ like ‘go back to your own world’, ‘wake up’, ‘now you will know the sorrow of those whose lives you have ended’. these lines are supported by visuals of the characters snake has killed before, signifying the kernel ‘returning’. the solution to defeating the sorrow lies on allowing snake to die first and taking a pill called revival pill to return snake to life. doing so, the sorrow will be defeated. identification comes after persuasion. the difference between persuasion and identification lies on the target or addressee. in persuasion, what appears on the game forces the gamers to react and respond while identification deals with how gamers cognitively perform a mechanical adjustment through button pressing, difficulty setting, or game configuration register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.196-214 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 256 as a physical embodiment of reaction and response. since a mechanical adjustment is required, it implies that the adjusment might not only be singular in method but plural. in ‘chaff’ case, the identification is singular since all the gamers need to is to browse for the grenade and throw it off without configuring any mechanical adjusment. identification might also take in the forms of button pressing. in metal gear solid 2: sons of liberty, gamers have to face a woman boss by the name fortune. her name signifies her combat ability. any shots directed to her will be missed. any traps set for her will be malfunctioning. her luck is her combat ability. fortune’s lines are in line with her name meaning. ‘maybe you can give me death?’, ‘my name is fortune. lucky in war and nothing else’, ‘and without death to call my own’, ‘hurry, kill me please’ are the lines which indicate that nothing can harm fortune. if nothing can harm her, it means the only way to complete the fight is to escape or to survive. since the fight takes place in a locked room, the only option gamers have is to survive. this method of completing the fight, besides being indicated by a visual aid in a form of a scene, showing raiden hiding behind a giant crate and jumping to avoid fortune’s attack, which destroys the crate. identifying this, the adjusments made are plural in terms of hiding and jumping action. the plural identification comes from the arbitrariness games have in choosing which crates to hide behind and to which direction gamers move raiden. after the persuasion and identification functions of the analyzed wordplay were revealed, meaning circulation takes place. in meaning circulation, the analysis focuses on summarizing how the meaning carried by the played word circulates around the kernel of the game narrative and register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp. 235-261 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 257 mechanics. in metal gear solid, the game narrative kernel is metal gear, a gigantic nuclear launching bipedal robot or mecha and the game mechanics kernel is stealth action. in the case of ‘chaff’, the word is related to the game narrative and mechanics kernel since the meaning of ‘chaff’ is also related to missile deployment and ‘chaff’ is utilized to make the thrower remain unseen in action. this type of meaning circulation, where the played word is connected to the kernels of game narratives and mechanics, is called componential. the following table provides the types of meaning circulation: table 6. meaning circulation types types played word and game narratives played word and game mechanics componential connected connected constituential connected not connected elemental not connected connected ingrediential not connected not connected the presence of componential circulation indicates that the played word is substantial in terms of game narratives and mechanics. in the case of ‘chaff’, gamers will have to rely on it from the beginning to the end of the games since surveillance is one of the primary issues gamers have to face. different from componential circulation, constituential circulation signifies that the played word plays a key role in comprehending the flow of the game story. the mobile weapon metal gear is visually depicted to resemble that of t-rex, from which a narrative of the food chain is constructed, thereby characters controlled and fought by gamers in the game are based on animal, indicating that t-rex stands on the top of the food chain. moreover, the names register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.196-214 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 258 of the bosses are related to the word gear, weapons. revolver ocelot, sniper wolf, and vulcan raven with exception being liquid snake since he fights with a variety of weapons bear them the names of weapons. this focus on weapon functions as a hint for game mechanics, from which gamers could take advantage. this weapon-related name is the example of elemental circulation. the last circulation, ingredential, as the name implies, it refers to trivial or promotional function. as discussed before, most games with franchise have what is called easter egg. this easter egg primarily functions as a tool to evoke fun and nostalgia. the presence of konami games, policenauts, mario statuette, yoshi statuette, adult model posters and other easter eggs in metal gear franchise serve ingredential circulation when related to particular played words. conclusion ludic linguistics roots from wordplays for humorous purposes, implying that wordplays through their construction have the power to influence its recipients to react and respond to the messages the wordplays bear. this concept is applicable to explain how gaming language works by highlighting the functions of wordplays in the gaming context. those functions are facilitating analysis of how games persuade, creating identifications, and circulating meanings. these three functions are intertwined with ideology of influence, how game elements influence gamers in taking decisions to solve particular problems or challenges the games offer. in delivering ideology of influence, two principles are known namely metamorphosis, a literal traversal of delivering ideology of influence, and anamorphosis, a specific traversal. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp. 235-261 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 259 in explaining how gaming language works in regard to how wordplays along with their functions contribute to the emergence of ideology of influence in games, five proposed steps should be taken. first, kernel analysis on game assets is exercised on the analyzed wordplay to reveal the primary message of the game asset in regard to the wordplay. second, after the kernel is revealed, the intended meaning level of the wordplay is revealed. third, in tandem with intended meaning analysis, wordplay transmission is analyzed to reveal how the way the wordplay is presented influences its intended meaning. fourth, ideology of influence is revealed through a tree chart to easily notice the causal relationship previous steps have toward the emergence of particular ideology. fifth, a descriptive analysis on how the wordplay serves its three primary functions is exercised in regard to the ideology of influence. references aarseth, e. j. (1997). cybertext: perspectives on ergodic literature. jhu press. aarseth, e. (2012, may). a narrative theory of games. in proceedings of the international conference on the foundations of digital games (pp. 129133). acm. ahl, f. (1984). the art of safe criticism in greece and rome. the american journal of philology, 105(2), 174-208. caillois, r. (1961). man, play and games (m. barash, trans.). champaign: university of illinois press.(original work published in 1958). clearwater, d. (2011). what defines video game genre? thinking about genre study after the great divide. loading..., 5(8). register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.196-214 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 260 crystal, d. (1996). playing with linguistic problems: from orwell to plato and back again. georgetown university round table on languages and linguistics (gurt) 1996: linguistics, language acquisition, and language variation: current trends and future prospects, 5. crystal, d. (2001). language play. university of chicago press. ensslin, a. (2011). the language of gaming. macmillan international higher education. fernández-vara, c. (2011). game spaces speak volumes: indexical storytelling. in proceedings of digra 2011 conference: think design play. foss, s. k. (2017). rhetorical criticism: exploration and practice. waveland press. giddings, s. (2009). events and collusions: a glossary for the microethnography of video game play. games and culture, 4(2), 144157. huizinga, j. (1949). homo ludens: a study of the play-element in our culture. routledge & kegan paul. lieberman, j. n. (2014). playfulness: its relationship to imagination and creativity. academic press. louden, b. 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(2016). approaching wordplay. crossing languages to play with words. multidisciplinary perspectives, 11-46. mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 77 the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post’s opinion coloumn entitled “polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir’s case” on december 05th, 2014 mashlihatul umami sekolah tinggi agama islam negeri (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no.02 salatiga, central java, indonesia umamie@gmail.com abstract this study attempts to construe the discourse devices recognized in the article of jakarta post opinion column entitle ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05 th , 2014 using meta-function strategy proposed by martin and white (2005). the researcher found that the opinion text displays meta-function devices in different ways by using appraisal, ideation, conjunction, identification and periodicity to express their opinion with the related issue. the biggest parts used in appraisal are affect-attitude, judgment-attitude, and appreciation-attitude, force-graduation and focus-graduation. besides using mono-gloss, the writers of the article also use hetero-gloss by projection, modality and concession or counter-expectancy. in the aspect of ideation, the researcher found that there are four kinds of figures, respectively, ‘doing, saying, sensing, and being. in terms of conjunction, it has been found that the writers of article use external and internal conjunction. to keep track of what is being talked about to the readers, the writers of article using ideation strategies by presenting, presuming, possessive, comparative, and text. at last, in terms of periodicity, the writers use themes, marked themes, and new in order to make the readers easier to grasp the meanings and the plot in the article. mailto:umamie@gmail.com the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 78 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 keywords: jakarta post opinion article, meta-function system, appraisal, ideation, conjunction, ideation, and periodicity abstrak penelitian ini berusaha untuk menyusun penanda tulisan yang terdapat pada artikel opini the jakarta post berjudul ―polycarpus bebas bersyarat: menyelesaikan kasus munir‖ pada tanggal 5 desember 2014 dengan menggunakan strategi metafungsi yang diajukan oleh martin dan white (2005). peneliti menemukan bahwa teks opini menampilkan alat metafungsi dalam bermacam bentuk yaitu penilaian, ideasi, konjungsi, identifikasi dan kecenderungan waktu dalam mengungkapkan opini mereka terkait masalah tersebut. hal utama yang dipakai dalam penilaian tersebut adalah pengaruh-perilaku, pandangan-perilaku, dan apresiasi— erilaku, pemaksaan-keputusan dan fokus-keputusan. selain menggunakan mono-gloss, penulis artikel juga menggunakan hetero-gloss dengan proyeksi, cara, pengurangan, dan pembalik-ekspektansi. di dalam aspek ideasi, peneliti menemukan empat jenis figure yaitu melakukan, mengatakan, merasakan, dan menjadi. dalam hal konjungsi, ditemukan bahwa penulis artikel menggunakan konjungsi internal dan eksternal. untuk merekam apa yang diungkapkan kepada pembaca, penulis artikel menggunakan strategi ideasi dengan cara menyajikan, menganggap, kepemilikan, membandingkan dan teks. sedangkan dalam hal kecenderungan waktu, penulis artikel menggunakan tema, tema bertanda, dan urutan baru untuk membantu pembaca menangkap arti dan plot dalam artikel lebih mudah. kata kunci: artikel opini the jakarta post, sistem meta-function, penilaian, ideasi, konjungsi, dan kecenderungan waktu a. introduction newspaper is a printed publication and usually distributed daily or weekly, and contains news, opinions, etc. cambridge dictionary (2011) says that newspaper is a regularly printed document consisting of news report, articles, photographs and advertisements that are printed on large sheets of paper which are folded together but not mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 79 permanently joined. in this paper, i will merely limit my study in discussing the opinion article. an opinion can be delivered through spoken or written language. a written opinion can be found easily in the newspaper it is called editorial. the discussion of discourse analysis in the text will be related with cohesion and coherence. cohesion is one part of the study of texture, which considers the interaction of cohesion with other aspects of text organization. texture, in turn, is one aspect of the study of coherence, which takes the social context of texture into consideration. the goal of discourse analysis in this tradition is to build a model that places texts in their social contexts and looks comprehensively at there sources which both integrate andsituate them. textureis one aspect of thestudyofcoherence, which can bethought ofasthe process whereby a reading position is naturalized by texts for listener/readers. alongside texture, this process involves understandings and expectations about the social context a text dynamically construes. in sfl, social context is modelled through register and genre theory (hallidayand hasan 1985; ). martin (1992) worked on reformulating the notionof cohesive ties as discourse semantic structure, inspired by the text-oriented conception of semantics of the hartford stratification lists (gleason 1968; gutwinski 1976) with whom hestudied in toronto. in his stratified account, cohesion was reformulated as aset of discourse semantic systems at a more abstract level than lexicogrammar, with their own meta-functional organization. halliday's nonstructural textual resources were thus reworked as semantic systems concerned with discourse structure. http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b34 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b56 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b56 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b24 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b27 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b27 the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 80 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 the result of these reformulations is a semantic stratum of textoriented resources dedicated to the analysis of cohesive relations as discourse structure. once stratified with respect to lexico-grammar, these resources can be aligned with meta-functions in the following proportions:  identification : textual meaning  negotiation : interpersonal meaning  conjunction : logicalmeaning  ideation : experiential meaning  periodicity : information flow it is why i will use those categories as the knife of discourse analysis. in this paper, it will emphasize on analyzing the article of jakarta post opinion column entitle ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05 th , 2014 using such meta-function strategy. b. method of research the study is descriptive qualitative in nature that the writers only explain and describe the phenomena which exist in the data by employing the theory of meta-function system. the data were collected by browsing through the internet because it is an on line opinion article. the editorial text was, then, segmented into sentences or word/phrase as the units of analysis. afterwards, the writers identified the sentences or word/phrase which display the phenomena of these discourse system. finally, the writers classified the sentences or words/phrases according to the discourse system as proposed by martin and white(2005) before which the categorized appraisal were tabulated and interpreted. http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#fn9 mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 81 the data of the study are the english expository discourses written by indonesians as reflected in the specific features of the jakarta post. the data are randomly taken from the jakarta post newspaper. the investigator will make field notes concerning the profile of the expository discourses, i.e. the title, controlling idea (both the thesis statement and topic sentences), supporting ideas, the relationship between controlling and supporting ideas, paragraph unity, and pattern of development. the data are analyzed at two levels of analysis, (1) at micro or paragraph level and (2) at macro or overall composition level. thus, each text will be analyzed at the paragraph level as well as at the overall composition level. the data of the study will be analyzed using the following procedure: 1) displaying the data. the data which have been selected will be displayed. each essay will be segmented into paragraphs, into sentences, 2) observing the profiles of every text by identifying the title, the thesis statement, the topic sentences, the relation of ideas between paragraphs (thesis statement and topic sentences) and within paragraph (between the topic sentence and supporting ideas), pattern of development, 3)drawing conclusions. (miles and huberman as cited by ngadiman 1998:151). the units of analysis of the study are at the paragraph level and at the overall composition level. at the paragraph level, the controlling idea which is called a topic sentence and the supporting ideas are identified. to determine the thought pattern at the paragraph level, how those ideas are organized is analyzed. the analysis includes: (a) topic sentence, (b) fullness of development, (c) coherence within paragraph and paragraph unity. at the whole composition level, the complete picture of the text the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 82 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 features is tried to be found out. the following points are successively analyzed at the whole composition level: (a) title formulation, (b) thesis statement, (c) discourse organization, (d) coherence between paragraphs. c. results and discussion the five elements of discourse system in jakarta post opinion column entitle ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05 th , 2014 will be presented as follows: 1. appraisal: negotiating attitudes. while & white (1998), and martin (2004) say that appraisal theory is concerned with the linguistic resources for/by which text/speakers come to express, negotiate and naturalize particular intersubjective and ultimately ideological positions. the three subtypes of appraisal system are attitude, engagement and graduation. the focus here is on attitude-feelings and values that are negotiated with the readers. the key resources here have to do with evaluating things, people‘s character and their feelings. in the following passage, the writers express their feeling using the three subtypes of appraisal system; they are attitude, engagement and graduation. 1.1 attitude. in terms of attitude, the writers tell to the reader that pollycarpus‘ out of parole causes the negative response from the victims of family and the public. at first, the writers choose the first element of attitude, i.e: mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 83 affect, in this case, they express it using direct negative affect. the following paragraph describes it.  this issue will test the leadership of the new administration of president joko “jokowi” widodo. inevitably, pollycarpus‟ release has caused distress for the victim‟s family. it further has the potential to erode the community‟s sense of justice.  though the granting of parole is a legitimate element of the judicial and correctional process, there are a number of issues that the community is correct in questioning, such as how a person convicted of murder is eligible to receive 42 months worth of remissions applied to a 14-year sentence.  the reduction of pollycarpus‟ sentence has shocked many. is this the action of a state seeking to establish democracy and justice, without exception? then, the writers also use the negative judgment to pollycarpus and muchdi purwopranjono.  pollycarpus budihari prijanto, the former pilot and convicted murderer of the human rights activist, munir said thalib, is now out of prison on conditional release.  first, pollycarpus, acting alone or with others — namely garuda flight attendants yeti susmiarti and oedy irianto — perpetrated, caused others to perpetrate, or directly took part in premeditated murder as stipulated in the criminal code.  for example, a statement made by a garuda director that pollycarpus was tasked by the national intelligence agency (bin), the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 84 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 has not been fully investigated, although pollycarpus‟ involvement as an agent of bin was denied by muchdi purwopranjono, who was also charged as a suspect in munir‟s murder. the writers‘ opinion about munirs‘ case is also directly judged in the sentence: munir‟s murder will remain a mystery and will continue to create controversy the writers are also judge pollycarpus‘s out of parole decided by recent attorney general as the hedged of law enforcer in tackling criminal prosecutions. they express it in the following paragraph:  the momentum created by the recent appointment of attorney general, muhammad prasetyo creates an opportune moment for instilling a new paradigm in the handling of criminal prosecutions — whether aimed at civilian or state agencies.  law enforcement agencies consistently point out that they can only operate within the bounds of the law. the writers express their feeling by choosing positive and negative appreciations in the following table: table 1 positive and negative appraisal positive an opportune moment legitimate element negative falsified documents it is anomalous it was a serious misstep mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 85 1.2. graduation. in terms of graduation, the writers involve a set of resources for adjusting how strongly they feel about the reduction of pollycarpus‘s sentence, they use emphasizer /intensifier in amplifying the force of attitude.  it is anomalous that the charges implied the participation of others in the offense, yet only one offender was convicted, namely pollycarpus.  law enforcement agencies consistently point out that they can only operate within the bounds of the law.  further, the real motive behind pollycarpus‟ actions has never been fully exposed.  allowing this fact to remain hidden during the investigation and subsequent trial, if correct, was a serious misstep.  munir‟s murder will remain a mystery and will continue to create controversy if the political will does emerge to finallyexpose the truth behind it. in other paragraph, the writers express their feeling and representing amplification in which it using metaphors:  the government should do more than pay lip service to the principles of human rights, or worse, commodify such issues for political gain.  the defense of human rights must not be subjugated to efforts, which still continue, to silence the demands of the people for justice. while, the writers choose ―force‖ to raise his idea in grading the issue of pollycarpus‘s parole using the expression such as: the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 86 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 it further has the potential to erode the community’s sense of justice. it is hoped that the state will not fail in its duty to create a sense of security and justice in the community instead of suppressing human rights. the writers are also express their feeling in grading the issue of pollycarpus‘s parole using ―focus‖ method to sharpen their arguments such as:  munir was about to begin studying international humanitarian law at utrecht university when, on sept. 7th 2004……..  …such as how a person convicted of murder is eligible to receive 42 months worth of remissions applied to a 14-year sentence.  in the case of munir, it is anomalous that the charges implied the participation of others in the offense, yet only one offender was convicted, namely pollycarpus.  further, the real motive behind pollycarpus‟ actions has never been fully exposed.  the government should do more than pay lip service to the principles of human rights, or worse, commodify such issues for political gain 1.3. engagement. the final element of appraisal we need to consider in analyzing the text is who are the evaluations coming from/sourcing resources are. in this article, the writers are not only telling the reader by himself but also taking the sources from others (hetero-gloss), they use the method mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 87 of projecting the sourcesusing “point out and put forward by in the following sentences:  law enforcement agencies consistently point out that they can only operate within the bounds of the law.  however, a contrary view was put forward by a representative of kontras, the independent commission for missing persons and victims of violence. for example, a statement made by a garuda director that pollycarpus was tasked by the national intelligence agency (bin), has not been fully investigated, although pollycarpus‟ involvement as an agent of bin was denied by muchdi purwopranjono, who was also charged as a suspect in munir‟s murder. in terms of modality, the writers use it to negotiate probability, ability, and obligation. they can be found in the following sentences:  this issue will test the leadership of the new administration of president joko widodo.  law enforcement agencies consistently point out that they can only operate within the bounds of the law.  it is hoped that the state will not fail in its duty to create a sense of security and justice in the community instead of suppressing human rights.  justice must still be fought for the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 88 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 the third resource we need to consider, as far as heteroglossia in discourse is concerned, is known as ―counter-expectancy”.we can find it in the article such as:  though the granting of parole is a legitimate element of the judicial and correctional process, there are a number of issues that the community is correct in questioning.  in the case of munir, it is anomalous that the charges implied the participation of others in the offense, yet only one offender was convicted, namely pollycarpus.  however, the participation of others in the crime has not been proven. how is this possible?  however, a contrary view was put forward by a representative of kontras, the independent commission for missing persons and victims of violence.  the defense of human rights must not be subjugated to efforts, which stillcontinue, to silence the demands of the people for justice.  justice must still be fought for. 2. ideation: representing experience. ideation is concerned with the semantics oflexical relations as theyaredeployed toconstrueinstitutional activity. this system subsumes earlier work on lexical cohesion in a framework whichconsiders theways in which activitysequences and taxonomicrelations (of classification and composition) organizethe field of discourse(bensonandgreaves 1992). ideation is concerned with how our experience of ‗reality‘, material and symbolic is construed in discourse. http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b3 mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 89 the following table shows how text represents experience by looking how people and things participate in figures. so that, i would like to summarize the roles of participants in each of the figure types as follows: table 2 participating in hery firmansyah and adam fenton’s article participants doing say/ sensing being; quality, class, part, identity and existence pollycarpus the former pilot and convicted murderer(identity) munir is now out of prison on conditional release(identity) munir studying munir was poisoned and died the issue test pollycarpus‘s release causing distress pollycarpus‘s release has the potential….(quality) the granting of parole is a legitimate element….(quality) the granting of parole there are a number of issues….(existence and classes) the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 90 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 community questioning the reduction of pollycarpus‘ sentence has shock the action of a state seeking to establish state prosecutors charging pollycarpus pollycarpus acting alone /with others to perpetrate or caused others to perpetrate or taking part directly pollycarpus acting alone /with others to compelled others the case of munir it is anomalous (quality) the case of munir there were accomplishes who helped..(existence) participation of others in the crime has not been proven muhammad prasetyo creating momentum law enforcement agencies pointing out law enforcement operating mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 91 agencies a representative of the independent commission for missing person and victims of violence putting forward a statement made by a garuda director has not been investigated pollycarpus was tasked the national intelligence agency giving task pollycarpus‘s involvement as an agent of bin muchdi purwopranjono denying as a suspect in munir‘s murder(identity) allowing the fact hidden was a serious misstep(quality) real motive behind pollycarpus‘ actions has never been exposed munir‘s murder remaining a mystery and continuing to make controversy political will emerging to expose the state will not fail the government doing the goverment commoditizi the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 92 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 ng the defense of human rights must not be subjugated to efforts the defense of human rights continue to silence… justice must still be fought table 3 strings of elements in the article polycarpus munir the charge of pollycarpus reduction of pollycarpus’s sentence hope about goverment’s effort the former pilot and convicted murderer of munir co-class out of prison on conditional of prison begin studying internation al humanitari an law at uttrect university co-class he was poisoined and died acting alone or with others in perpetrating /cause others to perpretate or directly took part in premidated murder co-class acting alone or with others in compelling others to use falsified cause distress for victim‘s of family co-class erode the community‘s sense of justice co-class questioned by the community co-class shock many co-class an opportune moment to creating a sense of security and justice co-class suppressing human rignts part the right to life part other basic rights part international convention on mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 93 documents that caused injury instill a new paradigm in handling criminal prosecutions co-class law enforcement agencies can only operate within the bounds of the law contrast an involvement of pollycarpus as an agent of bin has not been investigated contrast hiding the fact and the real motive were a serious misstep co-class does not expose the truth will make it a mystery and controversy. political rights class do more to the principles of human rights co-class commodify such issues the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 94 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 meanwhile, the metaphors used in the article include:  it further has the potential to erode the community’s sense of justice.  pollycarpus‟ release has the potential to erode the community’s sense of justice.  the government should do more than pay lip service to the principles of human rights, or worse, commodify such issues for political gain.  it is hoped that the state will not fail in its duty to create a sense of security and justice in the community instead of suppressing human rights 3. conjunction: connecting events conjunction is concerned with resources for connecting messages, via addition, comparison, temporality, and causality. this system subsumes earlier work on linking between clauses in a framework which considers, in addition, the ways in which connections can berealized inside a clause through verbs, prepositions, and nouns (e.g. result in, because of, reason). drawing on gleason (1968) a framework for analyzing internal 7 (pragmatic/rhetorical) and external (semantic/propositional) conjunctive relations was proposed, including the possibility of connections realized simply by the contiguity of messages (i.e.links unmarked by an explicit connector). this work is closely related to studies of relations between propositions in discourse the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 mashlihatul umami http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b24 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#fn7 mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 95 by longacre (e.g. 1976) and to rhetorical structure theory (rst) as developed by mann, matthiessen, and thompson (e.g. 1992; fox1987). in the article we have found two types of conjunction, i.e; external and internal conjunction. these are used to connect figures in discourse. it will be illustrated in the following table: table 4 external conjunction addition additive add and, substract alternative or, whether…or…, either…or…, comparison similar such as different opposite replacing instead of, in the case of excepting time successive sometime immediate simultaneous as, when http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b50 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b52 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b19 the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 96 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 cause expectant cause concenssive thought, however, although, inevitably means expectant by concenssive yet condition open expectant if concessive closed purpose desire expectant concessive without fear table 5 internal conjunction addition developing additive further, alternative comparison similar compare more than rework such as, for example, such adjust different contrast contrary mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 97 retract yet time successive ordering first, second terminatint finally simultaneous adjacent interrupted still consequence concluding conclude consistently justify countering dismiss concede of course unexpected still, inevitably 4. identification: tracking participants identification is concerned with resources for tracking participants in discourse. this system subsumes earlier work on referential cohesion in a framework which considers the ways in which participants are both introduced into a text and kept track of once introduced. in addition, the ways in which phoric items depend on preceding or succeeding co-text, on assumed understandings,or on other relevant phenomena (images, activity, materiality, etc.) are considered. the questions addressed are similar to those pursued in du bois (1980) and fox (1987). in this article, we may sum up the resources for identifying things and people, as the following table: http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#fn5 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b14 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b14 http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=485/tocnode?id=g9780631205968_chunk_g97806312059683#b19 the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 98 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 table 6 resources for identifying thing and people type resources sentence presenting a an a a a an a a a jakarta amsterdam garuda indonesia flight. (2 nd paragraph) ..... an opportune moment …… (10 th paragraph) …. a new paradigm……(10 th paragraph) however, a contrary view …. (11 th paragraph ) ……a representative of kontras,…. ….a statement… …a garuda director… …a suspect….(11 th paragraph ) …an agent…(11 th paragraph ) …a serious misstep. (12 th paragraph) …a mystery…. (13 th paragraph) presuming this the reduction of pollycarpus’ sentence has shocked many. is this the action of a state seeking to establish democracy and justice, without exception? (fifth paragraph) mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 99 either this whether this questioning the …, either logistically or by recruiting others.(8 th paragraph) however, the participation of others in the crimehas not been proven. how is this possible? (9 th paragraph) whether aimed at civilians or state agencies. (10 th paragraph) allowing this fact….(12 th paragraph). this refers to the fact that state in the previous paragraph about the investigation of munir‘s murder. ….that the community questioning, such as how a person convicted of murder is eligible…..(4 th paragraph) the former, the leadership, the human right, the new administration, the victim‘s family, the community‘s sense, the granting of parole, the judicial, the community, the reduction, the action, the criminal code, the case, the charges, the participations, the offense, the momentum, the law, the independent commission for missing persons and victims of violence, the national intelligence agency (bin), the investigation, the real motive, the political, the truth, the state, the government, the principles of human rights, the people. the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 100 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 he it it they it munir was about to begin studying international humanitarian at utrecht university when, on sept. 7 th 2004, he was poisoned and died on a jakarta amsterdam garuda indonesia flight.(second paragraph) inevitably, pollycarpus’ release has caused distress for the victim‘s family. it further has the potential to erode the community‘s sense of justice. (4 th paragraph). in the case of munir, it is anomalous that the charged…….(8 th paragraph). it refers to case of munir. law enforcement agencies consistently point out that they can only operate within the bounds of the law (11 th paragraph). munir’s murder will remain a mystery and will continue to create controversy if the political will does emerge to finally expose the truth behind it (13 th paragraph) pollycarpus budihari prijanto muchdi purwopranjo pollycarpus budihari prijanto, the former pilot and convicted murderer of the human right activist, munir said thalib, is now out of prison on conditional release. (first paragraph) ….by muchdi purpranjono, who was also charged as a suspect in muni’s murder (11 th paragraph) mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 101 no possessive its victim‘s family munir‘s murder muni‘s case pollycarpus‘ release pollycarpus‘ actions it is hoped that the state will not fail in its duty… (14 th paragraph). comparative first, second, others more such issues state prosecutors charged pollycarpus with two separate crimes. first, ……… second, ………..(fisrt and second refers to state prosecutors charged pollycarpus. 6 and 7 paragrapgh) ….the participations of others in the offense, …(8 th paragraph) the government should do more than pay lip…(15 th paragraph) the government should do more than pay lip service to the principles of human right or the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 102 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 worse, commodify such issues for political gain. …(15 th paragraph) text this it this issue will test the leadership ….(3 rd paragraph). this refers to pollycarpus‘ release as the issue for the whole text. it is hoped that the state …..(14 th paragraph). then, let‘s see the role of reference resources which are used in introducing and tracking participants in the whole development of the article as follows: table 7 identifying and story phases polly carpus munir polly carpus case law enforce ment agencies and the state a represe ntative of kontra s muhdi purwopra njono orient ation the former pilot and convicte d murderer of munir, is now begin studying international humanitarian law at utrecht university, he was the former pilot and convict ed murder er of this issue will test the leadershi p of the new administr ation of a contrar y view was put forward by a represe ntative pollycarpu s‘ involveme nt as an agent of bin was denied by muchdi…. mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 103 out of prison on condition al of prison. (the former pilot, a convicte d murdere r) poisoned and died. (he) munir, is now out of prison on conditi onal of prison. (now out of prison on conditi onal of prison. .) president .. (the) of kontras …. (a) . as a suspect of munir murder (a ) the charg e of pollyc arpus pollycar pus,acti ng alone or with others in perpetrati ng /cause others to perpetrat e or directly took part in premedit it (the case of munir) this issue will test the leaders hip of… ( this) state prosecut ors charged pollycarp u..a state prosecut ors the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 104 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 ated murder. pollycar pus,acti ng alone or with others in compelli ng others to use falsified documen ts that caused injury yet, only one offender was convicte d… namely pollycar pus (one offender ) however mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 105 , the participat ion of others in the crime has not been proven. how is this possible? (this) reduc tion of pollyc arpus‘ sente nce cause distress for victim‘s of family. pollycar pus’ release, it how a person convicte d of murder is eligible victim’s family pollyca rpus’ release has caused ….it further ….. (it) though the grantin g of parole is a the momentu m created by the recent appointm ent of attorney general … (the) law enforcem ent agencies consisten a stateme nt made by a garuda director … (a) the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 106 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 ….. (a person convicte d of murder) pollycarp us was tasked by the bin… (the) although pollycarp us involvem ent as an agent of bin)… … (an legitim ate element of the judicial and correcti onal process .. (a legitim ate..) the reducti on of polycar pus sentenc e has shocke d many. is this the action of …… (this) in the case of tly point out that they… (they) mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 107 munir, it is anomal ous… (it) the particip ation of others.. . how is this possibl e? (this) the momen tum created by…. (the) an opportu ne momen t to instill a new paradig the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 108 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 m in handlin g crimina l prosecu tions. (an,a) allowi ng this fact to remain hidden …. (this) further ,the real motive …. (the ) munir‘ s murder will remain a myster y mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 109 and…. (a) (it) coda the defence of human rights … (the) justice must still be fought for. it is hoped that the state will not fail in its duty…. (the,its,it .commod ify such issues (such) 5. periodicity: information flow according to martin & david rose (2004), periodicity is concerned with information flow: with the way in which meanings are packaged to make it easier for us to take them in. the term ‗wave‘ is used to capture the sense in which moments of framing represent a peak of textual prominence, followed by a trough of lesser prominence. so, discourse creates expectations by flagging forward and consolidates them by summarizing back. these expectations are presented as crests of information and the meanings fulfilling these expectations can be seen as relative diminuendos, from the point of view of information flow. the term periodicity is used to capture the regularity of information flow: the the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 110 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 tendency for crests to form a regular pattern and for the hierarchy of waves to form a predictable rhythm. discourse has a beat, and without this rhythm, it would be very hard to understand. this table illustrates the information flow in the description of the article. table 8 information flow analysis marked theme subject/theme new pollycarpus budihari prijanto, the former pilot and convicted murderer of the human rights activist, munir said thalib convicted murderer of the human rights activist, munir said thalib (the beginning of munir’s murderer case) is now out of prison on conditional release munir was about to begin studying international humanitarian law at utrects university he (munir’s murderer case) poisoned and died on a jakartaamsterdam garuda indonesia flight this issue (munir’s murderer case) will test the leadership of the new administration of president jokowi. inevitably pollycarpus‘ release (munir’s murderer case development) has caused distress for the victim‘s family. further it (pollycarpus out of parole at munir’s murderer case development) has the potential to erode the community‘s sense of justice. mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 111 though the granting of parole (pollycarpus out of parole at munir’s murderer case development) is a legitimate element of the judicial and correctional process the granting of parole (pollycarpus out of parole at munir’s murderer case development ) a number of issues that the community is correct in questioning the reduction of pollycarpus‘ sentence (at munir’s murderer case development) has shocked many. is this the action of a state seeking to establish democracy and justice, without exception? the reduction of pollycarpus‘ sentence atmunir’s murderer case development is the action of a state seeking to establish democracy and justice, without exception state prosecutors (at munir’s murderer case development) charged pollycarpus with two separate crimes. first, pollycarpus atmunir’s murderer case development acting alone or with others — namely garuda flight attendants yeti susmiarti and oedy irianto — perpetrated, caused others to perpetrate, the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 112 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 or directly took part in premeditated murder as stipulated in the criminal code. second, pollycarpus atmunir’s murderer case development acting alone or with others — namely garuda vice president of security, ramelgia anwar, and senior garuda pilot rohanil aini, perpetrated — compelled others to use falsified documents that caused injury. in the case of munir (atmunir’s murderer case development) is anomalous that the charges implied the participation of others in the offense only one offender (at munir’s murderer case development) was convicted, namely pollycarpus of course there (at munir’s murderer case development) were accomplices who helped, either logistically or by recruiting others. however the participation of othersin the crime (at munir’s murderer case development) has not been proven how this -the participation of is possible mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 113 othersin the crime has not been proven (at munir’s murderer case development) the momentum created by the recent appointment of attorney general, muhammad prasetyo (at munir’s murderer case development) creates an opportune moment for instilling a new paradigm in the handling of criminal prosecutions — whether aimed at civilians or state agencies. law enforcement agencies (at munir’s murderer case development) consistently point out that they can only operate within the bounds of the law. however a contrary view (at munir’s murderer case development) was put forward by a representative of kontras, the independent commission for missing persons and victims of violence a statement made by a garuda director that pollycarpus was tasked by the national intelligence agency (bin) (at munir’s murderer case development) has not been fully investigated although pollycarpus‘ involvement as an agent of bin (at munir’s murderer case was denied by muchdi purwopranjono, who was also charged as a suspect in munir‘s the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 114 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 development) murder if correct allowing this fact to remain hidden during the investigation and subsequent trial (at munir’s murderer case development) was a serious misstep further, the real motive behind pollycarpus‘ actions (at munir’s murderer case development) has never been fully exposed munir‘s murder (at munir’s murderer case development) will remain a mystery if the political will does emerge to finally expose the truth behind it. munir‘s murder (at munir’s murderer case development) will continue to create controversy if the political will does emerge to finally expose the truth behind it. it is hoped that the state (at munir’s murderer case development) will not fail in its duty to create a sense of security and justice in the community instead of suppressing human rights whether it (at munir’s murderer case development) be the right to life or other basic rights as set out in the 1999 human rights law, which embodies the international convention on political rights mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 115 the government at (munir’s murderer case development) should do more than pay lip service to the principles of human rights, or worse, commodify such issues for political gain. the defense of human rights at (munir’s murderer case development) must not be subjugated to efforts, which still continue, to silence the demands of the people for justice. justice at (munir’s murderer case development) must still be fought for c. conclusion. in conclusion, i could say that the discourse systems used in the jakarta post online newspaper opinion column entitled ―pollycarpus out on parole: resolve munir case” are varied.in terms of appraisal, the writers express their feelings using the first type of appraisal i.e attitude by negative affect and judgment, positive and negative appreciation. the second form of appraisal is also used by the writers that is graduation, the writers use intensifiers and metaphors to emphasize and force the expression, and using focus to sharpen the intention. meanwhile, the third model of appraisal is also used by the writers i.e, engagement. besides using mono-gloss, the writers also use hetero-gloss by projection, modality and concession or counterexpectancy. the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 116 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 in terms of ideation, the writers involve the figures comprising three kinds of elements as process, participants, and circumstances. they are regarded as the basic units of ideational meaning in discourse contributing to the phases of discourse in various ways, as events in sequence, as descriptions and peoples‘ reactions. in this article, i have found that there are four kinds of figures, respectively, ‘doing, saying, sensing, and being that do different kinds of work in discourse, as has been shown from the table. the writers use external and internal conjunction to show the connection and interrelated arguments among the sentences and paragraphs. in order to make sense the discourse, the writers are able to keep track of what is being talked about to the readers by identification. the ways in which the writers use the resources for identifying things and people are by presenting, presuming, possessive, comparative, and text. such lexical resources have the role in the development of one phase in the article by different characters. in terms of periodicity, the writers use themes, marked themes, and new in order to make the readers easier to grasp the meanings and the plot in the article. references benson, j. d.and greaves, w. s. 1992. collocation and field ofdiscourse.in w. a. mann and s. a. thompson (eds), diverse analysis of afund raising textamsterdam:benjamins,397 409. christie, f. and martin, j. r. 1997. genreand institutions: socialprocesses in theworkplace and school .london: cassell (openlinguistics series). du bois, j. w. 1980. beyond definiteness: thetraceof identity in discourse. in w.l. chafe (ed.),thepear stories:cognitive, mashlihatul umami register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 117 cultural andlinguisticaspects ofnarrativeproduction. norwood, n.j.: ablex.203 74. fox, b. a. 1987. discoursestructure and anaphora: written and conversationalenglish. cambridge: cambridgeuniversitypress (cambridgestudies inlinguistics 48). gleason,h.a.jr. 1968. contrastiveanalysis in discoursestructure.monograph serieson languages and linguistics 21(georgetown university instituteoflanguagesand linguistics), [reprinted in makkai andlockwood1973: 258 76.] gutwinski, w. 1976. cohesion in literary texts: a studyof somegrammatical and lexical features of english discourse. thehague: mouton (janualinguarumseries minor 204). halliday, m.a.k. 1978. languages a socialsemiotic: the socialinterpretation oflanguageand meaninglondon: edward arnold. halliday, m.a.k. and hasan, r. 1985. language, context, and text: aspects of languagein a social-semioticperspective . geelong, vic.: deakin universitypress ,[republished by oxford universitypress1989.] halliday, m.a.k. 1994. anintroduction to functional grammar. (second edition).london: edward arnold hasan, r. 1985. thetextureof a text. in halliday, m.a.k. and hasan, r. language, context and text. geelong, vic.:deakin universitypress.70 96.[republishedbyoxford university press 1989.] longacre, r. e. 1976. an anatomyof speech notionslisse: peterderidder mann, w. c., c. m. i., matthiessen, m and thompson, s. a. 1992. rhetorical structure theoryand text analysis.in mann and thompson1992: 39 78. martin, j. r. 2004. contextualising appraisal: origins and challenges. sydney: university of sydney. martin & rose, david. 2004. working with discourse, london; british library cataloguing martin, j. r. and white p.r.r. 2005. the language of evaluation: appraisal in english.london: palgrave macmillan ngadiman. 1998. javanese cultural thought patterns as manifested in expository discourse. unpublished dissertation.malang: ikip malang. the discourse system recognized in the jakarta post‘s opinion coloumn entitled ―polycarpus out on parole: resolve munir‘s case‖ on december 05th, 2014 118 register, vol. 6, no. 1, june 2013 martin, j. r. 1992. english text: systemand structureamsterdam:benjamins white, p. r. 1998. telling media tales: the news story as rhetoric. sydney: university of sydney 1 the use of contextual teaching and learning in writing subjects: a case study of the second year students at sdn 3 bareng lor klaten in 2013/2014 iisrohli irawati sd n 2 barenglor klaten jl veteran no 86 klaten atmajaira@gmail.com abstract in globalization era, english becomes one of the crucial subjects to be taught. generally, it is taught from the elementary schools level to university levels. to be a creative and innovative teacher are important things to develop students‘ ability because english is a foreign language. one of the method is to use ctl in teaching and learning. the objective of this study is to find out about teaching and learning writing using contextual teaching and learning (ctl) in the second year at sd n 3 barenglor. the writer observed and made interview to the teacher and students to get data and the process of teaching and learning using ctl. the object of this study involved 30 students; consist of 13 male students (boys) and 17 female 17 students (girls). the results show that ctl is used in teaching and learning in sd n 3 barenglor and ctl had succesfully improved the motivation of the students to study english. keywords: ctl, teaching and learning, english mailto:atmajaira@gmail.com 2 abstrak dalam era globalisasi, bahasa inggris menjadi salah satu mata pelajaran penting yang harus diajarkan. umumnya, bahasa inggris diajarkan dari tingkat sekolah dasar sampai tingkat universitas. menjadi guru yang kreatif dan inovatif adalah hal yang penting untuk mengembangkan kemampuan siswa karena bahasa inggris adalah bahasa asing. salah satu metode yang digunakan untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut adalah dengan menggunakan ctl dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui tentang pengajaran dan pembelajaran writing dengan menggunakan ctl (pengajaran dan pembelajaran secara kontekstual dan) pada siswa kelas dua sd n 3 barenglor. penulis mengamati dan melakukan wawancara kepada guru dan siswa untuk mendapatkan data tentang proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran menggunakan ctl. objek penelitian ini melibatkan 30 siswa; terdiri dari 13 siswa laki-laki dan 17 siswa perempuan. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ctl digunakan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran di sd n 3 barenglor dan ctl telah berhasil meningkatkan motivasi siswa untuk belajar bahasa inggris. kata kunci: ctl, kegiatan belajar mengajar, bahasa inggris introduction in indonesian schools recently, english is one of the crucial subjects to be taught. generally, it is taught from the elementary schools level to university levels, but now, it has been introduced since the kindergarten level. it also becomes the subject in which students have to pass in the national final examination. thisefore, it is important for the english teachers to pay more attention to the english teaching and learning process considering that english is a foreign language in indonesia. the indonesian ministry of education department recommends that english be taught to children as a local content subject. the 3 instruction has two main purposes. first, teaching english can make the children familiar with english at an earlier age for their preparation to take the next formal education, and second, it can make them aware of the foreign language. in achieving those purposes, teachers need to apply various teaching strategies based on the principles of teaching children. according to hudelson (1991), thise are four principles in children language teaching and learning. first, children learn by doing because they are in the concrete operational stage; they think deductively to form concepts and categorize objects. second, they learn in the social context so that they need to use the new language each othis. third, language acquisition occurs by means student efforts to find out how the language works. fourth, language acquisition occurs by means of social interaction and the use of the language with othiss in authentic communication setting. in english teaching and learning thise are four skills. they are reading, writing, speaking and listening. the teacher must be creative and develop the technique of teaching and learning includes the teaching of writing. it makes the students know the material easier. the teacher gives modeling and evaluation to move the students towards knowledge transforming practices by reworking their ideas during writing. the students can spell the animal or object in a picture or write something about it. the teacher may use media in teaching and learning process. he or she can use the object in the class or students‘ experience to connect theirselves towards the material. this method is appropriate by the use of contextual teaching and learning (ctl). teacher teaches english to 4 connect the lesson towards the real things or the experience of students. contextual teaching and learning (ctl) is a learning system that enables students to catch and understand the meaning of the material. it is a learning system which based on philosophy that the students will be able to understand the material and the meaning of their assignments if they are able to connect new information with their knowledge and experiences. johnson (2002: 25) in alwasilah (2007: 19) states that contextual teaching and learning (ctl) is an educational process that aims to help students see meaning in the academic material they are studying by connecting academic subjects with the context of their daily lives, that is, with context of their personal, social, and cultural circumstance. the teacher helps students to get the meaning of the lesson. to achieve this aim, the system encompasses the eight components. contextual teaching and learning (ctl) is given to the students to help them to achieve academic superiority. in contextual teaching and learning (ctl), the teacher is a ceaseless facilitator. he helps the students to find the meaning of the academic material. the students are able to improve and update new information in accordance with their knowledge and their experiences. so, they can develop their knowledge, because they have given potential response. based on the statement above, the writer has an interest to describe the process of teaching and learning of writing subjects in elementary school. so, this study is entitled: the use of contextual teaching and learning in writing subjects: a case study of the second year students at sdn 3 bareng lor klaten in 2013/2014. 5 teaching strategies before discussing teaching strategies, we need to know about the basic concept of developing strategies. cole & chan (1990) proposes a hierarchical conceptual schema to describe the relationship between theory, principles, methods, strategies, procedures and techniques. the highis levels of the schema depict the more abstract and theoretical elements while at the lower levels are the more practical and applied ones (cole & chan, 1990: 3). figure 1.a diagrammatical representation of the relationship between theory and practice. in this figure, cole & chan (1990: 4) explain that a theory can generate principles as guidelines to methods. then, methods are establihed teaching plans derived from principles and theories used to organize classroom. at the lowest level are the strategies, procedures and techniques. strategies are minor method. they are highly specific teaching operations that are used to guide the activities of the classroom teacher. basically, strategies are small-scale plans used to enhance and facilitate the attainment of specific objectives. they are more narrowly focused than methods. next, procedures and techniques are at the lowest theoretical models principles methods strategies, procedures, and techniques 6 level of the hierarchy and the most concrete of all the elements described in the schema. strategy can be defined as a plan or method devised for solving a problem (rieke, et. al, 1977: 113). richard & schmidt (2002: 515) define strategy as procedures used in learning, thinking, etc, which serve as a way of reaching a goal. klinghammer in richards (2001: 203) also define strategies as the methods and activities that will be used to attain a goal. which regard to language learning, strategies are especially important because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential in developing communicative competence (oxford, 1990: 1). concerning teaching, it cannot be defined apart from learning. teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn, setting the conditions for learning (brown, 2008: 8). in the teaching process it deals with some problems. consequently, the teacher needs models to solve the teaching problem. although levis & hill (2002:8) assume that teaching is not the final objective of what happens in the classroom. the teacher has important roles as a catalyst whise he / he helped to make things happen. his / his purpose is activating the students through many models. so teaching model is a plan or method devised for solving a problem in teaching. teaching model may be defined as tools to design teaching models to be implemented in achieving the objective of learning. (http://www.aea267.k12.ia.us/cia/framework/strategies/#intro). http://www.aea267.k12.ia.us/cia/framework/strategies/#intro 7 teaching english to young learners 1. characteristics of young learners children list a number of characteristics of young learners of language. first, children know the context of language. it is supported by halliwel (1993: 3) who suggests that young children are able to understand what is being said to them even before they understand the individual words. they can guess the meaning of unknown words from intonation, gesture, facial expressions, actions and circumstances. the second characteristic is that children learn everything indirectly rather than directly (harmer, 2002: 37). they are unconsciously acquiring the language. in relation to the process of learning, halliwell (1993: 5) believes that children will understand easily through indirect learning because the mind is not engaged on the language. the third characteristic is that young learners can understand the language not just from explanation, but also from what they see and listen, and when they can touch or interact with (harmer, 2002: 37). furthismore, they like to talk. halliwell (1993: 7) support this by saying that young learners need to talk with the othis, for example they can do pair work and discussion. in addition, bruner in cameron (2001: 8) said that talk can support a child in carrying out an activity, as a kind of verbal version of the fine-tuned help. however, the teacher should adjust the talk to the students‘ level (abe, 1991). in relation to talk, williams proposes a kind of a collaborative conversation. wells in williams (mel.williams@paston.co.uk) believes that collaborative conversation can help children to shape and arrive mailto:mel.williams@paston.co.uk 8 at shared meanings and understandings. fihis (in mel.williams@paston.co.uk) also comments the importance of conversation in the development of thinking, appearing to echo vygotsky‘s view that the process of transferring ideas into language plays an important part in stimulating overall development. all learners need to be working with ideas and opinions not merely facts, for the talk to be meaningful and motivating. the fourth characteristic is that children are more accepting and tending not to analyze; children‘s ability to mimic is extremely good (abe, 1991). thisefore, it is important for the teacher to use learning media. the fifth characteristic is related to the children‘s curiosity. they are very curious about many things around them (harmer, 2002: 38). they have high enthusiasm with many things (mel.williams@paston.co.uk). thisefore, the teacher can motivate the students easily. next, the children like to ask for teacher‘s attention and have approval from him/his (harmer, 2002: 38). meanwhile, praise can be given whise and when it is due and discipline is form, consistent, and fair (mel.williams@paston.co.uk). seventh, young learners like to talk about themselves, and respond well to learning that uses themselves and their own lives as main topics in the classroom (harmer, 2002: 38). eighth, children have a limited attention span; unless activities are extremely engaging they can easily get bored, losing interest after ten minutes or so (harmer, 2002: 38). similarly cameron (2001: 15) comments that children are more easily diverted and distracted by othis learners. in relation to the students‘ interest, halliwell believes that children have mailto:mel.williams@paston.co.uk mailto:mel.williams@paston.co.uk mailto:mel.williams@paston.co.uk 9 instinct for play and fun (halliwell, 1993: 6). thisefore, they should have enormous activities with games and moving around. ninth, children are creative with grammatical forms and concepts (halliwell, 1993: 4). they will try to communicate by actively recombining and constructing sentences. they understand the concepts by giving reasons after producing sentences. finally, children have imaginative thinking. they test out their versions of the world through fantasy and confirm how the world actually is by imagining now it might be happened (halliwell, 1993: 7). a. theories of teaching english to young learners learning and teaching are related each other. the processes of teaching are all efforts to construct opportunities for learning and to help learners take advantage of learning (cameron, 2001: 242). brown (2000: 7) said that teaching is showing or helping someone to learn how to do something, giving instructions, guiding in the study of something, providing with knowledge, causing to know or understand. in addition, brown (2000: 7) states that teaching cannot be defined apart from learning. teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn, setting that condition for learning. in the othis hand, teaching is the process to make someone know and understand about something. brown (2000: 8) also said that an extended definition of teaching will produce governing principles for choosing certain methods and techniques. 10 in the teaching and learning process, each child can learn better than othiss in different ways. they have their own profile of meta-cognitive ability. in relation to meta-cognitive ability, gardner (2003) proposes nine multiple intelligences which include linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodilykinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist and existential. naturally, young learners still depend on the teacher in the classroom. the teacher‘s role is a source of guidance and help. however, if learners become active participants, they need to be independent and autonomous in doing the tasks (mel.williams@paston.co.uk). so, it is possible for the teacher to develop pair and group works in the classroom. students can develop their own ability by themselves. cameron (2001: 20) said that children learn in social context. learning to do things and learning to think are both helped by interacting with an adult. it is strengthened by bruner that interaction between children and adults can help them to solve problems in learning (cameron, 2001: 8). similarly, piaget in abe (1991) also said that active interaction of the learner with the physical and social environment is also significant factors especially between student-student and also student-teacher. furthismore, hudelson (1991) comments that language acquisition occurs through social interaction and through having to use the language with othiss in authentic communication settings. he adds that acquisition occurs through learners conclude how the language works. so, learner needs opportunities mailto:mel.williams@paston.co.uk 11 to use and to experiment with the new language through talk with each othis and will get language input from othiss. adult can help children in communication. cameron (2001: 19) said that children will try to find and construct meaning and purpose for what adults say to them and ask them to do. they can guess the meaning from their background knowledge which is limited and partial. meanwhile, zone of proximal development of vygotsky (1990) also explains that children to learn in social context. cameron (2001: 20) supports this by saying that in both language and cognitive development, the zpd or immediate potential of the child is of central importance for effective learning. thisefore, he describes that routines and scaffolding are two types of language–using strategies that seem to be especially helpful in making space for children‘s growth. new language need to be used by student-student or student-teacher. in addition, krahen (1982) said that using english should be related directly to activities in which children are engaged. children‘s foreign language learning depends on what they experience (cameron, 2001: 20). he adds that activities in the classrooms will create a kind of ‗environment‘ for learning. it is supported by hudelson (1991) who said that children generally learn by doing. they need to engage with language in every activity and task; they need to be working on meaningful tasks and use language to accomplish those tasks. thisefore, teachers can develop tasks and activities based on familiarity of topics into learning experiences. in addition, the teacher should prepare the 12 tasks and activities based on the learner‘s perspective (mel.williams@paston.co.uk). sometimes however, the teacher needs to simplify the tasks by breaking it down into smaller steps. 2. the meaning of writing as one of the four language skills, writing has always occupied a place in most english language course. one of the reasons is that more and more people need to learn to write in english for occupational or academic purpose. thus, in term of students needs, writing occupies an equal role with the othis language skills (endang fauziati, 2008: 141). we need to learn writing to support the othis language skills. by learning to write, we develop our vocabulary while learning grammar correctly. murcia (2001: 207) states that writing as a communicative activity needs to be encouraged and nurtured during the language learners‘ course of study. the psycholinguist eric lenneberg (1997) in brown (2001: 334) said that writing islike swimming. it relates to the discussion of ―species of specific‖ human behaviour, that human being universally learn to walk and to talk, but that swimming and writing are culturally specific; they both are learned behaviors. the process of writing needs an interaction between the writer and the reader via text. so, the writer must try to write a clear, relevant, truthful, informative, interesting, and memorable text. in the early stage, reading and writing can be learned at a similar pace, usually in reading slightly ahead of writing. if the children are writing ability falls too far behind, we may need to spend extra time on giving writing exercise. however, if we need to do this, mailto:mel.williams@paston.co.uk 13 it is much better to integrate longer writing sessions into almost all of our lessons, rathis than have special lessons for writing and then stop writing for a while. the children need to practice writing regularly in order to make good progress. when helping the students to become better writer, teacher has a number of crucial tasks to perform. this is true when the students are doing writing activities. the teacher has to perform before, during and after students writing (jeremy harmer, 2004: 41-42) are the following: 1. demonstrating the students need to be aware of writing conventions and genre constraints in specific types of writing. the teacher has to be able to draw the features to the students‘ attention. 2. motivating and provoking the teacher can help the students into having ideas, entrusting them with the value of the task, and persuading them what fun it can be. 3. supporting teacher needs to be extremely supportive when students are practicing writing in the class, except during the exam. the teacher‘s role are the motivator and provoker. 4. responding in responding, we react to the content and contractions of a piece supportively and make suggestions for its improvement. 5. evaluating when we do want to evaluate students‘ work, telling both them and us how well they have done. 14 the process of writing indeed is greatly affected by the content (subject matter) of the writing. the types of writing, they are shopping lists, letter, essaid, reports, or novels. and the medium, it is written in pen and paper, computer word files, live chat, etc. but in all of these cases it is suggested that the process has four main elements (jeremy harmer, 2004: 4-5): 1. planning the writers plan what they are going to write. before starting to write, they try and decide what the things they are going to say are. in planning, the writers have to think three main issues. they are the purpose, the audience, and the content structure. 2. drafting draft is refers to the first version of a piece of writing. this first ‗go' towards a text is often done on the assumption that it will be amended later. 3. editing (reflecting and revising) the writers may use a different form of words for particular sentence if the writers‘ way of writing the text is ambiguous or confusing. they may move the paragraph or write new sentence. reflecting and revising can help the reader to give comment and make suggestions. 4. forming final version the writers produce their final version when they have edited their draft and make the changes they consider to be necessary. the most basic form of parallel writing is the kind of sentence writing that is often used for grammar reinforcement. students are given model sentences and then have to write similar sentence based on 15 information given by their teacher. that is given in elementary school. the fifth year students are taught dealing with the material of describing objects. the teacher teaches vocabulary to help the students make sentence in their writing. in the lesson of describing objects, the teacher gives a picture and then the students make simple sentences about the picture. teaching and learning of writing subjects in elementary school children in primary or elementary school settings generally learn by doing (piaget, 1995 in endang fauziati, 2008: 164). the children need to be active rathis than passive. they will enjoy their activities and they can catch and understand what they learn as good experiences. we may give the children a basic a model sentence such as, fish can swim. the second sentence we give them might be just a prompt such as, … can …. we can write this prompts on the board or dictate them and have the children fill in the sentence with their own ideas. then we may give the children a few more samples sentences and reduce the prompts even more, such as, birds …, you …, and my little sister …. afterwards, the children can write three or five more sentences using the same patterns. the children can spell the animal or object in a picture, or write something about using the target language or othis patterns learned previously. for example, a picture of a cat could lead to sentences such as, it is a cat. it is a big cat. it is a black and white cat. i think it likes having fun. i think it can climb trees, and, it is bigger than my cat. as a course progresses, the children learn to express themselves more. in a multiple skills course, they will be able to understand, say, read, and 16 write these kinds of sentences (david paul, 2003: 98). harmer gives examples to children in elementary school in writing write sentences. in this example, students are given information about particular character. they then see how this information can be combined in sentences with and and but. such as: he likes pop but he does not like classical music. he likes football and tennis. he like watching films and going out to parks. he likes spicy food but he does not like raw fish. after the teacher gives examples, then the students write similar sentences saying what music, sport, entertainment, and food they like. they must use and and but. by this example, the students learn to write in making sentences, increase vocabulary and practice to use grammar correctly. brown has other ways to teach the children at the beginning level of learning to write, students will simply ―write down‖ english letters, words, and possibly sentences in order to learn the conventions of the orthographic code. some forms of dictation fall into this category, although dictation can serve to teach and test highis-order processing as well. dictations typically involve the following steps (brown, 2000: 343344): 1. teacher reads a short paragraph once or twice at normal speed. 2. teacher reads the paragraph in short phrase units of three or each four words , and each unit is followed by a pause. 3. during the pause, students write exactly what they hear. 4. teacher then reads the whole paragraph once more at normal speed so students can check their writing. 17 5. scoring of students‘ written work can utilize a number of rubrics for assigning points. usually spelling and punctuation errors are not considered as serve as grammatical errors. in this ways, the students must be concentration with their material. so, they can practice their skills in listening, vocabulary, and writing. the last example is writing games (silvers, 1988 in fauziati, 2008: 169-170). it is called jumbled words. the games can be used effectively as eithis individual or team competitions. the students are given a list of words about something, such as fruits, transportation, colors, professions, animals, etc. but the letters in each word are jumbled, so the students must rewrite the jumble word correctly. the winner is students or team with the most correct words within the allotted time. the following examples are jumbled words from the category colour. 1. l-b-e-u : blue 2. g-e-e-r-n : green 3. d-r-e : red in this activities can give good atmosphise in teaching learning. if the students are difficult to answer, the teacher can give pictures to help the students. all of the examples above are effectively perform in teaching writing subjects in elementary school. the students can begin to write, it will be easier for them to write in making paragraph in junior or senior high school. 18 contextual teaching and learning (ctl) brain works to look for meaning. when brain gets the meaning, it learns and remembers. so, brain works appropriately along with one‘s experience. the ability of brain is to find the meaning, which motivated the students to join their assignments with their daily life or their experiences. so, the students can remember what they learn. this is appropriate with the aim of contextual teaching and learning. contextual teaching and learning (ctl) helps us relate subject matter content to real world situations and motivate students to make connections between knowledge and its applications to their lives as family members, citizens, and workers and engage in the hard work that learning requires. contextual teaching and learning strategies (http://www.cew.wisc.edu/teachnet/ctl/): 1. problem based contextual teaching and learning can be started with a simulated or real problem. students use critical thinking skills and draw upon multiple content areas to solve the problems. worthwhile problems that are relevant to students‘ families, school experiences, workplaces, and communities hold greater personal meaning for students. 2. using multiple context contextual teaching learning experiences are enriched when students learn skills in multiple contexts (i.e. school, community, workplace, family). 3. drawing upon student diversity on the whole, our student population is becoming more diverse, and with increased diversity comes differences in values, social mores, http://www.cew.wisc.edu/teachnet/ctl/ 19 and perspectives. team collaboration and group learning activities respect students‘ diverse histories, broaden perspectives, and build inter-personal skill. 4. supporting self-regulated learning students must become more aware how they process information, employ problem-solving strategies, and use background knowledge. ctl experiences should allow for trial and error; provide time and structure for reflection; and provide adequate support to assist students to move from dependent to independent learning. 5. using interdependent learning groups learning groups, or learning communities, are establihed in workplaces and schools in an effort to share knowledge, focus on goals, and allow all to teach and learn from each othis. when learning communities are establihed in schools, educators act as coaches, facilitators, and mentors. 6. employing authentic assessment authentic assessment is used to monitor student progress and inform teaching practices. according to contextual learning theory, learning occurs only when students process new information or knowledge in such a way that it makes sense to them in their own frames of reference (their own inner worlds of memory, experience, and response). contextual teaching and learning theory be success because this system asks the students to act naturally. according to alwasilah in johnson (2009: 65-66), to achieve the aim, the system of contextual teaching and learning has components, they are: 20 1. making meaningful connections 2. doing significant work 3. self-regulated learning 4. collaborating 5. critical and creative thinking 6. nurturing the individual 7. reaching high standards 8. using authentic assessment these are seven components of contextual teaching and learning in http://bandono.web.id.2008/03/07menyusun-model-pembelajarancontextual-teaching-and-learning-ctl.php, these are: 1. inquiry inquiry is cyclical process in arranging knowledge or concept from doing observation, ask, investigation, analysis, and then arranging theory or concept. 2. questioning this concept is questioning activities which are done by teacher and students. the questions which are addressed by the teacher are done to give opportunity for students to think critically and creatively. the questions of the students are caused by curiosity. 3. constructivism this concept demands the students to arrange the meaning of new experiences which based on certain knowledge. 4. learning community community or group work who have function as communication to shred out the experience and idea. the students can make little or big group, do with the same level of class, or do with society. http://bandono.web.id.2008/03/07menyusun-model-pembelajaran-contextual-teaching-and-learning-ctl.php http://bandono.web.id.2008/03/07menyusun-model-pembelajaran-contextual-teaching-and-learning-ctl.php 21 5. authentic assessment it is a procedure of value to show the ability of the students (knowledge and attitude skill). 6. reflection to give response to events, activities, and experiences which have a purpose of identifying in order to conduct of improvement and reaching a state of perfection. 7. modeling the students learn or do something appropriate with model which is given by the teacher. the teacher gives model about how to learn. the model can be taken from students, magazine, internet, etc according to alwasilah in johnson (2009: 62) in contextual teaching and learning have 3 natural of principles, they are: 1. interdependent this principle asks the teacher to know the connection with othis teacher, students, society, and earth. interdependent principle supports to cooperation. with cooperation, the students can find the problems, make program, and solve the problem. 2. differentiation differentiation supports the universe to get unlimited of variety. the teacher will teach with creativity, uniqueness, variety, and cooperation. 3. self arrangement this principle asks the teacher to supports every student to develop their ability. contextual teaching and learning helps the students to obtain academic superiority, skill, and develop their character with relate among the assignments, experiences, and knowledge. 22 contextual teaching and learning offers new things for innovative teacher. it is refers to the components and principles of contextual teaching and learning. many teachers say that their children change to move forward rapidly when they connect the lesson with experience or real things. also, the disobedient and lazy students are more focus to learn and their achievement developed. so, contextual teaching and learning can help the teacher to teach and help the students to catch and understand and understand the material easier. because, when the students connect the lesson with their experiences, the students find the meaning, and the meaning gives a reason to learn. research method the strategy of the research which is used in this study is descriptive qualitative. according to moleong (2009: 5) qualitative research tells about attitudes, opinions, feels, and behavior of individual or group. the data of qualitative research gets from interview. bogdan and taylor in moleong (2009: 4) states that qualitative research as research procedure who is get descriptive data of word from someone in oral or written. this research needs someone to get the data. the research is done by interview or observation. in this research, the writer took the students in second year of sdn 3 bareng lor klaten and english teacher as the subject of the study. they are 30 students, 13 are male students (boys) and 17 are female students (girls). the english teacher is mr samingan s.pd he taught in sdn 3 bareng lor klaten as english teacher during thirteen years. finding 23 in collecting the data, the writer used observation, interview, and the documentation. the data were classified based on the matters discussed in this study of contextual teaching and learning in teaching and learning writing to the second class students of sdn 3 bareng lor klaten as follows: 1. preparation the writer analyzed lesson plans gained from the teacher after the interview was done. the preparations were includes competence standard, basic competence, indicator, the objective of teaching activity and the material, etc. the furthis explanations are as follows: a. standard competence the standard competence in the lesson plan was ―colour‖. b. basic competence basic competence must be explained clearly. basic competence will be orientation by the teacher to establish the material. the basic competence in the lesson plan was ―colour‖. c. indicator indicator spells out about basic competence. the teacher writes the indicator on his lesson plan about colour. d. the purposes of the teaching and learning 1. to write colour correctly 2. to mention colour with pronunciation correctly 3. to answer the questions with pronunciation correctly 24 e. material the material of colour: red, yellow, green, blue, white, black, brown f. teaching and learning activity the teaching and learning activities are about: 1. opening a. the students make questions and answer about information which is got from the teacher. b. the students understand the aims of the teaching and learning. 2. main activity a. exploration 1) the students pay attention to the explanation of the teacher. 2) the students write the main of explanation of the teacher. 3) the students hear and do the instruction of the teacher. b. elaboration 1) the students see and try to do the explanation of the teacher. 2) the students practice to give question to othis students. 3) othis students answer the question to use expression of pronunciation correctly. 4) the students practice in group. 25 c. confirmation 1) the teacher gives motivation to students in writing about the assignment. 2) the teacher gives reflection of the result of the study. 3. closing a. the students tell about the problems of the study. b. the students connect between the material and the daily life. c. teaching and learning method teaching and learning method is a way to deliver the material from the teacher to students. the teaching and learning process used contextual teaching and learning method. the teacher made talkative, question answer, discussion, giving evaluation, and presentation. d. media media is real thing that help the teacher to deliver the information from source of message to the receiver. in this study, the source of message or information was the teacher and the receiver was the students. this lesson plan told that the teaching and learning process uses colourful ballons as a media. the source of teaching and learning is something that can be used to get information. the examples of the source of teaching and learning are lecturer, teacher, text book, internet, etc. in this lesson plan told that the teaching and learning 26 process used pictures with colour and short video about colour. e. time allocation time allocation is sum of the time which is needed of the teacher to deliver the material. by the lesson plan, we knew that the teacher needed 2 x 35 minutes. related with preparation above, the writer triangulates it by having a document and interview. it can be seen in (appendix), and (appendix) as follows: according to the document and interview above, the teacher made a lesson plan before teaching and learning process. the teacher claimed that he made the lesson plan appropriate with eec (exploration, elaboration and confirmation). the lesson plan consists of the identity of the school, the name of the school, the semester, competence standard, indicator, basic competence, the time allocation, teaching and learning activity (opening, main activity, and closing), the method, the source of learning, and evaluation. the lesson plan was signed by the english teacher and approved by the headmaster of sdn 3 bareng lor klaten. it was written in indonesian language. 2. the contextual teaching and learning process of teaching and learning writing based on the writer‘s observation, the writer can report the information related to the process of contextual teaching and learning in teaching and learning writing to the second class at sdn 3 bareng lor klaten. the observation was carried out during the teaching and learning process. observation did for 27 twice in different material. these were two topics in this observation. first, it was concluded in on 8 january, 2014. in this activity had part of body as the topic and the last it was held on january 15, 2014. the topic of this activity was about daily activities. the teaching and learning process, it was concluded in 2 x 35 minutes each day. from this observation the writer got the information about the process of contextual teaching and learning in teaching and learning writing. a. opening the situation of the classroom when contextual teaching and learning in teaching and learning writing held is: first, when the teacher came to the classroom, the students were busy in their activities. then, the teacher greeted: teacher : good morning, how are you today? students : good morning, i am fine. thank, and you? teacher : i am fine too. did you ever see rainbow? students : yes teacher : do you know what colour is rainbow? mention it. students : yes. it is red, yellow, green related with apperception above, this activity is triangulated by having an observation. according to the observation above, the teacher‘s activities were started by greeting the class. the teacher‘s purpose by greeting the class is to create english atmosphise in the class. b. the main activity the main activity in this study consists of two activities, they are as follows: 1) teacher‘s activities 28 a) the teacher asked the students to collect their assignment, which was colourful ballon with the name. then the teacher asked a student to come in front of the class. teacher point toward the ballon and ask what colour is it? then the students answered the name of its. based on the interview, the writer triangulates the observation data below: the writer : did you use media to teach your students? the teacher : yes, i used pictures. based on the data above, the teacher used picture in teaching and learning to create motivation of students. b) then, mr. samingan asked his students to prepare a paper. he took one by one the colourful ballon and the students wrote the colour of the ballon in english. the writer : according to you, what do colourful ballon influence the motivation of your students? the teacher : yes. according to the observation and interview above, the teacher used colourful ballon in teaching and learning to create motivation of students. c) then the teacher was random the characters of word and the students arranged into true word. it is called jumbled words. 1. g – e – r—e--n : green 2. b-c-l-a-k : black 3. e-w-i-h-t : white 4. r-d-e : red 29 5. e-b-l-u : blue the students could answer the questions correctly. after that, the teacher asked students to stand up in face to face. they sang a song about rainbow and this song was suitable with the material of colour .the situation was very crowded. from the observation above, the teacher was successful to create the nice learning atmosphere in the class. 2) students‘ activities a) the students collected their assignments .those were colourful ballons. based on the interview the writer triangulates the observation data below: the writer : i saw that you collected colourful ballons. did you feel it is difficult to do it? the students : no, we did not. according to the observation and interview above, the students studied about colouful ballon. they claimed that they did not get difficulty to do the assignments. b) the students came in the front of the class. based on the interview , the writer triangulates the observation data below: the writer : mr. sam asked you to come in front of the class, what did you do? the student : mr.sam asked me to point to the colourful ballon and answered the questions in the white board. 30 according to the observation and interview above, the teaching and learning process used student as media of teaching and learning. it was done to help the students catch and understand and understand the material well. c) the students prepared a paper. they answered the questions from the teacher. the result was good. d) the students to stand up in face to face. they sang a song about rainbow the writer : i saw that mrs. sam asked all of you stand up and then touch the colourful ballon and sing to get this. how about this teaching and learning process? did you feel happy or get bored? the students : we did not feel bored. we feel happy. according to the observation and interview above, the teacher used singing a song to create the atmosphise in the class. that was successful, the students felt happy. c. closing activity closing activity was an activity to close the teaching activity. closing activity which was done by the teacher in this study is: the teacher gave opportunity for the students to ask about the material if they were not clear, but no questions addressed to him. then the teacher gave homework to the students. after that, the students get ready to go home. the leader of the class led the the students to pray. after finishing it, all of students performed handshaking to the teacher. based on the observation above, the teacher closed the lesson and 31 gave opportunity to the students to ask and he gave homework to the students. 3. the methods methods are sets of procedures that are considered as the means or the way in which a specific instructional activity is done, such as contextual teaching and learning. a. the teacher asked students to collect their homework. they were the colorful ballon students to tell the name of the picture about the part of the body. b. the teacher asked a student to come in front of the class, he was ani. then the teacher asks to ani to point to the whiteboard and asked the students to tell the colour. c. after that, the teacher asked students to stand up in face to face. they sang a song about rainbow. based on observation above, the teacher used colourful ballon, and sang a song in teaching and learning process. media helps the teacher to deliver material. using media in teaching and learning is appropriate with contextual teaching and earning method. 4. evaluation of teaching activity evaluation was very important to measure the students‘ understanding about the material of teaching activity. the data about the evaluation of teaching activity in this study are as follows: the teacher gave ten questions. based on the observation above, in this teaching and learning process, the teacher gave an evaluation by asking ten questions spontaneously and then the students answered it in a 32 written form. based on the observation above, in this teaching and learning process, the teacher gave an evaluation by asking five questions spontaneously and then the students answered it orally. 5. the material the data concerning with the material in this study as follows: the teacher ask the students to bring colourful ballon. and then, the writer asked to the students ―what is the theme your english lesson today?‖. the students answered ―the colour‖. then, the writer asked ―mr sam asked you to come in front of the class, what did you do?‖, and the student answered ―mr. sam asked me to point to colour of the picture and answered the questions in the whiteboard‖. from observation the writer can conclude: a) the role of the teacher is important in teaching and learning process. the teacher must be active to make the students interested and understand the subject. he tries to make the lesson easy by using pictures, experiences or the othis thing. it can help the students understand the subject easily and memorize the material. from explanation above can be seen that the teacher is subject of the study. the role of the teacher as motivator, and facilitator. motivator means that the teacher can motivate their students to improve their skills especially in learning writing. facilitator means that the teacher be a ceaseless facilitator to the students. b) the instructional material is interest. it can give enthusiasm for the students to enjoy in the class. so, the role of the 33 instructional material is important in teaching and learning successfully. c) all of the students are active and enthusiasm in teaching and learning process. the students always pay attention to their teacher. most of them understand the subject because of follow the teaching and learning well. when the teacher asks them to answer the questions or come in front of the class, they are not afraid. they can answer the questions correctly. the students as the object of the study. the role of the students is important in teaching and learning. the students are one of important elements in teaching and learning successfully. d) media is one of the teaching aids. it is suitable with the contextual teaching and learning method. one of the important elements in teaching and learning successfully is by using good teaching aids. from the explanation above, it can be seen that by using media (for example colourful ballon) can make the students more active and catch and understand the material well. conclusion from the data, the writer can find that with ctl the students got more interest in the teaching and learning process and did not easily get bored. the classroom situation also becomes alive. the students are attention the teacher and do what the teacher said. based on this research, the writer would like to give the suggestion. for the students to continuously practice english at school 34 and at home, become more active and regular in learning english ask to their teacher if they have difficulties, it is is not advised to be ashamed to practice english. the teacher must be able to create classroom situation more interestingly by using this media, give more attention to the students who sit on behind line. references alwasilah, chaedar. 2009. contextual teaching and learning. bandung: mlc. arikunto, suharsimi. 1998. prosedure penelitian suatu pendekatan praktek. jakarta: bina aksara. brown, douglas. 2000. teaching by principles. new york: pearson education. brown, douglas. 2000. principles of language learning and teaching. new york: pearson education. bungin, burhan. 2007. penelitian kualitatif. jakarta: prenada media group elaine.2009. contextual teaching & learning. (terjemahan). bandung : mizan fauziati, endang. 2008. teaching of english as a foreign language (tefl). surakarta: muhammadiyah university press. harmer, jeremy. 2004. how to teach writing. england: pearson education. hisgenhahn and matthew. 2008. theories of learning. jakarta: prenada media group. hornby, a. s. 1995. oxford learner’s pocket dictionary. new york: oxford university press. http://bandono.web.id.2008/03/07menyusun-model-pembelajarancontextual-teaching-and-learning-ctl.php http://www.cew.wisc.edu/teachnet/ctl/ hyland, ken. 2002. teaching and researching writing. england: pearson education. mccrimmon, james. m. 1984. writing with a purpose. usa: houghton mifflin company. http://bandono.web.id.2008/03/07menyusun-model-pembelajaran-contextual-teaching-and-learning-ctl.php http://bandono.web.id.2008/03/07menyusun-model-pembelajaran-contextual-teaching-and-learning-ctl.php http://www.cew.wisc.edu/teachnet/ctl/ 35 miles, m. b and huberman, a. m. 2009. analisis data kualitatif. jakarta: penerbit universitas indonesia. moleong, lexy j. 1989. metodologi penelitian kuliatitatif. bandung: remadja rosdakarya. murcia, celce marianne. 2001. teaching english as a second or foreign language. usa: heinle & heinle. paul, david. 2003. teaching english to children in asia. hong kong: pearson education. rahma, arika. 2009. teaching vocabulary by using picture ( a case study of the first year students of sdit an najjah jatinom klaten in 2009). unpublihed: widya dharma university. seliger, hisbert. w and elana shohamy. 1989. second language research methods. new york: oxford university press. sharma, kadambari and tripat tuteja. 2005. principles and practices of language teaching. delhi: roshan offset printers. sutopo, h. b. 2006. metodologi penelitian kualitatif i. surakarta: sebelas maret university press. yin, robert. 1996. studi kasus desain dan metode. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. nur vita handayani register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 99 the use of expressive speech acts in hannah montana session 1 nur vita handayani ahmad dahlan university pearhandayani@gmail.com abstract this study aims to describe kinds and forms of expressive speech act in hannah montana session 1. it belongs to descriptive qualitative method. the research object was expressive speech act. the data source was utterances which contain expressive speech acts in the film hannah montana session 1. the researcher used observation method and noting technique in collecting the data. in analyzing the data, descriptive qualitative method was used. the research findings show that there are ten kinds of expressive speech act found in hannah montana session 1, namely expressing apology, expressing thanks, expressing sympathy, expressing attitudes, expressing greeting, expressing wishes, expressing joy, expressing pain, expressing likes, and expressing dislikes. the forms of expressive speech act are direct literal expressive speech act, direct nonliteral expressive speech act, indirect literal expressive speech act, and indirect non-literal expressive speech act. keywords: pragmatics, expressive, speech act, direct, indirect. mailto:pearhandayani@gmail.com the use of expressive speech acts in hannah montana session 1 100 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan jenis dan bentuk ekspresif tindak tutur dalam hannah montana sesi 1. ini milik deskriptif metode kualitatif. objek penelitian adalah ekspresif tindak tutur. sumber data adalah ucapan-ucapan yang mengandung tindak tutur ekspresif dalam film hannah montana session i. peneliti menggunakan metode observasi dan teknik mencatat dalam mengumpulkan data. dalam menganalisis data, metode deskriptif kualitatif digunakan. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada sepuluh jenis tindak tutur ekspresif ditemukan di hannah montana sesi 1, yaitu mengungkapkan permintaan maaf, mengungkapkan terima kasih, mengekspresikan simpati, mengungkapkan sikap, mengungkapkan ucapan, mengungkapkan keinginan, mengekspresikan sukacita, mengekspresikan rasa sakit, mengungkapkan suka, dan mengekspresikan tidak suka. bentuk-bentuk ekspresif tindak tutur yang langsung literal tindak tutur ekspresif, langsung non-literal ekspresif tindak tutur, langsung literal ekspresif tindak tutur, dan tidak langsung non-literal ekspresif tindak tutur. kata kunci: pragmatik, tindak tutur ekspresif, langsung, tidak langsung. introduction communication is important as human being. it is a life skill, people as social being need to communicate to the others, share ideas, express their feeling and their emotion and has interaction to meet their needs. by understanding the language and the meaning of it people connected to each other. the utterances performed by the speaker are an nur vita handayani register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 101 action or activities which may contain words expressed their feeling. in this case, it is called expressive speech act. expressive speech act can be direct and indirect. as literary work, film also contains expressing feeling. thus, this paper would give more understanding in expressive speech act and direct and indirect expressive speech act uttered in hannah montana session 1. yule (1996: 3) states that “pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader)”. it has to do with the meaning in interaction between the speaker and the hearer. to reach the speaker’s interpretation, the hearer has to understand the utterance rather than words and phrase themselves. it is more than understanding the speaker but also what the speaker’s imply. in addition, context also influences what the speaker’s imply. context such as when, where, what situation, who they are talk to, in what circumstances are necessary to involves helping the hearer interprets the speaker’s meant (idem: 3). yule (1996: 47) states speech act as action performed via utterances. like it is called, speech is the utterance and act is an action. as austin says it is not only saying something, the speaker is also doing something. thus, it is more than describing the word. it is used to communicate, to pass the information, more than that it carries mutual acting between the speaker and the hearer. one of the aspects studied in pragmatics is speech act. yule (1996: 47) defines speech act as the action performed by a speaker with an utterance. in other word, there are activities intended to do by speaker by saying something. speech act firstly is delivered by austin (1962: 103) which is divided in three different acts, those are, locutionary act, the use of expressive speech acts in hannah montana session 1 102 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. austin (1962: 99) defines illocutionary act as performance of an act in saying something. by saying the utterances, the speaker is also doing a certain action. searle (1976: 1012) distinguishes five classes of illocutionary acts and bases on illocutionary point, the result of illocutionary point and the relationship of word and world. they are assertive, directives, commissives, expressive, and declarations. searle (1976: 12) states expressive to mentions behabitive by austin. it is used to express the psychological state in sincerity condition about a state of affair in specified in the propositional content. including the expressive speech act are welcoming, praising, blaming, etc. yule (1996: 53) states that expressive can be a statement of pleasure, pain, like, dislike, joy, or sorrow. it means expressive tell about speaker’s feeling. the expressive speech act can be direct and indirect, literal and non-literal, implicit and explicit (meyer 2009: 50). combining the literal non literal and direct –indirect, there are four ways of performing expressive speech act (wijana: 1996: 33). 1. direct literal speech act direct literal speech act is the speech act expressed the word literally and communicates directly. thus, statement expressed in declarative sentence, question expressed in interrogative, command, request expressed imperative. nur vita handayani register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 103 2. direct non literal speech act in contrast, direct non literal speech act is the speech act expressed by the sentence mode suitable for the purpose of speech, but the composition of the words do not have the same meaning with the intention of speaker. thus, the speaker does not mean as the word mean. in this speech act, the speaker means to criticize by declarative sentence. 3. indirect literal speech act indirect literal speech act is the speech act expressed in a sentence mode, the meaning that is contrary with the purpose that it is expressing, even though the meaning of the words are arranged in accordance with what the speaker intended. it has different form and function which is not compatible. 4. indirect non literal speech act indirect non literal speech act is the speech act that when expressed by sentence mode the meaning of the sentence is incompatible with the intention of the speaker. research method in this research, the researcher used descriptive qualitative research. dörnyei (2007: 24) says that qualitative research is a research involves data collection procedures that result primarily in open-ended, non-numerical data which is then analyzed primarily by non-statistical methods. in addition, neville (2007: 3) states qualitative research is suitable for observe the disciplines of language and consider its place within social sciences and humanities more generally. the object of this research is the dialogue of the movie characters using expressive speech act. data in this research is the dialogue that the use of expressive speech acts in hannah montana session 1 104 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 contain expressive speech act. data source is a basic information and material that collected by the researcher. it can be in the form of document, thing, person, action, film, official document, etc. data source of this research is film hannah montana session 1 episode 1-2. according to mahsun (2005: 92-104) there are three methods of gathering data. in this research, the researcher used metode simak (observing method) because the data are in the form of spoken language that obtained in a film hannah montana session 1 episode 1-2. thus this research used noting technique (metode catat) in collecting expressive speech act. the researcher observing the film then write the expressive speech act found and in which situation. in this research, the researcher used qualitative and descriptive method to analyze and interpret the kinds of expressive in hannah montana session 1. discussion according to data analyzing in hannah montana session 1 episode 1-2 the researcher found some expressive speech acts. they are expressing apology, expressing thanking, expressing sympathy, expressing attitudes, expressing greeting, expressing wishes, expressing joy, expressing pain, expressing likes, and expressing dislike. kinds of expressive speech act used in hannah montana session 1. 1. expressing apology a. hannah : oh, i’m sorry, fermine. fermine : is okay, i kiss it. (kisses his finger) all better….. the data (a) can be identified for expressing apology. fermine is hannah’s designer. he makes a dress for hannah for the next show. nur vita handayani register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 105 fermine is hurting his finger while working on hannah’s wearing dress. she forgets that fermine sew the dress she wore. hannah feels regrets to fermine for keeping moving. the apologizing expression is implicit because the verb am does not fit the structure performative verb; the naming of speech act conveyed in the adjective sorry. 2. expressing thanks thanking expresses that the speaker is pleased about or grateful for something that another people have done. the performative verb that describes this feeling is thanked, as shown in the data below: b. robby ray : son, i primped your ride. jackson : oh, yes, he did! (laughing) oh! thank you, thank you! thank you! thank you! thank you! thank you! robby ray: okay, son, you can let go now. it was cute when you were five, now it just throws my back out. the verb thank refers to this classification. the utterance in (b) is used by jackson to thanked robby ray for fixing his car. 3. expressing resentment resentment refers to the verb resent. resentment is statement to expressing angry because you have been forced to accept someone or something that you do not like. in this situation, miley had fight with lilly because lilly was desperate to show hannah’s stuff to the other friends. miley disbelieved that lilly wanted to do that which means miley’s secret as a popular singer hannah montana will be revealed. after lilly went home, miley tells to her father which also knows that her secret being revealed. c. miley: i am so mad! the use of expressive speech acts in hannah montana session 1 106 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 robby ray: so you’re gonna take it out on my ice cream sundae? you wanna talk about it? the data (c) expresses the speaker’s feeling. the resentment shows in the adjective mad which is mean angry. 4. expressing greeting greeting is something friendly or polite that you say or do when meet or welcome someone. this expression shows that you are pleased that they are with you. d. johnny: (walking over) hey, miley. how’s it going? miley : um, pretty good! just getting some ketchup for my veggie burger. i see you like mayonnaise. never tried that on a veggie burger! and maybe i should, but, not today because then the ketchup would go all over the kitchen. johnny comes over to hannah that is getting some ketchup in her burger at the cafetaria. johnny greets hannah montana friendly by saying hey, miley how’s it going? those words are used to welcome hannah. the hannah’s answer also reflected that the speaker intended to do greeting even though she is nervous in speaking. 5. expressing joy the performative verbs that denote this action is rejoice, brighten, swoon, delight, amuse, please, satisfy, enjoy, and exult. e . robby ray : and are you happy about that? jackson : yes i am! dad, it’s mine. it’s not perfect but it’s my own car, and i bought it with my own money. nur vita handayani register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 107 considering data (e) jackson answering yes i am with happily for robby ray’s question which means that he was happy. the reason is because he bough new car with his own money. direct and indirect expressive speech act found in movie 1. literal direct strategy a speech act can be performed direct if its intent is clearly conveyed by the words and structure of the utterance. the direct speech act can be literal if the speaker means what she or he says. f. lilly : (following) what’s wrong with your voice? hannah : um, that happens after every concert. (moving the rack) lilly : (spreading clothes apart) you give so much. i just wish miley were here. hannah : (hidden behind the moving rack) uh, miley, who’s miley? i don’t know miley, that’s a strange name. g. oliver: take it off, dude! take it off! take it off! take it off! friend : dude, what's with you and the gum chewing? oliver : (think back: aunt harriet: oh, little baby ollie. aunt harriet just wants to eat you up.you're so yummy, yummy, yummy. (baby crying) oh… let me get that off you) oliver : (grunting) i hate that woman. h. fermine: (leaving through the front door) i love you, hannah montana. the above data (f), (g), and (h) are in the form of declarative, as a direct speech act, those would be used to make a statement. the performative verbs such as wish, hate, and love are in declarative sentences which are used to make statements not questions, commands or requests. it uses to express action or opinion. the data have literal meaning because the use of expressive speech acts in hannah montana session 1 108 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 it means like word means. the utterance in (f) means a wish that miley can join with lily to see hannah’s concert because she is hannah’s big fan. unfortunately, miley who is lily’s best friend refuses it. she feels disappointed. the word wish literally means hope that her friend can see the hannah montana together with her. the utterance in (g) showed that the speaker hates with his aunt harriet. it has a literal meaning which means the speaker; oliver does not like aunt harriet. it can be seen that the hate of gum chewing is started when he was a child. he remembers at that time his aunt chewed her gum but it dropped to her. the way she is chewing and that disgusting dropped gum makes oliver hate his aunt. it was sounding in hate tone. in the utterance (h) fermine, the speaker wants to show like or love the hearer before he leaves hannah’s home. when the speaker’s intended has the same aims as the words means, thus, the above data used literal direct strategy to perform the utterance. 2. non-literal direct strategy a speech act can be performed direct if its intent if the words and structure of the utterance agree with its function. the direct speech act can be nonliteral if the speaker does not mean what she or he says or the word does not mean like the word say. i. robby ray: i don't know, maybe it wanted to party. oh, come on, dontzig, just trying to be neighborly. dontzig : that’s nice, but i hate neighbors. that's why i got the big hedge. so, something needs to be done about this. nur vita handayani register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 109 robby ray: yeah, and i think something needs to be done about this (pointing dontzig belly). i would recommend possibly some sit-ups or maybe a bigger robe. dontzig :ha, ha. very neighborly… oh, got a new car. you know my wife, she had a car just like this. traded it in. she thought it was too girly. in this case, the speaker utters non literal act that very neighborly here means the opposite not neighborly. literally, very neighborly is friendly or helpful but it is used by dontzig to criticize robby ray who asks her to be neighborly at first. the data (i) are in the form of declarative and the function is to make a statement so the data (i) belong to nonliteral direct strategy. 3. literal indirect strategy in the indirect act if wherever there is an indirect relation between structure and function. the indirect speech act can be literal if the speaker means what she or he says. j. lilly : miley, don’t make me go see my favorite singer without my best friend. if you don’t take this ticket, i’m going to end up going to the concert with mr. hannah montana. (points at oliver) oliver : (standing again) you have an extra ticket to hannah montana! (the entire cafeteria turns in their direction – he sinks low in his chair) that was really loud, wasn’t it? they disappear from view as their table is swarmed by rabid hannah montana fans. (back at the the use of expressive speech acts in hannah montana session 1 110 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 stewart house, jackson comes down the stairs and enters the kitchen. in this case, the speaker utters literal meaning that he speaks too loud. the data (j) is not intended to question the way he speaks but it is used to making a statement of blaming on what he did. it is because he realizes that he was wrong by speaking too loud and making hannah montana’s fans swarmed them to see the ticket. the utterance used indirect strategy in performing the utterances. the form of the utterances is tag question using falling intonation but it is not used to make sure that he speaks to loudly. it is used to make a statement of blaming. 4. non-literal indirect strategy. in the indirect act if wherever there is an indirect relation between structure and function of the utterances. nonliteral meaning is if the speaker does not means what she or he said. k. dontzig : so, stewart family, what would another leaves from your tree be doing in my hot tub? robby ray: i don't know, maybe it wanted to party. oh, come on, dontzig, just trying to be neighborly. the utterance which is spoken by dontzig has functioned to make a statement rather than a question. thus, there is indirect relation between the structure and function. the structure is interrogative, but it is used to make a statement of blaming. the utterances have non literal meaning; it does not mean that the leaves can do something in the hot tub. it is used a figurative language which supposed a non-living thing act like a living things. thus, this data (k) belongs to non-literal indirect strategy nur vita handayani register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 111 conclusion based on the result of this study, the researcher can draw some conclusions about the kinds of expressive speech act used by the character of hannah montana session 1. it can be classified as expressing apology, expressing thanking, expressing sympathy, expressing attitude, expressing greeting, expressing wishes, expressing joy, expressing pain, expressing like, expressing dislikes. the researcher found the use of direct literal expressive speech act, indirect literal expressive speech act, direct nonliteral expressive speech act, and indirect nonliteral expressive speech act. references austin, j.l. 1962. how to do things with words. london: oup dörnyei, zoltán. 2007. research methods in applied linguistics. oxford: oxford university press. mahsun, m. s. 2005. metode penelitian bahasa: tahapan strategi. metode, dan tekniknya. jakarta: rajawali press meyer, charles f.2009. introducing english linguistics. cambridge: cambridge university press. neville, collin. 2007. introduction to research and research methods. bradford: university of bradford the use of expressive speech acts in hannah montana session 1 112 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 searle, john r. 1976. a classification of illocutionary act. languange in society, vol. 5, no.1. (april, 1976), pp 1-23.london: cup wijana. i dewa putu. 1996. dasardasar pragmatik. yogyakarta: andi yule, george. 1996. pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 168 using online short stories to improve the reading comprehension ability muhammad lukman syafi muhammadiyah university of ponorogo s.muhammadlukman@yahoo.com doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 submission track: received: 11/08/2018 final revision: 25/11/2018 available online: 01/12/2018 abstract reading materials can be obtained from many sources, like storybooks, magazines, and the internet. online short stories is one of the internet resources which are completed with images and sound and quizzes. this study was aimed at benefiting these readily used materials to improve the eighth graders’ reading comprehension of narrative texts. the online short stories are combined with five worksheets that consist of guiding questions on comprehension, namely: self monitoring card, key concept, story map, reading journal, and reading log which are used for intensive and extensive reading activity. this study implemented classroom action research design and took 34 eighth graders of mts al-islam joresan mlarak ponorogo 2017/2018 academic year as the subjects. based on the results of the students’ tests as well as their on-going assessments, it is found out that the students’ reading comprehension was gradually improving. it means that there was a positive effect of using online short stories towards the students’ reading ability. the result shows that the combination of materials and worksheets that were implemented in both cooperative and individual learning had facilitated the students in improving their reading comprehension ability, as well as their social skills. therefore, it is very important to implement this strategy to order to improve the students’ reading comprehension. keywords: online short stories, improvement, reading comprehension ability introduction reading is one of four english language skills that a student has to master as the main goal of learning english besides listening, speaking, and writing. it is also established in junior high school on the basis of school-based curriculum (kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan), in which students are guided to develop their language skills for both oral and http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 muhammad lukman syafi 169 written communication in daily context (depdiknas, 2006). dealing with this goal, schoolbased curriculum has offered great chances for every school and teachers to design their own syllabus based on students‟ input, materials on syllabus connected with environment needs, and school facilities. although reading is a receptive skill, as listening, it involves active learning processes in which students incidentally learn the familiar and difficult words, so that they can understand through the contextual support from the text. it concerns with an effort to understand and interpret the meaning of the writing products to learn new concepts about the world. nuttall (1982) states that this skill does not cover decoding and pronouncing, but it needs comprehending. thus, later on, when students have mastered reading as one of four language skills, later they will easily master the other three skills, namely, listening, speaking and writing. therefore, reading activities should be modified to be enjoyable to get students‟ input increases. reading and writing are of students‟ routines at school that facilitates them to learn school subjects, in fact, our national reading habit index remains low. this is supported by the data from the world bank showing that indonesian students rank is the lowest in reading habits among their peers in southeast asia. the score is 51.7. singapore has a score of 74.4, thailand is 65.1 and the philippines‟ score is slightly higher at 52.6. hong kong, by contrast, has a score of 75.5 (atmadja, 2010). this is mainly influenced by the socio-cultural value in which indonesia has “speech habit” not “reading habit”. in order to bring the students having a reading habit, basically, formal environments have had great efforts to encourage students‟ motivation, intrinsically and extrinsically, especially for reading english texts. in addition, the similar of the alphabetical system does not support much that reading in english is not sophisticated. the great differences in letter-sound bring the effect on the difficulty of pronouncing and remembering a lot of vocabulary. this becomes one of the reasons why students are less interested in english. another reason is that many schools, particularly in rural area, are lack of english reading materials. ideally, fulfilling the materials should be fitted to the students‟ needs. these are the common problems occurred in some primary schools, both junior and senior high schools, either at the urban or rural area in indonesia. dealing with those problems, especially in reading, teachers prefer applying various teaching techniques along with the use of interesting materials and media. the researcher register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 170 used online short stories as the best solution that is chosen on the basis of some reasons, mainly to take benefit of the facilities that have already provided by the school as a research setting. firstly, online short stories present some features that support students‟ reading activity. they are readily used materials that are taken from the internet. they can be benefited from learning media and resources. pictures or animations help readers catch the meaning of sentences that appear by pages. oral reading helps the students maintain their pronunciation. reading exercises and games in the form of vocabulary and comprehension quizzes facilitate students to understand the content of the text. so far, they can do selfcorrection. in addition, students can encourage their thinking while they are reading. in line with this, neyman (2002) adds that the treatment of pronunciation correction to the students while reading aloud and simple explanation when students come to different tenses in the stories increases students‟ willingness and ability to use the words they have mastered from the stories. secondly, online short stories are updated regularly by the authors (providers), such as british council learn english kids, rong chang esl, magic keys, and oxford university press. thirdly, these free and inexpensive sites present various materials and topics which vary in terms of readers‟ age, difficulty levels, and the length of the stories. fourthly, the choice of the internet as a learning medium and source is because of its advantages in terms of interactivity matter. in this case, the teacher is required as the main holder that creates an effective interaction between students, teacher, and material through computer even the internet as media (harmer, 2007). fifthly, the use of this media helps teachers to solve the problems of access and expense. teachers are possible to find other sites which provide materials that are downloadable and photocopiable for students‟ use if the school has limited facilities for internet access (mikulecky, 2007). online short stories is worthy internet resources since it provides an alternative for the schools that have a limitation on providing students with adequate english materials but has high accessibility on the internet. the researcher decides to use these internet resources online rather than offline because the appearances are more interesting. besides, it is also to benefit the computer laboratory that provides free internet access and adequate spaces for a class to have activity there. these materials can also be developed into booklet form. however, more expense would be needed for the publication process, and more time would be demanded arrangement process. muhammad lukman syafi 171 considering that, online short stories are as alternative materials for teaching reading, the researcher focuses on teaching narrative texts. a narrative tells a story in a chronological order and entertains readers (audience). it provides a lesson and a plot, which allows readers‟ emotion to come into the story. through narratives, students are expected to be able to learn the language at ease. they will be encouraged to understand the story chronologically (anderson & anderson, 1998). here, teachers can apply story structure or graphic organizers in whilst or post-reading activities -during or after online readingto help students specify the parts of the story and make them related to each other. students‟ understanding of narrative centers -setting, characters, plot, and themeenhance them to create a coherent framework for understanding and remembering the text. at last, students will also encourage their comprehension of explicit and implicit elements of the story, and the generic structure used by the author in the text (vacca & vacca, 1999). due to the problem above, the researcher also proposes an implementation monitored extensive reading as extra-class work. it is a sort of reading activities conducted out of the classroom as homework. here, the teachers give a longer time to finish and do monitoring to know the students‟ work. this may be considered as an alternative solution for time allotment, specifically in giving well balanced on four language skills. the characteristics of this program are evident the provision of a large number of reading materials in various topics and genres, supplement longer time-out of the classroom, encouragement by teacher‟s modeling, free of choice based on students‟ interest, need, ability, and give post-reading activities (renandya & jacobs, 2002). so far, the application of extensive reading enhances students learning to increase their knowledge and understand their personal needs. moreover, reading habit will be gradually developed along with the students‟ joyful learning and improved reading. along with multimedia progressing in education, web-based extensive reading (web-er) program helps students learn vocabulary, read for main ideas, and acquire speed and/or fluency in reading a text. besides, silva (2006) finds that web-er becomes interesting method though some of the students get their doubt. however, it shows that a transition period is needed by the students to make the necessary adjustments in formulating their habits. it seems that over time, students may develop positive attitudes towards reading online and web-er. meanwhile, the bad effect shows that online education makes an isolation of students from the teachers. register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 172 there are some previous studies which focus on multimedia usage. the use of multimedia in writing has shown a significantly positive effect on students‟ achievement. the students‟ writing ability is improved by using multimedia compared to nonmultimedia. the implementation of multimedia can lead students to the positive attitudes in valuing english learning and increase their motivation (khamim, 2009). another study discusses the use of multimedia cd-rom as delivery media, which contained courseware for incidental vocabulary learning and implicitly vocabulary learning. this encourages the students to be more responsible toward their learning (effendi, 2005). dealing with extra-class work, a study has been conducted on intensive extensive reading activity (inexra) by argarini (2008). this activity applied six aspects of reading: motivation and development of background, directed reading, skill building, follow up activities, at home activities, and enrichment. however, the significant result has been shown on three out of six aspects. the students are encouraged on their motivation on the development of background knowledge, skill building and follow up activities. dealing with the need of implementing online short stories as a medium and materials for teaching reading on narrative texts, the research problem was formulated as follows: how can the use of online short stories improve the reading comprehension ability of the eighth graders at mts al-islam joresan mlarak ponorogo? however, this study focuses on implementing online short stories which are from the internet as a medium and materials that are combined with a worksheet and collaborative learning. research methods in this study, the researcher applied action research design since it opens the opportunity for teachers-practitioners to be involved in research. the kemmis and mctaggart‟s (1988) design of classroom action research is a form of „self-reflective inquiry‟ in which teachers are supposed to improve and judge their practice as well as knowing the problems arise and finding for the solution. the „classroom research by teachers‟ lead to produce an alternative model or method and teaching procedure as well that enhance meaningful interaction between teachers-students and among students and result on effective learning (hopkins, 2008). muhammad lukman syafi 173 the study took one subject class of the eighth grade of mts al-islam joresan mlarak ponorogo that consists of 34 students. the subjects were chosen under the consideration that most of them got scores lower than minimum passing criteria, 60, in a reading test delivered in a preliminary study. the researcher needed two english teachers as a collaborator who observed the implementation of online short stories as medium and materials for reading and the effect on the students‟ learning and achievement. the results of observation became research findings that included the students‟ involvement in the teaching and learning process, and their achievements. they were analyzed quantitatively and then described qualitatively. planning the action in the planning phase, the researcher designed a lesson plan as the basic point of the action that comprised the teaching strategy. here, the researcher planned an action with four meetings for one cycle within a consideration that the students need to learn the way to interact with online texts and use some worksheets to help them comprehend the meaning of the text in both intensive and extensive reading activities. the strategy employed in this study was online short stories (oss). the role of oss as a strategy was under the reason that strategy can be any kind of tools or ways that a teacher uses to help learners learn (tyner & green, 2005). online short stories were ready used materials for reading comprehension that were taken from the internet. there were two sites that were chosen for this study, the british council and rong chang (2010). they present many narratives on numerous topics. british council site offers several kinds of narratives such as fable, folk tales, adventure, fantasy, and science fiction. they are appropriate reading materials for eighth graders since the themes are apt and attractive for teenagers. besides, each story provides an oral reading which helps students maintain their reading pronunciation. rong cang site is quite the same. on the contrary, there are some features of reading comprehension exercise, list of vocabulary, and puzzle for each text. these features provide students some instrument for self-improvement in their reading skill. furthermore, these media and materials cover the diversity of students‟ learning style, and meet the provision of constructivism where students are allowed to maintain their roles to construct their knowledge by interacting with their environment; computer, worksheet, and teachers and friends (gardner, 1983; goose, gunn & swinkles, 2002 cited in mohtar & saad, 2007; richards & rodgers, 2001). register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 174 online short stories were not the sole device used in this study although they were the main sources of narrative texts for a reading activity. the researcher combined with some worksheets which were used for groups, pairs, and individual work during the teaching and learning activities. the first two worksheets were self-monitoring card and key concept adapted from jitendra et al (2000 cited in klingner, 2007) for whilst reading activity. the selfmonitoring card has a similar function to the five ws graphic organizer proposed by mcknight (2010) for fiction text in which the questions are used o lead the students to get the core on the text. these instruments are prepared to help the students to make some notes on the worksheet based on the focus given in the form of questions. the third worksheet was a story map. that is used for the post-reading activity. this facilitates the students with a map or graphic so that they can draw their concept on the narrative text being read so that they would be familiar with its rhetorical structure. the collaborative strategic reading which entails story map or graphic organizer, which are rooted from story grammar, will enable students to derive coherent framework of the story so that they understand and remember the text (vacca & vacca, 1999). other reading worksheets used were reading the journal and reading the log. the reading journal was adapted from j. eury‟s (1994 cited in o‟malley and pierce, 1996) model. it is used to lead the students to write any responses or comments towards narratives they have read. then, they could record all narratives in the reading logs. these two instruments were used in both intensive and extensive reading activities. the difference was that students submitted their report books that consisted of reading the journal and reading log weekly. this combination of the strategy was implemented in the three-phase technique of reading; prereading, whilst-reading, and post-reading. implementing the action in the implementation stage, the researcher performed as a teacher who carried out the teaching of reading comprehension based on the teaching strategy and lesson plan. the collaborators acted as observers who kept noticing on the process and took some important notes. the teaching procedures are presented in table 1. table 1 teaching procedures stage teacher’s activities muhammad lukman syafi 175 preparation 1. explains the procedures of browsing the internet and find the reading material from the given web address by using power point. 2. shows the sample of narrative taken from british council together with giving details of online short stories‟ features. prereading 3. distributes „self monitoring card‟ and „key concepts‟ to the students and gives modeling on how to use them in whilst reading process. 4. leads the students to find the site and choose the text. 5. helps the students to apply their guessing and prediction strategies by viewing the pictures or animation that appear together with the sentences. whilstreading 4. leads the students to find the text and read while they are noticing the animation and listening to oral reading. 5. lets the students read once more and guides them through filling out the self monitoring card and key concepts worksheets. 6. leads the students to use an online dictionary when they cannot guess the meaning of difficult words from the animation. 7. monitors the students work and assists them who find difficulties by giving a direct explanation. 8. distributes „story map‟ worksheet and organizes the students into groups. 9. give modeling on how to use a story map based on the information from the two worksheets before (self-monitoring card and key concept). 10. discusses with the students about the story and rhetorical structure of the text postreading 11. asks the students to close the web-page and leads them to retell the story. 12. lets the students find a short story that they like. 13. lists the titles of a short story being chosen by the students. 14. leads the students to give any comments on reading journal and record their stories they have read in reading log the differences in implementation in cycle 1 and cycle 2 are that the numbers of meetings and the group working that was employed. number heads together was undertaken because most of the students were choosy in the grouping. it meant that each student has great opportunities to work with whoever their friends in the classroom so that they can also improve their social skills. table 2 described the schedule of the implementation of both intensive and extensive reading. table 2 schedule of the implementation date intensive reading materials extensive reading deadline jan 26 introduction and teacher‟s modeling on reading online in groups by utilizing worksheets 1, 2, and 3, and grouping. the lucky seed feb 2 reading online in pairs by utilizing three main worksheets free choice feb 9 reading online individually and filling in a reading the journal and reading the log. eric the engine 1 feb 8 feb 23 reading online other freely chosen texts, and filling out the simplified worksheets. dinosaur dig, monster shopping trip 2 feb 15 mar 4 reading comprehension test 1 3 mar 1 mar 13 reading online in groups by number heads together, then the hungry dragon, little 4 mar 8 register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 176 working individually within limited time on modified worksheets red riding hood mar 15 reading other freely chosen texts individually and working on the same worksheets the magic spell 5 mar 15 mar 25 reading comprehension test 2 observing and collecting data the observation was aimed at gathering data related to the implementation of the strategy. both quantitative and qualitative data are gathered from the subjects of the study, the eighth graders of mts al-islam joresan mlarak ponorogo. the numeric data on the students‟ score on reading comprehension was obtained from students‟ achievement through reading assessment whilst and after the strategy implementation as the main data. this showed whether or not the strategy improves the students‟ comprehension. meanwhile, the descriptive data were collected using an observation checklist, field notes, and questionnaires that gave information on the implementation of online reading from online short stories for intensive and extensive reading. the researcher used four kinds of instruments. firstly, reading tests were used to know students‟ ability after the implementation of the strategy. these were delivered to assess their achievement at the end of the cycle. each test consisted of 15 items that asked general and specific information of the text, including story centers. the first reading test was quite similar to the second one. they were different in the texts used and the form. two narrative texts for reading comprehension test cycle 1were adopted from the stories in british council which were taken randomly. two narratives for reading test in cycle 2 were adopted from starfall esl reading in rong-chang site and www.semrock.com, and another text was adapted from www.eastoftheweb.com. however, the score that decided a student‟s progress on his/her learning was not counted from the reading test only. other instruments used in the on-going assessment were students‟ worksheets; self-monitoring card, key concepts, and story map which were completed with scoring rubrics. then, the reading journal and reading log made in the booklet were also analyzed in order to get additional information on the students‟ extensive reading. secondly, two kinds of questionnaires were delivered after the implementation in the forms of close-ended questions. the first questionnaire was intended to know the students‟ http://www.semrock.com/ http://www.eastoftheweb.com/ muhammad lukman syafi 177 responses towards the implementation of the strategy and students‟ enthusiasm. it consisted of ten questions in which the students were required to answer them openly through the two options given, agree or disagree. the second questionnaire elaborated three options; good, poor, and bad, through which the students could express their contentedness with the researcher‟s way of applying the strategy. thirdly, observation checklists were used to gather information concerning with students and teacher‟s performance during teaching and learning process in the classroom. the checklist that was prepared was utilized totally the students‟ involvement up in teaching and learning process. this was simplified so as the second observer could use the presence list to eye all the students‟ movement and record their participation. from this form, both the researcher and the second observer as the english teacher in that class could reveal the result on the strategy on their partaking. the indicators included in the checklist represented the students‟ responses towards the use of the strategy, such as responding to the teacher‟s instructions, asking for help or explanation, answering teacher‟s questions during the discussion, having great willingness in retelling story and finishing the works assigned. and the fourth was field notes utilized to record other brief and important information about the teacher‟s performance in implementing the strategy and the students‟ responses that observers had seen and heard but exclude in observation checklist. reflecting the researcher went to this last step to interpret the information gathered during the implementation phase. the findings were analyzed, so, the researcher would know whether the implementation had reached the criteria of success or not. thus, the implementation of online short stories would be successful if the criteria of success were achieved. that was all the students in the classroom achieved at least 65 in both on-going assessment and reading comprehension test. since the study involved extensive reading (er), this criterion was applied also for this task, that all students were expected to perform their responsibilities on extensive reading tasks which can be seen from their extensive reading record, consisting reading logs and reading journals, that were submitted in due time. in short, if students' achievement had been achieved yet, there would be a revising plan for the next cycle. however, when the result of the study that was analyzed had achieved the criteria of success, the study would be stopped and another cycle was not needed. register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 178 results and discussion the findings of the study were analyzed i order to answer the research question that was obtained from observation checklists, field notes, reading comprehension test and questionnaire. the data revealed in observation checklists, field notes and questionnaire show the teaching and learning process in terms of interaction between teacher and students and among students. the data on the students‟ achievements were generated from the scores they got both in daily exercise and the reading comprehension test as it was shown in the following. table 3 students’ participation in the teaching and learning process cycles no indicators cycle 1 cycle 2 m 1 m 2 m 3 m 4 m 1 m 2 1 give comments or responses to the teacher's instruction and questions 8 11 18 18 21 18 2 ask for help when they get some difficulties on browsing. 0 16 13 5 11 5 3 ask for explanation on the worksheets 9 16 13 16 18 11 4 open and use an online dictionary in another page to find the meaning when they cannot guess the meaning of difficult words. 0 11 11 14 13 9 5 have a great willingness to work on the worksheets at a given time both in a group or individually. 17 18 17 23 22 23 6 give any responses while discussing the story together by using worksheets 1 and 2. 10 11 12 19 * * 7 give comments while discussing the story map. 4 7 11 14 11 14 8 have a great willingness to retell the story. 1 2 5 7 5 9 9 finish their work quickly before the time is up. 0 8 8 10 17 19 muhammad lukman syafi 179 based on the results of the students‟ tests as well as their on-going assessments, it is found out that the students‟ reading comprehension was gradually improving. it means that there was a positive effect of using online short stories towards the students‟ reading ability. the use of online short stories as medium and materials for reading, especially narrative texts, could motivate them to learn and interact with the texts. the reasons were that they could learn in a different atmosphere where they could interact with the internet individually, and they could train and improve their ability in guessing or predicting in order to understand the text. since the students were teenagers, they enthusiastically explored the website that provides them narratives with the animation and audio support as well as exercise and games. thus, when they got the high motivation to learn, steadily they could gain good score as it aroused from their independent training to work with texts as it was shown in the following. table 4 students’ responses toward the use of online short stories no statements agree disagree 1 i am motivated to learn english more after learning the narrative through online short stories 33 1 2 i can understand the way to find the main idea and specific information from the text by using 5w+h question in self-monitoring card and key concept worksheets 31 3 3 learning through online short stories lets me free to choose the story from the easiest to the difficult ones 32 2 4 i become more confident to follow the learning activities that i can read the story i like 16 18 5 i can improve my comprehension through sharing and discussion 30 4 6 i am motivated to learn and do exercise by using the worksheet given 19 15 7 the using online short stories help me improve my knowledge on utilizing the internet for learning 34 0 8 online short stories and reading strategies, i still need to improve my reading ability 26 8 9 the use of online short stories creates a joyful learning atmosphere 34 0 10 online short stories did less support the english learning process 0 34 the progress was shown in the students‟ scores from the beginning to the end of cycle 1 and cycle 2. although the number of students who achieved the minimum score register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 180 fluctuated each meeting as well as the mean score, the slight improvement in daily assignment proved the result of their hard work. in the preliminary reading test, there were 13 out of 34 students who achieved 60, minimum passing criteria in the school. then, in the reading test cycle 1, there were 31 students who gained at least 65, and 32 students in cycle 2. for more detail description and comparison, figure 1 shows the improvement of the students‟ mean score in on-going assessment and reading comprehension test as well as the number of students who reached 65 in cycle 1 and cycle 2 compared to a preliminary study. in terms of participation in the teaching and learning process, the students showed their great interest to be active, although they were forced to give comments by answering teacher‟s questions about the text. in this case, concerning with browsing procedures and utilizing worksheet, the number of students who asked for help reduced gradually. the steady increase also happened to those who liked to respond while discussing the story together or finishing their work on time. on the other case, only a few of students showed their great willingness to retell the story till the end of meetings. figure 2 presents the percentage of their involvement. 0,0 20,0 40,0 60,0 80,0 preliminary on-going achievmt cy 1 reading test cy1 on-going achievmt cy2 reading test cy2 51,1 68,6 72,1 75,1 78,7 13 23 31 33 32 mean score total ss achieved figure 1 mean scores in cycle 1 and cycle 2 compared to preliminary study muhammad lukman syafi 181 furthermore, the result of the extensive reading task that was considered on the basis of students‟ accountability showed that their responses grew in line with their need for a score. this might become important findings that extensive reading needs great support in terms of time, materials, guidance, and modeling. those would be prerequisite of how to run the course well. as being practiced in this research, the students were delighted if the school allows them to utilize the computer laboratory for learning. that was the reason why the researcher then let the students finish their work in the computer lab only for a day a week. in this case, providing the facilities became the main focus since the motivation and responsibility were the essential factors that influenced their learning as well as their achievement. figure 3 illustrates the improvement of the students‟ responsibility in the period of time given. thus, it can be concluded that in order to embrace students‟ interest, especially in reading out of the classroom, a series of steady steps must be the first consideration to deal with the teenage world. 0 5 10 15 20 25 m 1 m 2 m 3 m 4 m 1-2 m 2-2 9 16 13 16 18 11 4 7 11 14 11 14 17 18 17 23 22 23 1 3 5 7 5 9 browsing help worksheet problem responses in discussion finishing works on time retelling story m 1= meeting 1 m 1-2= meeting 1 cycle figure 2 total students who actively involved in the teaching and learning process register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 182 from the overall description on the students‟ involvement, the responses, and the achievement, the result of the implementation of online short stories combined with grouping technique of number heads together in cycle 2 was better than that in cycle 1. although the result showed that 32 students (94%) in the class achieved minimum passing criteria, 65 points, another cycle was not needed. the strategy was effective in triggering the students to be actively involved in the learning process as it improved their reading comprehension. however, an analysis of the students‟ answers on the test items was done. the result showed that there were many students who gave the wrong option in four items which three of them were inferential questions and one vocabulary meaning. in this case, the students‟ failure in answering test items did not lead to the conclusion that they failed because of the test only. here were the tables related to students‟ final scores in cycle 1 and 2. table 5 students’ scores during learning activities and reading test in cycle 1 no name exc 1 exc 2 exc 3 exc 4 (a-b) ave er task final score note test note 1 as 81 60 64 61 67 70 67 achieved 68.8 achieved 2 an 62 45 25 71 89 58 70 61 remedial 72.5 achieved 3 ab 62 45 80 79 89 71 70 71 achieved 72.5 achieved 4 ad 86 65 75 79 61 73 73 73 achieved 72.5 achieved 5 af 81 45 0 71 89 57 68 59 remedial 65.0 achieved 6 ah 86 60 20 71 67 61 68 62 remedial 78.8 achieved 7 am 86 45 0 86 61 56 72 59 remedial 68.8 achieved 9 11 15 28 33 12 7 25 23 19 6 1 0 0 22 5 7 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 good fairly good total students figure 3 students‟ responsibility on extensive reading during five weeks of assignments muhammad lukman syafi 183 8 anw 86 60 45 71 72 67 70 67 achieved 72.5 achieved 9 ar 86 60 80 79 61 73 72 73 achieved 68.8 achieved 10 ayf 90 65 20 79 89 69 70 69 achieved 72.5 achieved 11 ama 62 60 0 64 61 49 70 54 remedial 78.8 achieved 12 aa 86 60 85 79 72 76 72 75 achieved 72.5 achieved 13 dn 86 55 85 79 72 75 70 74 achieved 68.8 achieved 14 dc 81 75 95 86 78 83 80 82 achieved 92.5 achieved 15 aqf 81 75 90 71 67 77 73 76 achieved 65.0 achieved 16 ea 90 60 85 64 61 72 70 72 achieved 78.8 achieved 17 ew 55 60 71 56 60 73 63 remedial 75.0 achieved 18 etj 62 70 25 64 56 55 72 59 remedial 72.5 achieved 19 iy 90 55 85 64 61 71 70 71 achieved 65.0 achieved 20 ip 62 60 45 71 56 59 70 61 remedial 75.0 achieved 21 jh 67 70 70 64 72 69 72 69 achieved 68.8 achieved 22 jp 86 60 45 86 72 70 78 71 achieved 86.3 achieved 23 mz 67 75 25 79 56 60 72 62 remedial 72.5 achieved 24 mk 86 65 85 86 56 75 73 75 achieved 72.5 achieved 25 nd 80 80 86 72 79 78 79 achieved 60.0 fail 26 ns 86 60 85 71 56 72 72 72 achieved 72.5 achieved 27 ni 90 50 75 71 61 70 72 70 achieved 61.3 fail 28 su 90 60 15 71 67 61 72 63 remedial 68.8 achieved 29 uh 90 75 85 86 56 78 73 77 achieved 75.0 achieved 30 vms 67 70 75 86 56 71 72 71 achieved 78.8 achieved 31 ws 67 50 65 71 56 62 70 63 remedial 71.3 achieved 32 yd 62 75 70 57 78 68 70 69 achieved 58.8 fail 33 yha 90 90 100 93 83 91 80 89 achieved 72.5 achieved 34 yep 90 60 60 86 83 76 80 77 achieved 76.3 achieved mean score 79.5 62.2 58.6 75.2 67.6 68.6 69.3 72.1 total achieved 26 13 19 27 17 23 23 31 31 total not achieved 0 9 12 1 9 6 4 1 % achieved 76 38 56 79 50 68 68 91 91 % not achieved 0 26 35 3 26 18 12 3 table 6 students’ scores during learning activities and reading test in cycle 2 no name exc 1 exc 2 ave er task final score note reading test note 1 as 62 79 71 72 71 achieved 66.0 achieved 2 an 69 76 72 72 72 achieved 85.8 achieved 3 ab 59 73 66 71 67 achieved 79.2 achieved 4 ad 73 76 74 73 74 achieved 79.2 achieved 5 af 69 69 69 69 69 achieved 72.6 achieved 6 ah 66 72 69 70 69 achieved 66.0 achieved 7 am 63 79 71 72 71 achieved 66.0 achieved 8 anw 73 65 69 73 70 achieved 79.2 achieved register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 184 9 ar 73 76 74 73 74 achieved 72.6 achieved 10 ayf 76 76 76 72 75 achieved 79.2 achieved 11 ama 66 76 71 74 72 achieved 66.0 achieved 12 aa 83 90 86 75 83 achieved 79.2 achieved 13 dn 73 73 73 73 73 achieved 66.0 achieved 14 dc 90 100 95 80 90 achieved 92.4 achieved 15 aqf 86 93 90 76 86 achieved 59.4 fail 16 ea 73 68 70 72 71 achieved 72.6 achieved 17 ew 73 86 79 74 78 achieved 66.0 achieved 18 etj 76 78 77 73 76 achieved 85.8 achieved 19 iy 66 76 71 72 71 achieved 66.0 achieved 20 ip 62 73 67 72 69 achieved 72.6 achieved 21 jh 65 66 65 73 68 achieved 85.8 achieved 22 jp 80 85 82 79 81 achieved 92.4 achieved 23 mz 72 96 84 74 81 achieved 79.2 achieved 24 mk 76 89 82 76 80 achieved 85.8 achieved 25 nd 86 83 84 79 83 achieved 72.6 achieved 26 ns 65 68 67 74 69 achieved 79.2 achieved 27 ni 69 62 65 74 68 achieved 59.4 fail 28 su 51 65 58 74 63 remedial 72.6 achieved 29 uh 76 83 79 76 78 achieved 85.8 achieved 30 vms 73 89 81 74 79 achieved 72.6 achieved 31 ws 66 71 68 72 69 achieved 72.6 achieved 32 yd 76 75 75 72 74 achieved 66.0 achieved 33 yha 100 100 100 80 94 achieved 85.8 achieved 34 yep 86 87 86 79 84 achieved 92.4 achieved average 72.6 78.5 75.6 75.1 75.7 total achieved 28 33 33 33 32 total not achieved 6 1 1 1 2 % achieved 82 97 97 97 94 % not achieved 18 3 3 3 6 there were any other factors that influence the students learning. the implementation of number heads together in grouping system had a positive and negative impact. active students who were familiar with the computer and the internet did not face a problem whenever they got different group mate each meeting, meant that they were able to socialize with everyone in the class. in contrast, those who were dependent on friends to help learning got the problem in adaptation when they had to work with others. the two students who failed in the reading comprehension test and one who failed in the on-going performance needed a remedial course to improve their comprehension. muhammad lukman syafi 185 discussion online short stories is a kind of reading materials presented on the internet which can be utilized both online and offline, indeed, online reading is more interesting. the choice of oss as a learning strategy is under the reason of its multifunction, as a medium and materials, as tyner and green (2005) state that strategy can be any kind of tools that a teacher uses to help students learn. in addition, teaching and learning procedure in english lesson can be done by using internet materials because internet media has entered schools faster than books (leu, 2002 cited in anderson, 2003). it is in line with the implementation of computer based instruction (cbi) in which the students get a wide exposure to interact with many kinds of texts in which graphics, pictures even sounds are presented within its authenticity (li & hart, 2002). the natural presentation can be seen in the features design and language used in the range of readers or viewers levels, topics or subjects being explored, and interests. the appropriateness of the oss for the eighth graders is that the texts presented in the form of narrative and descriptive which match to the curriculum. the length of the texts varies. all texts come with pictures or animation and audio supports in the colorful and interesting face. although these materials are labeled for kids as the word “kids” put down in the web page, these are suitable for the teenagers who are in the early reader stage because english is learned as a foreign language in indonesia. the students in this stage need to interact with the picture or animation to understand the meaning of the text (ellery, 2005). in the implementation of oss in the eighth-grade students of islamic, junior high school have attracted their curiosity to explore the web that comprises those materials. the difficulty of remembering and typing the web address was the problem that the students faced in the first and second time they interact with the internet. that was overcome by saving the address in bookmark. this is one of the approaches that are proposed by burkhart and kelly (1999 cited in male, 2003) in utilizing the internet after selecting and previewing appropriate websites. some others are setting clear objectives, deciding experiences in large groups, individual or combination of both, preparing graphic organizer, rubric, or a set of directions, and planning the way of assessing. the students who were fond of online games have also been familiar with english terms generally used in that feature. their knowledge on the computer and internet terms helped them to start and work with. register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 186 oss was not the sole device that was used for intensive and extensive reading activities. five worksheets were designed in order to use the oss effectively focused on comprehension. they are self monitoring card, key concept, story map, reading journal, and reading log. the two worksheets were utilized in whilst reading to ensure the students catch the core of the text. then, story map was employed in post-reading phase to assist them in maintaining their understanding. however, in the middle of the study, the researcher created some quizzes that were adapted from the oss activity. this was to relieve the students‟ boredom in facing the same form of the worksheet that seemed they were driven to understand the materials instantly. reading journal and log were the main devices for extensive reading. all were constructed in the regard that comprehension must be taught through systematic instruction (tyner & green, 2005) in order to engage them with the meaning of the text and lead them to apply their own strategies (ur, 1996). because the oss presented with the images, some students chose their readers based on the picture they thought was more interesting. this could be concluded that the effect of the features on the motivation was good. hence, through the animation, they could follow the plot of the story in sequence and understand the events happened easier. the main problem was that they could say something about the story, of course in indonesian, but they did not have any idea to write down the answer to the questions in the worksheet. the worksheets were then functioned as the means to recall the information and copy the important thing from the text, especially dealing with the basic 5w+h questions and the series of events. these two tools were interrelated to the treatment for determining the main idea of the text and finding detail information. the last, story map worksheet was used as a way to make a summary which applied in the reading journal enclosed in the extensive reading record. dealing with the reading strategies that the students applied, the result of the students‟ self-assessment on the strategies applied in online reading, after the treatment within six meetings proved an improvement on their awareness to be good readers who employ some important strategies. those include establishing reading purpose, determining the main idea, organizing information, and monitoring their comprehension (o‟malley & pierce, 1996). the change in students‟ reading strategies illustrated that every student might use one that was suitable for their reading. this was so as the reading strategies used in printed and hypertext materials were the same. they were different on the frequency. muhammad lukman syafi 187 the finding on the late submission of extensive reading record book was caused by the researcher‟s less consideration of the students‟ needs, especially on fairness-scoring, and facilities provided. the finding on extensive reading was far from the expectation as being recommended by busthomi (2009) that the students were asked to read at least two texts a week with the teacher‟s guidance and support in terms of reading materials and explanation. however, the result of this study sounded good because there has never been an extensive reading practice before in the subject class, even the school. then, in the implementation, the researcher did not purely let the students accomplish their reading out of the classroom by themselves, in spite of providing her time to stay in a computer room and providing any help for whom needed her. thus, this study facilitated the students in terms of access because the materials used were taken from the internet. the implementation of cooperative learning in this study, mainly number head together, decreased the students‟ tendency to be choosy in the grouping. it has also positive effects not only on students‟ achievement but also on other important factors such as motivation, social skills (including relationship skills and acceptance of diversity level of ability) and fond of learning at school. the overall result of the students‟ reading achievement from the first to the third test and daily scores indicated that the implementation of oss in pairing or grouping encouraged the students‟ involvement. this kind of cooperative learning provides an opportunity for the students to share their responsibility for the task given. positive interdependence is raised from individual accountability to help and encourage each other so that the all members finish the work assigned (male, 2003). the oss worksheets which consist of comprehension questions are the learning tools for grouping in which each member has a responsibility to help others understand different aspects of the given task. this task division helped students improved their comprehension that was proved by the mean score they achieved, from 51.1 in the preliminary test, 72.1 in the comprehension test of cycle 1, and 75.7 in cycle 2. in short, the success of the implementation of oss with the companion of some worksheets enhanced the students‟ motivation and involvement in terms of grouping and giving comments during classroom discussion. this was also confirmed by the students‟ achievement during the learning activities in which they gained slightly improvement from the beginning to the end. the significant progress could be seen from the comparison on the test achievement before and after the treatment. the findings that the score of some students register journal vol. 11, no. 2, 2018, pp.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 188 decreased might be influenced by the students‟ internal factor such as the condition of healthiness or motivation. therefore, the teacher‟s role was essential for the success of the implementation of the strategy, not only as a facilitator who trained the comprehension strategy but also as a friend to whom the students could ask for learning guidance both inside and outside the classroom. conclusion the results of the study show that the use of online short stories can improve the students‟ reading comprehension of the eighth graders of mts al-islam joresan mlarak ponorogo. online short stories here play its role as medium and materials that provide students a lot of narrative texts with animations and oral reading and some quizzes. this strategy also enhances the students‟ learning in terms of motivation and interest as well as their way to implement reading strategy for online texts. the results show that the students‟ involvement during the teaching and learning process are gradually fostered as they experienced to work with the texts they chose freely. the implementation of cooperative learning that is combined with the use of online short stories help them much in coping with their problem in reading as well as in collaborating. however, a small number of the students who had not achieved the minimum passing criteria needed to get the remedial course. these two students were not contented to work with some other friends through random grouping because of their dependence on their close friends. in brief, this study suggests that it is important to integrate internet resources in the teaching of english in order to create a more interesting and effective teaching. references anderson, m., & 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(6 th ed). new york: addison-wesley. http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/ http://www.rong-chang.com/qa2 http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/silva/article.pdf muhammad lukman syafi 191 register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.141-157 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 141 the use of scientific-based approach in elt class to improve students’ achievement and classroom interaction haerazi english lecturer, graduate school, mandalika university of education haerazi@ikipmataram.ac.id rully may vikasari english teacher, smpn 4 praya, central lombok, ntb momvika@gmail.com zukhairatunniswah prayati english teacher, smpn 1 jonggat, lombok tengah, ntb anisprayati@gmail.com doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.141-157 submission track: received: 27-7-2019 final revision: 20-11-2019 available online: 01-12-2019 corresponding author: haerazi name & e-mail address haerazi haerazi@ikipmata ram.ac.id abstract this study investigated the use of the scientific-based approach in the elt class to solve students' learning problems. those problems are students' difficulties to complete their learning tasks, lack of vocabulary to complete reading tasks, lack of grammatical competence, afraid of proposing questions, afraid of speaking, and difficulties to complete the listening tasks. these caused students to have low achievement and inactive classroom interaction. the study was aimed at improving students' achievement and classroom interaction of 8th-grade students of smpn 4 praya, central lombok, west nusa tenggara. this study was classroom action research. the procedure of actions included two steps, namely the reconnaissance and the action. the reconnaissance presented the students' learning problems and the action consisted of four stages, namely planning, implementing, evaluating, and reflecting. the research instruments of this study used observation sheets, a questionnaire, and a test. the collected data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. the result of this study showed that the use of the scientific-based approach was able to improve students' achievement and classroom interaction. the students' average score was 82.76. each student's score was higher than the minimum passing grade (70). meanwhile, the interaction classroom was active. it was supported by significant changes. those changes were that students become more cooperative, active, and optimistic to complete reading tasks, listening tasks, speaking activities, and writing assignments in the form of group discussion. keywords: scientific-based approach, achievement, classroom interaction mailto:haerazi@ikipmataram.ac.id mailto:momvika@gmail.com mailto:anisprayati@gmail.com mailto:haerazi@ikipmataram.ac.id mailto:haerazi@ikipmataram.ac.id haerazi, vikasari, prayati 142 introduction the change of curriculum in indonesia is based on the demands to compete internationally. to reach international competitiveness, the change of national curriculum needs reinforcement. in doing so, the ministry of national education recommends the new curriculum, namely curriculum 2013 (henceforth k13). the concept of k13 is developed in accordance with the educational practice development and educational theoretical paradigm. basically, the concept of k13 is to complete the previous curriculum, namely ktsp (educational unit level curriculum). the main touch of applying k13 is to increase students' competences in conducting observation, asking or interviewing, thinking logically, and communicating and presenting what they have got or knew as the result of understanding materials. to achieve the goals, the scientific-based approach is employed in k13. the scientific-based approach has been increasingly applied in all junior and senior educational levels in indonesia from 2013 to now with some revisions conducted by the ministry of education, social, and culture in each year at both state and private educational schools. it is assumed that the approach is able to cover newly all subjects including english. it emphasizes on learner-centered approach. the main point of this approach is to change the learning paradigm from the learning process to transfer knowledge to the learning process to seek knowledge. in other words, the instructional approach should be changed from the teachercentered approach to the learner-centered approach. in curriculum 2013, the use of the scientific-based approach is adopted and recommended for elt teachers. learners are seen as the agents who need to be invited actively in the instructional process in the class. the teachers play a role as a facilitator that brings and guides learning activities. based on some research findings, this approach was able to improve students' critical thinking in public senior high school (wahono et al. 2017), grammatical mastery (sodik & wijaya, 2017), and english achievement as senior high school (zaim, 2017). however, in teaching practice, some english teachers still face difficulties in arranging their classroom management in limited instructional tools to support the scientific-based approach to be more effective. k13 has been providing for english teachers with elaborating scientific instructional models such as genre-based instruction, project-based instruction, inquiry-based instruction, problem-based instruction, and context-based instruction. these instructions are recommended register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.141-157 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 143 to be implemented under the umbrella of the scientific-based instruction. for instance, the scientific-based approach can be integrated with the genre-based approach in elt classes. the scientific approach has five stages and the genre-based approach has five stages as well. in teaching practice, the teacher can choose any scientific stages to be started inserting the genrebased learning activities. according to munir (2015), the application of the scientific approach and genre-based approach can be applied accurately as suggested in the teacher book (kemendikbud, 2016). in addition, syafii (2018); kristie and listyani (2018) recommend online short stories, role-play, storytelling, and song can be integrated with the scientific-based approaches for english students. therefore, the scientific-based approach is directed students on what to learn and how to learn it. this study is aimed at investigating the use of the scientific-based approach in the elt class to improve students' achievement and classroom interaction. the effectiveness of the approach will influence the implementation of k13 for all of the junior high school students at central lombok, ntb. the application of the scientific approach in this study was subjected to elt class at the 8th-grade students of smpn 4 praya. based on the observation in the preliminary study, the students’ problems that caused students have low achievement and inactive classroom interaction include difficulties to complete learning tasks; on vocabulary acquisition to complete reading tasks; on grammatical competence to write english sentences; proposing questions to teachers or other classmates; speaking ability in discussion process; and listening problems to understand the native speaking. literature review curriculum k13 in general, the implementation of the k13 is a reaction to the reality that indonesia is facing the respective years of the global world and its crucial issues. dealing with the educational quality, some international assessment programs presented that indonesian students have a low quality such as pisa assessment. as a response to this, the k13 was designed to prepare students' character to be critical to participate in the global world in the upcoming years. according to nur and madkur (2014), k13 offers “the building of character to prepare students to face various opportunities, which could give positive and negative effects for them ad society in general”. haerazi, vikasari, prayati 144 nooryastuti (2015) states k13 has characteristics such as: "(1) the content of the curriculum is stated in the core competence and the basic competence in detail; (2) the core competence is description of aspects of the attitude, knowledge, and skill that have to be studied by students in the school, class, and subject level; (3) the basic competence is competence for a theme in all educational levels from elementary to middle level; (4) the core and basic competencies have priority in attitude aspects for level of basic education while cognitive aspects are the main point for middle education level; (5) all of basic competences and learning process are developed to attain the core competences; (6) the basic competence is developed accumulatively and reinforced among subjects and educational level; and (7) the syllabus is designed for a theme for elementary school and subjects for middle level". teaching english in junior high schools teaching english in tefl context needs an appropriate way to make learners master the target language. teachers integrate the four language skills, language elements, and language functions. four language skills cover speaking, writing, reading, and listening. speaking and writing skills are called productive skills because it relates to how learners produce the target language. meanwhile, reading and listening skills include receptive skills because both relate to how learners receive information based on both activities. in junior high schools, teachers provide language elements for learners such as grammar, vocabulary, punctuation, spelling, and pronunciation. according to yoshida (2010), the use of cognitive skills such as comparing and constructing the target language with their own language is able to improve learners’ linguistic skills. therefore, teaching english in junior high schools is necessary to build learners’ cognitive skills through scientific learning activities. scientific-based approach in k13, the learning approach recommended applying is a scientific-based approach. it emphasizes the learner-centered learning. it is a must because it becomes a part of k13 for junior high schools and the goodness of the scientific approach itself. an approach in this study defines a set of correlative assumptions relating to the nature of language teaching and learning. it also defines as an axiomatic clear that doesn't need to be proved. an approach highlights a learning model, method, strategy, and technique. the scientific-based approach has some learning methods in its teaching practice. the methods include project-based learning, problem-based learning, discovery learning, inquirybased learning, and contextual teaching and learning. these methods are recommended for all register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.141-157 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 145 subjects. for the english subject, english teachers also recommend the genre-based learning model. the terms ‘learning method' or ‘model' can be interchangeable because it depends on teachers' practice in the class. table 1. the stages of scientific-based approach teaching stages learning activities expected competence observing o students are invited to do observation through reading, listening, or seeing objects. o students are asked to determine the object, its purpose, the way of observation, and the limitation of the object. o students are asked to report the result of observation activities. o students are invited to comprehend the results. to train the seriousness, carefulness, and look for information. questioning o students are encouraged to learn actively and to develop questions of and for the objects. o students are asked to raise their skills in talking, asking questions, and giving answers logically with proper and correct grammar. o students are invited to develop their abilities to think and draw conclusions. o students are involved in building an attitude of openness to give and receive opinions or ideas. to develop creativity, curiosity, the ability to question formulation to build critical thinking. collecting information o students are divided into 3-4 students of each group. o students are asked to discuss the learning objects and helped to make it run well in the class. o students are involved to record the finding. o in the supervising process, students are invited to learn actively. to develop carefulness, honest, polite, respects towards people argument, and communication competence to collect information through some ways. to develop learning habits. associating o students are asked to analyze and associate the information occurred within the group. o students are involved to associate the relationship between one information and other information. o students are asked to conclude the information from the patterns found. to develop the attitude of honesty, discipline, obedient, hard work, the ability to associate information, and the ability of inductive and deductive thinking. communicating o students are encouraged to conclude the facts that have been observed and experimented. to develop the attitude of honesty, carefulness, tolerance, haerazi, vikasari, prayati 146 o students are asked to read their works or conclusions in the class. o the other groups are asked to listen and provide additional input in line with the works of each group. o students are asked to give additional explanation after the group discussion ended. o giving some tasks and opportunities, students demonstrate their attitude, skills, and the substance of the learning provided. and the ability of systematic thinking. to train to state the clear argument, and to develop language literacy well. zaim (2017) states a scientific approach is a teaching strategy employing scientific steps. this approach has the trait of acting ‘science' that allows teachers to increase the learning process by putting the processes down into steps that reflect the detailed instruction for involving students to learn. in k13, the aims of teaching efl are to attain a functional and informational phase of literacy. research method research setting this study was conducted at the 8th-grade students of smpn 4 praya, central lombok, west nusa tenggara, indonesia. smpn 4 praya is one of the junior high schools in central lombok, west nusa tenggara. there are three grades in it. each grade has 5-7 classes and each class consists of 21-35 students. this study is carried out at 8th-grade students, which has 6 classes. the total numbers of students of smpn 4 praya in the academic year of 2018/2019 are 126 students. the study chose one class (viiia class) to apply the scientific-based approach. it was taken as the place of this study because the problems found by researchers and teachers were appropriate to be solved using scientific-based approach. this approach was not thoroughly applied by all the english teachers at the 8th-grade students. research design this study was collaborative action research. it is essentially an on the spot procedure administered to deal with real problems in the schools. according to costello (2011), collaborative action research is "a form of collective self-reflective inquiry in a real situation to improve educational practices in an institution or schools". this study employed four stages; planning, implementing, evaluating, and reflecting. these stages were done to overcome the identified problems using scientific-based approach. the use of the scientific-based approach register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.141-157 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 147 is to improve students' elt achievement and classroom interaction of the 8th-grade students of smpn 4 praya, central lombok. the procedure of the action research to conduct action research, the researcher applied the procedure suggested by elliot (1991) and modified by haerazi & irawan (2019). there are two main activities, namely the reconnaissance and the action. 1. reconnaissance reconnaissance is an activity to identify the students' problems through observation and questionnaire. the researcher collaborates with the real teacher to find the ideas, opinions, and suggestions to formulate the problems. in this study, the problems are classified into three levels, which are very difficult, medium, and easy. this study is focused on the medium levels faced by students. the medium levels are selected and categorized into some levels such as most urgent, urgent, and less urgent. the most urgent problems are chosen to be solved by using the scientific-based approach. 2. action planning the problems found in the initial step would be handled by the implementation of the scientific-based approach to improve students’ elt achievement and classroom interaction at the 8th-grade students of smpn 4 praya. to do so, the researchers administered the preparation of the implementation of the actions. the research plans include syllabus, lesson plans, materials, and teaching media. implementing this stage is an action to implement what the researcher and teacher plan. the teacher applies the scientific-based approach in the class to deal with the lesson plan made. in this stage, researchers observe the interaction between the teacher and students and the interaction among the students in the class during the implementation of the learning activity. in addition, the researcher records the process of learning activities. haerazi, vikasari, prayati 148 evaluating the researcher and teacher discussed the process of learning and teaching activities. the researcher makes some notes dealing with the interaction between students and teachers, and among students in the class. besides, the researcher records the result of action by interviewing with students and teachers about their opinions, feelings, and suggestion about the actions. at the end of this, the researcher and teacher discussed some changes and improvisation of the interaction, materials, and stages of the scientific-based approach. then, the research team gives responses toward those changes and improvements. reflecting this stage is the last stage of action activities that aim to analyze and evaluate the effects, obstacles, difficulties, and other possibilities. when the elt achievement and classroom interaction of the 8th-grade students of smpn 4 praya, central lombok in the academic year 2018/2019 is considered to be better, the action is stopped. the students' elt achievement is achieved with 5 meetings. meanwhile, the classroom interaction better results in 4 meetings in this study. the action is done through two cycles. one cycle is focused on improving the english achievement and the second cycle is administered in enhancing the classroom interaction in teaching and learning processes. data collection technique to collect the research data, the instruments used in this study are a questionnaire, observation, and test. the instruments are considered the validity and reliability. it is proven by the result analysis using cronbach’s aplha formula where its alpha (0.730) is higher than the sig. level 0.05. after this process, the researcher observes the elt learning process and gives questionnaires to the other research team members to identify the learning problems. in the action stages, the researcher observes the classroom learning processes. the data of students' achievement are collected by using a test. the kind of test includes a posttest given by the teacher at the end of the teaching and learning process. the indicator of achievement in this study is limited to the individual passing grade of english subject which is 70. meanwhile, classroom interaction is limited to the process achievement indicators. it can be defined by some improvement in the classroom interaction of the 8th-grade students of smpn 4 praya in the instructional process. to ensure the trustworthiness of the data and the objectivity of data, the researcher applies triangulation. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.141-157 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 149 data analysis technique the data analysis of this study used the three concurrent flow activities; (1) data reduction, (2) data display, and (3) drawing a conclusion. in the process of data reduction, the data are selected, simplified, and abstracted in the field note. it is done during the research activities. in other words, the researcher reduces the information during the research activities because the data do not support the research data needed. in displaying data, the selected data are depicted and explained in the form of description or narration based on the filed notes and interview transcripts. the last stage of data analysis is taking a conclusion. the data reduced are concluded at the end of each action deal with classroom interaction. meanwhile, the students' english achievement is concluded at the end of the posttest. the conclusions are about the improvement of elt achievement and classroom interaction of the 8th-grade students of smpn 4 praya, central lombok, west nusa tenggara. results and discussion reconnaissance in this phase, the researcher identifies some problems faced by students in elt learning process of the 8th-grade students of smpn 4 praya by observing the classroom activities. in this session, the researcher distributes questionnaires to students and teachers. there are some problems relating to the english language learning components. the problems are found as barriers for students to learn english at smpn 4 praya. those problems are classified into three cases, namely problems with language skills, cognitive skills, and language elements. therefore, the feasible problems that can be solved in this action research can be seen in table 2 as follows. table 2. the feasible problems no learning problems 1 students do not understand the teachers’ instruction to complete their learning tasks. 2 students do not have enough vocabular to complete reading tasks. 3 students do not have enough grammatical competence to arrange sentences. 4 students feel afraid of proposing a question. 5 students are afraid of speaking in english during the instructional process in the class. 6 students had difficulties in listening to understand speaking. haerazi, vikasari, prayati 150 the feasible problems to be solved include problems on understanding teachers’ instruction to complete learning tasks; on vocabulary mastery to complete reading tasks; on grammatical competence to write english sentences; asking questions to teachers or other classmates; speaking ability in discussion process; and listening problems to understand speaking. these problems are assumed as obstacles for students to achieve good achievement in english subject. actions the teacher and researcher agree to use the existing curriculum applied in the school. the instructional materials are adapted from the course-book provided by the school. the teacher modifies the materials in line with the elt instructional goals and learning objectives. the researcher helps the teacher to design the materials in the form of learning tasks for reading, writing, and speaking. these become some activities that are addressed to handle the students’ learning problems. after the lesson plans are prepared well, the teacher implemented in accordance with the time that has been scheduled. cycle 1 this subchapter depicts the implementation of the scientific-based approach as the research action of the study. the aim of this subchapter is to describe the process of the use of the scientific-based approach to solve the six problems as mentioned in this study. the cycle proceeds through planning, implementing, evaluation, and reflection. planning based on the result of pre-test and observation, the data indicate students have low achievement in english subject and students have problems in classroom interaction. the plan is to solve those problems using the scientific-based approach. the plan includes four activities that are; (1) choosing the topics and items of instruction, (2) designing the lesson plans that contain the core competence and basic competence, (3) designing observation sheets, and (4) providing teaching materials and teaching media. to find the improvement of students’ achievement, the post-test is overseen at the end of the action. meanwhile, to know the students’ improvement of classroom interaction, the post questionnaire is distributed to be filled. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.141-157 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 151 implementing in this phase, the researcher and teacher execute the plan that has been agreed before. in each meeting, the researcher as an observer records the learning activities. it is also assisted by one of the collaborators as the observer and the other one plays a role as the teacher. in the first meeting, the steps of the scientific-based approach are realized in the main activities. for instance, in the step of observing, students are asked to pay attention to the provided topics of texts. under the teacher’s guidance, students analyze the texts dealing with generic structures, contents, and linguistic aspects. subsequently, the students start giving comments relating to the topic of the texts. in this context, feedback is promising input for developing the four language skills (wahyuni, et. al., 2019; brumen, et al., 2018; sumekto & setyawati, 2019; septiana & kadarisman, 2016). evaluating having done the action, it is important to see every progress of students’ classroom interaction and achievement. the evaluation is conducted by the teacher and the researcher. the researcher assisted by the observer notices the classroom process at every meeting in the first cycle. from the first meeting into the fourth meeting, the researcher and the teacher evaluate the students’ progression of generic structure of the conversation text, content, vocabulary acquisition, and students’ attitudes such as respecting classmates and the teacher in the class. in addition, the researchers evaluate the interaction between students and the teacher that occurs but it is no significant changes among students and between the teacher and students. in the last meeting, students are provided a test to know their english achievement after conducting the actions. the researcher and the teacher distribute a test. a test is administered in line with the indicators of basic competences breaking down from the core competencies. based on the result of descriptive analysis, the score of students can be seen in table 3 as follows. table 3. the students’ elt achievement at cycle 1 statistics score n valid 21 missing 0 mean 74.48 median 70.00 haerazi, vikasari, prayati 152 mode 68 std. deviation 8.646 minimum 60 maximum 88 sum 1564 reflecting in cycle 1, it can be concluded that the use of the scientific-based approach was not effective to solve all of the students' problems in the elt classroom. cycle 1 indicated that some problems faced by students were solved by using the approach. those problems included (1) students have difficulties to understand the teacher's instruction to complete their learning tasks, (2) students do not have enough vocabulary acquisition to complete reading tasks, and (3) students have lack of grammatical competence to arrange sentences. based on the students' problems solved in cycle 1, the researcher and the teacher agreed to continue to the second cycle (cycle 2). the teacher and the researcher in the next cycle were focused on different students' problems. cycle 2 planning the previous cycle was addressed to some learning problems faced by students in elt classrooms. those were solved by using the scientific-based approach, but other problems would be handled in the second cycle by applying the same approach. the learning approach was actually applied in line with the feasible learning problems which are urgent to be elucidated. in this second cycle, the action is focused on students’ problems dealing with speaking abilities, asking activities, and listening activities. the use of the scientific-based approach along with the proper learning materials and teaching media is prepared well. it is in line with what indrilla (2018) states the scientific approach is effective to improve the 8th-grade students' language acquisition. also, astuti (2015) and sarwanti (2016) state the scientific approach is possible for english teachers to improve students’ language skills. implementing as mentioned in the planning, the learning activities are directed to involve students in learning activities oriented to speaking abilities. the teacher has divided students into 3-4 students of each group. each group is asked to observe any classroom pictures. the teacher carries out question-answer activities about the pictures. thus, the teacher provides students register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.141-157 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 153 with some exercise to ask questions in english correct grammar. the students practice to imitate the sentences in groups between each member. besides, students are asked to associate the topic being discussed with other relevant topics in their question-answer activities. in short, the cycle is oriented to those problems going to solve. evaluating having done the implementation, the researcher and the teacher evaluate the students' progress relating to students' speaking ability, questioning activities, and listening activities. in the first meeting, students are directed to practice speaking skills through discussion activities. the teacher provides interesting materials for students such as giving serial pictures and some videos. it is intended to help students acquire ideas to practice expressing their ideas in english. in doing so, the teacher divided students into small groups. the learning process occurs in the form of group discussion. the interaction is done in a dynamic discussion and almost all of the students are involved. the three steps of the scientific-based approach are employed in this meeting, namely observing, asking, and associating activities. the activities are focused on practicing to express opinions through speaking activities from the first meeting into fourth meeting. to strengthen students’ speaking abilities, the teacher provides the topics of sasak traditional music such as rudat and gendang beleq. it is in accordance with what haerazi et al. (2018) and aprianoto et al. (2018) recommend that cultural topics are promising inputs to evoke the students’ speaking competences. to facilitate students in doing so, the teacher offers students with interesting materials in the form of videos. huang and hung (2012) state video can help students to augment their english speaking skills. in addition, video is used to evoke students’ attention (kuo et al., 2014). according to the teacher, the learning processes are quite successful to facilitate students to familiarize themselves with native accents and pronunciation and to acquire new vocabulary. it is also proved by the result of students’ achievement in cycle 2. table 4. the students’ achievement at cycle 2 statistics score n valid 21 missing 0 mean 82.76 median 80.00 haerazi, vikasari, prayati 154 mode 80 std. deviation 3.820 minimum 78 maximum 90 sum 1738 reflecting the researcher and the teacher agreed that the implementation of the scientific-based approaches was able to enhance students’ achievement and classroom interaction by providing interesting learning materials. the students’ problems were solved in two cycles. cycle 1 was focused on the students’ problems relating to (1) students’ difficulties to complete their learning tasks, (2) lack of vocabulary to complete reading tasks, and (3) lack of grammatical competence. meanwhile, cycle 2 was addressed to help students to eradicate that they feel still (1) afraid of proposing questions, (2) afraid of speaking, and (3) difficulties to complete the listening tasks. in the second cycle, the result showed that almost 95% of students diminished their learning problems in the elt class. conclusion having done the action in two cycles, the researcher concludes that the use of the scientific-based approach for 8th grade students of smpn 4 praya is effective to solve students' problems dealing with students' difficulties in completing their learning tasks, lack of vocabulary acquisition to complete reading tasks, lack of grammatical competence, afraid of submitting questions, afraid of speaking in the class, and difficulties in conducting listening tasks. the steps of the scientific-based approach include observing, questioning, collecting, associating, and communicating. by providing students with various interesting learning activities, assisted by interesting learning tasks and materials, students are able to involve themselves in the teaching-learning activities in the class. in addition, students brave to express their ideas or opinions in english although the utterances are in simple sentences. to solve those students’ problems, the teacher provided for students with familiar topics to discuss in the form of small groups. in cycle 1, the researcher and the teacher conducted the actions in four meetings. the fifth meeting was allotted to carry out the final test to know the students’ progress. the effect of the scientific-based approach in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd meetings was not seen yet. the effect of that approach could be seen in the 4th meeting. the mean score of students' achievements was 74.48. it indicated that the passing grade was achieved classically but not individually because of some students' scores under the minimum achievement criteria. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.141-157 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 155 the significant change in this cycle was that the students are able to diminish their learning difficulties. in cycle 2, the actions are done in four meetings. the interaction among students and between students and the teacher improved. it was proved that the mean score of students' achievements was 82.76. the passing grade was achieved individually in the second cycle. suggestion the teacher can keep going to use the scientific-based approach in the teaching of elt classroom for junior high schools to overcome students’ problems relating to the students’ achievement and classroom interaction. the problems derive from some difficulties such as (1) students’ difficulties to complete their learning tasks, (2) lack of vocabulary to complete reading tasks, and (3) lack of grammatical competence, (4) afraid of proposing questions, (5) afraid of speaking, and (6) difficulties to complete the listening tasks. based on the result, the teacher can apply this approach regularly to maintain and improve the students' achievement and classroom interaction. also, the teacher should give more guidance and clues when they complete learning tasks to make the implementation of that approach more effective in the class or out of the class. besides, the teacher also should consider time management as effectively as possible and ensure that students have enough time to do the learning activities. references aprianoto, maurisa, s., & haerazi (2018). developing instructional tasks and materials of interculture-based english speaking skills (ibes) model, journal of arts, science, & commerce, vol. ix (october), 57–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.18843/rwjasc/v9i4/08 astuti, d. 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(2017). implementing scientific approach to teach english at senior high school in indonesia, journal of canadian center of science and eduaction, 13(2), 33–40. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v13n2p33 https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v6i1.2642 https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5058 https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i2.168-191 http://ejournal.unp.ac.id/index.php/jelt https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v13n2p33 register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.19-36 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.19-36 19 veil or evil? spotlighting women portrayal through semiotics analysis ika apriani fata syiah kuala university ika.apriani@unsyiah.ac.id doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.19-36 submission track: received: 03-12-2017 final revision: 23-05-2018 available online: 01-06-2018 corresponding author: ika apriani fata ika.apriani@unsyiah.ac.id abstract the phenomenon of woman and man portrayal has been discussed worldwide. many viewpoints such as media, politics, health, cultural studies, gender concerned on this topic. however, only a few of them was trying to seek out the language features attributed for women representation. accordingly, to fill in this gap, this research aims at describing semiotic sign analysis of woman portrayal in media. a number of four data of serambi indonesia column were analyzed based on two signification semiotics interpretations of barthes (1967). the result eventually revealed that the language features attributed for women in the newspaper are woman as animal, as properties, as trigger of sins, as peaceful guard, those are considered as terms of denotative signification meaning. meanwhile, the connotative meaning divided into two understandings; veil and evil, introducing positive and negative representation towards women. finally, it is expected that for further studies involve systemic functional linguistics or corpus linguistics towards other discourses as media to further develop the conclusions drawn from ika apriani fata 20 this present study. keywords: woman, aceh, semiotics, portrayal, signification. introduction there are several studies discussing on woman, mass media and portrayal. some studies were consistent in their claim that women tend to be seen in less powerful object (french, 2012; lerman & callow, 2004; das,2000; ford et al.1998; eldridge et al. 1997; phillips& imhoff, 1997 and sullivan et al. 1988). in contrary, there are number of studies stating the balanced gender role for women (fata et al., 2016; steinke, 2005; bell,2009; shachar, 2000; white & kinnick, 2000). finally, there were limited study discusssing on signification meaning towards women portrayal in media. this study intended to explore in depth the issues addressed in qualitative way. in this study, researcher described the expression of women. then the researchers analyzed the expression to figure out denotation and connotation meaning. considering that the way people define women is a challenging and interesting discussion, this research intends to capture what people in aceh utter about woman after tsunami attacked based on linguistics study and to grab a precise utterances and written thoughts about woman. thus, the researcher formulated research questions as what the women portrayal of denotative and connotative meaning in serambi indonesiaare. barthes (1994) one of semiotician has been talking that signification is one of semiotics issue. barthes said that there are three levels of understanding meaning; denotation, connotation and ideology. denotation (which is what saussure calls signification), at the first level, consists of signifier (markers) and the signified (elaboration). signifier is for example a word of a sentence ―she dreamt that her son will be as john f. kennedy‖. a register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.19-36 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.19-36 21 word of signifier is her son, a marker to identify who will be john f kennedy. meanwhile the signified in that sentence is a word of john. f. kennedy, an elaboration of the question: what is her son to be in the future? another example is women in aceh who did not wear veil ‗hijab‘ are alike cattle in the market. the denotation meaning is woman as ―cattle‖. the word of women was the signified. the word cattle, then, represented the signifier. it takes a further analysis to understand connotation and ideology meaning. connotation and ideology meaning do not take part as the way it is written. thus, understanding the meaning representation becomes a challenging action. in this discussion, barthes (1994) revisits the relationship between signifier, signified and sign. however, the relation is approached in a new way, in the relation between expression (e) and content (c), expressed as erc. the focus here is on staggered systems of signification, or those systems in which one or more of the components in the relation (erc) is expressed by a relation all its own. the first system lies in the level of denotation, and the second (collective), in the level of connotation; it is wider and encompasses all the elements. denotation stands for the collectively agreed upon meaning of an image or text--comparable to the signifier and connotation represents the accompanying ideas and concepts--much like the signified and the ensuing process of the signification. denotation according to hoed (2008),the denotative meaning is what the dictionary attempts to provide. denotation is a first level of meaning, language at the level of the first or initial meaning. denotation is a primary signifier and signified system; denotations are the first system consisting of signifier and signified. an example of signifier and signified of the first level of meaning is in the sentence of ―women are bought and sold ika apriani fata 22 like cattle‖. the first marker means ―women‖, while the second marker is ―bought and sold like cattle‖. as a first level of meaning, meaning as in the first stage, or in other words in the sentence, denotation is the sameness between women and cattle. the similarities between women and cattle are they are sold able and tradeable. the denotation meaning of woman and cattle are in the dictionary. for example theword woman means person who has a vagina, can have menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth, and breastfeeding; ladies (keraf, 1997). meanwhile the word cattle refer to ruminant animals, horned, hoofed even, four-legged, bodied large, raised for the beef and dairy; ox (kridalaksana, 2008). the meaning of women and cattle are discussed based on the similarity of woman and cattle‘s definition found in this dictionary. it becomes a challenging discussion. because sometimes, to capture what people think about woman seem alike cattle would not stop at the denotation meaning. then, the understanding of meaning continues to the second phase or connotation meaning. in this study, the dictionary meaning is called denotation meaning. kridalaksana (2008) also reinforced about denotation meaning. he said that denotation is the meaning of a word or group of words which is based on a straightforward designation on something outside the language or that are based on certain conventions; objective nature. the convention refers to a language understood by the public or language society. in addition, nöth (1990) said that denotation means having something in common, the actual world and the networks that define it constantly refresh our manner of being together. hence, denotation is word or phrase has a convention by community. looking back to the meaning of denotation, barthes (1967) explains that the denotation of a primary system of meaning is a sign which register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.19-36 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.19-36 23 gives a precise clarification and it is understood clearly. the researcher concluded that denotation is the initial/primary meaning. to figure out meaning, people find it out through discourse. the term discourse is applicable in a number of ways within the extensive view of discourse analysis. eco (1986) mentioned that there are two relevance meanings of discourse. first, discourse in an abstract sense is an assembly, which employs the broadly semiotic elements as opposed to and in relation to other, non-semiotic, elements of social life such as language, visual semiotics, and body language. in addition, porcar (2011) have a preference to use the term semiosys to circumvent the common confusion of the sense of discourse with the second meaning. in this sense, discourse is a count noun, as a category for employing precise ways of representing particular aspects of social life. for instance, it is common to distinguish different political discourses, which represent for example problems of inequality, disadvantage, poverty, social exclusion, in different ways. the category of discourse in this second sense is defined through its relation to and difference from two other categories, genre and style. with regard to connotation, barthes (1967) begins with the concept of the sign, a signifying relationship, which is essentially the union of the components signifier (a term) and the signified (its concept or relation.). ideas of content and expression are inextricable from this process. at the same time, readers are reminded that the sign is more complex than this basic formula. it is, indeed, more than the mere correlation of a signifier and a signified, but perhaps more essentially an act of simultaneously cutting out two amorphous masses. in addition, barker (2003) states that every element in the semiological relationship has more than one meaning. like a sheaf of paper, each ika apriani fata 24 possesses a reverse image. signs, particularly those with utilitarian, functional origins, are known as sign-functions. the idea it is drawn from this is that reality and meaning are based on use and function; there is no reality except when it is intelligible. barthes (1967) imposes the signified in the relationship as the mental representation of a thing; a concept. it incorporates such elements as practices, techniques, and ideologies. it is this component of the triadic relationship, which triggers barthes‘ discussion of metalanguages (languages about languages—that is, a discourse employed to make sense of another discourse.) according to eco (1986), connotation is a second level of meaning. in other words, the connotation is the meaning of the second level. connotation is an extended meaning of signification. moreover, the expansion of the connotation has meaning. the expansion of the meaning is derived from the meaning of denotation. barthes‘ connotation can be explained in the following illustration. figure 1. connotative concept adopted from barthes (1967) sr. (signifier) = rhetoric sd. (signified) = ideology sr.(signifier) sd(signified) connotative sr. (signifier) sd. (signified) denotative connotations are at the second level. the first level is called the primary system or denotation. at the first level (denotation) consists of signifier (markers) and the signified (the signified). signifier and signified the first stage becomes the signifier in the second stage (secondary system). barthes called the second stage register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.19-36 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.19-36 25 connotations. researcher previously mentioned the denotation meaning of the sentence of ―women are bought and sold like cattle”. the meaning of women here addressed to women who follow the beauty contest. women who participate in the contest and show off the beauty are similar to cattle. cattles and women who join beauty contest, they are both sold, taken for the advantages and victimized. the opinions of another linguist also reinforced the meaning of connotation. according to kridalaksana (2008), connotation is one of the aspects of meaning of a word or a group based on feelings, thoughts arising or incurred in speaker and the listener. connotation acknowledged as an early sign of the development of meaning. researcher concluded that the connotation is the signifier and signified at the second level and experience of the first expansion phase. the next concept related to this research is corpus. nöth (1990) stated that corpus is a finite collection of materials, which is determined in advance by the analyst. the corpus is a collection of a particular material or in other words a set of data. the corpus has a time-period. barthes (1967) says if one study the phenomenon of the press, for instance a sample of newspaper roommates appeared at the same time will be preferable to the run of a single paper over several years. if one examines the media such as newspapers, it is recommended to choose one article in the newspaper with a specific timeperiod. in a corpus study of semiotics, it should meet three requirements: (1) corpus must be wide enough to give reasonable hope that its elements will saturate a complete system of resemblances and differences, (2) the corpus must be homogenous as possible; homogenous in substance, and (3) homogeneous in time(barthes,1994). ika apriani fata 26 one of social discourses is newspaper. among several newspapers in aceh, serambi indonesia is a reliable and the oldest one. the newspaper of serambi indonesia has some columns. one of the columns is opinion. opinion column provides the authors‘ ideas towards social life. authors‘ idea embraces about women, politics, governance, economics, religion, education and local or national issue and others. hoed (2008) mentioned thattalking about women becomes one of challenging and interesting part in discourse analysis. gender talk would be many interpretations about woman in cultural studies, particularly, language studies. on one hand, muis (2000) said that the authors‘ idea in newspapers about women has three insights. first, writers represent women based on their role. second, writers define women based on their physical appearances. third, writers describe women based on their behavior. for example in aceh, after tsunami in 2004, women have more roles than before. sometimes, women worked to earn for living, took care for children, etc. in additions, aceh declared the law of sharia (islamic laws). based on the law, the women must wear veil ‗hijab‘ and cover their bodies. many people discussed this issue. people discussed about women in aceh based on their own perspective and argument. the people commonly offers review and gave some comments related women in shariaview. research methods this research is a qualitative research. creswell (2000) described qualitative research as a process to understand the social problems by creating a complete holistic picture formed with words; reported a clear view of the informant and arranged in a scientific background. to avoid misconception, there are several terms to explain, such as author (refers to people who write in opinion column of newspaper of serambi indonesia) and register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.19-36 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.19-36 27 researcher or writer (refer to person who conduct this study). the researcher described the data by using semiotic analysis. every newspaper has a section/column (zoest: 1992). newspaper provides a story on the phenomenon of the community. in conjunction with the newspaper, a corpus is likely to be part of showing the meaning and sign. considering there are many sections in serambi indonesia, such as "economy / business", "donya", "archipelago", "panteu", "droe keu droe", "islamic consultation ", and "opinion". the researcher decided to take one of the sections to be analyzed further. the section named ―opinion‖. in this case, the researcher decided to choose the corpus of "opinion" because of some reasons. firstly, "opinion" is a medium of serambi indonesia to accommodate public opinion about social facts.. opinion is a genre of narrative and argumentative text. sinclair et.al (2006) stated that narrative is a kind of writing to narrate an incident event in chronological order. besides the argumentative text is the kind of writing that emphasizes evidence based on logical reasons and critical thoughts. the type of narrative and argumentative text are one of the good mediums to look upon the people thoughts about woman. in this case, the researcher convinced that in ―opinion‖ there were a sufficient corpus to be discussed for woman meanings. secondly, the content of "opinion" is a dependent opinion of the people of aceh. dependent opinion of the people of aceh means people who argued in forms of agreement or disagreement about the social phenomenon that occurred in aceh. thirdly, the people who write in ―opinion‖ should attach the copy of identification card of aceh. otherwise, the newspaper will not publish the writing. as the development of technology, readers may read and access serambi indonesia at the official website of www.serambinews.com without ika apriani fata 28 any differences between printed version and online version. researcher performed the following steps to collect the corpus. the researcher visited to the official website of serambi indonesia, then selected the "opinion", afterwards type in search tab opinion for some keywords, e.g. women, woman, mother, wife, inong (woman), poerumoh (wife), and the girl. then the last step was saving the corpus. after having obtained the corpus, the researcher calculated it so the total of corpus was ten. the researcher started to collect the corpus from june 2006-januari 2011. in this study, there are four opinion topics as data. results & discussion this section is intended to display the findngs of this research. the findings divided into denotative and connotative meaning accordingly. there are four corpus taken into account as data of women portrayal in serambi indonesia. women as animal. in this corpus, the author gave his opinion toward beauty contest around the world. he thought that beauty contest should have no minimum standard requirements for women. if the contest concerns on the elected most beautiful woman by requiring size, height, and breast size, so the contest is similar to medium to choose a cattle. the cattle are seen as the medium to deliver birth. the connotation of women in contest to a choosing cattle is interesting part. the author argued that there were similarities of women and cattle in beauty contest. the following excerpt indicates the connotation. c1 (corpus 1): … ―maka kontes lomba cantik tadi sama saja denga mencari induk sapi yang paling mampu menghasilkan anak. kecerdasan dan kepribadian yang konon turut dinilai itu sekedar tambahan. karena kalau dua hal ini yang menjadi faktor utama, maka seharusnya tak usah ada prasyarat tinggi badan sertaukuran vital.itu artinya, ada hampir 1200 perempuan yang rela dijejerkan di panggung register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.19-36 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.19-36 29 dan diperbandingkan satu sama lain, persis seperti memilih sapi‖ (amiruddin, 2011). c1 translation….therefore; the beauty contest is similar like choosing cattle. the intelligence and personality of women in beauty contest are additional matters. if intelligence and personality are being concerned on this contest, there will be no height and vital size as the minimum size requirements. it means there were more than 1200 women, who were voluntarily competedon stage; it is like choosing cattle. in c1, the sentence of women on stage to be judged and assessed in beauty sides are alike choosing cattle, addressed by the author to comment the similarity between women and a cattle. if we looked up in the dictionary (keraf, 1997) the meaning of cattle or cow is an adult female grazing quadruped. it means that cattle are kept for milk, meat and breeding. cattle which were kept for milk, meat and breeding, are taken for its advantages. the advantages are also refers to women who had ability to breastfeeding, delivering birth, etc. the existence of woman is adhered to for her not only physical or biological capacity but also intelligence, beauty, affection and wonderful behavior. if one of acehnese people thinks one part of something and then he takes it into a big general drawn, it might drive into a mistaken concept. furthermore, the author of the text correlated his opinion to one verse of al qur‘an (al-baqarah). he took the translation meaning of the verse literally. he considered that if woman in beautiful contest judged by the physical performance, it means that women seemed to be likely cattle. based on barthes (1994) theory, the signifier mentioned in that article is the women who participate in beauty contest and the signified seems as cattle. in short, the woman is like cattle if she participated in beauty contest. this finding is in line with ford et al.(1998) and sinclair et.al (2006), they find out that women role portrayal in advertising as an object. to bear in ika apriani fata 30 mind, the object of advertisement tends to sell women body to the public while they earned some funds. women as shelf. the signified is woman for peace; meanwhile the signifier isas shelf. the denotation meaning of shelf is a board for laying things on (poerwadarminta,2003). the function of shelf is to display or laying things on. regarding of display, shelf does not have things to do, by means shelf is an object to display things by someone. c2…sampai hari ini lembaga-lembaga pbb masih membahas tentang indicator partisipasi inong dalam perdamaian dan keamanan. sayangnya hari ini, satu dekade setelah keputusan telah dibuat, situasi yang sebenarnya tidak banyak berubah. proses perdamaian masih menjadi dunia laki-laki. dan kalau pun perempuan disertakan hanya sebagai etalase. akan tetapi seiring berjalan waktu, peran perempuan dalam resolusi konflik semakin dominan dan signifikan(pamulutan, 2009). c2 translation... at present, united nation (un) discussed the indicators of the women‘s participation in peace and safety. unfortunately, a decade after un made the decisions; the real fact has not changed a lot. the peaceful program is still on men hands.although the women participated in peace program, they are considered as shelf. however, recently women have played significant and important roles in conflict resolution. this finding supports steinke (2005) and shachar‘s (2000) idea that powerful woman might take role in public area. for instance, in technology, women take place as computer scientist, chief editors, senior manager, and so forth. the skill in computer and engineering tend not to differentiate between women and men. as in this data, women play an important role in conflict resolution. the function of shelf is to display or laying things on. with regard to the function, shelf does not have things to do; it is only a space displaying objects placed by someone. this meaning leads us to connotative meaning; women in shelf are women who passively take into account of peaceful program. muis (2000) stated that woman interpretation may also inform how register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.19-36 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.19-36 31 a woman is an object, entity, item, who passively involve in the program. the first level of denotation meaning; signified and signifier, women as shelf has three connotative meanings. (1) women are assumed yet able to act and undertake the job in peaceful program. (2) women are presumed having incapability to take actions. third, women are presupposed to refurbish and furnish programs of peaceful job. therefore, the connotative meaning here, yet give women the negative perspective. woman as a trigger of sins. in this corpus, the author talked about women, who do not wear their veils, may become the trigger of sins for male. this corpus was published by thedate ofthe adoption of islamic sharia declared by aceh government. based on memorandum of understanding (mou) of helsinki, aceh has a privilege to apply islamic sharia or islamic laws. the author states: c3: …perempuan muslimah tidak mengumbar tubuhnya. apabila ia mengumbar tubuhnya merupakan pemicu bagi lawan jenis melakukan kesalahan sehingga banyak terjadinya dosa. pemerkosaan, perzinahan merupakan dampak karena perempuan tidak menutup auratnya.sehingga peraturan harus lebih keras menghukum perempuan tersebut (nurchaili, 2010). c3 translation …muslim women should not expose their body. when she exposed her body, she becomes a trigger of sins for male. and adultery are the effects of women who do not cover their body. the laws should punish these women. discussing this corpus, the author assumed that women, who does not wear veil and cover their body as the trigger of sins. the signified of this corpus is women, who do not wear veil; meanwhile the signifier is as a trigger of sins. these signified and signifiers are the denotative meaning. furthermore, to understand connotative meaning; researcher elaborated them into two things (1).wearing veil is an obligation for women, based on islamic laws, to cover their physical performance and (2) women should wear veil to avoid the adultery. it seems that the author elaborated that the trigger of sins ika apriani fata 32 causes by women who donot wear hijab/veil. the women tend to address as an ―evil‖, while it is still a challenging discussion. to bear in mind, in islam by a close reading of the qur‘an and sunnah and as winter (1994) notes, islam has a ―sex positive attitude,‖ exemplified by imam nawawi‘s statement: ―all appetites harden the heart, with the exception of sexual desire, which softens it‖. there is nothing in the qur‘an about women as dangerous sexual beings. rather, there is the notion that men and women are fundamentally alike, being created of a single soul, and being both recipients of the divinebreath.thus there is nothing evil or undesirable about the body and its desires. woman, although partaking in the fall, is not held responsible for the expulsion from paradise (adam is). there is no original sin (god forgave them straightaway), and no impurity attached to her because of this act, as in other religious traditions (bullock,2010). hijab-wearing women often characterize the practice as empowering, contrasting the pressure on (western) women to reveal their bodies with their own choice to cover; the first reflects patriarchal oppression while the second reflects conscious resistance to oppression. studies conducted in canada (ruby 2006), france (afshar 2008; wing, smith, and nigh 2005–2006) and the usa (droogsma 2007) reveal very similar and equally diverse motivations, ranging from religious observance and modesty, to avoiding the male gaze, resisting sexual objectification and taking control of their own bodies, to asserting a muslim identity and resisting assimilation. far from seeing head covering as oppressive however, there may, of course, be instances where head covering are imposed on women. register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.19-36 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.19-36 33 women are as properties. the signified is women who do not wear veil and the signifier is women as properties. c4 budak perempuan sebagaimana kita baca dalam sejarah juga sering dianggap sebagai barang yang diperjualbelikan. ketika dia masih dapat digunakan termasuk untuk pemuas nafsu dia akan dibeli. tetapi ketika dia tidak berguna mereka tidak ada yang beli. mungkin sebab-sebab itulah kemudian allah mewajibkan kaum perempuan agar menutup auratnya termasuk memakai jilbab agar kaum perempuan ini tidak dianggap sebagai barang (husita,2011). c4 translationwoman slave as we may read in historical context, it is frequently considered as properties. if she (woman) is still eligible for object of sexual,she will be purchased. it seems as possible reasons why then allah requires woman to cover her body so that the woman will not be considered as properties". according to poerwadarminta (2003), slave is a person held in servitude as the chattel. sharia law has stated clearly the requirement to wear veil for muslim women. it is not a negotiable position for them. the benefit drawn from this requirement, one of it, they are not considered as slave to satisfy the owner sexually. muslim women have dignity, prestige, and pride by wearing veil and covering their body. with regard to the history of women in aceh, hadi (2010) told that aceh and its history have attributed women for their elegance, strength and powerful in life. several heroes have taken contribution to bring aceh as it is today. conclusion finally, this research is intended to seek out language features which is used to portray women in serambi indonesia (aceh mass media). this should matter since there are few studies focus on linguistics features on women description accordingly. at the end, this study finds out four distinctive denotation of women portrayal, there are woman as animal, as properties, as trigger of sins, and as shelf. meanwhile, in term of connotative ika apriani fata 34 the data analysis revealed that veil and evil become the authentic contextual signification attributed for women. it is recommended for future researchers, to discuss women portrayal in depth through systemic functional linguistics. references amiruddin, m. h. (2011, january 2). jika perempuan tidak mau dianggap barang. serambi indonesia. p.6 afshar, h. (2008). ―can i see your hair? choice, agency and attitudes: the dilemma of faith and feminism for muslim women who cover.‖ ethnic and racial studies. 31 (2): 411–427. doi:10.1080/01419870701710930 barker, c. (2003). cultural studies theory and practice. 2nd edition. great britain london: sage publications. barthes, r. (1967). elements of semiology. (terj. annete lavers dan colin smith). new york: jonathan cape ltd. barthes, r. (1994). the semiotics challenge. california: california university press. bell, s. (2009). women in science in australia: maximising productivity, diversity and innovation. retrieved from http://www.fasts.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1. bullock,k. (2010). rethinkingmuslim women and the veil.richmond: iiit london office creswell, j. w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. london: sage publications ltd. das, m. (2000). men and women in indian magazine advertisements: a preliminary report. sex roles,43(9), 699717. droogsma, r. a. (2007). redefining hijab: american muslim women‘s standpoint on veiling.journal of applied communication research 35 (3): 294–319. doi:10.1080/00909880701434299 eco, u. (1986). semiotics and the philosophy of language 1 st edition. new york: indiana university press eldridge, j., kitzinger, j. & williams, k. (1997). the mass media and power in modern britain. oxford: oxford university press. fata,i.a., daud,b. & maulya, n.(2016). how can she barn so firmly, so diligently?a sociolinguistics analysis of women language used on the main character of jane eyre. proceeding of national conference on language and culture. university of sumatera utara. pp 64-69. french, l. (2012). 'women in film: treading water but fit for the marathon' in theresa carilli, jane campbell (ed.) challenging images of women in the media: reinventing women's lives, lexington books, maryland, united states, pp. 35-46. register journal vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp.19-36 issn (print): 1979-8903; issn (online): 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/index doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v11i1.19-36 35 ford, j.b., voli, p.k., honeycutt, e. d., jr., & casey, s.l. (1998). gender role portrayals in japanese advertising: a magazine content analysis. journal of advertising, 27 (1) 113-124. hadi,a. (2010). sejarah aceh. banda aceh:geuci. hoed, b. h. (2008). semiotik dan dinamika sosial budaya. edisi ke-1. jakarta: komunitas bambu. husita, d. (2011, january 4). susah jadi perempuan. serambi indonesia. p.6. keraf, g. (1997). komposisi: sebuah pengantar kemahiran bahasa. endeflores: penerbit nusa indah. kridalaksana, h. 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(2006).―listening to the voices of hijab.‖women’s studies international forum 29 (1): 54–66. doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2005.10.006. shachar, o. (2000). spotlighting women scientists in the press: tokenism in science journalism. public understanding of science.8 (4), 347-358. sinclair, a, pollard e, & rolfe, h. (2006).scoping study into the lack of women screenwriters in the uk. london: uk film council & institute for employment studies (ies). steinke, j. (2005). cultural representations of gender and science: portrayals of female scientists and engineers in popular films. science communication. 27(1), 27-63. sullivan, l. gary., & connor, o. j. p. (1988). women‘s role portrayals in magazine advertising: 19581983. sex roles, 16(3), 181-188. ika apriani fata 36 white, c. & kinnick, k. n. (2000). one click forward and two clicks back:portrayal of women using computers in television commercials. women’s studies in communication.20 (1), 392-413. wing, a. k, monica s, and monica n. (2005–2006). ―critical race feminism lifts the veil: muslim women, france, and the headscarf ban.‖ u.c. davis law review 39: 743–785. winter, t.j. (1994). desire and decency in the islamic tradition. islamica. 1( 4), 11–12. zoest, a v. (1992). serba-serbi semiotika. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. 253 enhancing students’ speaking skill through gallery walk technique farrah zakiyah anwar sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga zakiyahfarrah@yahoo.com abstract the aims of this research are (1) to describe the procedure of enhancing students’ speaking skill by “gallery walk” technique at the first grade students of sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga in academic year 2014/2015. (2) to find out whether the “gallery walk” technique can enhance students’ speaking skill or not and (3) to find out the extent of the use of “gallery walk” technique enhancing students’ speaking skill. the research method that is used in this research is classroom action reserach. the subjects of the research were 34 students in grade x at sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga. the researcher uses two cycles; each cycle consists of planning, action, observation and reflection. the result of this research shows that there is an enhancement of the students’ speaking skill using “gallery walk” technique. it can be seen from t-test calculating in cycle i is 5.09 and cycle ii 6.70; t-table with n = 34 is 2.035. and also the increasing students’ mean score in percentage from cycle i to cycle ii with the standardized score (the minimum of passing criteria) is 75, at the cycle i is 55.88% students and 82.35% in the cycle ii. the increasing of score in percentage from cycle i to cycle ii is 26.47 %. this indicates that by applying “gallery walk” technique, the students’ speaking skill can be enhanced. keywords: enhance, speaking skill, gallery walk technique. enhancing students’ speaking skill through gallery walk technique 254 abstrak tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah (1) untuk menguraikan bagaimana cara meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara siswa dengan tehnik gallery walk di kelas satu sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga tahun ajaran 2014/2015. (2) untuk mengetahui apakah tehnik gallery walk mampu atau tidak meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara siswa, dan (3) untuk mengetahui peningkatan dari penggunaan tehnik gallery walk dalam meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara siswa. metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah penelitian tindakan kelas. subjek dari penelitian ini adalah 34 siswa di kelas x sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga. peneliti menggunakan dua siklus; setiap siklus terdiri dari perencanaan, tindakan, observasi dan refleksi. hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan adanya peningkatan pada kemampuan berbicara siswa menggunakan tehnik gallery walk. dapat dilihat dari perhitungan t-test di siklus pertama adalah 5.09 dan siklus kedua 6.70; t-table dengan n= 34 adalah 2.035. serta peningkatan pada nilai rata-rata siswa dalam persentase dari siklus pertama dan kedua dengan nilai ketuntasan standar minimal adalah 75, pada siklus pertama terdapat 55.88% siswa dan 82.35% pada siklus kedua. peningkatan nilai dalam persentase dari siklus pertama sampai kedua adalah 26.47%. hal ini menyatakan bahwa dengan menerapkan tehnik gallery walk, kemampuan berbicara pada siswa berhasil ditingkatkan. kata kunci: meningkatkan, kemampuan berbicara, tehnik gallery walk. introduction in english language teaching, there are four skills included in: speaking, listening, reading and writing. many people feel that speaking in a new language is harder than reading, writing or listening for two reasons. first, unlike reading or writing, speaking happens in real time. usually the person, who we are talking to, is waiting for us to speak right then. second, when we speak, we cannot edit and revise what we want to say, as we can do in writing. speaking in a foreign language involves a variety of processes, and learning to perform all of them quickly requires an extensive practice. farrah zakiyah anwar 255 however, speaking skill was observed as a difficult skill to be maintained. it was reflected from students’ ability to communicate in english. the students tended to be silent in the classroom because they lack of selfconfidence. students also need more practice since through practice students could learn to express their feeling, emotion, thought, and their intention. besides, the teacher was not able to realize the students’ problem in speaking and could not create a good situation in teaching learning process in the classroom. based on the observation when the writer taught in the classroom, there were many reasons that the students less in speaking. it may be caused by the students’ shy or lack of selfconfidence to speak in english. in previews, their study about english have not been maximally. they did not use english in daily life although in giving gratitude and meeting. sometimes the students were less concentration when they have learning in the classroom. they were sleepy, not too understand about the material but shy to ask to the teacher, and unfamiliar with using dictionary. they considered that study english is difficult and not their daily language, so their study about english being not interested. from the reason, the writer wants to enhance students’ speaking skill by gallery walk technique. gallery walk is one of the most versatile learner centered activities. the gallery walk connects learners to each other and learners to the training topic in a number of interesting, interactive ways (in bowman, 2005: 1). by the use of gallery walk technique, the writerhopes the students are able to involve the emotional power to find a new knowledge and motivate them to be active to improve their selfconfidence on english language especially in speaking skill. enhancing students’ speaking skill through gallery walk technique 256 gallery walk in gallery walk is a presentation method in which individual learners or groups display their work products (often on posters) and then walk around the room viewing each other’s work. they may be asked to provide feedback to the group of individual who created the work (silberman, 1996: 24). from silberman’s statement means gallery walk allows students to be actively engaged as they walk throughout the classroom. they work together in small groups to share ideas and respond to meaningful questions, images, and problem-solving situations or texts. in the other hand, francek (2006: 27) describes that gallery walk is a discussion technique that gets students out of their chairs and into active engagement. the advantage of the method is its flexibility. a gallery walk holds a variety of benefits for students and teachers alike. the gallery walk is a powerful opening, closing, or review activity. in this activity, participants write on various pieces of chart paper that they have taped to the training room walls. through a gallery walk, the students are able to learn from one another and from their own previous knowledge. the technique serves many different types of students’ intelligences and many different ways in which students learn. it serves the kinesthetic learner, because it involves walking around and other movement, it serves the interpersonal learner, because it includes small group interaction, and it serves the verbal/linguistic learner, because it includes discussion and written answers. speaking is a skill which is often used for interaction with other. majority of the people assess english through a speaking ability. however people fell worried to practice speaking ability because internal farrah zakiyah anwar 257 factors like motivation, lack of confidence and a low ability. as state by chaney (1998: 13) which is quoted by kayi (2006) “speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts". in addition, speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information. besides that, speaking is one of the important skills that have to be mastered by students in learning english. it is an essential tool for communicating. talking about speaking is talking about communicating, express the ideas, feeling, opinions and others, that will be change for one person to another. research method the type of this research is classroom action research (car). classroom action research is research which is done by the teacher in teaching learning process to understand the situation and to improve the skill of the students in learning process. the classroom action research conducted in sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga which aims to enhance students’ speaking skill through gallery walk technique. the research was carried out in sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga. this school is located at jl. kh. ahmad dahlan no. 1 soka, salatiga. the place selection was based on the researcher have been teaching in a practical field experience program or ppl (praktek pengalaman lapangan) and the institution has never conducted research about enhancing students’ confidence in speaking skill through gallery walk technique. the research was done at the second semester in the academic enhancing students’ speaking skill through gallery walk technique 258 year of 2014/2015 and was conducted on may 2015. the subject of the research is the first grade students of sma muhammadiyah plus salatiga. the firts grade students consist of three classes, but the researcher took x ipa class. this class consists of 34 students, 10 male and 24 female. they come from high and middle economy families and most of them have high motivation to study. discussion in the implementation of research, the researcher has arranged two cycles. the steps are: planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. cycle i planning the teacher was preparing the materials, making lesson-plan, and designing the steps in doing the action; preparing list of students’ name and scoring; determining teaching aids ( e.g. picture, board marker, carton, marker with a different colors, glue, digital camera, laptop; preparing sheet of classroom observation; and determining test (pre-test and post-test). action this research has been done on may 2015 in sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga on wednesday, 06th may 2015. the research would be started on saturday, 09th may 2015. at that time, the researcher and observer sri rejeki entered the class with the class condition was not too crowded. it seemed that they were ready to get the next lesson, so it do not need a long time to begin the class because the students have been already know about the researcher. farrah zakiyah anwar 259 observation in the first cycle, the researcher observed the learning process by asking the observer to help her in monitoring the students’ activity and attention during the action in the classroom. this observation was purposed to know how far the early condition of students’ skill in speaking, the situation of teaching learning process, also to collect the data. before the researcher implemented the action, the students seemed nervous, had less confident and difficult to express their ideas. largely they tended to be silent and answered the teacher’s questions with bahasa. actually the students had high motivation to learn english and understood to what the teachers said. table 1 the students’ score of pre test and post test in cycle 1 no. name of students pre-test i (x) post test i (y) post-pr e (d) d 2 1 abdul rhohim 60 60 0 0 2 abdul rohman 56 60 4 16 3 adinda hakqi pinandita 64 76 12 144 4 aditya suwarsa 76 80 4 16 5 agus hariyono 60 64 4 16 6 angga setiawan 64 76 12 144 7 anggi agustina 68 76 8 64 8 anita sari 64 68 4 16 9 annisa murti solikhah 68 76 8 64 10 eka puji kusumaningrum 60 68 8 64 11 hafiz hajar nisyapuri 56 60 4 16 12 iin zuliana 56 60 4 16 13 kodri 80 80 0 0 enhancing students’ speaking skill through gallery walk technique 260 14 kusumastuti 60 64 4 16 15 laelatul barokah 76 76 0 0 16 manis sugiyanti 72 76 4 16 17 muhammad rofiq 72 68 -4 16 18 novita sari puji astuti 68 64 -4 16 19 nur rohman 60 64 4 16 20 nuril um mayasari 60 60 0 0 21 nurma yuliani 80 84 4 16 22 prihatiningsih 76 76 0 0 23 qonita firdaus jasareviq 84 88 4 16 24 ragil monitasari 68 64 -4 16 25 rizky putri nurjanah 72 76 4 16 26 sinta cahyaningrum 76 84 8 64 27 sinta larasati 68 72 4 16 28 slamet lestari 76 80 4 16 29 sri wahyu sholekah 76 76 0 0 30 sutrisni 68 76 8 64 31 tiara mafa salsabila 72 76 4 16 32 yanuar rista putra 64 64 0 0 33 yesinta kusuma dewi nasution 80 80 0 0 34 zaidatus sa’diyah 76 80 4 16 total 2336 2452 116 912 reflection after analyzing the result of the first meeting, there were 55.88% students who passed the kkm (the minimum of passing criteria). the researcher and observer concluded that in the first cycle the mean of post test was higher than pre test. in this meeting, most of students felt bored with a method that usually used by the english teacher in the classroom. the result of post test showed that the students’ speaking skill were good enough. the result of pre test was 68.70, meanwhile in posttest farrah zakiyah anwar 261 was72.11. it was very important for the reseacher to continue the next cycle, to enhance the students’ speaking skill with the same technique namely “gallery walk”. in the second meeting, a researcher hoped the students were more active to share their ideas to the class and speak confidently with friends. cycle ii planning the teacher was preparing the materials, making lesson-plan, and designing the steps in doing the action; preparing list of students’ name and scoring; determining teaching aids ( e.g. picture, board marker, carton, marker with a different colors, glue, digital camera, laptop; preparing sheet of classroom observation; and determining test (pre-test and post-test). action on monday, may 11st 2015 the researcher and observer sri rejeki entered the class by greeting and asking students’ condition. she continued the lesson with the same material but different theme. in the second meeting, the researcher explained about gallery walk technique more detail in order to make sure that students have a fully understanding about it. observation in cycle ii, most of the students were more active in the learning process because they had already understood how to apply allery walk technique.they practiced the dialog with confidence and they did not enhancing students’ speaking skill through gallery walk technique 262 afraid to make mistakes because the researcher said to the students that mistakes were a process of learning. the students became enjoy with lesson without shy to ask something if they found difficulties. it was meant that the technique given by the researcher was successfully enhanced students’ selfconfidence in speaking skill. table 2 the students’ score of pre test and post test in cycle ii no. name of students pre-test ii (x) post test ii (y) post-pre (d) d 2 1 abdul rhohim 64 76 12 144 2 abdul rohman 60 76 16 256 3 adinda hakqi pinandita 72 76 4 16 4 aditya suwarsa 76 80 4 16 5 agus hariyono 60 68 8 64 6 angga setiawan 68 76 8 64 7 anggi agustina 76 80 4 16 8 anita sari 76 76 0 0 9 annisa murti solikhah 76 76 0 0 10 eka puji kusumaningrum 64 76 12 144 11 hafiz hajar nisyapuri 60 72 12 144 12 iin zuliana 60 68 8 64 13 kodri 72 80 8 64 farrah zakiyah anwar 263 14 kusumastuti 60 76 16 256 15 laelatul barokah 72 80 8 64 16 manis sugiyanti 76 76 0 0 17 muhammad rofiq 76 76 0 0 18 novita sari puji astuti 64 68 4 16 19 nur rohman 60 68 8 64 20 nuril um mayasari 64 68 4 16 21 nurma yuliani 76 84 8 64 22 prihatiningsih 72 76 4 16 23 qonita firdaus jasareviq 80 92 12 144 24 ragil monitasari 72 76 4 16 25 rizky putri nurjanah 76 80 4 16 26 sinta cahyaningrum 76 80 4 16 27 sinta larasati 76 76 0 0 28 slamet lestari 76 80 4 16 29 sri wahyu sholekah 76 76 0 0 30 sutrisni 76 76 0 0 31 tiara mafa salsabila 76 76 0 0 32 yanuar rista putra 60 76 16 256 33 yesinta kusuma dewi nasution 76 80 4 16 34 zaidatus sa’diyah 76 76 0 0 total 2400 2596 196 1968 enhancing students’ speaking skill through gallery walk technique 264 reflection the researcher concluded that there was an enhancement of students’ speaking skill through gallery walk technique. it was proved by the result of score in cycle ii. from the result of cycle i and ii, the implementation of gallery walk technique enhances the students’ speaking skill. therefore, the more students’ feel interest, the more students gain ability to speak in english. table 3 the students’ mean score in percentage category cycle 1 cycle 2 <75 4412% 17.65% >75 55.88% 82.35% table 4 the mean of students’ scores no analyze cycle i cycle ii  mean  pretest  posttest 68.70 72.11 70.59 76.35  t-table n= 34 2.035 2.035  ttest calculation 5.09 6.70 farrah zakiyah anwar 265 conclusion the title of this research is “enhancing students’ speaking skill through gallery walk technique (a classroom action research at the first grade students of sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga in the academic year 2014/2015). the finding of the research in sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga shows: the procedures of implementation of gallery walk technique in enhancing students’ speaking of the first grade students of sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga are as follows: the teacher provides some materials needed such as: several sheets or carton, glue, different colored pens and discussion questions. the teacher divides the class into group with four or five students and gives each group a different colored pen. the students make their gallery in group and discuss what they have in the gallery. the teacher instructs each group to walk around to the next gallery. every group has to review the task, discussion questions and any answer recorded by the previous groups. then members of the group must add an informations or comments with a colored pen that represents their own group. after an appropriate amount of time (about 3 minutes), the students move to other gallery until all the groups have visited each gallery. the students return to their own gallery to prepare the comments and brief oral report to present in the larger class. this oral report as an opportunity for all the students to check their own understanding of the lesson. the teacher gives comments and summarizes the discussion questions in the end of learning. the students’ speaking skill can be enhanced by “gallery walk” enhancing students’ speaking skill through gallery walk technique 266 technique in teaching learning process. it can be proved by the score of pre-test and post-test. the score of post-test are greater than pre-test. the cycle i shows that the score of pre-test is 68.70and the score of post-test is 72.11. meanwhile, the cycle ii shows that the score of pre-test is 70.59and the score of post-test is 76.35. it means that there is significant difference mean between pre-test and post-test. this indicates that “gallery walk” technique can enhance the students’ speaking skill of the first grade students of sma muhammadiyah (plus) salatiga in the academic year 2014/2015. the extent of using “gallery walk” technique can be proved by t-test calculation. t-test is formula to know the significant differences between pretest and posttest. the t-test from this research is from 5.09 in the first cycle become 6.70 in the second cycle. from the ttest, it can be seen that there is enhancement from the first cycle to the second cycle. and also the increasing students’ mean score in percentage from cycle i to cycle ii with the standardized score (the minimum of passing criteria) is 75, at the cycle i is 55.88% students and 82.35 % in the cycle ii. the increasing of score in percentage from cycle i to cycle ii is 26.47 %.furthermore, the gallery walk technique make the studentsmore enjoy because the atmosphere of the learning process not too formal. the students can express what they want to say and it can increase their skill in speaking to share their idea to the other friends in front of the class. farrah zakiyah anwar 267 references bowman, sharon l. 2005. the ten minutes trainer 150 ways to teach it quick and make it stick.san fransisco: pfeiffer. bowman, sharon l. 2005. the gallery walk: an opening, closing, and review activity. [online] available: http://www.boperson.com/bowperson/gallerywalk.pdf. retrieved 18 november 2014. brown, h. douglas. 2001. teaching by principle, an interactive approach to language pedagogy. second edition. new york: longman. brown, h. douglas. 2004. language assessment. new york: longman. brown, h. douglas. 2007. “principles of language learning and teaching fifth edition”.unite state of america: longman. burns, anne. 2009. doing action reserach in english language teaching. new york: routledge. creswell, john w. 2012. educational research. university of nebraska: pearson. francek, mark. 2006. promoting discussion in the science classroom using gallery walks. journal of college science teaching, september. page 27-31 [online] available: http://blog.stetson.edu/jrseminars/wp-content/uploads/gallery-wal k.pdf retrieved 18 november 2014. harmer, jeremy. 2001. “how to teach english”.england : longman. kayi, hayrine. 2006 teaching speaking: activities to promote speaking in a second language. usa: tesl journal. [online] available: http://unr.edu/homepage/hayriyek retrieved 16 january 2015. shojaee. 1996. “journal of as effective speaking activity.” enhancing students’ speaking skill through gallery walk technique 268 silberman, mel. 1996. active learning: 101 strategies to teach any subject. u.k. a: pearson education company. songsiri, montha. 2007. an action research study of promoting students’ confidence in speaking skill. victoria university. taylor, p. 2001. gallery walk, http://www.cct.umb.edu/gallerywalk.html. retrieved 18 november 2014. a study on the english attitude of students from esl and efl country in efl university register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 151 the influence of teaching vocabulary by using picture hanik nuzulimah mts walen simo boyolali haniknuzulimah@gmail.com abstract this paper attempts to explore whether there is significant difference of achievement in vocabulary between students taught by using pictures and those are not. the subject of this study is the first year students of sltp muhammadiyah simo susukan, semarang where the sample contains 50 students that is divided into experimental group (with treatment) and control group (without treatment). the data is gathered from participants’ score obtained from pre test and post test. using t test as technique of data analysis, result shows that students taught by using pictures perform better than those are not. it means that there is significant difference between the two groups. keywords: vocabulary teaching, picture abstrak tulisan ini mencoba untuk meneliti apakah ada perbedaan yang signifikan pada prestasi dalam penguasaan kosakata bahasa inggris antara siswa yang diajarkan dengan menggunakan gambar dan mereka yang tidak. subjek penelitian ini adalah siswa tahun pertama sltp muhammadiyah simosusukan, semarang di mana sampel terdapat 50 siswa yang dibagi menjadi kelompok eksperimen (dengan treatment/tindakan) dan kelompok kontrol (tanpa treatment). data tersebut dikumpulkan dari skor peserta yang diperoleh dari pre test dan post test. menggunakan t test sebagai teknik analisis data. hasil menunjukkan bahwa siswa yang diajarkan dengan menggunakan gambar, lebih baik daripada mereka yang tidak. ini berarti bahwa ada perbedaan yang signifikan antara kedua kelompok. keywords: pengajaran kosakata, gambar register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 152 introduction vocabulary, in english, is taught at school to provide language skill for the students, i.e. listening, speaking, reading, and writing. number of vocabularies mastered can influence the learner to perform his language ability. robert lado (1961: 117) states that 2000 words is an adequate minimum number for the speaker in basic communication. however, it will need more in the production level. to fulfill the purpose of english learning, students are encouraged to study such an element since elementary level to create good quality of language ability. regarding this, a range of effective technique should be applied. in this research, the writer uses picture as vocabulary teaching technique to probe since it has not been employed intensively to increase students’ vocabulary mastery in secondary level, especially in sltp muhammadiyah ii simo boyolali. in addition, there is no exact measurement about students’ ability in vocabulary generally as well as after a specific technique used. therefore, as the guidance of the research, the writer formulates the problem statements as follows. 1. how is the vocabulary mastery achieved by students of sltp muhammadiyah ii simo boyolali in the pre-test? 2. how is the vocabulary mastery achieved by students of sltp muhammadiyah ii simo boyolali in the post-test? 3. is there any significant difference between students taught vocabularies by picture and those are not? the definition of vocabulary vocabulary mastery is considered as the prominent way to succeed in language learning. according to hornby (1987: 419), it is defined as total number of words in a language that is used by a person. furthermore, register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 153 vocabularies that are employed in a language are divided into two kinds, i.e. active vocabulary and passive vocabulary. the first one means the words that are used for productive purposes (speaking and writing). meanwhile, the last is words that are applied in receptive aims (listening and reading). picture as vocabulary teaching aid as stated by mackey (1965), there are four classifications of words i.e.: 1. concrete words, such as pencil, book, and clothes. 2. abstract words, like jump, run and study. 3. quality words, such as tall, short, and sour. 4. structure words, for instance in, on, at, and under. to teach foreign language learners about those vocabularies and help them store what they have got, teacher should apply certain technique. using picture during teaching is one way to do such a thing. there are many paths to employ picture as teaching means. moreover, teachers seem to be familiar with its use in their surroundings such as: 1. picture in the text 2. picture in the class, that used to be in the form of flash card or wall picture. 3. film-strips or slide film, which provides more control of the teacher regarding the arrangement of object and situation. 4. television considering a number of the utilization of picture in teaching activity, the writer, in current research, focuses on the usage of picture in the text and flash card to solve the problem statements. research methodology subject of the research is the first year students of sltp muhammadiyah simo, boyolali in the academic year 2003. using experimental design, the register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 154 writer took 80 students from two classes randomly as the samples and divided them into two groups; 40 students in the control group (without treatment) and the rest in the experiment group (with treatment). data were obtained from pre test and post test shared to the participants. afterward, collected data were analyzed using t test to compare the result between groups and probe the significant difference emerged. discussion in this stage, the writer provides the data into tables to show the result between groups in the pre and post test that are described as follows. table 1. the result of pre test experiment group control group no score (f) (x) f(x) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 90-94 95-99 1 2 3 8 8 11 4 2 1 0 52 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 97 52 114 186 536 576 847 328 174 92 0 n:40 745 2905 75.70 40 2830   n fx mean no score (f) (x) f(x) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 90-94 95-99 2 4 5 6 10 7 2 2 1 1 52 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 97 104 228 310 402 720 539 164 174 92 97 n:40 745 2830 625.72 40 2905   n fx mean register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 155 table 2. the result of post test experiment group control group no score (f) (x) f(x) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 90-94 95-99 1 2 3 8 8 11 4 2 1 0 52 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 97 52 114 186 536 576 847 328 174 92 0 n:40 745 2905 table 3 the result of pre test and post test of control group no name pre-test post-test y y 2 (y1) (y2) (y2-y1) (y2-y1) 2 1 arifin 6.5 7 0.5 0.25 2 anwar rosyid 5.5 7 1.5 2.25 3 arina maghfiroh 6.5 7 0.5 0.25 4 abdul basir 6 6.5 0.5 0.25 5 budi asih 6 7.5 1.5 2.25 6 eva ratnawati 7.5 8 0.5 0.25 7 rajar budiyanto 8 8.5 0.5 0.25 8 irhamna 7.5 8.5 1.0 1 9 irham fauzi 8 9 1.0 1 10 listiani 5.5 6 0.5 0.25 11 muawanah 5.4 7.5 2.1 4.41 12 misbah 6 7.4 1.4 1.96 13 mahmudi 6.8 7.3 0.5 0.25 14 muthoharoh 6.8 8.8 2.0 4 no score (f) (x) f(x) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 90-94 95-99 1 3 4 5 6 12 6 3 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 97 62 201 288 385 492 1044 552 291 n:40 636 3315 875.82 40 3315   n fx mean 76 40 3040   n fx mean register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 156 15 nariyah 7 8.0 1.0 1 16 nur hikmah 6.6 7.6 1.0 1 17 priyanto 7.5 8.0 0.5 0.25 18 sunariyah 8 8.5 0.5 0.25 19 suroto 8.5 8.5 0.0 0 20 siti barokah 9 9.2 0.2 0.04 21 umi rofiqoh 8.6 8.8 0.2 0.04 22 umi mukaromah 7.8 8.1 0.3 0.09 23 utami santoso 6.5 7.5 1.0 1 24 wahyono 6.4 7.4 1.0 1 25 winarno 6 6.2 0.2 0.04 26 zulaikhah 7.2 7.4 0.2 0.04 27 zulaikhah 7.4 7.8 0.4 0.16 28 zainuri 7.3 7.9 0.6 0.36 29 zakiyah isnaningsih 7.8 8.2 0.4 0.16 30 zakiyah magufur 7.9 8.3 0.4 0.16 31 rianingsih 7.5 7.9 0.4 0.16 32 yuliasih 7.5 7.5 0.0 0 33 mulayani 7.7 7.9 0.2 0.04 34 marya ulfa 8 8.4 0.4 0.16 35 muhsin 8.2 8.6 0.4 0.16 36 endarwati 6.5 6.5 0.0 0 37 bambang eko m. 6.7 7.3 0.6 0.36 38 dedi purnomo 7.6 7.6 0.0 0 39 devi wulandari 7.8 8.3 0.5 0.25 40 endang sulasmi 8.6 8.8 0.2 0.04 287.6 312.2 24.6 25.3 table 4 the result of pre test and post test of control group no name pre test post test x x 2 (x1) (x2) (x2-x1) (x2-x1) 2 1 hari prasetyo 6.2 6.7 0.5 0.25 2 azhari yumar 6 7 1 1 3 murni 6.8 7.2 0.4 0.16 4 sunarsih 5.5 6.5 1 1 register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 157 5 safudin 7 7.3 0.3 0.09 6 iwan suryanto 5.9 6.5 0.6 0.36 7 rika adriani 6.9 7.3 0.4 0.16 8 catur setia b 7.8 8 0.2 0.04 9 sumadiyo 6.7 8.5 1.8 3.24 10 lia nurlita 7.5 8.5 1 1 11 sanyoto 7.5 8.2 0.7 0.49 12 rachim 6 8.4 2.4 5.76 13 feri irmawanto 7 8.5 1.5 2.25 14 luthfiana tri s 7.2 8.6 1.4 1.96 15 winarsih 7.5 7.5 0 0 16 angjib 7.6 8.2 0.6 0.36 17 syamsul m 7.6 9.6 2 4 18 trima budiana 5.4 6 0.6 0.36 19 sudi amanto 7.4 8.4 1 1 20 supriyanto 6.8 8.7 1.9 3.61 21 joko susilo 7.3 7.8 0.5 0.25 22 kurniawati 5 7.5 2.5 6.25 23 zaenal arifin 7.8 8.8 1 1 24 slamet purnomo 7.8 8.8 1 1 25 setiani 7.4 8.4 1 1 26 mughnoho 6.5 9.5 3 9 27 prihaniti 9.8 9.8 0 0 28 siti suprihati 7.4 8.4 1 1 29 m. salimun 6.5 7.8 1.3 1.69 30 agus riyanto 8.5 8.6 0.1 0.01 31 m. agus salim 6.3 8.7 2.4 5.76 32 triguna 8.7 9 0.3 0.09 33 rifa setiawan 7.4 9.2 1.8 3.24 34 ana muzayanah 6.3 7.8 1.5 2.25 35 siti badiah 7.2 9.4 2.2 4.84 36 nur hasanah 8 8.6 0.6 0.36 37 budi santoso 8.3 8.9 0.6 0.36 38 imam ghozari 9.4 9.8 0.4 0.16 39 agus pamuji 5.8 8.8 3 9 40 yudi cahyono 7.3 8.8 1.5 2.25 283 323.3 47 80.6 the result, furthermore, is formulated to find value of t. it is elaborated as follows. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 158 175.1 40 47    n x mx 375.25 2.556.80 40 )47( 6.80 )( 2 2 22      n x xx 615.0 40 6.24    n y my 171.10 129.153.25 40 )6.24( 3.25 )( 2 2 22      n y yy 151.0 02279.0 40 2 . 78 546.35 40 1 40 1 . 24040 171.10372.25 11 . 2 22                                                  xsd xsd xsd xsd nynxnynx yx xsd 708.3 151.0 615.0175.1      xsd mymx t earlier, the writer hypothesizes that students taught by using pictures perform better than those taught without it. based the analysis, the result of t register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 159 observed is 3.708 while the degree of freedom of 78 is 1.668 at the level of significance 0.05. it means that t observed is more than the critical value. therefore, the h0 is rejected as described as follows. 1.668 < 3.708 (0.05) t based on the fact that ho is rejected, it shows that there is significant difference of achievement on vocabulary between students taught using picture and those are not. achievement of the control group from the analysis conducted, students in the experiment group perform better than students in the control group. it is seen from the improved score made by experiment group in the post test. in turn, it means that teaching vocabulary using pictures is one of the best ways to improve vocabulary mastery. the finding of the research is in line with kreidler who states that there is amount of advantages using picture as teaching media described as follows. 1. reminding a real life 2. representing situations which would be impossible to create in any other way. 3. helping students to associate what they hear with his real life experience. 4. time efficacy 5. interest stimulation register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 160 conclusion overall, students of experiment and control group have the almost adequate scores in the pre test (70.75 and 72.625 respectively). however, in the post test, students of experiments group are scored much better than the other group (82.875 and 76 chronologically). furthermore, based on statistical computation, there is significant difference between students taught by picture and those are not. in other word, picture is one of the best ways to teach vocabulary effectively, especially for the junior high school students. references mackey, w.f. 1965. language teaching analysis. london: london laval university press. kriedler, carol j. visual aids for teaching english to speaker of other languages. washington dc: united state information agency. hornby, a.s. 1987. oxford advanced learners dictionary of current english. london: london oxford university press. lado, robert. 1961. language teaching. new york: mc. graw hill inc. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 1 componential analysis of meaning of the word “melihat” in javanese and english language mamik nugraheni sma tunas patria ungaran mamiknugraheni@gmail.com abstract it is a qualitative descriptive study that attempts to depict the componential meaning of the word ‘melihat’ or „to see‟ in javanese and english and the element of context that may influence the word choice in both languages. by using documentation as method of data collection, it is found that there are many different words having the same meaning to say ‘melihat’ in both languages while those words means that anyone doing activities of ‘melihat’. in addition, the aspects of intensity, target, distance, and connotative features influence the word choice in either javanese or english. keywords: componential meaning, melihat, javanese, english abstrak ini adalah penelitian deskriptif kualitatif yang berusaha untuk menggambarkan makna komponen pada kata „melihat‟ dalam bahasa jawa dan bahasa inggris serta meneliti elemen konteks yang mempengaruhi diksi pada kedua bahasa tersebut. dengan menggunakan dokumentasi sebagai metode pengumpulan data, penelitian membuktikan bahwa ada banyak kata yang berbeda yang memiliki kesamaan makna untuk mengungkapkan kata „melihat‟ pada kedua bahasa. sedangkan, kata-kata tersebut memiliki arti bahwa pelaku melakukan aktifitas „melihat‟. di samping itu, aspek intensitas, target, jarak, dan ciri-ciri konotatif mempengaruhi diksi pada bahasa jawa maupun bahasa inggris. kata kunci: makna komponental, melihat, bahasa jawa, bahasa inggris register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 2 introduction every language has different system that characterizes its use, likewise javanese and english. to say „melihat’, for instance, there are many words can be chosen to express speaker‟s idea. javanese, as a tool of communication for javanese generally, have many ways to say that words, such as: 1. udin lagi ndelok tv. 2. nek mlaku ndelengi dalan! 3. rina ngamati gaweane koncone sing lagi digarap. those three words have different forms but similar meaning; expressing „melihat’. in english, the same thing can be found, for example: 1. my brother is watching tv. 2. look at the street! 3. the teacher observes the student assignments. from the above examples, different words which have the same meaning in the sentences called synonymy. the words „begin‟, „start‟, „sofa‟, „settee‟, „adore‟, and „worship‟ are just a few of hundreds words that seem to be frequently interchangeable without loss of meaning. however, they are truly synonymous that they always mean the same and can be substituted one another (carthy, 1990: 16). therefore, we need to know the meaning of the word deeply before using it. sometimes we are confused to understand words we do not know the meanings exactly. not only in english, in javanese have we also found the synonymy that shows the richness of word meaning. derived from that phenomenon, the writer is interested in conducting the analysis of componential meaning of the word between two languages by addressing following research questions. 1. what are the components of meaning that differentiate between one word to another in javanese synonym of the word ‘ndeleng’? register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 3 2. what are the components of meaning that differentiate between one word to another in english synonym of the word ‘to see? 3. what element of context that may influence the word choice in javanese and in english? semantics semantics is the technical term used to refer to the study of meaning. it is a part of linguistics that not only includes meaning but also development and changing (palmer, 1981: 1). according to fromkin (1985: 201), it is a study of linguistic meaning of words, phrase, and sentences. lexical relation in the discussion of meaning, there are many parts to be elaborated; one of them is lexical relation. according to saeed (1997: 36), there are eight lexical fields in the lexical relation. 1. synonyms, which are different phonological words which have the same or very similar meaning. 2. antonym (opposition), words which are opposite in meaning. 3. homonymy, unrelated senses of the same phonological words. 4. polysemy 5. hyponym 6. meronymy 7. member collection 8. portion-mas componential analysis when people contemplate communication in foreign language, they often reach for dictionary since it provides meanings for words of given language register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 4 and labels for concepts that speakers wish to discuss. then, how does the meaning of words in a sentence contribute to the meaning of sentence? componential analysis of this kind can reveal a relation among words from the same semantic domain, such as kinship terms. it attempts to describe the systematic ways in which words are alike or unlike ( carthy, 1990: 92). he (1990: 92) states that it is also the way of looking at the meaning of words, describing words in terms of shared and non-shared semantic features, these features themselves being only expressible as words. semantic componential analysis is based on the similarities among set of words. the goal of semantic feature (componential) analysis is to discover a set of features that make up the meanings of words. in this analysis, the lexical relation of synonym is important because words related to the ways of sharing features. the purpose of semantic field analysis is to arrive at meaning shared by a group of words in a domain. that, all the words within the field related to each other, yet differs in details, which are captured in the analysis. the componential analysis can be applied satisfactorily only in certain well-defined semantic domains. in many cases, it is difficult to define the elementary “features” which distinguish the meaning of a word from that of similar ones. for instance, the word „chair‟ has some similar meaning with bench, davenport, and sofa. but, it is not exactly the same; there are some features differentiate them. it is described as follows. wood substance foot expensive hand bench chair davenport + + + + + register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 5 sofa ± + + + from the table, the distinctive features of those words are the substance, shape, and the price of the chairs. research methodology it is a descriptive qualitative research that is used to depict the phenomenon of the using of the word ‘melihat’, as object of the study, in javanese and english. since it is a literary study, the writer uses documentation as data collection method that is taken from primary and secondary books i.e.: 1. introduction to theoretical linguistics (1997) 2. introducing english semantics (1978) 3. semantics (1981) 4. kamus bahasa jawa (2002) 5. bausastra jawa-indonesia (1957) 6. the new grolier webster international dictionary of the english language (1974) 7. an introduction to psycholinguistics (1992) 8. semantik leksikal (2001) discussion in this research, the writer tries to use the most appropriate word to the context; but still, it seems there is no one-to-one relationship between javanese and english words. in order to make the research more practical and understandable, the whole data are presented in the table 1.1. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 6 those data, then, are analyzed descriptively using the semantic field of the word ‘melihat’ or ‘to see’. they are: 1. intensity it shows duration of seeing. 2. target it means any object used for the purpose of seeing. 3. crossbeam crossbeam refers to something that delays activity of seeing. 4. distance distance shows an interval or space between two objects. it means the distance between the doer and the target of seeing. 5. connotative it means implication of a word or phrase in addition to its literal meaning. to clear the discussion, the data are scrutinized in the table 1.2. and 1.3. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 7 table 1.1. data presentation no. javanese english meaning sentence javanese english 1 mandeng, kamitenggengen behold to look at with attention, to see kowe kok mandeng aku wae, ngopo? why do you behold of me in that way? 2 mentheleng, mendelik, stare, look at to look with eyes fixed wide open bocah kuwi nangis amarga dipenthelengi bapake. that child is crying because his father stares at him mlolo, mlorok, mlelek 3 mlilik, nglirik look at to employ one's vision, to direct the eyes toward an object. bocah kuwi miliki dolanan sing dipajang ono toko. the child descrys the toys in the store. descry to espy, to see or behold from a distance 4 ndeleng contemplate to look at or view with continued attention. ibu-ibu podo ndeleng carane nggawe kue. the women contemplate how to make a cake. 5 ndelok see to perceive by the eye, to look at or behold ayo podho ndelok wayang ana alun-alun. let's see the javanese-puppet show in the town. 6 namati, nyawang regard to look up on or think of in a particular way wong lanang kuwi namati peta pirang-pirang jam. that man regarded the map for hours. 7 nonton watch to be or continue without sleeping udin lagi nonton tv. udin is watching television. 8 weruh glance to look quickly or briefly ibuku weruh gaweane masku. my mother glimpse at my brother's work. glimpse a quick, passing view or look, a brief appearance 9 ngulatke gaze at to look steadily, intently, to look with eagerness or curiosity. wong kuwi ngulatke sapa wae sing teka. that guy gazes at the guest. 10 nginjen peep to look through a small aperture of rom a hidden place ojo seneng ngjinjen, ora apik! don't peep, it is not good! peek to look quickly or furtively peer to look narrowly, as in the effort to discern clearly register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 8 table 1.2. componential analysis of meaning of javanese words no activities intensity target crossbeam the distance connotative of seeing features a b c d e 1 mandeng + near + + 2 mentheleng near + 3 mlelek near + +/ 4 mlilik + near + +/ 5 nglirik +/near 6 mendelik near + 7 kamitenggengen + near/far +/+ 8 ndeleng + near + + 9 ndelok + near/far +/+ 10 namati + near + + 11 nyawang + near/far +/+ 12 mlolo +/near + 13 mlorok near + 14 nonton + near/far +/+ 15 weruh near/far +/+ 16 ngulatke + near + + 17 nginjen +/near + + table 1.3. componential analysis of meaning of english words no activities intensity target crossbeam the distance connotative of seeing features a b c d e 1 behold + near + 2 contemplate near + 3 descry + far + + 4 glance + near/far + 5 gaze + near + 6 glimpse + near + 7 look at + near + 8 look out + near + register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 9 9 peek near/far + + +/ 10 peep near + + 11 peer near + + 12 regard + near + 13 see + near + 14 stare near + 15 watch + near/far + ambivalence in the table, it is seen that there are words have two signs i.e. (+) and (-) called ambivalence. it means that there are two meanings or purposes from the words depending on the context. furthermore, such words are elaborated below, based on the componential analysis of meaning. 1. intensity in javanese, ‘nglirik’ and ‘nginjen’ have two signs of positive and negative. ‘nglirik’ can be high if the doer wants to make long seeing activities. however, it is also can be low if the doer makes it short or just a moment. ‘nginjen’ also has the same thing; the doer can make it either long or short. all of activities depend on the doer. in english, ther is no ambivalence of the intensity. 2. target in javanese, ‘kamitenggengen’, ‘ndelok’, ‘ nyawang’, and ‘weruh’ have near and far object of seeing. in english, ‘glance’, ‘peek’, and ‘watch’ have near and far object. it means that the object can be shown as far as the eyes see. 3. distance register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 10 the word ‘ndelok’, ‘nyawang’, ‘nonton’, ‘weruh’, and ‘kamitenggengen’ in javanese are used in far or near distance. it means that the doer can be seen at near or far objects. 4. connotative features the word „mlilik‟ is the one which has both signs. it shows that ‘mlilik’ has two connotative features of meaning. in english, we can see that „peek’ also has both signs of connotative features. actually, there are still many activities of seeing that can interpret the meaning. like ‘ngeker’, it is inlcude of the activities of seeing. but it is not discussed in this research because it needs a tool when such an activity done. what discussed here are the activities of ‘seeing’ with bare activities without any tools. here, the writer used a free translation in each word from the obtained data by trying to use the most appropriate word to the context. conclusion from the study conducted by the writer, there are many different words having the same meaning to say ‘melihat’ in both languages. meanwhile, those words mean that anyone does activities of ‘melihat’. in addition, the aspects of intensity, target, distance, and connotative features influence the word choice in either javanese or english. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 11 references carthy, michael. 1990. vocabulary. oxford new york: oxford university press. palmer, f.r. 1981. semantics. sydney. cambridge university press. saeed, john i. 1997. semantics. blackwell. fromkin, victoria. 1985. an introduction to linguistics. sydney: halt rinehart and winston. zainal arifin register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 19 teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy zainal arifin iain surakarta arizain@gmail.com abstract theory on teaching english is currently moving on a paradigm shift. this paradigm occurred because of a review on the basics of linguistic, pedagogic and the review on the impact of sociolinguistics in a globalized setting. this paper aims to show the results of comparative study which is textual on the teaching and learning english paradigm and the policy has been implemented by both universities. the objective of the study is to describe the comparison of the paradigm between english language education and academic policy in both universities. descriptive qualitative in the form of textual analysis is used in this study. data were taken from the analysis of documents and interviews with academicians in both universities then analyzed using the theory of a paradigm shift in learning english (kostoulas, 2010) and academic policy (center for quality assurance, ugm, 2012) using an interactive model of miles and huberman. the validity of the data used triangulation methods and data sources. the results show that the content of english language education taught at the division of english language education (ele) hku and at the english language education department (pbi) iain surakarta have the same characteristics but the ways in providing educational materials are relatively different. the paradigm and academic policiy in ele hku applied the learning paradigm while at pbi iain surakarta is still applying on teaching paradigm. when the study was conducted by researcher, the ele department iain surakarta has been moving towards a paradigm shift in some academic elements as the use of the methods by mailto:arizain@gmail.com teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy 20 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 lecturers called learning paradigm, although the method is not covered by the policy. the difference between paradigm and policy in both universities is influenced by the context of the political situation, especially the rules of ministry of higher education, cultural context and the orientation on each university. keywords: paradigm shift, academic policy, english language education, intertextual analysis abstrak teori pengajaran bahasa inggris saat ini sedang mengalami pergeseran paradigma. pergeseran paradigma ini terjadi karena peninjauan kembali dasar-dasar linguistik dan pedagogis serta penilaian ulang dampak sosiolinguistik bahasa inggris dalam setting yang semakin mengglobal. artikel ini bertujuan untuk melaporkan hasil penelitian perbandingan tekstual tentang paradigma pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa inggris dan kebijakan yang dimiliki dua jurusan pendidikan bahasa inggris di dua perguruan tinngi yaitu di hong kong university (hku) dan di iain surakarta. tujuan penelitian tersebut adalah mendeskripsikan perbandingan paradigma pendidikan bahasa inggris dan kebijakan akademik di kedua perguruan tinggi tersebut. desain penelitian ini adalah deskriptif kualitatif dalam bentuk analisis intertekstual. data diambil melalui analisis dokumen dan wawancara dengan sivitas akademika kedua perguruan tinggi dan dianalisis dengan teori pergeseran paradigma pembelajaran bahasa inggris (kostoulas, 2010) dan kebijakan akademik (kantor jaminan mutu ugm, 2012) menggunakan interaktif modelnya miles and huberman. keabsahan data menggunakan trianggulasi metode dan sumber data. hasil penelitian menunjukkan konten pendidikan bahasa inggris yang diajarkan di division of english language education (ele) hku dan di jurusan pendidikan bahasa inggris (pbi) iain surakarta relatif sama namun cara dan alasan memberikan materi pendidikan bahasa inggris relatif berbeda. paradigma dan kebijakan akademik di ele hku sudah menganut lerning paradigm sedangkan pbi iain surakarta masih menganut teaching paradigm walaupun saat penelitian ini dilakukan gejala untuk menuju pergeseran paradigma sudah mulai terjadi di beberapa unsur akademik misalnya dalam penggunaan metode bersifat learning paradigm oleh dosen walaupun belum dipayungi oleh kebijakan yang sesuai. perbedaan paradigma dan kebijakan kedua perguruan tinggi ini dipengaruhi oleh konteks situasi terutama politik pendidikan pemerintah zainal arifin register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 21 yang berkuasa, konteks budaya dan oientasi masing masing perguruan tinngi. kata kunci: pergeseran paradigma, kebijakan akademik, pendidikan bahasa inggris, analisis intertekstual introduction at present, elt theory appears to be undergoing a paradigm shift which is sustained by a rethinking of its linguistic and pedagogical underpinnings, as well as by a re-appraisal of the sociolinguistic impact of the english language in an increasingly globalized setting (kostoulas, 2010). this paradigm shift is also the impact of educational paradigm shift in general that has occurred since the 1950s (hill, 1999). a paradigm shift is happening slowly but surely. pergeseran is needed in addition is also desirable (barr and tagg, 1995). this fundamental change would have an impact on academic policy changes related to the implementation of teaching and learning in the english department, especially english as a second or foreign language. according to the standards for foreign language learning: preparing for the 21st century, language and communication are the heart of the human experience. the quote is a philosophical statement in the foreign language learning in the united states. regarding with this philosophical statement, there are five simple words that reflect the philosophy of foreign language education adopted to face the 21st century. those words are communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy 22 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 communities. these five words are mutually integrated in the implementation. nowadays, elt is in a transition between two different informing paradigms (figure 2.1). the dominant paradigm derives its linguistic and pedagogical legitimacy from norms developed in the anglophone west, and is associated with linguistic hegemony. on the other hand, the emerging paradigm espouses linguistic and pedagogical norms which are bounded by local circumstance, and the position itself critically towards the political implications of elt. the interaction between these two paradigms seems to generate tension at the points where they interface, namely the questions of which language variety (what) to teach, through which methods (how) and to what end (why) (kostoulas, 2010) figure1. emerging vs dominant paradigm paradigm (kostoulas 2010) zainal arifin register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 23 in details the differences both paradigam in learning english as a second language can be seen on the table 1 below; table 1. contrasts between positivism and post-positivism positivism post-positivism emphasis on parts and decontextualization emphasis on whole and contextualization emphasis on separation emphasis on integration emphasis on the general emphasis on the specific consideration only of objective and the quantifiable consideration also of subjective and the non-quantifiable reliance on experts and outsider knowledge--researcher as external consideration also of the "average" participant and insider knowledge-researcher as internal focus on control focus on understanding top-down bottom-up attempt to standardize appreciation of diversity focus on the product focus on the process as well (jacobs dan farrel, 2004) teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy 24 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 in general there are eight major changes in learning second language education associated with this shift. these eight changes are learner autonomy, cooperative learning, curricular integration, focus on meaning, diversity, thinking skills, alternative assessment, teachers as co-learners. figure 1.1 illustrates the interdependence of these eight changes of the paradigm shift in second language education. the circular nature of the figure emphasizes that all the changes are parts of a whole and the successful implementation of one change depends on the others. figure 1.1. eight changes in second language teaching ((jacobs dan farrel, 2004) academic policy is also one of the ways to see the paradigm shift as the implementation of second language education paradigm in an institution. in this regard, the center for quality assurance / kantor jaminan mutu, ugm (2012) states that academic policy is a policy direction and guidance for managing the academic affairs. academic zainal arifin register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 25 policy is released in both university level/ institute and the faculty level. academic policy of ugm include: 1. education services division includes the mission and purpose, program, resources, evaluation of program and institutional affairs. 2. research services division covers mission and objectives, research program, resources, evaluations of program and institutional affairs 3. the community services division includes the mission and objectives, program, resources, evaluation of program and institutional affairs. 4. principles of operation. academic policy is described by standardized academic affair and is implemented based on the academic regulation. academic regulation is a software system for the implementation of the academic education that will be implemented to the whole academic community in which each community has a set of specific study program. specific study program is a brief description of the study program that functions to communicate between the students and the stakeholders. specific study program indicates explicitly the desired results of the learning process. it helps students to understand: teaching and evaluation methods used. it makes a link between a program organized and professional qualifications as the output of graduates as well as its influence on their career level. it helps students in determining the courses will be taken. it is not only as a label of university and as an institution’s responsibility to the public, but also to provide stimulus to the faculties to understand and to implement the educational goals and learning outcomes of the program being organized. based on the theoretical descriptions above, the researcher aims to report the results of research on the analysis of textual paradigm of english teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy 26 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 language education has been conducted in ele hku and pbi iain surakarta. the followings are the results and discussions. research methods descriptive qualitative is used in this study specifically in the form of textual analysis. two universities are the setting of the study. they are the division of english language education (ele) hong kong university and the english language education department iain surakarta. the data collected in this study are in the form of words about paradigms and academic policy in both universities. the researcher collected the data from the documents and informants in both universities. the instruments used to collect the data are document analysis and interviews. data were analyzed using the miles and huberman interactive model. the validity of research was obtained through the triangulation methods and data sources. results and discussion based on the textual analysis reffering to the theory of paradigm shift in second or a foreign language teaching (efl / esl) which includes what, how and why (kostoulas 2010) as well as the description of academic policy based on the center for quality assurance ugm (2012) on data obtained from documents that confirmed to informants from both universities, the result of comparison of paradigms and policy for english in both universities can be seen in table 1, 2, and 3, below. zainal arifin register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 27 table 1 paradigm shift description and the policy in ele hku vision and mission hku vision and mission faculty of education, hku details on ele division hku vision the university of hong kong, as a leading international institution of higher learning in asia, strives to attract and nurture outstanding scholars from around the world through excellence and innovation in teaching and learning, research and knowledge exchange, contributing to the advancement of society and the development of leaders through a global presence, regional significance and engagement with the rest of china. mission the university of hong kong will endeavour:  to advance constantly the bounds of scholarship, building upon its proud traditions and strengths  to provide a comprehensive vision the faculty of education aspires to lead the study and practice of education, to influence public policy and improve community life through education, and to nurture graduates who are passionately committed to their professions. mission in realizing our vision, we will endeavour:  to advance scholarship and engage in research with high impact internationally, nationally and locally;  to break new ground in curriculum and pedagogy, and to be a role model for good educational practice;  to nurture graduates of distinction with a global outlook, who are committed to lifelong learning, ethical programme features  students will develop in-depth knowledge of english language and linguistics, literature, communication and language acquisition and will critically explore issues in language education and develop personal strengths and commitment to education.  the programme offers two degrees in one. it is equivalent to a ba plus a postgraduate diploma in education, a professional teaching qualification recognized in hong kong schools and internationally. teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy 28 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 education, developing fully the intellectual and personal strengths of its students while developing and extending lifelong learning opportunities for the community  to produce graduates of distinction committed to lifelong learning, integrity and professionalism, capable of being responsive leaders and communicators in their fields  to develop a collegial, flexible, pluralistic and supportive intellectual environment that inspires and attracts, retains and nurtures scholars, students and staff of the highest calibre in a culture that fosters creativity, learning and freedom of thought, enquiry and expression practice and professionalism, and capable of becoming leaders in their fields;  to engage in productive partnerships with academic and professional communities in order to generate, integrate, exchange and apply knowledge, build capacity, and enhance educational opportunities for all;  to serve as a focal point of intellectual and academic excellence in our fields of expertise in hong kong, china and asia, and act as a gateway and forum for scholarship with the rest of the world;  to develop and sustain a collegial, inclusive, supportive, flexible and multicultural environment that will attract and nurture students and staff of the ba&bed(langed)eng meets government requirements for english teachers: • first degree majoring in english • teacher training qualification in english language teaching • benchmark english language proficiency  students may take a range of elective courses within the faculty of education or in other faculties, and may combine elective courses to declare a minor subject.  students participate in an immersion programme overseas to increase global awareness, enhance language proficiency and enrich zainal arifin register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 29  to provide a safe, healthy and sustainable workplace to support and advance teaching, learning and research at the university  to engage in innovative, high-impact and leading-edge research within and across disciplines  to be fully accountable for the effective management of public and private resources bestowed upon the institution and act in partnership with the community over the generation, dissemination and application of knowledge to serve as a focal point of intellectual and academic endeavour in hong kong, china and asia and act as a gateway and forum for scholarship with the rest of the world highest calibre in a culture that inspires creativity, learning and freedom of thought, inquiry and expression. commitments as we fulfil our mission, our policies and practices will be characterized by their interconnectedness, and underpinned by the following core commitments:  excellence  sustainability  collegiality  fairness  equity  academic freedom http://web.edu.hku.hk/about /who-we-are/visionmission-and-commitments professional development. courses  english language and linguistics courses  pedagogy,sociology and psychology integrated courses  educational studies  pedagogy (methods of teaching) and pedagogical content knowledge (pck) courses  teaching practice in primary and secondary school  english and chinese language enhancement  common core courses career prospects  teaching english language in mainstream hk schools or eal (english as an additional language) http://web.edu.hku.hk/about/who-we-are/vision-mission-and-commitments http://web.edu.hku.hk/about/who-we-are/vision-mission-and-commitments http://web.edu.hku.hk/about/who-we-are/vision-mission-and-commitments teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy 30 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 http://www.hku.hk/about/vis ion.html in international schools  government quality assurance or curriculum development  civil service and administration  publishing and textbook writing  human resource development and communications  media and journalism, arts and culture, law, management etc (undergraduate prospectus 2014-15 of faculty of education of hku) http://web.edu.hku.hk/f/pa ge/592/programme_broch ure_undergraduate_prosp ectus_2014-15.pdf http://www.hku.hk/about/vision.html http://www.hku.hk/about/vision.html http://web.edu.hku.hk/f/page/592/programme_brochure_undergraduate_prospectus_2014-15.pdf http://web.edu.hku.hk/f/page/592/programme_brochure_undergraduate_prospectus_2014-15.pdf http://web.edu.hku.hk/f/page/592/programme_brochure_undergraduate_prospectus_2014-15.pdf http://web.edu.hku.hk/f/page/592/programme_brochure_undergraduate_prospectus_2014-15.pdf zainal arifin register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 31 table 2 paradigm shift description and the policy in ele, iain surakarta vision and mission iain surakarta vision and mission faculty of education and teachers training, iain surakarta details on ele division iain surakarta vision of iain surakarta is to make the institute as an institution of higher islamic education and independent of education, research and community service, as well as the center of islamic studies and social transformation mission iain surakarta: 1. education, research and community serviceoriented on social transformation as the agent of change . 2. developing campus life in vision being an excellent faculty to shape professional graduates in the field of education and language, have strong akidah, and good character. mission 1. organizing education and teaching by developing students’ character of islam, high quality in education, and technology based to meet the development of vision become an excellent study program to produce the good quality of graduates that having strong akidah and akhlaqul karimah and deeper understanding in both theoretically and practically in teaching english. mission 1. to organize educational services, learning services, and teaching islamic sercvices, character building, high quality education, and technology based to meet the requirement of english language teachers and educators. 2. to conduct research for the development of pedagogical teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy 32 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 islamic atmosphere. preparing the students to have good knowledge (alilmu, akhlaq, and ‘amal shaleh) 3. encouraging students islamic thought. preparing students to have wider knowledge, insightful, competitive, and able to meet people's needs and ready to face the global challenges based on islamic values. the aims are: 1. to prepare students to become members of the community who have the academic ability and professionalism. 2. to develop, to create, and to apply knowledges, science and technology as well as islamic art. education and the need of society. 2. conducting research for the development of educational science and language. 3. giving community services for the development and implementation of educational and linguistic sciences. 4. establishing an islamic environment and culture. the aims: 1. to produce graduates who are professional, competitive, cultured based, and characterized based islam both locally and nationally. 2. to produce the innovative creations in the field of ways, teaching, science and technology in learning english. 3. to give community service activities in business development and application of pedagogical ways in teaching english. 4. to organize and to expand the cooperation with partners concerned with education, learning, and teaching english. 5. to create an islamic atmosphere in academic interaction and set the standardized norm of interaction aims: 1. to produce professional english teachers and educators having the islamic characters both locally and nationally. 2. to produce research and innovative studies in accordance with the development of teaching and learning english 3. to release the findings of concept of knowledgeand paradigm in the field of education, learning, and teaching english. zainal arifin register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 33 3. to disseminate knowledge, science and technology and islamic art. 4. to promote the use of science, science and technology and islamic arts in order to improve the quality of people's lives. (rencana induk pengembangan iain surakarta 2010-2015) education and language. 3. to produce educational and linguistic services to the community in a various forms both in academic and non-academic. 4. to produce innovative graduates in the field of education and language needed by the community. 5. to create an atmosphere of islamic culture that supports the formation of character and competence of graduates. (borang fakultas tarbiyah dan bahasa akreditasi program studi sarjana tahun 2012) 4. to produce english language education services to the community in a variety of forms both in academic and nonacademic in accordance with the development of science and technology. 5. to create professional academic interactions and to support character building and graduates competence. 6. to produce the memorandum of understanding with some universities to develop the institution. 7. to provide good infrastructure in the learning process in islamic ways. the main competence of graduates: • pedagogical competence, • personality competence, • professional competence, • social competence. supporting competence • mastering ict in english • mastering quantitative , qualitative, and action resesrach methodology, teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy 34 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 table 1 paradigm shift comparison between ele hku and ele iain surakarta paradigm aspects esl/efl (kostoulas 2010)) ele hku pbi iain surakarta keteranga n what  english language and linguistics courses  pedagogy,sociology and psychology integrated courses  educational studies  pedagogy (methods of teaching) and pedagogical main competence:  pedagogical competence,  personality competence,  professional competence,  social competence, supporting competence both universiti es offer the similar learning content. • having good ability to translate the text from english-indonesia or vice versa elective course/ competence • guiding • translation entrepreneurship, • hospitality and travel handling. (borang akreditasi prodi pendidikan bahasa inggris 2012) zainal arifin register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 35 content knowledge (pck) courses  teaching practice in primary and secondary school  english and chinese language enhancement  common core courses  mastering ict in english.  mastering research methodology; quantitative, qualitative and action research.  mastering in translation; translating the text from english to bahasa indonesia or vice-versa . elective course/ competence  guiding  translation enterpreneurship,  hotel and travel handling. how integrated course e-learning experiential learning individual subject communicative langguage teaching theoretical lecture practice project based learning each universit y has different way in offering the learning content. why explaining the vision, mission and strategic plan of the university based on the need of both local and explaining the vision and mission of the university based through developing the curriculum that refers to the both universiti es have the reason teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy 36 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 international society that refers to the central goverment’s plan, and supported by the human resources. curriculum from the central goverment, the needs of local societies and swot of department. based on situationa l and discussion based on the intertextual analysis above, it can be said that the paradigm and policy on teaching english in iain surakarta still refer to the dominant paradigm or teaching paradigm and begin to face the paradigm shift and the changes will be based on the situational context and political policy on education which is the government regulations. like the english language education department in indonesia, the paradigm of english education at the department of english language education iain surakarta is implementing the curriculum from the central goverment (the ministry of national education). english language education (ele) paradigm that developed in indonesia is dynamic. its paradigm shift happening today is derrived from the base of curriculum. the base is is currently being shifted from competency-based curriculum (cbc) to outcomes-based curriculum (imroatus sholihah, 2014c). currently the new curriculum in ele department is still on the preparation stage. the main stage is formulating kkni. it has been done by running the workshop on formulating kkni conducted by center for quality assurance (lpm) iain surakarta. the aim of the workshop was directed to run the paradigm shift launched by the government. this paradigm shift is based on the premise that indonesia will be able to survive zainal arifin register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 37 and to keep moving forward in the global economic place. the mutual understanding will be considered to develop national labor qualifications (minister of education, 2010: 4). kkni is a hierarchy of qualifications of the competence that can reconcile, equalize, and integrate between the field of education and vocational training in accordance with the structure of employment in various sectors (perpres no. 8 tahun 2012 pasal 1 ayat (1)). the results of the interview with some of the lecturers in the department of pbi iain surakarta showed the tendency of some lecturers began to use learner centered method. some instructors have already applied project based learning. in fact, there are problems in the implementation of the teaching and learning method they use. the problems are mainly related to the academic policy that has not given yet to support the process of learning by those methods that tend to embrace learning paradigm integratively and cooperatively. another problem is mainly related to inadequate infrastructure facilities and resources, so the learning process can not run succesfully and the learning objectives can not be achieved optimally. this case is very different from the situation existing at ele hong kong university as a new paradigm shift called learning paradigm. this happen because the paradigm and the policy of english language education at ele hong kong university has been adapted to the needs of the global market as stipulated in the vision, mission, strategic plan and it is supported by good quality of human resources to meet standardized graduate set by the government. therefore learning programs, assessment programs and agencies have already referring to international standards. teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy 38 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 the hong kong university, the reformation of educational curriculum on undergraduate level has been started since 2012, which was the "total learning experience". experiential learning as the example is not only the method used by course instructors to teach but it has been a learning system applied throughout the university and protected by policies to maintain and improve the quality of teaching and provided by completed infrastructure and facilities to build a new educational paradigm atmosphere. it can be understood from the following quote: in the past decade, hku witnessed a historic reform in its undergraduate education. the new undergraduate curriculum was successfully implemented in september 2012. hku took full advantage of this opportunity to re-envision our curriculum as a ‘total learning experience’. we have introduced new and innovative forms of learning, upgraded our infrastructure and extended learning into all corners of university life (the university of hong kong) the figure of curriculum at hku can be seen from the following table. chart 3. a transformative undergraduate curriculum in hku zainal arifin register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 39 experiential learning system in teaching and learning is the combination between experential and outdoor activity which is formulated into standardized formal curriculum for the profession program and is still proposing for non-profession program. experiential learning also enacted at the university level in the form of the student exchange program that supports the international reputation on campus and at the same time students who returned after being sent overseas will support their maturity and have a good quality of human resources after obtaining a rich learning experience and the different education environment, social and cultural as stated in the following quote: the incorporation of experiential and ‘out of classroom’ learning into the formal curriculum is standard practice in professional programmes and is increasingly being formalized in nonprofessional programmes at hku. this bottom-up initiative has been made one of the common learning experiences in the 4-year curriculum.other experiential learning is also organised at university level. the hku worldwide student exchange programme administers reciprocal academic student exchanges with over 280 partner institutions in 37 countries. incoming exchange students contribute to internationalising the campus while outgoing undergraduates invariably return as more mature and resourceful individuals after having acquired a rich learning experience in a different educational, social and cultural environment (the university of hong kong) experiential learning system at hku is the combination among outcomebased approach to student learning (obasl), problem-based learning and co-curricular learning. the objective of the obasl at hku is to involve students in-depth understanding as in the following passage: http://tl.hku.hk/common-learning-experiences/ http://www.als.hku.hk/admission/exchange/ http://www.als.hku.hk/admission/exchange/ teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy 40 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 the ultimate goal is to engage students in deep understanding (deep learning) rather than a surface factual recall (surface learning) which teaching and learning research indicates is achieved through clear understanding and appreciation of the learning outcomes (the university of hong kong) while the problem-based learning and student-centered learning at the university are to encourage the students learn actively. as the following statement. the university adopts problem-based and student-centred learning to stimulate active learning among students. authentic problems or situations are used as a way of stimulating students to discover and explore the key concepts and skills of the discipline in class, while teachers act as facilitators and guides in the process. this new learning method helps students to reason their way through problems, to think critically, and to learn to become self-directed lifelong learner (the university of hong kong) co-curicular learning center managed by a specific unit and is integrated into the curriculum at the university level and faculty as the following: the centre of development and resources for students (cedars) and the general education unit (geu) are the main providers of co-curricular non-credit-bearing learning activities at hku. students also engage in community service or advocacy projects which typically entail a process of training, service and reflection. cedars liaises with faculties on how to better integrate service learning with the formal curriculum (the university of hong kong) http://cedars.hku.hk/ http://cedars.hku.hk/ http://147.8.224.145/ zainal arifin register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 41 learning description at hku can be seen as follows: chart 4. common earning expereinces di hku good facilities and the good learning support systems at hku support the learning paradigm. teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy 42 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 the following chart explains the facilities. chart 5 support and resources in hku hypothesis based on the description above, the conclusion is the paradigm and the policy on both the division of english language education of the hong kong university and english language education department of iain surakarta are influenced by situational context , cultural context and the orientation of each college. in the formulation of the vision, mission and strategic plans of the division or department is influenced by the educational policy of the ruling government, market needs, and the resources of the university. conclusion theory on teaching english is currently moving on a paradigm shift. this paradigm occurred because of a review on the basics of linguistic, pedagogic and the review on the impact of sociolinguistics in a zainal arifin register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 43 globalized setting. the results show that the content of english language education taught at the division of english language education (ele) hku and at the english language education department (pbi) iain surakarta have the same characteristics but the ways in providing educational materials are relatively different. the paradigm and academic policiy in ele hku applied the learning paradigm while at pbi iain surakarta is still applying on teaching paradigm. when the study was conducted by researcher, the ele department iain surakarta has been moving towards a paradigm shift in some academic elements as the use of the methods by lecturers called learning paradigm, although the method is not covered by the policy. the difference between paradigm and policy in both universities is influenced by the context of the political situation, especially the rules of ministry of higher education, cultural context and the orientation on each university. references barr, r. b. dan john, t. (1995). from teaching to learning a new learning paradigm for undergraduate education in change. november/december 1995.san marcos california capano, g. (2003). administrative traditions and policy change: when policy paradigms matter. the case of italian administrative reform during the 1990s di public administration vol. 81, issue 4 pages 781-801 decemeber 2003. john wiley & sons, inc. teaching and learning english paradigm and the implementation of the policy 44 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 depdiknas. (2010). buku pedoman kerangka kualifikasi nasional indonesia. jakarta: direktorat jendral pendidikan tinggi. farrell, t.s.c. and george, m. j. (2004) paradigm shift: understanding and implementing change in second language education in tesl-ej.org hill, d. 1999. ''education, education, education', or 'business, business, business'?' paper presented at the european educational research association annual conference, lahti, finland, 22-25 september, 1999, p. 16. kantor jaminan mutu universitas gadjah mada. (2012). sistem penjaminan mutu perguruan tinggi ditjen dikti menuju insan indonesia cerdas dan kompetitif disampaikan dalam pelatihan sistem penjaminan mutu internal perguruan tinggi (spmi-pt) 10 11 april 2012. kostoulas, 2010 between paradigms: a case study of a language school in greece achilleas kostoulas paper presented at the 13th international conference on intercultural education; alexandroupolis, greece. reprinted in georgogiannis & baros (2010). 13th international conference on intercultural education (vol.1, pp. 391-410). patras: university of patras may 2010 milles, m.b. and huberman, m.a. 1984. qualitative data analysis. london: sage publication mailto:tscfarre@nie.edu.sg mailto:gmjacobs@pacific.net.sg http://www.ieps.org.uk.cwc.net/hill1999_1002.pdf http://www.ieps.org.uk.cwc.net/hill1999_1002.pdf a study on the english attitude of students from esl and efl country in efl university register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 161 the use of flashcards in teaching english for the sixth year students of sdn 1 tuntang in the academic year of 2002 2003 insaniyah sd negeri 3 tuntang jl. fatmawati no. 116, kec. tuntang, kab. semarang insan_iyah@yahoo.com abstract this research is to study the use of flashcards to teach english vocabulary. teaching material in above is virtually concerning with visual aids. by using visual aids, expected that the teachers would be able to motivate them to learn and pay deep attention to the presentable materials by the teachers, so the students will not be tedious. this is an experimental research. the subject of the study is limited to the students of the sixth year of sdn 1 tuntang, which has 27 students as the sample. she focuses on teaching method, which gives emphasis on flashcards as media in teaching vocabulary. to prove the success of teaching the writer compares between the result pre-test and posttest. the findings of this study showed that there are 20 students or 60 % are categorized as excellent, 15, 6 % or 3 students are as good students, 12, 5 % or 3 students are as fair, and 3, 1 % students are as poor. it means that teaching english vocabularies by using flashcards are very effective. keywords: teaching english vocabulary, flashcards, visual aids abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mempelajari penggunaan flashcards (kartu pengingat) untuk mengajarkan kosa kata bahasa inggris. bahan mengajarnya dengan alat bantu visual. dengan menggunakan alat bantu visual, diharapkan para guru akan mampu memotivasi mereka untuk belajar dan akan lebih memperhatikan materi yang diberikani oleh guru , sehingga siswa tidak akan mudah bosan. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian eksperimental . subjek penelitian ini, terbatas pada siswa kelas enam sdn 1 tuntang , yang memiliki 27 siswa sebagai sampel . peneliti berfokus pada metode pengajaran , yang memberikan penekanan pada flashcards sebagai media dalam pengajaran kosa kata. untuk membuktikan keberhasilan mengajar, penulis membandingkan antara hasil pre test dan post -test. temuan penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa ada 20 siswa atau 60 % dikategorikan sebagai sangat register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 162 baik , 15,6 % atau 3 siswa dikategorikan sebagai baik, 12,5 % atau 3 siswa sebagai dikategorikan cukup dan 3,1 % siswa dikategorikan sebagai kurang. ini berarti bahwa pengajaran kosakata bahasa inggris dengan menggunakan flashcards sangat efektif. keywords: pengajaran kosakata bahasa inggris, flashcards, visual aids introduction the government has apparently understood the essential of learning english. the establishment of the 1994 curriculum has made a clue that english can be taught in elemantary schools is for only introduce on the vocabulary mastery. vocabulary is an essential mean in learning english. on the other hand, teaching vocabulary for those little kids is not equal with those who are in matured, because they are having great basically divergences of characteristics and motivation. children in general do not have selves motivation and a need to learn english. but adults are aware to the important of learning english, on the contrary, so they have indiferent approaching in selves morivation to learn language. allen (1983:33) says that teaching english to the beginner should need the techniques. the best technique is utilizing an approach, which still has interrelation to their world. the technique here may use visual aids especially in teaching vocabulary. visual aids are available in many forms, for instance picture, card, games and puzzles, etc. thus, teaching english especially in elementary school less or more should use; technique that still has association with playing games, picture, cards, etc. in this study, however, the writer is devoted in observing teaching vocabulary by using flashcards. teaching material in above is virtually concerning with visual aids. by using visual aids, expected that the teachers would be able to motivate them to learn and pay deep attention to the register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 163 presentable materials by the teachers, so the students will not be tedious. the students understand and retail better when they have been shown or taught in some objects associate with visual it (finocchiaro: 1974:63). the use of variety of media will increase the probability that the students will learn more, retail better what they learn, and improve their performance of the skills they are expected to develop (brown: 1973:1). hence, in this study the writer wants to examine further the teaching of vocabulary by utilizing flashcard at sdn i tuntang and sorting out the problems research, namely; (1) what are the procedures of teaching vocabulary by using flashcards?, (2) what is the result of the teaching – learning process by using flashcards? and (3) what are the advantages and disadvantages of teaching vocabluary using flashcards? the definition of flashcards flashcards are part of visual basic. it is defined by webster (1972: 6) that flashcard is any of asset of cards with words, number, etc on them, which are flashed one by one before a class for a quick response in drill. while according to haycraft (1983: 73), “flashcards are the cards on which words and or pictures are painted or drawn”. it could be big enough to be seen clearly by every student in the class. the function of flashcards in teaching vocabulary while in this study, the writer uses flashcards as the media in teaching vocabulary. vocabulary cards seem to be most effective and practical way of memorization to accomplish new vocabulary. by using cards and flashcards are suitable for the beginner in english. according to haycraft (1983) flashcards can be used for consolidating vocabulary, practicing structure and word order or for a variety of games. besides, flashcard can also give a great help to the teacher in the class. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 164 a learner cannot always successfully learn english just by listening the explanation from the teacher or by reading books in english. however they do not mean that by reading books and listening the explanations from the teacher are not necessary. furthermore, this method gives emphasis on pronuciation of the utterance of words and in correct written of words. besides, in vocabulary class, the learners are encouraged to bestow their opinion about the cards, which are presented by the teacher, thus the learners can be more active and not only passive for the teaching and learning process. in a short time, flashcard is also very useful the students to speak and memorize the words automatically. the procedures of using flashcards in teaching vocabluary these followings are the procedures of teaching concrete nouns using flashcards, suggested by allen (1983: 34-35): 1. the teacher prepares some cards that will be taught on that day. she manages the cards upside that the students do not know what are on the cards. 2. as warming up, she asks the students to mention the names of object (the spoken topics) that they know in indonesia. she can also point some students to answer, in order ti make them active or she asks them to discuss the objects with their neighbours. 3. she shows a card to the class by closing the written word with a piece of paper. the students are asked for giving attention to the picture of the card and mention it into indonesian language. 4. having got the right answer, the teacher have said the object in english and she would have asked the students to repeat after several time to make sure that they could say it in a correct pronunciation. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 165 5. she opens the paper, which covers the written word and asks them to say the word once again, afterwards, she asks students to write the words on their books. if it is necessary, she can write it on the blackboard. 6. after finishing several cards, she asks the students to close their books and one of them comes forwards to clean the blackboard. 7. the teacher flashes the several cards one by one randomly with choosing the written words. some students (the students which are pointed) have to mention the name of the drawn subjects on the card in english in correct pronunciation. one of them has to write it on the blackboard to check whether she/he can write it correctly or incorrectly. to check the answer, the teacher just opens a piece of paper, which closes on the written word. when the writer shows the picture to the class, the teacher is just showing at glance (a few seconds). in this case, the students shall always pay good attention to the show of slow motion pictures. research methodology the type of research used is experimental research. in this experiment, the writer teaches vocabulary by using flashcards as the media. flashcards as the media. flashcards can help teachers to draw their students’ interest and motivation. besides, flashcards can make the students active during the teaching-learning process. it also helps to avoid misunderstanding the meaning words. in this study, the subject of the study is limited to the students of the sixth year of sdn 1 tuntang, which has 27 students. the writer takes all students of the sixth year of sdn 1 tuntang as the sample. she focuses on register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 166 teaching method, which gives emphasis on flashcards as media in teaching vocabulary. the teaching observation covers six meeting to teach them. those are based on the following material: 1. the first meeting: pre-test 2. the second meeting: number and colors 3. the third meeting: things in school’s bag 4. the fourth meeting: things around the bathroom 5. the fifth meeting: things around the classroom 6. the sixth meeting: post-test the writer takes material from english book, first step 1, an english book for elementary school, published by pt. intan pariwara. after giving the materials, the writer drops a hint a test for the students. testing is the process of giving a test, also called a quiz or exam, in order to measure a student’s understanding, achievement and performance (zenger: 1977: 33). the form of the test can grouped into three forms, namely oral, written and behavior forms. in this study, the objectives of the used test are; (1) for measuring the students’ achievement in understanding vocabulary is using flashcards, (2) for measuring the students, achievement in understanding words meaning. in constructing tests, there are two kinds of test, namely objective test and essay test. in this research, the writer decides to use an objective test in the form of multiple-choice tests with four options; a, b, c, and d. one of them is the correct answer, while the others are destructors. the test consists of 30 vocabulary items and she bestowed 30 minutes for them to do it. considering that it can be quickly uses the objective test, and this one is easy to score. in scoring the test; a student’s score is counted with the following formula (arikunto: 1992: 117): register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 167 s = r x 100 n explanation: s = the score r = total number of correct answer n = total number of the items discussion the instructional design purpose is the students’ competence that is recognizing by heart of all taught vocabulary, sub material; vocabulary. material: numbers, there are 20 vocabularies. these are 11 vocabularies about colors. there are 13 vocabularies about thinking things, which are scattered in the kitchen. there are 11 vocabularies about thinking things, which are scattered around the school. the result of teaching vocabulary using flashcards to know if the teaching vocabulary by using flashcards is successful or not, the writer compares between the result pre-test and post-test. this comparison can be seen on the table as subsequent: no. name pre-test post-test 1. wawan gunawan 5 8,6 2. purnomo subekti 6,5 9,5 3. restiyarso 6 7,3 4. arya dwi mardiyanto 3 9 register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 168 5. devi setiawan 6 9 6. bendi istiawan 5,5 9 7. erni ernawati 4 8,3 8. suyanto 4 8,6 9. mujiana sulistyawati 5 5,3 10. yusup iska saputra 2 9,8 11. noviana amy s. 7,5 7,5 12. dwi nursiyanto 4 7,8 13. rini susanti 5 8,5 14. eka susilawati 5 9,3 15. muhammad fatkhu razhag 6 9,8 16. frandika adi wijanarko 7 9,2 17. rudi prabowo 6,5 9,8 18. orisa ardi saputra 7, 5 9,5 19. fika riyanto 6, 3 9,5 20. tri novianton 6 9,3 21. kukuh widyanata 4 6,6 22. eri suharti 6,5 9,5 register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 169 23. novita eka putri 7 9,6 24. andrian eka yulianto 5 8 25. diyana kumala 6 9,2 26. rafika andar lisyatama 6 9 27. metaria yohan aprilia 6 9  n = 164, 8  n = 235 pre-test (x) =  n = 164, 8 = 6, 1 27 27 post-test (x2) =  n = 235 = 8, 7 27 27 after computing and comparing between the result of pre-test and post-test, that can be seen that by using flashcards the students can achieve the target vocabulary well. the advantages and disadvantages of using flashcards the advantages of using flashcards that can be found in vocabulary class, they are: a. the students have high interest in following the teaching-learning process. most of children such as elementary school students are more interested in pictures, cards, games, etc rather than listening to the teachers’ long explanations. the use of flashcards in vocabulary class can lead to an interesting circumstance, so it will not be too difficult for the teacher to transfer the lesson for them. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 170 b. the students are encouraged to be active in the class. as an example, when the teacher shows a card bearing a picture to the class and asks the students to give a response, opinion, or discussing it with their friends orally. c. the students are trained to think fast/automatically, for example; when the teacher shows the flashcards to the students, the teacher will provide a restrictive time, since the students will observe the picture and then they have to give the response a few seconds. by this feasible thing will make them to think faster. d. it is easy to understand, memorize, and remember. thus, misunderstanding will be avoidable, because the students see the drawn object directly. the uses of flashcards also have its disadvantages, they are: a. the teacher must have willingness to spend her spare time at home but and prepare suitable materials. b. expect spending his spare time, the teacher also has to spend much money to get materials, like colorful pens, pencil cards, etc. as we all know that nowadays the cost of those things are expensive. c. the students are well trained to think faster automatically. for example: when the teacher shows the flashcards to the students, the teacher will provide very restrictive time, since the students observe the picture; they have to give response spontaneously and simultaneously. d. it is easy to understand, memorize, remember, committing and misunderstanding is avoidable, because the students see the object which is drawn directly. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 171 conclusion in summary, this study finally found that firstly, procedures of using flashcards are; (1) the teacher flashes the several cards one by one randomly, (2) some students have to mention the name of the draw subjects on the cards in english, (3) to check the answer, the teacher just opens a piece of paper which on the written words. secondly, the results of using flashcards are; (1) teaching english vocabularies get better in the classroom when the students directly participate in learning activity. it shows that there are 20 students or 60 % are categorized as excellent, 15, 6 % or 3 students are as good students, 12, 5 % or 3 students are as fair, and 3, 1 % students are as poor. (2) teaching english vocabularies by using flashcards are very effective in teachinglearning process. thirdly, the advantages and disadvantages of teaching vocabulary using flashcards are in the following; (1) the advantages; the students have a high interest, they are encouraged to be active in the class, they are trained to think fast and it is easy to understand, memorize and remember the material. (2) the disadvantages; the teacher must have willingness to spend her spare time at home to prepare the flashcards and she has to spend much money to get material. references allen, franch virginia. 1983. techniques in teaching vocabulary. new york: oxford american english. arikunto, suharsimi. 1992. prosedur penelitian suatu pendekatan praktek. jakarta: rineka cipta. brown, j. b. and r. b. lewis harderwood. 1973. the instruction technology media and method. new york: mc. grow, hill book company. finochiaro, b. 1974. teaching english as second language from theory to practice. new york: reget publishing company ltd. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 172 haycraf, l. j. 1983. an introduction to english language teaching. singapore: bon mash ltd. webster. 1972. webstern is new twentieth century dictionary. new york: practice hall press. zenger, wieldon f. and sharon k. zenger. 1977. 57 ways to teach. los angeles: crescent publications. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 24 teacher professionalism on the developing children creativity (sociology of education perspective) ummi nurul muslimah smp negeri 5 sragen jl. mawar no. 4 sragen 57212, central java-indonesia ummi.nurul_m@yahoo.com abstract this research is to study the concept of teachers‟ professionalism and children creativity also the relation in sociology of educational perspective. this is a library research with a descriptive method. the writer collected the data from the writing sources published about some problems of teacher‟s professionalism on the developing children creativity. then, analyzing the thinking of every ideology and philosophy described clearly and completely, so the similarity and differences can be treated clearly by using the description of teacher professionalism on developing children creativity. the findings of this study showed that the relation between teacher professionalism and developing children creativity in sociology of education is every educator have an important role in children education, although in teaching learning process or in out class, educators have always supported and challenged abilities of the gift, talent and creativity. the reason is because the children are more often spend much time with teacher, so the teacher more to know and more responsible to their children. keywords: teachers’ professionalism, children creativity, sociology of educational perspective abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendalami konsep profesionalisme guru dan kreativitas anak, hubungannya dengan sosiologi dari perspektif edukasi. berbasis pada studi pustaka dan metode deskriptif, peneliti mengumpulkan data dari sumber-sumber tertulis yang memaparkan tentang profesionalisem guru dalam mengembangkan kreativitas anak. selanjutnya, pemikiran setiap ideology dan filosofi dianalisis secara jelas dan lengkap, sehingga kesamaan maupun perbedaan dapat dilihat sejara jelas. temuan dari studi ini register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 25 menunjukkan bahwa hubungan antara profesionalisme guru dan pengembangan kreativitas anak dalam ranah sosiologi pendidikan terletak pada kesimpulan bahwa pendidik memiliki peran penting dalam pendidikan anak. baik dalam proses belajar mengajar atau di luar kelas. pendidik harus selalu mendukung dan mengembagkan kemampuan, karunia, talenta, dan kreativitas anak. hal ini dikarenakan anak lebih banyak menghabiskan waktu bersama guru sehingga guru tentunya mengetahui lebih banyak dan memiliki tanggung jawab yang lebih terhadap anak didik mereka. kata kunci: profesionalisme guru, kreativitas anak, sosiologi dari perspektif pendidikan introduction the wide society of developing countries needs superior orientation in the world of education to increase human resources quality and competitive future among nations. in the micro perspective, education is the one of communities, which consists of teachers and students to eduction identity in the school context itself. generally, the education funtions are to maintain and to develop human character or disposition and their skill and their ability, to make them to be the perfect human, having value and degree. the education always requires teaching, but not all teaching is education. educational cases are conceit of teachers who always have an important role n educational process. one assumption said that the teacher influences teaching and learning process. therefore, the teacher should have a good ability and skill to teach. it is widely recognized that 85 percent of job failures attributable to inadequacies in human relationship. as stated in other way, inability to be along with fellow workers is a much more frequent cause of failure thatn lack of technical proficiency. so that some teachers should be encouraged to promote themselves as professionals person, and should grow to become register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 26 more open, more human, more skillful more complex, more complete pedagogues, and more critical to their children or students. it is serious to talk about teacher professionalism on the developing children creativity in the sociology of education perspective. because it is used to solve the education issues itself. furthermore, the basic problem in sociology of education situation is the social relationship, between teacher and student, by the way totality this relation is called family unit is the school family. from this point of view, indeed, it is arguably important for the writer to make a research about the teacher and the children in sociological of education perspective. the problem investigated in this study is teacher professionalism on the developing children creativity from sociological of education perspective, as the following; (1) how is the concept of teachers‟ professionalism from sociological of education perspective? (2) how is the concept of children creativity from sociological of education perspective? (3) how is the relation between teacher professionalism and developing children creativity in sociology of educational concept? professionalism in dictionary, „professional‟ means skillful (shadily, 1976:449). however, the other opinion says, profession is a position or a job which needs a certain skill (uzer, 1990:4). he says, profession is occupation; example one requiring advanced edcuation and special training. professional is the concept of teaching that must be done an expert. a professional is a person who has competency, because competency is very important to perform the professional function. to be professonal, teachers must try to obtain the following character traits; she must absolutely understand their students, she must fulfill their register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 27 obligation to the community, she must be honest and fair, she must have pure motives and must be an example to their students, she must have a broad understanding, she must possess a good timing, she must be enthusiastic and must be phsycally healthy (sriyono, 1991:75). teacher has an important role in education. nowadays education does not view a teacher as the only scientific and information agents, as teachers, but technological equipment of data saving and any others do not only master those two matters. in this global era, a teacher is more viewed as a facilitator, a guide, or an information agent who organizes teaching and learning process. every teacher has many role such as and observer, manager, facilitator, counselor, and instructor in the common procedure of teaching. the profession of teacher on sociological education as long as 1915 abram flexer submitted the following criteria for a profession. “it could be learned in character, practical and definite in purpose, possessed of a technique capable of being transmitted through an orderly and highly specialized educational discipline, and organized into brotherhood with increasing elements of altruistic motivation.” since that times other definitions for a profession have been set forth, but most of them list substantially these same attributes. almost all definitions of a profession include the following criteria; the performance of a service to the public, the possession of unique body of scientific knowledge and technical skill, the requirement of highly specialized and usually formal preparations, the regulation of standards for the admission to practice by members of profession and the organization of practitioners into comprehensive to conduct and ethics (gibson, 1992:40). we believe that the quality of the services of the education profession directly influences the future of the nation and its citizen. we therefore exert register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 28 every effort to raise educational standards, to improve the service, to promote a climate in which the exercise of professional judgement is encouraged, and to achieve conditions which attract persons worthy of the trust to careers in education. children creativity god is the only creator; human being cannot create anything new. creativity, as we use the term, means seeing orexpressing new relationship among anything‟s idea. every child is creative and its dimensions vary from individual to individual. creative children are asserts to the society. development and progress in various fields of national life depends on creative children. we must tryto develop creativity in all children so that the way exert in their fields of interest and can lead the nation a head. our school children to prepare leaders in different walks of national life. the school should screen creative children and should provide them all possible facilities for the development of their talents. creativity is an important aspect of a person‟s existence. it gives flavour to ones life. that is why it is crucial to teach a child how to enhance her creativity and to draw upon it for inspiration. creativity is also enhanching the quality of solutions to life‟s problem. creative thinking examples, it results in original solutions to problem that continually arise in the personal and vocational spheres. creativity is important because it predicts life achievement better than more conventional and widely used predictors such as scores on measures of general intelligence and standardized achievement test on school grades. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 29 research methodology this research is descriptive where the writer attempts to collect the data from the library, as the data sources. 1. method of collecting data; to collect the data about some problems of teacher‟s professionalism on the developing children creativity, she uses library research to study the writing sources published. a. primary data sources; it is the source data related to the object of the research. the primary source is essential derived from books “sociology of education perspective” b. secondary data sources; the secondary data is the data source, which supports and completes the primary data, example: books about teacher professionalism, development of children and social education. 2. the method of analyzing data a. descriptive method; means the thinking of every ideology and philosophy described clearly and completely, so the similarity and differences can be treated clearly too, using this description of teacher professionalism on the developing children creativity. b. this is still a general description, so, to understand this thesisi easily, the writer uses the books, which are appropriate with the research. it means, on processing, collecting, and analyzing data, the writer looks for books, which relate to the research, collect and regard them as the first information. discussion the professionalism is a subject of interest to academic the general public and would be professional groups. traditional ideas of professions and register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 30 professional conduct have been chalenged by recent social, political and technological changes. the professional qualification of the teacher how do we think of ourselves professional teacher? everybody knows that to be the professional teacher is not so easy. because the criteria to be professional, teachers must try to obtain the following character traits; the teacher must as a parent to their students, she must absolutely understand their students, she must absolutely understand their student, she must fulfill their obligation to the community; the teacher must be honest and fair, the teacher must have pure motives must be an example to their students; the teacher must have understanding; the teacher must posses good timing, she must be enthusiastic and also must be phsycally healthy (sriyono, 1991:75) from the criteria above to be the professional teacher is not so simple, because the teacher must pay attention with the student not just in the class but also in the out class. according to marsal and bruice say that the teacher contact with the students is formal: they are assembled in class to take one or more courses from us and he has informal contact also with them as well (weil, 1978:1). it means that the teachers must be available in the school; class teacher and the non-class teacher. if the class teacher should teach english or the other subject, she or he should be given special in service training. this cannot be done easily. in addition, teaching-learning process needs much time and any attention. if the non class, she or he does not do teaching-learning process some subjects or english teacher just relax without playing any attention to their students. from that explanation we can know that the role of teacher is not so easy. the teacher plays important roles in the teaching-learning process. the qualification of a professional teacher should has certain competence and register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 31 ability to be a qualified teacher. we have known that the children still easy to be influenced to the other things. they dependent to their teacher, their friend and also their family in making their decission. that is why the professional teacher should try to work and understand each characteristic of students. in the class the teacher is responsible for many types of instruction, for helping the children creativity and in this ability to relate others. in teaching-learning process, the teacher roles is for giving motivation of any classroom activity, guide and give facility to study their children, so teaching. every learning-teaching process in the classroom, the teacher will contact directly in extended periods with his own pupils. the teacher normally has some direct contact, but who may also have considerable indirect influence upon him during teaching-learning in the class. finally, the teacher‟s contacts with groups and individual beyond the school tend be occasional and tenuos; but they too may expert powerful influences on him indirect ways. developing children creativity we have known that the creativity is the important thing in our life, more ever for the children. because children is the active age for do everything. for example, that when the children want to make broke their toy, and they want to repair that toy by their self, or for the girls sometimes they want help their mother in the kitchen and disturb her mother. it is one form of creative activity for the children. actually, creativity is difficult concept to define. it may mean the use of such process as divergent thinking-thinking in unconventional directions. it may mean the ability to generate different ideas to think of alternate uses for familiar objects and alternative solutions the problem. creative process, however, can only be understood by means of their and results the actual register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 32 ideas, productions, and solutions that are developed, whether a particular products is indeed “creative” or “original” requires social judgement, which is subject to error. creativity thus always has a social, as well as an individual dimensions. the relation of the teacher professionalism on developing children creativity from explanation about the professionalism and the children creativity above the writer can take a statement that there is correlation or there is relation between the teacher professional on developing children activity. if the teacher professional to manage their time in the class and make the lesson more interest, they can develop the children creativity. creative depends not only on special inborn potentials but also on differences in the mental mechanisms by which the inborn qualifies in the mental mechanisms by which the inborn qualities are expressed (hurlock, 1978:330). actually every people have the same quality but just creative and noncreative persons make use of similar and different mental mechanisms. creative and noncreative person differ in the attitude, what they hold important and what is anxiety-producing and show differences in problem solving skills. these differences originate partially in born rooted in parental attitudes. the relation of teacher professional on developing children creativity is so close, because is the teacher professional to do their job so the children creativity is not run well. every educator have important role children education, although in teaching learning process or in out class, educators have always supported and challenged abilities of the gifted, talented and creativity. the reason is because the children are often spend many times register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 33 with the teacher, so the teacher more to know and more responsible to their children. so that all teacher must be a more skillful, capable and must be a professional, the implication what is kind developing children creativity. the reason is because the teacher professionalism is understood with the children the talented, so they will posit when will forced, arranged and give a freedom to their children. therefore, the children developing creativity will run well. the good teacher can facilitate to their children or the student on developing their creativity, because the teacher is the second parent in the school. thus, in school the teacher must cooperate with the student to develop their creativity. in modern era creativity is so important, because everything is so luxury and expensive. beside that we must make competition with the people to get it. therefore, the teacher must give the good strategies to more creative and can survive our life in this era. conclusion in conclusion, this study finally found that the concept of teachers; professionalism from sociological education perspective is teacher as educator is a man responsible on the learners development by striving potentials development affectivity, cognitively and pshychomotorically. they also must be able to fulfill their duty weather as divine individual or social creatures. furthermore, the concept of children creativity from sociological education perspective is a process of becoming sensitive to problems, deficiency, gasps and soon. identifying the difficulties and searching for solutions. children creativity is asset to the society. development and progress in various fields of national life depends on creative children. we must try to develop creativity in all children. eventually, the relation between register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 34 teacher professionalism and developing children creativity in sociology of education is every educator have an important role in children education, although in teaching learning process or in out class, educators have always supported and challenged abilities of the gift, talent and creativity. the reason is because the children are more often spend many time with teacher, so the teacher more to know and more responsible to their children. references ahmadi, abu drs. 1990. sociology pendidikan. bandung: rineka cipta. carr, david. 2000. professionalism and ethics in teaching. new york: rotledge. gibson, dorothy westby. 1992. social perspectives on education and the society, the student, the school.san fransisco: the odyssey press, ncc. hurlock, elizabeth. 1978. children development. mc graw-hill book company. runco, mark a., and robert s. albert. 1990. theories of creativity. new delhi: sage publications, newbury park london. shadily, hasan and john m. echolis. 1976. kamus inggris indonesia. jakarta: pt gramedia sriyono dkk. 1991. teknik belajar dalam cbsa. jakarta: rineka cipta. uzer usman, muhammad. 1990. menjadi guru profesional. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. zamroni, m.a. 2001. pendidikan untuk demokrasi tantangan menjadi civil society. yogyakarta: bigra. a study on the english attitude of students from esl and efl country in efl university register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 126 descriptive analysis of writing composition from the ideas to the paragraph titik nurrohmah mts negeri tanon waduk ketro, tanon, sragen, central java, indonesia nurrohmah@yahoo.com abstract what are the ways to discover the ideas to write? how to organize the ideas into the paragraph? to answer these questions, the writer conducted a qualitative research that the object of the research is writing composition on the discovering the ideas and organize it into paragraph. the writer used descriptive method. for obtaining the data, the writer used library method as the instrument and used secondary sources that constituted secondhand information, such as reference book. meanwhile, in analyzing the data, the writer used an expository writing. there were several ways in discovering ideas as the result of this study. those included remembering experience, getting people opinion about particular subject by giving evidence, finding a great deal by asking other people about their experience and going to the library to get any ideas. whereas, to organize the ideas into paragraph, someone has to do some steps, such as selecting a subject, planning a composition and making an outline. keywords: writing composition, idea, paragraph abstrak bagaimana cara menemukan ide untuk tulisan? bagaimana membuat ide menjadi paragraf? untuk menjawab pertanyaan – pertanyaan tersebut, penulis melakukan penelitian dengan objek penelitian yakni karangan tertulis untuk menemukan ide dan membuatnya ke dalam sebuah paragraf. penulis menggunakan metode deskriptif. untuk memperoleh data, penulis menggunakan metode pustaka dan menggunakan sumber kedua yang merupakan informasi kedua seperti buku referensi. sementara itu, untuk menganalisa data, penulis memberikan penjelasan tertulis. hasil dari penelitian adalah adanya beberapa langkah dalam menemukan ide, diantaranya adalah mengingat pengalaman pribadi, meminta pendapat orang register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 127 lain tentang suatu persoalan atau pengalaman mereka, dan mengunjungi perpustakaan untuk mendapatkan ide. sedangkan untuk membuat ide menjadi paragraf, seseorang harus melakukan beberapa langkah seperti menentukan persoalan, merencanakan sebuah karangan dan membuat kerangka karangan. keywords: karangan tertulis, ide, paragraf introduction instead of listening, reading, and speaking, writing is the highest level of language skill that should be mastered by students. writing in the sense of verb “write” means (a). letters or other symbols (e.g. ideographs) on a surface, especially with a pen or pencil on paper, (b). put down (on paper) by means of word. (horby, 1987: 996) to be literate in the native language implies the ability to read and to write. this approach to native-language learning has transferred to the foreign language classroom. writing exercises keeps students busies and outs of mischief. conventional writing exercises are easy to construct. rivers (1981: 291) in his book teaching foreign-language skill states: “at this stage, it may be well to recall two facts often ignored by language teachers, who traditionally have expected students to write something as a demonstration of learning: first, that many highly articulate person express themselves very inadequately in writing in their native language. second, that only a minority of the speakers of any language acquire the skill of writing it with any degree of finesse, and then only after years of training in school and practice out of school.” in accordance with warriner (1977: 332), writing is chances to communicate the thought in the most effective way possible, just to carry out the written. this may result in composition that are lifeless, dull and worth very little. empty writing is bad writing. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 128 unfortunately, examination papers in composition the world over are, with few exceptions, disappointing. many college and university students with four, five, even six or more years of study of another language behind them are still unable to express themselves in a clear, correct, and comprehensible manner in writing. all writer-students’ writing papers for their college courses, business people communicating ideas in reports and memos, journalists composing news stories, even novelists writing yearly novels-know these basic frustrations. writing clear and simple prose is difficult, even for experienced writers. it is slow and laborious process. so, if someone is humble for the right word, get lost in tangled sentences, fall silent in the middle paragraph – does not despair. everyone who writes has this trouble. it is as well to remember that not all students have already flow of ideas when asked to write. (alto, 1984: 5) one of the primary aims of this research is to offer the writer way to discover ideas before they write their composition. the best way to begin is with an overview of the writing process and the next. it will discuss about an expository writing that every student must understand in order to begin and progress through the process. regarding the background above, the writer would like to figure out these following questions: (1) what are the ways to discover the ideas to write? (2) how to organize the ideas into the paragraph? compositions according to oshima (1988: 4), a composition is a piece of writing that has more than one part. it is divided into three parts; a beginning, middle, and an end. the beginning is called introduction, the middle is called the register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 129 body, and the end is called conclusion. the introduction and the conclusion are usually one paragraph. while the paragraph consists of sentences closely related in meaning. further, warriner (1982: 333) clarifies that composition is made up of related paragraphs. like the paragraph, the composition focuses on a single idea, which is often stated near the beginning. paragraph according to alice (1988:4), “paragraph is a group of related statements that a writer develops about a subject. each paragraph is a separate unit marked by identifying the first word from the left-hand margin, or by leaving extra space above and below the paragraph.” therefore, paragraph is a set of related sentences that work together to express or develop an idea. further, crimmon ( 1984: 192) explains that although it may stand on its own and in some writing situation a writer needs but a single paragraph to fulfill his or her purpose – a paragraph is usually a unit in complete piece of writing. this function as a unit of development in that it organizes and advances the writer’s idea’s that is, it helps develop the writer’s thesis, in the case of narrative or descriptive writing, carries forward a story or provides significant details. the stage of writing process good writing has sharpness, vividness, and clarity. there are several ways of looking closely, of writing process. choosing a topic a composition of the kind someone will be writing this is still a short piece of writing. avoid choosing a topic so large that one’s would have to write a book to do it justice. there are some steps to choose a topic. the first one is choose the subject. knowing the subject is the first principle of good register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 130 writing. the second one is limiting the subject. once someone has found a subject to write about, he must decide whether it is too big to handle in the time and space he has to work with. big subject are not easier to write about than smaller ones. the third one is adopting the subject to the reader. someone must adjust the topic and the content to the audience for which he writes. the last one is determining the purpose. after limiting the topic, one’s must consider the purpose of his composition. taking the particular attitude toward his subject will help someone defines that purpose. planning the composition planning is any orderly produce used to bring about a desired result. as the first stage in the writing process, planning is a series of strategies designed to find and produce information in writing. when someone begins any writing project, he needs to discover what is possible. he needs to locate and explore a variety of subjects. he needs to invent alternative ways to however mundane or unsettling, in order to select and create the substance out of which he will shape his subject. drafting drafting is a procedure for drawing up a preliminary sketch. as the second, in the writing process, drafting is a series of strategies designed to organize and develop a sustained piece of writing. once planning has enabled someone to identify several subjects and encouraged you to gather information on those subjects from different perspectives, he needs to determine what he can best accomplish in writing. someone needs to select one subject and organize his information about it into meaningful clusters. then, someone needs to find connections among those clusters and discover the relationship that links the connection. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 131 revising revising is procedure for improving or correction a work in progress. revising is a series of strategies designed to re-examine and re-evaluate the choices that have created a piece of writing. after someone has completed his preliminary draft, he needs to stand back from his text and decide what actions would seem to be most productive. someone may have to embark upon global revision – a concerted effort to perfect the smaller elements in a piece of writing he has already created. research methodology this research is the qualitative research. moleong (1983: 3) affirms that “qualitative research is a research of which the data in the forms of written or oral word are descriptively analyzed. in this research, object of the study is writing composition on the discovering the ideas and organize its into paragraph. related this research, the writer uses descriptive method in which this method is to describe what actually happens in certain conditions. while the data resources, the writer uses secondary sources that constitute secondhand information, such as reference book. to collect the data, the writer uses the library method as her instrument. moreover, to make this research clearly, the writer draws her step of research as follow: register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 132 in analyzing the data, the writer used an expository writing. the steps of data analysis are (1) discovering ideas, (2) choosing the subject by arranging and classifying the ideas into the group that seems to go together, (3) beginning to write the paragraph. in writing the paragraph, (4) identifying the function of each sentence as topic sentence, supporting sentence and also concluding sentence, and (5) drawing the unity and coherence paragraph. discussion the writer presented the most important part of thesis, the result of the data analysis. it will be explained more in detail in the following. the ways for discovering ideas viki (2003: 31) claims that idea is a thing cannot be influenced by money. you will get a great deal ideas. one important thing that you have to do is giving attention to the ideas. what someone knows from himself experience and others experience is the idea to write composition. but there are another sources and information ideas arrange the groups begin to write the paragraph supporting sentence concluding sentence topic sentence register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 133 for discovering the ideas, such as the people opinion about particular subject giving evidence. in expository writing, people needs to give the facts and impressions that lead the people to his opinion, in order to make it real to someone else. example : opinion : children should believe in tooth fairly list of evidence : it makes losing teeth exciting it is run to believe in an invisible friend it makes children feel they are special it gives kids something to look forward to the next method is to whom does someone ask? now he can find out a great deal by asking other people about their experience. many things he takes for granted are really brand-new in our history. older people that he knows lived in a very different way when they were his age. what can a police officer tell? he or she can tell: what it is like to be a police officer what kinds of crime a police officer handles what the difference is between juvenile and adult crime how the police station works why he or she became a law enforcement officer there are other people one’s can talk to. think about these people and list all the information one’s might get from each one. share all the lists in class and see how many ideas everyone had. they are: 1. janitors 2. secretaries 3. letter carriers 4. neighbors 5. hospital aid 6. teachers 7. social workers 8. firefighters 9. playground directors 10. conductors 11. other students 12. scout leaders register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 134 when someone asks people to tell him about something in detail, he is having interview. an interview is meeting between a reporter and someone who gives information to this sense, when someone asks questions he becomes a reporter. it is not easy to interview as he might think. it takes a great deal to practice. one’s has had some practice in asking questions. there are some tips in interviewing. those include (1) have a list of questions (2) always ask “how” and “why” when an answer is given (3) if someone gets a short or impractical answer, don’t give up (4) do not let the interview get off the point (5) do not feel limited by the questions you have prepared (6) listen carefully and treat the person that interviewing with respect (7) be sure to plan enough time (8) plan the interview time so that it’s convenient. for example: interviewing family members, the topic is “what do you think about the rule, “you should never lie?” andrew interviewed about this topic to his brother kevin. kevin : do i believe in this rule? yes. what do i think it means? i think the rule is not just referring to telling lies to someone else, it can be arguing… andrew : even when you know you are wrong. kevin : exactly or when people are always getting defensive. for instance, it could be that one person owns a thing of a specific brand name and someone else says it is bad; maybe someone owns a certain stereo and someone else says he should have gotten another kind. the person with the stereo gets very defensive, when really objects were never meant to be extensions of human beings. attacking the object is not attacking the person. i consider this kind of arguing one from the lying. in order to remember one’s result of interview, someone has to take a note during interview. it is important to choose information that answers the questions. it is also a good idea to write down one or two important words or register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 135 phrases that remind one’s of several sentences, so the someone will not forget information he has heard. everyone will work out his or her own kind of shorthand. a few words that remind someone of each answer may be all he needs. whatever from one’s chooses for his notes, remembers that they have to be useful. these are some tips that will help someone to take notes in an interview. these are (1) write the information that answers the question and (2) pick one or two important words or phrases that remind someone of several sentences. the next step to get the sources is going to the library. someone can find the book that she/ he want by looking at card catalogues. card catalogues are lists of the materials in the library. however, sometimes cannot find the he is looking for. there are some hints to help someone when he cannot find what he needs in the library. they are (1) look in the card catalogues under the title of the book or the author’s name (2) look in the card catalogue under the subject (3) notice the number in the upper left-hand corner of the card in the card catalogue (4) ask the librarian where the section of reference books can be found (5) remember that the librarian is the best guide. another good source is one’s daily paper. it is good idea to look at the paper every day. it has articles on news from around the world such as food community, affairs, books, and other subjects. organizing the ideas into the paragraph select a subject a. choose a subject that someone knows something about such a subject, which someone can write about from his own experience, is an excellent possibility for a composition. if someone register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 136 stops to think about it, there are a number of things that he knows about. someone’s whole experience is raw material for compositions. b. limit the topic someone’ composition will not succeed unless its subject is well chosen and well developed for the reader. when he has thought of a subject, therefore, it is essential that he consider whether it is manageable in the number of words he has in mind. for example, stamp collecting may provide him with an idea for a composition, but the whole subject is too large. on the other hand, a composition telling how to get started with a stamp collecting is a limited topic just right for 300 words for composition. c. remember the purpose of composition the specific purpose that someone has in mind should guide him in limiting the topic, and then in selecting ideas and planning the composition. planning a composition since a composition is usually longer and more complicated than a paragraph, there is even more need for a careful plan. a. make a list of ideas once someone has chosen a topic, jot down ideas as he occurs to him. at this stage, do not try to organize the ideas. we can make a list any details or ideas that may be related to the topic. after completing the list, any ideas that are not closely related to the topic can be eliminated. for example: topic : beginning a stamp collection purpose : to explain how to collect and display stamps educational value register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 137 family mail hobby stores removing stamps from envelopes fun of watching collection grow learning location of countries appreciating of beauty history of postage stamps (eliminated because it does not contribute to purpose of composition) learning about people and customs of foreign lands mounting stamps an album supplies, tongs, hinges, album post office stamp packets approval sheets valuable stamps (eliminated because a beginning collector would not ordinarily try to acquire valuable stamps) b. group the ideas under headings the next step is to begin grouping closely related ideas together. to do this, he must consider whether two or more ideas have something in common-whether there is a larger idea that includes them. for example, here are six of the ideas from “beginning a stamp collection”. 1) fun of watching collection grow 2) removing stamps from envelopes 3) learning about people and customs of foreign lands 4) appreciating beauty of stamps 5) learning locations of countries 6) educational value a quick glance tells us about that some of these ideas are related and some are not. there is an obvious connection between numbers 1 and 4, both of which involve pleasure or enjoyment. a similar connection exists between 3, 5, and 6, all of which have something to do with the educational aspect of collecting stamps. only 2 do not combine with a related idea. making an outline register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 138 the purpose of the outline is to show all of the ideas and headings that will go into the composition in order someone will take them up and in the relation he has to each other. the major topic for “beginning a stamp collection” may be arranged in order of time, certainly the idea of “acquiring stamps” belongs before that of displaying stamps”, and reasons for collecting stamps” comes before either. the complete topic outline on this subject would look something like this: title : beginning a stamp collection purpose : to give reasons for collecting stamps and to show how to get started. i. reasons for collecting stamps a. pleasure 1. fun of watching collection grow 2. appreciating beauty of stamps b. educational value 1. learning about people and customs of foreign lands 2. learning locations of countries ii. sources for the collector a. family mail b. post office c. hobby stores d. stamp dealers 1. packets 2. approval sheets iii. stamp display a. supplies 1. album 2. hinges 3. tongs b. procedure 1. removing from envelopes 2. mounting in album iv. specialization notice that a fourth main idea has been added to provide a conclusion for the composition. someone has told how to start a collection; he wants to end giving the reader some ideas of a more advanced kind of collecting. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 139 conclusion there are several ways in discovering ideas; what do the students know from themselves experience and others experience is being the idea to write composition. but, there are another sources and information for discovering the ideas. such as, the opinions people about particular subject giving evidence. the next is whom do the students ask? someone can find out a great deal by asking other people about their experience. the next step to get the sources is going to the library. at first when one’s goes into library, he may be a bit confused. it is hard to know where to begin. most libraries have card catalogues. after someone got his ideas, he has to: a. select a subject choose a subject that someone know something about limit the topic remember the purpose of composition b. planning a composition a. make a list of ideas b. group the ideas under headings c. make an outline the purpose of one’s outline is to show all of the ideas and headings that will go into the composition in order, he will take them up and in the relation they have to each other. references alice, oshima, and ann, hague. 1988. introduction to academic writing. tokyo: addison-wesley publishing company as, horby. 1982. oxford learner’s dictionary of current english. new york: oxford university press. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 140 john e., warriner. 1977. english grammar and composition. second course. new york: harcourt brace jovanovich. lexy, moleong. 1983. metodologi penelitian kualitatif. jakarta: depdikbud. mc., crimmon. 1984. writing with purpose. new jersey palo alto: hougthon mifflin company. viki, king. 2003. menulis skenario dalam 21 hari. jakarta: aku baca. wilga m., rivers. 1981. teaching foreign language skills. london: the university of chicago press. endang dwi hastuti register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 57 an analysis on subtitling strategies of romeo and juliet movie endang dwi hastuti sma negeri i sumberlawang hastuti.endangdwi@yahoo.com abstract the focus of this research is to identify the subtitling strategies applied in the subtitling of romeo and juliet movie. this research belongs to descriptive qualitative research along with purposive sampling techniques. the objects of the research are english sentences spoken by the actors and actress in romeo and juliet movie as a source text (st) and its indonesian subtitling as a target text (tt). the research findings show that the subtitling strategies applied in romeo and juliet movie are expansion, paraphrase, transfer, imitation, condensation, decimation, deletion, taming, and resignation. among those strategies; condensation is the most dominant one due to the limited space and subtitling time appearance because in the subtitling process, there should be a thrifty translation whereas, the accuracy of romeo and juliet subtitling depends on the context covering the text, both situation context and cultural context. there are three components covering the situation context, namely field, mode/channel, and tenor/relation. key words: subtitling strategy, subtitling accuracy, thrifty translation mailto:hastuti.endangdwi@yahoo.com an analysis on subtitling strategies of romeo and juliet movie 58 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 abstrak fokus penelitian ini ialah untuk mengidentifikasi strategi subtitling yang diterapkan dalam subtitling film romeo and juliet. penelitian bersifat deskriptif kualitatif dengan menggunakan teknik purposive sampling. obyek penelitian ini adalah kalimat bahasa inggris yang diucapkan oleh para aktor dan aktris di film romeo and juliet sebagai teks sumber (st) dan subtitling indonesia sebagai teks sasaran (tt). hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa strategi subtitling yang diterapkan dalam film romeo and juliet ialah: ekspansi ,parafrase, transfer, imitasi, kondensasi penipisan (decimation), penghapusan, pelembutan (taming) dan pengunduran (resignation). di antara strategi-strategi tersebut kondensasi adalah yang paling dominan karena keterbatasan ruang subtitling dan ketersediaan waktu karena subtitling harus menghasilkan terjemahan yang hemat. sedangkan akurasi subtitling film romeo and juliet tergantung pada konteks yang meliputi teks, baik konteks situasi dan konteks budaya. ada tiga komponen yang meliputi konteks situasi, yaitu lapangan, modus / channel, dan tenor / relasi. kata kunci: strategi subtitling, ketepatan subtitling, terjemahan yang hemat introduction recently, movie translation or subtitling grows rapidly. there are two kinds of movie translation namely: dubbing and subtitling which have differences in both. bordwell and thompson (1990: 409) said “the most two common forms of screen translation are dubbing and subtitling”. then he said further “dubbing is the process of replacing part or all of the voices on the sountrack in order to correct mistakes or rerecord dialog”. it means that a dubbing is a process to replace voice in “soundtrack” to correct the mistakes and re-record the voice. thomson also said that dubbing can also be applied not only from source language (sl) into target language (tl) but, it also can be applied from source language endang dwi hastuti register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 59 (sl) into source language (sl) with the difference voice. another translation expert, whereas, chitas, also explored the definition of “dubbing” as follow: “dubbing involves replacing the original soundtract in the actor’s dialogue with a target language (tl) recording that reproduces the original message, while at the same time ensuring that the tl sound and the same actors’ lip movements are more or less synchronized (2003:15)”. this definition stresses that dubbing involves replacing the ‘soundtrack” from sl into tl with the same lips movement from the actors. subtitling is truly different from dubbing. gambier (1993: 276) explored his definition about subtitling as follow: “subtitling is one of two possible methods for providing the translation of a movie dilaogue, where the original dialogue soundtrack is left in place and the translation is printed along the bottom of the film”. in other words, it can be said that subtitling is done by translating the film’s dialogues then put the printed translation in the bottom 0f the film. similarly as dubbing, the purpose of subtitling is helping the viewers enjoy the films such as documenter movies, drama, and action and so on. then betty white in (file:///g:/subtitling/eotvsection.php.htm updated./04/01/2011) stressed that the amount lines of subtitling is not more than two lines. from the definition of dubbing and subtitling above, it can be concluded that “dubbing” is the replacement of the original soundtrack of source language (sl) into target language (tl) whereas “subtitling” is done by sticking the written translation (target language) on the movie monitor. dubbing and subtitling are one of translation great works. firstly, they are done with translation process, and then continued by recording process or sticking process. file:///g:/subtitling/eotvsection.php.htm%20updated/04/01/2011 an analysis on subtitling strategies of romeo and juliet movie 60 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 the work of subtitling is done by having “texts” at first. the meaning of the “text” depends on the situation context and cultural context. situation context is composed by some variables such as field (content), mode/channel (spoken text/written text), and tenor/relation (the relation between the speaker and the listeners/viewers or the writer and the reader). knowing the situation context and cultural context is very important in subtitling process because by having them the translator can transfer the message from the source text into target text well and he/she be able to choose the appropriate translation strategies in doing his/her works. from those phenomenon, this research focuses on (1) the equivalent meaning on subtitling of romeo and juliet movie viewed from the context situation and cultural situation covered the text, and (2) the translation strategies applied by the translator in translating romeo and juliet movie. the definition of translation there are some translation definitions explored by the experts of translation. some of them are catford (1965), nida and teber (1974) and larson (1984). catford (1965: 1) defined the translation as “an operation performed on language: a process of substituting a text in one langauge for a text in another”. nida and taber (1974) said that translating consist of reproducing in the receptor language to the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, at first in meaning and secondly in term of style. while larson (1983: 17) saw that translation is the replacement of meaning from source language (sl) into target language (tl) by using the form of the receptor target language. from the definition of translation above, it can be concluded broadly, translation focuses on meaning equivalent. endang dwi hastuti register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 61 meaning (situation context and cultural context based) neubert (1984) in bell (1991: 79) said that meaning is “the kingpin of translation studies. without understanding what a text to be translated means for l2 users the translator would be hopefully lost”. from this definition it can be inferred that meaning has a broad definition. when we are talking about “meaning” it means that we are not only talking about linguistics aspect but also talking about everything outside the linguistics aspects such as culture, situation, norm and rule of the society using that language. the meaning of the text depends on the situation context and cultural context. there are three components composed the situation contexts, namely: field (content), mode/channel (written/spoken text), tenor/relation (the relation between speaker-hearer/viewer) (riyadi santoso, 2003: 21). the meaning of the text is also influenced by the culture covering the text whether explicitly or implicitly. explicitly, culture is a kind of artifact produced by the society such as clothes, foods, technology etc., while implicitly, and culture appears in the forms of belief, attitude, values and norms. subtitling important rules sugeng hariyanto (2005: 100) said that there are some important rules in subtitling such as the plot work, the movie terms, script and movie as a whole work. further, he said that “plot work” in subtitling means translating the movie script from the source language into target language, then combine the translation result with the movie and then revise it. besides that, there are some terms that should be known by the movie an analysis on subtitling strategies of romeo and juliet movie 62 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 translator or subtitler such as frame, shot, scene and sequences. frame is a basic unit of the movie that is a set of shot; then some shots are combined into scene; some scenes are combined into scuents; and the last, some scuents combined into movie which are connected by the dialogues. besides, subtitling is also composed by movie components such as soundtrack, music, effects, the tone of the actors, mimic and gesture, camera movement, distance, and montage (cuts, fade-in, dissolve, and so on). movie script refers to the source text that will be translated into target text. there two kinds of scripts namely the original script and script purposed to the movie translator. there are some notes for the original script such as the setting notes, actor’s mimic, and so on. the advantage of having original script is that the translator knows “the situation” well. whereas the script proposed to translator does not include such notes but it includes the “timing” notes which help in deciding the subtitling appearance in the movie monitor. movie as a whole work means that movie is the same as novel covered by certain society culture that makes the translator works harder because the translators must transfer the semantic and pragmatics meaning, and also the culture. the subtitling difficulties translating a movie is not an easy work. sugeng haryanto (2005) said that in translating a movie, the translator usually get difficulty in ‘language and culture’. language difficulty refers to culture reference, idioms, diction, humor and pragmatics meaning. whereas culture difficulty refers to the lack of knowledge and experience that the translator has related to the culture habits done by the sl society. it also happens endang dwi hastuti register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 63 when the translator translates idioms where they should choose the appropriate diction. it is very difficult to translate an idiom because the limitedness equivalent meaning between source language and target language. then, the next problem that the translator has is related to humor teasing allusion and pragmatics meaning. sometimes, the translator doesn’t realize that the text which he/she translates contain the implicit humor teasing allusion or the translator doesn’t find the appropriate equivalent meaning in target language because the meaning of the humor related to the source language culture. while the difficulty in pragmatics meaning means the difficulty in finding the appropriate equivalent related to the actor’s relation in composing dialogue especially when the dialogues use certain dialect. sugeng haryanto (2005) said further that movie translator also gets difficulties because of limited time appearance and limited layout. there are some subtitling layout rules such as the translation should be at the monitor buttom, it just contains 2 lines in maximum, it only contains 35 characters for each lines, it must be helvetica or arial font without sheriff, the font color and the background must be in white, the text position is in the middle, and it must be right flat for the dialogue beginning without a dash. subtitling strategies strategies here mean techniques used by translator in translating word, phrase or speaker’s utterance. sugeng haryanto (2005: 103) explored 10 subtitling strategies as follows: an analysis on subtitling strategies of romeo and juliet movie 64 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 1. expansion expansion means giving addition meaning in the target language. for example, the sentence that’s in the dead day is translated into “itu terjadi di bebek mati (hari itu, seekor bebek mati kena lemparan rotiku)”. 2. paraphrase in this strategy, the translator gives more explanation toward the part of the sentence based on his/her own opinion. for example, the sentence “turn back no longer” is translated into “jangan lagi melihat masa lalu”. 3. transfer transfer strategies are done by translating the source text literally. for example, the sentence “turn back no longer” is translated into “jangan lagi melihat-lihat ke belakang”. 4. imitation imitation strategies are done by rewriting the source text into target text. usually this strategy is done in translating the name of person or the name of place. 5. transcription this strategy is done by rewriting the certain words because of the textual function how that language should be. for example, how the sentence in the source text pronounced can be seen in the subtitling. 6. condensation condensation strategy is done by shortening the source text. in this strategy the subtitler or translator eliminates unimportant utterance. endang dwi hastuti register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 65 but, usually this strategy can make the loosing of pragmatics effect that actually it should be transferred into target language 7. decimation decimation is an extreme condensation. this strategy is usually used in translating the actors’ conversation or utterance when they have a quarrel especially when they speak loudly and with fast speed. 8. deletion deletion strategy means some of source texts are deleted because the translator/subtitler believes that those parts are not important. the differences between deletion and condensation is that in condensation there is no any part that be deleted or it’s just be condensed but in deletion strategy there are some parts that be deleted by the translator. 9. taming taming strategies is used to translate the rude or taboo words in order to be acceptable in target language. 10. resignation resignation is done when there is no any solution in transferring the message from sl into tl. automatically, the meaning of the source text is not transferred into target language, or in other word it is “untranslatable”. research methodology this research belongs to descriptive qualitative research with the aim to describe the certain cases. the data in this research are the translation an analysis on subtitling strategies of romeo and juliet movie 66 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 units in lingual forms of romeo and juliet movie such as words, phrases and clauses whereas, research procedures refer to a set of work in the research. research procedure is a map on how the research should be done, how to do it, and why it is done. the researcher procedures belong to this research are data collecting, data analysis technique, and presentation stage. the object of the research is english romeo and juliet movie as the source text (st) and the indonesian subtitling of romeo and juliet movie as the target language (tt). this research is done with the assumption that romeo and juliet movie is one of shakespeare’s masterpiece works and this movie is one of media to communicate between the author and the readers/viewers. the data in this research is parallel bilingual corpus consisting of spoken text spoken by the actors and actress in romeo and juliet movie as the source text (st) and indonesian subtitling appear in the monitor as the target text (tt).there are some steps done in analyzing the data. at first, the researcher focuses on identifying the source text meaning profile and the equivalent meaning in target text then analyzing the equivalent meaning based on the situation context and cultural context. then, the second analysis is focused on the subtitling strategies used in romeo and juliet subtitling. the last stage of this research is composing and presenting the result of the research. this research uses qualitative analysis strategy. in presentation stage, in making the conclusion (verification) the researcher is always eager to make clarification by having discussion with her colleges toward the truth test of the meaning appears in the data. endang dwi hastuti register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 67 discussion language always appears in the form of “text”. the text’s appearance is surrounded with its society, whether physic or non-physic, which supports the text existence or it can be said that a text always appears in its context. as explained before, there are two kinds of contexts surrounding the text, namely situation context and cultural context. there are three variables composing the situation context, namely field, tenor, and mode. below are the examples of the influence of situation context and cultural context toward romeo and juliet movie translation. example sl: romeo : but soft! what light through younder window breaks? it is the east, and juliet is the sun arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon who is already sick and pale with the grief that thou her maid art far more fair than she but not her maid, since she is envious her vistal livery is but sick and green and none but fools do wear it; cast it off it is my lady, o it is my love tl: romeo: tapi lembut. cahaya apa dari jendela itu itu di timur dan juliet adalah matahari bangkitlah matahari dan bunuh bulan pengiri tu yang telah sakit dan pucat karena kau lebih cantik darinya jangan ikuti dia, karena ia iri hati begitu irinya dan hanya si dungulah yang menerimanya keluarlah itulah kekasihku dia menyadari itu an analysis on subtitling strategies of romeo and juliet movie 68 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 the description of situation context of prologue above is as follow. the above prologue is spoken by romeo in a night after having a party held by capulet family. in that party, romeo met juliet for the first time and they both fall in love. after the party ends, romeo tries to enter juliet’s chamber by climbing the high wall fences. after reaching the capulet’s house, romeo is busy to find out juliet’s chamber, when he finds it; he speaks as the above prologue. the tenor of this text is that romeo who falls in love to juliet after he meets juliet for the first time. juliet is a girl who makes romeo’s away from rosaline’s love. the mode of this text is spoken text which is spoken softly and full of feeling companied by soft music instrument. while the cultural context of this text is that when someone is falling in love, he or she would do everything although it is outside their capability; just want to meet with the person whom he or she falls in love with. furthermore, sometimes he or she does a silly thing and annoy people’s life just want to prove that he or she really loves his or her partner. there are some interesting things toward those subtitling/translation. the first, the translation of the sentence “it is the east, and juliet is the sun” which is translated into “ itu di timur dan juliet adalah matahari”. actually, the source text is the conditional sentence in which the word “if” is implicated so, the clause “it is this east” has a meaning “andai itu timur”. secondly, the clause “that thou her maid art” is not translated by the translator. actually, the phrase “her maid” relates to western culture having a meaning “the servant of diana, the virgin goodness of the moon, was unmarried maidens”. the europeans believe that “dewi bulan” has a faithful maid named diana who never got married during her life and gave her whole life to dewi bulan. thirdly, the translation of the sentence endang dwi hastuti register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 69 “and none but fools do wear it; cast it off” which is translated into “begitu irinya dia hanya si dungulah yang menerimanya”. we can see that this translation is influenced by the situation context. the situation context composes this clause is that romeo is truly falling in love with juliet, so he thinks that just a fool person goes to diana’s thinking (dewi bulan’s maid) who decides to be unmarried woman during her life. fourth, the translation of the sentence “it is my lady, o it is my love” which is translated into “keluarlah, itulah kekasihku”. when we pay attention more to that translation it seems that the meaning of target language is totally different from the meaning of source language. the translator fails to transfer the meaning of the clause “it is my lady”. the translation is influenced by the situation context that romeo truly wanted to meet juliet that night so he really hoped that juliet came out her chamber when romeo saw juliet’s shadow. fifth, the translator also fails to translate the sentence “o that she knew she were” which is translated into “dia menyadari itu”. actually this sentence has a purpose that is romeo hopes; juliet knows that she is romeo’s lover now. subtitling strategies as explained before, subtitling strategies here mean techniques used by the translator in translating word, phrase or speaker’s utterance. it’s very possible that one sentence is translated by using one or more translation strategies. there are 10 subtitling strategies that can be applied in subtitling, namely: expansion, paraphrase, transfer, imitation, transcription, condensation, decimation, deletion, taming, and resignation a. expansion an analysis on subtitling strategies of romeo and juliet movie 70 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 the followings are the examples of translation using expansion strategies. 1. sl: narator : in fair verona, where we lay our scene. tl: narator : di verona yang indah, dimana kami bercerita 2. sl: sampson : i will bite my thumb at them which is disgrace to them if they bear it. tl: sampson : kugigit jempolku sebagai tanda memperlakukan mereka jika mereka tahan. majulah aku akan mendukungmu in the first sentence, “in fair verona, where we lay our scene” and it is translated into “di verona yang indah, diamana kami bercerita”. here, we can see that the translator gives more explanation by adding the phrase “yang indah”. it is done because the movie shows the view and the description about verona that looks so beautiful, clean, metropolis city full of citizen’s joys. while in the second example, expansion strategies appear by adding explanation in the sentence “majulah, aku akan mendukungmu”. the addition of this sentence has a purpose to clarify the meaning of the clause “i will bite my thumb at them”. this clause, culturally has a meaning “an action which indicated contempt or defiance” or a kind of action to mock somebody else. the adding of the sentence “majulah, aku akan mendukungmu” has a purpose that sampson endorses his friends to fight with the capulets. b. paraphrase the followings are the examples of paraphrase strategy: 1. sl : i’ll look to like, if looking like move tl :aku akan melihatnya dulu untuk memastikan apa aku mencintainya endang dwi hastuti register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 71 2. sl : this is the matter. nurse, give leave a while we must talk in secret. nurse comes back again i have remembered me, thou’s hear our counsel thou know’st my daughters of a pretty age tl : suster biarkan kami sendiri kami harus bicara empat mata. suster, kembalilah aku baru mengingatkan diriku. dengar percakapan kami suster, kini kau tahu putriku mulai menjadi remaja cantik the paraphrase strategies appear in the first sentence that is in the phrase “if liking moving to move” which is translated into “untuk memastikan apa aku mencintainya”. the sentence ““i’ll to look like, if looking liking move” has a meaning if just by seeing it can make someone falls in love, then juliet wants to see paris at first with the hope that she can fall in love to paris as what her mother hopes. in the second sentence, the paraphrase strategy appears in the translation of the sentence “we must talk in secret” which is translated into “kami harus bicara empat mata” and the sentence “thou know’st my daughters of a pretty age” which is translated into “suster, kini kau tahu putriku telah menjadi remaja cantik”. the phrase “in secret” has a meaning “rahasia” and the translator paraphrases into “empat mata”. whereas the phrase “ of pretty age” has the same meaning with “at an attractive age” that is the changing of people’s growth from a child into teenager or in indonesian it’s famous with abg (anak baru gede) in which at this age a girl usually looks more attractive and charming. an analysis on subtitling strategies of romeo and juliet movie 72 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 c. transfer the followings are the examples of transfer strategy: 1. sl: romeo : well what was yours? mercutio : that dreamers often lie tl: romeo : dan apa mimpimu? mercutio : pemimpi sering berbohong 2. sl: romeo : peace, mercutio, peace!. you talk of nothing mercutio : true, i talk of dreams tl: romeo : tenanglah mercutio, tenang. kau cuma mengada-ada. mercutio : benar, aku bicara tentang mimpi 3. sl: romeo : my lips, two blushing pilgrims, ready stand to smooth that rough touch with a tender kiss tl: romeo : bibirku seperti dua musafir, siap untuk melembutkan sentuhan kasar itu dengan ciuman lembut let’s pay attention more to the underlined sentences above. at those sentences, it’s clear that the translator translates those sentences literally, without giving more explanation or point of view changing. in the first sentence, the translation of the sentence “that dreamers often lie” is translated into “pemimpi sering berbohong”. the word “lie” means “tell lie” or in indonesia it’s equivalent with “pembohong/pendusta”. in the second example, the clause “peace, mercutio, peace!” and “true, i talk of dreams” which each clauses is translated into ““tenanglah mercutio, tenang” and “benar, aku bicara tentang mimpi”. here, it’s so clear that the translator only transfers the meaning of source language into target language literally. the same case also happens in third example “my lips, two blushing endang dwi hastuti register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 73 pilgrims, and ready stand. to smooth that rough touch with a tender kiss” which’s translated into “bibirku seperti dua musafir, siap untuk melembutkan sentuhan kasar itu dengan ciuman lembut”. d. imitation below are the examples of imitation strategy. 1. sl: sampson : a dog of the house of montague move me tl: sampson : anjing di rumah montague membuatku marah 2. sl: narrator : in fair veronna where we lay our scene tl: narator : di verona yang indah dimana kami bercerita 3. sl: lady montague : o where is romeo? saw you him today? tl: lady montague : dimana romeo? kau melihatnya tadi? as it has explained previously, imitation strategy is done in which the translators rewrite the source text into target text as what it is. this strategy is usually applied in translating the name of person or the name of place. in the above example, we can see that the translator just brings the word montague, verona, and romeo into target text without changing its phonemes or its writing. e. transcription this strategy is done by re-writing the use of certain words to fulfill the textual function about how the language should be used. but, in this research the researcher doesn’t find the using transcription strategy. f. condensation the followings are the examples of condensation strategy. an analysis on subtitling strategies of romeo and juliet movie 74 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 1. sl: nurse : now, by my maidenhead at twelve years old. i bade her come. what , lamb! what lady bird. god forbid! where is the girl? juliet tl: nurse : aku akan memanggilnya. tuhan melarang. juliet…… 2. sl: capulet : trust to it, bethink you, i’ll not be forsworn tl: capulet : percayalah. pikirkanlah 3. sl: clown : madam, the guest are come supper served up, you called tl: clown : nyonya, para tamu telah hadir condensation strategy is applied by summarizing the useless sentence or utterance. in the first sentence, the translator condenses the sentence “now, by my maidenhead at twelve years old. what, lamb! what lady bird. where is the girl?” in the target text. actually, the sentence “what, lady-bird! god forbid! “what, lamb! what lady bird” has a meaning the nurse asks juliet to come. the nurse uses the phrase “lady bird” means “woman of bad reputation” so, the use of phrase “god forbid” means that juliet should not be such kind of that girl. furthermore, that sentence is translated by using condensation strategy because the nurse speaks so loudly and fast. in the second example, condensation appears in the sentence “i’ll not be forsworn”. in this case, the condensation is done because this sentence is spoken fast and loudly. this quarrel happens because the speaker (capulet) is getting angry because of juliet’s refusal toward paris’ proposal. in the third sentence, “madam, the guests are come supper served up, you called” which is translated into “nyonya, para endang dwi hastuti register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 75 tamu telah hadir”, the condensation in this translation appears in “supper served up and you called”. although the translator condenses those clauses in the translation, but the viewers understand the message because in the screen also presented the served meals on the table and all the guests are ready with the party. g. desimation the followings are the example of decimation strategies. 1. sl: tybalt : what, drawn, and talk of peace? i hate the word tl: tybalt : damai? aku benci kata itu 2. sl: tybalt : have at thee, coward tl: tybalt : majulah, ayo 3. sl: sampson : quarrel. i’ll back thee. nay, as they dare tl: sampson : berkelahi aku akan mendukungmu in the first example, the decimation appears when the translator translates the sentence ““what, drawn, and talk of peace” which is translated into “damai?”. it means that there is an extreme condensation which’s called decimation. this utterance is spoken by tybalt when he gets a quarrel with the motagues family named benvolio. the same cases also appear in the second and third examples. the second and third examples literally have meanings “majulah kalian semua, pengecut”, but the translator condenses it into “majulah, ayo”. while in the sentence “quarrel. i’ll back thee. nay, as they dare” and translated into “berkelahi aku akan mendukungmu”, condensation strategy appears when translator condenses the meaning of the clause an analysis on subtitling strategies of romeo and juliet movie 76 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 “nay, as they dare” which’s literally has a meaning “jika mereka berani”. h. deletion the followings are the examples of deletion: 1. sl: juliet : come, gentle night; come loving, black-browed night tl: juliet : datanglah malam. datanglah malam penyayang 2. sl: benvolio : put up your sword, you know not what you do? tl: benvolio : kenakan pedangmu! in the first example, the translator deletes the phrase “blackbrowed” in the translation. actually that phrase is modifier of the word “night” so it becomes a noun phrase which the word “night” is the head and the phrase “loving black-browed” is the modifier which modifies the word ”night”. there is also an interesting thing toward that translation that is the translator translates the word “lovely” into “penyayang” which’s unacceptable in target language. the word “lovely” is equivalent with “bagus, menyenangkan, elok, indah”. so, the translation of the phrase “comes loving, black-browed night” should be “datanglah malam kelabu yang indah.” in the second example, the translator also makes deletion in doing the subtitling. the deletion appears when the translator deletes the sentence “you know not what you do”. that sentence is spoken by benvolio proposed to tybalt when they both are in a quarrel between the montague followers versus capulet followers. literally, that sentence has a meaning “tak taukah kau apa yang harus kau lakukan?”. endang dwi hastuti register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 77 this utterance has an implicit meaning in order that tybalt takes out his sword and gets ready to have quarreled with benvolio. i. taming below are the examples of taming strategy. 1. sl: lady capulet : fie, fie! what are you mad? tl: lady capulet : sudah, hentikan 2. sl: romeo : tush, thou are deceived tl: romeo : diam, pergilah kau those sentences are spoken by the speakers who are getting angry. then the translator translates the sentences by using taming strategies in order to be more acceptable and polite in target language culture. literally, those sentences can be translated into “hentikan, kau sudah gila/tidak waras” while the second sentence is “enyahlah, kau pembohong”. j. resignation below are the examples of resignation strategies. 1. sl: lady capulet: well, think of marriage now. younger than you here in verona, ladies of esteem are made already mothers i was your mother much young these years tl: lady capulet: seingatku, aku melahirkanmu saat aku seusiamu 2. sl: mercutio : athawart men’s noses as they lie asleep her wagon spokes made long spiders’ leg the covert of the wings of grasshoppers her traces of the smallest spider-web an analysis on subtitling strategies of romeo and juliet movie 78 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 tl: mercutio : dari hidung pria saat mereka tidur keretanya bagai lemari kosong in the first example, the translator doesn’t translate the sentence “well, think of marriage now. younger than you. here in verona, ladies of esteem are made already mothers”. those sentences are spoken by lady capulet when she persuades juliet in order to get married with paris, a rich and an honorable man from veronna. literally, those sentences can be translated into “berfikirlah untuk menikah. banyak gadis di verona lebih muda darimu dan sudah menjadi ibu”. the second example, the translator also doesn’t translate the sentence “the covert of the wings of grasshoppers. her traces of the smallest spider-web”. those sentences are spoken by mercutio when he speaks to romeo and they both tell about their own dreams. those sentences are spoken by mercution with low speech as though he were still in his dream. in his dream, mercutio met queen mab, a fairy who always presents in someone imagination when he/she is falling in love. actually, those sentences can be translated into “kerudung keretanya bagaikan sayap-sayap belalang. jejak keretanya bagaikan sarang labalaba”. conclusion from the above explanation it can be concluded that the subtitling strategies applied in the subtitling of romeo and juliet movies are expansion, paraphrase, transfer, imitation, condensation, decimation, deletion, taming, and resignation. among those strategies condensation is endang dwi hastuti register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 79 the most dominant one due to limited space and limited subtitling time appearance because in subtitling it must be thrifty translation. the accuracy of subtitling in romeo and juliet movie depends on the context covering the text, whether situation context or cultural context. there are three components or 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abdulloh yousuf ali arifah wulandari iain salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no 2 salatiga, central java, indonesia arifahwulan16@gmail.com abstract this study is aimed at the analysis of basic sentence patterns in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan. focusing on the problem statements, there are two cases in this study. they are “what are types of the basic sentence patterns that is found in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan and what is the dominant of the basic sentence patterns types that is found in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan. this research, applied descriptive qualitative method. the data is collected by documentation. the primary data is taken from surah ad dukhan in abdullah yousuf ali’s english translation of the noble al qur’an. the secondary data is taken from many literary books and some relevant materials to support and complete the primary data source. the procedure of analyzing the data start by analyzing about basic sentence patterns types based on nichols’s theory in his book english syntax. then find the dominant of the basic sentence patterns types of the holy qur’an english by abdullah yusuf ‘ali, in 1934 that is focus in surah ad dukhan. the overall findings showed that there were basic sentence patterns found in 52 cases are in sentence patterns 1consist of 12 cases, in sentence patterns 2 there are 19 cases, in sentence patterns 3 there are 7 cases, in sentence patterns 4 there are 10 cases, in sentence patterns 5 there are 4 cases. from the result the dominant cases that occurred of sentence patterns that found in abdullah yusuf ali’s the analysis of basic sentence patterns in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan by abdulloh yousuf ali 270 translation. the most dominant is sentence patterns 2. after analysis in this paper, the writer suggests in analyzing basic sentence pattern of english, we find that selection is an important syntactic process. the learner will get new idea doing observe as the writer done and they can possibly provide more book to have deeper analysis about that. key word: sentence patterns, translation, holy qur’an, surah ad dukhan. abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pola kalimat dasar pada terjemahan bahasa inggris yanga terdapat di al qur’an surat ad dukhan. pernyataan masalah fokus pada dua kasus dalam penelitian ini. kasus tersebut adalah “apa tipe-tipe pola kalimat dasar yang terdapat pada terjemahan bahasa inggris di dalam al qura’an surat ad dukhan” and “apakah tipe pola kalimat dasar yang sering muncul pada terjemahan bahasa inggris di dalam al qura’an surat ad dukhan”. dalam penelitian ini menerapkan metode diskriptif kualitatif. data dikumpulkan dengan dokumentasi. data utama diambil dari terjemahan bahasa inggris dalam al qur’an surat ad dukhan yg diterjemah kan oleh abdullah yousuf ali. data kedua diambil dari beberapa buku sasatra dan beberapa buku yng relavan untuk mendukung dan melengkapi data utama. cara menganalisa data dimulai dengan menganalisis tentang tipe pola kalimat dasar berdasarkan teori nichols dalam bukunya english syntax. kemudian menemukan tipe pola kalimat dasar yang sering muncul pada terjemahan bahasa inggris di dalam al qura’an surat ad dukhan oleh abdullah yousuf ali. temuan pada keseluruhannya menunjukkan bahwa pola kalimat dasar yang ditemukan ada 52 kasus diantaranya adalah pola kalimat tipe ke 1 terdapat 12 kasus, pada pola kalimat tipe ke 2 terdapat 19 kasus, pola kalimat tipe ke 3 terdapat 7 kasus, pola kalimat tipe ke 4 terdapat 10, dan pola kalimat tip eke 5 terdapat 4 kasus. dari hasil tersebut kasus yang sering muncul terjadi pada pola kalimat yang ditemukan dalam terjemahan bahasa inggris abdullah yousuf ali adalah pola jalimat tipe ke 2. setelah menganalisis tulisan ini, penulis menganjurkan untuk menganalis pola kalimat dalam bahasa inggris, kita menemukan pilihan yang penting dalam proses syntactic. para pembelajar akan mendapatkan ide baru unyuk melakukan penelitian seperti yang penulis telah lakukandan merekan mungkin memperlengkapi lebih banyak buku utuk menganalisis lebih dalam arifah wulandari 271 tentang itu. kata kunci: pola kalimat, terjemahan, kitab al qur’an, surah ad dukhan. introduction languages have rules. the rules of a language are called the grammar. the reason for these rules is that a person needs to be able to speak an indeterminately large number of sentences in a lifetime. the effort would be impossibly great if each sentence had to be learn separately. in linguistics, the way in which words are put together to form phrases, clauses, or sentences is called by syntax. according to miller (2002: xii), syntax has to do with how words are put together to build phrases, how phrases are put together to build clauses or bigger phrases, and how clauses are put together to build sentences. in small and familiar situations, humans could communicate using single words and many gestures, particularly when dealing with other members of the same social grouping (nuclear family, extended family, clan and so on). but complex messages for complex situations or complex ideas require more than just single words; every human language has devices with which its speakers can construct phrases and clauses. by learning the rules for connecting words it is possible to create an infinite number of sentences, all of which are meaningful to a person who knows the syntax. thus it is possible to construct many sentences that the speaker has never heard before. the analysis of basic sentence patterns in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan by abdulloh yousuf ali 272 language is the greatest means of communication among people which naturally tend to get closer to another language through speech. thus, they try to overcome the barrier of language among them through translation in any of its various forms, written or spoken. in translation, the rule of the language is very important. when we translate something, we will convey the message. we need syntax in order to compose complex message because it convey meaning. translation has played a great role in all walks of life just like politics, diplomacy, government administration, science, technology and religious activities. out of this vital part in communication among different peoples, cultures and races through different ages, translation has always been needed. translation has played a great role in the development of many languages and their literatures. translation is everywhere: in business, international politics, cultural exchange, science, technology and international organizations such as the united nations and european union (newmark, 1981: 5-6; massoud, 1988: 1-2). translation was a necessity in the past, an urgent need at present and will be a more pressing need in the future. in the past, arabic language rendered thousands of greek works in nearly all fields into their language. comparing the arabian world today with other european, asian and american countries in the field of translation, it is discovered that the arabian world lags behind all of them. in addition, arabic language needs translation to portray a true picture about their identity and culture, and here lies the importance of translating the qur’an, the core of their majority's religion—islam. there are many reasons for translating the qur’an. according to arifah wulandari 273 the islamic view, islam is a universal religion, and prophet muhammad was sent as a messenger to the whole world, regardless of language, color, race, etc. the universality of the islamic message has made muslims responsible for translating the qur’an into different languages to “the jn greatest part of the muslim nation, to whom arabic has become, a foreign language” (ghali, 2005: ix). in view of the importance of translating the qur’an, many eminent scholars of islam say that it is obligatory. it is important to translate the qur’an into different languages; the translation into english is the most important. first of all, english, as considered by many, is the first language all over the world nowadays. it is held as a language of high esteem and prestige, being the official language of many politically influential countries such as the usa and the uk and the second language of many other significant countries as china, india, etc. besides that, english is known as a foreign language in the world, especially in western europe. moreover, a great deal of the mass media is in english. this widespread of the english language gives any english translation of the qur’an the opportunity to be more widely read than any other translation into another language. in the preface of the holy qur’an english translation entitled the holy qur’an: translation and commentary by abdullah yusuf ‘ali, in 1934, wrote “the english language, being widely spread, many people interested in islam will get their ideas of the qur’an from english translations”. in this study, the writer chose surah ad-dukhan for the discussion. the surah is chosen because there are many messages in this the analysis of basic sentence patterns in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan by abdulloh yousuf ali 274 surah. the theme of this particular surah is how worldly pride and power are humbled in the dust if they resist spiritual forces, and how evil and good find their true setting in the hereafter. the title of ad dukhan revealed in verse 10 in the holy qur’an. the meaning of ad dukhan is smoke or mist and may refer to a drought or famine, as explained in the notes to the verse. it is very important to understand the whole content of this surah. we can learn it through the translation then applied the moral excellences from this surah for our daily life. language in translation language is “the system of human expression by means of words” while literature is” a written works which are of artistic value”. according to (newmark, 1988: 127), a literary translation should be artistic and has no limited right. moreover, as connotative, literary text should be translated to know its latent meaning, to look the allegory in the story, the moral in the action, etc. he said that the interpretation of text is able to clear up and even increase by way of translation. it is to give some perception and understanding of culture (newmark, 1988: 19). the relationship of linguistics to translation can be twofold: one can apply the findings of linguistics to the practice of translation, and one can have a linguistic theory of translation, as opposed, say, to a literary, economic or psychological theory of translation. saussure (linguist) made it possible to see language as a set of structured systems rather than a ragbag of bits and pieces. some parts of language, such as grammar, have always been thought of as systems, of course. but the structuralism linguistics that emerged from saussure's arifah wulandari 275 work attempted to uncover the systematic and structured nature of other parts of language: the sound system (phonetics and phonemics), the grammar system (syntax, which is word order, and morphology, which is word shape) and the meaning system (semantics). definition of syntax syntax is concerned with the ways in which words can be combined together to form phrases and sentences. grammar is traditionally concerned not just with the principles which determine the formation of words, phrase, and sentences, but also with principles which tell us how to interpret (= assign meaning to) words, phrases, and sentences. for example, any comprehensive grammar of english will specify that compound words like man-eater and man-made, the word man is traditionally said to have a patient interpretation, in the sense that man is the patient/hopeless victim on whom the act of eating is going to be performed; by contrast, in compounds like man-made, the word man is said to have an agent interpretation, in the sense the man is agent responsible for the act of making. thus, structural aspects of meaning traditionally said to be part of the domain of grammar. in terms of the traditional division of grammar into morphology and syntax, we can say that morphology studies the formation and interpretation of word, where as syntax is concerned with the formation and interpretation of phrases and sentences. sentence patterns sentence patterns can be understood as the way sentences are usually structured. it is important to learn the most common sentence the analysis of basic sentence patterns in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan by abdulloh yousuf ali 276 patterns in english, as most of the sentences you will hear, write, and speak will follow these basic patterns. there are a number of common sentence patterns used to write most sentences in english. the basic sentence patterns presented in this guide to sentence patterns will help to understand the underlying pattern in even the most complex english sentences. parts of speech are put together to create sentence patterns in english. quickly, the eight parts of speech are as follows: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, preposition and interjection we are all familiar with the basic sentence patterns of english. we know how to use them in their simplest forms. but sometimes when we concentrate very hard on what we want to say, or when we try to complicate one these patterns, you omit a basic sentence part, or try to combine sentence parts that cannot be fitted together. when this happens, our sentence collapses just as building would collapse if the engineers and builders omitted part of the foundation or tried to fasten two important steel girders together in the wrong places. here are five of the most commonly used basic sentence patterns bread spoils. n v children like bread n v n bread is food nx lv nx bread is nutritious n lv adj bread provides mankind nutrition n1 v n2 n3 arifah wulandari 277 these latter symbols will be used to designate syntactical units that are basic sentence parts: n −nominal, v –verbal (lv –linking verbal), adj –adjectival. an x written as a subscript to n indicates that the nominal so marked refer to the same object or idea. notice that bread and food could be replaced by the same pronoun, it, although in actual writing you would not replace both noun with pronouns. if more than two nominal’s occur in a given pattern, as in example 5, sub numerals are used to indicate the order in which they come. these “stripped down” sentence patterns seem a little strange partly because they are so simple. only the basic elements are present. mature writers seldom write this way, although such simple sentences can sometimes be very effective. the following versions of these sentences sound much more normal. but notice that the sentence patterns have not been changed. the basic sentence elements are only a little more complex: noun phrases replace single nouns, verb phrases replace single verb, adverbials modify verbs, and intensifiers modify adjectives.  homemade bread spoils more quickly that commercially produced bread. n v  most children like bread and jam. n v n  bread is a staple food in most families. nx lv nx  not all bread is equally nutritious. n1 lv adj  bread has been providing mankind nutrition since the beginning of time. n1 v n2 n3 the first thing you probably notice about these patterns is that they each have a nominal and verbal element. the verbal constituent of a the analysis of basic sentence patterns in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan by abdulloh yousuf ali 278 sentence may be either singe verb or a verb phrase, as we saw in section 5. the nominal element or constituent is a little more complicated, and must be discussed in further detail before we consider the interrelationship between the basic sentence parts. in this case, the writer would to discuss about the analysis of basic sentence patterns in english translations of surat ad-dukhan (chapter of smoke) undertaken by ‘abdullah yusuf ‘ali’s holy qur’an translation. based on the study about syntax, the writer will find some sentences then analyze them according to the types of sentences pattern research methodology in this study of “basic sentence patterns in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhon”, the writer used descriptive qualitative method. qualitative researching was exciting and important. it was a highly rewarding activity because it engages us with things that matter, in ways that matter. through qualitative research we could explore a wide array of dimensions of the social world, including the texture and weave of everyday life, the understandings, experiences and imaginings of our research participants, the ways that social processes, institutions, discourses or relationships work, and the significance of the meanings that they generate. qualitative research is descriptive because the result of the analyze data was phenomena description, not numerals about variable correlations. the qualitative researcher was said to look through a wide lens, searching for patterns of inter-relationship between a previously unspecified set of concepts. arifah wulandari 279 qualitative research should be strategically conducted, flexible and contextual. essentially, this means that qualitative researchers should make decisions on the basis not only of a sound research strategy, but also of sensitivity to the changing contexts and situations in which the research takes place. research subject. the research subject in this study is analysis basic sentence patterns in “english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhon” research object. the research object in this study is all aspect that becomes target in the research. the object of this research is the english translation in surah ad dukhon” of the holy qur’an data source primary data source primary data source is the essential source derived from english translation in “surah ad dukhon” of the holy qur’an by abdullah yusuf ‘ali. secondary data source. the secondary source which is used to support and complete the primary data usually was arranged into documents model the data is taken from many kinds of books relevant materials such as books of literary theories. technique of collecting data. to collect the data the writer used note taking technique, a technique that prepare data trough writing on data card, then continuing by classification. the steps are: the analysis of basic sentence patterns in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan by abdulloh yousuf ali 280 collecting the data from books and academic writing that is related with this research. choosing one of the holy qur’an translation model then finding surah ad dukhan. reading the translation. try to find the theories which were support this study. concluding the data. technique of data analysis. based on sudaryanto (1993:13-17) there are two kinds of methods in analyzing data of language; they are padan method (referential methode) and agih method (distributiona method). agih method is used since the language itself becomes the determiner of the research. while padan method is a method in which determiner is outside, unbound, and not a part of the relevant language. . the writer used agih method (distributiona method) to select sentence patterns in the english translation in the surah ad dukhan to classifying the data and to analyze the data the writer used disributional method. the interpretation of the text is content analysis. the steps are: the writer reading and learning whole the english translation supported by understand all the “surah ad dukhon” of the holy qur’an. the writer gives an underline of english translation which arifah wulandari 281 contains the basic sentence pattern. the writer classification of sentence pattern in english translation and make data presentation. the writer codification types of basic sentence pattern that found in english translation. the writer describing and analyzing types of basic sentence pattern that found in english translation the writer making the conclusion based on the data analysis. discussion the analysis of basic sentence patters in surah ad dukhan, the writer find based on the objective of the study. the writer finds the types of sentence patterns of sentence patterns in english translation of surah ad dukhan as the following:  types of the basic sentence patterns there are five basic sentence patterns according nichols:  patterns 1 noun / verb (n v ) this basic sentence pattern is a noun followed by a verb. it's important to remember that only verbs that do not require objects are used in this sentence pattern. there are 11 cases of sentence patterns 1 that found in surah ad dukhan. there are: in the verse (q.s 44: 6), (q.s 44: 9), (q.s 44: 14), (q.s 44: 23), (q.s 44: 25), (q.s 44: 27), (q.s 44: 45), (q.s 44: 46), (q.s 44: 47), (q.s 44: 55), and (q.s 44: 59). the example of analysis: the analysis of basic sentence patterns in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan by abdulloh yousuf ali 282  ٦) اْلَعِلْیُم السَِّمْیُع ُھَو ِإنَُّھ َربَِّك ِمْن (َرْحَمًة translation: as a mercy from thy lord: for hehears and knows (all things); (q.s 44: 6) the sentence above includes basic sentences pattern 1 because there is noun “he” that followed by verb “hears and know”. there is indication of what he hears and knows, but in this verse just written in parenthesis is (all things) not described.  patterns 2 noun / verb / noun (n v n ) the sentence pattern 2 builds on the first pattern and is used with nouns that can take objects. there are 22 case sentence patterns 2 that found in surah ad dukhan. there are: in the verse (q.s 44: 2), (q.s 44: 3), (q.s 44: 5), (q.s 44: 10), (q.s 44: 12), (q.s 44: 15), (q.s 44: 16), (q.s 44: 21), (q.s 44: 28), (q.s 44: 29), (q.s 44: 30), (q.s 44: 32), (q.s 44: 34), (q.s 44: 37), (q.s 44: 38), (q.s 44: 39), (q.s 44: 41), (q.s 44: 48), (q.s 44: 51), (q.s 44: 53), (q.s 44: 56), and (q.s 44: 58). the example of analysis:  ١٢) ُمْؤِمُنْوَن ِإنَّا اْلَعَذاَب َعنَّا اْكِشْف (َربََّنا translation: (they will say :) "our lord!removethe penalty from us for we do really believe!" (q.s 44: 12) arifah wulandari 283 this sentence is composed of two nominal and one verbal, or subject “our lord” and predicate “remove” and used with nouns that can take objects “the penalty”. this sentence can transform into derived sentence by changing the active verb into a passive verb and converting the object nominal into the subject nominal.  patterns 3noun / linking verb / noun (nx lv nx ) this sentence pattern uses linking verbs to link one noun to another. linking verbs are also known as equating verbs. there are 7 case sentence patterns 3 that found in surah ad dukhan. there are: in the verse (q.s 44: 13), (q.s 44: 17), (q.s 44: 24), (q.s 44: 33), (q.s 44: 40), (q.s 44: 44), and (q.s 44: 50). the example of analysis:  ١٣) ُمِبْیٌن َرُسْوٌل َجآَءُھْم َوَقْد الذِّْكَرْى َلُھُم (َأّنٰى translation: how shall the messagebe(effectual) for them, seeing that a messenger explaining things clearly has (already) come to them (q.s 44: 13) this sentence uses linking verbs to link one noun to another. linking verbs also known as equating verb is “be”. there are two nominal’s refer to the same object and each can be replaced by same pronoun (message –it, effectual –it) the second nominal is simply the identification or classification of the first. the analysis of basic sentence patterns in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan by abdulloh yousuf ali 284  patterns 4 noun / linking verb / adjective (n lv adj) this sentence pattern uses linking verbs to link one noun to its description using an adjective. there are 10 case sentence patterns 4 that found in surah ad dukhan. there are: in the verse (q.s 44: 4), (q.s 44: 7), (q.s 44: 11), (q.s 44: 22), (q.s 44: 31), (q.s 44: 35), (q.s 44: 36), (q.s 44: 42), (q.s 44: 35), (q.s 44: 36), (q.s 44: 42), (q.s 44: 49), (q.s 44: 57). the example of analysis:  ١١) َأِلْیٌم َعَذاٌب ھَٰذا النَّاَس (َیْغَشى translation:enveloping the people: thiswill bea penalty grievous. (q.s 44: 11) the art people n will mod be lv a art penalty n grievous adj n lv n this sentence includes sentence pattern 4, uses linking verbs to link one noun to its description using an adjective. this sentence is composed of noun (the people), linking verb (be), and adjective (a penalty grievous).  patterns 5 noun / verb / noun / noun (n v n n) sentence pattern 5 is used with verbs that take both direct and indirect objects. there are 4 case sentence patterns 5 that found in surah ad dukhan. there are: in the verse (q.s 44: 7), (q.s 44: 17), (q.s 44: 20), (q.s 44: 54). arifah wulandari 285 the example of analysis:  ٨) اْلَأوَِّلْیَن آَباِئُكُم َوَربُّ َربُُّكْم َوُیِمْیُت ُیْحِیْي ُھَو ِإلَّا ِإلَٰھ (َلا translation: there is no god but he: it is he who giveslife and gives death -the lord and cherisher to you and your earliest ancestors. (q.s 44: 8) this sentence includes basic sentence pattern 5. this sentence is composed of only three nominal (he, life, and death) and one verbal (give), the third nominal is the direct object, and the second, which is the first nominal following the verb is the indirect object.  the dominant types of sentence patterns in english translation of surah ad dukhan. the analysis show that sentence patterns found in 52 cases are in sentence patterns 1 consist of 12 cases, in sentence patterns 2 there are 19 cases, in sentence patterns 3 there are 7 cases, in sentence patterns 4 there are 10 cases, in sentence patterns 5 there are 4 case. te most dominant is sentence patterns 2 conclusion after analyzing the basic sentence patters in surah ad dukhan, the writer concludes based on the objective of the study. the writer finds the types of sentence patterns and finds the dominant types of sentence patterns in english translation of surah ad dukhan as the following:  types of the basic sentence patterns the analysis of basic sentence patterns in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan by abdulloh yousuf ali 286 there are five basic sentence patterns according nichols: patterns 1 noun / verb (n v ) this basic sentence pattern is a noun followed by a verb. it's important to remember that only verbs that do not require objects are used in this sentence pattern. there are 11 cases of sentence patterns 1 that found in surah ad dukhan. there are: in the verse (q.s 44: 6), (q.s 44: 9), (q.s 44: 14), (q.s 44: 23), (q.s 44: 25), (q.s 44: 27), (q.s 44: 45), (q.s 44: 46), (q.s 44: 47), (q.s 44: 55), and (q.s 44: 59) patterns 2 noun / verb / noun (n v n ) the sentence pattern 2 builds on the first pattern and is used with nouns that can take objects. there are 22 case sentence patterns 2 that found in surah ad dukhan. there are: in the verse (q.s 44: 2), (q.s 44: 3), (q.s 44: 5), (q.s 44: 10), (q.s 44: 12), (q.s 44: 15), (q.s 44: 16), (q.s 44: 21), (q.s 44: 28), (q.s 44: 29), (q.s 44: 30), (q.s 44: 32), (q.s 44: 34), (q.s 44: 37), (q.s 44: 38), (q.s 44: 39), (q.s 44: 41), (q.s 44: 48), (q.s 44: 51), (q.s 44: 53), (q.s 44: 56), and (q.s 44: 58). patterns 3noun / linking verb / noun (nx lv nx ) this sentence pattern uses linking verbs to link one noun to another. linking verbs are also known as equating verbs. there are 7 case sentence patterns 3 that found in surah ad dukhan. there are: in the verse (q.s 44: 13), arifah wulandari 287 (q.s 44: 17), (q.s 44: 24), (q.s 44: 33), (q.s 44: 40), (q.s 44: 44), and (q.s 44: 50). patterns 4 noun / linking verb / adjective (n lv adj) this sentence pattern uses linking verbs to link one noun to its description using an adjective. there are 10 case sentence patterns 4 that found in surah ad dukhan. there are: in the verse (q.s 44: 4), (q.s 44: 7), (q.s 44: 11), (q.s 44: 22), (q.s 44: 31), (q.s 44: 35), (q.s 44: 36), (q.s 44: 42), (q.s 44: 35), (q.s 44: 36), (q.s 44: 42), (q.s 44: 49), (q.s 44: 57). patterns 5 noun / verb / noun / noun (n v n n) sentence pattern 5 is used with verbs that take both direct and indirect objects. there are 4 case sentence patterns 5 that found in surah ad dukhan. there are: in the verse (q.s 44: 7), (q.s 44: 17), (q.s 44: 20), (q.s 44: 54). the finding of the analysis show that sentence patterns found in 52 cases are in sentence patterns 1 consist of 12 cases, in sentence patterns 2 there are 19 cases, in sentence patterns 3 there are 7 cases, in sentence patterns 4 there are 10 cases, in sentence patterns 5 there are 4 case. from the result the dominant cases that occurred of sentence patterns that found in abdullah yusuf ali translation. the most dominant is sentence patterns 2. because subject – verb – object is the most common order by number of speakers, and the second most common order by number of known languages. the analysis of basic sentence patterns in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan by abdulloh yousuf ali 288 references ali, abdullah yousuf. (1934). the glorious qur’an translation and commentary.lebanon: beirut. arikunto, suharsimi. (1998). prosedurpenelitian.jakarta: rinekacipta. azar, betty schducatrampfer. (1999). understanding and using english grammar third edition.pearson education. usa chomsky, noam, (1965). aspect of the theory of syntax, m.i.t. press, cambridge, massachusetts. denffer, ahmad von. (1994). ulum alqur’an :an introduction to the sciences of the qur’an. islamic fondation. fawcett, peter. (2003). translation and language.manchester, uk & northampton, ma. frank, marcella. (1972). modern english: a practical reference guide. new york: university hornby, as. (1974). oxford advanced learner’s dictionary of current english: walton street. university press lyons, john., (1968). introduction to theoretical linguistics.cambridge university. miller, jim (2002). an introduction to english syntax.edinburgh university press. edinburgh press, new york newmark, peter. (1988). approaches to translation.hert ford shire; prentice hall international (u k) ltd. nida e.y taber ch. (1974).the theory and practice of translating. brill,leiden nichols, aaneljenholm. (1965). english syntax advanced composition for native speaker.los angeles state college. usa arifah wulandari 289 radford, a. (1997). syntax: a minimalist introduction. cambridge university press. new york. r.mason, jennifer. (2002). qualitative researching second edition. london: sage publications. sadiq, saudi. (2010). a comparative study of four english translations of surat ad-dukhan on the semantic level. cambridge scholars sudaryanto.(1993). metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa.yogyakarta.duta wacana university press. https://eg.wikipedia.org/wiki/ad-dukhan (retrieved on friday, august 07th 2015) http://memorizejuzamma.com/juz%20amma/3.tafsir/tafsir%20ibn%20 kathir/044%20dukhan.htm (retrieved on friday, august 07th 2015) http://esl.about.com/od/writingintermediate/a/sentence_patterns.htm (retrieved on friday, august 07th 2015) the analysis of basic sentence patterns in english translation of the holy qur’an in surah ad dukhan by abdulloh yousuf ali 290 rethinking language education in indonesia register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 42 the significance of introducing culture in efl instruction noor malihah english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 2 salatiga, central java, indonesia abstract efl students many times made mistakes in using the english expressions and led to misinterpretations or even acceptable message of their utterances. this is due to their lack of cultural awareness or their understanding towards l2 culture. therefore, efl teachers should think of how to give position to the l1 and l2 culture in their teaching and learning process of efl instructions.to solve the problems, there are some approaches used to introduce the target language culture, by knowing the obstacles that the learners frequently made. keywords: efl, cultural, awareness, approaches, obstacles abstrak pembelajar bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing berkali-kali melakukan kesalahan dalam menggunakan ungkapan-ungkapan bahasa inggris sehingga menyebabkan salah tafsir atau bahkan pesan yang diterima pada ujaran mereka . hal ini disebabkan kurangnya kesadaran budaya atau pemahaman mereka terhadap budaya l2 . oleh karena itu , guru bahasa inggris perlu memikirkan bagaimana memberikan porsi pengenalan budaya l1 dan l2 dalam proses belajar mengajar bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing. untuk memecahkan masalah tersebut , ada beberapa pendekatan yang digunakan untuk memperkenalkan budaya bahasa target, dengan mengenali kendala yang sering ditemui oleh peserta didik. kata kunci: efl, budaya, kesadaran, pendekatan, hambatan register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 43 introduction as everybody knows, english is very popular language spoken and learned by many people throughout the world at recent time. this is due to a certain demand, which is today needed in facing the free trade in the globalization era where everything, included any information can be adopted easily, and english is as the international language, which is acknowledged both conventionally and administered. plunging into the opened-era, what is so called for globalization era, involves man aspects of life such as economic, politic, social, academic, and so on. culture has become an increasingly important component of english language teaching in recent times. there are a number of reasons for this, due to the wide use of english all over the world by multicultural communities. it therefore is necessary to examine the use of english in indonesia and the teaching of culture. many times, our students use inappropriate english utterances while having a conversation in english due to their lack of cultural awareness about the target language. it disturbs the goals of communication, as the message of the utterance will be blur since it probably creates misinterpretations or unacceptable communication. let us consider the following example: 1). x: thank you y: same-same 2). x: when will you come to her house? y. in the morning day 3). x: where are they? y: walking-walking 4). x: what is your father? register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 44 y: my father is a human the above utterances show indifferent responds uttered by the non native speakers, as efl learners. it can be seen from utterance 1), where the respond of thank you, is same-same, instead of you’re welcome or other proper expression, which is actually the derivation of indonesian culture; when someone terima kasih ‘thank you’ the answer will be sama-sama ‘same-same’. similarly, the expression in no 2) also the derivation of l1 context where in the morning day is word-to-word translation of pada pagi hari which should be in the morning. so does in the utterance no 3), where the form of walking-walking is the word to word translation of jalan-jalan ‘walk around’. in no 4), the answer stated by y is improper to the question given by x due to the english context. however, since y is lack of understanding english culture, the answer is derived from the indonesian context where the question means bapakmu itu apa?, ‘what is this (thing)?; and the answer expected is whether he is a man, a thing, or others. the speaker did not think that the question is actually to know his father job. the other improper expressions resulted by lack of understanding culture of l2 are: 5). x: are you married? 6). x: how old are you? 7). x: how much salary do you get to work in that company? questions in 5), 6), and 7) are forbidden in the english context instead those are given by an interviewer in job interview; however it is permissible in indonesian culture, especially for the javanese in order to break the ice for having conversation with new acquaintance. 8) mbak erica, do you like to be in indonesia? register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 45 the use of address form in the above sentence is acceptable in the indonesian context; however, if it is applied in the real culture of english native speakers, they probably get confused with such term. it is due to the different system of addressing. dealing with this case, therefore, it is very necessary for efl teachers to think about how to introduce the culture of english in the real conversation. as everyone knows that teaching english in outside of english speaking countries leads to some difficulties in introducing the culture awareness, thus there should be a study on how these difficulties may be overcome and how we might approach the teaching of cultural awareness in a systematic way as applied to the indonesian environment. discussion the language and culture in communication whorfian (wardaugh, 1992: 218) presents his hypotheses about language and culture: (1) the structure of a language determines the way in which the speakers of that language view the world,; (2) the culture of people finds reflection in the language they employ, because they value certain things and do them in a certain way, they come to use their language in ways that reflect what they value and what they do.; (3) there is little or no relationship between language and culture. in other side, sapir acknowledged the close relationship between language and culture, maintaining that they were inextricably related so that it is impossible to understand or appreciate the one without knowledge of the other. therefore, every language will reflect the values, beliefs, and assumptions of the culture it came from. thus learning a language will also involve learning the culture the language expresses and consequently, our view of language teachingshould link between culture and language. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 46 to be able to communicate well means that it is not merely to understand the syntax and range of _expression within a language. hymes' (1972) definition of communicative competence, which underpins much of communicative language teaching, prompts the importance of understanding the socio-linguistic aspects of language. communicative competence involves an understanding of the norms of social interaction of one sociocultural community, intercultural communicative competence entails an understanding of the differences in interactional norms between different speech communities and an ability to "reconcile or mediate between different modes present" (byram and fleming 1998, 12). central to the notion of intercultural communicative competence is 'cultural awareness'. cultural awareness involves an understanding not only of the culture of the language being studied but also of the learners' own culture. this view leads to a fact that it will be impossible to have successful communication without grasping the cultural awareness. the english teaching and use in the indonesian culture english is a very popular language spoken and learned as well as used and taught in a diverse range of situations and cultures throughout the world, often far removed, in both distance and in beliefs and values, from the cultures of the original english speaking countries at present times. krachu (1977) has illustrated different varieties of english outside of these original english-speaking countries such as indian english and nigerian english. many of these contexts, such as asia have very different beliefs, value systems, and educational doctrines to the traditional english speaking countries such as great britain and the united states. for the indonesian people, english is as a foreign language, which is taught in schools often from the third years of schooling since it becomes the local content to be register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 47 studied in formal schools. at present days, english competency is one of the requirements in government universities undergraduate and post-graduate degrees. therefore the teaching of english provides chance to give variety of uses english in a variety of indonesian contexts in ways removed from native speaker norms. various cultures lead to difficulties in teaching language english teaching and use may occur in a wide variety of contexts in non-english speaking countries, which often do not involve english native speaker (ns). this raises the important question of what culture we should be addressing when teaching cultural awareness. if not all communication is taking place with english ns then it may not be relevant to teach english culture. contradictory to the whorf hypotheses, alptekin and alptekin (1984: 16) suggest that we should not be teaching english with reference to englishspeaking countries' cultures but be independent from the cultural context instead referring only to the "international attitudes" english; as stated at the beginning of this paper, culture and language are inexorably linked and as such cannot be separated. someother linguists prompt that (see valdes, 1986, 1990, byram 1991, byram and fleming 1998, kramsch 1993) teaching english without teaching culture is impossible. through conscious or unconscious process, it is unavoidable to transmit the culture of the language during the teaching learning process. since the outside speaking english countries are so many, as well as the indonesian, there will arise many difficulties in grasping the culture of the foreign language in the native language situation, which culture should be applied in teaching the language, the native language or the foreign language? national characteristics vs. the foreign language characteristics register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 48 some people attempt to identify their national characteristics for the purposes of comparing and contrasting cultures, leads to oversimplification and stereotypes of cultural characteristics. such belief will reject the diversity of other cultures. this can create an unrealistic stereotyped view of english culture in learners, especially when learners compare the culture presented in tesol materials with their own probably more balanced view of their own culture (guest, 1990: 35). their attitude towards english will influence much on the achievement in using the language. therefore, it is important to distinct between generalizations and stereotypes. stereotypes are fixed and are not open to change or modification with experience, whereas generalizations are flexible and change over time with our experiences (clarke and clarke 1990, 34) and thus can aid understanding. as lado (1957 cited in valdes 1986) notes, when comparing two cultures we must be very careful in the generalizations we make and be prepared to revise or change these generalizations as our understanding of another culture develops. this yields in the facts that the indonesian learners will be exposed to encounter with english culture through western media and brief encounters with tourists, which can easily lead to unrepresentative stereotypical impressions. the teachers can solve it by helping the learners through discussions and critical examinations of them in the classroom using the english media. how to teach culture? referring to the theme of this writing that language and culture are inseparable and that in teaching english we will also be transmitting the values of english culture, in agreement, kramsch has pointed out that "language teachers are so much teachers of culture that culture has often become invisible to them."(1993: 48). therefore, culture should be best taught in all aspects of language such as grammar and vocabulary. a survey register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 49 by timmis (2002), states that the majority of learners and teachers of english from a large range of countries expressed a desire to speak english according to native speaker norms, however the survey also demonstrated a wish to retain aspects of their own culture such as accent, especially amongst asian students (timmis 2002, 242). these surveys would seem to provide good evidence for teaching the culture of english speaking countries. however, they also suggest that not only english-speaking culture should be taught but also other cultures need to be examined. in particular, learners need to develop an awareness of their own and other cultures and this will be dealt with more fully in the examination of approaches to teaching culture. dunnet et. al. suggest six aspects of culture that learners and teachers should be familiar with. they are: (1) languages cannot be translated wordfor-word…(2) the tone of a speaker's voice (the intonation pattern) carries meaning… (3) each language-culture employs gestures and body movements which convey meaning…(4)…languages use different grammatical elements for describing all parts of the physical world. (5) all cultures have taboo topics…(6) in personal relationships, the terms for addressing people vary considerably among languages. (1986, 148-149). teachers and learners should be aware of these features and be prepared to analyze both their own culture and the target culture according to such criteria. languages cannot be translated word for word. as dunnett et al. stress individual words have idiomatic uses and connotations that go beyond the individual word itself. if we take the english word 'serious' the list of connotations for a indonesian are very different to the average native speaker. whereas in english it can have positive, negative, or neutral connotations, the indonesian connotations of 'hostess' (which can be translated in various ways e.g. 'nyonya rumah', 'wanita penghibur' or even register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 50 'psk') are very different and usually associated with immoral woman. this is not a concept that is likely to explain in a simple dictionary style word-forword translation. the intonation pattern carries meaning. the indonesian language is a tonal language and so the intonation patterns are very different to the english language. for indonesian students, it is important that they recognize the importance of tonal patterns at the super segmental level in english as opposed to the individual syllable pattern for tones in indonesian. languages and cultures use non-verbalcommunication that conveys meaning. although many gestures are similar in indonesian and english such as nodding for affirmation many others are not shared. a good example of this is the ubiquitous 'indonesian smile'. a smile given by some one will be interpreted in various ways such like happiness, acceptance, satire, annoyance, etc. languages use different grammatical elements for describing the physical world. indonesian and english grammar are very different in a number of areas such as subject use, tense and aspect, inflections and word order. these can at times cause communication problems at a semantic level. for instance, the indonesian language contains no tense or aspect. this can make areas of english grammar such as past simple or present perfect and any accompanying temporal references difficult to grasp for indonesian learners. even when learners understand them, they may find them cumbersome and avoid using them (svalberg and chuchu 1998). the extent to which this may represent different approaches to viewing the physical world are debatable, register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 51 however it will be understandable for those who are familiar with both indonesian and english culture that there is a different concept about time. cultures have taboo topics. many of the topic taboos of english and indonesian culture are the same and certainly, indonesian's rarely give offence, in my experience, to native english speakers in terms of topic choice. nevertheless, there are a number of topics, which are perhaps a more acceptable choice of topic in indonesian than in english. for the english speakers, talking about marital status, salary, religion, and age are taboo, meanwhile such topics are not taboo to the indonesian speakers since they usually easy to move their conversation by asking the topics. the terms for addressing people vary considerably among languages. this is another area of considerable difference between english and indonesian. terms of address in indonesia often refer to the age of the interlocutors. there is no equivalent for this in english, although indonesian students often ask for age clarification when it is not given in english. for example when asked about my family, the indonesian learners will ask whether the brother or sister is younger or older than the speaker, and therefore they need to know how the address their family members where at the same time comparing the addressing terms use in both languages. it is known that in indonesia we know such term of ‘mbak’, ‘mas’, or ‘dik’ which reflect to the age of the intended person towards the family. it is not found in english terms. on the way around, there is no use of such first names in formal address rather than surnames. native english speakers are often referred to as mr. followed by their first name and no surname e.g. mr. william. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 52 then it needs effort to achieve a full understanding of culture. if language and culture are inseparable then as learners acquire a new language they will also be acquiring a new culture. however, we cannot expect this culture to be the same as either the learners' native culture or the culture of the language they are studying. the learner will initially have a synthesis with their own culture, and in learning, a foreign language such as english may use it in ways that express meaning in their own culture. nevertheless, as learners' understanding of a foreign language develops they may come to understand other values and meanings familiar to the foreign culture that are alien to their own culture. yet their understanding of these values and meanings may still be different to that of the native speaker. due to this phenomenon, kramsch suggests that there should be a ‘third place’ in foreign language learning that the learner must make for him/herself between their first cultures (c1) and the foreign language culture (c2). this 'third place' involves the language learner in an objective and subjective reflection of c1 and c2 from which they must choose their own meanings that best reflect their personal perspectives. hence, this conception of culture emphasizes the importance of individual interpretations of culture rather than rigid stereotypical notions. if this process of acquiring culture and language is successful, learners should be able to use english in such a way as to communicate effectively with english ns and in a way that reflects their own local cultures and personal beliefs (see kramsch and sullivan 1996). in this way, learners of english will no longer be seen as trying to be pseudo-english ns but as speakers in their own right. the implementation in language teaching the importance of culture within english teaching in indonesia develops well at present as well as the need for teachers and learners to be register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 53 aware of the complexity of culture. since there are the various uses of english in indonesia previously, it will be better that the indonesian learners need to use english in multi-cultural contexts rather than with reference to only the english speech community, and teaching content needs to reflect this. furthermore, teaching methodology itself needs to mediate between indonesian and western educational values, especially concerning communicative, learner-centered approaches to language teaching (see for example williams 1992, kajornboon 2000). there are some aspects, which are important to pay attention to, they are (1) the teaching of culture should take place within the normal language classroom and not as a separate subject as has been traditionally the case in indonesia. (2) equally importantly, materials and content in efl instruction should try to make learners aware of the cultural content of language learning and encourage indonesian learners to compare english culture with their own. (3) these materials must also encourage learners to compare cultures and to take a critical perspective. tomalin and stempleski (1993) propose a range of tasks such as class discussions, research and role-plays using materials drawn from english speaking countries that promote discussions, comparisons and reflection on english culture and the learners own culture. (4) teacher training for both the native english speaking teacher (nest) and non-nest should equip them to deal with culture and cultural contrasts as they arise in english teaching. in the context of learning english in nonenglish speaking countries, for the local non-nest, knowledge of english culture and of their own culture would be necessary and some time spent in an english speaking country would be valuable. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 54 conclusion if culture and language are interlinked and inseparable then we need to try to teach culture in some kind of systematic way, as we try to do with other aspects of language. however, there are problems in deciding what culture to teach, possibly creating cultural stereotypes, and ignoring the individual when teaching culture. furthermore, in many foreign countries, such as indonesia, english is often used as an international language rather than as a means of communicating with english speakers from english speaking countries, bringing into question the relevance of english speaking culture. nevertheless, these difficulties do not mean that culture should be ignored or left to unconscious processes. learners and teachers should be aware of the cultural aspects of communication and language and need to be able to interpret these on both national and individual levels. they should also be prepared to re-evaluate and re-assess their knowledge based on experience. learners also need to be encouraged to view using a second language as a new cultural experience and not part of either their native culture or the tl culture. communication in an l2 or fl takes place in a 'third place'. teacher training, materials, and course content within indonesia need to reflect such uses of english. english teachers in indonesia should be familiar with both english and indonesian culture and be able to take crosscultural perspectives. moreover, materials should encourage learners to reflect on comparisons between cultures and to form their own perspective on them; through materials drawn from english cultures, cross-cultural materials involving outsiders' observations on english culture, and locally produced (indonesian) english materials. finally the teaching of culture should be integrated into normal english lessons and be a covert part of the lesson. the view of language learning presented above encourages learners to view register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 55 themselves as acquiring a new culture and one that enables them to take a cross-cultural perspective on their own and the tl culture. references alptekin, c. and alptekin, m. 1984.'the question of culture: efl teaching in non-english speaking countries' elt journal 38/1:14-20 baker.w. 2003. should culture be an overt component of efl instruction outside of english speaking countries? the thai context. asian efl journal 1/2007-12/2007. retrieved fromhttp://www.asian-efljournal.com/efl_sites_search.php byram, m. and fleming, m. 1998.language learning in intercultural perspective. cambridge: cambridge university press damnet, a. 2003. acquisition of intercultural non-verbal competence: examining the discourse, the 23rd thailand tesol international conference; january 23-25, 2003; bangkok, thailand dunnett, s., dubin, f. and lezberg, a. 1986.english language teaching from an intercultural perspective, in valdes, j. culture bound, cambridge: cambridge university press hymes, d. 1972.on communicative competence in pride, j. and holmes, j. (eds.), sociolinguistics, harmondsworth: penguin, pp 269-293 kachru, b.b. 1977.'the new englishes and old models' english teaching forum 15/3:29-35 kramsch, c. 1993.context and culture in language teaching, oxford: oxford university press kramsch, c. and sullivan, p. 1996. appropriate pedagogy, elt journal 50/3: 199-212 register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 56 lado, r. 1986.how to compare two cultures, in valdes, j. culture bound, cambridge: cambridge university press timmis, i. 2002.native-speaker norms and international english: a classroom view, elt journal 56/3: 240-249 tomalin, b. and stempleski, s. 1993.cultural awareness, oxford: oxford university press wardaugh. r. 1992. introduction to sociolinguistics. london: blackwell publ. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.77-98 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 77 lecturers’ attitudes towards online teaching in the learning process *harisa mardiana1 universitas buddhi dharma, tangerang, indonesia1 e-mail: harisa.mardiana@ubd.ac.id1 , soehanadiharisa@gmail.com1 *corresponding author doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i1.77-98 submission track: received: 05-04-2020 final revision: 23-05-2020 available online: 01-06-2020 abstract the author's interest is to investigate the lecturers' attitudes towards online teaching in the learning process which is the teaching for the 21st-century learning process and to seek the relationship among lecturers’ attitudes, online teaching and learning process. the problem is many lecturers in tangerang city area are afraid of using technology and some of them are stuttered and technology illiterate. the lecturers still prefer face to face learning in the class more campuses have provided moodle as a platform of learning. with the circumstances of coronavirus, the learning has moved to e-learning. in this research, the author used a mixed-method and the number of respondents was 104, data collection was obtained from questionnaires sent via google form and distributed through whatsapp to the lecturers in tangerang city area. harisa mardiana 78 data is translated into frequency and regression linear. the result showed that 73 lecturers change them toward e-learning and remain 27 lectures had difficulty in teaching online and preferred traditional learning. keywords: lecturers' attitudes, online teaching, and learning process introduction technological change has made life changes, including in education. in education, the learning process can be through face-to-face or e-learning. technology development leads to innovation so that many emerging methods are identified in e-learning. in this study, the focus is more on the increasingly popular stage of higher education and helps lecturers and students and institutions to develop further. but, many of the lecturers are afraid and technology illiterate in using e-learning ( chiasson, terras, & smart, 2015). the problem in indonesia today is the unpreparedness of lecturers and institutions in responding to virtual learning. many lecturers are confused using the e-learning method, they understand better if learning uses face to face which only sends and receives messages online. as happened in an online lecture at a tangerang city university, lecturers who are afraid of technological change and technology stutterers prefer lectures using the traditional way of teaching ( de, 2018). despite being notified, the lecturers did not heed the rules. many lecturers do not agree to change learning from traditional or face to face to e-learning although the institutions or campuses have provided the training to use moodle or some of the e-learning such as google classroom or g suite. the previous researcher by chin., et., al (2018) indicated that in teaching online, the lecturer strives to make the communication of the message to be conveyed in learning appropriately to students as a whole, besides that register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.77-98 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 79 when giving constructive feedback, the lecturer as a supporter finds a way to promote positive messages and criticism from students. another researcher by belisle (2006) revealed that the benefits of teaching online make learners become independent and understand that people need to learn according to their time. in teaching online, lecturers must have cognitive and metacognitive strata so that learning is achieved ( de, 2018). based on the researchers above, the author concluded that teaching an online course is the encouragement and support as the approach to foster positive morals in the classroom and the class opens for 24 hours and 7 days a week, and lecturers can actively build a new knowledge when interacting in the learning environment that is a strength in online learning. the purpose of the research is to investigate the lecturers' attitudes toward online learning and to seek online teaching in the learning process. lecturers’ attitudes the important key for lecturers in teaching is to have adequate knowledge. this must be addressed by the ability and skills of lecturers in preparing their teaching. and it is reflected in lecturers’ attitudes who have a conceptual teaching framework, especially with online teaching ( bakia, shear, toyama, & lasseter, 2012). unfortunately, not all lecturers have complete knowledge about the tools available, especially in online teaching ( arkorful & abaidoo, 2014). lecturers’ attitudes in teaching online can be shown from their knowledge, especially in teaching online. their knowledge in online teaching is a belief that can transform traditional teaching knowledge into harisa mardiana 80 online where the lecturers' attitudes are shown on "the true belief' and defines knowledge as a dynamics human process that justifies personal belief in the truth ( dalkir, 2005). the lecturers believe that to produce innovation, it is necessary to create and learn visual knowledge so that the knowledge becomes new knowledge and spreads and is realized in learning products (p.58). the lecturers do not depend on a textbook when teaching online. also, the adaptation of information communication technology will increase access to resources. technologies such as e-mail and the internet tend to push lecturers toward fundamentally different teaching (mählck & chapman, 2004). lecturers must have specific knowledge about technology and combine it with existing pedagogical content knowledge (hutchison & reinking, 2011). another problem is, many lecturers neglect their ability to teach online, they prefer teaching in front of the class through textbooks ( (kebritchi, lipschutz, & santiague, 2017)). other research davis, f. d (1989) identified a close relationship between having technology use skills and the level of technology integration in the classroom. the lack of computers on campus and access to the internet and infrastructure delays and training costs and poor ict competence are significant obstacles. according to bray (2007) stated that behavior in using e-learning systems has an inverse relationship between computer experience and the use of e-learning. many lecturers consider the elearning program to not meet the needs of them or students due to the lack of integration of technology into teaching. however, the factors that influence the successful use of technology and e-learning in learning are the attitudes and beliefs of lecturers towards technology (alazam , bakar, hamzah, a, & asmiran, 2013). because e-learning in a university or institutional environment has found pedagogic variations similar to face-to-face learning, this shows that not all lecturers conduct online teaching on the same pedagogic register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.77-98 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 81 basis, or the same technological and have a strict discipline and high technological knowledge ( bakia, shear, toyama, & lasseter, 2012). online teaching infrastructure plays an important role in online teaching, and if infrastructure and training are provided, online teaching will run smoothly (mardiana h. , 2018). in learning how to synchronize and asynchronous can be shown by instructors who can motivate students. according to partlow & gibbs (2003) found that online teaching was designed from constructivist principles that were relevant, interactive, project-based and collaborative and controlled students in learning. besides keeton, m.t. (2004) stated that effective online teaching practices are based on a face-to-face practice framework and this requires teaching strategies that develop the creation of a supportive environment for the activeness of students. it can rely on synchronous. but internet technology infrastructure in campus has to increase bandwidth so that learning becomes synchronous. according to perveen (2016) synchronous e-learning involves active discussion, direct feedback and there is familiarity in learning interactions. hence, the involvement in the classroom carries over to e-learning. learning is more dynamic than through media with time lags. the discussions were livelier and the questions were answered immediately right away. the speed and closeness of synchronous online learning generates the same level of accountability and involvement as classroom attendance, so ideas that emerge can compete and complement each other in real time and tight schedule dan good infrastructure of technology harisa mardiana 82 internet. whist a synchronous e-learning is facilitated by media such as e-mail and discussion boards that connect work between students and lecturers, and this discussion board can be used on students who cannot be online at the same time. and asynchronous is the key to flexible e-learning. many students take online learning because this asynchronous is combined with education, family, work and other commitments. according to ( perveen, 2016) asynchronous elearning allows students to enter learning whenever they download documents or send messages to lecturers or classmates. students have a lot of time to improve their contribution in learning compared to synchronous e-learning. to reduce student confusion, it is necessary to prepare an explicit online portal and instructional content. do not hesitate to direct students to the teaching material and to redo learning. in this way, other students can benefit from reading questions and answers. it may also be that other people can contribute with additional questions or answers and suggestions and solutions. however, activating collaboration and connection in learning is justified ( de, 2018). research method this study uses a quantitative method mixed with a semi-structured qualitative method, by investigating the relationship between variables (cresswell, 2014). the number of respondents was 104 and data collection was obtained from the questionnaires sent via google form and distributed through whatsapp. a semi-structured qualitative method as the interview with 15 lecturers for 2-3 hours in december 2019 -february 2020. data for the independent (predictor) variables were from questionnaires which the author used the 2 questions which dimension of lecturers' attitudes towards the technological change and the lecturers towards online teaching. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.77-98 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 83 hypothesis there are three hypothesis on this research. they are: first, there is a statistically significant relationship between the frequency-independent variable of lecturers’ attitudes and the learning process, second, there is a statistically significant relationship between a frequency-independent variable of online teaching and the learning process and third, there is the independent variable frequency of lecturers' attitudes towards online teaching in participating best in predicting the dependent variable on the learning process. data analysis the research used five questions of each dimension were analyzed using frequency for finding the most using the dimensions and regression linear test for independence in the testing of statistical significance of the relationship between lecturers’ attitudes towards online teaching and the learning process. fist to find the reliability and the correlation of data to obtain the next step of the procedure. to analyze the data, first, the study needs to find the reliability of data and correlation between them. table 1 is shown the reliability and correlation between the lecturers' attitudes, online teaching, and the learning process. table 1. descriptive statistics reliability and correlations of lecturers’ attitudes and online teaching in the learning process no variables reliability correlation harisa mardiana 84 lecturers’ attitudes online teaching learning process 1 lecturers’ attitudes 0.700 1 0.650 0.897 2 online teaching 0.749 0.650 1 0.919 3 learning process 0.897 0.897 0.919 1 from the data above, the reliability of questionnaires is shown that lecturers' attitudes are 0.700. it showed that the reliability is strong, the reliability of questionnaires of online teaching showed of 0.749 and it is strong. when the lecturers' attitudes and online teaching is in the learning process, the reliability of questionnaires is shown 0.919, which means that significantly strong. for the correlation between lecturers' attitudes and online teaching are shown moderate, it is 0.650, but for the lecturers’ attitudes to the learning process showed 0.897 means quite strong. from data questionnaires of reliability and correlation are shown that the data is valid. finding and result now, the research calculated frequency for each of the items in the dimension of data. the first research is finding the frequency of lecturers' attitudes in the learning process. table 2. descriptive statistics of the frequency of lecturers' attitudes, online teaching in the learning process register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.77-98 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 85 variables means sd freq. (%) frequency of lecturers in the learning process digital literacy 3.63 0.558 70 67.3 lecturers’ collaboration 3.60 0.616 68 65.8 lecturers’ on-time 3.58 0.618 65 62.5 lecturers’ beliefs 3.51 0.623 60 57.7 lecturers’ spirits 3.38 0.728 54 51.9 online teaching in the learning process interactive in teaching 3.67 0.530 73 70.2 online knowledge base 3.63 0.525 67 64.4 ask and comments 3.50 0.639 58 55.8 lecturers’ preparedness 3.45 0.681 57 54.8 lecturers' training 3.39 0.716 54 51.9 lecturers online learning process lecturers’ attitudes 16.70 1.576 70 67.31 online teaching 16.64 1.672 73 70.19 source: data process from the data of frequency of lecturers’ attitudes in the learning process is shown that digital literacy is the highest frequency (70 participants or 67.3%) and frequency from online teaching in the learning process is the highest (73 participants or 70.2%). in the interview was done, most lecturers have felt harisa mardiana 86 happy when the interaction between lecturers and students, also the interaction can be lecturing and describing the material. most of the lecturers explain the material by sending the voice message. the students may color the material which is important for them. alamsyah, a. (2018) stated that the learning process is a relatively permanent change from behavioral learning because the practice is strengthened and the learning process is carried out in differences in students' experiences and thoughts which will lead to different attitudes. also, the nsw report (2017) indicated that lecturers who have digital literacy abilities and skills can design material online. the design of the material can involve students to ask questions and make comments. moreover, in answering the material taught will lead to high interaction and learning can run smoothly. the second highest frequency of lecturers' attitudes in the learning process is lecturers’ collaboration (68 participants or 65.8%). the second highest frequency of online teaching is an online knowledgebase (67 participants or 64.4%). the lecturers can collaborate with other lecturers although they have a different subject of teaching, and this will make the students have a broad knowledge. in successful collaboration with the others, the lecturers must conduct the learning process, and the lecturers must have the same level of knowledge, ability, and skills (caskey & carpenter, 2014). online knowledge is providing information, services and sharing online. however, in analyzing the existing problems in learning, lecturers must understand correctly because it requires a great effort in the learning process so that the learning products provided must refer to a pedagogical approach that can build the learning process can be reused if needed (hajric , 2018); ( dalkir, 2005). the third highest frequency of lecturers' attitudes in the learning process is the lecturers' punctual or on-time teaching (65 participants or register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.77-98 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 87 62.5%). the third highest frequency of online teaching is to ask and comment (58 participants or 55.8%). to be effective in teaching, lecturers must start with time management and set priorities, organize the day around the most important tasks (darby, 2017). setting priorities can help keep the noise on track throughout the day, even if something unexpected happens and becomes a workload. in the interview was taken, lecturers who are on time will become qualified lecturers. being able to manage teaching time, lecturers can also set learning priorities. crisis related to lecturer behavior will have an impact on student learning outcomes and will lead to new crises ( bakia, shear, toyama, & lasseter, 2012). when there are potential questions from students, it must be utilized. according to graesser and person (1994), students ask several questions in search of knowledge. if students only ask a few questions, then the lecturer must ask whether students understand learning. usually, students do not ask for attention but the encouragement of lecturers to make students ask is quality thinking or cognitive questions (white & gunstone, 1992); ( chin & osborne, 2018) with questions that are factual, procedural or outside of human thought. the fourth highest frequency of lecturers' attitudes in the learning process is lecturers' beliefs (60 participants or 57.7%). and the fourth highest frequency of online teaching in the learning process is lecturers preparedness (57 participants or 54.7%). belief focuses on instruction in presenting teaching, and as a form of belief that aims to teach and can form students in a belief system that consists of great confidence based on evidence and reason (richardson , 1996). the lecturer helps students to change their beliefs who feel they do not understand into understanding. moreover, the learning process harisa mardiana 88 can help students by identifying the value of their beliefs related to teaching ( mardiana & daniels, 2019). moreover, the lecturers' must-have preparedness in online knowledge and skills in using technology. for online learning, institutions must build on the preparedness of the online learning infrastructure. there is a big significant difference for lecturers who have the readiness to teach. the reflection of lecturers who have continuous preparedness in teaching and has great control and a good learning climate and can achieve the full learning objectives ( paolini, 2015). it can further be shown that teachers who are well qualified and have high-quality teaching can close the achievement gap between economically disadvantaged students and those who are rich (kneale, 2009). the fifth frequency of lecturers’ attitudes in the learning process is lecturers’ spirits (54 participants or 51.9%) and the fifth frequency of lecturers' training is (54 participants or 51.9%). when we had the interview with the lecturers about their spirit to teach the students, the lecturers stated that the enthusiasm of spirit in teaching is to help students who do not understand anything to become understand, from those who cannot do math problems to know how to do mathematics. making students independent is the pride of lecturers, students can be independent because of the guidance of lecturers which is to have a proud feeling. so that lecturers will continue to teach until old age because of these circumstances. according to slavin, r.e. (1991) the spirit of learning is the tendency of a high heart to learn that obtain the information, knowledge, skills through the effort of teaching or experience and hardjana (1994) stated that the spirit of learning and teaching is the spirit to provide time, energy, effort to absorb and organize information, knowledge, and skills that we receive and obtain through various means. moreover, the role of the lecturer is one of the factors that influence student learning register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.77-98 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 89 achievement so that the lecturer is a component that has a strategic role in learning and has the key to improving the quality, relevance, and efficiency of education (tosepu, 2019). enable to optimally prepare their competencies, lecturers must have the ability, expertise, and skills in teaching both online and in front of the class. hence, it can be ascertained that the better the competence of lecturers, the student learning achievement will increase (preston, 2012). having adequate behavior and abilities to develop students is the task of the lecturer and is part of the competency (alamsyah, 2018). great lecturers become important for student achievement, and hence, the lecturers can develop sustainable professionals in their careers (kelly, 2019). as the interview to the lecturers was taken, the lecturers mentioned that an ideal training is needed every semester because to face new challenges in education, especially related to technology development, lecturers must update their professionalism to be more adequate. lecturers must understand digital education solutions, including online teaching methodologies and how to give online exams which sometimes give problems to students with an internet connection (yucel, 2007). in the interview, one of the lecturers has indicated that it is important to remember that not all lecturers immediately feel comfortable using technology and hardware and software in an educational platform. training to achieve educational excellence must have a training program that covers how technology plays a role in learning and learning content management systems. the last frequency is lecturers on the online learning process (70 participants or 67.31%). when the interview was done, most of the lecturers would move from traditional teaching to online teaching to bring them to harisa mardiana 90 continue teaching. according to redmond (2011) changes in teaching with technology put lecturers under pressure so that they can embed technological knowledge into online teaching so that lecturers are capable and skilled in teaching online. another researcher chiasson., et., al (2015) mentioned that with the change in teaching using technology, many lecturers have been pressured because of instilling technology knowledge into online teaching so that they are capable and skilled in teaching online. therefore, teaching simulations can challenge students to involve them in online-based activities that require the development of lecturer and student skills. as a result, teaching tools on the internet will empower them to learn while doing something so that their abilities and skills can be sharpened ( mardiana & daniels, 2019). it is shown that from 104 lecturers, 70 lecturers wish to change towards e-learning and 34 lecturers have difficulties using e-learning and preferred traditional learning. the lecturers wish to continue teaching for their careers and they have trained e-learning, had taken online learning courses to make them suitable in the job. in online teaching, it is shown that 73 lecturers have moved to online teaching, and 31 lecturers are still trying to learn about technology which enables them to have the ability and skill in teaching online. almost all lecturers who have difficulty in online teaching do not move quickly to adopt the technology. bray (2007) and davis (1998) revealed that generally lecturers who find it difficult to use technology in teaching are lecturers who are technology illiterate, are not skilled in ict and make them difficult to change. most of them are lecturers who do not have a belief in using technology. next, the research showed the relationship between lecturers’ attitudes toward online teaching and it is shown in table 3. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.77-98 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 91 table 3. descriptive statistics of the relationship between lecturers’ attitudes toward online teaching in learning process variables r r squared f change sig. change lect. att –learn.process 0.818 0.766 502.756 0.000 online teachinglearn.process 0.919 0.845 557.349 0.000 lect. attd.-online-learn process 0.897 0.802 418.901 0.000 source: data process from table 3 the descriptive statistics for the relationship lecturers' attitudes towards online teaching in the learning process is shown that r is 0.818 indicated as predicted to predict the learning process, and r squared measures the proportion of the variable of lecturers' attitudes and learning process which is shown 0.766. it means that the proposition of lecturers' attitudes in the learning process is 76.7% and remain 23.4% is from others that it does not include in this research. for f-change showed 502.756>0.05 (james, g., et., al 2013). it can be the answer to the research hypothesis number 1. so, it concluded that in lecturers’ attitudes and learning process that ho is rejected and ha is accepted. the relationship between online teaching and learning process is 0.919 and r squared is 0.845. it is indicated that the relationship between online teaching and learning process is 84.5% and remain 15.5% is from other which does not include in this research. for f-change showed 557.349>0.05. so the harisa mardiana 92 hypothesis number 2 is answered and the conclusion is there is a relationship between online teaching and learning process. and ho is rejected and ha is accepted. the relationship among lecturers' attitudes, online teaching and learning process are shown r is 0.897 and r squared is 0.802. it is indicated that the relationship among lecturers' attitudes, online learning and learning process is 80.2% and remain 19.8 is from others which do not include in this research. for f-change showed 218.901>0.05. so the hypothesis number 3 is answered and it can conclude that in lecturers' attitudes, online teaching and learning process, ho is rejected and ha is accepted. results & discussion lecturers' attitudes have an important role in the online teaching and learning process. lecturers' attitudes are the important components in the learning revolution which triggers the attitudes of lecturers to be more active in teaching ( mardiana & daniels, 2019). the most important thing is education focuses on students who maximize teaching resources and time. from the frequency of the lecturer's online learning process, 70 lecturers from lecturers' attitudes and 73 lecturers from online teaching are eager to improve their attitudes and abilities and skills. this showed that 70 of 104 lecturers eager to change. these changes can be viewed from how much the changes and is shown from beliefs, as strong desires and changes in the knowledge and abilities and skills gained in the experience, training and teaching readiness of the lecturer (kneale, 2009). while 30 lecturers from lecturers' attitudes and 27 lecturers from online teaching are having difficulty to change the face to face teaching into online teaching. when the interview was taken, the main factor register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.77-98 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 93 is because of they afraid of technology and technologically illiterate, so that it takes them a long time to learn to change. besides, they also do not have a strong belief to change even though the change has been done by training and increasing knowledge (hajric , 2018); ( dalkir, 2005). in online learning, lecturers enter the realm of constant learning which embraces the application of theory in the real world through multimedia, video, and interactivity. hence, lecturers can effectively utilize the power of technology in online learning (hajric , 2018). in the interview was done most lecturers stated that the problem is the campus infrastructure that must accommodate access to learning so that the benefits that have been used by lecturers in teaching can be the progress of the campus and students. therefore the benefits of infrastructure must be accompanied by the ability of lecturers to teach and understand digital literacy and use it into online curriculum construction (caskey & carpenter, 2014). in certain contexts and small class sizes, synchronization can be done well and supported by adequate internet technology. the positive effect is immediately felt by students and lecturers after completing learning because by using a synchronous learning approach like this can take place well. besides, online learning is increasingly in demand by all lecturers because of the flexibility of the schedule and the cost-effectiveness of education and learning opportunities located elsewhere through distance teaching so that lecturers and students can access the learning ( de, 2018). besides, lecturer training in online teaching must be implemented so that lecturers are more constant in teaching. online teaching resources as a means of updating and sharpening lecturers that force lecturers to continue to improve harisa mardiana 94 their teaching through professional development in the daily life of lecturers ( dalkir, 2005). the advantage of using asynchronous is that e-learning is flexible, pacing and affordability lecturers who choose asynchronous because of the many commitments that must be carried out and their families and other needs, besides that students also have work that cannot be left out, so that using the asynchronous approach to learning can be carried out, besides using the asynchronous approach it provides lower costs even though to interact not in real time but still can ask the lecturer via email or social media. the acceleration of learning depends on the learner who offers the opportunity to work at the same time learning with minimal costs. conclusion now education is entering a new era the era of online education. but there is no other reason that can be avoided from teaching online. online education is an education that makes sense and is a useful learning method for sharpening technology skills that require new skills. lecturers who teach in tertiary institutions can do their learning wherever they are, for example in distant places that are not relevant for teaching, but the lecturers can teach. however, lecturers need to plan to actively integrate online classes as often as possible. in learning, it takes a time limit and calendar that determines attendance directly. posting announcements provide further explanation and provide tips on upcoming assignments and reply to online discussion posts that are important in answering student questions. so, when teaching directly lecturers need not expect students to continue without regular guidance, because the involvement of faculty and campus will apply on the internet. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.77-98 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 95 in the future, if lecturers have mastered online teaching and they will change, online learning will be fun and students can do quality learning just like face to face learning. with a focus on online teaching knowledge, lecturers are forced to know and deepen the technology that is the 21st-century teaching reference. the ability and skills and expertise of lecturers to automate teachings, such as methods, teaching materials and assessment digitally can track student progress with reporting tools and analytic platforms created by the campus. moreover, student progress can be demonstrated in real-time. students are not only able to empower digital technology but can also go beyond functional and relevant exploration of learning. references arkorful, v., & abaidoo, n. 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(2016). synchronous and asynchronous e-language learning a case study of virtual university of pakistan. open praxis, 8(1), 2139. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5944/openpraxis.8.1.212 alazam , a. o., bakar, a., hamzah, r., a, & asmiran, s. (2013). lecturers' ict skills and ict integration in the classroom: the case of vocational and technical lecturers in malaysia. creative education, 3(8), 70-76. caskey, m. m., & carpenter, j. (2014, october). building teacher collaboration school-wide. (a. magazine, producer) retrieved from association for middle level education (amle): https://www.amle.org/browsebytopic/whatsnew/wndet/tabid/270/ artmid/888/articleid/446/building-teacher-collaboration-schoolwide.aspx cresswell, j. w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed method approaches (4th edition ed.). (v. knight, ed.) thousand oak, california, usa: sage publication, inc. retrieved january 31, 2020, from http://fe.unj.ac.id/wpcontent/uploads/2019/08/research-design_qualitative-quantitativeand-mixed-methods-approaches.pdf darby, f. (2017). how to be a better online teacher advice guide. (j. m. lang, editor, & d. s. chronicle, producer) retrieved from the chronicle of higher education: https://www.chronicle.com/interactives/advice-online-teaching hajric , e. (2018). knowledge management system and practices a theoretical and practical guide for knowledge management in your organization . jacksonville, florida, usa: helpjuice. hutchison, a., & reinking, d. (2011). teachres' perception of integrating information and communication technologies into literacy harisa mardiana 98 instruction: a national survey in the united states. reading research quarterly, 312-333. kebritchi, m., lipschutz, a., & santiague, l. (2017). issues and challenges for teaching successful online courses in higher education: a literature review. journal of educational technology systems, vol. 46(1), 4-29. doi:10.1177/0047239516661713 kelly, m. (2019, june 23). importance of effective teacher training. retrieved from thoughco. importance of effective teacher training: https://www.thoughtco.com/importance-of-effective-teacher-training8306 kneale, p. (2009). teaching and learning for employability. in h. fry, s. ketteridge, & s. marshall, a handbook for teaching and learning in higher education (pp. 99-112). nw: routledge. mählck, l. o., & chapman, d. w. (2004). chapter 14: effective use of technology to improve education: lesson for planners. in l. o. mählck, & d. w. chapman, adapting technology for school improvement: a global perspective (p. 298). paris: international for education planning. mardiana , h. (2018, march). lecturer’s attitude towards advance technology and its impact to the learning process: case study in tangerang city campuses . journal of educational science and technology , 4(1), 12-25 . doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.26858/est.v4i1.4974 preston, j. p. (2012). fostering the learner spirituality of students: a teaching narrative. brock education, 21(2), 22-35. retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2806/67a2cd586cf5c41f1b4bae719b7 37cc61220.pdf richardson , v. (1996). the role of attitudes and beliefs in learning to teach. in j. sikula , & j. sikula (ed.), handbook of research on teacher education (2 ed., pp. 102-119). new york, ny, usa: macmillan. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.77-98 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 99 tosepu, y. a. (2019, march 19). pendidikan untuk kehidupan. retrieved from education is simple the soul of a society as it passes from one generation to another: https://yusrintosepuabdikarya.wordpress.com/2019/03/19/perandosen-dalam-meningkatkan-motivasi-dan-prestasi-belajar-mahasiswa/ white, r. t., & gunstone, r. f. (1992). probing understanding . london: falmers press. yucel, a. s. (2007, january). factors affecting teaching the concept of renewable energy in technology assisted environments and designing processes in the distance education model . turkish online journal of distance education-tojde, 8(1), 114-124. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26449602_factors_affecting _teaching_the_concept_of_renewable_energy_in_technology_assisted _environments_and_designing_processes_in_the_distance_education _model register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-156 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ somariah fitriani a child language acquisition in indonesian and english language: a longitudinal case study somariah fitriani university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, jakarta, indonesia somariah@uhamka.ac.id doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.126-156 submission track: received: 12-02-2019 final revision: 20-11-2019 available online: 01-12-2019 abstract learning a dual language at the same time during early childhood has caused the wrong perception. its false perception makes the parents delay the start of learning a second /foreign language. therefore, this study aims at analyzing the first and second language acquisition of a child in the indonesian language and english. the issues concentrated on the spoken utterances in indonesian and english and its affecting factors. the research adopted a qualitative approach by using a case study, as the unit analysis is a child of 3 years old. for data collection, i employed the naturalistic approach, which i kept daily notes on the progress of a child’s linguistic and recorded the dialogues. since it is a longitudinal study, the research was conducted for two years, from 2014 to 2015. the research has revealed that utterances spoken have primarily increased and the child has already understood the commands by following the instructions. some concepts such as feeling, taste, color, and numbers as well as short phrases and simple words in indonesian and english at the same time can be understood and uttered. she also can change the register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-155 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 127 affirmative sentence to question in term of objects she sees in her surroundings. factors such as linguistic input, imitation, environment, exposure, and language acquisition device can all affect the child’s utterance. thus, it indicates that two languages can be taught at the same time at an early age, and it doesn’t cause misunderstanding or confusion. keywords: utterance, language acquisition, exposure, l1 and l2. introduction research about language acquisition and its development, particularly to certain ages of children is always thought provoking to conduct. some previous researchers conducted research on children language acquisition and its development including brown (1973), fletcher (1985) and halliday (1975), dye, c., kedar, y., & lust, b., 2018), pernille (2017) and research on developmental sequences and the process of acquisition including ellis (1994), lightbown and spada (2006). the central questions of language acquisition and its development relate to why and how a child succeeds in acquiring language. one of the issues of a child language acquisition is some parents’ wrong perception about delaying learning a second or foreign language to their children at the same time (genesee, 2008). some common beliefs and myths are that the children will be at high risk for academic failure if they learn two languages at the same time (espinosa, 2008). they believe that learning two languages is a burden and puts children at risk for delayed, incomplete, and possibly even impaired language development, not to mention cultural and social anomie. likewise, parents are mostly worried that dual language learning may result in confusion to their children or known as language confusion myth (cummins, 1981; harry, 1992). register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-156 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ somariah fitriani some studies have found the advantages of learning two languages in early childhood to responding to the parents' skepticism. bialystok and martin (2004) and genesee and gandara (1999) found that the children are better at problem solving, demonstrate greater creativity and express more tolerant attitudes. genesee, boivin, & nicoladis (1996) said that research has shown that even toddlers in the early verbal stages of simultaneous bilingual development know how to use their languages separately, even with strangers they have never met before. the study also revealed that bilingual children have equal or more productive vocabulary skills than monolingual children (ferjan ramirez, ramírez, clarke, taulu, and kuhl, 2016; hoff, et al, 2012). genesee, boivin, and nicoladis (1996) acknowledged that research has shown that even children in the early verbal stages of simultaneous bilingual development know how to use their languages separately, even with unfamiliar person they have never met beforehand. correspondingly, the graph of a simplified schematic of second language learning shows that despite adults’ cognitive superiority, infants and young children are genius and superior learners compared to adults (kuhl, 2011). under this circumstance, i attempted to investigate and analyze a female child’s language acquisition of indonesian and english since she was a baby. however, the research focuses on the linguistic development of indonesian and english language at the age of three years to four years old and the factors affecting the child utterances in indonesian and english language. the term of language acquisition is often used to refer to the learning of language structures or rules, especially those of grammar, phonology and soon, whereas, the term of development usually refers to the child’s use of the register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-155 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 129 acquired language rules and structures in a widening variety of language contexts (wray and bloomer, 2006). nordquist (2018) acknowledged that language acquisition refers to the language development in children and second language acquisition (also known as second language learning or sequential language acquisition) speak of the process by which an individual learns a "foreign" language—that is, a language other than his or her mother tongue. krashen (1995) added that acquisition is the subconscious assimilation of the language without any awareness of knowing rules. he also emphasized that acquisition is the unconscious process that occurs when an individual uses language in real conversation and ordinary conversation (krashen, 2003). brown (2007), johnson (2004), and heidar (2012) summarized theories on the language nature, which indirectly indicate how a language (l1 & l2) is acquired. the behavioral approach postulates that language is acquired behavior through conditioning and reinforcement. the behaviorists believe in nurture that the child’s mind at birth is like a blank state (hoff, 2001). based on this approach, a child learns language from the conditioning and reinforcement of the environment involving family members, teachers, peers, and society as a whole. as “good imitators,” children imitate what they hear and see, and what people say and act in their surroundings. fromkin, rodman, and hyams (2003) highlighted that imitation plays a role to some extent. brown (2000) also pinpoints that language learning is the result of imitation, practice, feedback on success, and habit formation. also, goldstein (1984) reported that corrected practices enhance language learning, whereas, unlike the behaviorists, cognitivist theory of chomsky (1965) cognitivist theory posits that language is predominantly cognitive, mental process and rule-governed (universal grammar) in deep and surface structures (brown, 2007; green & register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-156 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ somariah fitriani piel, 2016; heidar, 2012; orillos, 1998; and tahriri, 2013). chomsky reported that linguists have proposed that a child’s brain contains a ‘language acquisition device,’ which embodies rules of universal grammar. because each language expresses these rules in slightly different ways, the child must learn the details, given that but the basics are already in the brain (as cited in carlson and buskist, 1997). chomsky also contended that the child is born with an innate knowledge of or the predisposition toward language and that this innate device (the lad or ug, universal grammar) is universal in all human beings (cited in brown, 1994). it means a language acquisition device is not a “device” like a tool inserted in the brain, but it is the human’s brain where languages are acquired. studies on children’s language acquisition have received sufficient attention to linguistics discipline up to now, especially, research on how children acquire and learn english as a second or foreign language. for example, mushi (2010) researched parents’ role in their children’s english language development, in which they are from immigrant families. the study revealed that the role of parents supported the children’s language learning. lin, cheng & wang (2018) examined the contribution of cross-language phonological and morphological awareness of reading acquisition in bilingual children. tong, mcbride, ho, et al. (2018) investigated the effect of morphological awareness to students who learn chinese, and english. in korean students’ experiences, lee & jeong (2013) examined the korean– english dual language immersion program to develop bilingualism. it can be inferred that research about children’s acquisition on both l1 and l2 is still interesting to analyze in different countries. in the indonesian context, a similar register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-155 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 131 study was conducted on the acquisition of indonesian as first language and english as a foreign language. this study emphasized on a three-year female child of language acquisition and her development of two languages indonesian and english. therefore, the research questions are as follows: 1. what are the spoken utterances of a child in indonesian and english language at the same time? 2. what factors affect her utterances? research method research design the study was to describe how a three-year-old child acquires and learns two languages, indonesian (l1) and english (l2) almost at the same time and its factors affecting her language acquisition. since the study intended to collect the data in the form of words and sentences rather than numbers for around two years. the research employed a qualitative approach by using a case study method. yin (2003) highlighted this case is essential, unique, typical, revelatory and longitudinal. yin (2003) also added that a case study is an empirical inquiry investigating a contemporary phenomenon within its reallife context. additionally, a case study is “an in-depth study of specific circumstances used to reduce a vast field of research into one easily researchable topic” (shuttleworth, 2008). respondent of the study the unit analysis is a person – a child named addien as a respondent. she was a three-year-old when i started conducting the research. she is the first child of two other twin siblings. she was a kind of shy girl who didn’t want to communicate with others if she didn’t recognize them. however, when she was register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-156 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ somariah fitriani at home, she changed to be a cheerful girl who loved dancing and singing. besides, she was remarkably good at posing in front of the camera. without any doubt, every time i took pictures of her, she directly posed with many kinds of styles. she is a girl who enjoys observing people’s speaking, particularly in english. for example, every time she heard a word in english from me, she could repeat it in another day in a proper way, even though i did not teach and say the meaning of the word. on account of living with her parents, uncles, aunties, nieces, nephew and me (who often speaks english with her), she is exposed to two languages; indonesian as first and dominant language and english as a foreign or additional language. occasionally, some others talk to english too, such as her mother, and her auntie. but she dominantly heard english from me. data procedure and analysis it took me about two years from 2014 to 2015 to investigate, record, and analyze the data from the child. for data collection, i adopted the naturalistic observation which in the naturalistic approach, investigators observe and record children’s spontaneous utterances. one type of naturalistic investigation is the so-called diary study, in which a researcher (often a parent) keeps daily notes on the progress of a child’s linguistic competence as stated by denzin and lincoln cited in cresswell (2007). to analyze the data, i used miles and hubberman’s (2014) model, which consists of data reduction, data display, and conclusion and drawing/verification based on existed theory. i also analyzed the notes through the content analysis technique. while for the credibility of data, i used triangulation to make sure that the information and its interpretation have already been in the right one. i used two kinds of register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-155 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 133 triangulation; 1) source data triangulation by people surrounding the respondent, such as her parents, her aunties and her uncles; in this triangulation, the researcher did cross-check the information; and 2) method triangulation by observation, interview and document analysis of her writing. results &discussion the spoken utterances at the age of three to four years at the age of two years old, she was taught to call her mother ami and her father is papa. however, she found it difficult to call me mami. so she called me mimi. she also found it difficult to utter tante uki, my younger sister, so instead of uki, she uttered ui. she also couldn’t say tante asih, my other younger sister but later after around three years old she could say te aci and te uki, but later in the next few months, she could utter tante. she could not utter her name properly by addien. she called herself “tata endin” instead of kakak endin, since she couldn’t pronounce consonant k. but she can recognize the letter a, indicated her name. so every time there is a word with a letter a, she must say “addin” with long a-and emphasized the sound stress of din with aaaddin. at the beginning of three years old, she always asked questions such as apa ini? (what is this?), apa itu? (what is that?) then she started asking ada apa? (what happens?), siapa? (who). here is one of the example conversations between her and me. she quite often mixed up between ini (this) and itu (that). she just said what she saw in her surroundings and jumped from one topic to another. when we were in the restroom, i used english to request her to do something such as stand up, sit down; stay there and amazingly she understood the command and did what i asked her to do. i also sometimes sang register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-156 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ somariah fitriani a song like “wash your hand, wash your face, wash your hair and wash your lip and mouth, wash your body, your legs, and your feet (while touching her part of the body) to be healthy, to be fresh, to be beautiful”. to make it easy, i use a letter r as my name, a researcher and a as addien to show the dialog or conversation. r: stand up a: (follow my instruction) r: sit down a: (follow my instruction) r: brush your teeth a: (she took toothbrush from hands and brushed her teeth) r: do you want to use this? (point to the soap) a: apa? (what?) r: merem, close your eyes a: (follow my instruction) (data 1) remarkably, i never used the word “merem” to her but she could do it. she might get it from someone else. she could also tell the story to her mom with uncompleted sentences, especially after returning from shopping or going out somewhere with me. here is the dialog between addien and her mother (m). m: kakak addien dari mana? (where have you been?) a: lihat balon (seeing balloon) m: ada berapa balonnya? (how many balloons are there?) a: banyak sekali (a lot, while raising her both hands up and making the circle) m: ngapain lagi? (what else?) a: banyak anak anak. main, mam ayam ice cream (a lot of children, play, eat chicken, ice cream) m: senang nggak? (are you happy?) a: ya m: mau kesana lagi (do you want to go there again?) register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-155 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 135 a: mauuuu (with long u) (i want) (data 2) since she started to produce some words, there are some words that she never wanted to change even the family corrected again and again. for example, the word yeye means gendong (carry on the back or hip). every time she wanted me to carry her, she always said yeye. other words are mam means makan (eat) abab means allahuakbar indicating to take prayer. mimi iyah mau abab ya? (when i was about to take a prayer), nen means asking for milk, momon means dora emon (japanese character), pupu pupu means kupu kupu (butterfly). after dressing up, she wanted to go outside and i gave the wrong sandal to her and she said: salah (it’s wrong), mimi iyah. and then she saw a bike falling and said “jatuh sepedanya.” she saw fish food and said “ ini mam ikan” (should be itu), “kakak kasih ikan mam.” other example dialogue is shown in another day when she wanted to eat rambutan. a: mimi iyah, ada rambutan (point to rambutan) r: (i gave rambutan to her) a; kakak endin mam rambutan (while eating rambutan) r: ini punya siapa? (whose rambutan is this?) a: kakak endin a: ini nggak enak (not delicious while pointing to duku) a: mau pipis (i want to pee) (data 3) after playing a game on i pad with her cousin, zein, she saw a sign of battery and said: a: “ ini udah abis, cas (charge) dulu” (it’s out of battery, needs to be charged) a: “ini kotor, zen no! (this is dirty) a: “kakak endin udah naik kereta api”(kakak endin took the train) a: “abang zein belum naik kereta api (abang zein hasn’t taken train yet) register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-156 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ somariah fitriani a: “abang zein, no! (data 4) one day after our dialogue she saw a butterfly and said “ itu sayap” (that’s wing) but she tried to think first, it seemed that she tried to recall her memory before producing the word “itu sayap.” she has also already expressed her opinion and her feeling about taste. when i gave her a black bucket to soak her body in the bathroom, she asked me a red one and said: “jelek” (ugly) pointing to a black bucket. she can give me praise too by saying “mimi iyah yang cantik.” (mimi iyah is beautiful). when i asked my sister, she often said “kakak addin yang cantik” one day in the evening when i was watching television, she carried her teddy bear doll and said with a sad face, knowing the word “mati”, (dead) that surprised me. a: “papa abu mati mimi iyah” (papa abu is dead. she called her teddy bear with papa abu even though the color is brown) r: tidak mati, papa abu bobo (no dead, but sleeping) a: oh bobo r: iya, disayang ya (well, love him) a: (hug the teddy bear) (data 5) she often shows her high curiosity as well by asking a question, for instance when i got a phone call by saying “siapa mimi iyah.” (who is it?) when i talked to someone in my graduation day, she said “ ada apa mimi iyah.” (what happens?). when i got angry with my nephew and she heard my voice from the room, she was in a rush going out said too “ ada apa mimi iyah.” sometimes i explained to her, but sometimes i just said “nggak ada apa apa.” (nothing happens). when i explained, she pretended to understand and register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-155 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 137 said “oh.” even to her aunty, every time her aunty returns from work, she always asks what her aunty brings to her. a: anti asih bawa apa? (what do you bring?) aunty: bawa roti (i bring bread) a: roti apa? (what bread?) aunty: roti coklat (chocolate bread) a: kakak adin suka coklat. (i love chocolate bread) (data 6) every time she finishes her activity, she quite often reports what she has just been doing and pretending to do something like below dialogue. a: mimi iyah, kakak endin udah makan (i have eaten). (i am in front of laptop typing) r: kok cepat banget (so quickly) a: silent (it seems she doesn’t know to how to answer) r: makan apa? (what do you eat?) a: telor cepok (sunny side up eggs) a: kakak endin mau photo booth (i want to take picture using photo booth, application in i pad) a: entar dulu ya mimi iyah mau kerja. (wait a minute, i want to work) r: (silent) a: adek mau bando nggak (do you want bandana? showing a cartoon bandana to maryam, her cousin who is still a baby of 6 months old). a: mimi iyah, endin mau photo booth, itu ada tuh photo booth nya (a few times said the same thing) r: sebentar ya, just a minute a: a few minutes later a: mimi iyah, adik kembar bobo (twin sisters are sleeping) a: mimi iyah mau photo booth (data 7) finally, i let her sit in front of my laptop and she started to play a photo booth, after about 2 minutes she got bored and i started to type again. a: es cream, es cream (she shouted ice cream and played with zein while holding a drumstick) register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-156 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ somariah fitriani a: mimi iyah, ambil es cream (please take ice cream, she pointed a drum stick in front of me) r: ini bukan es cream (this is not ice cream) a: pura puranya es cream. (pretend to be ice cream; i was amazed by how she can say such a thing) a: es cream es cream (she was shouting and laughing together with zein) a few minutes she saw zein sitting on her younger sister, maryam) a: mimi iyah, adikknya ditindihin. (zein is sitting on maryam) a: diam nggak, nanti nggak diajak ke tip top (please be quiet, i won’t take you to tip top supermarket while talking to zein) a: kakak addien marah nih.( i am angry, she often says this thing to zein with protruding eyes, and loud voice) (data 8) she often says “mana ya mimi iyah” (where is mimi iyah) while closing her eyes and wandering to look for me. her mother often plays this game to her. and she does it to me too. from some examples of the above dialogues, it can be inferred that at the age of three to four year, she can produce a complete sentence with some correct grammatical structure and able to create many consonants correctly with all vocal sounds. she can also develop the questions by using ini apa? (what is this), become ada apa? (what’s up), and siapa? (who is it?). surprisingly, she could also change it’s a towel with is it a towel? and point to other things by saying is it a towel? i said no, it is a tap, it is a tub, etc. at the age of three, addien has already understood some concepts, either in indonesian or english since her mother and i use english when communicating with her so that she can use indonesia and english at the same time. 1. the concept of part of the body: register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-155 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 139 she understands when i say “which one is your nose, eye, ear, hair?” she can point her part of the body but she can speak only nose, ear and eye. her mother has introduced her some part of the body particularly around her face since she was about two years old and reinforced by me especially when she takes a bath, such as a nose, eye, hair, and lips. 2. the concept of numbers: 1 -10 in english and indonesian. she can follow and repeat what i say about the number in indonesian and english. she memorizes number 1 to 5 either in indonesian or english at first but later on, she can say until 10. she also knows the number of things, for example, two things or 4 things. her mother put pictures of animals, transportation, numbers, and fruits on the walls to make her accustomed to seeing the objects. 3. the concept of feeling and taste. she knows and understands the feeling of sadness, and happiness and taste of food, sakit (sick), gatel (itchy), capek (tired), tidak enak (not delicious), pedas (spicy), bau (smell bad) and wangi (fragrant) (especially after using perfume or taking bath) 4. the concept of colors the name of the color that she knows firstly is in english, that’s why every time we ask what color is, she can answer red, merah, pink, but when saying blue, he says lue or, biru. it seems she understands that red is merah, blue is biru. but until almost four years old, she finds it difficult to pronounce purple. so the colors she knows until now are blue, pink, purple, red, green, brown and white. 5. the concept of animals register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-156 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ somariah fitriani the first time she utters fish with unyu unyu but later after we said that it is fish, she changes it. but once after almost a year she never said unyu unyu as a fish, one day she said that again. she knows some animals and able to differentiate in english like fish, dog, cat, and horse. in bahasa indonesia, she knows cicak (lizard), kucing (cat), gajah (elephant), capung (dragonfly),tikus (mouse), semut (ant). 6. the concept of objects the first object she introduces is an umbrella, that’s why every time she sees an umbrella; she must say “umbela.” since she always sees me making up, she knows some cosmetic terms such as lipstick, eye shadow, bedak, (powder) shampoo, sabun (soap). other things are piring (plate), gelas (glass), sendok (spoon), botol (bottle), hand phone, remote control, laptop, ipad, tas (bag). she also can differentiate between hand phone and iphone, between tablet and ipad. 7. the concepts of fruits some fruits that she can utter and recognize are rambutan, pisang (banana), manga, papaya, melon, duku, jeruk (orange) since those fruits are consumed regularly. she loves rambutan and banana very much. 8. the concepts of transport she is familiar with some transport both in english and indonesian such as mobil, car, sepeda, pesawat, bis, bajay, odong odong, kereta api, train. even she cannot respond or reply to my questions in english, and it seems she understands the meaning, like the below dialogue. r: put this bottle in the kitchen and wash it ok register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-155 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 141 a: no r: sudah ketemu adik kembar (have you met twin sisters) and kiss? a: no r: take it (a bottle on the floor) and put it on the table a: (she took it and put it on the table) (data 9) i was in the bedroom doing my work, when she was crying and saying “mimi iyah” (the previous night, she slept in her mother’s bedroom), and i opened the door seeing her going back to her room. r: ada apa kakak addien? (what happen?) a: (she was still crying) r: (i held her hand to go to my bedroom) r: kakak mau ikut ke kampus? (do you want to come with me to campus?) a: (nod her head) r: ok drink your milk and sleep first a: (she lied her body on the bed while drinking a bottle of chocolate milk) r: (i continued typing) a: mau mandi (i want to bathe) r: sebentar ya, mimi iyah lagi nonton. (wait a minute, i am watching) a few minutes later after the movie ended a: mimi iyah, mobil sudah dibetulin ama papa. (car is already fixed by papa) r: (i just nodded my head and took her to the bathroom) a: kakak addien mau pakai sabun ini, sabun orang gede (i want to use this soap, adult’s soap) r: (i was washing clothes) a: mimi iyah pinter ya, kakak addien juga pinter (you are smart, i am smart too. she took her panty and washed it) a: kakak addien mau abab (means “sholat” take prayer) (she followed my acts taking “wudhu.”) r: ok stay there (after finishing her bath, i took a towel in a bedroom) a: (follow my instruction) a; handuk baru ya! (new towel isn’t it?) register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-156 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ somariah fitriani r: ya (i took her to my bedroom), mimi iyah sholat dulu ya (i want to pray first) a: ya r: kakak mau nonton barbie? (i want to watch barbie) a: ya, itu kakak addien udah punya, bisa terbang (i have barbie’s movie, she can fly) (barbie movie: a super girl who can fly) (data 10) one day when she was playing and asking me to help her pretend she was almost falling and she shouted “hep” means “help” since i said “help” a few times to her and pretended to nearly falling. it seems that she saw what i was doing and repeated it the action. when she was about to go outside and asked abang zein to come with her, she said: “come on bang zein.” and every time i asked her to kiss her twin sister, she directly kissed them or sometimes she said “no.” so far there are more than 20 english words she can utter and produce from the simple ones of one word such as, “ok,” “yes,” “no” “kiss” until two words such as come on, take it, let’s go. she could produce a long sentence too, for instance, when we went out to the pool after jogging, she could say a long sentence. “wow, it’s so beautiful, oh my god, come on abang. let’s go. take a picture”. based on the above data, it can be concluded that a child of three to four years old can utter and produce the second language in the early childhood and she has some extent a good understanding of the meaning of the english words as well. thus, the use of two languages at the same time can be learned without getting confused to differ the two languages. lightbown (2008) summarized that the children in early childhood have capability of acquiring two or more languages. genesee (2008) pointed out that no scientific reason to register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-155 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 143 believe that the brains of young infants are equipped to learn only one language in early childhood. genesee (2002) and lightbown (2008) also revealed that there is no evidence that children get confused if they learn two languages during the infant-toddler period. hyltenstam and abrahamsson (2003) even emphasized the importance of rich learning environment to become fully bilingual children. in this context, the researcher uses two languages in the same sentence, which is referred to as code mixing or code switching to ensure her understanding, especially if she seems unsure about the meaning of the word. the factors affecting her utterances linguistic input the role of input affects a child’s language development. children, who do not receive input or exposure to a language, will not develop their linguistic ability normally. this linguistic input is called “positive evidence” as a part of the language aspect discussed by pinker (1995), which refers to the information available to the child, about which strings of words are grammatical sentences of the target language. fromkin, robert and hyams (2003) contended “children who do not receive linguistic input during their formative years do not achieve native-like grammatical competence.” lenneberg (1967) called the formative years as a critical age hypothesis that is a part of the biological basis of language that the ability to learn a native language develops within a fixed a period, from birth to puberty. during this critical period, language acquisition proceeds easily, swiftly, and without external intervention (fromkin, robert and hyams, 2003). however, variation in input quantity (i.e., the amount of language children hear) significantly affects children’s acquisition (weisleder and fernald, 2013). in addition, variation in input register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-156 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ somariah fitriani quality plays a role as well. some important indicators of quality include the use of decontextualized language, lexical diversity and properties of verbal and nonverbal interaction (hirsh-pasek, et al., 2015; rowe, 2012; rowe, et al, 2016) in the case of addien, since she lives with a lot of immediate families (there are eight adults altogether) and gets a lot of exposure either in indonesian and english (mostly from the researcher), her linguistic ability develops a lot. her utterances are like most normal children who start producing one word, two words and more complete sentences consisting subject, verb, and noun or adverb either in affirmative sentences or questions. she can understand what people say and act, utter the words, produce the sentences, and respond to people in her surrounding, even to the activities she watches on television. for example, when she saw a man running on tv, she said “hati hati nanti jatuh”, (be careful or you will fall down). she also remembers and recognizes all of the things belong to us. “ini punya ami or ini punya mimi iyah, (this belongs to ami or this belong to mimi iyah) or when i wore my sister’s veil, she said “ini punya tante uki.” she can as well as express her own opinions when i ask what color she wants or the kind of clothes she likes; what food she wants to eat, and soon. therefore, this critical period has a great impact on a child language development. after this period, the grammar acquisition is difficult and for some individuals it is never fully achieved. like a case of amala and kamala who were found in india, a case of victor who was found in 1798 or genie who had been confined to a small room under the conditions of physical restraint and had received only minimal contact from the age of eighteen months until almost fourteen years. regardless of the cause of isolation, none register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-155 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 145 of these children could speak or knew any language at the time of reintroduction to society. in can be inferred that their linguistic inability could be because they did not receive linguistic input, showing that exposure to language must trigger the innate neurological ability of the human brain to acquire language (fromkin, robert and hyams, 2003). however, no one is sure how long the critical period lasts whether it will decline or increase throughout adulthood (hartshornea, tenenbauma, and pinker, 2018) language acquisition device (lad) chomsky stated that the language acquisition device is an innate language device that is owned by children who can acquire a language, which embodies rules of “universal grammar”. it means that the child is born with an innate knowledge of or the predisposition toward language and that this innate property (lad) is universal in all human beings (brown 1994). in the case of genie, due to being isolated and minimal contact with other people until the age of 14 years, she was unable to acquire the grammatical rules of english. she couldn’t speak good grammatical structure, had a lack of auxiliary verbs, and lacked the past tense marker, the third person singular agreement marker, and most pronouns. but, after being trained, she could utter some words. so, it means that as a human being, her innate language device exists. pinker (cited in carlson, 1997) maintained that an innate language acquisition device guides the child’s acquisition of a language, which is part of a general theory about the cognitive structures responsible for language and its acquisition. the most important components are as follows: register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-156 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ somariah fitriani a. children learning a language make hypotheses about the grammatical rules they require following. these hypotheses are corroborated or not by the speech that they hear. b. an innate language acquisition device (a part of the brain) guides children’s hypotheses formation. due to possessing this device, there are certain types of hypothetical rules that they will never entertain and certain types of sentences that they will never utter. c. the language acquisition device (lad) makes reinforcement unnecessary; the device motivates for the child to learn a language. d. learning a language has a critical period. the lad works best during childhood; languages are difficult to learn and almost impossible to master. imitation since the researcher quite often uses english to communicate with addien, she imitates some words that i taught to her such as teaching her numbers in english. one of the examples of imitation done by her is as one of the ways the child uses in language acquisition, as children are “good imitators”. even though the imitation does not work well and cannot say that it gives a great impact on the child’s language development, in fact, in the earlier stages, it can be applied and gives a contribution to her vocabulary. brown (1994, 2000) divided imitation into two types: surface-structured imitation, where a person repeats or mimics the surface strings, attending to a phonological code rather than a semantic code. it is this level of imitation that enables an adult to repeat random numbers or nonsense syllables, or even to mimic unknown languages. the data of semantic, if any, underlying the surface register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-155 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 147 output are neither internalized nor attended to internalize. in the classes of foreign language, rote pattern drills often evoke surface imitation: a repetition of sounds by a student without the vaguest understanding of what the sounds might mean. at the earliest stages of child language acquisition, they are likely to exhibit a good deal of surface imitation since the baby might not have the required semantic categories to assign “meaning” to utterances. nonetheless, as children perceive the importance of the semantic level of language, they attend primarily if not exclusively to that significant levelthe deep structure of language as a second type of imitation. they participate in deep-structure imitation. in fact, the deep structure imitation can block their attention to the surface structure so as they become poor imitators. this imitation, as a part of the habit – formation theory of the structural linguists, plays as a significant role as repetition in its approach. repeated occurrences of the response form a constant pattern. the child is reinforced for the correct response again after he imitates the adults he hears. this language acquisition theory is based on the view that language is acquired behavior resulting from habits. such habits are formed by practice and repetition (boey, 1975). this theory is similar to a behavioristic model of first language acquisition would claim that practice-repetition and associationis the key to the habit formation by operant conditioning proposed by skinner (brown 1994). brown (2000) also believed that language learning is the result of imitation, practice, feedback on success, and habit formation. in line with practice, goldstein (1984) shows that corrected practices enhance language learning. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-156 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ somariah fitriani environment and immediate family conducive and positive environment, as well as interaction from immediate family and media, contributes to the process of language development, as language acquisition is a creative process. her ability to communicate is developed stunningly after the age of three years because of the mentioned factors above. the stimulation of the environment affects language ability. ambridge, et al. (2015) and reali and christiansen (2007) pointed out “the most-immediate environmental effect on language pertains to the frequency of language use, which affects both acquisition and adult language processing.” alhammadi (2017) also found that child language development is not only affected by environmental, but also by social and genetic factors. it revealed that the social class, family history, environmental, and genetic factors contribute to the prediction of child’s language development. foley and thompson (2003) and moon (2000) acknowledged that correspondingly children in efl settings are likely to enhance their learning as long as they live in a “community” where people actively speak english. chomsky (1965) highlighted “basically, language learning is not something that the child does, it is something that happens to the child placed in the proper environment, much as the child’s body grows and matures in a predetermined way when appropriate nutrition and environmental stimulation are provided for the child”. since she was a baby, she has already had exposure to people in her surroundings. her mother puts a lot of pictures to stimulate her understanding and vocabulary. in the hierarchy of learning proposed by robert m. gagne that the first stage of learning is a concrete concept, which means register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-155 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 149 the children must see the things or objects (use five senses). by showing and exposing a lot of pictures, it can help a child to know, understand, and utter the words that contribute not only to his/her language acquisition but also to her psycho motoric aspect. the researcher buys a lot of vcds or dvds so that she, at least, is familiar with english since early childhood. when i bought her a movie barbie vcd of “barbie & her sisters in a pony tale” and watched it several times, she knew a concept of horse and that horse is a tame animal that she can ride on it. beforehand, she was afraid of a horse, when i took her to pacuan kuda and asked her to ride a horse. she also has plenty of words from all of us (8 adult people) who communicate and have interaction with her. she learns a lot from those things: environment, significant others (immediate family) and media that support, and affect her linguistic ability. hoff (2003) emphasized that children’s surrounding and social interaction with the family member and the community affect their language acquisition as well. last but not least, in addition to mentioned factors, according to ball (2010), some factors affecting the outcomes of dual language acquisition include formal instruction, individual differences, socio cultural adaptation, language spoken (exposure) at home, motivation, ethnic/gender discrimination, physiological condition and family socio economic status. conclusion dual language learning is not confusing as some common beliefs or myths occur to some parents. on the other hand, the children benefit some advantages such as they are better at problem solving, demonstrate greater creativity and express more tolerant attitudes. there are also some benefits the children can obtain from learning a second/foreign language, especially if the register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-156 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ somariah fitriani language is learned in the early childhood since the articulation of children is still developed until the age of 12 years old. they can also understand their mother tongue better as in the case of chinese’s children. they can recognize whether the word is their mother’s first language or not. therefore, the younger the individual is exposed to a new language, the greater the probability of acquiring native pronunciation as well as proficiency in that language. to promote the child’s acquisition, the role of significant others – that is immediate family; parents, grandparents, sisters, or brother is essential either to stimulate a child’s brain or to affect their language development. the conducive and favorable environment also has a profound impact on children’s acquisition, that’s why, parents must provide positive environments such as selecting good program television programs, having interaction with peers to improve not only linguistics ability but also communication skills and psychomotor of a child. thus, it can be concluded that factors affecting children acquisition include linguistic input or exposure, which will support and develop their linguistic ability; language acquisition device that motivate the children to learn; imitation, which such habits are formed by practice and repetition; environment and immediate family. the result of this research might be different if it is applied to other children due to factors such as environment, social status, intelligence, exposure and genetic. there are also some differences between children who acquire the same language since each child is different about the process of acquiring the languages. accordingly, the individual differences (id) must be taken into a consideration, as there is a significant variation among speakers at register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.126-155 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 151 any ages as well as across the lifespan. therefore, future research about individual differences (id) needs to be addressed to analyze further potential variables. references alhammadi, f.s (2017). prediction of child language development: a review of literature in early childhood communication disorders. lingua volume 199, pp. 27-35. ambridge, b., kidd, e., rowland c.f., & theakston, a.l. 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(3rd edition). california: sage publication, inc. 73 the influence of adolescent emotional state in social adjustment huriyah english department of education faculty state institute for islamic studies (stain) salatiga huriyah@gmail.com abstract the aims of the study are (1) to define the emotional state among the student of madrasah aliyah as-soorkaty, (2) to recognize the social adjustment among the student of madrasah aliyah as-soorkaty, and (3) to describe the level of emotional state influence their social adjustment. to collect the data, the researcher used questionnaire, interview, and documentation. the results showed that (1) the condition of adolescent emotion showed the good predicate 22, 55%, middle predicate 62, 5% and low predicate 15%, (2) the condition of social adjustment shows the good predicate 12,5 %, middle predicate 62, 5% and low predicate 25%, (3) there is positive influence between the condition of adolescent emotion and the social adjustment among the second year students of madrasah aliyah as soorkaty. keywords : adolescent emotional, social adjustment abstrak tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah ( 1 ) untuk menggambarkan keadaan emosional di antara siswa-siswa madrasah aliyah assoorkaty , ( 2 ) untuk mengenali penyesuaian sosial antar siswa dari madrasah aliyah as soorkaty , dan ( 3 ) untuk menggambarkan level keadaan emosi yang mempengaruhi adaptasi sosial mereka . dalam usaha pengumpulan data , peneliti menggunakan instrumen kuesioner , wawancara , dan dokumentasi . hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ( 1 ) kondisi emosi remaja menunjukkan predikat yang baik (22 , 55 %), predikat tengah (62 , 5 %) dan predikat rendah (15 %), ( 2 ) kondisi adaptasi sosial menunjukkan predikat baik (12,5 %) , predikat tengah (62 , 5 %) dan predikat rendah (25 %), ( 3 ) ada pengaruh positif antara kondisi emosi remaja dan penyesuaian sosial di kalangan siswa kelas dua, madrasah aliyah as soorkaty . kata kunci : emosi remaja, penyesuaian sosial 74 introduction the adolescents are in a transition period where they are facing with various problems, both developmental and environmental problem, with social condition which fast change. this makes themselves also consciously face a set of problems. generally adolescents feel nervous, easily angry and their balance easily loose. they do not like to be regarded as children any longer, but they also they cannot follow in adult. so we can say that adolescence is a period for looking for social recognition. according to sarlito that “the adolescents who have get their distinct social status in the early age do not show fluctuation of emotion which very protitude like their other friends who have experience transition period in a fairly”. from the emotional factor the adolescents are hoped to be able to organize condition themselves and understand their own emotion state. emotion is “stirring up, excitement, of the mind or( more use) the feeling, excited stated of the mind or feeling” (hornby:1974). the emotion and social skill are very needed by the adolescents to handle emotion stress in the modern time. if life is difficult and hasty and it makes adolescent easily angry and sensitive immediately, they know and lead the feeling. if they experience difficulty in their open and intimate community, immediately they can develop social skill to get and defend their friendship. the presence of the emotional skill will help adolescent facing and handle normal problems in their development period. study of adolescents emotional hope that this study would given some benefits, and shows whether or not emotional state influence social adjustment. 75 emotion is an experience of affection that follows adjustment from individual about mental condition and physic and the behavior that appear. ” and adolescent is an age in which individual makes integration with adult society, age where a child does not feel under people who older again but is in the same level, at least in the same level, at least in right problem … integration in adult society has many affective aspect, more less connected with puberty period … include change of intellectual … transformation of special intellectual of the way of adolescent thinking is able to reach integration in the social relation of adult, and in fact it is special characteristic which is general in the development period” elizabeth(1996: 206). ( adolescent according to piaget means more widely. the conclusion is that in adolescent period, someone can reach integration in the adult social relation. as it is implied the background of the study the problem which is investigated in the study is an effort of adolescent emotional state in social adjustment. the problem of this study can be formulated below: 1. how is the emotional state among the student of madrasah aliyah assoorkaty? 2. how is the social adjustment among the student of madrasah aliyah assoorkaty? 3. does the level of emotional state influence their social adjustment? research methodology this research invested the influence of adolescent emotional state in social adjustment at madrasah aliyah as soorkaty salatiga. emotional state was considered as attribute variable so the research design in which it was 76 considered as attribute variable so the research design in which it was used in this research was ex post facto. in this study, emotional state was independent variable and social adjustment was dependent variable. statistic to be used was independent product moment formula. the writer used the independent product moment formula because product moment to determine the significance of two means. the method which is used in this study is as below: 1. questionnaire method questionnaire is an instrument that has unique advantages and properly used constructed and administrated. it consisted of a topic, a guide, and it was provided with a list of suggested response. 2. interview the interview which is used in this study as assistant technique in data was needed in the investigation. especially for student/ respondent who do not understand about question, interview was given. 3. document method the method is used by the writer to get information‟s about: a. the condition of students and teachers, b. the structure of organization, and c. the facilities of the school the method which is used in this study are questionnaire method, interview, and document method. technique of data analysis using the formulas as: √ 77 explanation rxy = correlative coefficient between x and y xy = multiple between x and y x = free variable, that is adolescent emotional state y = bound variable, that is social adjustment n = sum of population σ = sigma discussion to get data about the condition of the adolescent emotion toward the social adjustment, the writer uses the questionnaire for students. the questionnaire consists of 20 questions. from the data get frequency and percentage of the data about emotional state and frequency and percentage of the data about social adjustment. frequency and percentage of the data about emotional state no. description answer f % 1. if there is a problem a b c 24 12 4 60 30 10 2. the method of learning, if there is a problem a b c 14 25 1 35 62,5 2,5 3. the feeling condition, if there is a problem a b c 15 21 4 37,5 52,5 10 78 4. if experience failure a b c 17 19 14 42,5 47,5 10 5. i can dominate myself speedily if i angry a b c 23 12 5 57,5 30 12,5 6. to take our action if there is a problem a b c 16 13 11 40 32,5 27,5 7. to think future a b c 18 22 0 45 55 0 8. if my friends do mistake a b c 12 17 1 30 42,5 2,5 9. toward people who hurt my feeling a b c 23 4 3 57,5 10 7,5 10. the psychology condition if there is a problem a b c 8 30 2 20 75 5 from the table, can be conclude that the condition of adolescent emotion shows the good predicate 22, 55%, middle predicate 62, 5% and low predicate 15%. 79 frequency and percentage of the data about social adjustment no. description answer f % 1. if interact with other a b c 24 6 10 60 15 25 2. if interact with other a b c 5 12 23 12,5 30 57,5 3. everything in surrounding a b c 6 24 10 15 60 25 4. in the social activity a b c 7 23 10 17,5 57,5 25 5. if do duty of group a b c 5 31 4 12,5 77,5 10 6. if do duty in the school a b c 37 2 1 92.5 5 2,5 7. if there is a friend experience difficult a b c 30 8 2 75 20 5 8. to finish the conflict with friend a b c 34 4 2 85 10 5 9. if there is someone who a 12 30 80 gives critics b c 30 5 75 12,5 10. to adapt in the new environment a b c 5 31 11 12,5 77,5 27,5 from the table, can be conclude that the condition of social adjustment shows the good predicate 12,5 %, middle predicate 62, 5% and low predicate 25%. the questionnaire which is given to the students consists of variable with 3 answer of choice, and each of them has score 1-3. the way to score the high and low score is as follow: 1. the good score 3 x 10 = 30 (20-30) 2. the middle score 2 x 10 = 20 ( 10-20) 3. the low score 1 x 10 = 10 (1-10) from the table of percentage about the conditional of emotional state and social adjustment, it can be seen that the most on the predicate middle is 62,5 %. so basically conditional of emotional state and the social adjustment is good enough. after the score of each variable is found, with the hypothesis test analysis, the writer will prove with uses the pattern of moment product correlation √ 81 correlation coefficient of variable x and y no. subject name x y x² y² xy 1. aang 19 28 361 784 532 2. agung novianto 21 21 441 441 441 3. agus salim 20 17 400 289 340 4. ahmad arif 27 21 729 441 567 5. alwan hadiyanto 25 27 625 729 675 6. ardhana wisnu 23 22 529 484 506 7. arif fajar n. h. 21 24 441 576 504 8. badiah 22 28 484 784 616 9. dian fajar ari 17 20 289 400 340 10. eko suryo wibowo 22 19 484 361 418 11. heni k 23 26 529 676 598 12. hesti setio u 23 24 529 576 552 13. ida maghfiroh 23 25 529 625 575 14. juremi 20 24 400 576 480 15. lailatul m 27 27 729 729 729 16. lasmi 24 24 576 576 576 17. moch. mujianto 22 24 484 576 528 18. m. haris 20 18 400 324 360 19. m. nur 17 19 289 361 323 20. m. rois 22 17 484 289 374 21. m. zainuri 16 28 256 784 448 22. mulyanti 21 21 441 441 441 23. nur tasdiqoh 23 22 529 484 506 24. nanang rosulu 23 22 529 484 506 25. nuning k m 22 25 484 625 550 82 26. pamungkas a 23 22 529 484 506 27. retno s 26 23 676 529 598 28. rika pijiwati 24 28 576 784 672 29. rofiatul h 23 23 529 529 529 30. rohmiatun 23 24 529 576 552 31. saudah 24 24 576 576 576 32. sigid i 22 24 484 576 528 33. siti aminah 20 27 400 729 540 34. siti juartik 24 23 576 529 552 35. siti khasanah 29 24 841 576 696 36. siti qomariyah 22 24 484 576 528 37. suratemi 24 23 576 529 552 38. suryanti 24 27 576 729 648 39. sunarto 18 22 324 484 396 40. suyati 17 25 289 625 425 after finding the correlation coefficient of variable x and y we find the significance of the correlation coefficient result. so, the result of correlation coefficient between variable x and y in the condition of adolescent emotional state and social adjustment is 0, 426. the moment product score on the signification level 5% and 1% n signification level 5 % 1 % 40 0, 312 0,403 83 1. significance level 1 % on the significance level 1 %, for the respondents sun (n) = 40, rt = 0,403 (in the table) rxy = 0, 426 so rt(40) < rxy. thus, on the significance level 1 %, the result shows positive between variables. 2. significance level 5 % on the significance level 1 %, for the respondents sun (n) = 40, rt = 0, 1312 (in the table) rxy = 0, 426 so rt(40) < rxy. thus, on the significance level 1 %, the result shows positive between variables. from the analysis, it can be concluded that both on the significance level 5 % and 1 % shows significant correlation. it means that there is positive influence between the condition of adolescent emotion and the social adjustment among the second year students of madrasah aliyah as soorkaty. so, the hypothesis “ha= the condition of adolescent emotional state the social adjustment” is acceptable. conclusion the situation of adolescent emotional state is very influence for adjust themselves in society. the adolescent emotional state from the questionnaire result of 40 students varieties, those are: a. good category = 22, 5 % b. middle category = 62,5 % c. bad category = 15 % the situation of society is very important for adolescent, in the social adjustment based on the research, it can be conclude that: the social adjustment from the questionnaire result of 40 students varieties, those are: 84 a. good category = 12, 5 % b. middle category = 62,5 % c. bad category = 25 % the result of statical analysis using the product moment correlation shows that there is significant positive influence between variable of adolescent emotion condition and variable of social adjustment. the significance level appear on the comparison of rxy is more than rt both on significance level 5 % (0,312) and level 1 % (0,403) with rxy= 0,426 for n =40. thus the better situation of adolescent emotional state is, the better the social adjustment they perform. references hornby, as. 1974. oxford advanced learner‟s dictionary of curent english. oxford university press hurlock, b elizabeth. 1996. psikologi perkembangan. erlangga: jakarta sarlito, sarwono wirawan. 1997. psikologi remaja. raja grafindo persada: jakarta register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.183-207 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 183 examining gender representation in an indonesian efl textbook *zango anisa agni1, endang setyaningsih2, teguh sarosa3 sebelas maret university1,2,3 address: jl. ir. sutami no.36, kentingan, jebres, surakarta, jawa tengah, indonesia1,2,3 e-mail: zangooagni@gmail.com1, endangsetyaningsih@staff.uns.ac.id 2, teguhsrs@staff.uns.ac.id3 corresponding author* doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i1.183-207 submission track: received: 10-04-2020 final revision: 23-05-2020 available online: 01-06-2020 abstract considering its influential role in students’ behavior and attitudes, a textbook has to reflect balanced images, and information about males and females. it also has to support broad choices and many roles for both sexes to avoid unjust or bias gender issues. this study aimed at examining whether an efl textbook published by the indonesian government promotes gender equity by (1) mapping the proportion of textual and visual representation of zango anisa agni, endang setyaningsih, teguh sarosa 184 males and females in the textbook; (2) describing how males and females are treated in the textbook. through content analysis, the study revealed that the book is gender-biased as indicated from unbalanced (1) textual and visual representation (2) variety of activity, role, and occupation, (3) order of mention, and (4) adjectival portrayal. in all indicators, the female is underrepresented, hidden, and framed within traditional gender stereotyping. reflecting on these findings, revision by the government and/ or careful treatment by teachers when using the book are ushered. keywords: bias, content analysis, gender representation, gender stereotype, textbook. introduction dakar convention which was held by the united nations of educational, scientific, and cultural organization (unesco) in senegal 2000 and its follow up event in 2015, recommended that awareness of political correctness of gender issues need to be forced in teaching and learning tools and materials. the initial evaluation of gender representation is the study by lakoff in 1973. lakoff’s study revealed that women tend to be in a lower status position more than men. this finding has attracted scholars around the world to conduct studies about gender including its representation in textbooks. textbook serves as one of the sources of language input for students and as a basis for language learning in class (tomlison, 1998). along these lines, it is significant that textbook needs to reflect balanced pictures, data concerning males and females and support wide choices and numerous roles for both genders for avoiding unjust or bias gender issue. however, lee (2014) noted that gender bias is still founded in textbooks. this can influence students’ thinking about men and women. lee (2014) also said that material found in textbooks invites.learners register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.183-207 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 185 to relate to character conduct in the textbooks, which makes students imitate practices that are regular of their genders. thus, gender has to be presented equally in textbook because textbook has an important role that influences students’ behavior and attitudes towards gender. this present study focuses on senior high school elt textbook, it highlights a single book published by the indonesian ministry of education and culture, “bahasa inggris”. the study expands the scope of investigation by counting the appearance of male and female both in textual and visual, and examining how male and female are treated in the textbook. this examination is carried out by looking at the order of gender appearance and the gender’s domain activity, role, and occupation, and adjective used by male and female. gender representation and gender stereotype in elt textbook gender is the role of female and male that has been constructed up by social and cultural (holmes, 2007). it is a contextual dependent term that applies to males and females with specific linguistic strategies (bell, mccarthy & mcnamara, 2006). meanwhile, the word ‘representation’ is the production of meaning through language (hall, 1997). in addition, shorter oxford dictionary in hall (1997) stated that ‘to represent’ means to describe or depict it, to call it up in the mind by portrayal or description or imagination. thus, gender representation means how the role of males and females which build socially is described. movements to gender equity has been running for decades and today more and more individuals as well as organization voice their thoughts on the issue. the unesco, for example, have sounded for males and females to have zango anisa agni, endang setyaningsih, teguh sarosa 186 equal access in education and learning opportunities. likewise, lemoyne (2011) noted that gender equity implies that males and females have the same rights, resources, possibilities, and protections. in a broader sense, edc (2007) stated that gender equity deals with the ability of female and male to have same opportunities, rights, and responsibilities in aspects of life. regardless of growing the gender sensitive movement, traditional gender stereotyping persists today. according to matsumoto and juang (2008) gender stereotypes are behavioral or psychological characteristics of males or females. in indonesia, gender stereotype is still an issue. there is gender stereotype that is reflected in gender roles. some people still have a traditional perspective of three ur; sumur, dapur, and kasur (wash up, work in the kitchen, and bed) as the duty of females. whereas now, females do not only relate to those activities, but they also work outside as male commonly do (damayanti, 2014). sunderland, 1994a in mustapha (2012) also mentioned some dimensions of gender stereotype/sexism, those are; invisibility, occupational stereotype, and relationship stereotype, namely: (1) invisibility: the visibilities of females are less than males or vice versa, (2) occupational stereotypes: females or males are represented fewer in occupational roles, (3) relationship stereotypes: while females mostly are represented as individual being more in relation with males, rather than males more relation with females, (4) personal characteristic stereotyping: while females represented as emotional and timid, (5) disempowering discourse roles: when more males talking first rather than females, (6) degradation: blatant sexism to the point of misogamy. ignoring its sensitivity, gender is one of the elements that is often taken for granted in elt textbooks. it is common to find elt textbooks which are biased in representing males and females; while, ideally, the textbooks should depict a balance of active roles between males and females. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.183-207 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 187 in indonesia, the study of gender representtaion had been conducted by yonata and mujiyanto (2017) and fahriany (2019). in asia, the study of gender representation also had been conducted by some researchers, i. e. nofal and qawar (2015), salami and ghajarieh (2016), dahmardeh and kim (2019), etc. in addition, lee had been conducted some studies of gender representation in different years.lee had conducted several researches about gender representation in 1999, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2014, and 2016. in the latest research, lee (2016) investigated gender representation in four contemporary japanese efl textbooks for high school in japan which titled “gender representation in japanese efl textbooks – a corpus study”. the result of this study reveals that female is underrepresented in some aspects, such as female under-representation in the appearances, the adjective used, and the order of mention. while in the gender-neutral and gender marked vocabulary, the four efl textbooks use gender-neutral vocabulary. besides, dahmardeh and kim in 2019 investigated gender representation in five elt textbook for secondary school in iran titled “gender representation in iranian english language coursebook”. the result of this study is there is gender imbalance in these five elt textbooks. male is more presented than female in names and photo. also, the role of males is more wide and varied. moreover, qatawneh and rawashdeh (2019) examined a study entitled “gender representation in the arabic language textbook for the ninth grade approved by the ministry of education for use in schools in the united arab emirates (uae)”. the study reveals a significant difference between the total number of aspects presented for females compared to males, which means that there are imbalances and clear differences in the representation of gender aspects in this textbook. also, zango anisa agni, endang setyaningsih, teguh sarosa 188 when female and male appears in a single phrase, males are mentioned before females. moreover, the study also reveals that the language used in the textbook was mostly in favor of males. research method the object of this study is an english language textbook for tenth-grade senior high school student titled "bahasa inggris" published by the indonesia ministry of education and culture. this book is used by almost all of senior high schools in indonesia. in this study, we employed a content analysis as the research design. referring to krippendorff (2004), content analysis is a research technique for making valid and replicable inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the contents of their uses. in conducting the content analysis, categories for analysis were pre-developed from porreca (1984), lee (2014), and qatawneh and rawashdeh (2019), and it covered 11 aspects. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.183-207 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 189 table 1. research instrument r.q. categories criteria codes 1. how are male and female represented in the textbook? 2. how are male and female treated in the textbook? female and male appearance female and male activity, role and occupation 1. frequency of selected gendered words (e.g. wife, husband, girl, boy, man, woman, etc.) 2. frequency of occurrence of feminine and masculine proper noun 3. frequency of occurrence of feminine pronouns and masculine pronouns 4. frequency of occurrence of female and male address titles 5. frequency of occurrence of female and male character in illustration/images frequency of female and male activity, role and occupation according to the aspects: 1. educational aspect: everything related to education and its multiple activities. 2. professional aspects: everything related to the professions, business, industry, science, engineering such as medicine nursing, employment, maintenance, and others. 3. social and family aspects: all aspects related to family, social cooperation, and deepening the spirit of national belonging. gwm (male), gwf (female) pfm, pff, npfm, npff pm pf atm atf vgm, vgf, vim, vif, vn ea/r m ea/r f pfa/r m pfa/r f sfa/r m sfa/r f zango anisa agni, endang setyaningsih, teguh sarosa 190 adapted from porreca (1984), lee (2014), and qatawneh and rawashdeh (2019). the technique of data collection which the researcher employ was document analysis. then, data obtained were analyzed following the seven steps of analytic procedure listed in marshall and rossman (2006, p. 156-157). 1. organizing the data all the data were examined through open coding to make it more organized. open coding done by reading through data several times and then starting to create tentative labels for chunks of data. the data were analyzed every sentence, and even word by word. this process aimed to build concepts and categories. 2. immersion in the data (by reading and re-reading) the data were read and re-read to find the structure for further categories generation. order of mention adjective used 4. leisure aspects : all aspects related to an activity in a leisure time, such as listening to music, game, and others order of mention of male and female in a phrase coordinated by and/or adjectives collocating with selected gendered nouns or their plural forms (woman, man, boy and girl), and the pronouns he and she la/r m la/r f om of ap m ap f an m an f register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.183-207 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 191 3. generating categories based on the immersion, there were other two emerging categories. there were nine pre-developed aspect; (1) frequency of selected gendered words, (2) frequency of occurrence of female and pronouns, (3) frequency of occurrence of female and male address titles, (4) frequency of occurrence of female and male character in illustration/images, (5) kinds of female and male activity, role and occupation according to some aspects such as (a)educational, (b) professional, (c) social and family, (6) the order of mention of male and female in a phrase coordinated by and/or, (7) and adjectives collocating with selected gendered nouns and their plural form. then, the two emerging categories are frequency of occurrence of female and male proper nouns and kinds of female and male activity, role, and occupation in leisure aspect. 4. coding the data the data were coded based on the 11 aspects. tables were made for each aspect. then, the frequency of each aspect were counted using tally. then, tally is given in each category (male/female) in the table of each aspect. besides, kinds of adjectives used were listed and the number of each adjective used were counted, and also kinds of activity, role, and occupation in educational, professional, social & family, and leisure aspect were also listed then put in the table. besides, to make it easier, sign in every taken data were given in the textbook. zango anisa agni, endang setyaningsih, teguh sarosa 192 5. interpreting the data after the data were coded, the data were interpreted. the coded data were summarized, then reviewed for patterns and relationships, and related the results to data obtained from the inter-rater reliability. 6. searching for alternative understanding alternative explanations as well as alternative point of view for particular data were looked for. basic theory, data’s inter-rater, and previous study were read and learned. 7. writing the report after the sufficient understanding was gained, the report was written. to check the reliability, an experienced english teacher who has been using the textbook served as an inter-rater. to ensure the inter-rater reliability, kappa coefficient calculation was carried out using spss 17. the result is 0.798. based on landis and koch (1977), kappa value of more than 0.75 is indicated as excellent reliability. thus, it can be interpreted that the inter-rater realibility of this study is excellent. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.183-207 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 193 results & discussion how male and female are represented in the textbook textual representation in terms of textual representation, there are four aspects that are analyzed, namely frequency of selected gendered word, frequency of proper noun, frequency of pronoun, and frequency of address titles. table 2 shows the frequency of male and female’s freuencies in textual representation. 1) frequency of selected gendered words as shown in table 2, the frequency of females in the form of gendered words outnumbers the males. however, the variety of female words is less than male words. in addition, in some of narrative texts, the animal characters such as “kanchil” and “crocodile” are indicated as male, as shown table 2. frequency of male and female in textual representation male female aspect frequency aspect frequency gendered words 132 gendered words 160 proper noun public figure non public figure 448 165 283 proper noun public figure non public figure 299 52 247 pronoun 379 pronoun 327 address titles 5 address titles 1 total: 964 (55%) total: 787 (45%) zango anisa agni, endang setyaningsih, teguh sarosa 194 in the use of masculine pronouns (he, his, and him). thus, it can be concluded that males hold more varied roles and status than females in the textbook examined. 2) frequency of male and female proper noun in the textbook examined, there are six texts related to male-oriented issues. in addition, in some chapters of the textbook examined, there are quotations from some public figures at the end of most chapters. based on table 1, the frequency of males in terms of proper nouns is higher than females. the proper noun is categorized into two categories, such as public figures and non-public figures. in both categories, the proportion of males is higher than females. there are 11 quotations in the textbook examined; 10 out of 11 are from male figures. thus, it could be a reflection of male dominance in power. in addition, it can be inferred that male is more influential than female. 3) frequency of male and female pronoun as shown in table 2, the representation of male pronouns in all types of pronouns is higher than female pronouns 4) frequency of male and female address titles table 2 shows that the frequency of female address titles is less than male address titles. in the textbook examined, the use of male title occurred frequently, while female title occurred much less in frequency. it is surprising to note here that only one female called by the title, i.e., ‘mrs. sabariah. other than ‘mrs.’ no female title was used in the textbook. in.comparison, male title was repeatedly used in the textbook as ‘mr. sultoni’, ‘mr. surya’, and mr. muslih’. this also shows biased and unequal representations of female and male genders. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.183-207 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 195 from the the presentation of data, it can be concluded that male is more presented textually in the textbook. this phenomenon is known as invisibility. invisibility occurs when the visibilities of females are less than males or vice versa (sunderland in mustapha (2012)). sadker et al (1991) stated that invisibility is the most dangerous bias. when the visibility of male and female are not represented equally in textbook, it could lead the students to have a wrong perception about gender. the female’s invisibility in the textbook could mean that female is not considered as significant and worthy. lee (2006) stresses that under-representing females indirectly convey that females and their achievements are not worthy. like other studied textbooks around the world, females tend to be treated unfairly in such a way in this case. moreover, tarrayo (2014) stated that if females are not cited as oft as males in textbooks, the implicit signals are that females are not significant enough to be included in those textbooks. visual representation in terms of visual representation, images or pictures in the textbook examined are analyzed. in determining whether the picture is female or male, we see the context. table 3. frequency of male and female in visual representation male female neutral (male & female) individu 16 individu 6 group 12 group 12 group 5 zango anisa agni, endang setyaningsih, teguh sarosa 196 table 3 shows the frequency of male and female in visual representation. table 3 reveals that males representation in both individual and group images is higher than females images. in addition, the neutral images that consist of males and females in 1 frame were also under the representation of male images. in a nutshell, the achieved findings stressed on the inequality between females and males. the female’s portion to males is about 1 to 3. in another word, males are represented exceed twofold comparing females. a study by ahmad and shah (2019) also revealed that in their textbook examined male dominance is quite visible in the pictorial representation. how male and female are treated kinds of activity, roles, and occupation of male and female in the textbook in this section, kinds of activity, roles, and occupation of males and females are analyzed based on four aspects, namely educational aspect, professional aspect, social & family aspect, and leisure aspect. 1) educational aspect in educational aspect, the activities of males was more varied than females. it was related to the level of education and field of study. males were represented having activity on some level of education such as elementary school, vocational school, high school, and higher level of education while female was only represented on higher level of education. in addition, males were represented studying in some field of studies such as language and engineering, while female was represented studying in culinary. the activities of females were also related to teaching. however, total 28 (55%) 11 (22%) 12 (23%) register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.183-207 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 197 both males and females were represented having the same activity in competitions, i.e won speech contest and math olympiad for female, and won speech contest for male. 2) professional aspect male’s activity, role, and occupation is more various than female in professional aspect. it shows that male has more chance to work in various field than female. males are represented working and doing activity related to engineering, business, and industry. while female is not represented having role or activity related to engineering, business, and industry. while female is not represented having role or activity related to engineering, business, and industry. other than that, female’s roles and occupations tend to relate with culinary and health like baker, medical doctor, and the activity is make and sell a snack in the canteen. however, in this textbook, both males and females are represented equally with the role of both genders as a teacher, leader and flight attendant. it indicates both males and females could have the same role. 3) social and family aspect in the textbook examined, female’s activity in social & family aspects is more varied than males. from these lists of activities in social & family aspect, female is suggested to do domestic activities such as dealing with home-related activities. this result is also supported by wu and liu (2015) who argue that women are depicted more in the category of domestic activities in which they undertake all the housework and perpetuate nursing and caring family. however, males and females are represented equally in family roles. however, both males and females are represented by having the same family roles. it is in line with the previous studies of lee and collins’s zango anisa agni, endang setyaningsih, teguh sarosa 198 (2008) and yang’s (2011) who find the fairly equal representation of both genders in familial settings: both male and female are represented as father and mother, husband and wife, and son and daughter. 4) leisure aspect male’s activity in leisure aspect is more varied than females, but the activities and role of female are also various. female is represented in the textbook by doing some activities, such as play basketball and go to gym and having role as football supporter which are commonly known as male activities and role. in addition, male and female activities mostly were included as outdoor activity, except one of activities of female i.e practice baking cookies. from the findings, it can be concluded that male’s activity, role, and occupation are more varied than females. it is also known as occupational stereotyping. it occurs when females or males are represented fewer in occupational roles (sunderland in mustapha (2012)). huang in wu and liu (2015) stated that the occupational role represented by females and males in textbooks had a role as models for students and can influence the life aspiration of students. thus, it is problematic because in the textbook female is represented having limited occupational roles than male. limiting female to do some kinds of activity and role also shows that females are less competent than males. order of mention table 4. order of mention male female 56 (84%) 11 (16%) register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.183-207 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 199 table 4 shows the order of mention of male and female in the textbook. in this textbook, male dominance and superiority are shown by mentioning males before females in one single phrase. as in previous study (e.g. lee (2014), (2016); lee and collins (2008), (2009); porreca (1984); qatawneh and rawshdeh (2019)), the present study reveals the textbook contains male firstness over than female firstness. as shown in table 4.11, there is a clear tendency for assigning firstness to males. there are 56 male firstnesses in the textbook, however there are only 54 male firstnesses that indicate as stereotype. it is because the male firstness “habibie and his wife” does not show any stereotype as the phrases included in the authentic text entitled “b.j. habibie” in the textbook. thus, the author tend to mention habibie first, then continued by “his wife”, rather than “his wife and habibie” because the text is about “b.j. habibie” not “habibie’s wife”. lee (2014) stated that the way of putting female names after male names in coordinated expressions also conveys an implication of female inferiority. besides, ahmad and shah (2019) said that the one who is mentioned first before another one is given more worth. thus, it indicates that in this textbook male is worthier than female. adjective used by males and females the kind and frequency of adjectives used by males in the textbook examined were also higher than females. in addition, there is a gender stereotype related to the adjective used. in this textbook, the author tended to represent female by using adjectives related to their emotions, age, and appearance. at the same time, male is represented by using adjectives related to physical and mental strength and also wealth. united nations of human zango anisa agni, endang setyaningsih, teguh sarosa 200 rights (2014) stated that gender stereotypes can be both positive and negative. in this textbook, females are represented using negative adjectives higher than males. it indicates that females having negative attitudes higher than males. while males were represented using positive adjectives higher than females. it indicates that males having positive attitudes higher than females. all in all, it clearly shows that there is still gender bias in the textbook. biased representation of both genders could negatively affect learners. foroutan (2012) stated that if there are gender inequalities in textbooks that are authored and simulated by students, they will likely be socialized into various gender roles, resulting in the perpetuation of inequalities and bias against women. this may result in them failing to realize their potential (amerian & esmaili, 2015). because of the negative effects of gender bias in the textbook, efforts should be made to represent both genders in equal proportion. for example, textbook adoption committees should be formed to assess the factual coverage of race, class, and gender in the textbooks. in addition, wherever textbooks fail to ensure equal representation of the gender, the teachers should supplement the material to balance the coverage of both genders by themselves (chick, 2006). conclusion the study confirms that efl textbook which tends to represent male and female unequally is biased, particularly the efl textbook titled “bahasa inggris” for tenth-grade senior high school students published by indonesian ministry of education in 2018, therefore it needs to be treated with caution. there are unequal representations of both genders. in the textbook, the appearance of females both in textual and visual are less represented than male. in textual representation, male outnumbers female in terms of the frequency of register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.183-207 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 201 gendered word, proper noun, pronoun, and address titles, and also male plays dominance in the quality as shown in the number of quotation from male figures. it indicates that male is having more status/roles and also male is considered more influential as indicated by the number of quotation in the textbook. in addition, male also outnumbers females in visual representation by 33 %. lee (2006) stresses that under-representing females indirectly convey that females and their achievements are not worthy. besides, kinds of activities, roles, and occupations of female are also limited, while male is represented as having more various activities and roles than female in all gender aspects, i.e educational, professional, and leisure. whereas female’s activity in social & family aspects is more various than male, it indicates that female is mostly presented to do domestic roles. a clear bias can be seen in the educational and professional aspects. in educational aspects, male is represented having various activities in some level of education and field of study while female is only represented having activity in one level of education and culinary. in professional aspects, male is represented having various activities and roles. moreover, in this textbook, male’s activity, role, and occupation are related to science, engineering, business, and industry, while female’s activities and roles are related to culinary and health. in addition, pattern of mentioning both genders in one phrase is also showing bias when males were mentioned before females. moreover, the use of positive adjectives by male is higher than females, while the use of negative adjectives by female is higher than males. it indicates that female in the textbook is represented having more bad attitudes than male. moreover, there is a tendency to represent females in terms of their age, appearance and zango anisa agni, endang setyaningsih, teguh sarosa 202 emotions. on the other hand, the textbook’s authors tended to represent males with physical, mental strength and wealth. there are some suggestions from the researcher, namely (1) textbook authors need to avoid gender stereotyping and inequality in providing adequate and proper textbooks as main source material for english teaching and learning process. it could be done by asking some reviewers to check, review, and make sure that the textbook contains gender equality, (2) teachers as the main actor in the classroom can manage to equalize gender stereotype through selecting appropriate materials. besides, the textbook used is contained gender stereotypes, it is better for the teacher to clarify the students’ perception toward gender, the teacher needs to explain the concept of gender equality. it could be done by adding visual representation of both genders that shows equality in both genders. another suggestion for teachers is that teachers can modify the learning material from other sources to avoid gender stereotype or bias, (3) the other researchers are expected to study gender representation in elt textbooks with different aspects analyzed or other gender issues that may exist in elt textbooks. besides, further researchers can take different aspect i.e political representation, ethnicity, or culture. references ahmad, m., & shah, s., k. 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(2011). gender representation in a hong kong primary english textbook series: the relationship between language planning and social policy. current issues in language planning 12 (1): 77–88. 98 a descriptive study of registers found in spoken and written communication (a semantic analysis) nurul hidayah english departement of education faculty state institute for islamic studies (stain) salatiga nurulhid@gmail.com abstract this research is descriptive study of registers found in spoken and written communication. the type of this research is descriptive qualitative research. in this research, the data of the study is register in spoken and written communication that are found in a book entitled "communicating! theory and practice" and from internet. the data can be in the forms of words, phrases and abbreviation. in relation with method of collection data, the writer uses the library method as her instrument. the writer relates it to the study of register in spoken and written communication. the technique of analyzing the data using descriptive method. the types of register in this term will be separated into formal register and informal register, and identify the meaning of register. keywords: register, spoken and written communication, jargon, slang, motherese abstrak penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif tentang register yang ditemukan dalam komunikasi lisan dan tertulis. jenis penelitian ini adalah penelitian deskriptif kualitatif. data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah komunikasi lisan maupun tertulis yang ditemukan dalam sebuah buku berjudul "berkomunikasi ! teori dan praktek" dan dari internet. data berbentuk kata-kata, frase, dan singkatan. penulis menggunakan studi pustaka sebagai metode pengumpulan data. kemudian, penulis menghubungkannya dengan studi register dalam komunikasi lisan dan tertulis. sedangkan teknik analisis data yang digunakan adalah metode deskriptif. jenis-jenis register, dalam hal ini, akan dikelompokkan ke dalam register formal dan informal untuk selanjutnya diidentifikasi. mailto:nurulhid@gmail.com 99 kata kunci: register, komunikasi lisan dan tertulis, jargon, slang, motherese introduction language is one of the most important things for human being, as a means of communication. in other words, language is used to share ideas, knowledge and feelings in written or spoken form, in formal and informal situation. human being as social and individual person, always communicates with each other. in communication people use language as the medium. word is the one of the elements of language. it can be performed into sentences and they give message which may have direct or indirect meanings. people create sentences with their own style both in spoken and written form. the use of language should be suited with the situation and purpose. in spoken language, expressive feelings and ideas sometimes use with gesture such as flashing eyes, moving the part of the body and other. while in the written forms, language is expressed with the choice of words and language style such as punctuation and accentuation signs. register is the level of formality used when speaking and writing. victoria fromkin and robert rodman, author of an introduction to language, call it as a stylistic variant of a language appropriate with a particular social setting, also called style. the main factor of register includes social setting, situation, addressor, addressee, and topic. in other words, language has to be appropriate to the speaker and listener and it also must match appropriately with occasions and situations. for example, a sport commentator would not 100 say something about football game in the formal language that are used by lawyers or judges in courtroom. both the sport commentator and the lawyer adjust their style of speaking or register, to fit the setting and to avoid unsuitable situation, like most people adjust their language in daily conversation depending on whom they are speaking with and where they are. formality is one of the many facets of register and it is dictated by the address, context and topic. formal register, more often used in written language than in spoken. it is used in the professional field and when people are not familiar which each other. people tend to speak more informally when they are talking with their family and friends. language varies according to the situation and addressee, but it also varies based on the speaker social class, ethnic, group, age and sex. for example, a teenage girl is doing conversation on the phone with her classmate using speaking informally, slang speaking non standard english and when she accepts an incoming call from teacher, she changes her speaking style from informal to formal by speaking standard english and leaving out slang used by her and her friend. when the speaker changes his register to match the context, it si called situational switching. in addition, the example is a kind of situational switching occurs naturally in the speech of most people and happens so quickly that speaker usually does not have to make a conscious decision to change her register. from the explanation above, the writer wants to find another explanation of register and clarify their type, meaning and the use foe communication. the writer is interested in doing research and gives a title "a descriptive study of registers found in spoken and written 101 communication (a semantic analysis)". in this paper, the writer has objectives as follows. 1. to describe the kinds register found in speech and written. 2. to explain the differences of communication using spoken and written language on formal and informal register. 3. to explain the similarities of spoken and written register. 4. to explain the differences of spoken and written register. definition of register the term of register here describes as a language of groups of people with common interests of jobs or a language used in situation associated with such groups that stated by holmes. based on fromkin and rodman in their book an introduction to language, call register as stylistic variant of a language appropriate with a particular social setting. wardhaugh said that registers are set of vocabulary items associated with discrete occupation or social groups. so the expression is understood by community itself, although we sometimes can also know the meaning of the expression used. the terms show us that register is a feature of language that has a special usage dealing with the society. it is clear from the definition above, that people use different language. the differences may be caused by people who speak, to whom they speak, where they speak, how they speak, and what are the media to communicate. the background of the people also influences the use of language. language is closely related with the expression. therefore, the use of different language may cause different expression. 102 halliday and hasan, in holmes, insist that registers are not marginal or special varieties of language, rather they cover the total range of language activity in society. "register is what you are speaking at the time, depending on what you are doing and the nature of the activity in which the language is functioning. so, whereas, in principle at least, any individual might go through life speaking only one dialect (in modern complex societies, this is increasingly unlikely; but it is theoretically possible, and it used to be norm), it is not possible to go through life using only one register. the register reflects another aspect of the social order, that of social processes, the different types of social activity that people commonly engage in." there are a lot of groups of people in society. there are teachers, doctors, lawyers, farmers, sellers, drivers, advertisers, etc. each group of people has its own expression. the advertiser community uses its own expression, so that it cannot be understood by the other community. register sometimes enable people to identify a certain group and to maintain the relationship in the same occupation or profession. brown in biber and finegan holds that: "register is commonly identified by certain phonological variants, vocabularies idioms, and give a similar definition expression that are associated with different occupational or social group." based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that register is a variety of language distinguished according to the use. it is typical and used in a certain situation, certain occupation or certain socials groups (parts of society) and it usually has a certain purpose. 103 the function of register is to make easy communication between the member on the certain groups. register also has an important role in society. it can give further information about the specific purpose on several groups. pateda classifies the function of register into five, namely: 1. oratorical or frozen, which is used by professional speaker to attract the listener. 2. deliberative or formal, used by the speaker to broader conversation. 3. consultative, it is usually used to make an agreement. it occurs in trade transaction and typically dialogue. 4. casual, it is used to omit misunderstanding in communication. 5. intimate, it is used in family atmosphere. research methodology this research brought to a qualitative research because of the theories that support this approach. moleong affirms that qualitative research is a research of which data in the form of written and oral word are descriptively analyzed. it present the data and the research result in the form of phenomena description. related to this research, the writer uses descriptive method in which this method is to describe what actually happens to procedures about method, which are useful in research. it will be used as guidance to conduct the research from the beginning to the end of work the writer takes a certain procedures and would like to explain in five parts, they are type of research, data, source of the data, data collection method, and data analysis. 104 1. type of research this research is the domain of qualitative research. the type of this research is "descriptive qualitative research". moreover, moloeng affirms that qualitative research of which the data in the form of written or oral word are descriptively analyzed. qualitative data tend to be in the form of words than series number. it does not present the result in the form of digits or statistics because the terms of register in spoken and written communication can be separated and taken according to the kind or function of the terms. it presents the data and the results in the form of phenomena description. 2. data in this research, the data of the study is register in spoken and written communication that are found in a book entitled "communicating! theory and practice" and from internet. the data can be in the forms of words, phrases and abbreviation. 3. source of the data the source of data refers to the subject from which the data are obtained. 14 they are considered as the material of the research. the source of the data in this research consists of written and oral data. the writer uses two sources of the data. the primary data is from a book entitled "communicating! theory and practice". the writer also uses secondary information such as reference book and from the internet. 105 4. data collection method in relation with method of collection data, the writer uses the library method as her instrument. the writer relates it to the study of register in spoken and written communication. the procedures of collecting the data are reading the book entitled "communicating! theory and practice", and then the writer select and sort out some certain words or phrases in it which are considered as certain jargon. in addition, the writer found slang and motherese in internet. 5. data analysis the technique of analyzing the data using descriptive method. the types of register in this term will be separated into formal register and informal register, and identify the meaning of register. thus, the writer also makes some references of the donation meaning. in doing the analysis, the writer conducts the technique through data arranged procedures as follows: a. classifying the terms into specific categories, such as: i. formal register : jargon ii. informal register : slang motherese for example, there are some words such as assimilation, ta ta, and beddy-bye. the writer classify it into the right category. b. elaborating the register meanings based on classification above. from the classification above, the writer looking for the meaning from dictionary or appropriate it with the context. c. determining the use of register for communication. 106 after looking for the meaning, the writer tries to find the reasons why people use the register. discussion having analyzes some data, the writer found some phenomena from the analysis. the phenomena that the writer found will be finding of this research. 1. the forms of register the forms of register is various in this research. the form of register hare can be divided into three categories, namely word, phrase and abbreviation. a. word 1) jargon 107  letter  memo  agreement  topic  grammar  structure  addressee  dialogue  channel  communicative  feedback  information  context  idiom  pronunciation  spelling  punctuation  pitch  sentence  intonation  volume  assimilation  pausing  message  audience  paragraph  accuracy 2) slang  grass  pot  bad  pig  bah  baller  bananas  bank  bird  bitch  bomb  boo  rack  pussy  play  piss  pimp  piece  peep  peach  partner  nut  onion  nasty  mouse  monster  mint  map  late  juicy 108  jet  hooker  freaky  duds  dog  digits  colors  cheese  cat  cash  butter  butch  booboo  props  prob  g  mad  ta ta 3) motherese  binkie  ickle  icky  nana  jammies  stinky  tinkle  yucky b. phrase 1) jargon  turn taking  verbal cues  non-verbal cues  pace of speech 2) slang  batman and robin  piece of shit  peace out  out of the box  nine to five  my boy  my bad  kick ass  just j 109 3) motherese  beddy bye  boo boo  doo doo  pee pee  oopsie daisy  din din  wee wee c. abbreviation slang  oj  milf  ma'am  limou  fop  d.d.  prob  g  g'day  s'ok 110 2. the meaning of register the meaning of register here something have equal meaning between lexical and contextual meaning. lexical meaning is meaning that given by dictionary. contextual or situational meaning has raises from the situation or context where the word, phrase and abbreviation are used. 3. the differences and similarities both of register a. the differences of formal and informal register are:  formal register used in formal situation or conversation such as lecture, meeting, reporting, and most of written communication.  informal register used in daily conversation with family and friends, motherese, slang and sometimes in personal letter. b. the similarities of formal and informal register are:  formal and informal register used by the people in their own community and just understood by them.  both type of his register used to make the communication more effective and efficient. conclusion based on previous explanation and analyzes the writer can make some conclusions that register is a variety of language distinguished according to the use. it is typical and used in a 111 certain situation, certain occupation or certain socials group and it usually has a certain purpose. there are some professions that need register to make an easy communication with their relatives and associates. it is because they work on the same groups and have the same common interest.the main type of register are formal and informal register. formal register is used in formal situation, jargon, report, lecture, etc. while, informal register found in slang, motherese, and daily communication with family.the factors that make differences of register in spoken and written language are, the participant, the setting, the function, the topic. the writer finds the reasons of using register in spoken and written communication, to make communication more effectively and efficiently, to show the society that they come from educated community especially when using jargon, to be more polite such as jargon and reporting register. references chaika. e. 1982. language: the social mirror. boston: heinle and heinle. fishman. joshua. 1972. advances the sociology of language vol. h. mouton: the hague. fromkin. victoria. and robert rodman. 1998. an introduction to language. fort worth: harcourt brace collage publisher. fromkin. victoria and david blair.1988. an introduction to language second edition. sydney: holt reinhart and winston. holmes. janet. 2001. an introduction to sociolinguistic second edition. harlow england: pearson education. hornby. 1974. oxford advance learner's dictionary of current english. oxford: oxford university press. 112 mohan. terry. helen mc gregor. and zofia strano. 1992. communicating! theory and practice. orlando: hardcourt brace javanovich. moleong. lexi. 1983. methodology penelitian kualitatif. jakarta: depdikbud. pateda. mansoer. 1990. sosiolinguistik sebuah pengantar. bandung: angkasa. pei. mario. and proffesor emeritus. 1971. the new grolier webster international dictionary of the english language. new york: grolier incorporated. pride. j. b. ed. 1979. sociolinguistic aspect of language learning and teaching. oxford: oxford university press. trudgill. peter. 1983. sociolinguistic: an introduction to language and society. hardsmonsworth: penguin books. ___________. 1981. webster's 3 rd new international dictionary & seven language dictionary. usa. http://www.universalteacher.urg.uk/lang/speech.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mothereese http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/wrader/clang/ http://www.universalteacher.urg.uk/lang/speech.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mothereese http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/wrader/clang/ register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 47 the symbols used in internet chatting: a semiotic analysis sri mulyani sma muhammadiyah salatiga jl kh ahmad dahlan, sidorejo lor, sidorejo, salatiga, 50712 mulyani01siti@gmail.com abstract the aims of this research is to describe the kind of symbols used on internet chatting. besides elaborating the relation between the symbol and the signee. and the last one of study is to describe the meaning of the symbols used in internet chatting. since the research explores the symbols used in the internet chatting, qualitative approach is deemed to be the precise research design. the data obtained are described comprehensively by classifying the symbols, analyzing the representation of the symbols based on semiotic approach, and interpreting the meaning of symbols based on the context of the internet chatting text. the findings show that the symbols consists of number, letter, combination of number and letter, and the emoticons or smiley. the sample of the number, consist of „2‟ and „4‟. for the letter consist of „r‟, „u‟, „b‟, „ur‟, „asl‟, „btw‟, and so on. for emoticons consist of „:-)‟, „:-(„, „:-p‟, „:-d‟, „:-c‟, „;-)‟, „:))‟, „:~‟, „|-)‟, „(-_-)‟, „^_^‟, „:-|‟, and „8-o‟. those symbols have different meaning or references with different interpreters because they can be interpreted in denotative level as signifier or in connotative level as signified. keywords: symbols, internet, chatting, semiology abstrak tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan macam-macam simbol yang digunakan dalam percakapan di internet. selain itu, tujuan yang selanjutnya adalah untuk mencari hubungan antara simbol-simbol tersebut dengan para pemakainya. kemudian, studi berlanjut dengan pendeskripsian makna simbol-simbol yang digunakan dalam internet tersebut. oleh karena penelitian ini meneliti tentang simbol yang digunakan dalam percakapan internet, maka pendekatan kualitatif adalah metode penelitian yang tepat digunakan dalam studi ini. data-data yang diperoleh kemudian dideskripsikan secara komprehensif dengan cara mengklasifikasikan simbolregister, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 48 simbol tersebut, menganalisis simbol-simbol yang tersaji berdasarkan pendekatam semiotik, dan kemudian mengartikan makna simbol-simbol tersebut berdasarkan konteks percakapan yang ada di internet. dari hasil penelitian, didapatkan bahwa simbol-simbol tersebut terdiri atas angka, huruf, kombinasi huruf dan angka, serta emotikon. sebagai contoh untuk angka, yaitu penggunaan angka „2‟ dan „4‟. sedangkan untuk huruf yang digunakan adalah „r‟, „u‟, „b‟, „ur‟, „asl‟, „btw‟, dan seterusnya. untuk emotikon terdiri atas „:-)‟, „:-(„, „:-p‟, „:-d‟, „:-c‟, „;-)‟, „:))‟, „:~‟, „|-)‟, „(-_-)‟, „^_^‟, „:-|‟, and „8-o‟. simbol-simbol tersebut mempunyai makna atau referensi yang berbeda dari penafsir yang berbeda-beda pula, karena mereka bisa saja menginterpretasikan hanya pada level denotatif penanda atau pada level konotatif sebagai tertanda. kata kunci: simbol-simbol, internet, percakapan, semiologi introduction language plays a very important role as a means of communication. communication is a process of transmitting information, idea, feeling and attitude from one person to another, in which there is communicator who send a message to communicant in order to influence the other individual‟s behavior. people do not only predict what other person are going to say but also what they want hear. there are four elements in communication: source, message, channel, and receiver. the source is the creator of the message. the source can be some persons or a group with a reason of engaging the communication. meanwhile, the message is the translation of idea into a symbol, each of them as language and gesture. the channel is the medium trough which the message is carried, and the receiver is the person who is the target of communication. in the process of communication, both the sender and receiver must have the same code. when the receiver does not understand a message from sender, there will be an absurd noise code. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 49 one of the communication instruments in the society is internet. in this globalization era, it takes a big part to make the communication easier. the internet includes millions of computers linked together around the world. those computers can be at homes, schools, universities, government department, or small or large business. the internet is often described as “a network to networks” because all of smaller networks organizations are linked together into the one giant network. many people prefer to communicate via internet because it is faster than other communication media without waiting for hours. as technology advantages, more people are conversing over the computer in the real time, using a variety of software tools. the most popular tool is internet relay chat, also known as irc. irc is multi-user chat system where people meet on channels (room or virtual places usually with a certain topic of conversation) to talk in group or individually. chatting is one of the most popular activities on the internet and involves people from all walks of life and just about all ages to coming together in area where they can join in all variety topics that they are interested in. in public chat area people is using “username” or “nickname”. users may use something and imaginative names. most standard name will already be taken and user name is picked in order to directly catch people‟s eyes. when people are chatting in the rooms or channels, this communication sometimes uses symbols. the symbols such as u, b4, 2, ur, :-), ;-), :p, are interesting for the writer to investigate. in line with the symbols used in internet chatting, the writer analyzes these symbols based on semiotic approach. semiotic is study about signs. semiotic involves the study not only of what one refers to as signs in everyday speech, but also of anything which stands for something else. in semiotic sense, signs take the form of words, images, sounds, gestures, and register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 50 objects. the writer discusses the symbols of internet chatting by semiotic approach because it makes the writer interested in knowing the knowledge of semiotics and its relation with symbols of internet chatting language. based on the problem stated in advance, the objective of the study are to describe the kind of symbols used on internet chatting. the other is to analyze the relation between the symbol and the signee. last of study is to describe the meaning of the symbols used in internet chatting. notion of semiotics semiology is a science which studies the role of sign as part of social life. semiotics is one of literary approaches used to analyze certain story or text, use symbol on sign. by using semiotics, we focus our object of study on symbols or sign used in internet chatting. thus we intend to find out the meaning of those symbols. the term of semiotics, was first introduced by ferdinand de saussure the founder of linguistics and semiotics who was born in swiss in the year of 1857 until 1913 (www.abber.ac.uk). he wrote the book “cours de linguistique generalle”. de saussure states in his book that in the semiotic study, the signs are very important. people use many signs or symbol in communication. semiotics is important because it can help us not to take “reality” for granted as something having a purely objective existence which is independent of human interpretation. it teaches us that reality is a system of signs. the symbols or signs themselves have meaning which are considered multiple rather than single. a sign is composed of a signifier, the form which the sign take; and the signified; the concept it represent. major principle of semiotics in semiotic study there are major principles as the following: 1. signifier and signified register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 51 the sign, for saussure in john fiske (1990), was a physical object whit a meaning; or, to use his terms, a sign consisted of a signifier and signified. the signifier is the sign‟s image as we perceive it. the marks on the paper or the sounds in the air; the signified is the mental concept to which it refers. this mental concept is broad common to all members of same cultural who share the language (john fiske, 1990:44). 2. denotation and connotation denotation and connotation in semiotic are term describing the relationship between the signifier and signified. and an analytic distinction is made between two types signified. meaning includes both denotation and connotation. connotation is a sign with derives from the signifier of a denotative sign (so, denotation leads to chain of connotation), the distinction denotation or connotation is an analytic one only. slang slang is a language which takes off its coat, spits on its hands – and goes to work (victoria, 1992:264). one mark of an informal style is the frequent occurrence of slang. almost everyone use slang on some occasions, but it is not easy to define the word. slang has been defined as one of those things that everybody can recognize and nobody can define. the use of slang, or colloqueal language, introduces many new words into the language by recombining old word into new meaning. internet an internet is a more general term informally used to describe any set of interconnected computer networks that are connected by internetworking. (www.wikipedia.com). the internet or simply the “net”, is the publicly accessible worldwide system of interconnected computer networks transmit register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 52 data by packet switching using a standardized internet protocol (ip) and many others protocols. it is made up of thousand of smaller commercial, academic, domestic and government networks. it is carries various information and service, such as electronic mail, online chat, and the interlinked web pages and other documents of the world wide web. research methodology methodology is the way to get knowledge or to solve the problem, so the method can be called scientific method which identify problem in a research. in this research the writer used qualitative research. bogdan and taylor in moleong (1983) state that qualitative research is a research that presents the descriptive data in the form of written or oral words from observing people behavior. the writer use qualitative research to find and describe the kinds of symbols used in internet chatting language by using written words. the research object is english and indonesian symbol used in internet chatting done by the writer and her friends. the source of the data or primary data in this research is symbol used in internet chatting themselves as primary data. the method used in collecting data is documentation. the writer take several steps, the first step is the writer connects the irc website and fulfills the register form on screen, then join to # cafeislam and # myquran chanels. second, the writer chats with friends who are already there, and observe the symbols that by using in chatting. and the last step is by writing the chatting text in corpus data. in analyzing the data, the writer applies descriptive approach. the steps taken by the writer in analyzing the data are by classifying the symbol, analyzing the representation of the symbols based on semiotic approach, and register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 53 interpreting the meaning of symbols based on the context of the internet chatting text. discussion the writer presents data by classifying it into four parts, there are: number, letter, number and letter, and the last is punctuation mark or usually called emoticons. this is the part deals with the semiotic analysis, which focuses on the different symbol employed in the internet chatting. these symbol are usually used by chatter of irc, chatting website on internet. and more are taken from two islamic channels; there are #cafeislam, and #myquran. these symbols are very familiar for the chatters when they chat in internet chatting. the symbols are analyzed as signifier at denotative level and signified at connotative level. there are thousands of different emoticons and abbreviations, and some of them are used in the internet chatting to communicate with the other people. the basic of emoticons are :-) which means the sender is happy, or the made joke, and :-( which obviously means they are sad or unhappy with what someone has just said. the meaning of symbol 1. number a. text : thank 4 u chatting 2day, n have a great day... meaning : thanks for your chatting today, and have a great day... b. text : ok, it‟s up 2 him, i just follow the decision meaning : ok, it‟s up to him, i just follow the decision c. text : i just want 2 go there and meet my chatting friend. meaning : i just want to go there and meet my chatting friends. d. text : i‟m off 2day, so i am not go 2 campuss. meaning : i‟m off today, so i am not go to campuss e. text : thanks‟ 4 helps :-) register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 54 meaning : thanks for your helps :-) analysis : in the text, there are symbols 4 and 2 as signee. in this analysis the chatters use the sound concept 2 (two) (tu:) to replace the word to (tu:) and 4 (four) (fo: (r)) to replace for (fo: (r)). the concept that is taken as signified in the text above is to (tu:) and 4 (fa:(r) are represented by the symbol 2 and 4. those pairs have the same pronunciations. 2. letter a. text : u‟ll scan your pic and sent 2 my email meaning : you will scan picture and sent to my email. b. text : i just chat with u meaning : i just chat with you c. text : r u fasting 2day? meaning : are you fasting today? d. text : happy b‟day 2 u, wishing u‟ll b better and better e. text : can u help me pls/plz... i need u information about that program. meaning : can you help me please! i need you information about that program? f. text : do u have bf meaning : do you have boyfriend g. text : do u have gf meaning : do you have girlfriend h. text : btw... how about ur job? meaning : by the way... how about your job? i. text : b‟careful on the way... meaning : be careful on the way j. text : i‟ll help u a s a p... meaning : i will help you as soon as possible k. text : u‟r welcome meaning : you are welcome l. text : i gtg now meaning : i go to go now register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 55 m. text : hey, r u ok meaning : hey, are you ok? n. text : thx a lot meaning : thanks a lot o. text : i luv u or i l u meaning : i love you p. text : asl pls meaning : age, sex, location, please. q. text : brb... meaning : be right back r. text : i c meaning : i see s. text : wb... meaning : welcome back t. text : jk meaning : just kidding u. text : hand.. meaning : have a nice day v. text : cul meaning : see you later analysis : u’ll (ju:l) is used to replace the word you’ll. it has the same concept in the use of several letter such as u to replace you, r to replace are, b (bi:) or b to replace be, c to replace see, and n or n to replace and. it is also used in other form of word such as abbreviation. the word such as bf used to replace boyfriend; gf is used to replace girlfriend, asl from age, sex, and location; ilu from i love you, gtg from got to go, asap from as soon as possible, brb to replace be right back, jk to replace just kidding, wb to replace welcome back, hand to replace have a nice day, and cul to replace see you later. 3. number and letter a. text : don‟t angry with me. i just want 2b ur best friend meaning : don‟t angry with me. i just want to be your best friend register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 56 b. text : b4 come there, u must come to salatiga first meaning : before i come there, you must to salatiga first c. text : i luv u coz 4jjl meaning : i love you because allah.swt d. text : sorry, i‟m l8 meaning : sorry, i‟m late e. text : i just wan2 know meaning : i just want to know f. text : there is no 1 in channel room meaning : there is no one channel room g. text : gr8 meaning : great h. text : l8r meaning : later i. text : u1 meaning : you first j. text : w8 meaning : wait k. text : b4 n meaning : bye for now l. text : u2 meaning : you too analysis : this is the part where the chatters combine the use of number and letter as their symbol in their chatting. those symbols used as signifiers to replace certain words. those words are 2b (tu: bi:) to replace to be (tu: be:); b4 (bi: for)) to replace before (bi: for)); 4jji to replace the arabic letter of allah هللا because they have the same form (but some people don‟t agree with this writing style); l8 (l + eight (eit)) to replace late (leit); wan2 (won: tu:) to replace want to; no1 to replace no one; gr8 (gr + eight (eit) to replace great (greit); l8r (l+ eight (eit) + r) to replace later; u1 to replace you first; w8 (w + eight (eit)) to replace wait (weit); b4n to replace bye for now; and the last one, u2 to replace you, too. those register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 57 combinations of number and letter are used mostly as they have the same pronunciation with the referred words. 4. punctuation mark/emoticons a. text : :-) meaning : smilling or happy b. text : :-( meaning : frowning or sad c. text : :-p meaning : sticking tongue out. d. text : :-d meaning : laughing e. text : :-o meaning : shocked f. text : :-c meaning : very sad or very unhappy g. text : ;-) meaning : winking or says just kidding. h. text : ;-)) meaning : really happy and big smile i. text : :~ meaning : crying, feel sad j. text : |-) meaning : feel shy, or give unique smile like he he he k. text : (-_-) meaning : secret smile l. text : ^_^ meaning : very kind and welcome to chatting partner m. text : :-| meaning : grim n. text : 8-o meaning : oh my god analysis : the next part of the research in the use of symbols in chatting is the use of punctuation marks or widely known as emoticons. these symbols are used to express the feelings of the chatters register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 58 because they cannot see the face each other. those emoticons are resulted from the combination of certain punctuation marks. the uses of those symbols are such as :-) or :) to express happiness and nice smile; the symbol of :-( or :( used as the expression of feeling frowning or sad; the symbol of :-p or :p as the signifier that the chatter are sticking tongue out; the symbol of :-d to express the mouth form when the chatters laughing; the symbol of :-o used to express get surprise or say ‘wow’; the symbol :-c to describe the feeling of very sad or unhappy; the symbol ;-) to express that the chatters are winking or say ‘just kidding’; the signifier :-)) to express of really happy; the signifier : ~ to describe that they feel bad or crying; the signifier |-) to describe that they feel shy and give unique smile like ‘hehehe’; the signifier (-_-) used to express secret smile; the signifier ^_^ to show that they are very kind and very welcome to the partner chatting; the symbol :-| to describe that the chatters grim; and the last signifier 8-o to show that the chatters feel shock and say ‘oh my god!‟. conclusion the writer attempts to explore the semiology deeper, especially the symbol used on internet chatting. in the language, saussure as founder of linguistic and semiotics explain that symbol as one unity cannot be separated from two parts; they are signifier to explain the form and expression, and signified to explain the concept or meaning. to look far at the relation of these symbols, saussure argues that it needs social conventional, that arrange the combination of symbols and the meaning. in the internet chatting, text, the chatters used some symbols, they are number, letter, combine number and letter, and the last is emoticons or smiley. the example of the symbol number, consist 2 and 4. for the letter register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 59 consist of r, u, b, ur, asl, btw, and so on. for emoticons consist of :-), :(, :-p, :-d, :-c, ;-), :)), :~, \-), (-_-), ^_^, :-/, and 8-o. those symbols have different meaning or references with different interpreters because they can be interpreted in denotative level as signifier or in connotative level as signified. to interpret as signifier the symbols appear as literal meaning or the real meaning of the symbols and to interpret as signified the symbols refer to personal associations or more open to interpretation. to know the meaning as signified, it is important to know the meaning signifier, because the meaning of signifier and signified have the relationship each other and cannot be separated. references fiske, john. 1990. introduction to communication studies. great britain: guerensey press. victoria, fromkin. 1992. an introduction to sociolinguistic, 2 nd edition. oxford: black well publisher moleong. 1983. metodologi penelitian kualitatif. bandung: remaja karya. http://www.abber.ac.uk/media/document/s4b/semiotic.html www.wikipedia.com register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.153-182 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 153 diachronic corpora as a tool for tracing etymological information of indonesianmalay lexicon *kamal yusuf1, dewi puspita2 uin sunan ampel surabaya, indonesia1; universitas indonesia, indonesia 2 e-mail: kamalinev@gmail.com1, dewi_puspita18@yahoo.com2 corresponding author* doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i1.153-182 submission track: received: 07-02-2020 final revision: 23-05-2020 available online: 01-06-2020 abstract indonesian lexicon comprises numerous loanwords which some of them already exist since the 7th century. the large number of loanwords is the reason why many dictionaries of indonesian etymology available today contain merely the origin of the words. meanwhile, there are several aspects in a word etymology that can be studied and presented in a kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 154 dictionary, such as the change in a word form and in its meaning. this article seeks to demonstrate the use of corpora in identifying the etymological information of malay words from diachronic corpora and to figure out the semantic change of the malay words undergo from time to time until they turn out to be indonesian lexicon. more specifically, two selected malay words were examined: bersiram and peraduan. by exploring data resources from the corpus of malay concordance project and leipzig corpora, this study attempts to collect etymological information of indonesian lexicon originated from malay by employing a corpus based research. the findings show that the examined words have changed in meaning through generalization and metaphor. however, unlike the word bersiram, the change that the word peraduan happened only occurs in semantic level. this information, ultimately, can be used as informative data for a more comprehensive indonesian etymology dictionary. drawing on corpus analysis, this paper addresses the importance use of diachronic corpora in tracing words origin. keywords: diachronic corpora, etymology, corpus analysis, semantic change, malay-indonesian introduction for most language users, etymological information is perceived just evidence of which a word originated from, especially when a language absorbs many loanwords; indonesian take as an example (russel et al., 2007; tadmor, 2009). kridalaksana (2001) pointed out that the content of indonesian etymology dictionaries which have been compiled and available today is merely an inventory of words origin which needs to be continued with research and interpretation from various aspects. this is in line with the opinion of durkin (2009) and kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 155 liberman (2009) who stated that the study of etymology is related to the history of a word, the history of meaning, formal history, or the history of its spread from one language to another, or from one group to another. in accordance with that, it is important to point out that at least there are six etymological information that can be applied to trace a word: (1) the year of usage, (2) the initial form (morphology) and the initial sound (phonology), (3) the language of the donor (for loan word), (4) the person who coined the word for the first time, (5) the initial meaning, and (6) the change of meaning. therefore, an etymological dictionary should not only contain information of the word's origin but also be given more clear-cut description of a word. other things from indonesian etymology dictionaries that are available until today is the scarcity of etymology information of words originated from malay. malay is the root of indonesian (teeuw, 1967; andaya, 2001; hoogervorst, 2015). in the early centuries, the language spoken in some part of the indonesian archipelago and the malay peninsula might be the same. over time, there are many things and events, socially and politically that affects the regions and causes the language to change and to be different. information of changes that occur in malay words--that now become the vocabulary of indonesia, phonologically, morphologically, semantically, or syntactically-are parts of the etymology information (mohamed & yusoff, 2014). a number of studies have previously been done concerning the etymology and semantic change of words in various languages, to mention some are wijaya & yeniterzi, 2011; yurrivna, 2014; jatowt & kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 156 duh, 2014; hasan, 2015; and altakhaineh, 2018. however, to date, there is not ample works that pay their attention to scrutinize how the etymological information can be approached using corpora, especially in the relation of malay and indonesian language. wijaya & yeniterzi (2011) identified semantic change of words over centuries using computational linguistics method. they used topics-over-time (tot) and k-means clustering on google books ngram dataset. through their methods, they show how clustering words that co-occur with an entity of interest in 5-grams can shed some lights to the nature of change that occurs to the entity and identify the period for which the change occurs. yurrivna (2014) only classified changes in meaning that occur in english medical terms. classification of changes in meaning in question is specialization, generalization, pejoration or amelioration, also metaphor and metonymy. jatowt & duh (2014) explored digitized historical texts, which were also carried out in our study. the difference is, jatowt & duh uses the nlp (natural language processing) method while we used the corpus-based method. another study was conducted by hasan (2015) which dealt with semantic change of borrowing words, especially arabic words in bengali. this kind of research in indonesian is plenty. in fact, most of etymological research in indonesian is about borrowing words. altakhaineh (2018) examined the semantic change of positive vs. negative adjectives in modern english. he compared the meaning of those adjectives in dictionary than look up their frequency of use in the corpus. he wanted to see wether the adjective had been negative or kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 157 positive from the beginning or whether the adjective turns negative or positive because there are things that cause it. the research object of the those researchs are english vocabulary. until now there has been no theory that specifically addresses the search for etymological information through diachronic corpora. existing theories still separate theory of etymology and theories about corpus linguistics. of the two theories, the theory referred to in this study is the theory of collins (2003) and the theory of collocation via concordance from mcenery & hardie (2012). the search for etymological information through diachronic corpus is nothing new for indo-european languages, especially english. however, for the indonesian language, especially those from malay, no one has ever discussed this matter. our current research deals with original words, i.e. the indonesian words that are rooted from malay, not from any foreign loan words. most importantly, none of the previous studies used a corpus-based method, in particular comparing data through diachronic corpora. this paper offers a tool that can be used to trace etymological information, especially to trace changes in their meaning. the tool that can provide a large collection of text from past centuries to be examined is diachronic corpora (de melo, 2014). according to allan & robinson (2012), the use of corpus is the state of the art in the study of historical semantics, which is part of etymology study. malay is fortunate to have malay concordance project (mcp) developed by australian national university (proudfoot, 1991; gallop, 2013). it consists of old classical kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 158 malay manuscripts from 14th to 20th centuries that can be used to examine the usage of a malay word during that time (johary & rahim, 2014). this present study, therefore, seeks to explore any etymological information of malay words that become part of indonesian lexicon which are still used until today by employing the mcp compared with a more recent potential corpus from the 21st century. there are thousands of malay-indonesian original vocabularies. it would take a very long time to be able to analyze the entire original vocabulary. for this reason, as a preliminary study, the current research was conducted using data samples. two samples were chosen to be presented in this paper; they are bersiram and peraduan. the sample selection process is explained in the research method section. thus, the aims of the current study have three folds: (1) to identify the etymological information of malay words bersiram and peraduan from diachronic corpora, (2) to investigate what kind of changes those malay words undergo from time to time until they turn out to be indonesian lexicon, and at the end (3) to demonstrate the use of diachronic corpora as a tool in examining etymological malay-indonesia lexicon. research method this research is a corpus-based research. to prove that etymological information can be collected from diachronic corpora, this study employed two corpora that were set in chronological order. we started with the methodological issue by selecting the proper corpora kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 159 collection available online. we found two major salient collections regarding malay and indonesian corpus. the first corpus is mcp, which comprises 5.8 million words (including 140,000 verses) from more than 165 sources of pre-modern malay written text. the oldest script is from the year 1302 and the most up-to-date is from 1950 (gallop, 2013; bakar, 2020). however, the dates of some old scripts are somewhat hypothetical. the second corpus as a source for identifying the etymological information of this study is taken from the indonesian corpus from leipzig corpora. this corpus is based on online material from 2012 to 2014 that consists of 74,329,815 sentences, 7,964,109 types, and 1,206,281,985 tokens (richter et al., 2006; biemann et al., 2007). the two corpora are available online and they demonstrate the context uses of malay lexicon from the 14th to 21st century. the search results of the words investigated from the two corpora then were analyzed qualitatively. the changes that each word undergoes were examined from the concordance lines and the word’s collocations. collocation analysis usually involved statistical measurement. yet, mcenery & hardie (2012) proposed a non-statistical method called collocation-via-concordance technique. in this technique, researchers must use their intuitive to check the concordance lines that yield up notable examples and patterns, and then examine each line individually. therefore, with certain considerations, we undertook this technique for the recent study. regarding the data, we selected two samples from a number of malay-indonesian words to be further investigated as a model study in kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 160 this paper, i.e. bersiram and peraduan. those words are taken from the list of honored words in kamus besar bahasa indonesia (kbbi). honored words mean words that are used in formal situation and only for selected and respected people. there are 26 words in that list (table 1). however, not all of them are originated from the malay. some of the words listed are originated from sanskrit and old javanese. most importantly, not all of them experience changes in their meaning. from that not so many malay words that undergo changes in meaning, we found the word bersiram and peraduan. table 1. list of words labeled hor in kbbi nr. word nr. word 1 abangda 14 bersiram 2 adimas 15 dalem 3 adinda 16 eyang 4 ananda 17 jenazah 5 apa 18 mangkat 6 asma 19 meninggal 7 ayahanda 20 nenenda 8 ayunda 21 pakanira 9 baginda 22 pamanda 10 beliau 23 peraduan 11 beradu 24 pesiraman 12 bersantap 25 suaminda 13 bersemayam 26 surai results & discussion given the above description, we primarily present an analysis model of utilizing diachronic corpora to discover the etymological kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 161 information of malay-indonesia lexicon. we selected bersiram and peraduan and traced their use in the sentences deposited from the two corpora as presented below. diachronic use of ‘’bersiram‘’ the word bersiram is a high classical malay word. the word has been recorded in the dictionaries of malay (kamus dewan, 2015; pusat rujukan persuratan melayu, 2020) and indonesian (kamus besar bahasa indonesia, 2020) with the meaning of ‘to take a bath’. the word can only be used for the royal family. in mcp, this word appeared 157 times in 24 old manuscripts dated from the year 1370s to 1930s (as can be seen in table 1 and 2). bersiram occurred 32 times in salasilah melayu dan bugis (1865) and only one time in the manuscripts syair ken tambuhan (~1750), hikayat raja bikrama sakti (1800), syair nyamuk dan lalat (<1873), hikayat purasara (>1890), syair almarhum sultan abubakar (1896), syair raja johor (1899), and cerita jenaka (<1908). table 2. distribution of results of bersiram in mcp ~bersiram~ (1300-2000) 1370s 4 bayan 4 1700s 2 tuah 2 1750s 1 kt 1 1770s 5 arm 5 1780s 5 misa 5 1800s 1 bik 1 1810s 17 pnb 17 1820s 8 zub 8 kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 162 1870s 5 nymk 1, nasik 2, ks 2 1880s 28 1880s 28 pah 2, mpt 26 1890s 5 ssiti 2, puras 1, sab 1, rjoh 1 1900s 1 cjen 1 1910s 6 j&p 6 1930s 13 tza 13 157 all those 157 tokens of bersiram demonstrate the same meaning in the contexts with those recorded in dictionaries. below are some examples of bersiram in some contexts: 1370s (1) sudah élah kembali itu, maka bagindapun pergilah bersiram ke kolam itu. setelah sudah baginda bersiram itu, ‘elah came back, so the king takes a bath in the pool. after taking a bath,’ 1770s (2) setelah selesailah daripada bercukur dan bersiram putera baginda itu, maka datanglah bidan menjunjung duli … ‘after the prince has shaved and took a bath, the midwife took a bow’ kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 163 1810s (3) …anéka jenis daripada bungaan. setelah sudah mandi bersiram maka naiklah segala puteri-puteri itu mengentas bunga2an ada yang … ‘various of flowers. after taking a bath then the girls get up to remove all those flowers...’ 1890s (4) … sama elok parasnya. | setelah genap tujuh hari, bersiramlah baginda laki isteri, dikerjakan oleh perdana menteri, ‘look as pretty. after seven days, the king and his queen took a bath, done by the prime minister’ 1910s (5) pada suatu hari sultan mahmud hendak berangkat bersiram, duduk di atas julangan, ditikam oleh megat sri rama dengan … ‘once upon a time sultan mahmud is going to take a bath, while sitting, stabbed by megat sri rama using...’ 1930s (6) ... bestari, manakala siang keluar matahari, selesai bersiram mahkota negeri. | berangkat keluar ia bertakhta, tersenyum … ‘...smart, when the sun rises in the afternoon, the crowned head took a bath. he comes out to enthrone, smiles...’ the above concordance lines show that the word bersiram collocated with the word baginda (king), puteri-puteri (princesses), perdana menteri (prime minister), sultan mahmud (king mahmud), and kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 164 mahkota negeri (crowned head). the other concordance lines which are not presented here also show the same collocates. those collocates indicate that the word bersiram is only used for the royal family. the line from the 1890s (as in the sentence 4) even shows that the bath was not just a usual bath, it was a kind of ceremony. (4) ... setelah genap tujuh hari, bersiramlah baginda laki istri, dikerjakan oleh perdana menteri, ... ‘... after seven days, the king and his queen took a bath, done by the prime minister, ...’ table 3. frequency of occurrences bersiram in the mcp manuscripts m&b salasilah melayu dan bugis 1865 32 mpt hikayat merpati mas dan merpati perak >1883 (ms 1887 26 pnb hikayat perintah negeri 1811 (ms 1811) 17 dmsy.s syair raja damsyik 1864 16 tza syair tawarikh zainal abidin yang ketiga 1936 13 zub syair siti zubaidah perang cina? ~1800 (ms 1840) 8 tn tuhfat alnafis 1866 (ms 1890) 6 j&p hikayat johor serta pahang 1917 6 arm adat raja melayu 1779, ~1850 (mss 1817, 1873) 5 misa misa melayu ~1780 (ms 1836) 5 bayan hikayat bayan budiman 1371 (ms 1852) 4 tuah hikayat hang tuah ~1700 (ms 1849) 2 nurp syair sultan nur peri < ~1865 2 nasik hikayat nakhoda asik ~1870 (ms 1890) 2 ks kitab suci pl 1879, pb: 1935 2 pah hikayat pahang 1883 (ms 1883, 1932) 2 ssiti syair seratus siti? ~1890 2 kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 165 kt syair ken tambuhan ~1750 (ms 1791-1872) 1 bik hikayat raja bikrama sakti ~1800 (ms 1830) 1 nymk syair nyamuk dan lalat <1873 1 puras hikayat purasara >1890 1 sab syair almarhum sultan abubakar 1896 1 rjoh syair raja johor 1899 1 cjen cerita jenaka <1908 1 the semantic change of ‘’bersiram‘’ after its independence in 1945, indonesia has become a republic. the royal system is no longer used. for that reason, the frequency of use of the word bersiram might also be decreased. however, in a more recent corpus like indonesian corpus in leipzig corpora, we can still find the use of the word bersiram in many different contexts (see graphic in figure 1). the figure is an automatic generated collocation graphic from leipzig corpora. as can be seen, the graphic contains words related to the word bersiram found in the corpus. the graphic depicts that in their corpus, the word bersiram collocates or related to all those words. the collocates found in the graphic are different with those found in mcp corpus. in corpus linguistics, collocation means words which occur within the neighbourhood of another word. those words don't have to be located right next to the main word (baker et al, 2006: 36-37). the search of the word bersiram in leipzig corpora are turned in 55 lines. there are some interesting findings from the lines, such as: kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 166 a. from 55 occurrences, only 15 of them have the literal meaning of ‘to take a bath’ or ‘to shower’. ten lines, which come from malaysian website, use the word bersiram as the equivalent of to take a bath or shower in the daily activity of common people, while the other five lines, which come from indonesian website, still use the word only for a respected person. b. six lines contain the word bersiram in a figurative meaning. in those lines, the word bersiram is used in the form of a metaphor. bersiram is juxtaposed with darah (blood) and cahaya (light) as in the sentence (7): (7) di kejauhan tampak gedung-gedung jangkung yang bersiram cahaya lampu.(www.mayasanti.blogspot. com, crawled on 08/05/2012) ‘in the distance, tall buildings are seen bathed in light.’ c. the most interesting finding is, 34 lines of them appeared in the contexts of food and carry a figurative meaning. in those lines, bersiram mostly collocates with saus (sauce), jamur (mushroom), keju (cheese), cokelat (chocolate). one example of the word usage in the context of food is as in the sentence (8): (8) dari deretan menu terbaru, ada bbq beef ribs & alice springs chicken bersiram saus keju monterey jack-cheddar. (www.femina.co.id, crawled on 06/02/2014) ‘from the latest menu, there are a bbq beef ribs & alice springs chicken covered with monterey jack-cheddar cheese sauce.‘ http://mayasanti.blogspot.com/ http://mayasanti.blogspot.com/ kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 167 we can see from the two diachronic corpora that there are changes in the meaning of the word bersiram. the word that originally had only one meaning and used only for certain circle, after the twentieth century its meaning has widened to a figurative meaning, and move from specific to a more general meaning. as can be seen from figure 1, the graph is an auto-generated graph based on the frequency of co-occurences. the words darah and cahaya do not appear on the graph because the frequency of their appearance is not as high as other words. furthermore, it is not only the semantic aspect of the word bersiram that change over time. another linguistic aspect that also changes is the syntactic aspect, especially at class of word. bersiram is an intransitive verb by nature. in indonesian grammar, prefix berforms intransitive verb. as can be seen in the sentence (9): (9) ... maka bagindapun pergilah bersiram ke kolam itu. figure 1. collocations of bersiram as shown in corpora collection leipzig university kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 168 ‘… then the king went to the pool to take a bath.’ the phrase ke kolam itu in above sentence (1) is not an object, but it is an adverb of place. an object is not needed after the word bersiram in that sentence. however, in its figurative meaning, the verb bersiram has become transitive. below is a concordance line of the verb bersiram in figurative meaning followed by its objects (in upright letters). (10) tempat orang berniaga dikepalai seorang batin bijaksana yang mengharamkan negeri bersiram darah. ‘a place for trading is lead by a wise man who forbid the land from bloodshed.‘ (11) di kejauhan tampak gedung-gedung jangkung yang bersiram cahaya lampu. ‘in the distance, tall buildings are seen bathed in light.’ (12) sejumput mi bersiram saus dengan potongan udang gemuk di atasnya. ‘a pinch of noodles doused in sauce with a oiece of fat shrimp on its top.‘ (13) versi michel’s disebut marble mud cake, bersiram ganache cokelat putih dan cokelat pekat. ‘michel’s version is called marble mud cake, covered by ganache chocalate‘ (14) dan, sebagai penutup pesanlah roti cane gula atau roti cane susu, bersiram susu kental manis. kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 169 ‘and, as a desserts please order roti cane gula or roti cane susu, watered with condensed milk’ objects in the above sentences are mandatory because without objects the sentences would be incomplete and meaningless. diachronic use of ‘’peraduan‘’ another example that we would like to present for tracing the semantic change and the etymological information utilizing mcp is the word peraduan. this word is a classical-high malay as well, that is used strictly for the royal family. it has the meaning of ‘bed’ or ‘bedroom’. compared to bersiram, the frequency of peradaun’s appearance in mcp was found higher. it appeared 357 times in 31 old manuscripts dated from the 1370s to 1950s. the word can be found in the manuscript syair siti zubaidah perang cina (32 times) and mostly occurred one time in sixteen manuscripts (see table 3). the sentences below are some examples from the concordance lines from the manuscripts showing the uses of peraduan in the contexts whereby all with the meaning of ‘bed’ and ‘bedroom’. (15) .. ketiganya itu pun masing-masing mendapatkan biliknya peraduan, lalu beradulah sekaliannya itu. ‘...all of three get their bedrooms, then they sleep.‘ (16) ... beri rawan, sendu rupa kelakuan, buka ranjang peraduan. | lalu makai sinyor gilang, baju lakan hitam gilang ‘...be vulnerable, sentiment behavior, go to the bed. then sinyor gilang wearing, a black trouser‘ kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 170 (17) maka kuda nestapa pun masuk ke dalam peraduan lalu menyingkap tirai kelambu itu. maka dilihatnya raden… ‘...then the sorrow horse gets into the bedroom, opens the curtain. so, he looks at raden...‘ (18) sambil memakai bau-bauan. adinda disambut masuk peraduan. | lalulah duduk menanggalkan jubah, ‘...wearing parfumes. adinda welcomed into his bedroom. then he took off his robe,‘ (19) ... biliknya dan pada tiap-tiap bilik itu ditaruhnya geta peraduan lengkap dengan kasur, tilam dan tirai ... ‘...his room and in every bedroom equipped with mattress and curtain‘ (20) ... bilik yang indah. | istana besar apa gunanya, peraduan lengkap dengan perhiasannya, asingnya tidak ... ‘beautiful bedroom, what a point of a big palace, a full furnished bedroom with decorations, ...‘ table 4. frequency of occurrences peraduan in the mcp manuscripts zub syair siti zubaidah perang cina ? ~1800 (ms 1840) 32 panji hikayat panji kuda semirang ? ~1750 (ms 1832) 28 mar hikayat maharaja marakarma 1844 or 1848 27 ssiti syair seratus siti ? ~1890 22 pandl hikayat pandawa lima ? ~1525 15 bayan hikayat bayan budiman 1371 (ms 1852) 14 boma hikayat sang boma ~1600 (ms 1850) 12 ind hikayat inderaputera <1600 (ms 1700) 10 bid syair bidasari ~1750 (ms 1825) 10 kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 171 ahmz hikayat amir hamzah <1380 9 jpati hikayat putera jaya pati ? 17.. (ms 1819) 9 kt syair ken tambuhan ~1750 (ms 17911872) 9 dmsy.h hikayat raja damsyik 1863 9 kosta syair sinyor kosta <1821 (ms 1862) 8 dmsy.s syair raja damsyik 1864 8 s saudara 19301935 8 anb surat alanbiya' ~1750 (ms 1877) 7 sikka hikayat kerajaan sikka 19251953 (ms 1979) 7 aceh hikayat aceh ~1625 (ms ~1675) 6 tuah hikayat hang tuah ~1700 (ms 1849) 6 piagm piagam muara mendras ~16601880 6 smrdn hikayat syah mardan ~1720 (ms <1871) 5 arm adat raja melayu 1779, ~1850 (mss 1817, 1873) 5 abs hikayat ali bad syah ? 1800 (ms 1826) 5 bik hikayat raja bikrama sakti ~1800 (ms 1830) 5 nuri syair nuri dengan simbangan ~1860 5 nymk syair nyamuk dan lalat <1873 5 kumb syair kumbang mengindera <1859 4 nurp syair sultan nur peri < ~1865 4 puras hikayat purasara 1625 (ms 1849) 4 kutai cerita kutai 1625 (ms 1849) 3 sm sejarah melayu ~1612 (ms 1808) 3 hemop syair hemop 1750s (ms 1817) 3 mw hikayat merong mahawangsa ~1821 (edition 1898) 3 mpt hikayat merpati mas dan merpati perak >1883 (ms 1887) 3 pasai hikayat raja pasai ~1390 (ms 1815) 2 rama hikayat seri rama 15.. (ms <1633) 2 bkht hikayat bakhtiar ~1650 (text 1881) 2 ibra hikayat ibrahim ibn adham (long version) ~1650 (ms 1775) 2 kbima syair kerajaan bima ~1830 (ms 1857) 2 kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 172 awai syair awai 1868 2 inata hikayat indera nata ~1870 (ms <1874) 2 sab syair almarhum sultan abubakar 1896 2 cjen cerita jenaka <1908 2 tza syair tawarikh zainal abidin yang ketiga 1936 2 pk puisipuisi kebangsaan 19131942 2 bs bustan alsalatin ~1640 1 abjd asal bangsa jin & dewadewa ~1700 (ms <1851) 1 pat hikayat patani 1730 (ms 1839) 1 misa misa melayu ~1780 (ms 1836) 1 perb syair tengku perbu 1835 1 siak hikayat siak 1855 (ms 1893) 1 m&b salasilah melayu dan bugis 1865 1 tn tuhfat alnafis 1866 (ms 1890) 1 ppriau peringatan pelayaran ke riau 1868 (ms ? 1917) 1 nasik hikayat nakhoda asik ~1870 (ms 1890) 1 ks kitab suci pl: 1879, pb: 1935 1 pah hikayat pahang 1883 (ms 1883, 1932) 1 guna perhimpunan gunawan bagi laki2 dan perempuan 1911 1 skel hikayat seri kelantan 1783-1914 (ms 1914) 1 m majlis 1932-1935 1 vn vernacular newspapers editorials 1887-1940 1 357 in a more recent corpus such as leipzig corpora, the frequency of occurrence of the word peraduan is also high. there are 650 occurrences from websites dated from 2012 to 2014. however, the meaning that the word carries in this corpus is rather different from those in mcp. from about 100 lines examined from the concordance lines, there are three types of usage of the word peraduan. kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 173 the semantic change of ‘’peraduan‘’ the first type has the same meaning and usage as those in previous corpus, which is bed or bedroom of the royal family. the word peraduan in the first type, as shown in sentences number (21), (22), and (23), are collocated with raja (king) and kerajaan (royal). (21) sementara itu, sang raja telah tidur di peraduan kerajaan. ‘meanwhile, the king had slept in the royal bed.’ (22) jika nanti sudah berada dalam peraduan raja, cincin itu harus dilepas, dan ditaruh didekat pusaka keraton karena dirinya sudah berada di dalam cincin itu. ‘when already in the king's bedroom, the ring must be taken off and placed near the heritage of the palace because he is already in the ring.’ (23) sebelum mencabut tombak, ia kembali keluar dari peraduan raja yang kesakitan itu. ‘before pulling the spear, he came back out of the afflicted king's bedroom.’ in the second type of usage, the word peraduan, as found in the leipzig corpora, carries the same meaning but it is then used by common people. (24) membaca buku, majalah, atau sekadar mendengarkan musik, sebelum anda beranjak ke peraduan untuk tidur. ‘read book, magazine, or simply listen to the music before you go to bed.’ kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 174 (25) pagi itu hujan deras menguyur kota surabaya dan sekitarnya, membuat badan malas untuk bangkit dari peraduan. ‘that morning, heavy rain was pouring in surabaya and its surrounding area, made me lazy to get out of bed.‘ (26) orang-orang yang dekat di hati saya, satu persatu mulai beranjak ke peraduan. ‘the people i love, one by one began to move to go to bed.’ the common word for ‘bed’ in indonesian is tempat tidur or ranjang. however, in sentence (24), (25) and (26) which contexts are not related to the royal family, the word peraduan is used instead of tempat tidur or ranjang. this usage shows that the meaning of peraduan has been generalized. since there is no longer king or royal family in indonesia, the word has become functional for everyone. the third type is the occurrence of the word in figurative meaning. in this type of usage, the word peraduan mainly collocates with figure 2. collocates of peraduan in corpora collection leipzig university kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 175 matahari (as shown in figure 2), such as in the sentence (27), (28) and (29); and sang surya which also means ‘sun’ in (30). in those sentences, the sun is depicted as if it goes to bed to rest so the day turns into night, or gets out of the bed and starts to shine. (27) matahari beranjak ke peraduan dan malam mulai menggeliat ke atas bumi. ‘the sun goes down to its resting place and the night begins to climb the earth.’ (28) ketika matahari telah kembali ke peraduan, malam pun tiba. ‘when the sun has gone to bed, the night has come.’ (29) matahari sudah beranjak ke peraduan, tetapi langit biru masih tersisa. ‘the sun has gone to bed, but there is still some blue sky.’ (30) salah satunya adalah untuk melihat secara langsung, sang surya keluar dari peraduan di ufuk timur. ‘one of the reasons is to see directly the sun out of its bed in the eastern horizon.’ in indonesian, there is a metaphor that equates the sun as the king of the day and the moon as the night goddess (_matahari=raja siang; bulan=dewi malam_). without the sun there will be no daylight. in some cultures, there are also tribes who regard the sun as a god or as the giver of life just like a king. because of this metaphor and belief, some of the vocabulary reserved only for kings is also applied to the sun. finally, those different types of usage of peraduan found in leipzig corpora show that the word has changed in meaning through kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 176 generalization and metaphor. however, unlike the word bersiram, the change that the word peraduan experienced only occurs in semantic level. the other linguistic aspects of the word are not affected. conclusion using corpora, this paper identified the etymological information particularly of the exemplary words bersiram and peraduan to determine to what extent these words diachronically changed through time. drawing on data obtained from the analysis, the findings showed information as follows. entry : bersiram initial meaning : ‘to take a bath (intransitive), used for the royal family’ additional meaning (in 21th century) 1. to bathe (transitive, figurative meaning), 2. to cover (transitive, figurative meaning). entry : peraduan initial meaning : ‘bed or bedroom, used for the royal family’ additional meaning (in 21th century) 1. bed or bedroom (general), 2. resting place (figurative meaning). the presentation of the etymological information in the dictionary can also be made in the narrative form, so the reader could get a clearer picture of the semantic change (bochkarev et al., 2020). this paper has demonstrated that diachronic corpora can be a useful tool in the investigation of etymological information, especially kamal yusuf, dewi puspita 177 to find changes in meaning. the corpora that are set chronologically can also tell us the approximate time of change. although the precise year of change remains unknown, it is able to at least reveal in which era the change happen. the activity of collecting etymological information from diachronic corpora, however, can only be done to the lexicon in written texts. furthermore, information about the usage of the words in spoken forms, whether or not they are used in the same register with the same meaning, is undisclosed. we found that, it does not lessen the effectiveness of diachronic corpora as a tool in collecting etymological information. finally, this paper could strategically contribute to the model of development for a more comprehensive indonesian etymology dictionary. references allan, k. & robinson, j.a. 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(2014). etymological and semantic changes of the english medical terms. science and education a new dimension philology, 2(6), issue 29, 29-31. https://doi.org/10.1145/2064448.2064475 124 an error analysis of using plural nouns in english sentences” a case study of the second year students of ma al-manar tengaran in the academic year 2003/2004 mustaidah english department of educational faculty stain salatiga mustaidah@yahoo.com abstract by doing this research, the writer hopes that the results will be helpful to the english learner in order to be more careful in using plural nouns in english sentences. the subject of research is the second year students of ma almanar tengaran in the academic year 2003/2004.the writer uses random sampling by lottery method to get the sample of research. the writer analyses the data by making the observation of all collected data, categorizing the data by giving codes for cash data, categorizing the data by giving codes for cash data, and interpreting data info substantive theory. the result of the study shows that there are dominant errors which are made by students of second years of ma almanar to use plural nouns in english. keywords: plural, random sampling, categorizing, dominant, error abstrak melalui penelitian ini, peneliti berharap hasil dari studi tersebut dapat bermanfaat bagi pembelajar bahasa inggris agar lebih berhati-hati dalam menggunakan kata benda plural dalam kalimatkalimat bahasa inggris. subjek dalam penelitian ini adalah siswa tahun ke dua, ma al manar tengaran tahun akademik 2003/2004. penulis menggunakan metode random sampling untuk menentukan jumlah sampel. dalam menganalisis data, peneliti melakukan pengamatan pada data yang dikumpulkan, mengkategorikan data melalui pemberian kode, dan menginterpretasikan data dengan menggunakan teori substantive. hasil penelitian menunjukkan 125 adanya kesalahan yang dominan yang dilakukan oleh siswa-siswa tahun ke dua ma al manar dalam penggunaan kata benda plural dalam bahasa inggris. kata kunci: plural, sampel random,pengkategorian, dominan, kesalahan introduction language is the system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates (bloch and george, 1942: 5). every normal human being is a member of a social group, sometimes of more than one, and every human being depends, in all his social activities, on the use of language. without language, human society is unthinkable; language is the link between otherwise unconnected nervous systems, and thus the means by which the stimulus acting on one man may produce an effective response in another, or in all the members of the group. by using language, human beings can express their ideas and whishes in written or oral form to other people. nowadays, english is one of thousand languages in the worlh that it is considered as an important language and engliah must be learned since the students are studying in elementary school. indonesia as a developing country was appointing english is taught as compulsory subject from the first grade of junior high school up to third grade of junior high school, and even in semesters of tertiary educational institution. so, the student feel difficult to learn english when they study in the junior high school, because they do not know it before. in the curriculum of english teaching, it includes skills of practical language, like listening, speaking, and writing. for expanding the student‟s skill, the curriculum of english teaching also 126 include the language components, like vocabulary, structure, and pronunciation (in speech) or spelling (in writing). beside for students, a teacher must have teaching ability for making them understand and effort to apply both language skills and language components in class. so, this makes condition alive, or this is not snared in monotone situation in teaching and learning process. english as a second language for foreign learner, as corder observes the learners‟ errors are indicative both of the state of the learners‟ knowledge and of the ways in which a second language is learned. sentences contained errors would be characterized by systematic deviancy. while the learners, correct sentences do not necessarily give evidence of the rules the learner is using or of the hypothesis he is testing, his errors suggest the strategies he employs to work out the rules of the new language an the rule he has developedat given stages of his languagedevelopment (richards, 1974 : 1). errors can be described as errors of addition, omission, substitution, and ordering following standard mathematical categories. inflectional errors is overgeneralization of constructed rule clearly revealded when children treat irregular verbs and nouns as if they were regular. we have probably all heard children say bringed, goed, doed, or foots, mouses, sheeps, childs. these mistakes tell us more about how children learn language than the correct forms they use (fromkin and blair, 1965). as a majority of noun accurrence for number in the surface structure of english are regularly governed by this „count-uncount‟ generalization. count nouns refer to things that can be counted, such as tree, book, bird and therefore have a plural forms. uncountable nouns refer to 127 substances and qualities which we do not perceive in terms of countable units and which consequently have no plural form, such as rice, water, sugar, etc. most countable nouns can change their form from singular to plural by adding –(e) s (treetrees, city-cities, book-books) and so on. although this-s plural is the most common form, there are other so-called irregular plurals (nichols, 1965). sometimes, the students have many difficulties of using plural nouns in english sentences because the inflectional plural forms. based on description above, the writer would like to conduct a research under the title “ an error analysis of using plural nouns in english sentences” a case study of the second year students of ma al-manar tengaran in the academic year 2003/2004. research methodology the writer has tried to narrange the research methodology systematically in order to capable of analyzing the collected data easily. the research methodology will be organized as follows: 1. population suharsimi arikunto, in the book prosedur penelitian, suatu pendekatan praktek, states the population is all members of the research subject (arikunto, 2002: 108). population is all individuals from whom the data are collected. in this research, population is the all of students of ma al-manar tengaran in academic year 2003/2004. 2. sample a sample is part of populations, which is researched by researcher. in this research, the writer takes the second year students of ma al-manar tengaran as the sample. 128 3. sampling sampling is the way of taking sample. for getting the sample of research, the writer uses random sampling by lottery method. in this case, the writer takes all of the second year students. 4. the procedure of collecting data a. library research lybrary research is use to get the appropriate and relevant books with this study. b. test the instrument is the research is used to know the students‟ error in using plural nouns and application in the englishsentences. c. format if data analysis 1) to find out the propotionof frequency error in each types as well as the dominant errors by using describtive analysis as follows: x where, x = the precentage of error e = the various kinds of error t = test item = the sum of 129 2). the proportion of frequency of error was calculated by using the pre-selected category approach formula as follow : formula 1 % pi : the proportion of frequency of occourred fi : absolute frequency of whole type of error n : the total number of possible error observe discussion the method of data analysis according to suharsimi arikunto, there are four steps in analyzing and interpreting the data, namely: 1. making the observation of all collected data 2. arranging all collected data by unifying data 3. categorizing the data by giving codes for cash data 4. interpreting data info substantive theory. based on those steps, the writer analyzed the data using the following steps: 1. identify the students‟ dominant errors based on the result of the test as the primary data. 2. count the students‟ dominant error in percentage 130 x where, x = the precentage of error e = the various kinds of error t = test item = the sum of 3. to find out the students‟ dominant errors as a whole in precentage % where, pi = the proportion of frequency of occurrence of errors as a whole fi = absolute frequency of error types all the levels n = the total number of possible errors of all the levels 4. interpreting all data collected to find out the sources or causes of the stude nts‟ dominant errors in using plural nouns forms. 131 the writer analyzed the data beginning the first step, namely : a. identification the students‟ dominant errors based on the result of the test. there are 40 test item for the 52 students. based on the classification of possible error, there are types of error that made by the students. 1). the types of error about form changing by adding –s no item test wrong answer error number 13 belief believes 32 15 piano pianos 20 2). the type of error about form changing by adding –es no item test wrong answer error number 1 dish dishs 14 2 lady ladys 38 3 dress dressing 11 4 tomato tomatos 25 7 wish wishs 22 8 leaf leafs 34 10 copy copyes, copys 34 11 knife knifes 32 14 calf calfs 34 132 3). the type of error about form changing in the vocal no item test wrong answer error number 6 toots tooths 25 9 foot footes 38 12 goose gooses 32 4). the type of error irregular form no item test wrong answer error number 5 ox oxes 34 5). the type of error differentiate between plural and singular word no item test wrong answer error number 16 information plural 12 17 job plural 14 18 problem plural 10 19 them singular 22 20 patients singular 12 21 athletes singular 3 22 costume plural 23 gases singular 24 economics plural 32 25 scissors singular 11 133 6). no item test wrong answer error number 26 a deer is a wild animal deer is a wild animal 12 27 the mouse ran into a hole the mouse ran into a hole 25 28 a crunch is a placeof worship chrunches is a placeof worship 29 29 a box is usually square on rectangular in form boxs is usually square on rectangular in form 28 30 a child needs much sympathy and understanding children needs much sympathy and understanding 23 31 the bus was very crowded buses was very crowded 24 32 an easily gained victory is seldom appreciated an easily gained victoryes seldom appreciated 22 33 a potato is a vegetable potatoes is a vegetable 14 34 an apple grows on a tree apples grows on a tree 22 35 a fish can swim a fishes can swim 12 36 a chair is made of wood chairs made of wood 14 37 an exercise is not always easy for beginers an excersise are not always easy for beginers 12 38 a handkerchief is made of piece of cloth a handkerchief are made of piece of cloth 20 39 the fly spreads disease the flys spreads disease 22 40 a watch is simply small clocks a watches are simply simply small clocks 18 134 b. in processing the data obtained from result of the respondents test, she used the following formula : x where, x = the precentage of error e = the various kinds of error t = test item = the sum of a. table i precentage of error subject sum of error sum of test item precentage of errors (1) (2) (3) (4) 1 12 40 30 % 2 19 40 47.5 % 3 10 40 25 % 4 24 40 60 % 5 15 40 37.5 % 6 6 40 15 % 7 21 40 52.5 % 8 10 40 25% 9 13 40 32.5 % 10 18 40 45% 11 22 40 55% 135 12 16 40 40% 13 12 40 30% 14 16 40 40% 15 20 40 50% 16 20 40 50% 17 6 40 15% 18 25 40 62.5% 19 19 40 47.5% 20 10 40 25% 21 12 40 30% 22 19 40 47.5% 23 10 40 25% 24 24 40 60% 25 15 40 37.5% 26 6 40 15% 27 21 40 52.5% 28 10 40 25% 29 13 40 32.5% 30 18 40 45% 31 22 40 55% 32 16 40 40% 33 12 40 30% 34 16 40 40% 35 20 40 50% 36 20 40 50% 37 6 40 15% 38 25 40 62.5% 39 19 40 47.5% 40 10 40 25% 41 12 40 30% 42 19 40 47.5% 43 10 40 25% 44 24 40 60% 45 15 40 37.5% 46 6 40 15% 136 47 21 40 52.5% 48 10 40 25% 49 13 40 32. %5 50 18 40 45% 51 22 40 55% 52 16 40 40% 824 2080 the next steps was to carry out an error analysis in order to find out the dominant errors that ofen occurred. in this analysis, she used the pre-selected category approach favored by ethorton as adopted by norish ( norish, 1983 ). in which the stastical computation is based on gulos formula: % where, pi = the proportion of frequency of occurrence of error fi = absolute of partial type of error n = the total number of possible errors of the level after the writer had the computation on the proportion of occurrence partially, she then computed the proportion of frequency of occurrence of error as whole, using the following formula : % 137 % = 39.62 % a. table ii the proportion of error number of subject items n errors pi-pi % fi pi (%) 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 628 52 6.3 33.32 2 9 50 242 29.3 10.32 3 3 104 95 11.5 28.12 4 1 34 34 4.12 35.5 5 10 1160 116 14.07 25.55 6 15 104 285 34.7 4.92 total 40 2080 824 95.87 137.73 interpreting all data to find out the sources of dominant errors in this analysis, the writer made a classification and categorization of errors based on the text-reference. the main purpose on doing this analysis was to trance the source of the dominant errors observed, nsmely the resl error made by the students. then, the writer classified those errors into two categories of errors based on intralingual only. 1. ignorance of rule restriction ignorance of rule restriction took the proportion of 65,42% (539 errors). 210 errors due to ignorance of rule restriction occurred at the form changing, as follow : a. the form changing by adding –s (52 errors = 6.3%) 138 b. the form changing by adding –es (242 errors = 29.3%) c. the form changing by in vocal (95 errors = 11.5%) d. the irregular form ( 34 errors = 4.12%) e. the difference between plural and singular (116 errors = 14.07%) 2. incomplete application of the rules there were 285 error (34.59%) due to incomplete application of the rules occurred in the use of plural nouns form in english sentence. this mean that they had no good comprehension or interpretation of the target language. the possible ways out of preventing those errors 1. before teaching the material, the teachers can emphasize the difference the plural nouns between indonesian and english form, so the students understand them and apply the correct pattern in english. 2. the teacher provides a lot of examples of plural form and ask students to compare english and indonesian form, so that they really find differences between them. 139 3. the teachers also give some excercises to students, so they are abel to make correct plural form in english and abel to apply its in the sentenc. 4. the students can be asked to apply their knowledge about the material. when they get the difficulties, the teacher re-explains the material clearly. conclusion from the analysis result this research, the writer can conclude that the dominant errors which are made by the students to use pluran noun in english. error in form changing by adding – s (33.32%), error in form changing by adding –es (10.32%), error in form changing by in vocal (28.12%), error in irregular form (35.5%), error in difference between plural and singular (25.55%), error in using plural nouns in sentence (4.92%) . t he possible sources or causes of those errors are ignorance of rule restriction (65.42% = 539 errors) mand incomplete application of the rules (34.59% = 285 errors). the possible ways out of preventing those errors. before teaching the material, the teachers can emphasize the difference the plural nouns between indonesian and english form, so the students understand them and apply the correct pattern in english. the teacher provides a lot of examples of plural form and ask students to compare english and indonesian form, so that they really find differences between them. the teachers also give some excercises to students, so they are abel to make correct plural form in english and abel to apply its in the sentenc. the students can be asked 140 to apply their knowledge about the material. when they get the difficulties, the teacher re-explains the material clearly. references arkunto, suharsimi, 2002, prosedur penelitian, suatu pendekatan praktek, jakarta, rineka cipta. benard bloch and george l. trager, 1942, outline of linguistic analysis, baltimore, md., linguistic of america. brown, h. douglas, 1980, principle of learning and teaching, new jersey, prentice hall. inc frank, marcella, 1972, modern english, englewood cliffs, new jersey, prentice hall. inc fromkin, victoria and blair, david, 1990, an introduction tu language, sydney, london holt rinehart and wirshton. gay, l.r., 1987, education research; competencies for analys and application, new york, merril publishing company. gronlund, norman e., 1976, measurement and evaluation in teaching, , new york, collier mac millan.. nichols, ann e i jenholm, 1965, english syntax, holt rinehart and winston inc. norish, john, 1983, language learners and their error, london, macmillan press. nurhadi, 1995, tata bahasa pendidikan, ikip semarang press. richards, jack c., 1974, error analysis, london and new york, longman. taringan, henry, guntur, 1990, pengajaran analysis kesalahan berbahasa, bandung angkasa thomson, a.j. and martinet a.v., 1986, practical english grammar, singapore, singapore offset printing co. ltd. 141 zandvoort, r.w., 1957, a handbook of english grammar, london, longman, green and co. transformational linguistics and the implication towards second language learning noor khasanah state islamic senior high school (man) of pati jl. panglima sudirman km.3 pati, central java, indonesia imam_sta@yahoo.com abstract the essence of chomsky‘s approach to language is the claim that there are linguistic universals in domain of syntax. he felt confident to show that syntax can be defined for any given language. for chomsky, the nature of such mental representations is largely innate, so if a grammatical theory has explanatory adequacy it must be able to explain the various grammatical nuances of the languages of the world as relatively minor variations in the universal pattern of human language. in teaching english as l2, therefore knowing syntax and grammar of the language is important. transformational generative grammar gives adequate elaboration in understanding them. thus, the learners are expected to be able to avoid such ambiguity in interpreting the deep structure of a sentence since ambiguity will lead other people as the listeners or hearers of the speakers to misinterpret either consciously or unconsciously. keywords: surface structure, deep structure, constituent, transformation abstrak dalam pengajaran bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa kedua, pemahaman mengenai sintaks dan tata bahasa sangatlah penting. dalam hal ini, tata bahasa generatif transformatif telah memberikan penjabaran yang cukup dalam memahami keduanya. oleh karena itu, para pelajar diharapkan dapat menghindari berbagai macam ambiguitas dalam menterjemahkan struktur kalimat secara mendalam mengingat keambiguan tersebutdapat menyebabkan orang lain sebagai pendengar dari empunya bicara salah dalam memahami apa yang diucapkan baik secara sadar maupun tidak tidak sadar. kata kunci: struktur dasar,struktur mendalam,konstituen,transformasi mailto:imam_sta@yahoo.com 22 introduction noam chomsky is said to have brought about a revolution in linguistics. he took linguistics beside mathematics and philosophy. in the early 1950s, he pursued his research work as a junior fellow in philosophy at harvard, where roman jakobson was teaching, and in 1955 chomsky was given a teaching post at the massachusetts institute of technology. jakobson believed that the different phonological structures found in the languages of underlying system. although it is only in the level of phonological universal, he however believed that the approach would be applicable also to other level of linguistic structures (sampson, 1980: 131). the essence of chomsky‘s approach to language is the claim that there are linguistic universals in domain of syntax; and he develops that hypothesis that his theory will deeper and richer than jakobson‘s theory. therefore, chomsky felt confident to show that syntax can be defined for any given language. on the other hand, saussure said that syntax was not even part of langue, the structure of a given language, however, it was a matter of parole, the fact remained that they had not overall succeeded in finding ways to incorporate syntactic analysis into the scientific study of language. radford (1997) states that grammar is traditionally subdivided into two different but inter-related areas of study – morphology and syntax. morphology is the study of how words are formed out of smaller units (traditionally called morphemes) and so addresses questions as ‗what are the various components parts(morphemes) of a word like antidisabilitory, and what kinds of principles determine the ways in which the parts are combined together to form the whole?‘. syntax is concerned with the ways in which words can be combined together to form phrases and sentences, and so addresses 22 questions like ―why is it ok in english to say whom did john talk to?, but not ok to say *whom did john talk and? (an asterik in front of an expression means that it‘s ungrammatical). in terms of the traditional tradition division of grammar into morphology and syntax, we can say that morphology studies the formation and interpretation of words, whereas syntax is concerned with the formation and interpretation of phrases and sentences. in similar intention, jacobs and rosenbaum (1976: 3) presented that particular language has its mysteries of a natural phenomenon which lead a person to be capable of distinguishing the sentences of his own language from any other languages over the world. this is represented in the strings of words which are meaningful (said as sentence) and meaningless (is only a kind of words order with no meaning). let‘s see the following strings of words. the following strings are english sentences: a. an increase in population of indonesia is high enough b. my special girl friend gave a present on m birthday. c. are you looking for jack? d. what a silly idea! suppose the word order of these strings are reversed: e. *increase is an of enough population in indonesia high f. * special my gave girl a my on friend present birthday. g. *jack you looking are for? h. *a what idea silly! every speakers of english surely know that the last there strings are not english sentences, even they consist of some english words. an asterisk is placed before the string, which is semantically and syntactically ill formed. it leads to a question how they are able to say that a, b, and c are english sentences and c, d, e are not. how do they get the knowledge? is it a kind of conscious or unconscious process? within the phenomenon above, it is therefore necessary to develop language study to get further understanding 22 how a person able to comprehend and interpret particular language and even to use the language in proper real situation. the theory of language study linguistics is the study of language. it is fundamental to study language because language is the mirror of mind ~ we might hope to reach better understanding of how the human mind produces and processes language. chomsky (radford, 1997: 1-2) said that there are three interrelated theories which any detailed study of language ultimately seeks to develop, namely: (1) theory of language structure will concern itself with what are defining structural properties of natural languages (human languages); (2) theory of language acquisition with the question of how children acquire their native languages; and (3) theory of language use with the question of how linguistic and nonlinguistic knowledge interact in speech comprehension and production of the three, the task of (1) is logically prior to the other two, since only if we first know what ―language‖ is can we develop theories about how it acquired and used. therefore, most of chomsky‘s works attempt to develop the (1). thus, it can be concluded that to be able to make a study about certain language, we should understand about the structural element of a language as human language, then we may extend the study up to the understanding of how the language is acquired and how the language used in real situation where many aspects of linguistics and non linguistics tied the interactions between the interlocutors. e.g. the word which may has 2 different meaning when the structure is different. (1) which of these bags is hers? à as question word 22 (2) the bag, which she bought yesterday, is expensive. à as relative pronoun from the above example, it can be seen that to be able to understand a certain construction or certain word, we should know that which has two different structural identities, the first is as a question word as in (1), and the later is as relative pronoun as in (2). unless we have the knowledge of such structural properties, we will not be able to say that they have different meaning and this will results in misunderstanding. the ways to develop the theory of language structure radford (1988, 1997) mentions at least two ways to develop the theory of language structure. they are as follow: 1. formulate detailed descriptions of particular languages (known as grammar). it tells us how to ‗speak‘ and ‗understand‘ the language, then comprise a set of rules or principles, which specify how to form, pronounce, and interpret phrases, sentences in the language concerned. 2. abstract from particular grammars common, universal properties that they all share: this is the study of universal grammar (ug). chomsky argued that the overall task of the linguist is to formulate grammar of particular languages and it became the point in proving the ug. this is very much in line with what chomsky said in the previous paragraph that it is very important to formulate the grammar of language studied so that we will be able to know specific characteristics of the structural elements of the language. later on if the understanding of the language formulation is achieved, the study can be explored deeper by abstracting the particular formulas or grammars of particular language to ug so that we can infer such a generalization. 22 grammar and level of adequacy grammar of a language is a model of the linguistic competence of the fluent native speaker of the language. in wikipedia encyclopedia (2007), chomsky made a distinction between grammars, which achieved descriptive adequacy, and those that went further and achieved explanatory adequacy. radford (1988: 28) says that: a grammar of a language is descriptively adequate if it correctly specifies which sentences are (and are not) syntactically, semantically, morphologically, and phonologically well-formed in the language, and also properly describes the syntactic, semantic, morphological, and phonological structure of the sentences in the language in such a way as to provide a principal account of the native speakers‘ intuition about this structure it means that descriptively adequate grammar for a particular language defines the (infinite) set of grammatical sentences in that language; that is, it describes the language in its entirely (wikipedia: 2007). on the other hand, a grammar that achieves explanatory adequacy has the additional property that gives an insight into the underlying linguistic structures in the human mind; that is, it does not merely describe the grammar of a language, but makes predictions about how linguistic knowledge is mentally represented. for chomsky, the nature of such mental representations is largely innate, so if a grammatical theory has explanatory adequacy it must be able to explain the various grammatical nuances of the languages of the world as relatively minor variations in the universal pattern of human language. thus, he contrasted two different terms, namely competence (the fluent native speakers‘ knowledge of the language) and performance (what people actually 22 say/understand by what someone else says on a given occasion). a. competence is the speaker-hearer‘s knowledge of his language b. performance is the actual use of language in concrete situation chomsky distinguishes two types of competence: (1) grammatical competence, (2) pragmatic competence. the first belongs to theory of language structure, and the second to the theory of language use. let‘s look at the following example: (3) she believes that jeannie will come to the native speaker‘s grammatical competence (his knowledge of the grammar of his language), the word she cannot be interpreted as the same person as jeannie, as the referent. even, the pragmatic competence enables the speaker to bring non-linguistic information in interpreting the sentence. grammatical competence is divided into two; they are (1) intuition about sentence well formed-ness, (2) intuition about sentence structure. it is a kind of judgment whether a given sentence is well formed or not, and about whether it has a particular structure or not (radford, 1988: 6). (4) (a). this is a grammatical sentence (b). * this is a grammatical sentence (radford, 1988: 4) (5) (a). the teachers are having seminar now. (b). * the mans are talking about the motor cars 22 (6) (a). he is my husband (b). * my wife is not my wife (radford, 1988: 46) (7) (a). the cat is on the mat (b). * mat the on is cat (sampson, 1980: 133) the above examples show sentences being grammatical and ungrammatical (ill formed). sentence (4) (a) is phonologically well formed; however, (b) is ill formed, as the stress, which is shown by the capital letter, is put incorrectly. sentence (5) (a) is morphologically well formed as the plural form of man is not * mans, as well as the regular form in (b) teacher, but it should be men. sentence (6) (a) is semantically well formed as the object of he and my husband refers to the same person, however in (b), it is contradictory to the meaning by negation which stating that my wife reflects different person. the last is sentence (7) (a) which is syntactically well formed through its sequence; however (b) have incorrect sequence, which leads to its being ill formed. from the above explanation, it can be inferred that chomsky believed in that the form of language is genetically constrained, and the key to uncovering the nature of these constrain lies in the study of universal grammar. jacobs and rosenbaum (1976: v) stated that linguistic universals determine the form of a complete and accurate representation of what human beings know when they know a language. these universal will provide the information necessary to know how the strategy by means of which human 22 beings acquire a language in the very first time. constituents there are two types of the structural intuitions which native speakers have about the syntax, namely (1) intuition about how soundsequences in sentences are structured into successively larger structural units which we call constituents; and (2) intuition about whether particular sets of constituents belong to the same category or not. words belong o various categories of different types like noun, adjective, adverb, preposition, modal, determiner, etc. we can illustrate the nature of these intuitions about constituents and categories as in the following sentence: (8) his teacher might get very angry to the student. sentence due to the first intuition about the way in which the words in (8) are grouped into successively larger constituents, the word his modifies teacher so that his teacher is a (phrasal) constituent of the sentence. likewise, the goes with student, and forms a phrasal constituent as well the student. it is also clear that to goes with the student to make a larger constituent of to the student. then very modifies angry so that the sequence of very angry forms a single structural unit, a constituent of a sentence. furthermore, it is obvious that get goes with the phrase very angry so that get very angry is also a constituent. the larger constituent of a sentence which relates some smaller constituents are get very angry to the student. from the tree diagram above, every node represents a constituent both in the individual words and phrases. the traditional way of describing the similarities and differences between constituents is to say that they belong to categories of various types. 22 therefore, words like teacher, student are said as category of nouns, meanwhile the words like his, the belong to the category of determiners. the word get is the same as appear, feel, become which belong to the category of verb; and the word must is the same kind of constituents as may, must, will, etc which is said as modal; the word very belongs to adverb, and angry belongs to adjective. constituency grammar could be defined intuitively as the kind of grammatical notation appropriate for languages where the criteria of grammaticality have too with class-membership and hierarchical structure sampson, (1980: 139). deep structure, surface structure, and transformations chomsky then, in 1957, developed his explanation in syntactic structures that what he firstly believed that constituency grammar is adequate to generate human language is actually wrong. he also stated that constituent structure is not enough in helping the native speaker to understand grammatical sentences (jacobs and rosenbaum, 1976: 17). to argue that the model of syntax is not adequate to handle certain characteristic constructions in natural languages; therefore there should be an additional level of structure known as d-structure (radford , 1988: 401). the two levels of structure (s-structure and d-structure) are interrelated by a set of movement rules called transformations. every sentence represents a deep structure and a surface structure. the deep structure represented the core semantic relations of a sentence, and was mapped on to the surface structure through transformations. chomsky believed that there would be considerable similarities between languages‘ deep structures, and that these 22 structures would reveal properties, common to all languages, which were concealed by their surface structures (wikipedia, 2007). sampson (1980: 140) defined the term of transformational rule as the following: a transformational rule is a rule which operates on the hierarchical structure assigned to a morpheme sequence by a constituent grammar, and alters it into a new hierarchical structure in way which modifies the string of morphemes acting as levels of the tree. in transformational generative grammar, and then called as transformational linguistics deep structures were generated by a set of phrase structure rules. consider the following example: (9) you will come here. (10) will you come here? the first sentence is a declarative sentence while the second is an interrogative sentence. the above sentences are very similar syntactically. they are different only on the position of two words only. it is said that the two sentences have different deep structure because they are different in meaning. the following d-structure contains a constituent question, which does two things: 1. it specifies that the sentence is a question semantically. 2. it provides a structure upon which the interrogative transformation is defined and can apply. such transformation applies only if the question constituent is present, the grammar prevents the application of the transformation to dstructure which is not semantically interpreted as question. the interrogative transformation above generates the surface structure diagrammed below: 34 it is also possible elaborate a negation through transformation process as in the following example: (11) they will study mathematics. (12) they will not study mathematics. these two sentences are identical in their surface structure, except the negation in the second sentence. they have different deep structures. it can be elaborated through the hypothetical constituent negative (neg). the neg gives information that even the rest of the structure is identical to (11), however, the meaning are different as it has negative interpretation. the negative transformation above generates the surface structure. conclusion summary on the transformational process the implication of universal grammar in transformational process is that sentences of all languages have both a d-structure, which gives the meaning of the sentence, and sstructure , which gives the form of the sentence when it is used in communication. it can be said that d-structure is abstract while sstructure is closer to physical reality that give the concrete form of the syntactic structures used in communication. the implication of transformational generative grammar towards the process of l2 learning dealing with the process of learning and acquisition, these two terms are different in case they are used to separate l1 acquisition from l2 learning. in learning l2, it is a conscious activity, while acquisition deals with unconscious one. in language acquisition the focus is on communication or 35 reception of a message as opposed to syntax and grammar as in language learning. in teaching english as l2, therefore knowing syntax and grammar of the language is important. transformational generative grammar gives adequate elaboration in understanding them. thus, the learners are expected to be able to avoid such ambiguity in interpreting the deep structure of a sentence since ambiguity will lead other people as the listeners or hearers of the speakers to misinterpret consciously or unconsciously. references davis w. philip. 1939. modern theories of language. new jersey: prentice-hall.inc. jacobs and rosenbaum.p. 1968. english transformational grammar. the united states of america: john willey &sons. jackendoff, ray (1974). semantic interpretation in generative grammar. mit press. radford. a. 1988. transformational grammar. cambridge: cambridge university press. sampson. g. 1980. schools of linguistics: competition and evolution. great britain: british library. wikipedia free encyclopedia. 2007. rethinking language education in indonesia register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 1 rethinking language education in indonesia maslihatul umami english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 02 salatiga, central java, indonesia umamie@gmail.com abstract language education in indonesia may be discussed by over viewing the nature of the three language categories in the country: indonesian language, indigenous languages, and foreign languages. from the picture of how the three groups of languages work and function, the problem raised in this paper is based on two fundamental assumptions. language education in this multilingual and multicultural country is not done on the context of literacy, on the one hand, and it is not yet considered important in comparison with that of the subjects related to basic science and technology, on the other. after reviewing a number of models of bilingual education and comparing them with what has been done in indonesia, a preferred model will be offered. finally, it will also be suggested that language education in indonesia should be associated with literacy development in a wider sense. furthermore, meanwhile language education should be given an adequate room; language teaching should be based on the functional use of the existing languages in the country and should be done in tandem with the teaching of content since content is delivered through the medium of language. keywords: education, language, function, literacy development, content abstrak pendidikan bahasa di indonesia dapat dibahas dengan menilik karakteristik tiga kategori bahasa di negara ini : bahasa indonesia , bahasa pribumi , dan bahasa asing . dilihat dari gambaran bagaimana tiga kelompok bahasa berfungsi , masalah yang diangkat dalam studi ini didasarkan pada dua asumsi dasar . pendidikan bahasa di negara multibahasa dan multikultural ini tidak dilakukan pada konteks literasi dan belum dianggap penting dibandingkan dengan mata pelajaran yang berkaitan dengan ilmu dasar dan teknologi . setelah meninjau sejumlah model pendidikan bilingual dan membandingkannya dengan apa yang telah diterapkan di indonesia , model http://us.mg60.mail.yahoo.com/yab-fe/mu/mainview?.src=neo&themename=purple&stab=1323127350452 register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 2 pilihan akan diajukan. akhirnya, turut pula disarankan bahwa pendidikan bahasa di indonesia harus dikaitkan dengan pengembangan literasi dalam arti yang lebih luas . selain itu , pendidikan bahasa harus diberikan ruang yang memadai ; pengajaran bahasa harus didasarkan pada penggunaan fungsional dari bahasa yang ada negeri ini dan harus dilakukan bersama-sama dengan pengajaran konten karena konten disampaikan melalui media bahasa . kata kunci : pendidikan, bahasa, fungsi, pengembangan literasi, konten introduction in order to seek a preferable model of language education in indonesia, it is necessary to overview the nature of the three language categories in the country: indonesian language, indigenous languages, and foreign languages. at the same time, in order to find out a suitable model of language teaching, it is also necessary to have a look at how these languages are now taught. as the national language of the country and the language of a wider communication as well, indonesian language is used as the medium of instruction at all levels of education from kindergarten to university. it is also taught as a subject for six years in elementary schools, 3 years in secondary schools, 3 years in senior high schools, and one year at university levels (but in the department of indonesian language and literature, it is taught throughout the course programmed). in the second category, indigenous languages amounting to around 500 are used as communication means within the communities, but are not used as the media of instruction, except the major ones in the areas where students are not yet ready to have indonesian language as the medium of instruction until year 3 in elementary schools. however, the indigenous languages having significant roles and traditions in arts and literature are taught as subjects from elementary schools to register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 3 secondary schools. similarly, in the departments of indigenous languages, they are taught at university levels throughout the course programmed. finally, foreign languages especially english, are taught as subjects in secondary schools (3 years), senior high schools (3 years), and at university levels (one year). however, in the department of foreign languages, for example the department of english, the subjects are also taught throughout the course programmed. although english is not used as a means of communication in the community, it is a compulsory subject at all levels above, except elementary schools. the choice of indonesian language to be the national language meaning that it must be used in any formal administrations and any government sectors, including educational institutions –is historical in nature. it has taken its root since the indonesian youth declared their oath in 1928 when they believed that they would be successful in struggling against the dutch colonization if they were unified in terms of “one nation”, “one country”, and “one language”-indonesian (alisyahbana, 1984a: 48). for nation building, the choice is favorable, but from the point of cultural heritage, it has to put aside such big indigenous languages as javanese or sundanese having 20 million speakers respectively, much greater than the number of speakers of malay to be adopted as the national indonesian language at the time. another interesting phenomenon of the language education in indonesia should be put forward first. it is mostly the responsibility of the department of national education to conduct language education in the country, but it is the concern of the language planning agency, the pusat bahasa, based in jakarta to maintain the development of indonesian language and the indigenous languages (excluding foreign languages). beyond the expectation, the two institutions do not normally make language policies, which are complimentary with each other. for register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 4 example, the former has not yet placed language as an important subject compared with those of science and technology, meanwhile the latter considers that language is crucial, so that indonesian language has been engineered to a certain direction under the government’s interference through the so-called “ language planning” or “ language standardization”. with the interference, it can be seen that the development of indonesia language has been somewhat unnatural in that its phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic dynamics are strongly controlled. the agency tends to reject whatever influence from both indigenous and foreign languages through very often unavoidable. however, actually indonesian language has been developing by itself very rapidly, regardless of what the pusat bahasa does, and in fact, there have thus been two contradictory influences, one bottom up, and the other top down. discussion language educations and literacy in such a condition, the education of the three languages may for some extent, compete with each other in terms of national identity in general and the government policy in particular. indonesian language education is kept still and firm for the sake of national identity, whereas at the same time indigenous languages are mainly taught as subjects for the purpose of maintaining local cultures (although sometimes only superficially), and foreign languages are often placed as instrumental means. no doubt that what is done by the pusat bahasa is beneficial, but putting the emphasis strongly on the development of indonesian language and paying less attention to that of indigenous and foreign languages have resulted in some obvious impacts to language teaching. on the other hand, meanwhile the department of national education is responsible for the register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 5 implementation of language education in the country, and in fact the department policy has not yet counted language as an important subject in the school curriculum, the policy does not seem to eliminate the impacts. the most profound impact is that the national curriculum should always be contended with what is considered “standard indonesian language”-even though by definition, the standardization rules are sometimes inconsistent and consequently, the richness of indonesian dialects is put aside. in so doing, an ambitious target is expected that all of the indonesian speakers would be able to use the language properly in most of linguistic domains. another impact is that indigenous languages are practically ignored. it is true that the languages are only used locally and only some of them have a great number of speakers, but in a multilingualcommunity, it is unfair not to promote the languages in the same way as promoting indonesian language. after all, it is commonly agreed recently that they should be preserved because they can contribute to maintaining local cultures, but real actions in terms of placing them in a well-planed framework of language education as a whole are poorly done. similarly, foreign languages receive a somewhat bad impact in that they are simply put in the curriculum, except in the relevant university departments, as a means to achieve instrumental purposes, for example to satisfy job markets. the literary subtleties and mutual understanding of foreign cultures through foreign language learning are rarely touched. in terms of language democracy, then the way to place the three groups of languages creates a linguistic discrimination. borrowing phillipsons term (1992), since the way of placement leads to a condition where indonesian language is to be made superior and is likely to be abandon the other two, “linguistic imperialism” does occur here. moreover, as the language policy is primarily set up for the sake of nation building, it also register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 6 crates a condition, which is often abused by a certain “government elite” to indoctrinate its ideology through employing euphemistic (indonesian) language. it is, therefore, essential to argue that in language education and language teaching, the three group of languages must be taught relatively equally, and that in the context of language use in different domains, including the government domain, it is not only “ linguistic democratization” that still requires more understanding” (santosa, 1998a) in many aspects of life but also a type of language awareness through which people are fully concerned with how the three groups of languages should actually work and fulfill their functions. language awareness in education, in particular, is crucial when language is seen as “a goal (language arts, literacy, other languages) and as a vehicle (learning through lecturing, through conversation, through reading, through critical thinking, and so on)”(van lier, 1995:98). the competition of the three groups of languages should not occur if they are placed in accordance with their own functions and roles, and are let open from outside influences with only little intervention for some technical reasons. likewise, as will be presented below, the three groups of languages will support each other, when they are taught hand in hand under the concept of literacy. however, as already stated, in comparison with the education of basic science and technology,the three languages are considered peripheral. to make the matter worse, language teaching has not yet been well programmed. it can be seen from the fact that (1) language curriculum is not properly set up to accommodate the nature of the existing languages in the country and the needs required in this changing world, (2) language teaching materials (including books) are not well selected and produced, and (3) most language teachers do not have good qualifications and are not likely to be wellprepared by the government. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 7 as far as the language curriculum is concerned, the national curriculum is merely a type of package to be given to the learners in a uniform way without carefully considering the local diversities backgrounding them. furthermore, in terms of material sequencing and scope, the allocated time is sometimes not enough to cover the whole materials. similarly, language books available are usually produced by orders, not as the result of thorough materials selection and sequencing, nor as a reflection of the principles of language acquisition. finally, language teachers generally deliver the materials in the books by strictly following the teaching guidance (gbpp) in the curriculum without modifying them with regard to the philosophy of language teaching with reference to approach, method, technique, etc. (cf. richards & rodgers, 1986). for the reasons, language teachers must have significant qualifications in language teaching. whereas it should be highlighted that language education must be seen as importantly as the education of the others, there is still a big problem in language teaching in indonesia seen from the perspective of how language is approached in the learning and teaching implementations. what usually happens is that language is presented as a science offering a set of rules (knowledge), not as a means of oral and written communication (skills). at a school setting, for example, students are usually taught to know about the language as language, not to know of how to use the language in real situations. the research on the literacy of students at the third year elementary schools in surakarta (santosa, wiratno, & yustanto,1996) suggests that they are very good at constructing individual sentences, but they are very poor in connecting the sentences to form a type of meaningful discourse. it implies that they are able to write and read sentences as they are, but they cannot build their experiential meaning that shows-following halliday (1978)-a configuration of “context of situation” and “context of register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 8 culture” in some more abstract texts. this is also evident in the language performance of the graduates of senior high schools. they generally cannot communicate their ideas in a systematically accepted language either in oral or written modes. the same evidence applies to their mastery of english as one of foreign languages. the phenomena can also be partly explained from the result of the research above. it shows that the effort of building the academic situations at schools (as part of a literacy effort, if it can be said so) is not always in accordance with what the students face outside the classroom and at their homes. at schools, especially in the classroom, they are forced to have their learning activities with indonesian language. on the contrary, what they have outside the classroom and at homes is sometimes completely different: many of them rarely use indonesian language to speak and read, let alone reading materials are not always available. with the case of english, students do not normally use the language outside the classroom either. therefore, it can be underlined that teaching languages should not simply deal with passing it to the learners by prescribing language formulas to be learned. a language learner is said to be successful when he or she masters the language formulas and is able to use them in various types of contextual communication both inside and outside the classroom. ideally, language is taught from the two angels in balance. teaching a language is not a matter of grammaticalization without encouraging the learners how to use the grammar in real life. this occurs; because-as already stated abovelanguages are not taught under the framework of literacy. unfortunately, it is generally assumed in indonesia, or perhaps in most developing countries, that literacy has to do only with “letters”, with how to teach people to be able to read and write. if this is the case, then people are only required to be able to produce and utter words as they are spelt. in other words, they do not involve in reading and writing activities as register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 9 ways of self-expression, representation, and cultural interpretation. in a wider sense, in fact, literacy is concerned with any effort allowing people to be well informed and knowledgeable. jane mace even suggests that setting up a literacy effort should be more than merely “ a solution of the problem of illiteracy”(mace, 1992: xv). it means that being literate will further include being able to absorb and disseminate information, taking place in different domains with different purposes. people are therefore supposed to be familiar with whatever published in public media either in print or in electronics, and they are likely to be able to give meaning themselves to what they have received and communicate it with others in many ways. so literacy is a multifaceted manifestation of reading, writing, and thinking through which meaning is created within a sociocultural context (perez, 1998:4). it is always culturally and socially bound. it is on this context that language education and language teaching in indonesia must be relied. nevertheless, in order not to be pessimistic, it can be overviewed that language education in indonesia has been long leading to a separate path of literacy development where people are only trained to be literate formally either at schools or informally at community groups outside the schools. in both types of educational settings, the learners are fed up with theories of a language or languages with which they merely read and write, without being encouraged to see and experience the multidimensional functions of the language or languages. on the basis of these phenomena, it turns out that indonesia has so far bred not only “political illiteracy”(santosa, 1998b) as a result of the new order regime’s supremacy for over 30 years, but also cultural, social and mental illiteracies. if the language teaching is done in the way that language is not only seen as knowledge to be understood, but also as skills to be put into practice with respect to its social, register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 10 economic, and cultural political functions, it has been done in line with the principles of literacy. it is obvious that indonesia is a multilingual and multicultural country. people use indigenous languages locally and indonesian language nationally. but some other should use foreign languages, especially english, to cope with international requirements in this global environment. considering the fact, there must be a layer of multiplicity in association with the modes of expression and representation with the uses of various means, among others, the most salient multimedia, and world wide web. in the situation, the application of “ multiliteracies” taking into consideration of national diversity and global interrelatedness is required. multiliteracies argument suggests the necessity of an open-ended and flexible functional grammar that assists language learners to describe language differences (cultural, sub cultural, regional /national, technical, context-specific, and so on) and the multimodal channels of meaning now so important to communication (cope & kalantzis, 2000:6). to this extent, rethinking language education in terms of “what to teach” and “how to teach” is essential. in this paper the “what to teach” and the “how to teach” will not be separately discussed in details. favorably, they will be simultaneously presented in the model of language education in multilingual/multicultural settings and in the model of teaching the language and the content below. language education in multilingual and multicultural settings there are many multilingual and multicultural countries in the world such as the u.k, the us, and australia. however, the linguistic map of indonesia is divergent from those of the countries. because of the indonesian multilingual and multicultural uniqueness, language education and language register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 11 teaching in this country must also be differently implemented from those in the other multilingual and multicultural countries. the multilingualism of the three countries, for instance, differs from that in indonesia for some respects. firstly, in the three countries the national language is english-which is in fact the language of the world, whereas in indonesia it is indonesian language-which is one of the local languages in the globe, and english is the first foreign language. secondly, the local languages in the three countries are mostly ethnic languages brought by immigrants from their home countries who do not normally use them in their present community (except in such smaller domains as family), but the local languages in indonesia are those very vernaculars developing indigenously in the community and are actually used in wider domains, including family, education, workplace, religion, printed/electronic media, and so on. therefore, it is important to put forward that the multilinguality in the three countries is usually personal, whereas in indonesia it is societal/communal. that is to say, in the three countries there are a number of bilingual people who are able to speak more than one language –but not necessarily use the ethnic ones in the community, whereas in indonesia people speak more than one language, and their mother tongues are often the indigenous languages which are indeed used for various reasons in their own community. at the same time, indonesian language is also used as a wider means of communication. thirdly, from the point of view of language acquisition, in bilingual settings, children often acquire indonesian language soon after or while they acquire their mother tongues. therefore, in some situations, indonesian language is the second language of a number of children, but in some others, children have both indonesian language and indigenous languages as their mother tongues. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 12 finally, in conjunction with language identity and language attitude, in the three countries people tend to use their ethnic languages when they meet their peers from the same home countries. maintaining the immigrants, ethnic languages with reference to national identity may not be a real concern in the three countries (wiratno, 1993). i will put an emphasis on the case of the maintenance and shift of indonesian language in sydney, australia; cf. faltis & wolfe, eds. 1999 for the recent of profile of bilingual education in the us, with a particular contrast between immigrants’ ethnic languages and the dominant english) having ethnic languages map in indonesia where the necessity of using the three groups of languages is inevitable, a carefully planned language education must be sought. in the following, after a brief review of some models of bilingual education, a potentially suitable bilingual education model will be offered. as bilingual education may mean different things for different ends and there are many models of this sort of education, in this paper, bilingual education does not only refer to a technically simplified notion that it is using two languages for instructional purposes. rather, it refers to “a wide range of programs that may have different ideological orientations toward linguistic and cultural diversity, different target populations, and different goals for those populations” (freeman, 1998:2-3, as cited from hornberger, 1991) hornberger’s 1991 review on the existing programs of bilingual education provides three models, which are, transitional model, maintenance model, and enrichment model. the transitional model encompasses all of those bilingual education programs that encourage language minority students to shift to majority language, assimilate to mainstream cultural norms, and be incorporated in to national society. by majority language, hornberger (1991) means the official language of the national society, and by register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 13 minority language she means students whose native language is not the official language of the national society. the maintenance model encompasses all of those programs that encourage language minority student to maintain their native language, strengthen their cultural identity, and affirm their civil rights in the national society. the enrichment model encompasses all of those bilingual education programs that encourage the development of minority language on the individual and collective levels, cultural pluralism at school and in the community, and an integrated national society based on the autonomy of cultural groups (freeman, 1998: 3). the most outstanding example of bilingual education quite often discussed in the literature is the one conducted in canada (see e.g. swain, 1979 for a brief review; swain & lapkin, 1982, and baker, 1996 for complete accounts). called “immersion” programme, which seems to fall into the enrichment model, it was first initiated in 1965 to promote a sociocultural equilibrium in the points of view of two strong groups of canadian population, french, and english. depending on the types of immersion (early total, early partial, or late), french and english were used as the media of school instruction in order that students would be equally proficient in both languages. a similar immersion program was later conducted in the us in 1971 to promote student’s proficiency of spanish before they transferred to english academic mainstream (brinton, snow & wesche, 1989: 8). it belongs to the transitional model, which has then apparently become the most common type of bilingual education in the us, targeting those students defined as “limited english proficiency” (freeman, 1998:4). the maintenance model, which is actually based on language as a right, is less common in the us, but in some parts of the uk there have been some movements insisting on the use of minority languages at schools. for example, “ designated bilingual schools” set up in south wales was aimed to educate students in their home language (baker, 1996; 356-357). in register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 14 australia, on the other hand, despite the fact that there are some bilingual education programs, which may be mostly categorized into the transitional model, “the future of australian languages other than english’… is threatened by the failure to provide adequate opportunities for their maintenance and development” because most of australian schools ignore the minority languages in their curriculum (smolicz & lean, 1979: 67). regardless of whatever the name of the program is and whether it is application in different settings, bilingual education has been very popular and applied in many different parts of the worlds, especially in second language learning/teaching programs. the bilingual education so far known in indonesia is the one that is not necessarily similar to any of the above categories. in fact, the system of education in the country is indonesian language monolingual, and therefore indonesian language is the only formal medium of instruction used in educational institutions. as previously stated, it is true that in certain districts indigenous languages are allowed to be used until year 3, but it is simply because of a matter of giving chances to the school children to use their indigenous languages before they are ready to transfer to the indonesian language mainstream. in association with the transitional model, what is done in indonesia is not the case because it is not aimed at incorporating the subject matter in the curriculum into the indigenous languages teaching objectives. compared with the maintenance model, it is not the case either since it does not encourage the students to have equal proficiency in indigenous languages and indonesian language, let alone indigenous languages are not used on purpose as the instructional media. it is also true that in some places indigenous languages are taught from primary schools to senior high schools (and in some other places at university levels as local content), but they are formally put in the curriculum just to show that the register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 15 local identities still exist (regardless of how and whether they still do). for the reason, it is clear then that it does not belong to the enrichment model. in addition, from the point of view of bilingual education, foreign languages are not taken into account at all. they are not used as the media of instruction. except in the relevant departments and in the teaching of language for specific purposes (lsp)that is teaching by incorporating the content area, they are taught at schools and university levels, as already mentioned, as instrumental purposes. according to nababan (1979:209-210), the indonesian system of education is not designed to promote the multilingual situation in the country, and although it does not mean that the government does not provide the indigenous languages with rooms in the curriculum, it is not designed so because it is based on the general philosophy that the indigenous languages will be learned by children naturally since they are used in the community. it is actually unfortunate that until today the potentiality of indonesian multilinguality has not yet taken into account in developing language education in the country. the model being offered here is essentially the enrichment model. the difference is that in this modified model three groups of languages are all together involved, in contrast with the original one normally involving only two. with reference to language rights, literacy principles, multilingual issues, and the central roles of language education, the model will be the one taking into account the teaching of the three groups of languages in a considerably balanced proportion, by not only teaching them as the subjects in the curriculum but also using them as the instruction media in educational institutions. however, with the case of foreign languages, since english is the most dominant among the other foreign languages in indonesia, english is advisable to be chosen as the instruction medium. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 16 in this model, in addition to using indonesian language as the medium of instruction at any levels of educational institutions (16 years, plus 2 years in kindergartens), the potential indigenous languages are also proposed to be used as the media of instruction throughout the span of time at elementary schools and secondary schools (9 years, plus 2 years in kindergartens), and english as well is used as the medium of instruction from senior high schools to university levels (around 7 years). in the implementation, the teaching of the three groups of languages as subjects conducted thus far should be continued. teaching the language and teaching the content to support language teaching, which is implemented in the context of literacy, and to highlight the model of language education under the framework of bilingualism, in the following, the model of language teaching where teaching the language and teaching the content are simultaneously done will be offered. the issue of teaching the language together with teaching the content has been known for a long time, and it might even take its roots hundreds years ago (mohan, 1986; brinton, snow & wesche, 1989; 4). starting to gain its popularity since 1980s, today it is quite a lot put into practice in various second / foreign language instructional settings (brinton, 2000; 48). basically, it is a model of language teaching that is based on the integration of language and content. “the language curriculum is based directly on the academic needs of the students and generally follows the sequence determined by a particular subject matter in dealing with the language problems which students encounter” (brinton, snow & wesche, 1989:2). the argument underlying the model is that since the medium of instruction is obviously language, the subject matter instructed would not be understood when the language used is not understood. for example, teaching register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 17 biology can be done together with teaching the language used; and therefore, the concepts of biology are only understood if the language is used to figure out the concepts is also understood. in short, content is always delivered through language, and the teaching activity is implemented just by putting four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) in the subject areas. in other words, it is content-based language teaching where any subjects can be incorporated into it. coming back to the modified model proposed above where indonesian language, the potential indigenous languages, and english (to represent the other foreign languages) are used hand in hand proportionally, the framework of the model of language teaching put forward here can be described as follows. the potential indigenous languages are expected to be used as the media of delivering those subjects related to moral values, cultures, crafts, traditional arts and music, local literature and philosophy, and the other local contents. english is used as the medium of delivering those subjects related to science and technology. finally, indonesian language is used in combination as the general medium of instruction that may cover the subjects ranging from moral values to science and technology. this type of framework can hopefully eliminate the controversy that the portion of language education nowadays is much smaller than those of the subjects related to science and technology. since very important roles are given to the three groups of languages in delivering the subjects other than language subjects, the model will automatically employ the teaching of the language as well, and therefore language education will be no longer considered peripheral. on the other hand, from the point of view of the multilingual and multicultural contexts of indonesia, the model will upgrade the linguistic and cultural heritage of the country. no less important than the register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 18 two arguments, the model will in turn make up the development of literacy. with adequate understanding and mastery of the three groups of languages, the opportunities of absorbing and distributing the information from many angles will be opened. conclusion in elucidating the language education in indonesia that is multicultural and multilingual, the nature of indonesian language, indigenous languages, and foreign languages (english) has been discussed. after reviewing a number of bilingual education models and comparing them with what has been done in the country, a preferable model of language education considering the three languages as the media of instruction in addition to being only as the taught subjects is offered. in completion to the model, a language teaching that incorporates content areas into it is also suggested. the application of such kinds of language education and language teaching has been counted as the implementations of literacy development issuing the functional use of the existing languages in this multilingual and multicultural country. however, putting the proposed model of language education and language teaching into practice is not without consequences. the following implications will presumably appear.first, the promotion of the indigenous languages to be the media of instruction should not be taken as a distortion to the roles of indonesian language as a means of reaching the “indonesianness” in terms of modernization (alisyahbana, 1984b). rather, in terms of language rights, and by referring to the additional explanation of the 1945 constitution, such an effort will contribute to coloring the indonesian cultural plurality. in return, english can play its important role in accelerating the process of indonesian modernization. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 19 second, with regard to van lier’s view on language as a vehicle cited before, a difficult question may come up, whether the indigenous languages expected to be used as the media of instruction can cope with the area of science and technology in response to their vocabulary range, whereas even indonesian language itself, compared with english, sometimes cannot. but if the two groups of languages are quite open to outside influence, foreign technical terms can be adopted. similarly, with respect to language planning, the language contacts resulted from the application of the models of language education and language teaching above should be regarded as beneficial aspects for the development of the indonesian and indigenous languages, not as the dangerous ones destroying the phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic properties of the languages. third, the application of the models requires some reforms in curriculum design, and in so doing; it will demand a good coordination among the related institutions to be responsible for not only language education but also education in general. fourth, in relation to the new curriculum design, the adjoining problems will be things like teacher training, book production, providing facilities and equipment. references alisyahbana, s.t. 1984a. “the problem of minority languages in the overall linguistic problems of our time”. in coulmas, f. linguistic minorities and literacy. berlin: mouton publishers. alisyahbana, s.t. 1984b. “the concept of language standardization and its application to indonesian language”. in coulmas, f. linguistic minorities and literacy. berlin: mouton publishers. baker, c. 1996. foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism, 2 nd edition, clevedon: multilingual matters. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 20 brinton, d.m. 1999. “out of the mouths of babes: novice teacher insights into content-based instruction”. in faltis, c.j. & wolfe, p.m.(eds.). so much to say: adolescents, bilingualism, and esl in the secondary school. new york: teachers college press. brinton, d.m., snow, m.a. & wesche, m.b.1989. content-based second language instruction. new york: newbury house publishers. clyne,m.1993. community languages in australia. amsterdam: john benjamins. cope, b. & kalantzis, m. (eds.). 2000. multiliteracies: literacy learning and the design of social future. london and new york: routledge. faltis, c.j. & wolfe, p.m. (eds.).1999. so much to say: adolescents, bilingualism, and esl in the secondary school. new york: teachers college press. freeman, r.d.1998. bilingual education and social change. clevedon: multilingual matters. halliday, m.a.k.1978. language as social semiotic. london: edward arnold. kesper, l.f. (ed.). 2000. content-based college esl instruction. mahwah, new jersey: laurence erlbaum associates, publishers. mace, j.1992. talking about literacy: principles and practice of adult literacy education. london and new york: routledge. mohan, b.a.1986. language and content. reading, m.a.: addition-wesley. nababan, p.w.j. 1979. “proficiency profiles: a study in bilingualism and bilinguality in indonesia”. in boey, l.k. (ed.). bilingual education. singapore: singapore university press. perez, b. 1998. “literacy, diversity, and programmatic responses”. in perez, b. (ed.). sociocultural contexts of language and literacy. mahwah, new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates, publishers. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 21 phillipsons, r. 1992. linguistic imperialism. oxford: oxford university press. richards, j.c & rodgers, t.s. 1986. approaches and methods in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. santosa, r. 1998a. “language democratization needs more understanding”, the jakarta post, july 13, 1998. santosa, r. 1998b. “ri has bred political illiteracy”, the jakarta post, september 26, 1998. santosa, r., wiratno, t. & yustanto, h. 1996. the literacy of the third year elementary students in surakarta (research report). surakarta: faculty of letters, sebelas maret university & directorate general of higher education. smolicz, j.j. & lean, r. 1979. “australian languages other than english: a sociological study of attitudes”. in boey, l.k. (ed.). bilingual education. singapore: singapore university press. swain, m. 1979. “bilingual education for the english-canadian: three models of “immersion”. in boey, l.k. (ed.).bilingual education. singapore: singapore university press. swain, m. & lapkin, s. 1982. evaluating bilingual education: a canadian case study. clevedon, avon: multilingual matters. van lier, l. 1995. introducing language awareness. london: penguin. wiratno, t. 1993. “language maintenance and shift of indonesian among indonesian immigrants in sydney” (unpublished course project paper), department of linguistics. university of sydney. microsoft word 03_register 2020 no 2 register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020), pp. 277-292 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i2.277-292 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn : 2503-040x 277 investigating reading challenges faced by efl learners at elementary level raja muhammad ishtiaq khan,1* muhammad shahbaz,2 tribhuwan kumar,3 imran khan4 1,4majma’ah university, zulfi kingdom of saudi arabia, 2department of english, gc women university sialkot, sialkot pakistan, 3college of science and humanities, prince sattam bin abdulaziz university, sulail kingdom of saudi arabia *corresponding author email: r.khan@mu.edu.sa doi: 10.18326/rgt.v13i2.277-292 submission track: received: 30-05-2020 final revision: 13-10-2020 available online: 01-12-2020 copyright © 2020 raja muhammad ishtiaq khan, muhammad shahbaz, tribhuwan kumar, imran khan this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract it is hard to ignore the importance of reading skills for desired proficiency in foreign languages. reading can be beneficial for learners to immerse themselves in the target language and learn it efficiently. in efl contexts like saudi arabia, learners face many challenges in reading skills. the main purpose of this research was to explore reading problems of elementary level students and causes of the readings skills inabilities. following random and convenience sampling techniques; this mixed method research obtained quantitative data from 290 elementary level students and qualitative data from nine teachers and supervisors. the analysis of quantitative data from the reading test and checklist and qualitative data retrieved from interviews suggest that students considerably perform relatively low in reading skills, and the main reasons are poor vocabulary, incorrect pronunciation, wrong spellings, slow reading pace and flawed grammar. these five areas account for more than 90% of the challenges faced by learners in reading skills. based on evidence from this research, we suggest that policymakers, teachers and students should focus on these five areas for solving the issues related to the reading skills. although other avenues are essential, these items demand special attention to develop reading skills of efl learners in saudi arabia and elsewhere in the world. keywords: reading skill; elementary level; reading pace; efl raja muhammad ishtiaq khan, muhammad shahbaz, tribhuwan kumar, imran khan register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 278 introduction reading skills feature the most prominent skills of language learning and teaching, particularly in foreign language learning. it is one of the essential elements in language learning that needs mastery to grasp the required comprehension. in reading skills reader requires to look at the printed or electronic version characters, alphabet, punctuation, and exclamation mark to function his cognitive skill to attain the meaning and understand the message of a writer. reading skills prepare and develops the understanding of readers and learners (deman, 1979). the importance of reading relies on the fact that from reading skills, learners get an eminent part of language learning as it involves almost all features that a foreign language demands. learners are unable to read because of their incompetency in vocabulary knowledge, pronunciation and accent, grammar, listening and speaking (khan et al., 2019; schmitt & schmitt, 2020; shahbaz & khan, 2017). reading inability occurs when learners are not willing to read because of the lack of motivation, burden, and when they consider reading as an exasperating job (shahbaz et al., 2016). the fact is asserted by zebrowitz (2018) by indicating that the majority of learners are unable to read properly because of their unwillingness to read. likewise, saudi efl learners also face problems in reading skills and their reading competency is not at the desired stage (al asmari & javid, 2018). most of the learners in the region even face problems in recognizing the basic words of the english language (elnaggar, 2020). they also are unable to identify the basic notions of the reading skills and take even more time reading short texts in efl classes. therefore, it is necessary to make the learners efficient in reading at the elementary level. this notion is also active in the field of efl research in developed countries, particularly in china, australia, america, and canada. the ability to comprehend and understand the written text well relies on the vocabulary knowledge and phonology of the target language. most researchers, scholars, instructors, and teachers indicate that vocabulary can foster the process of reading skills. vocabulary proficiency have a vital impact on reading skills (lee & pulido, 2017). moreover, good vocabulary knowledge is a key predictor of reading skills and pronunciation efficiency (braze et al., 2016). it is also noteworthy that through the course of daily life conversation, investigating reading challenges …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 279 the learners can acquire vocabulary knowledge at an early age. at this stage, learners not only learn new words, but they also try to utilize these words efficiently. here they try to decode the words for their usage in developing their spoken abilities. in fact, by doing so, they may practice and improve their listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. so, at the onset, they need to understand everyday language vocabulary. researchers (dewanti, 2020; harris et al., 2017; nag & narayanan, 2019; ouellette & sénéchal, 2017) have revealed that at the early stage of learning language, reading skill, can be developed by mastering spellings. the proficiency in spelling can help to clear pronunciation and expansion of vocabulary learning, and this results in the development of comprehension skills (ehri, 2014). without sound-spelling skills, learners cannot enhance their reading abilities effectively. learners of elementary level are facing problems for the enhancement of their spellings. another principal aspect is the retention of spelling, but the fact is that once they identify correct spelling and develop the retention of spelling expertise, then it is fairly comfortable for learners to boost this reading efficiency and speed. this fact is endorsed by bryant and goswami (2016) as once learners grasp their skills in reading then they will learn new words quite easily by means of relating words with other forms in reading. the awareness of the sound and spelling system is one of the exponential elements in language learning, particularly in reading skills. both reading and spellings are regarded as the uniform verges of a coin (chua et al., 2016; donovan & marshall, 2016). numerous scholars (alkhaleefah, 2017; keezhatta & omar, 2019; widiyastuti, 2018) have discussed the difficulties that learners encounter during their reading skills, and most of them have highlighted the same issue that hurdles the process of effective reading in fel context. unlike other skills, efl reading skill is not a natural phenomenon, and learners need to make purposeful efforts by combining reading with other skills. another key aspect to consider is the mechanism of alphabets and sounds of the words (yule, 2016). every language has its way of pronunciation; even while silent reading, learners follow the proper system of pronunciation as we use our organ of speech while reading text. this is a notable fact that listener can hear our words that we produce silently (kim et al., 2015). the basic background of phonetics and phonology also have an impact on reading skills. the majority of efl learners’ raja muhammad ishtiaq khan, muhammad shahbaz, tribhuwan kumar, imran khan register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 280 have poor capabilities in reading skill, and they remain at the static stage because of this unawareness (alrabai, 2016). this is the most discussed cause of poor performance in reading skills in primary education. this aspect is associated with the reading at the level of initial words. reading skill is a mechanism of understanding and comprehending the text and other information associated with it. to comprehend completely, knowledge of grammar is also essential in developing reading skills. grammatical knowledge can make the process of understanding messages of the writer efficient (klingelhofer & schleppegrell, 2016). literature is abundant in studies that establish the important aspect of grammatical knowledge for the progression of reading skills. therefore, the role of syntactic knowledge remains crucial by any means of reading skills. the true meaning and real sense of sentences and paragraphs count on a clear understanding of grammar. akbari (2014) signified that with the aid of the functional knowledge of grammar learners can have a persuasive understanding of reading skills successfully. many researchers (schwanenflugel & kuhn, 2016; taguchi et al., 2016; veenendaal et al., 2015) asserted that reading speed is the capability that can advance the process of reading skills accurately and smoothly. in most of the institutions, reading fluency is the most neglected part of language learning in classrooms at the elementary level. the habit of repetition of the test and formative feedback fosters the fluency of reading skills (gorsuch et al., 2015). many learners struggle in the development of reading skills just because of the fluency problem. the recent and relevant research suggests that saudi learners appear to have an inadequate vocabulary that results in poor performance in learning language skills. they also lack the proper and basic comprehension of simple texts at the school level (al-qahtani, 2016a, 2016b; gorsuch et al., 2015). these factors are ascribed to many other factors related to procedure of language learning. alkhaleefah (2017) conducted a study with aims to indicate the comprehensive and detailed investigation of a small number of learners who have poor reading proficiency. qualitative analysis of data identified that learners have difficulty in explicit text reading. though the study indicated that learners have to face challenges in the efl context, but it was limited to investigating reading challenges …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 281 relatively small samples, and hence the findings cannot be compared with extensive studies. similarly, al nooh (2013) carried out a study on a set of saudi secondary level learners to indicate the learner’s problems in their reading skills. the result of study explained that most of the learners face hindrances in reading fluency, comprehension of a text, and retention of new words or challenging variables in the reading skills. most of the participants stated that the understanding sounds created hurdles in their fluent reading. the most prominent factor is that reading culture is not so developed in saudi institutions; even some learners are unable to read short segments of text. mohammed and ab rashid (2019) also reviewed the sources of difficulties encountered by saudi efl learners. data was sorted through a questionnaire. the results reveal that the learns largely feel that the are several factors that cause problems in reading comprehension including, cultural impact, teacher style of teaching and difficulty levels of the textbooks. in another study, (almansour & al-shorman, 2011) indicated similar findings where lack of adequate vocabulary and the environmental aspect is the most problematical issue in developing reading skills. keezhatta and omar (2019) conducted a research study in the mall background. they also noticed that saudi efl learners have poor reading skills and use of technology can improve the reading skills greatly. likewise, khan et al. (2018) asserted that learners language problem can be improved by the use of technology. the attention in carrying out this research originates from the disappointments and insufficient reading capabilities of learners. the gap “incompetency in reading skills” is vital from the published literature and personal experience of teaching in saudi arabia. hence, investigation of elementary level efl learners’ ability in reading skills has been mainly unnoticed in previous research studies. the present study is an effort to underscore the main causes of poor reading ability. to this end, the study aims to answer the following question. what are the causes of reading inabilities of elementary level learners in ksa? this research question further explores the role of vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and spellings in reading skills of learners at the elementary level in ksa. raja muhammad ishtiaq khan, muhammad shahbaz, tribhuwan kumar, imran khan register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 282 research method the current research study adopted the mixed methods design. this allowed researchers to combine different approaches. the mixed method refers to as “empirical research that involves the collection and analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data” (johnson & onwuegbuzie, 2004). moreover, creswell and plano clark (2011) stated that this method allows researchers a better notch in supporting the formulated ideas than if a single method were implemented in particular studies. moreover, they also mentioned an assortment of essential features that acme main fundamentals in mixed methods research. data were obtained from the learners by using a self-developed test, a checklist for learners’ reading speed, and interviews from teachers to gain more insight about the reading inabilities. the test was developed and sent to different experts and researchers in the field for its suitability for grading learners’ reading proficiency problems. the experts are teaching english at different levels having 5 to 15 years of efl experience. after getting feed-back from experts, test was administered to elementary level learners. moreover, a checklist was also used to identify the reading speed problems of learners. participants the participants of the present research study are seven elementary level classes comprising 290 efl learners. all the learners were male participants whose native and mother tongue is arabic. the age of learners ranges between 16 to 18 years. their experience of learning or speaking a foreign language outside of the classroom was limited, but some of them used social media or television to watch some english language-oriented programs. nine saudi efl elementary level instructors and three efl supervisors also participated in the current research study. instructors were selected on the basis of their foreign language teaching experience, teaching level, and their readiness to take part in diagnosing the reading problems of learners. the purpose of conducting the interviews with the study was to get teachers’ perspectives on the learners’ reading abilities. instruments a test was designed to interpret the learners’ reading capabilities after going through reading efficiency, checking soft-wares and research studies. investigating reading challenges …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 283 after seeking advice and suggestions from the experts in the field of efl, the test was administered to 30 learners to test and retest the process. to check the learners reading speed and pronunciation, and checklist was designed after reviewing a wide range of reading taxonomies (angelelli et al., 2014; chiang & liu, 2011; marual, 2015; stodden et al., 2012). after conducting the test and reading proficiency checklist, the interviews with instructors were arranged to get the instructors’ and supervisors’ views about the level of their students. the length of each session of the interview was between 12 to 20 minutes and a detailed interview protocol was prepared to keep the process of the interview alive and purposeful. data analysis the purpose of the current study was to point out the hurdles that saudi elementary level learners face during their course of learning english language. data gathered from self-developed test, checklist and instructors’ interviews were further analyzed. the test was developed in keeping in view the standard of elementary level learners’ textbooks. the test was used to locate the grammar, vocabulary and spelling problems in learning english. similarly, after administring the test, data for fluency and pronunciation was collected by using checklists. all data collected were inserted into spss 21.0 for statistical analysis of the data. by using spss, percent, valid percent, cumulative percent, and frequencies of the collected data marked for the purpose of identification of the indicted problems. furthermore, the data were coded into (poor, p: weak, w; below average; ba, average, a and excellent, e). for each coded data, a range of the percent was assigned to classify the data in terms of statistics to sort out the hurdles in reading proficiency. the following rubric was utilized to code the percentage of the data (table 1). table 1. range of percentage for assigned categories no. tittle percent 1 poor 1-19 2 weak 20-39 3 below average 40-59 4 average 60-79 5 excellent 80-100 raja muhammad ishtiaq khan, muhammad shahbaz, tribhuwan kumar, imran khan register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 284 table 2. vocabulary role in learners’ reading skills vocabulary role scale frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent p 56 19.1 19.1 19.9 w 68 23.4 23.4 31.2 ba 72 24.8 24.8 55.2 a 55 18.9 18.9 83.8 e 39 13.8 13.8 69.1 total 290 100 100 table 2 illustrates the full description of the part of the vocabulary in the reading skills of 290 efl learners. it is evident from the spss analysis that the occurrence of poor indication of the results or those who did not try to attempt the whole test is 56. this marginal 19.1% is the total percent and valid percent of the studied sample. the occurrence of week leaners who solved the complete test but did not reach the standard of passing the test is 68. this 23.4% and valid percent are 68 out of total participants of 290 learners. more likely, the frequency of below average; sample has close relation with the sample who did not pass the test. this frequency is 72 with a valid percentage of 24.8 in 290 learners, which is at quite an edge of failing the test. contrarily, the frequency of average learners in the analysis is 55, which is quite far from the learner who did not reach the required standard of passing the test. the valid percent and percent of average learners are 18.9. in the same way, the learners at excellent numbers are quite less as compared to learners who performed poorly on the test. there is a clear indication for instructors and relevant authorities to look into this consideration, which is an important aspect of reading skills in particular and in language learning in general. it is undeniable that spellings in reading skills take the role of the backbone in learning process. the key factor is that spelling develops the habit of reading. table 3 asserts that a large number of learners have reading inability just because they are not efficient in indicating or producing accurate spelling. the spss analyses portray that 88 among 290 learners have poor spelling abilities, and their valid percentage is 30.4, which is relatively high as compared to the average and excellent learners. whereas on the other side of that frequency table shows investigating reading challenges …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 285 that the number of average learners and excellent grade learners are 38, and 26 respectively, with valid percentage of 13.4 and 9.4, which is quite less in comparison with week learners. learners whose reading skills are not up to mark are weak in the spelling aspect of words that creates hurdles in the process of effective reading skills. this asserts that every student has different spelling proficiency and the acceptable percent is relatively appeared low in the data analysis. furthermore, only 9.4% of the participants’ spellings proficiency seemed fairly well. table 3. the role of spelling in reading proficiency spelling role scale frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent p 88 30.4 30.4 22.2 w 96 38.4 38.4 61.3 ba 41 14.1 14.1 83.8 a 39 13.4 13.4 94.1 e 26 9.4 9.4 100 total 290 100 100 table 4. the role of pronunciation in reading inabilities pronunciation role scale frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent p 86 29.6 29.6 20.2 w 99 34.2 34.2 64.3 ba 40 13.7 13.7 81.8 a 38 13.1 13.1 96.1 e 27 9.3 9.3 100 total 290 100 100 table 4 presents the statistical interpretation of the pronunciation that learners come across during their reading skills. it is apparent from the analysis that a considerable number of efl learners are unable to pronounce the words correctly during the course of reading. the frequency of the poor performer learners is 86 followed by 99-week learners. the percent, and valid percent of poor, and week learners is 29.6 and 34.2 respectively. the percent and valid percent of excellent and average learners is 13.1 and 9.3 respectively. this is raja muhammad ishtiaq khan, muhammad shahbaz, tribhuwan kumar, imran khan register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 286 quite noticeable as most of the learners are poor in pronunciation that results in reading inability to a great extent. from table 4, it is also predictable that reading skills are also affected by the functional grammar. the numerical value shows that most of the learners are at a poor stage. the frequency, percent, and valid percent is 123, 42.5, and 42.5 respectively, which is in the highest place in the table, among other reading inabilities. the frequency of week leaners is 14 with a valid percent of 5.3. this asserts that only small numbers of learners are efficient in reading skills. table 5. the role of grammar in reading inabilities grammar role scale frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent p 123 42.5 42.5 43.2 w 89 30.9 30.9 67.4 ba 41 14.7 14.7 83.8 a 23 7.1 7.1 95.1 e 14 5.3 5.3 100 total 100 100 100 teachers’ and supervisors’ perceptions about reading to understand the full depiction of learners’ reading inabilities, nine instructors and three supervisors were interviewed. the purpose of the interviews was to inquire about their perception of learners’ reading skills and the causes behind the reading incompetency. most of the instructors indicated that learners’ reading skills are commonly poor. they proclaimed that a substantial number of them are unaware of reading letters correctly. the general reason they specified that most of the learners have limited vocabulary, and they need to train the learners for at least two to three weeks to develop their basic vocabulary skills. this is mainly because of their exposure to the english language is minimal. all the learners speak arabic language when they leave the classrooms, and even some don’t try to speak in the class. another important factor came out that poor reading skills account for the lack of concentration of reading core values; they just pay attention to grammar and vocabulary during their teaching process. they also asserted that fluency, investigating reading challenges …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 287 pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar knowledge insufficiency also have a significant impact on learners’ reading skills. some of them blamed the lack of exposure of english language out of the formal classroom, teacher-centred teaching and their fellow teachers are also responsible for this factor. if we focus on five major factors and uproot problems related to them, then we might be in a good position to offer better solutions to reading inefficiency. the graph below illustrates the instructors and supervisors’ perceptions about the learners’ reading skills. figure 1. instructors’ and supervisors’ perceptions about reading problems finding and discussion the present study examined learners’ reading skills to understand the learners’ existing reading expertise of english language. to accomplish this, the learners were provided with a reading test and checklist about the reading habits and problems. the result obtained from the checklist, reading test and interview of the instructors were analyzed and illustrated in the previous section. the results of the present study are in line with previous studies, where many studies approve that reading inability is because of the vocabulary, fluency, spelling, and pronunciation (al-mansour & al-shorman, 2011; al-nooh, 2013; alkhaleefah, 2017). vocabulary proficiency is an essential aspect of developing language skills and without the desired level of vocabulary, efl raja muhammad ishtiaq khan, muhammad shahbaz, tribhuwan kumar, imran khan register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 288 learners face glitches in the production of the required level of language. this asserts that once learners attain the vocabulary expertise, their spelling, fluency, pace of reading text also improve significantly. the present study also establishes a strong agreement with (abalkhail & shawky, 2002; alshumaimeri & almasri, 2012; rajab & al-sadi, 2015) that illustrate that learners have a low tendency to read outside of the formal classrooms and they spend most of the time on social media. the findings of the study suggest that reading skills need more exploration with extended population and engaging more teachers to compare and design a framework for the improvement of learners’ reading habits. similarly, all the reading programs must be redesigned to inculcate all the basic reading essentials with the textbook. motivation to reading extra material by the teachers may also result in improving the reading skills. teachers need to plan some additional reading practice sessions in conventional classes. reading skills can also be improved by putting some extra efforts on vocabulary teaching with the help of possible available technology for the retention of vocabulary knowledge. furthermore, the subject instructor should get the training of teaching reading skills at the elementary level to cope up with reading inabilities. a further recommendation is to examine the effects of explicit teaching with the incorporation of blended learning on young learners to identify the learner’s language acquisition skills and perceptions. conclusion the results of the reading proficiency test and checklist indicated that learners face challenges in reading skills. the recognition of vocabulary and knowledge of grammar was the most indicated problem asserted by the learners. moreover, learners also acknowledged the role of spelling and pronunciation in developing reading skills. the detailed overview of data explored that a greater part of the sample was weak in reading skills because of the lack of the required and suitable vocabulary. this finding is also endorsed by the instructors, who also admitted that mostly they did not consider it useful during the reading process. another important reason was figured out by the instructors and learners in reading inability was the awareness about the investigating reading challenges …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 289 knowledge of grammar. a considerable number of learners identified that the reading incompetency is just because of the lack of grammar knowledge. moreover, the majority of the learners were not able to read words correctly because they could not spell the words. this further became more problematic because of the unusual spellings. proper spelling retention was also indicated by the instructors. likewise, pronunciation and fluency were further important elements of poor reading capabilities.[rgt] references abalkhail, b., & shawky, s. 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(2018). the use of apples to apples game to improve students’reading comprehension in teaching recount text (a classroom action research of tenth grade of ma al bidayah 2018/2019). thesis. iain salatiga. yule, g. (2016). the study of language: cambridge university press. zebrowitz, l. (2018). reading faces: window to the soul? : routledge. 50 comparing the psychological aimlessness in edith wharton’s the house of mirth and ernest hemmingway’s the sun also rises dewi ulya mailasari state institute for islamic studies kudus jl. conge, ngembalrejo po box 51 kudus, central java, indonesia dewiulya_stainkds@yahoo.co.id abstract aimlessness concerns about one‘s existence in a society where somebody feels useless amid the society and doesn‘t know the role she or he must play. this paper will examine the aimlessness experienced by the main character in the novel entitled the house of mirth and the sun also rises written by the modernism authors in 1905 and 1926. the first one realized the aimlessness in the very early age, and the life was ended through an overdose, but the later found such feeling after experiencing a war injury. both characters were victims of the situation but they seemed to have reached a more realistic appreciation of their situation. keywords: aimlessness, psychological consequences, main characters abstrak ketidakberdayaan menyangkut tentang keberadaan seseorang dalam sebuah komunitas dimana seseorang merasa tidak berguna di tengah-tengah masyarakat dan tidak tahu menahu peran apa yang dapat ia lakukan di masyarakat. penelitian ini bermaksud untuk meneliti pengalaman kehidupan tanpa arah para tokoh utama dalam novel yang berjudul the house of mirth dan the sun also rises karya pengarang-pengarang modernis di tahun 1905 dan 1926. pada novel yang pertama mengisahkan tentang ketidakberdayaan seseorang pada usia yang masih sangat belia, dan hidupnya berakhir akibat overdosis; sedangkan pada novel yang selanjutnya mengisahkan tentang perasaan seseorang yang mengalami luka akibat perang. kedua karakter dalam novel tersebut sama-sama merupakan korban dari keadaan yang mereka alami pada waktu itu, namun mereka justru nampak telah memperoleh hikmah nyata dari keadaan-keadaan yang mereka alami tersebut. kata kunci: ketidakberdayaan, dampak psikologi, tokoh-tokoh utama mailto:dewiulya_stainkds@yahoo.co.id 51 introduction talking about psychological aimlessness, it concerns about one‘s existence in a society. he or she feels useless amid the society and doesn‘t know the role she or he must plays. therefore the psychological aimlessness refers to one‘s self-identity as said by allen wheelis in the quest for identity: ―identity is a coherent sense of self. it depends upon the awareness that one‘s endeavors and one‘s life make sense, that they are meaningful in the context in which life is lived. it depends also upon stable values, and upon the conviction that one‘s actions and values are harmoniously related. it is a sense of wholeness, of integration, of knowing what is right and what is wrong and of being able to choose‖(wheelis,1958:19). when a man grows up and becomes mature, he starts to think about his existence and his life purpose. he looks for a certain view of life that will guide him to his life of the future. besides, he faces a certain value or social norm prevailed in a society where he lives. if his behavior is in accordance with the value or norm, he will gain a stable social identity. this paper will examine the aimlessness feeling experienced by the main character in the novel entitled the house of mirth and the sun also rises written by the modernism authors in 1905 and 1926. about the authors edith wharton edith wharton was a prolific and successful writer. she confirmed her unconventional choice of role as a writer and got a wide public immediately. neither her parents nor her husband supported her choice. she was a figure who was struggling amid the new york wealthy society and the indifference of everyone who was close to her. edith newbold jones was born on january 24, 1862 in her parents‘ house 52 in west twenty-third street, new york city. her parents, george frederic and lucretia jones, were descendants of english and dutch colonists who made fortunes in shipping, banking and real estate. she belonged to the small, most fashionable society of new york which lived on inherited wealth and were interrelated. her own ancestry was purely middle-class. the house of mirth was published in 1905. louis auchincloss in edith wharton said it: ―…marks her coming of age as a novelist.‖(auchincloss,1961:11) it was her major piece of work. compared with the books she had written before, it was with the house of mirth, her most polished and powerful novel, that she began her career as a portraitist of the upper segments of american society. ernest hemmingway ernest hemmingway was born in oak park, illiois (outside chicago) in 1899 and died by suicide in ketchum in 1861. his father was a doctor and his mother was a singer and teacher of music. hemmingway‘s father loved hunting and camping. some critics say that hemmingway‘s father preferred to practice hunting and camping rather than other hobbies because he would try to escape from the gentility and conventionality of his home life and from the dominant cultured and religious standards of hemmingway‘s mother. it seemed that hemmingway‘s life was influenced by his father‘s life; hemmingway was fond of the masculine life of sport and hardship. he rejected the possibility of college education after leaving school. he was involved in the medical grounds for active service in world war i in 1917. he became a newspaper reporter in kansas city. then, he became an ambulance driver with the red cross in italy. during world war i, he suffered a traumatic wound at the front when an austrian mortar shell exploded close to him and he was then hit in the leg by 53 machine-gun fire while carrying a wounded man to safety. he had to be treated in the hospital in milan for three months. the next stage in hemmingway‘s career was his entry into the professional world of literature. after some time working as a reporter for the toronto star and as a journalist in chicago, he got married. the sun also rises was published in britain in 1926. some critics say that the novel became a bible of a whole generation, a generation that was called ―the lost generation‖ by gertrude stein. the term began the cult of hemmingway and of supposed hemmingway attitudes: the attitudes of the tight-lipped and stoical disillusionment in a world of senseless and sudden violence, the absence of faith but the cultivation of composure, the code of understatement, wry, sardonic wit, and slightly self-pitying ―toughness‖. the novel structure in dictionary of literary terms and literary theory, it is said that novel was derived from italian novella which means tale, piece of news, and now applied to a wide variety of writings whose only common attribute is that they are extended pieces of prose fiction. the prose narrative is about characters and their actions in what was recognizably everyday life and usually in the present, with the emphasis on things being ‗new‘ or a ‗novelty‘ (p.599). unlike the short story, it presents more than an episode. in a novel, the author has the freedom to develop plot, characters and theme in detail. the author can also surround the main plot with subplot so that the story becomes longer and complex. most novels have numerous shifts in time, place, and focus of interest. the authors make use of five main elements; plot, characters, conflict, setting and theme. some scholars describe plot as the novel‘s story and its underlying meaning. it is about what happens to the characters and the 54 meaning of these events. in relation to the characters, the authors may create characters with complex and complete personalities. in some cases, they even choose to create characters with incomplete personalities. in relation to conflict, it can be physical, emotional, or ethical. it always creates some sort of tension that the characters must resolve. the setting of the novel can be divided into two: setting of time and setting of place. the theme of a novel is the main, major, or central idea that the author wants to convey to the reader. a theme may be explicit, and it may be implicit. the theme of a novel can give greater depth to the novel. the house of mirth the house of mirth began with the encounter between lily bart and lawrence selden. it continued with the other encounters with the other people from upper-class society. in the middle of the story, lily bart started to be bored and tired with her society. she felt that everyone seems united to humiliate her. in the end, the author gives the resolution of the main character‘s problem. the main characters involve lily bart, lawrence selden, the trenors, the dorsets, and sam rosedale. while the supporting characters involve gerty farish,, carrie fisher, grace stepney, nettie struther, and the others. the setting of place is in new york and focused in some houses where the main character ever lived. each house has a unique characteristic that may represent the different levels of new york people at that time. about the setting of time, it occurs in the first year of the 20th century. the theme in the house of mirth is a description about a woman‘s effort from upper-class who is struggling to be exist amid her society. the author shows that by having self-identity, a woman will have a foothold in the world. 55 the sun also rises the novel is a powerful insight into the lives and values of the socalled ―lost generation‖, chronicling the experiences of jake barnes and several acquaintances on their pilgrimage to pamplona for the annual fiesta and bull fights. barnes suffered an injury during world war i which makes him unable to consummate a sexual relationship with brett ashley. the story follows jake and his various companions across france and spain. initially, jake seeks peace away from brett by taking a fishing trip to burguete, deep within the spanish hills, with companion bill gorton, another veteran of the war. the major conflict was about jake who was in love with lady brett ashley, but they cannot maintain a relationship because he was rendered impotent by a war wound. jake loses numerous friendships and has his life repeatedly disrupted because of his loyalty to brett, who has a destructive series of love affairs with other men. jake, brett, and their friends then pursue a dissipated life in paris; jake introduces brett to robert cohn; brett and cohn have an affair; cohn follows brett to pamplona. the jilted cohn beats up mike and jake, and afterward pedro romero. jake and his friends leave spain; jake enjoys the solitude of san sebastian; brett wires jake to rescue her in madrid after forcing romero to leave her. the main characters are jake barnes, brett ashley, robert cohn, michael campbell, bill gorton and pedro romero. the setting of time was in 1924, while the setting of place was in paris, france, moves to pamplona, spain, and concludes in madrid, spain. the themes of the novel are portrayed by the quotation at the opening of the book: ―one generation passeth away, and another generation cometh; but the earth abideth forever. 56 analysis the analysis of the house of mirth in this analysis, the psychological aimlessness experienced by the main character, lily bart, will be probed through the series of events happened. lily bart was deprived of the supports she depends on to sustain her throughout life. she faced the confusion in her attempts at self-identity and her story of love that was also destroyed through these confusions. the house of mirth opened with the encounter between lily bart and lawrence selden. he invited lily to his apartment and they discussed the various rules of etiquette for young women in the upper-class new york society, the milieu of them both. lily told selden that people urged her to get married. marriage for girls becomes the only way of entering society. in the age of twenty-nine, she was still unmarried. as a woman, lily was also demanded to look pretty. while leaving selden‘s apartment, lily met sam rosedale, one of the nouveaux riches in new york. she foolishly made a lie by telling that she just came out of her dressmaker in the bennedick. it was bad to be found out a girl or woman of upper-class like her leaving the bachelor‘s apartment alone. but rosedale knew that she lied because he was the owner of the building. it didn‘t have any dressmaker. lily was ashamed and leaving him. in the train, lily spotted a young milleuner, percy gryce. she wanted him to be her future husband. lily was an orphan at twenty-one years old and now lived with her aunt, mrs. peniston. although she lived well, she felt like to live in a prison because of her aunt‘s rigidity. so, she associated with her rich friends. she was then unconsciously trapped in the extravagant life-style and as a result, she had too many debts. she found out that her only chance to settle her debts and gain economic freedom was to marry money. 57 lily suddenly became interested in selden rather than gryce. it seemed that there was a problem in lily‘s personality. she had a desire to join the elite class but on the other hand she also had a desire to avoid the boredom of it. in a party, lily was fascinated by the bride‘s jewels displayed in the party. it could be interpreted that she wanted to be admired but she didn‘t allow any men to control her feeling. from the beginning lily realized that it was her beauty that made her interesting or valuable to others. the man who married her would select her as the final prize in his collection. that was what she felt on percy gryce and the men who had proposed her before. but on selden, she had a different feeling. he possessed the qualities that the other men did not have. certainly she wanted to be loved by him, for that would confirm her own sense of worth, of lovability. but in order to be worthy of selden‘s ‗collection‘, she must not wafer to reject the material world. lily learnt that the admiration and excitement she had got during that time was deceit. she must pay them expensively by complying her benefactors‘ wishes. one of them was gus trenor who allowed her some money and then tried to seduce her. lily was vacillated and she lost her sense of self. selden didn‘t even support her. in the end of the story, lily was described as drifting aimlessly and fell into lower class. she didn‘t know what kind of role she must play in her life. although she fell into poverty, she still followed her inner-self that she would not come back to her old world and became dependent on men economically. in the gormers, lily felt weary in serving her hostess. while she was a taking walk, alone, she felt that her lonely situation seemed to be an escape from the empty noises of her life. her mind was described as follows: 58 ―she was weary of being swept passively along a current of pleasure and business in which she had no share; weary of seeing other people pursue amusement and squander money, while she felt herself of no more account among them than an expensive toy in the hands of a spoiled child.‖(thom,253) her return to the town and not practicing her old habit of life marked her of being excluded from her old society. there was emptiness in hers. the narrator described: ―if one were not a part of the season‘s fixed routine, one swung unsphered in a void of social nonexistence‖(p.275). lily looked for a job and worked as a secretary. then, she worked in a hat shop and was put to work making hats. lily was now in the working class environment and lived in a boarding house. she felt strange. after two months, she was still being rebuked for her shoddy work. however, her skills were no use there. in a second rebuke for the same mistake, lily pretended that she was sick and headed home. she bought some pills because she got insomnia recently. lily lost her job at the hat shop as a result of an annual staff reduction. next morning, as she passed selden‘s apartment, in a sudden moment of inspiration, she entered his house. lily wanted selden understood that she had tried to become what he wished from her. she said: ―i have tried hard— but life is difficult,…‖(p.324). lily also recognized that she was now a useless person, as she said: ―i am a very useless person. i can hardly be said to have an independent existence. i was just a screw or a cog in the great machine i called life, and when i dropped out of it i found i was of no use anywhere else. what can one do when one finds that one only fits into one hole? one must get back to it or be thrown out into the rubbish heap—and you don‘t know what it‘s like in the rubbish heap!‖(p.325) at home, she decided to take her chloral sleeping drug more than the 59 maximum dosage and drank it. the analysis of the sun also rises jake‘s physical malady has profound psychological consequences. he seems quite insecure about his masculinity. the fact that brett, the love of his life, refuses to enter into a relationship with him compounds this problem. jake, with typical subtlety, suggests that she does not want to because it would mean giving up sexual intercourse. jake‘s hostility toward robert cohn is perhaps rooted in his own feelings of inadequacy. in many ways, jake is a typical member of what poet gertrude stein called the ―lost generation,‖ the generation of men and women whose experiences in world war i undermined their belief in justice, morality, manhood, and love. without these ideals to rely on, the lost generation lived an aimless, immoral existence, devoid of true emotion and characterized by casual interpersonal cruelty. part of jake‘s character represents the lost generation and its unfortunate position: he wanders through paris, going from bar to bar and drinking heavily at each, his life filled with purposeless debauchery. he demonstrates the capacity to be extremely cruel, especially toward cohn. his insecurities about his masculinity are typical of the anxieties that many members of the lost generation felt. yet, in some important ways, jake differs from those around him. he seems aware of the fruitlessness of the lost generation‘s way of life. he tells cohn in chapter ii: ―you can‘t get away from yourself by moving from one place to another.‖ moreover, he recognizes the frequent cruelty of the behavior in which he and his friends engage. most important, perhaps, he acknowledges, if only indirectly, the pain that his war injury and his unrequited love for brett cause him. however, though jake does perceive the problems in his life, he seems either unwilling or unable to remedy them. though he understands the dilemma of the lost generation, he remains trapped within it. 60 world war i undercut traditional notions of morality, faith, and justice. no longer able to rely on the traditional beliefs that gave life meaning, the men and women who experienced the war became psychologically and morally lost, and they wandered aimlessly in a world that appeared meaningless. jake, brett, and their acquaintances give dramatic life to this situation. because they no longer believe in anything, their lives are empty. they fill their time with inconsequential and escapist activities, such as drinking, dancing, and debauchery. it is important to note that hemingway never explicitly states that jake and his friends‘ lives are aimless, or that this aimlessness is a result of the war. instead, he implies these ideas through his portrayal of the characters‘ emotional and mental lives. these stand in stark contrast to the characters‘ surface actions. jake and his friends‘ constant carousing do not make them happy. very often, their merrymaking is joyless and driven by alcohol. at best, it allows them not to think about their inner lives or about the war. although they spend nearly all of their time partying in one way or another, they remain sorrowful or unfulfilled. hence, their drinking and dancing is just a futile distraction, a purposeless activity characteristic of a wandering, aimless life. the world quickly adopted the phrase as the most accurate description of the generation that passed through the threshold of adulthood at this time—working, fighting, or dying in the war. the horrific conflict shattered this generation‘s faith in -traditional values such as love, bravery, manhood, and womanhood. without these values, the members of this generation found their existence aimless, meaningless, and unfulfilling. it is these men and women that hemingway portrays in the sun also rises. before the novel opens, hemingway quotes stein and a biblical 61 passage from ecclesiastes. the passage contrasts the transient nature of human generations with the eternal survival of nature: the world endures, and the sun continues to rise and set despite the inevitable passage of each human generation into death. hemingway‘s juxtaposition of the two epigraphs produces an ambivalent tone. on the one hand, there is hope, because there will be a new generation after the aimless generation that populates the sun also rises. on the other hand, there is bitter irony, since every generation is lost, in the sense that each generation will eventually die. conclusion the psychological aimlessness experienced by the main character in the house of mirth can be traced since she was a child. she was brought up to be ornamental and then marrying a rich husband, as taught by her late mother. but there was a moment when she felt tired because she had been long enough in bondage to other‘s pleasure. deep inside; she also craved for the assertion of her own eager individuality and the existence recognition. because of this feeling, she refused some men proposals and went down to the lower-class. she was an unskilled worker and finally jobless. she felt alone and aimlessness. she died of overdose. although a series of entrapment, betrayal and exclusion in her confining circumstance had been experienced by her, all made her wiser and could see the show objectively. in the sun also rises, the main character got impotent that made him feels useless and doesn‘t have life purpose because of war injury. he drank, danced, and traveled to waste the time. it served as metaphors for society‘s lost optimism and innocence after the war. the war is also present as the tragedy that affects the way characters are able to deal with themselves, and post-war society. jake barnes leaves his autonomous position in paris to join the group on their trip to pamplona. his experiences there constitute an 62 initiation, though not an initiation into the group but an initiation into selfreliance apart from the group. at the end, he renounces the detrimental influence of his friends and especially of brett. if brett is the sun of the title around whom the men revolve, he has succeeded in breaking out of the orbit and becoming an independent person (another sun) himself. ultimately, the novel propagates the selfreliance and autonomy embodied by romero, the bullfighter whom jake admires. both characters were victims of the situation but they seemed to have reached a more realistic appreciation of their situation. references hemmingway, ernest. 1926. the sun also rises. :charles scribner‘s sons, lang, r.d. 1990. in elizabeth ammons‘ a norton critical edition. ny: w.w. norton & company, inc. subhan, bustami. 2005. understanding english poetry and prose. yogyakata: lppdmf. waldhorn, arthur. 1972. a reader’s guide to ernest hemingway. new york: farrar, straus, and giroux. wharton, edith. 1991. the house of mirth. london: david campbell publishers ltd. wheelis, allen. 1958. the quest for identity. ny: w.w. norton & company, inc. 87 a descriptive analysis of learning motivation taken from laskar pelangi novel nur muthmainnah english department of educational faculty state institute for islamic studies stain salatiga itsenough88@yahoo.com abstract this paper informs us some motifs that motivate someone learning something taken from laskar pelangi novel. there are four research problems proposed of laskar pelangi novel; what are the literary elements of laskar pelangi novel; what are the motivations in learning presented in the novel of laskar pelangi; what are the reasons of andrea hirata took the motivation of learning in laskar pelangi novel; what are the implications of laskar pelangi novel toward its readers. this research uses descriptive research in analyzing, collecting the data. after analyzing the novel laskar pelangi the writer draws some conclusions as follows: the novel uses some figurative language to express some expressions and describe something; its main character is ikal. laskar pelangi tells us some motifs of learning. the motivations which are pointed out are to enrich knowledge, to reach dream, to win a competition, and so on. the reason andrea hirata took learning motivation as the theme of laskar pelangi novel are to break melayunese stereotype, to motivate all learner to be motivated in learning, and so on. the implication of laskar pelangi story toward its reader are laskar pelangi story motivated reader to study abroad, laskar pelangi teaches reader to admire the life. keywords: learning motivation, laskar pelangi, literary elements abstrak penelitian ini memberitahukan kepada kita tentang dorongan yang memotivasi seseorang untuk mempelajari sesuatu yang diambil dari novel laskar pelangi. ada empat permasalahan riset yang diajukan dari novel laskar pelangi; apa unsur-unsur sastra yang ada dalam novel laskar pelangi; apa motivasi belajar yang diperkenalkan dalam novel laskar 88 pelangi; apakah alasan bagi andrea hirata memilih motivasi belajar dalam novel laskar pelangi; apa implikasi novel laskar pelangi terhadap para pembacanya. riset ini menggunakan jenis riset deskriptif dalam meneliti dan mengumpulkan data. setelah meneliti novel laskar pelangi, penulis menarik beberapa kesimpulan sebagai berikut: novel tersebut menggunakan beberapa perlambang bahasa (majas) untuk menyatakan beberapa ungkapan dan menggambarkan sesuatu; karakter utamanya adalah ikal. laskar pelangi menceritakan kepada kita tentang dorongan belajar. motivasi yang dimaksud adalah untuk memperkaya pengetahuan, untuk meraih mimpi, untuk memenangkan suatu kompetisi, dan seterusnya. alasan andrea hirata memilih motivasi belajar sebagai tema novel laskar pelangi adalah untuk mematahkan pandangan negatif tentang orang melayu, untuk memotivasi semua pelajar agar termotivasi dalam belajar, dan lain-lain. implikasi cerita laskar pelangi terhadap pembacanya adalah cerita laskar pelangi mendorong pembaca untuk belajar ke luar negeri, laskar pelangi mengajari pembaca untuk mengagumi kehidupan. kata kunci: motivasi belajar, laskar pelangi, unsur-unsur sastra introduction learning is not limited in some fields of study; we can learn everything from our life. learning must not take place in formal area, thus learning can be conducted everywhere formally and informally. we can learn from everything around us, because getting knowledge is not bounded with the explanation from teacher in a class, everything can be taken as source when we learn something. for example, a child learns how to respect each other. he does not get it from his teacher‘s explanation but he finds it from imitating how his family behaves. dealing with motivation, everybody has different motif to do learning. everything can be a reason from someone to learn something that motivates him to learn on and on. even, because of a girl whom a man loves, can motivate a man to do or learn. motivation can also be found from any 89 sources. from paying attention to his environment, someone can be motivated, such as, andrea hirata, an author of laskar pelangi novel; he could reach his dream studying in france because of his friend motivations, lintang. his environment also encourages him to write laskar pelangi novel that describe his environment and his struggle to study. everything can be a motivation to do something. laskar pelangi novel talks about the struggle of ten children called as laskar pelangi to get knowledge in muhammadiyah elementary school, the worst scholl in their village. they faced many obstacles to reach their ambitions, from the distance from their house to their school was so far, many hindrances on the way to school such as big crocodile that spoiled their trip, or very limited school facilities, those do not hamper them not to give up learning and reaching their ambition. novel can motivate someone to do something. moreover laskar pelangi, which has power to encourage someone to realize that there is is the worth condition from us, but laskar pelangi members condition did not hamper laskar pelangi student to fight their spirit reaching their ambition. because of its great power which comes from this novel to motivate someone to learn, the writer interested in conducting a research with the problems that will be discussed are as follows; (1) what are the motivations in learning presented in the novel of laskar pelangi?;(2) what are the reasons of andrea hirata took the motivation of learning in laskar pelangi novel?;(3) what are the implications of laskar pelangi novel toward its readers?. motivation based on longman dictionary of contemporary english, motivation is eagerness and willingness to do something without needing to be told or forced to do it (longman team, 2003: 1071). 90 learning taken from oxford advance learner‘s dictionary of current english, learning is that gain knowledge of or skill in by study, practice of being taught (hornby, 1987: 481). gage said that learning can be defined with a process where an organism has changed their behavior because of their experiences (dahar, 1989: 11). novel novel is story in prose, long enough to fill one or more volumes about either imaginary or historically people (longman team, 2003: 1309). laskar pelangi laskar pelangi is the first novel of laskar pelangi tetra-logy which is written by andrea hirata. it was published firstly in 2005 by bentang pustaka press. this novel contains 534 paged. this novel tells about a heroic story of ten childrem called as laskar pelangi who came from poor family. although, their school were still spirit to study. their school was only facilitated with an unclosed cupboard, chairs and tables which in bad condition, and old blackboard. with all of their limitations they never give up and always keep fight their spirit in learning. by their spirit that they had, laskar pelangi could compete with other children who were richer in some competition which was held by district government and they won it that made their school to be known with others. research method and procedures the type of research includes descriptive analysis research. this type of research is conducted by describing facts then followed by analysis. then, the research object of this study is not only the main character of this novel but also all of other nine children as the actors in laskar pelangi. 91 furthermore, the data souce are found from the novel itself. those can be utterances, words, sentence, textually or contextually which are taken from laskar pelangi novel which contain about motivation. in this research, the writer does some sequences: in this research, the writer uses documentation as technique of data collection. the data collection is taken from library by looking for data from any media. in this case, the writer reads the novel and analyzes the plot of story. the writer also looks for other information which is relevant with the problem. afterthat, the technique of data analysis in this study is descriptive and the interpretation of the text is content analysis. it means the writer tries to describe some facts then analyzes novel to know the content of novel (ratna, 2007: 8). reading novel reading other sources making conclusion analyzin g novel and other sources 92 discussion literary elements of laskar pelangi novel character and characterization based on longman advance dictionary characterization is the way in which the qualities of a real person or thing are described (longman advanced american digital dictionary). in the novel, there are two ways in describing a character. there are two methods in describing the character in the novel, those are descriptive and dramatic. character may be presented mainly through description and discussion, or in a more dramatic manner, by the author‘s simply reporting the character‘s speech and action. characters are divided into two kinds, major character and minor character. every story needs those characters to suppoort each other because each character cannot stand by itself. as stanton said, most stories contain a central character, which is relevant to every event in the story; usually the events cause some change either in him, or in our attitude toward him (stanton, 1965: 17). the major character in laskar pelangi novel is ikal. while the minor character in this novel are bu muslimah, mr. harfan, lintang, mahar, a kiong, trapani, kucai, sahara, syahdan, harun, borek, a ling, tuk bayan tula, bodenga, floriana, a miauw, mrs. friska, mr. zulfikar. setting stanton (1965: 18) said that the setting of a story is the environment of its events, the immediate world in which they occur. usually, the description of setting was clearly viewed in the story, as if the reader lives in that place and feels what was in the story. the setting of time in this novel is about 1970‘s. while generally all setting are located in belitong. those are muhammadiyah school, pn (perusahaan negara) timah school, sinar harapan shop, felicia tree, 93 selumar mountain, fish market, lanun island, punai anchorage beach, national school yard, china templem tanjong pandan, zaal batu and post office. plot plot is a series of events which intertwined accurately and form a plot that actuate the flow of story through complication into climax and resolution (budianta, 2002: 86). the plot of this novel consists of exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and resolution. point of view point of view is way and or opinion used by author as medium to present figures, action, setting and some events that make a story in fiction work to reader. thus, point of view is the way an aouthor tell the story, whether as a first person (as the subject), as a second person (you or they), or as the third person (story observer). `in this novel, the author uses first person of ―i‖ as point of view. style stanton (1965: 30) said that, style in literature is the author‘s manner of using language. even if there are two authors who wrote a story which have some similarities in plot, setting, characters but they will be different from their style in telling a story. andrea hirata as an author of laskar pelangi novel has unique style. this novel is written simply and easily to be understood by the reader. the author also used some figurative languages to describe something. theme theme is something that used as the basic story, or something that become main problem in a story. the theme of laskar pelangi novel is the spirit to learn. 94 the motivation in learning presented in laskar pelangi novel in this part, the writer presents some sentences, utterances from laskar pelangi novel which indicate about learning motivation, something to motivate someone in learning, or the motive of someone wants to learn textually or contextually. motivation divided into extrinsic and intrinsic, thus learning motivation of laskar pelangi novel also presented into extrinsic motivation. extrinsic motivation 1. to change the destiny it was the motivation that lintang‘s father passed away when he wanted to bring this son to school. he wanted a change in his family; he wanted his son not to be a poor fisherman like him. lintang‘s father had a willing that his son had better future and life than him. 2. to enrich knowledge it was truly the aim of someone learning something. he wants to enrich his knowledge that he had. all obstacles will not hamper him, when he has big willing to enrich his knowledge. it looks like what lintang did. he was crazy of studying. he was never absent from school, even a big crocodile had blocked his trip, but he still wanted to go to school to get more knowledge. 3. to reach dream everybody has dream and ambition in life. every person maybe has different ambition, for example a child has an ambition to be a politician, scientist, or even being a success business man. the inspiration of an ambition can be taken from any sources, probably from film, his environment, or maybe his skill. he studies hard to reach his dream. previously, ikal had an ambition to be a professional badminton player 95 and a writer. thus he trained his skill in playing badminton until he became a skilled badminton player, although finally, he had to change his ambitions because of his destiny did not bring him to be a famous badminton player. 4. to please parents being successful in learning is something that makes parents proud of their child. so as lintang, he had big willing to make his parent happy and proud of him, thus he had to study hard and to be a good student. 5. to get scholarship it is what we want up to now, studying hard and getting scholarship. every student wishes to get a scholarship, whether it for studying abroad or for school fee. after so many years, ikal had never studied he began studying hard to get scholarship studying abroad. he studied all the time without compromising. everywhere and every time he studied, just because of getting scholarship. intrinsic motivation 1. to create a creation everybody is proud when his learning results something. when we have done our painting, we will feel satisfied, even when our painting is the most beautiful from others and got an appreciation although it just a condemnation. laskar pelangi students always compete to get the best creation in art subject. they wanted to be like mahar who always had sparkling idea to create something new in every art subject. 2. to win a competition getting a prize or winning something is other motive that someone wants to study hard. he will be very satisfied when they had won that competition. so as, laskar pelangi students, they were very spirit in exercising for independence day carnival, they would like to bear down 96 their rival pn school students. it was because of mahar, who had inflated their spirit to show their best performance and win the competition whatever other people said about them. 3. to be a confident man to be a confident man is sometimes a problem for some people. they sometimes feel not confident although only introducing his name in front of the class. they are very nervous facing many people in an occasion. omitting this character was not too difficult, more exercises speaking in front of many people and little bit motivation to calm down our nervous are probably the keys of solving it. the reason of andrea hirata took spirit of learning as theme of laskar pelangi novel in this section, the writer would like to expose the reason andrea hirata wrote this novel, and spirit of learning as its theme. here are some reasons which are taken from laskar pelangi the phenomenon book. to break melayunese stereotype there is a stereotype cohering melayunese that they are lazy men. it is probably because malaysia government policy gave special protection and peculiarity for melayunese. thus, up to now, they feel that they are more special than other and do not need to work hard. when he was interviewed by nasrul azwar a reporter from bangka belitung tabloid about this stereotype he introspected himself and investigated people around him, then he said ―less or more this stereotype is true‖ (karni, 2008: 153). but not at all of melayunese are lazy. laziness that result backwardness and poorness in belitong which inspire andrea and his friends struggle and conviced that learning is the most effective instrument to escape backwardness (karni, 2008: 158). 97 to motivate all students to be always fighting spirit by writing his memoir when he was child, andrea hirata expects he can motivate all studnets to fight their spirit in learning, and reach their ambitions whatever their condition. andrea told that the important thing is a strong character formation, in order to be optimistic to improve an expectation and dream (karni, 2008:197). ―now, all educational values derived from laskar pelangi story will be spread through ―laskar pelangi in action‖ (karni, 2008:197) to be a good idol in education one of strength of laskar pelangi novel is that there are some figures that have role to awaken reader spirit in learning, such as lintang who was never absent although so many obstacles hampered him. andrea hopes that figures such a lintang or bu muslimah who never beefed about their condition can be an idol in education. karni (2008: 117) said that one of contributive values of laskar pelangi novel is its qualification to appear a real model among the country which merely loss a guidance figure. the influence of laskar pelangi story toward its reader it was really amazing only for three years, laskar pelangi novel has been reprinted for twenty six times. a wonderful story that makes this novel becomes best seller. this powerful novel has inspired and motivared the readers to realize how important learning, and resuscitate to be spirit in learning. below are some opinions of laskar pelangi novel reader about the effect that they feel after they read it. 1. andy f. noya a presenter of kick andy show, he commented that this novel was really awakening. he said ―anyone who read it would be 98 motivated and feel guilty if he was not grateful about his life.‖ (hirata, 2008: cover). 2. nico a university student in bandung has felt the power of laskar pelangi story. previously, he was a drug abuser. his parents have acceded asking him to rehab from using drug. but he stubbornly rejected it. after reading it, he realized and wanted to be rehab. afterthat, he also wanted to finish his graduating paper. nico in karni (2008: 2) said that ―i was shy to the struggle of the teacher figure in that novel, and i was shy to the struggle of the teacher figure in that novel, and /i was shy to lintang, a poor child who had to stop his school because his father was died and less of money.‖ 3. laskar pelangi novel also has become motivation to a teacher in cirebon, namely maisaroh. she is an honorary teacher in pamijah state elementary school in cirebon. now she does not really care about her sakary, how much she gets. after reading laskar pelangi novel, she is more spirit motivating her students, who almost of them are rattan plait labor children. maisaroh‘s spirit is inspired by bu muslimah dedication, whose her salary and facility are far more apprehensive, but she can fight her students‘s spirit, until one of them had got master degree from europe (karni, 2008: 3). conclusion after analyzing the novel ―laskar pelangi‖ the writer is able to include as follow; (1) the literary elements of laskar pelangi novel are (a) character and characterization (the major character in laskar pelangi novel is ikal and a lot of minor characters), (b) the setting of time in this novel is about 1970‘s and generally all setting are located in belitong, (c) the plot of 99 this novel consists of exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and resolution, (d) the author uses first person of ―i‖ as point of view, (e) the style of this novel is written simply and easily to be understood by the reader. the author also used some figurative languages to describe something, (f) the theme of laskar pelangi novel is the spirit to learn. (2) the motivations in learning presented in laskar pelangi novel are: extrinsic motivation (to change the destiny, to enrich knowledge, to reach dream, etc) and intrinsic motivation (to create a creation, to win a competition, and to be a confident man). (3) the reasons of andrea hirata took spirit of learning as theme of laskar pelangi novel are to break melayunese stereotype, to motivate all students to be always fighting spirit, and to be a good idol in education. (4) the influences of laskar pelangi story toward its reader are laskar pelangi story has influenced a university student to rehab from abusing drug, and laskar pelangi story has taught teacher to teach sincerely. references budianta, melani. 2002. membaca sastra: pengantar memahamai sastra untuk perguruan tinggi. magelang: indonesiatera dahar, ratna wilis. 1989. teori teori belajar. jakarta: erlangga hirata, andrea. 2008. laskar pelangi. jogjakarta: bentang hornby as. 1987. oxford advance learner‘s dictionary of current english. new york: oxford university press karni, asrori s. 2008. laskar pelangi: the phenomenon. bandung: hikmah. longman team. 2003. longman dictionary of contemporary english. uk: latter park press. ratna, nyoman kutha. 2007. teori, metode dan teknik penelitian sastra. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. stanton, robert. 1965. an introduction to fiction. new york: holt, rinehart and winston irc. www.dekisoegi.ohlog.com. on may 20, 2010 http://www.dekisoegi.ohlog.com/ register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 190 introduction to views of connectivism theory of learning sa’adi english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 2 salatiga, central java, indonesia saadidr@yahoo.com abstract ‗traditional‘ theories of learning as pratical dimensions of psychology majorly tend to focus their interest on humans‘ inner factors that influence the process of learning such as intelligences, motivation, interest, attitude, concentration and aptitude. they never connect it with instruments and technological inventions such as multimedia, cyber celluler, internet, even social organization, cultural values, traditions etc., while these are very influential nowdays towards the progress and behaviors of human life. as such the application of connectivism theory of learning which connect those dimensions of life with learning activities, is now and then insparable from any effort to promote the quality of humans‘ learning itself, including in teaching and learning languages. keywords: connectivism, learning, theory and technology abstrak teori-teori pembelajaran ‗tradisional‘ sebagai dimensi praktis psikologi umumnya cenderung berfokus pada ketertarikan mereka terhadap faktorfaktor kepribadian manusia yang mempengaruhi proses pembelajaran, misalnya kecerdasan, motivasi, minat, sikap, konsentrasi, dan bakat. namun, mereka belum pernah menghubungkan hal tersebut dengan faktor lain, seperti perangkat pembelajaran dan penemuan-penemuan teknologi seperti multimedia, seluler, internet; bahkan organisasi sosial, nilai-nilai budaya, tradisi, dan lain-lain; padahal hal-hal tersebut saat ini sangat berpengaruh terhadap perkembangan dan tingkah laku kehidupan manusia. hal itu dikarenakan penerapan tori pembelajaran konektivisme yang menghubungkan dimensi-dimensi kehidupan tersebut dengan kegiatan pembelajaran sampai kapanpun tidak dapat dikesampingkan dari berbagai register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 191 usaha untuk meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran manusia, termasuk dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa. kata kunci: konektivisme, pembelajaran, teori dan teknologi introduction behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism are the three broad learning theories most often utilized in the creation of instructional environments. these theories, however, were developed in a time when learning was not impacted through technology. over the last twenty years, technology has reorganized how we live, how we communicate, and how we learn. learning needs and theories that describe learning principles and processes should be reflective of underlying social environments. vaill (1996:42). emphasizes that ―learning must be a way of being – an ongoing set of attitudes and actions by individuals and groups that they employ to try to keep abreast o the surprising, novel, messy, obtrusive, recurring events…‖ learners as little as forty years ago would complete the required schooling and enter a career that would often last a lifetime. information development was slow. the life of knowledge was measured in decades. today, these foundational principles have been altered. knowledge is growing exponentially. in many fields the life of knowledge is now measured in months and years. gonzalez (2004) describes the challenges of rapidly diminishing knowledge life: ―one of the most persuasive factors is the shrinking half-life of knowledge. the ―half-life of knowledge‖ is the time span from when knowledge is gained to when it becomes obsolete. half of what is known today was not known 10 years ago. the amount of knowledge in the world has doubled in the past 10 years and is doubling every 18 months according to the american society of training and documentation (astd). to combat the shrinking half-life of register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 192 knowledge, organizations have been forced to develop new methods of deploying instruction.‖ driscoll (2000: 14-17) notes some significant trends in learning: 1. many learners will move into a variety of different, possibly unrelated fields over the course of their lifetime. 2. informal learning is a significant aspect of our learning experience. formal education no longer comprises the majority of our learning. learning now occurs in a variety of ways – through communities of practice, personal networks, and through completion of work-related tasks. 3. learning is a continual process, lasting for a lifetime. learning and work related activities are no longer separate. in many situations, they are the same. 4. technology is altering (rewiring) our brains. the tools we use define and shape our thinking. 5. the organization and the individual are both learning organisms. increased attention to knowledge management highlights the need for a theory that attempts to explain the link between individual and organizational learning. 6. many of the processes previously handled by learning theories (especially in cognitive information processing) can now be off-loaded to, or supported by, technology. 7. know-how and know-what is being supplemented with know-where (the understanding of where to find knowledge needed). this definition encompasses many of the attributes commonly associated with behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism – namely, learning as a lasting changed state (emotional, mental, physiological (i.e. skills)) brought about as a result of experiences and interactions with content or other people. driscoll (2000: 14-17) explores some of the complexities of defining learning. debate centers on: register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 193 1. valid sources of knowledge do we gain knowledge through experiences? is it innate (present at birth)? do we acquire it through thinking and reasoning? 2. content of knowledge – is knowledge actually knowable? is it directly knowable through human experience? 3. the final consideration focuses on three epistemological traditions in relation to learning: objectivism, pragmatism, and interpretivism objectivism (similar to behaviorism) states that reality is external and is objective, and knowledge is gained through experiences. pragmatism (similar to cognitivism) states that reality is interpreted, and knowledge is negotiated through experience and thinking. interpretivism (similar to constructivism) states that reality is internal, and knowledge is constructed. all of these learning theories hold the notion that knowledge is an objective (or a state) that is attainable (if not already innate) through either reasoning or experiences. behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism (built on the epistemological traditions) attempt to address how it is that a person learns. behaviorism states that learning is largely unknowable, that is, we can‘t possibly understand what goes on inside a person (the ―black box theory‖). gredler (2001) expresses behaviorism as being comprised of several theories that make three assumptions about learning: 1. observable behaviour is more important than understanding internal activities 2. behaviour should be focused on simple elements: specific stimuli and responses 3. learning is about behaviour change cognitivism (barabási; 2002: 76) often takes a computer information processing model. learning is viewed as a process of inputs, managed in register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 194 short term memory, and coded for long-term recall. cindy buell details this process: ―in cognitive theories, knowledge is viewed as symbolic mental constructs in the learner's mind, and the learning process is the means by which these symbolic representations are committed to memory.‖ constructivism, then, suggests that learners create knowledge as they attempt to understand their experiences (driscoll; 2000:376). behaviorism and cognitivism view knowledge as external to the learner and the learning process as the act of internalizing knowledge. constructivism assumes that learners are not empty vessels to be filled with knowledge. instead, learners are actively attempting to create meaning. learners often select and pursue their own learning. constructivist principles acknowledge that real-life learning is messy and complex. classrooms which emulate the ―fuzziness‖ of this learning will be more effective in preparing learners for life-long learning. (brown:2002). the root of connectivism: limitations of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism a central tenet of most learning theories is that learning occurs inside a person. even social constructivist views, which hold that learning is a socially enacted process, promotes the principality of the individual (and her/his physical presence – i.e. brain-based) in learning. these theories do not address learning that occurs outside of people (i.e. learning that is stored and manipulated by technology). they also fail to describe how learning happens within organizations. learning theories are concerned with the actual process of learning, not with the value of what is being learned. in a networked world, the very manner of information that we acquire is worth exploring. the need to evaluate the worthiness of learning something is a meta-skill that is applied before learning itself begins. when register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 195 knowledge is subject to paucity, the process of assessing worthiness is assumed to be intrinsic to learning. when knowledge is abundant, the rapid evaluation of knowledge is important. additional concerns arise from the rapid increase in information. in today‘s environment, action is often needed without personal learning – that is, we need to act by drawing information outside of our primary knowledge. the ability to synthesize and recognize connections and patterns is a valuable skill (brown:2002). many important questions are raised when established learning theories are seen through technology. the natural attempt of theorists is to continue to revise and evolve theories as conditions change. at some point, however, the underlying conditions have altered so significantly, that further modification is no longer sensible and an entirely new approach is needed. some questions to explore in relation to learning theories and the impact of technology and new sciences (chaos and networks) on learning: 1. how are learning theories impacted when knowledge is no longer acquired in the linear manner? 2. what adjustments need to made with learning theories when technology performs many of the cognitive 3. operations previously performed by learners (information storage and retrieval). 4. how can we continue to stay current in a rapidly evolving information ecology? 5. how do learning theories address moments where performance is needed in the absence of complete understanding? 6. what is the impact of networks and complexity theories on learning? 7. what is the impact of chaos as a complex pattern recognition process on learning? register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 196 8. with increased recognition of interconnections in differing fields of knowledge, how are systems and ecology theories perceived in light of learning tasks? connectivism as an alternative theory of learning including technology and connection making as learning activities begins to move learning theories into a digital age. we can no longer personally experience and acquire learning that we need to act. we derive our competence from forming connections. karen stephenson states: ―experience has long been considered the best teacher of knowledge. since we cannot experience everything, other people‘s experiences, and hence other people, become the surrogate for knowledge. ‗i store my knowledge in my friends‘ is an axiom for collecting knowledge through collecting people (undated).‖ chaos is a new reality for knowledge workers. science week (2004) quotes nigel calder's definition that chaos is ―a cryptic form of order‖. chaos is the breakdown of predictability, evidenced in complicated arrangements that initially defy order. unlike constructivism, which states that learners attempt to foster understanding by meaning making tasks, chaos states that the meaning exists – the learner's challenge is to recognize the patterns which appear to be hidden. meaning-making and forming connections between specialized communities are important activities. chaos, as a science, recognizes the connection of everything to everything. gleick (1987) states: ―in weather, for example, this translates into what is only half-jokingly known as the butterfly effect – the notion that a butterfly stirring the air today in peking can transform storm systems next month in new york‖ (p. 8). this analogy highlights a real challenge: ―sensitive dependence on initial conditions‖ profoundly impacts what we learn and how we act based on our learning. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 197 decision making is indicative of this. if the underlying conditions used to make decisions change, the decision itself is no longer as correct as it was at the time it was made. the ability to recognize and adjust to pattern shifts is a key learning task. rocha (1998:3) defines self-organization as the ―spontaneous formation of well organized structures, patterns, or behaviors, from random initial conditions.‖ learning, as a self-organizing process requires that the system (personal or organizational learning systems) ―be informationally open, that is, for it to be able to classify its own interaction with an environment, it must be able to change its structure…‖ (p.4). wiley and edwards acknowledge the importance of self-organization as a learning process: ―jacobs argues that communities self-organize is a manner similar to social insects: instead of thousands of ants crossing each other‘s pheromone trails and changing their behavior accordingly, thousands of humans pass each other on the sidewalk and change their behavior accordingly.‖. self-organization on a personal level is a micro-process of the larger self-organizing knowledge constructs created within corporate or institutional environments. the capacity to form connections between sources of information, and thereby create useful information patterns, is required to learn in our knowledge economy. specific character and basic principles of connectivism a network can simply be defined as connections between entities. computer networks, power grids, and social networks all function on the simple principle that people, groups, systems, nodes, entities can be connected to create an integrated whole. alterations within the network have ripple effects on the whole. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 198 barabási (2002: 106) states that ―nodes always compete for connections because links represent survival in an interconnected world‖. this competition is largely dulled within a personal learning network, but the placing of value on certain nodes over others is a reality. nodes that successfully acquire greater profile will be more successful at acquiring additional connections. connectivism: a learning theory for the digital age linked depends on how well it is currently linked. nodes (can be fields, ideas, communities) that specialize and gain recognition for their expertise have greater chances of recognition, thus resulting in cross-pollination of learning communities. weak ties are links or bridges that allow short connections between information. our small world networks are generally populated with people whose interests and knowledge are similar to ours. finding a new job, as an example, often occurs through weak ties. this principle has great merit in the notion of serendipity, innovation, and creativity. connections between disparate ideas and fields can create new innovations (newell: 1999). connectivism is the integration of principles explored by chaos, network, and complexity and self-organization theories. learning is a process that occurs within nebulous environments of shifting core elements – not entirely under the control of the individual. learning (defined as actionable knowledge) can reside outside of ourselves (within an organization or a database), is focused on connecting specialized information sets, and the connections that enable us to learn more are more important than our current state of knowing (brown; 2002:92). connectivism is driven by the understanding that decisions are based on rapidly altering foundations. new information is continually being acquired. the ability to draw distinctions between important and unimportant register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 199 information is vital. the ability to recognize when new information alters the landscape based on decisions made yesterday is also critical. principles of connectivism (gleick; 1987:147) are: 1. learning and knowledge rests in diversity of opinions. 2. learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information sources. 3. learning may reside in non-human appliances. 4. capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known 5. nurturing and maintaining connections are needed to facilitate continual learning. 6. ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill. 7. currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all connectivist learning activities. 8. decision-making itself is a learning process. choosing what to learn and the meaning of incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. while there is a right answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow due to alterations in the information climate affecting the decision. connectivism also addresses the challenges that many corporations face in knowledge management activities. knowledge that resides in a database needs to be connected with the right people in the right context in order to be classified as learning. behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism do not attempt to address the challenges of organizational knowledge and transference. information flow within an organization is an important element in organizational effectiveness. in a knowledge economy, the flow of information is the equivalent of the oil pipe in an industrial economy. creating, preserving, and utilizing register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 200 information flow should be a key organizational activity. knowledge flow can be likened to a river that meanders through the ecology of an organization. in certain areas, the river pools and in other areas it ebbs. the health of the learning ecology of the organization depends on effective nurturing of information flow (gredler; 2005). social network analysis is an additional element in understanding learning models in a digital era. art kleiner (2002) explores karen stephenson‘s ―quantum theory of trust‖ which ―explains not just how to recognize the collective cognitive capability of an organization, but how to cultivate and increase it‖. within social networks, hubs are well connected people who are able to foster and maintain knowledge flow. their interdependence results in effective knowledge flow, enabling the personal understanding of the state of activities organizationally. the starting point of connectivism is the individual. personal knowledge is comprised of a network, which feeds into organizations and institutions, which in turn feed back into the network, and then continue to provide learning to individual. this cycle of knowledge development (personal to network to organization) allows learners to remain current in their field through the connections they have formed. landauer and dumais (1997) explore the phenomenon that ―people have much more knowledge than appears to be present in the information to which they have been exposed‖. they provide a connectivist focus in stating ―the simple notion that some domains of knowledge contain vast numbers of weak interrelations that, if properly exploited, can greatly amplify learning by a process of inference‖. the value of pattern recognition and connecting our own ―small worlds of knowledge‖ are apparent in the exponential impact provided to our personal learning. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 201 brown (2002) presents an interesting notion that the internet leverages the small efforts of many with the large efforts of few. the central premise is that connections created with unusual nodes supports and intensifies existing large effort activities. brown provides the example of a maricopa county community college system project that links senior citizens with elementary school students in a mentor program. the children ―listen to these ―grandparents‖ better than they do their own parents, the mentoring really helps the teachers…the small efforts of the manythe seniors – complement the large efforts of the few – the teachers.‖ this amplification of learning, knowledge and understanding through the extension of a personal network is the epitome of connectivism. implications of connectivism theory in learning practices the notion of connectivism has implications in all aspects of life. this paper largely focuses on its impact on learning, but the following aspects are also impacted: 1. management and leadership. the management and marshalling of resources to achieve desired outcomes is a significant challenge. realizing that complete knowledge cannot exist in the mind of one person requires a different approach to creating an overview of the situation. diverse teams of varying viewpoints are a critical structure for completely exploring ideas. innovation is also an additional challenge. most of the revolutionary ideas of today at one time existed as a fringe element. an organizations ability to foster, nurture, and synthesize the impacts of varying views of information is critical to knowledge economy survival. speed of ―idea to implementation‖ is also improved in a systems view of learning. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 202 2. media, news, information. this trend is well under way. mainstream media organizations are being challenged by the open, real-time, two-way information flow of blogging. 3. personal knowledge management in relation to organizational knowledge management 4. design of learning environment involvement that includes thought, emotion, motivations, persons around, media, sources, etc. closure connectivism presents a model of learning that acknowledges the tectonic shifts in society where learning is no longer an internal, individualistic activity. how people work and function is altered when new tools are utilized. the field of education has been slow to recognize both the impact of new learning tools and the environmental changes in what it means to learn. connectivism provides insight into learning skills and tasks needed for learners to flourish in a digital era. this gives great contribution in language teaching and learning. our ability to learn what we need for tomorrow is more important than what we know today. a real challenge for any learning theory is to actuate known knowledge at the point of application. when knowledge, however, is needed, but not known, the ability to plug into sources to meet the requirements becomes a vital skill. as knowledge continues to grow and evolve, access to what is needed is more important than what the learner currently possesses. in case of language teaching, cognitivism as a paradigm of learning is rich of horizons, strategies, methods and techniques such as the application of multimedia, digital library, etc. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 203 references barabási, a. l. 2002. linked: the new science of networks. cambridge: ma, perseus publishing. buell, c. undated. cognitivism. cambridge: ma: harvard university press. brown, j. s. 200. growing up digital: how the web changes work, education, and the ways people learn. new york: penguin books. dromi, e. (ed.).1993. language and cognition: a developmental perspective. norword, nj: ablex. driscoll, m. 2000. psychology of learning for instruction. needham heights: ma, allyn & bacon. gardner, h. 1985. the mind's new science: a history of the cognitive revolution. new york, ny: basic books. gleick, j. 1987. chaos: the making of a new science. new york: penguin books. gonzalez, c. 2004. the role of blended learning in the world of technology. stanford, ca: stanford university press. gredler, m. e. 2005. learning and instruction: theory into practice – 5th edition. upper saddle river, nj: pearson education. newell, a. 1999. unified theories of cognition. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 118 a pragmatic analysis and sociological perspective on pearl s buck’s the good earth rochmat budi santosa stain surakarta jl. pandawa pucangan kartasura, sukoharjo, central java, indonesia b_santoz@yahoo.com abstract this paper observes the struggle for life of east asia people that was portrayed in the novel the good earth. the good earth is also portrayal of a true account experienced by its author, pearl s buck. she got inspiration from the life of farmer in china. she wrote this novel using the original name as the main character. those names are wang lung and o lan. they are couple and their life is on farm. the objectives of this study are to find the pragmatic and sociological aspects of the novel. this research applies content analysis approach to understand the pragmatic and sociological life in chinese society, especially in the novel. the finding of the study shows that the utterances in the novel reflect various speech acts i.e. expressive, assertive, commisive, persuasive, directive, and phatic. in the sociological aspect, the life of rural people in chine is somewhat similar with that of in indonesia. otherwise, rural people have life style in common i.e. working hard, struggle for life, defending their belonging, and loving the nature. key words: pragmatic analysis, sociological perspective, good earth. abstrak penelitian ini memaparkan perjuangan hidup para penduduk di asia timur yang disajikan pada novel bertajuk the good earth. the good earth juga merupakan gambaran kisah nyata pengalaman sang penulis, pearl s. buck. dia telah mendapatkan inspirasi dari kehidupan seorang petani di china. dia pun menulis novel ini menggunakan nama asli dari tokoh utama. nama-nama tersebut adalah wang lung dan o lan. mereka berdua adalah pasangan suami istri yang tinggal di peternakan. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menemukan aspek-aspek pragmatik dan sosiologis dari novel tersebut. dalam pelaksanaannya, penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan analisis register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 119 konten guna memahami kehidupan masyarakat china secara pragmatik dan sosiologis, terutama dalam novel tersebut. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa ada beberapa ujaran dalam novel tersebut yang mencerminkan bermacam-macam speech act yang meliputi expressive, assertive, commisive, persuasive, directive, dan phatic. dari segi sosiologis, kehidupan orang-orang pedesaan di china dapat dikatakan hampir sama dengan kehidupan masyarakat di indonesia. hal itu mencakup gaya hidup masyarakat pedesaan seperti umumnya, seperti kerja keras, penuh perjuangan untuk hidup, primpen terhadap apa yang mereka punya, dan kecintaan terhadap alam sekitar. kata kunci: analisis pragmatik, perspektif sosiologi, good earth introduction survival is a term which occasionally occurs when talking about life in difficult circumstance. all of people in the world need something to survive. there are many kinds of necessity to fulfill the basic requirement in life, how they get those basic requirements, so they have to work. almost all people in asia work as a farmer to fulfill the necessity in their life, especially in china. in chinese society, land is a source of life. many people in china are farmers. land is soul of chinese society because china is an agricultural country. in agricultural country rice is the basic commodity, and other commodities are related to agriculture such as fruits and vegetables. the land or rice field is one of the most important things or basic element of agricultural country. according to fung yu – lan ―agriculture and trade ―is like ―root and branch ―(1990: 22) based on this statement, in chinese society agriculture is an important sector beside trade. the good earth novel tells about chinese culture at the twenty century and agriculture has been the biggest power of the economy in china. it existed before machine and industry existed. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 120 one of the most popular ideologies that gave influence and altered chinese mind was the theory of organic evolution. the theory says that there is a continuous struggle in every sector of live for the fittest species. in order to survive, the fittest species must be adaptable in environment and able to compete with other. when the buck‘s novel was written, the chinese ideology was communist. economy, social and culture developments create an opportunity for every citizen to seize the change to become wealthy. the rapid and ruthless competitive spirit at those periods made chinese society lost their power to defend old tradition that had existed long time. the good earth describes the condition of chinese society. in this novel the social condition and economic life changed their life rapidly and radically. in chinese society technology and science aspects were more influential in the city than in the village society. they defended the old tradition, being a farmer. the main character in this novel reflects it. he does not lose his tradition because he adheres to the traditional values, honoring his relatives. the good earth is a story of a young man, named wang lung. he is about twenty years old. he lives off the land. he loves his land very much. the feeling toward his land is so strong. he likes to stay, brings roll of bread and garlic and stands to eat in his field. ― and if he grew too weary in the day he laid himself into a furrow, and there, with the good warmth of his own land against his flesh, he slept ― (buck, 1971: 135). in agriculture period people create viewpoints used to understand that view of success comes from different ways. the land is one of important things in an agriculture country. they always dream having a lot of land because land is what farmers are proud of. the dream is influenced by the condition of economy, society, culture, and ideology at the time. thus it is register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 121 understood that the environment influences an individual and individual influences the environment. every body hope changes that brings in the glory and wealthy in their life. they made a great effort to be successful in their life. this condition could also be seen in buck‘s the good earth. philosophers have different perceptions on wealth. these differences can be accommodated by looking at a material thing made up from parts of possessing many physical properties and other properties. ―the physical properties are positioned in space and time, size, shape, duration, mass, velocity, solidity, inertia electric charge, spin, rigidity, temperature, harness and the like―(encyclopedia of philosophy, 1967: 179). in this context of meaning, the word has a derogatory flavor; people thinks that money, property, power, land and the like are the most important. how a person expresses his perceptions on wealth is reflected on how he communicates with others. the way they communicate, then, can be traced pragmatically related to the social background. pearl s buck and her novel the good earth is one of epistolary novels that is very interesting to discuss. it is also a realistic novel that portrays the life of chinese society in 1949. pearl s buck is one of novelist of the 20th century who was willing to examine her environment with a realistic eye and then reflected it in producing fiction. in buck‘s writing, her life experiences inspired her with the idea of treating the life of a great chinese farmer. buck‘s said: ―i get inspired from the figures of those people emerged first, above all others, in their simplicity and dignity and good nature. i saw wang lung, o lan, their children, their farm house home, their struggle to live and enjoy life. they were the voiceless ones, though they and their kind made four fifths all china‘s people. i had seen abused by register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 122 overloads taxed by governments. they were the ones who were at the mercy of famine and flood, which left their homes and wandered over the barren soil to find food that they might return again. nothing could have persuaded them to leave the beloved land except the fear that if they did not they might die and so leave it forever. it was better to go to the rich southern cities and beg, though to beg sickened their souls, for they were people of independence. i knew many other people of china, too ―(the good earth, 1971: vi). based on inspiration above, she writes the good earth. the figures of wang lung and o lan became the characters in her novel‘s the good earth. the good earth was published in 1949 and became one of the bestsellers. besides, it also gave thousand of american readers insight into life in country about which they knew little. the novel was made into a broadway play and a film, also translated into many languages. pearl s buck is not a chinese but for a long time she had been living and studied in china because her parents were christian missionaries that got an assignment in china, so she knew about the culture and society condition in china at the time. pearl s bucks was born on june 26, 1892, in hilsboro, west virginia. her parent‘s christian missionaries and buck was raised in china, attending boarding school in shanghai. in 1910, she went to america to attend randolph – macon woman‘s college, in lynchburg, virginia. after graduation, she soon returned to china, marrying an agricultural specialist in 1917, and living in north china. in the 1920s, buck taught english literature at the university of nanking. in 1925, she returned to america and received a master of arts degree from cornell university in 1926. back in china, buck and her husband found their lives in danger when revolutionary army attacked nanking. they spent a day in hiding before being rescued by americans gunboats register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 123 (http://nobelprizes.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1938/buck-bio. htm1). buck is an american novelist but she spent her life in china so her capability to write about the condition of the chinese society at the time was not doubted. buck remained a prolific writer for the remainder of her life. she published in all over seventy books. these include novels, short story collection, drama, poetry, children‘s literature and translations from the chinese. one of her novels is the good earth. the function of literature is to provide a just and lively image of human nature or at least who agree on the general proposition that the end of literature is some kind of illumination of the human situation (daiches, 1982: 338). the word of the good earth has a wealthy symbol. wang lung is a farmer and he has land with a lot of nutrition, dark colored and it is a symbol of fertility. everywhere, land having a lot of nutrition and fertility will bring wealthy in the next time. hence, he keeps the soil fertile, takes care of his land for getting a wealthy and he loves his land. actually he becomes a successful farmer and he gets wealthy from his land in the end of story. a farmer having good earth or land is something proud for himself. this paper discuss about how struggle for life is portrayed through wang lung as the major character. cognitive linguistics in the realm of cognitive linguistics, janda (2000: 22), points out that at a recent icla (international cognitive linguistics association) meeting the scholar ―suzanne kemmer specifically devoted her talk to summarizing achievements [in cognitive linguistics] to date and suggesting ‗areas ripe for exploration with cognitive concepts and methods‘. at the top of her list is sociolinguistic variation‖. http://nobelprizes.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1938/buck-bio register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 124 but what exactly is cognitive linguistics? escandell-vidal (1996: 634) provides an excellent description of three main ideas on which cognitive linguistics is based: first, the idea that the mind is a symbolic system: as human beings, we need to map all our perceptions of the persons, objects and events in the real world on to internal representations; our knowledge can be seen, thus, as a set of assumptions. second, the idea that human knowledge is highly structured: our internal representations do not merely form a list, but a complex network of sets of organized items. third, the idea that perception, behaviour and understanding depend crucially on previous knowledge. these are common assumptions in cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence, and have proved relevant also for explaining natural language processing by humans. escandell-vidal proposes that ―social aspects of communication have to be explained in terms, not of inferential patterns working on universal principles but of the structure and contents of specific knowledge: the emphasis is to be put especially on context, and not on inferential devices‖ (escandell-vidal 1996: 640). context, she claims, is related to knowledge: ―in our minds, previous utterances, extra linguistic situations and encyclopedic knowledge all have the same status: they are all internal representations. this opens the possibility for a cognitive pragmatics of social action: social and situational aspects of communication are interesting to cognitive pragmatics because they are mapped on to mental representations‖ (escandell-vidal 1996: 640). in her conclusion, escandell-vidal (1996: 645) suggests that social behavior reflects systematic knowledge specific to the culture in which the language is spoken. cognitive linguistics is a theoretical framework that derives from the assumption that language is based on our experience of the world as human beings. constructions in language emerge as a result of the way we as register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 125 humans perceive the world around us. humans map their perceptions of people, objects, and events onto internal representations. knowledge is structured; what we know does not form a list of facts but a network of information linked in various ways. further, perception and understanding are dependent on embodied experience (escandell-vidal 1996: 634). research method in this research paper, the data are analyzed by describing wang lung‘ speech in buck‘s the good earth. the data analysis steps consist of several process, they are as follows: a. the researcher identified and recorded the inventory data from the novel. b. the inventory data were categorized in accordance with the theme that emerge. after making category, the researcher checked and rechecked the categorized data to get the most appropriate data to the research study. c. the second step was data interpretation. the researcher explained the data with his interpretation. the data were analyzed from the perspective of pragmatics and then the researcher made some inferences. the data inferences here were conclusion that was based on the interpretation of the data analysis. finally, the data analysis led to the research findings. discussion the portraits of wang lung in the good earth china is part of asia countries, there are many commodities come from agriculture sector such as rice, wheat, and corn. china – in the setting of time register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 126 in the good earth was an agriculture era. agriculture sector is the main sector of china beside trade because many people of china are farmers. land is one of important thing in agriculture country. on the other hand, the science of chinese is about agricultural. wang lung is a common people of china as a farmer. hence, he considers that land is important thing in his life. wang lung is a farmer. on the other hand, his life always relates to agriculture. wang lung is a poor farmer in his village. the name of his village is ahwei. he does not have a lot of land. he gets his land from legacy of his parents. he is a good farmer. he always gives more attention for his land. he always works hard for his land everyday. in the early morning, he goes to his field. he uses the yoke of ox to help him plough his land after he harvests his grain in the field. he ploughs his western field for planting garlic and union. he goes to his home when the sun stucks the zenith. in reality he worked as he had always worked. he put his hoe upon his shoulder and he walked to his plots of land and he cultivated the rows of grain, and he yoked the ox the plough and he ploughed the western field for garlic and union. but the work was luxury, for when the sun struck the zenith he could go to his house and food would be there ready for him to eat, and the dust wiped from the table, and the bowls and the chopsticks placed neatly upon it (bucks, 1971: 26). the quotation above is the portrait of wang lung‘s struggle for life in the good earth. he tries to get what he wants. he hardly attempts to make his land fertile. he hopes his land gives him good harvest. hence, he works hard to get the perfect result because he considers that the land has values in his life. the fertility of the land brings wealth to him so he cultivates his land with all of his capability. he hopes that the land gives him wealth because he always pays attentions to his land. it is shown when he works hard in his land. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 127 wang lung is a farmer so he fulfills the necessity in his life from his field. hence, he must work hard to get it. he believes that his land gives him wealth next time. wang lung always works hard in his field everyday. he always digs up paddy fields looking for necessity for his life and family. he works hard until his back feels sick. ―one day when wang lung was hard pressed with the swelling wheat and was cultivating it with his hoe, day after day, until his back throbbed with wearing ness…―(buck‘s, 1970:28). he does not feel tired when he works in his field because he works sincerely and he loves his land. he hopes his land gives him good harvest and takes him in wealth. he can expand his land again. pragmatics analysis (1) wang lung: ―i shall have a red coat on him and red flowered trousers and on his head a hat with a small gilded buddha sewn on the front and on his feet tiger – faced shoes. and i will wear new shoes and a new coat of black sateen“ (buck‘s, 32). the context: when the first son was born, he is very busy to prepare of his child‘s birth. he wants to buy clothes and shoes for him. he has money from selling a sack of rice in the grain shop. he uses this money to buy clothes, coat and his son‘s shoes. this quotation shows that he fulfills his life necessities from the result of his harvest in the field. he sells his harvest in the grain shop in town and then he changes his harvest with money. he can buy clothes and food with his money. interpretation: it is a commisive utterance that he promises to himself to buy many things for his new born baby. (2) wang lung fells happy. ―a first – born son,‖ he said proudly (buck‘s,:38). register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 128 wang lung lives in his village. he is a farmer. he feels that god gives him life in the world. a son was born from his wife. he has the first son from his wife. he may not look happier. he thinks that the world full of malignant spirit. the malignant spirit can disturb in his life. it does not bring fortune in his life. ―he thought of this at first with joy and then with a pang of fear. it did not do in this life to be too fortunate. the air and earth were filled with malignant spirits who could not endure the happiness of mortals, especially of such as are poor ― (buck, 1971:38). he fells happy because he has son in his life. what he has done, he thanks to his god. he fells proud. he has son because the son symbolizes the luck in the culture of chinese. (3) wang lung: “ if i have a handful of silver it is because i work and my wife works, and we do not, as same do, sit idling over a gambling – table or gossiping on doorsteps never swept, letting the fields grow to weeds and our children go half fed!” (buck‘s, 59). the context of the utterance is when his uncle comes in wang lung‘s field. at that time he is working on his paddy field. his uncle comes to ask for money. his uncle asks some money for him, he is like little boy but wang lung does not care. he always persuades his nephew to give money. wang lung does not stop to work. he takes a pity to look at him and then he gives some money for him. he knows that his money is spent on the gambling table. interpretation: the speech uttered by wang lung indicates that he indirectly persuades his uncle to work, not only do gambling. (4) wang lung: ―they cannot take the land from me. the labour of my body and the fruit of the fields i have put into that which cannot be taken away. if i had the silver, they would have taken it. if i had bought with the silver to store it, they would have taken it all. i have the land still, and it is mine ―(buck‘s, 70). register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 129 the context is his neighbors come to his house again. they enter to the house looking for food. wang lung cannot do anything, he just look at his neighbors searching his house. he stands in front of the door. he is forced by his uncle to give a small heap of bean and a handful of corn. actually, he will give food for his children, father and himself. his uncle shows that one of wang lung‘s children is fat. he proves that his nephew has a lot of food in the house. interpretation: this expression of anger is quite clear. he expresses his feeling directly that he does not permit his people take everything he has. he also uses conditional sentence to make indirect proposition (5) wang lung: come, woman, we will go south” (buck‘s, 75). the context is when wang lung said to his wife that they will go to the southern city exactly in kiangsu city. they go to southern city to flee from famine and dryness disaster in his village. the possessive feeling to his land is brought in kiangsu. interpretation: he calls his wife woman to show that they are really intimate and he expects his wife to go with him. (6) wang lung: i will not sell my land,‟ (buck‘s, 81). the context: he does not like other people in his village that gives his land easily to someone from the town. although his family feels hungry, he will not sell his land to anyone. he looks at them one by one and he is very angry with them. it is shown that wang lung defends his land. although he cannot plant anything in his field, he will not sell his land. he loves his land so much. interpretation: it is declarative sentence to show that he has firm character. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 130 (7) wang lung: “if i had anything to sell i would sell it and go back to the land. or if were not for the old head, we would walk though we starved. but how can he hand the small child walk a hundred miles? and you with your burden! ” (buck‘s, 110). the context is when wang lung lives in kiangsu, he always remembers and thinks about his land. he feels that his land is waiting for him. he knows that his village has been poured by rain in this month and the land becomes fertile. then he goes back to the hut and he says roughly to his wife. the strong feels of his land makes him always miss for his land. he wants to sell everything and goes back to the land but he does not have anything to sell. even if his father and his children are able to walk a hundred miles but they cannot walk as far as a hundred miles. interpretation: this is a conditional sentence, wang lung utters something that is hard to realize, but he has a great spirit. (8) wang lung: „ on such a day as this.‟ he said aloud to his father the fields should be turned and wheat cultivated ‟ (buck‘s, 110). the context is he feels he cannot survive again in the southern city. he really wants to go home in ahwei. it is the name of his village. he always remembers and thinks of his land as long as he lives in kiangsu. kiangsu is the name of the southern city. when in the evening wind blows on his face for the moment, he feels a mighty longing for his field. he tells his father that on such a day the fields must be cultivated by wheat. he loves his land. his felling appears when he feels he cannot survive again in the southern city. (9) wang lung: ―if i had the gold and silver and the jewels, i would buy land with it, good land and i would bring forth harvests from the land! ―(buck‘s, 116). register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 131 wang lung goes to southern city. he avoids famine disaster in his village. he lives in southern city. he lives in the hut. there are many huts in the southern city. he listens to dialogue among the people near his hut. they talk about their life after that he talks about their dreams. they dream when they have much money and gold, what they will do with their money and gold. for the moment, wang lung suddenly says; it shows that wang lung considers that there is nothing important than the land in his life. the land is more valuable than gold, money or silver. land becomes priority in his life. (10) looking at his wife with strange eyes, wang lung cries out at her: ― now any one looking at you would say you were the wife of a common fellow and never of one who has land which he hires men to plough! “ (buck‘s, 160). wang lung‘s behavior and life style changed after he becomes a landlord and also his lifestyle. he becomes consumptive and then is also practise polygamy. at the first meeting with lotus in the great tea – shop, it makes pioneer affair between wang lung and lotus. lotus makes him ignore his wife. his land gives the wealth. in reality, the wealth brings negative impact to him. he has affair with the girl who meets him in the great tea – shop. since he meets lotus in that place, he feels that his wife does not look beautiful anymore. he begins to insult his wife. he feels bored with his wife when he looks her body. there is nothing beautiful on his wife‘s body. he finds the beauty in lotus because woman symbolizes beauty but he does not find it in his wife. wang lung feels that his wife just gives him the children but she does not take care of his body. he says so without thinking about her feeling. he ignores the feeling of his wife after he becomes a landlord. his wife thought that she does not suit for him. in fact, his wife is loyal to him. she never asks anything to him. she gives him children from her womb. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 132 (11) wang lung looks at her and said loudly; ―i mean, cannot you buy a little oil your hair other women do and make yourself a new coat of black? and those your wear are not fit for a land prop rioter‟s wife, such as you now are‟―(buck‘s, 161). he looks at his wife. she does not have something special in her body and then he looks at wife‘s hair. her hair does not look beautiful. she seldom gives shampoo on her head. she never makes up his face and also gives a little oil on her hair. she never wears good dress like any other women do. she does not look like as the wife of landlord in her village. he considers that his wife is not suitable for landlord‘s wife. he looks of his wife like wife of farmer, not wife of landlord. (12) wang lung says to his wife; ―i have laboured and have grown rich and i would have my wife look less like a hind ―(buck‘ 161). he has worked hard and he is rich man in his village. he has lots of lands everywhere and he can rent labors to work in his field. he wants his wife looks beautiful when other person looks at her. it makes him proud himself when he has a beautiful wife. on the other hand, he admits that he is a landlord in his village. (13) wang lung; ―my uncle is one of the red breads‖ (buck‘s, 219). the context is when wang lung has become a rich man in his village but he feels no calm in his house. he has a lot of land. his lands give him good harvest. thus, he can change his harvest with money and save some in the warehouse. he worries when the robber comes to his house and then they take everything in his house. everyday he thinks his problem because he cannot fight against the robber alone. he is surprised knowing that the leader of the robber is his uncle. his uncle lives together in his house. the name of register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 133 the robber is red breads. he will stay at home although the robbers come to his house. he does not want to leave his house moreover his land. he will choose to die than leaving his land. interpretation: he knows that his uncle is the robber but he doesn‘t want to take any risk of giving his wealth to other people. he will defends his belongings from anyone who wants to rob, including to his own uncle. (13) wang lung: “on the same day we will bury these two dead from our house and i will take a good piece of my hill land and we will bury them there together and when i die i will be laid there also“(buck‘s, 253). the context is when wang lung‘s wife and ching die in his village. wang lung‘s wife is a good woman. ching is a faithful servant and also his neighbor. they are the people that he loves during his life in the world. his love is like he loves his land. both leave him from the world and they sleep forever. he feels sad. his wife dies because she has incurable disease. ching dies because he is old. wang lung gives his good earth for funeral to them. when he dies he wants his body buried in his land and together with his wife and ching. interpretation: from the quotation above, it shows that he loves his land so much. he wants to be buried in his land when he dies next day. (14) wang lung curses his god. he says ― now that old man in heaven will enjoy himself, for he will look down and see people drowned and starving and what the accursed ones likes ― (buck‘s, 257). wang lung disavows his enjoyment that is given from his god. he is angry when his lands get flood disaster. the land that he loves much was attacked by flood disaster. all of his lands are full of water. he is against curse of his god when his lands attacked by flood disaster. wang lung‘s register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 134 behavior shows that he is a possessive person to his lands. it makes him materialistic because he considers that land is part of his life because wang lung is a good farmer. in this case land is part of matter. conclusion the utterance used in communication among people seems to be universal. the utterance must be interpreted in term of in what context the conversation takes place. in the context of rural people in the novel the good earth, the speech act used in the conversation varies from direct to indirect speech act. the direct speech acts which are mostly used by the people who have similar social status are also mostly found in this novel. the pragmatic analysis can help readers understand the society. people in the society have speech community in which the social aspects of group‘s people can emerge. the novel proves it. references brenann, joseph gerad. 1967 . the meaning of philosophy. new york: harper & row publisher. buck s, pearl. 1971. the good earth. great britain: methuen and co. ltd. london. edwards, paul. 1967. the encyclopedia of philosophy. usa: mcmillan, inc. muktazam, rethinking rural development approaches to ensure human security in asia: lesson learnt from indonesia, thailand and malaysia. http://nobelprizes.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1938/buckbio.htm1(accessed on may 25 h 2007.23. 30 pm). microsoft word 01_register 2020 no 2 agus rianto register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020), pp. 231-256 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i2.231-256 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn : 2503-040x 231 a study of language learning strategy use among indonesian efl university students agus rianto english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas borneo tarakan, tarakan city, 77123, indonesia email: riant2@hotmail.com doi: 10.18326/rgt.v13i2.231-256 submission track: received: 03-08 -2020 final revision: 13-10-2020 available online: 01-12-2020 copyright © 2020 agus rianto this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract this study investigated the use of language learning strategies among 329 indonesian undergraduate students in their english as foreign language learning. the strategy inventory for language learning (sill) version 7.0 for esl/efl learners developed by oxford was employed to measure the students’ efl learning strategies based on gender, study program, and english proficiency differences. a descriptive analysis and an independent t-test were used to analyze the collected data. the findings showed that the female, the social science, and the higher english proficiency students used overall language learning strategies more frequently in their efl learning. metacognitive was the strategy category most used by the students and compensation was the least used one. the memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social strategy categories were used at a high level and the compensation strategy category, at a moderate level. although there were significant differences in the use of overall strategy and strategy categories between males and females and between social science and science students, no significant differences were found in use between students with lower and higher english proficiency. the findings had several practical implications in the process of efl learning, especially in the higher education context. keywords: language learning strategy; english proficiency; gender; sill; study programs agus rianto register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 232 introduction the use of appropriate language learning strategies is believed to be one of the factors that can help achieve the goal of foreign language learning. studies have confirmed that language learning strategies help students become more effective in the classroom and encourage the development of more efficient mastery of the target language use (al-qahtani, 2013; oxford, 2016; wong & nunan, 2011). the present study adopted oxford’s (1990) strategy inventory for language learning (sill) as its instrument to measure efl learning strategies of indonesian university students based on their gender, study program, and english proficiency differences. the main reason for choosing this inventory accounts for its high reliability and the fact that it is a widely employed instrument in investigating the use of language learning strategies for efl students (oxford and burry-stock, 1995). within oxford’s (1990) framework, the six categories of language learning strategies are classified into two taxonomic sets, namely direct and indirect strategies. direct language learning strategies, which include memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies, require mental processes to receive, maintain, store, and take words or other aspects of the target language. indirect language learning strategies that consist of metacognitive, affective, and social strategies are more about learning organizations through activities that allow students to regulate thoughts and feelings. oxford has recently reviewed her strategy categories and developed a model with four different strategy categories, namely cognitive, affective, sociocultural-interactive, and meta-strategies. meta-strategies consist of metacognitive, meta-affective, and meta-sociocultural-interactive strategies (griffith and oxford, 2014; oxford, 2016). in this study, language learning strategies were defined in line with the concepts put forward by oxford—as processes and actions that were consciously used by language learners to help learn or use language more effectively. various studies on language learning strategies have aimed at identifying the strategies frequently used by language learners. in comparing the use of direct and indirect strategies on vocabulary learning of efl iranian high school students, taghinezhad, azizi, shahmohammadi, kashanifar, & azadikhah a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 233 (2016) found that students at the upper secondary level tended to opt for more indirect than direct language learning strategies and teaching students about indirect learning strategies proved beneficial for students at the middle to the upper level. teachers were advised to help students organize their ideas, negotiate their daily events and experiences, and discuss their feelings with each other while learning in class. meanwhile, in a study conducted with preintermediate students in an iranian university, naeimi & foo (2015) found that students who used direct strategies outperformed those who opted for indirect strategies in vocabulary learning. the use of direct strategies at the preintermediate level led the students to higher achievement vocabulary storage in reading comprehension. teachers were encouraged to implement direct language learning strategies in the early stages of vocabulary learning because it was practically effective. these studies have emphasized the importance of implementing appropriate language learning strategies in helping students achieve their foreign language learning goals. some researchers have reported students' preferences in using language learning strategies and factors influencing their strategy choices in their efl learning. overall, the most commonly adopted strategies were metacognitive, compensation, and cognitive. however, chamot (2004) argued that different strategy preferences were influenced by different cultural contexts. chinese and singaporean students reported higher use of social strategies and lower use of affective strategies than european students. yang (2007) found that compensation was the strategy most often used by chinese students for its ability to provided learners with a great opportunity to guess meanings even with limited grammar and vocabulary knowledge. in addition, shmais (2003) reported that memory strategies were most widely used by students who majored in english at a palestinian university and compensation strategies were the least used strategy because it was linked to the culture and education system. it was mentioned that in palestine students had limited opportunities to use functional practice strategies, especially in large classes because passing exams and answering questions directly related to the specified textbook represented the main focus. as a result, students were reluctant to use compensation strategies. a study by lengkanawati (2004) revealed that the use of memory strategies that were not sensitive to efl students was an indication agus rianto register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 234 that it was a cultural habit. for example, according to australian students, remembering difficult words was an ineffective learning strategy while indonesian students claimed to have a habit of learning to memorize. besides cultural differences, several important factors that influenced the choice of language learning strategies were age, the nature of assignments, and course methodology (suesca torres & torres pérez, 2017). these studies have identified that the cultural context and education system were the factors that influenced the choice of students' language learning strategies. further studies need to explore other factors that might also influence the selection of students’ language learning strategies including gender, study program, and level of language proficiency because findings from such studies can help create an effective process of foreign language learning. gender and use of language learning strategies various studies have examined the use of language learning strategies based on gender differences. the results of these studies have mixed conclusions; while some research results have shown differences in language learning strategy use between female and male students, other research studies have reported opposite findings. in a study involving turkish students, tezcan and deneme (2015) found significant differences in the overall language learning strategies used by the students. the study found that female students resorted to more language learning strategies compared to their male counterparts. similarly, in investigating language learning strategies (lls) used by saudi efl students (66 males, 68 females), alhaysony (2017) found that female students used more lls than male students, although the difference was not significant. however, research by hakan et al. (2015) found a significant difference only in the compensation strategies, which were more widely used by male students compared to their female counterparts. in addition, in a study of 56 pre-university students, kiram et al. (2014) found that females used more strategies than males for all language learning strategies, except for compensation strategies, where these strategies were more dominant among males. however, further tests revealed that there were only significant differences in the use of cognitive and social strategies based on gender. a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 235 on the other hand, other studies found no differences in the use of language learning strategies based on gender. in a study on malaysian students, kashefian-naeeini and maarof (2010) found no significant differences in all gender-based language learning strategies even though women were more likely to use memory, metacognitive and affective strategies than men. nguyen and godwyll (2010) also revealed no significant differences in the use of language learning strategies based on gender even though women have a higher tendency to use more language learning strategies. in addition, in a study on turkish students, kayaoğlu (2012) found that there were no significant differences in the use of overall language learning strategy among male and female science students, although significant differences were found in the use of individual language learning strategies. these studies have revealed that the influence of gender has produced various findings in the use of lls. however, research focusing on gender influence on the choice of lls among indonesian students remains limited. such research is of key importance as it can help create an effective foreign language learning process. what makes this study different from previous research is the investigation of the level of lls used by indonesian students in efl learning based on gender differences. academic programs and use of language learning strategies an academic program has been considered by researchers as one of the factors influencing students in the selection of language learning strategies. in a study examining the relationship between academic programs and the use of language learning strategies among chinese students, rao (2005) found that students from the social science program employed language learning strategies with a greater frequency than students from the science program on the overall and the individual strategies. using the strategy inventory for language learning (sill) developed by oxford (1990), the study revealed that 5 strategy items related specifically to english learning were used more frequently by social science students, while 4 strategy items clearly related to logical analysis and associations were more often used by science students. in addition, in a study investigating strategies of learning english as a foreign language at the faculty of technical sciences, university of novi sad, šafranj agus rianto register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 236 (2013) found that university majors influenced the use of students’ language learning strategies. the students from the industrial management major used the resourceful independent strategies more often than the students from the other two majors examined, electrical engineering and graphic and design engineering. also, the industrial management students used the functional practice strategies significantly more often than the electrical engineering students, but not significantly more often than the graphic and design engineering students. in other studies, chamot et al. (1987) and oxford & nyikos (1989) reported that academic majors were shown to have a statistically significant effect on the choice of language learning strategies, with the students from humanities/social/education majors using independent strategies and functional practice (authentic language use) strategies more often than the students from other majors. in a previous study, politzer & mcgroarty (1985) found that specification fields such as engineering/science vs. social science/humanities significantly influenced students on strategy choices in learning english as a second language, with engineering students tending to avoid strategies that were considered positive for getting communicative language proficiency. however, slightly contradictory results were found by gu (2002) that despite differences in strategies in the arts and science majors, academic majors did not become strong background factors in influencing the use of language learning strategies. although there were inconsistent results, these studies in general revealed that there was a relationship between study programs and students’ selection of language learning strategies. students from humanities/social/education programs are more likely to use language learning strategies and choose independent and functional practice strategies than students from other programs. these results indicate that certain types of language learning strategies might be more appropriate for students from certain study programs. further research needs to explore this issue because the use of appropriate language learning strategies is believed to have a positive effect on the achievement of language learning. research that focuses on this issue is scarce, and for the context of learning english as a foreign language in indonesia, this was the first research study conducted. a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 237 language proficiency and use of language learning strategies language proficiency is believed to have a role in the selection of language learning strategies used by students. various studies have specifically investigated the use of lls among students with different levels of english proficiency. in general, english proficiency is measured among others through self-ratings, results of proficiency and achievement tests, and scores of english courses (habók & magyar, 2018). in a recent study examining the use of lls among indonesian high school students with different english proficiency levels, sartika, santihastuti, and wahjuningsih (2019) revealed that metacognitive was the strategy most often used by more efficient students, whereas cognitive was the strategy most often used by less efficient students. the study also showed that more efficient students used overall strategies more frequently than less efficient students. this was an indication that the more efficient students had the ability to plan clear goals, control, review, and evaluate their learning than their counterparts, who were more focused on the way they thought, memorized, summarized, and repeated learning. another recent study by abdul-ghafour and alrefaee (2019) identified the use of language learning strategies between higher and lower-achieving students in a yemeni university. the study found that the strategies more often used by the high-achieving students were metacognitive, compensatory, and cognitive while those less frequently used by these students were affective, memory, and social. meanwhile, the strategies more often used by low-achieving students were metacognitive and affective and those less frequently used by these students were cognitive, social, and memory. in a study identifying what language learning strategies were often used by efl undergraduates at a state university in thailand, charoento (2016) revealed that students who had higher english language skills used the most metacognitive strategies, while those who had lower english language skill used the most social strategies. in addition, al-qahtani (2013) who investigated the use of lls among applied medical science undergraduates in saudi arabia found that high english achieving students mainly opted for cognitive strategies. a study of taiwanese efl students revealed that english proficiency significantly influenced the use of language learning strategies, with high-level students using strategies more agus rianto register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 238 often than low-level students especially for cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategies (rao, 2016). furthermore, magogwe and oliver (2007) discovered that the basic difference in the use of language learning strategies between these students was that more successful students not only used certain strategies significantly more often, but they also chose the most adequate strategy depending on the goals their assignment. it can be concluded from these studies that english proficiency plays a role in the selection of language learning strategies and that students with higher english proficiency used more language learning strategies than those with lower english proficiency. preferences in the use of language learning strategies possessed by students with different english skills need to be further investigated in different contexts. studies with such a focus are highly recommended to be carried out in indonesia to complement the lack of empirical data and literature specifically related to the use of language learning strategies among students in a higher education context. research questions although various studies have examined the use of language learning strategies among efl students, the literature revealed very limited data on the use of language learning strategies among indonesian university students. the main motivation of this study was to respond to the literature deficit mainly related to the use of lls by indonesian efl students in the higher education context. therefore, this study was carried out to investigate the following research questions: 1. which group of indonesian university students based on gender, study programs, and english proficiency used overall language learning strategies more frequently in their efl learning? 2. which strategy categories were the most and the least used by the students? 3. what were the levels of the students’ language learning strategy use? 4. were there significant differences in the use of language learning strategies based on gender, study programs, and english proficiency? a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 239 research method participants respondents of this study were indonesian native speakers who learned english as a foreign language at the universitas borneo tarakan, indonesia. of the 340 students who filled out the questionnaire, 329 were taken as the final respondents after 11 were rejected because there were values missing in their responses. they consisted of 147 males and 182 females. the students were enrolled in 16 study programs and for the purpose of this research they were categorized into two groups—the social science students (53%) and the science students (47%). in addition, measured through scores obtained in an english test, a total of 246 respondents were categorized into lower english skill students and 83 were into higher english skill students. instruments the strategy inventory for language learning (sill) for esl/efl learners developed by oxford (1990) was used to assess the respondents’ language learning strategy use. the questionnaire was organized into six strategy groups (parts a-f) categorized according to oxford's original identification and classification system. part a (memory strategies) consists of strategies used to store, remember, and retrieve information. these strategies reflect very simple principles, such as organizing things in sequence, making associations, and reviewing them. consisting of 9 items, these strategies are divided into four sets: creating mental links, applying images and sounds, reviewing well, and employing actions. part b (cognitive strategies) consists of mental processes in learning a new language ranging from repetition, expression analysis to summation, with all its variations. cognitive strategies are united by a general function of manipulation or transformation of the target language by students. this strategy category is the largest strategy group in sill, which includes 14 items related to practice and in-depth processing that students use to analyze new information and monitor understanding. part c (compensation strategies) consists of strategies that allow students to use a new language for understanding or production even though there are limitations in knowledge. these strategies have 6 items, which include guessing the meaning from context and using gestures or synonyms to convey meaning when language is agus rianto register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 240 limited. compensation strategies are grouped into two sets: smart guessing in listening and reading, and overcoming limitations in speaking and writing. part d (metacognitive strategies) consists of actions that go beyond pure cognitive devices and which provide ways for students to coordinate their own learning processes. these strategies consist of 9 items that can be grouped into three sets: centralizing learning, organizing and planning learning, and evaluating learning. part e (affective strategies) consists of affective factors such as emotions, attitudes, motivations, and values. these strategies help students gain control over these factors. consisting of 6 items, these strategies are grouped into three main sets: anxiety reduction, self-impulse, and gifts. part f (social strategies) is connected to the communication process that occurs between and among people. these strategies consist of 6 items including asking questions, collaborating with peers, and becoming culturally aware. high reliability coefficient for sill (from 0.85 to 0.98), as reported by oxford and burry-stock (1995), has made it the most widely used instrument in investigating the use of language learning strategies for efl students was the main reason why it was used in this study. procedure to assess the use of the respondents’ language learning strategies, sill— which included gender and study program information—was given to the students outside of their lecture hours. the students were informed that the personal information they provided was solely for research purposes and therefore confidentiality was fully guarded. they were also informed that they would find statements about learning english and to read each statement carefully. they were asked to answer in terms of how well the statements described them, not how they should be, or what other people were doing. there were no right or wrong answers to the statements. respondents were instructed to circle the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. to measure their use of language learning strategies, the respondents were asked to circle the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 which indicated how true each statement was to them. the five-point likert scale is developed by oxford. number l (never or almost never true of me) means that the statement is very rarely true to respondents. number 2 (usually not true of me) means that the a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 241 statement is true less than half the time. number 3 (somewhat true of me) means that statement is true half the time. number 4 (usually true of me) means that statement is true more than half the time. number 5 (always or almost always true of me) means that the statement is always true to respondents. to find out levels of use of the language learning strategies, this study employed a scale of strategy usage developed by oxford (1990) which consists of three levels: high usage (mean scores of 3.5-5.0), moderate usage (mean scores of 2.5-3.4), and low usage (mean scores of 1.02.4). to find out the gender and academic programs of the respondents, this study added two items in the sill, each asking about the study program and the gender. to determine the respondents’ english proficiency, this study used scores of a paper-based english test consisting of listening comprehension, structure and written expression, and reading comprehension. this test was administered by the university’s language center. based on the test scores obtained, the students were grouped into two categories: lower english skills (those with the english test scores of less than 460) and higher english skills (those with the english test scores of 460 and above). this categorization of english proficiency was in accordance with what was determined by the university. data analysis this research used descriptive and quantitative methods. the statistical package for social sciences (spss, version 14.0) for microsoft windows was used to help analyze the data collected. the descriptive analysis was carried out to answer the first, second, and third research questions. in addressing the first research question, the mean scores of the overall strategy use were compared. to answer the second research question, the mean scores of each strategy category were compared and ranked. to address the third research question, the mean scores of each strategy category were classified using the oxford’s scale of strategy usage. finally, an independent t-test with a p-value of 5% (0.05) was performed to address the fourth research question. findings and discussion this study sought to examine language learning strategies used by indonesian university students in their efl learning based on gender, study agus rianto register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 242 programs, and english proficiency. specifically, the examination was focused on the use of the overall strategy, the use of the strategy categories, levels of the strategy use, and differences in the strategy use based on gender, study programs, and english proficiency. strategy use by gender the analysis of language learning strategies use by gender was focused on the overall strategy use, the strategy category use, levels of the strategy use, and differences in the strategy use between the male and the female students. results of the descriptive analysis on language learning strategy use by gender are reported in table 1. table 1. descriptive analysis of language learning strategy use by gender strategy category gender mean s.d strategy use level strategy use rank direct memory male 3.66 .46 high 4 female 3.82 .44 high 4 cognitive male 3.55 .53 high 5 female 3.67 .47 high 5 compensation male 3.23 .61 moderate 6 female 3.28 .62 moderate 6 indirect metacognitive male 3.95 .57 high 1 female 4.09 .48 high 1 affective male 3.70 .61 high 3 female 3.89 .56 high 3 social male 3.90 .53 high 2 female 4.03 .53 high 2 overall strategy use male 3.66 .41 high female 3.80 .36 high table 2. results of t-test for strategy use by gender strategy category t df sig. (2-tailed) direct memory -3.15 327 .00* cognitive -2.29 327 .02* compensation -.81 327 .42 indirect metacognitive -2.40 285 .02* affective -2.40 327 .00* social -2.35 327 .02* overall strategy use -3.18 327 .00* *differences were significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 243 the female students used more language learning strategies than the male students in their efl learning as indicated by the mean scores of the overall strategy use (male = 3.66; female = 3.80). metacognitive, social, and affective were the strategy categories more frequently used by both the male and the female students, while memory, cognitive, and compensation were the strategy categories less frequently used by these two groups of students. both the male and the female students used, at a high level, the memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social strategy categories and, at a moderate level, the compensation strategy category. the levels of strategy use were determined according to the oxford’s scales: high usage (mean scores of 3.5-5.0), moderate usage (mean scores of 2.5-3.4), and low usage (mean scores of 1.0-2.4). the female students had greater mean scores than the male students for the overall strategy use and the strategy category use. as reported in table 2, results of the independent t-test with a p-value of 0.05 showed that significant differences were found between the male and the female students for the overall strategy use and for five of the six strategy category use (memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social). however, there was no significant difference between the male and the female students for the use of the compensation strategy category. these findings were compatible with those of the previous studies on language learning strategies, which indicated that female students used more language learning strategies than male students (alhaysony, 2017; tezcan & deneme; 2015). overall, the female students in this study tended to be more concerned with the learning process and actions to help them learn or use english more effectively. an explanation of this finding could be for most indonesian female learners, failure in english learning seems to be something very embarrassing and they have a high expectation that they must be successful. the results of this study also revealed that metacognitive, social, and affective were the strategy categories that were more often used by both the male and the female students, with high-level usage. oxford (1990) classifies these three strategy categories as indirect strategies, meaning that although they are not directly involved in language learning, they can support direct learning strategies and manipulate language learning. this finding indicated that in learning english as a foreign language, agus rianto register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 244 the male and the female students preferred strategies that managed learning through activities that facilitated them in organizing their thoughts and feelings such as centralizing learning, organizing and planning learning, and evaluating learning (metacognitive strategies); anxiety reduction, self-impulse, and gifts (affective strategies); asking questions, collaborating with peers, and becoming culturally aware (social strategies). another interesting finding in this study was that the males and the females used the least the compensation strategy category, meaning that these two groups of students did not like learning activities that allowed them to use new languages for understanding or production such as guessing the meaning from context and using gestures or synonyms to convey ideas. this was likely due to the limited knowledge they had in english such as in listening, reading, speaking and writing. strategy use by study programs the analysis of language learning strategy use by study programs was focused on the use of the overall strategy, the use of the strategy categories, levels of the strategy use, and differences in the strategy use between the social science and the science students. results of the descriptive analysis on language learning strategy use by study programs are reported in table 3. table 3. descriptive analysis of strategy use by study programs strategy category study program mean s.d strategy use level strategy use rank direct memory social science 3.82 .43 high 4 science 3.67 .48 high 4 cognitive social science 3.70 .46 high 5 science 3.52 .54 high 5 compensation social science 3.25 .63 moderate 6 science 3.27 .61 moderate 6 indirect metacognitive social science 4.12 .47 high 1 science 3.92 .56 high 1 affective social science 3.87 .57 high 3 science 3.73 .60 high 3 social social science 4.03 .52 high 2 science 3.91 .54 high 2 overall strategy use social science 3.80 .37 high science 3.67 .39 high a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 245 the social science students had higher mean scores than the science students for the use of the overall strategy and for the use of the memory, cognitive, metacognitive, social, and affective strategy categories. overall, the students from the social science programs used more language learning strategies than the students from the science programs in their efl learning as indicated by the mean scores of the overall strategy use (social science = 3.80; science = 3.67). metacognitive, social, and affective were the strategy categories used more frequently by both the social science and the science students, while memory, cognitive, and compensation were the strategy categories used less frequently by these two groups of students, although higher mean scores were obtained by the social science students. the students from both the social science and the science programs used the memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social strategy categories at a high level and the compensation strategy category at a moderate level. as reported in table 4, results of the independent t-test with a p-value of 0.05 showed that significant differences were found between the social science students and the science students for the use of the overall strategy and for the use of memory, cognitive, metacognitive, and affective strategy categories. no significant differences were found for the use of compensation and social strategy categories. table 4. results of t-test of strategy use by study programs strategy category t df sig. (2-tailed) direct memory 3.20 327 .00* cognitive 3.21 327 .00* compensation -.34 327 .74 indirect metacognitive 3.33 300 .00* affective 2.06 327 .04* social 2.01 327 .05 overall strategy use 3.00 327 .01* *differences were significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) this finding is in accordance with what was found by rao (2005)—that the students from social science programs employed more language learning strategies than the students from science programs. further analysis in this study showed that significant differences were found in the use of the cognitive, agus rianto register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 246 metacognitive, and affective strategy categories between students from the two programs. these results indicated that compared to their counterparts from science programs the students from the social science programs were more involved in learning english activities aiming to store, remember, and retrieve information and in language learning activities that involved practice and indepth processing to analyze new information and monitor understanding. in addition, the students from social science programs tended to choose learning strategies that provided ways for them to coordinate their own learning processes and that involved affective factors such as emotions, attitudes, motivations, and values. this is also consistent with the findings found by chamot et al. (1987) and oxford & nyikos (1989) that the students from humanities/social/education majors opted for independent strategies and functional practice (authentic language use) strategies more often than the students from other majors. the independent strategies included the independent use of foreign language materials to memorize words and sentences such as lists of related words, fabricating sentences and exercises, using mnemonics, complicated sentences, using tape recorders and independent use of certain metacognitive actions such as planning, self-testing or self-gift. these strategies are the same as the items 18, 19, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 and 29 in the sill. the functional practice strategies required language practice in a natural environment outside the classroom such as watching foreign language films, finding native speakers for conversation, imitating native speakers, starting a foreign language conversation, and reading authentic material in a new language. these strategies are similar to the items 10, 11, 15, 30, 31, 32, 35, 37 and 38 in the sill. the difference in the use of strategies between the two groups of students seems to be caused by the preferences of students’ learning methods. students who enter the learning environment in higher education are generally aware of their preferences about how to be involved in the learning process. usually, the development of such preferences specifically comes from the learning approaches they adopt in everyday learning. social science students are more closely related to language learning than science students. this is evidenced by the findings in rao's (2005) study about 5 strategy items related specifically to a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 247 english learning being used more frequently by social science students compared to science students, while 4 strategy items more often used by science students were clearly related to logical analysis and associations. the application of curriculum in the indonesian education system seems to be another reason of differences in the use of language learning strategies between the social science and the science students. in general, social science students in indonesia are burdened with a relatively smaller number of academic jobs than science students. this allows social science students to use more time to learn english. in contrast, aside from the nature of the disciplines, science students seem to have more homework and experiments to complete their main studies. such contrast could make a big difference in the use of language learning strategies. this explanation is in accordance with rao’s (2005) qualitative findings that social science students often used timeconsuming strategies such as summarizing new english material, previewing english lessons and reviewing english lessons more often than science students. strategy use by english proficiency the analysis of language learning strategy use by english proficiency was focused on the use of the overall strategy, the use of strategy categories, levels of the strategy use, and differences in the strategy use between the students with lower english skills and the students with higher english skills. results of the descriptive analysis on language learning strategy use by english proficiency are reported in table 5. the mean score of the overall language learning strategy use obtained by the students with higher english skills (3.76) was slightly higher than that of the students with lower english skills (3.73), indicating that the higher english skill students used the overall language learning strategies slightly more often than the lower english skill students in their efl learning. for the students with higher english skills, the strategy categories more frequently used were social (4.02), metacognitive (3.97), and affective (3.85), while the strategy categories less frequently used were compensation (3.29), cognitive (3.62), and memory (3.82). for the students with lower english skills, the strategy categories more frequently used were metacognitive (4.04), social (3.96), and affective (3.79), agus rianto register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 248 while the strategy categories less frequently used were compensation (3.25), cognitive (3.62), and memory (3.73). both the students with higher and lower english skills used, at a high level, the memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social strategy categories and, at a moderate level, the compensation strategy category. table 5. descriptive analysis of strategy use by english proficiency strategy category english proficiency mean s.d strategy use level strategy use rank direct memory lower skills 3.73 .46 high 4 higher skills 3.82 .44 high 4 cognitive lower skills 3.62 .52 high 5 higher skills 3.62 .45 high 5 compensation lower skills 3.25 .62 medium 6 higher skills 3.29 .58 medium 6 indirect metacognitive lower skills 4.04 .52 high 1 higher skills 3.97 .55 high 2 affective lower skills 3.79 .60 high 3 higher skills 3.85 .56 high 3 social lower skills 3.96 .53 high 2 higher skills 4.02 .53 high 1 overall strategy use lower skills 3.73 .40 high higher skills 3.76 .36 high table 6. results of t-test of strategy use by english proficiency strategy category t df sig. (2-tailed) direct memory -1.67 327 .10 cognitive -.06 327 .95 compensation -.56 327 .57 indirect metacognitive 1.11 327 .27 affective -.85 327 .40 social -.92 327 .36 overall strategy use -.67 327 .51 the students with higher english skills obtained greater mean scores for the memory, compensation, affective, and social strategy categories than the students with lower english skills. for the metacognitive strategy category, both groups of students got the same mean score, while for the cognitive strategy category the students with lower english skills obtained higher mean a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 249 scores than their counterparts with higher english skills. however, as reported in table 6, the results of the independent t-test with a p-value of 0.05 showed no significant differences between the two groups of students in the use of the six strategy categories and in the use of the overall strategies. in general, this finding is not different from the results of the studies carried out previously (oxford & burry-stock, 1995; sartika, santihastuti, and wahjuningsih, 2019; oxford, 1993; yu, 2003), which indicated that students with higher language skills used more language learning strategies than those with lower language skills. however, the results of further analysis in this study found no significant differences in the use of all the strategy categories. this finding indicated that both the higher and the lower english skill students had the ability to plan clear goals, control, review, and evaluate their english learning as well as to focus on the way they thought, memorized, summarized, and repeated learning. in addition, this study revealed that the students with higher english skills used the most the social strategy category, while the students with lower english skills used the most the metacognitive strategy category. this finding indicated that the students with higher english skills tended to prefer english learning activities that were connected to the communication processes such as asking questions, collaborating with peers, and becoming culturally aware. meanwhile, the students with lower english skills tended to prefer english learning techniques that organized, focused, and evaluated their own learning. a more interesting finding in this study was that these two groups of students most rarely used the compensation strategy category, meaning that both the students with higher and lower english skills tended to dislike learning activities that allowed them to use new languages for understanding or production such as guessing or using movements even though to overcome the deficiencies and gaps in their current language knowledge. conclusion this study examined the use of language learning strategies among indonesian university students in their efl learning based on gender, study programs, and english proficiency. as far as gender was concerned, the female agus rianto register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 250 students used more language learning strategies than the male students in their efl learning. metacognitive was the strategy category the most used by both the male and the female students, while compensation was the strategy category the least used by these two groups of students. both the male and the female students used, at a high level, the memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social strategy categories and in moderate level the compensation strategy category. significant differences were found between the male and the female students for the use of the overall strategy and for the use of the memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social strategy categories. no significant difference was found between the male and the female students for the use of compensation strategy category. with regard to study programs, the social science students used more language learning strategies than the science students in their efl learning. metacognitive was the strategy category the most used by both the social science and the science students, while compensation was the strategy category the least used by these two groups of students. the students from both the social science and the science programs used, at high level, the memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social strategy categories and in moderate level the compensation strategy category. significant differences were found between the social science students and the science students for the use of the overall strategy and for the use of the memory, cognitive, metacognitive, and affective strategy categories. no significant differences were found for the use of the compensation and social strategy categories. in relation to english proficiency, the students with higher english proficiency used the overall language learning strategies slightly more often than the students with lower english proficiency in their efl learning. for the higher english skill students, the strategy category most frequently used was social and the least frequently used was compensation. for the lower english skill students, the strategy category most frequently used was metacognitive and the least frequently used was compensation. both the students with higher and lower english skills used in high level the memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social strategy categories and in moderate level the compensation strategy category. no significant differences were found a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 251 between the two groups of students in the use of the six strategy categories and in the use of the overall strategies. this study has several practical implications in the process of learning foreign languages in the classroom, especially at the higher education level. the existence of preferences in the use of language learning strategies pushes to the fore the need to give students further opportunities to practice a variety of strategies that suit different teaching tasks and activities. students from science study programs may require more explicit instructions and practices in memory strategies and compensation strategies such as using a mnemonic tool to learn new vocabulary and guess meaning from context. while students of social science may need more practice in using language learning strategies related to logical analysis and associations such as finding meaning by dividing words into sections and connecting new material to what is already known. another implication is directly related to students, instructors, and developers of language learning syllabi. students need to increase their awareness about the functions and use of the language learning strategy so that they are encouraged to choose and use strategies that are more appropriate at various stages of learning their target language. more importantly, awareness must also be built by language teachers as they need to recognize the significant role of using various strategies and other important factors to help their students in the language learning process. awareness like this will help language teachers respect individual differences among language learners and thus can lead them towards applying learner-centered classes. for designers of syllabi and material developers, they must be aware of the importance of incorporating learning strategies into syllabi, textbooks, assignments and activities that not only require the development of learning strategies but also provide opportunities to use these strategies. finally, as this study’s finding showed variations in the use of strategies by students, a further explanation of this variation can be facilitated by further studies that focus on the influence of other individual variables on the strategy use such as motivation, attitudes, personality types, and learning styles. agus rianto register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 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(2003). learning strategies and their relationship to listening comprehension-a report on non-english majors in a medical university in china. teaching english in china, 26(4), 3-11. agus rianto register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 256 this page is intentionally left blank register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 12 the experimental study of the effectiveness of teaching speaking by using cartoon in the fifth year students of islamic elementary school uswatun hasanah english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga uswatun84@gmail.com abstract this research was carried out to find out how far the achievement of speaking english lesson by using cartoon and a significant difference of the students speaking ability between the students taught by using cartoon media and those taught without using cartoon media. the research was conducted at islamic elementary school (madrasah ibtidaiyah) lancar, wonosobo, central java, indonesia. the objects of the research were the fifth year students. this is quantitative research. technique of sampling in this research used classified random sampling. the result of the research is the score of the post-test from the experiment group is higher (7,68) than the score of the post-test from control group (6,95). therefore, the writer might conclude that using of cartoon media proved better result in speaking skill than students who are taught without using cartoon media. it means that there is significant difference of the students speaking skill between those using cartoon media and those who do not use cartoon in teaching speaking. also, there is a significant contribution of using cartoon in teaching speaking. keywords: effectiveness, speaking, cartoon media, teaching speaking through cartoon for elementary school students abstrak penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui sejauh mana pencapaian pelajaran berbicara bahasa inggris dengan media kartun dan perbedaan yang signifikan dari kemampuan berbicara antara siswa yang diajar dengan menggunakan media kartun dengan siswa yang tidak diajar menggunakan media kartun. penelitian ini dilakukan di madrasah ibtidaiyah lancar, wonosobo, jawa tengah, indonesia. objek penelitian ini adalah siswa kelas lima. ini adalah penelitian kuantitatif dengan teknik sampling yang digunakan adalah random register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 13 sampling. hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan skor post test dari kelas eksperimen lebih tinggi (7,68) daripada skor post test dari kelas kontrol (6,95). sehingga, peneliti bisa menyimpulkan bahwa penggunaan media kartun membuktikan hasil yang lebih baik jika diterapkan dalam pengajaran ketrampilan berbicara bahasa inggris. hal ini berarti ada perbedaan yang signifikan dari kemampuan berbicara antara siswa yang diajar dengan menggunakan media kartun dengan siswa yang tidak diajar menggunakan media kartun. selain itu, penggunaan media kartun dalam pengajaran berbicara bahasa inggris merupakan satu kontribusi yang penting. kata kunci: keefektifan, berbicara, media kartun, pengajaran bahasa inggris dengan kartun untuk siswa sekolah dasar introduction the primary task of a teacher is educating. education is an activity done consciously to develop students‟ potential and change self quality from low quality to the high one. many problems are faced in teaching learning process especially for teachers who are responsible to make students understand the materials, to control the classroom, so the students enjoy, happy in learning process and success in their study. most of the english teachers use the traditional method in teaching speaking. they usually read the new words or write them on the blackboard and ask the students to be able to memorize the words as soon as possible and as many as possible as well. the problems which commonly appears is that the students forget the words which they have just learned easily and get bored with what they are reading in the reading materials. for these reasons above, good teachers who have high capability in teaching learning process are needed. teachers should have a good method. a certain technique is very important. it is better for the teachers to be creative in preparing and applying it. the technique here may use visual aids, especially in teaching speaking. visual aids are available in register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 14 many forms, for example pictures, cards, games, puzzle, etc. in this study, the writer observes the teaching speaking by using cartoon. cartoon is part of visual media. according to arsyad (1997:89), visual media has an important role in teaching learning process. by using cartoon, the teacher would be able to motivate them to learn and pay deep attention to the presentable materials by the teachers, so the students will not be tedious. regarding the explanation above, the writer would like to know the influence of using cartoon as the media to the students‟ speaking skill. the writer chooses the students‟ speaking skill because it is suitable with indonesian government which determines english as a compulsory subject which must be taught since elementary school until senior high school. to make the students speak english easily, the writer uses cartoon media. the students in this research are the fifth years students of islamic elementary school lancar who are still suitable to use cartoon media, as zenger (1982 : 83) said that cartoon are alright for elementary school age pupil or young people. by using media may make students more interested in learning english. thus, they have a good quality in english speaking, especially the students in islamic elementary school lancar. based on the problems above, the objectives of research can be specified as follows: (1) to find out how far the achievement of speaking english lesson by using cartoon (2) to find out a significant difference of the students speaking ability between the students taught by using cartoon media and those taught without using cartoon media. the writer also presented the research hypothesis which was stated as follows: “ there is a significant difference in teaching speaking between students who are taught by using carton and those are not taught by using cartoon of the fifth year students of islamic elementary school lancar.” register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 15 speaking 'speaking' as language skill is a primary skill. the skill holds a crucial part in human life from the beginning to build the relationship of two directions in giving and receiving information. speaking is method of transcribing the sounds of language. the sounds of language can be described in three principal ways: according to (1) their composition, (2) their distribution and (3) their function (dinneen, 1967:20). people express their ideas, emotions and desires through speech by forming sounds and the human being forms sounds in order to express himself and to communicate with others. speaking cannot be separated from listening. it can be seen when a speaker says something, she/he needs to listen the other speaker in order to get interaction between speaker and listener. tarigan (1986 : 86) stated, “speaking is an interactive process and one which difficult to associate from listening in many ways.” speaking is developing after listening skill in children‟s life, for example: in their first two months babies just listen to the people around them. they can repeat some of words that often used. this statement is supported in interacting with others, children hear many well formed sentences. from listening to adults and others, they extract rules about the language they heard. it is emphasized by k. jarome, who mentioned, “they very quickly absorb rules of structure and begin to use them.” from the statement above, the writer concludes that speaking is the expression of ideas, emotions and desires through speech by forming sound or oral interactions directly which give information to other people. if someone wants to speak, he/she need to hear. speaking skill cannot be separated with listening skill. in teaching and learning process, the principles register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 16 above can be applied. this can be applied through the use of words as words in cartoon script. media oxford defines media as mass communications, such as television, radio, newspaper, etc. instructional media includes a wide range of materials, equipment, and technique: chalkboard, bulletin, filmstrips, slides, cartoon, tv, models, demonstrations, charts, maps, book, and combination of these. the audiovisual aids can be interpreted as any substances which play an important role in teaching and learning processes. they help the students master the material more interestingly. audiovisual aids as one of the media are not new things in the instructional world. things such as television and video compact disk are often found in the teaching learning process. in addition, there are several functions of media in general and their contributions to language learning. those include: a. the instructional can be more interesting visual aids can attract the students‟ interest, especially those of english learners. if they are interested, they will give much attention to what is being taught or discussed. this can lead to an interesting language learning process. b. learning becomes more interactive many activities can be created through applying visual aids in the teaching, for example: watching cartoon on television. this activity is relatively more interesting than the activity of listening or writing the teacher‟s explanation. c. the quality of learning can be improved register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 17 if there is a good preparation of using visual aids, it will be possible for teacher to create a good language which students‟ participation is dominant. as a result, the students‟ knowledge and skill can be improved. d. the positive attitude of students toward what they are learning and to the learning process itself can be enhanced. cartoon k.z sharon (1977: 82) said that „cartoon‟ is humorous pictorial drawing which utilize sarcasm, ridicule, and exaggeration about a person, action and subject of current interest. its main purposes are to attract attention and to motivate in a concise manner. cartoon is one of the media for learning. cartoon is usually found in newspapers, magazines, or other publication and takes them to class for discussion purposes. for pupils producing their own cartoons, many different materials can be employed. the cartoons could be drawn, paint brushes and chalk. cartoon can also be used for political matters, for example when cartoonist wants to satirize politician, he usually draws the politician picture in newspaper or magazine. sharon and weldon (1977: 57) states, “cartoon can be used to emphasize certain points in reading material or to exaggerate something about a popular political person then some are merely for fun“. the advantages of cartoon media as the teaching and learning media, cartoon has several advantages as follows: a. the students pay more attention and interested to study. b. helps in understanding a message faster than by reading about the topic in an article. c. aids in comprehending an overall concept by breaking it down into simple form. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 18 d. teaches that cartoons can be biased and that pupils need to read carefully and critically. e. arouses emotions and can affect attitudes and behaviors. f. can be drawn by a student showing what he has learned from a lesson. g. cartoon can stimulate and motivate students to become observant and express them. teaching speaking through cartoon for elementary school students teaching cannot be defined apart from learning. in teaching speaking, to satisfy the practical demands of education, theories of learning must be “stood on the other hand” so as to yield theories of teaching. language learning is an active process. it is not enough for learners just to have the necessary knowledge to make things meaningful, they must also use that knowledge. however, it is important to be cleared of what we mean by the term active in the teaching of speaking skill, we are engaged in two processes: 1. forging an instrument 2. giving the students practice in its use (rivers, 1981: 190) most children like cartoon. they like cartoon because it is fun. it is their favorite amusement during late childhood (late childhood extends from the age of six to the time individual become sexually mature). in reading, children like to read some books which are related to cartoon. they found it in adult magazine or in newspaper. children also like to buy and collect some comic books. they keep their pocket money to buy them. in watching television, children like to watch cartoon programs. on sunday morning they do not want to go out because many televisions broadcast cartoon programs such as shincan, donald duck, sailor moon, etc. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 19 based on the statement above, it can be assumed that most children like to see cartoon. so, cartoon can be used as a visual aid in teaching. sadiman (1986: 47) stated cartoon has big ability for making an intention. therefore, it is part of visual aids. teacher can use cartoon as visual aids. it can help the learner to catch the information in english speaking. the teacher can also make variety by using cartoon. as an example: the teacher can cut cartoon from comic book, comic magazine or newspaper. after cutting, the teacher collects and classifies it based on the topic. research methodology the research was conducted at islamic elementary school (madrasah ibtidaiyah) lancar, wonosobo, central java, indonesia. the objects of the research were the fifth year students in the academic year of 2006/2007. this is quantitative research. technique of sampling in this research used classified random sampling. by this technique, the writer united the objects in population, so all the subjects in this population will be considered same and the objects had the same opportunity to be the sample. the writer employed two kinds of data collection namely pre-test and post-test. pre-test was used to know the student master in speaking materials before the teaching-learning process was given. whereas, the post-test is done after the students got different treatments (group a is taught by using cartoon and group b is taught without using cartoon). to make the data in this research complete and clear, the writer described the experiment group and the control group as follows: no. experiment group control group 1. teacher gave the students pretest teacher gave the students pre-test register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 20 2. 3. 4. 5. teacher gave the topics of the lesson, they were: place and transportation the teacher showed some cartoons that were related to the topic (teaching by using cartoon) the students gave attention to the cartoon and read the cartoon, answered the question from the teacher. the teacher gave students posttest to evaluate them teacher gave the topics of the lesson, they were: place and transportation the teacher gave the students explanation that were related to the topic (teaching without using cartoon) the students listened the explanation and answered the question from the teacher. the teacher gave students post-test to evaluate them. after all the data are collected, the writer investigates the completeness of the data then will organize the scores taken from test activities and then sum up them. the step of analyzing data is based on the formula as follows: explanation: t = the result of t-test calculation mx = the average of experiment class‟ score my = the average of control class‟ score register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 21 x1 = the sum of squared deviation (x) score of the experiment class y1 = the sum of squared deviation (y) score of control class nx = the number of students of the experiment class ny = the number of students of the control class then, the result was consulted with t-table. if the calculation is more than or same with t-table, it means that there is a significant difference between the two groups. if the calculation is less than t-table, it means that there is no significant difference between them. discussion to get the data, the writer used some kinds of test. there are two kinds of test that are needed in this research, they are pre-test and post-test. the pre-test is used to know the student‟s speaking ability before getting different treatments. the post-test is used to know the result of the experiment. after the pre-test scores of each respondent were found, the average of the score was then calculated. after getting the pre-test score, the writer used a formula to know whether the difference of both groups was significant or not. once, the writer found the result, such as the mean of group a is 15,1 and the mean of group b is 22,37. from the calculation, the difference of rate between two groups is 1,42. it is consulted the t-table with 5% level of significance and the degree of freedom in this research is 42 (22+22-2). the table of the figure is 2,00. the calculation shows that t-table is higher than test. it means that there is no significant difference between. based on the fact above, the writer continued to carry out the research because the requirement was fulfilled. after the result of the pre-test was carried out, the two groups were given the post test. the result of post-test is register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 22 then calculated using t-test. finally, the writer found the result that after the post-test the mean of group a is 16,78 and the mean of group b is 12, 96. both of the result was then consulted to t-table 5% level of significance. the procedure of drawing a conclusion is there is a significance difference between group a and b. the result of t-table with degree of freedom is 42 (22+22-2) is 2,00 while the result of t-test is 2,92. it is shown that t-test is higher than t-table. in addition, the percentage of how far the difference of the students‟ speaking skill between the experiment groups and the control group is 4,98%. result of the research the result of the research in this study are the score of the post-test from the experiment group is higher (7,68) than the score of the post-test from control group (6,95). so, based on the above explanation, the writer concluded that using of cartoon media proved better result in speaking skill than students who are taught without using cartoon media. it means that there is significant difference of the students speaking skill between those using cartoon media and those who do not use cartoon in teaching speaking. and there is a significant contribution of using cartoon in teaching speaking and the difference of the experimental group and controlled group is 4,98%. conclusion in this study, the control group taught without using cartoon in their speaking activity has lower score than experimental group taught using pictures media in their speaking activity. in the post test, score of the controlled group is 153 with the number of the students are 24. it means, the register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 23 mean of this group is 6,95. in the post test, the experimental group taught using cartoon media in their speaking activity has better score than controlled group. score of the experimental group is 169 with the number of the students are 24. it means, the mean of group is 7,68. there is a significant difference in the result of teaching speaking by using cartoon and without using cartoon. in fact, the result of the different mean between the experiment class and the control class is 2, 92 and there is a significant contribution of using cartoon. the difference of the experimental group and controlled group is 4,98%. references arif, sadiman. 1986. media pendidikan: pengertian, pengembangan dan pemanfaatannya, jakarta: pt. raja grafindo persada. azhar, arsyad. 1997. media pengajaran. jakarta: pt. raja grafindo persada. djago, tarigan and hg, tarigan. 1986. teknik pengajaran ketrampilan berbahasa. bandung: angkasa ikapi. francis, p. dinneen. 1967. an introduction to general linguistics. new york: sn – new york. oxford. 1985. oxford learner’s pocket dictionary. new edition. new york: oxford university press. paul, h.m., john, j.c. and jerome, k. 1817. essentials of child development and personality. new york: harper and row. sharon, k. zenger & weldon, f. zenger. 1982. 57 ways to teach. la california: cresent publication. wilga, m. rivers. 1981. teaching foreign language skill. second edition. chicago: the university of chicago press. wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 113 the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post wulan agustina madrasah tsanawiyah (mts) yasinta salatiga anitsuganaluw@gmail.com abstract this study is aimed at describing discourse studies especially at cohesion from reader’s opinion strip. this is literary research, so the writer uses descriptive qualitative approach. in this research, documentation and note taking technique are used to collect the data. there are two objectives of the research: 1) to carry out the types of grammatical cohesion used in the “issues of the day” strip in the jakarta post on march 2012 edition and 2) to find out the types of lexical cohesion used in the “issues of the day” strip in the jakarta post on march 2012 edition. after investigating the english sentences used in the “issues of the day” strip in the jakarta post on march 2012 edition, the writer found several findings as follows: 1) based on the analysis of grammatical cohesion, the writer found there are references, substitutions, ellipsis, and conjunctions; 2) based on the analysis of lexical cohesion, the writer found repetitions, synonyms, hyponyms, meronyms, antonyms, and collocations. the writer expects that it is able to contribute the science of linguistic and able to be guidance for all readers. keywords: cohesion, ‘issues of the day’ strip mailto:anitsuganaluw@gmail.com the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 114 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menggambarkan studi wacana terutama pada kohesi dari kolom pendapat para pembaca. ini adalah penelitian sastra, sehingga penulis menggunakan pendekatan deskriptif kualitatif. dalam penelitian ini digunakan teknik pencatatan dan pendokumentasian untuk mengumpulkan data. ada dua tujuan dari penelitian ini: 1) menemukan tipe-tipe kohesi gramatikal yang digunakan para pembaca di kolom ‘issues of the day’ pada harian the jakarta post edisi maret 2012 dan 2) menemukan tipe-tipe kohesi leksikal yang digunakan para pembaca di kolom ‘issues of the day’ pada harian the jakarta post edisi maret 2012. setelah melakukan pengkajian kalimat berbahasa inggris pada kolom ‘issues of the day’ edisi maret 2012, penulis menemukan beberapa temuan sebagai berikut: 1) berdasarkan analisis kohesi gramatikal, penulis menemukan adanya referen, substitusi, ellipsis, dan konjungsi; 2) berdasarkan analisis kohesi leksikal, penulis menemukan adanya repetisi, sinonim, hiponim, meronim, antonim, dan kolokasi. penulis berharap bahwa kajian ini dapat memberikan sumbangsih terhadap ilmu kebahasaan dan menjadi acuan bagi para pembaca. kata kunci : kohesi, kolom ‘issues of the day’ introduction writing is a process of expressing ideas or thoughts through words. someone produces something in written form so that people can read, perform, or use it. people are encouraged to ensure a text flow through a sequence of sentences when present their ideas in writing tasks. thus, writers’ should be directed to the ideas they wish to express, as well as the sentences they use to express those ideas. sentences need to be connected to each other. if ideas or sentences are simply juxtaposed without being related to one another, it will be difficult or impossible for the reader to understand the sequence. for enhancing the connectedness of sentences in a text, writers may use “cohesion” to join ideas between sentences to create texture (halliday and hasan, 1976: 4). wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 115 people are demanded to understand to read, and to create coherent texts. in order to achieve it, the readers must be able to interpret the semantic relation in the text. it is necessary for a writer to master the concept of written text and the use of semantic relation through grasp of their linguistic function, such as theme, rhyme, and lexico-grammatical cohesion. cohesion can be defined as the links that hold a text together and give a meaning to the text. hassan and halliday (1976) classified cohesion into: 1) grammatical cohesion devices, which are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction, and 2) lexical cohesion devices, which are in the form of a) reiteration: repetition, synonym, antonym, hyponym, meronym, and b) collocation. the opinion strip in the jakarta post has many commentators and it was found that the texts were arranged by different writer and styles. being interested in knowing those facts, the writer is curious to find out the types of cohesion that is used in their comments. by using 135 comments on march 2012 edition, this study will analyze the use of semantic relation of lexico-grammatical cohesion as one of the linguistic functions. it will focus on the analysis of cohesion by identifying the cohesive devices that are employed in texts according to m.a.k. halliday and ruqaiya hasan’s cohesion theory (1994) to explore what kinds of the type of cohesion used in that ‘issues of the day’strip. the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 116 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 research methodology the writer uses a descriptive qualitative research. a qualitative research is type of research which does not include any calculation or enumeration because the data are produced in the form of words (moleong, 1993: 3). it means that qualitative data tend to be the form of words than series of number. descriptive serves to describe or analogy characterizing something and it deals with the meaning of thing and one view of meaning is associative. this study attempts to identify, classify, and describe the sentences of the “issues of the day” strip that taken from the jakarta post newspaper. data collection methods there are many ways to collect the data, such as documentation, observation, tests, interview, and questionnaire (arikunto, 2007: 101). in this case, the writer uses documentation because arikunto (1993: 202) defines that documentation method is collecting data by using some variables such as note, transcript, book, newspaper, ancient inscription, etc. this research is continued with note-taking technique which the data are listed, wrote, and classifying according to the cohesion types. to collect the data, the writer needs some procedure. these steps are: a. reading and learning 135 comments in “issues of the day” strip in the jakarta post on march 2012 edition. b. identifying the words with emphasize on each comments that become markers of cohesion types (the writer just focus on cohesion from each comments, other cohesion types, especially for substitution, ellipsis, and lexical cohesion, from different comment will not be taken although they stay at the same topic and edition. whereas the other wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 117 types like reference and conjunction can be collected from all sentences in the same edition, and the writer will put one in the analysis as the representative of each types). technique of data analysis in analyzing the data, the writer applies descriptive method which does not need hypothesis formulation. the steps are taken by the writer in analyzing data such as: data collection through this step, the writer reads the text of english writing on the newspaper and puts all as the data. the writer has collected the data from 135 comments of jakarta post on march 2012 edition. identification after collects the data, the writer identifies the types of cohesion that are found in the strip. classification the writer classifies the sentences from each comments based on the types of cohesion. it has been collected to continue the next analysis process. the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 118 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 data analysis after classifying the sentences, the writer analyses the description of each sentence based on theories of m.a.k. halliday and ruqaiya hasan (1994). discussion the writer is going to present the sources of data from jakarta post on march 2012 edition as follows: no data sources 1. references /we/, /their/, /they/, /our/, /i/, /the/, /his, /he/, /its/ march 1st 2012 substitutions /done/ conjunctions /but/, /because/, /and/, /since/, /finally/, /but/ collocations a) /house of representative/ /seats/ /constituents/ /government/ /corruption/ /political/ /lawmakers/ b) /police/ /criminality/ 2. references /my/, /this/, /they/, /their/, /i/, /our/, /we/, /it/, /us/, them/, /those/, /these/, /you/, /that/ march 2nd 2012 conjunctions /but/, /or/, /then/ ellipsis /we must use or 0 lose our rights!/ collocations /islam/ /muslims/ 3. references /the/, /it/, /that/, /then/, /you/, /i/, /this/, /your/, /these/, /his/, /he/, /our/, march 3rd 2012 synoymy a) /abattoirs/ = /slaughtered/ b) /pain/ = /torture/ wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 119 conjunctions /as/, /then/, /and/ ellipsis /... and importers to improve 0/ collocations a) /abattoirs/ /animals/ /slaughter/ /meat/ b) /export/ /import/ antonymy a) /export/ >< /import/ b) /exporter/ >< /importer/ 4. references /i/, /the/, /their/, /he/, /this/, /it/, /his/ march 5th 2012 substitutions /one/ synonymy /missery/ = /suffering/ antonymy /muslims/ >< /non-muslims/ 5. references /this/, /the/, /they/, /it/, /we/, /you/, /them/, /i/, /my/ march 6th 2012 hyponymy a) /member/ /fellow/ b) /garbage/ /plastic bags, bottles, cups/ conjunctions /for several years now/, /and/, /then/, /or/, /when/, /however/, /because/ synonymy a) /outrageous/ = /heartless/ b) /care/ = /protection/ meronymy /zoo/ /cages/, /enclosure/ repetition /feed/ collocations a) /zoo/ /animals/ /cages/ /enclosure/ /ragunan/ /surabaya zoo/ /giraffe/ b) /school/ /educational/ /preschool/ /kindegarten/ the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 120 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 6. references /it/, /you/, /more/, /your/, /our/, /then/, /we/, /they/, /the/, /this/, /those/, /their/, /them/ march 7th 2012 conjunctions /hence/, /however/, /otherwise/, /and/ repetitions /care/, /competition/, /world/ antonym /sportmen/ >< /sportwomen/ ellipsis /you care for what ..., not 0 the indonesian people/ collocation a) /church/ /christians/ b) /sport/ /sportmanship/ /the indonesian national sport committee/ /soccer/ 7. references /it/, /they/, /this/, /we/, /their/, /now/, /the/, /those/, /them/, /these/ march 8th 2012 substitution /do/ conjunctions /but/ ellipsis /0 not because they are vocal, .../ 8. references /it/, /better/, /i/, /you/, /us/, /the/, /my/, /we/, /this/, /they/, /these/, /your/, /their/, /that/ march 9th 2012 substitution /so/ conjunctions /but/ repetitions /proud/, /has done it/, /return flight/, /it/, /garuda/ collocations /delicious/ /food/ 9. references /we/, /the/, /our/, /then/, /you/, /better/, /your/, /these/, /i/, /they/, /here/, /their/, /those/, /same/, /them/ march 10th 2012 wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 121 substitutions /not/, /do/ conjunctions /but/ ellipsis /... some will not 0/ repetitions /we/ hyponymy /arab league/ /saudi arabia/, /qatar/ 10. references /it/, /this/, /your/, /we/, /me/, /you/, /i/, /those/, /that/, /us/, /the/, /most/, /our/, /they/, /their/ march 12th 2012 conjunctions /while/, /but/, /then/, /since/ repetitions /respect/, /others/, /bule/, /mad/, /indon/ ellipsis /0 being used to being called bule .../ collocations a) /bule/ – /foreigner/ b) /equality/ /fairness/ 11. references /i/, /those/, /the/, /it/, /my/, /they/, /these/, /their/, /this/, /worst/ march 13th 2012 conjunctions /before/, /however/ repetitions /international organization/, /done by/, /local people/, /country/, the worst/, /timor leste/ collocations /timorese/ /timor leste/ hyponymy /nation/ /timorese/ 12. references /i/, /it/, /their/, /you/, /best/, /she/, /that, /the/, /her/, /they/, /this/, /better/, /my/, /them/, /these/, /his/, /here/, /our/ march 14th 2012 the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 122 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 ellipsis /... and 0 sincere condolences .../ conjunctions /because/, /before/, /and/ repetitions /the best/, /their/ synonymy /offspring/ = /children/ hyponymy /children/ /teen/ antonymy /parents/ >< /children/ collocations a) /parents/ /children/ b) /traffic/ /roads/ /accidents/ /car/ 13. references /it/, /we/, /i/, /the/, /our/, /they/, /more/, /those/, /us/, /further/, /sooner/ march 15th 2012 conjunctions /but/, /because/, /however/ synonymy /necessary/ = /pivotal/ antonymy /western/ >< /eastern/ repetitions /maluku/, /jakarta/ 14. references /you/, /us/, /our/, /it/, /your/, /most/, /we/, /he/, /this/, /his/, /i/, /its/, /their/, /they/, /now/ march 16th 2012 ellipsis /... your own best interests, 0 not the indonesian .../ conjunctions /then/, /as/, /in other words/, /until/ repetitions /high demand/, /they/ collocations a) /sby/ /president/ /democratic party/ b) /mutawa/ /religious police/ wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 123 15. references /this/, /you/, /i/, /your/, /its/, /the/, /he/, /better/, /best/, /him/, /it/, /that/, /they/, /his/, /we/, /there/, /their/, /cleanest/ march 17th 2012 conjunctions /at least/ repetitions /singapore/, /track/, /right/, /the mou/, /guy/, /they/, /he/ synonymy a) /good/ = /right/ b) /advantage/ = /benefit/ antonymy /right/ >< /wrong/ hyponymy /country/ /indonesia, singapore/ collocations a) /government/ /minister/ /corruption/ b) /business/ /investor/ c) /azwar abubakar/ /administrative reforms minister d) /sby/ /president/ 16. references /this/, /their/, /the/, /they/, /it/, /i/, /more/, /he/, /its/, /that/, /you/, /better/, /worse/, /these/ march 19th 2012 substitution /done/ ellipsis /... and say no more 0?/ conjunctions /instead/, /until/, /or/ repetitions /civilians/, /multiple/, /life sentence/, /america/ synonymy a) /murder/ = /kill/ b) /troops/ = /soldiers/ meronymy /human/ /souls, bodies/ the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 124 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 hyponymy a) /country/ /us/ b) /military/ /army/ antonymy /better/ >< /worse/ 17. references /more/, /this/, /the/, /you/, /us/, /i/, /further/, /its/, /we/, /they/, /similar/ march 20th 2012 conjunction /until/ repetitions /less/, /subsidies/, /consequences/, /electricity/, /fuels/ collocation /traffic/ /jam/ /roads/ 18. references /the/, /more/, /they/, /better/, /their/, /them/, /that/, /it/, /i/, /her/, /she/, /its/, /one’s/, /one/, we/, /this/, /more/, /our/, /your/ march 21st 2012 conjunctives /but/, /while/, /then/, /on the other hand/, /because/ repetitions /thailand/, /women/, /boss/, /teacher/, /marriage/, /if one’s faith/, different/, /husband/ synonymy a) /prophet/ = /muhammad/ b) /devote/ = /submit/ meronymy a) /family/ /husband/ b) /education/ /teachers/ hyponymy a) /job/ /teacher/ b) /country/ /indonesia, thailand/ c) /human/ /men, women/ d) /nation/ /thailand/ antonymy a) /men/ >< /women/ b) /physically/ >< /mentally/ c) /wive/ >< /husband/ wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 125 collocations a) /education/ /teacher/ b) /muhammad/ /prophet/ /khadija/ c) /sister/ /female/ d) /marriage/ /husband/ e) /islam/ /muslims/ 19. references /it/, /the/, /they/, /their/, /those/, /stronger/, /your/ march 22nd 2012 substitution /done/ conjunctions /however/, /as long as/, /but/ repetition /robbery/, /terrorism/ 20. references /it/, /the/, /those/, /its/, /this/, /they/, /these/, /i/, /my/, /their/ march 24th 2012 ellipsis /they constantly weave in and 0 out .../ conjunctions /until/, /while/, /as for/ repetitions /people/ 21. reference /i/, /your/, /it/, /its/, /those/, /you/, /more/, /now/, /they/, /them/ march 26th 2012 meronymy /people/ /citizens/ 22. reference /i/, /this/, /you/, /the/, /it/, /they/, /their/, /these/ march 27th 2012 conjunction /as/, /meanwhile/, /and/ repetition /greece/ meronymy /asia/ /north korea/ 23. reference /i/, /he/, /us/, /his/, /their/, /him/, they/, it/, /the/, /your/, /you/, /more/ march 28th 2012 the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 126 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 ellipsis /... is an opportunist or not 0, but .../ conjunction /meanwhile/, /eventhough/, /also/, /and/, /as/, /since/, /but/ repetition /leader/, /jakarta/, /their/ antonymy /opportunist/ >< /non-opportunist/ hyponymy /city/ /jakarta/ collocation /leader/ /wisdom/ 24. reference /they/, /his/, /it/, /their/, /we/, /i/, /the/, /he/, /our/, /them/, /more/, /you/, /us/, /your/ march 29th 2012 conjunction /or/, /but/ hyponymy /country/ /indonesia/ /foreign organizations/ /imf/ /world bank/ repetition /right/, /fuel prices/ collocation /economic/ /prices/ 25. references /their/, /it/, /the/, /i/, /they/, /most/, /he/, /his/, /this/ march 31st 2012 conjunctions /however/, /furthermore/, /and/, /after/, /because/, /otherwise/ ellipsis /... for the benefit of all 0 on their .../ repetitions /government/, /the great thinker never blames others/, /a narrow-minded man/, /the president/, /fuel prices/, /oil prices/ hyponymy /country/ /indonesia/ wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 127 substitutions /did/, /done/ collocations /government/ /minister/ /department/ synonymy /welfare/ = /prosperity/ there are two main types of cohesion: grammatical and lexical. the writer will distinguish each of them accordance to their part. 1. grammatical cohesion a. substitution there are seven sentences contains substitution found in the articles. the writer is going to divide them based on types: 1) nominal there is only one data that used nominal substitution, here is the analysis: (4) his teaching of islam is definitely not the right one. the word “one” substitutes teaching of islam. 2) verbal there are five data that applied verbal substitution, here are some the analysis: (16) they must be punished for what they have done. the word “done” substitutes killed innocent civilians. the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 128 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 3) clausal there is only one data that applied verbal substitution, here is the analysis: (8) even so, garuda are looking much better these days for certain. the word “so” substitutes indonesians will be happy to settle for less. b. reference all of the data employ references, there are twenty-five editions with different types found in each articles. the writer is going to divide them based on their types: 1) personal almost of each edition uses personal references. here some representative of analysis: a) pronoun (1) i am of the opinion that people representatives can be found from neighborhood based representative. the word “i” refers to the writer. (5) obviously, the animals didn’t receive the good food, care, and protection they should have enjoyed. the word “they” refers to the animals. wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 129 b) possessive almost of each edition uses personal references. here some representative of analysis: (6) if you did not pull out players playing for the lsi, our team would not have been tortured by bahrain. the word “our” refers to the writer and indonesian people. 2) demonstrative almost of each edition uses demonstrative references. here some representative of analysis: (1) this is outrageous and the heartless, cruel people responsible should be prosecuted. the word “this” refers to plastic that is found in a dead giraffe’s stomach. (9) they squawk about issues on the other side of the world, but have nothing useful to say about poverty and corruption here the word “here” refers to in their square. 3) comparative (6) dear mr. president, it seems that you care more about football than the plight of christians in the yasmin church. the word “more” compares football with the plight of christians in the yasmin church. the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 130 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 (17) look at how india improves as it encourages investments in similar things. the word “similar” compares india’s investment with indonesia’s investment through electric vehicles. c. ellipsis there are twelve sentences contains ellipsis found in the articles. the writer is going to give some representative to be analyzed based on their types: 1) nominal there are eight nominal ellipsis found in the text. the writer is going to give some representative to be analyzed: (2) we must use or 0 lose our rights! the word “we” is omitted to make simple sentence. the sentence should be “we must use or we lose our rights!” 2) verbal there are three verbal ellipsis found in the text. the writer is going to give some representative to be analyzed: wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 131 (9) some of these middle east uprisings will succeed, some will not 0. the word “succeed” is omitted. the sentence should be “some of these middle east uprisings will succeed, some will not succeed.” 3) clausal there is only one clausal ellipsis found in the text. the writer is going to discuss it: (7) 0 not because they are vocal, street visible, selfproclaimed police, and instituting instant justice, but because it is the right thing to do. the word “people wants to disband radical massgroups” is omitted. the sentence should be “people wants to disband radical mass-groups not because they are vocal, street visible, self-proclaimed police, and instituting instant justice, but because it is the right thing to do.” d. conjunction there are fifty-seven conjunction are discovered. most of them have similar word, so the writer only discuss one word to representative the same based on their types: 1) additive there are ten additive conjunction found in the text. the writer is going to give some representative to be analyzed: the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 132 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 (5) ship all remaining critters to ragunan, then close the surabaya zoo or, if you still insist, contact a taxidermist so there is no need to feed the animals. the word “or” is categorized as alternative simple additive because it gives two alternatives for solving the problem; to ship all the critters to ragunan then close the surabaya zoo or contact a taxidermist. (14) in other words: the official introduction of a ‘religious police’ like the mutawa in saudi arabia and aceh. the word “in other words” is categorized as expository apposition additive because it adds another sentence for the previous one. (23) also, joko widodo appears to be sincerely dedicated to improve the welfare of the ’rakyat kecil’, …. the word “also” is categorized as simple additive because it adds the information about joko widodo’s characteristics. 2) causality there are fourteen causality conjunction found in the text. the writer is going to give some representative to be analyzed: (1) ... lawmakers from political parties are no longer legitimate because they never listen to the cries of marginalized constituents. wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 133 the word “because” is categorized as simple reversed causality as it presupposes the cause of the lack of lawmaker’s legitimate. (2) if you want to be seen as s peaceful religion, then start acting peacefully. the word “because” is categorized as simple conditional causality as it is closely related where the causal means to act peacefully therefore want to be seen as a peaceful religion. 3) adversative there are twenty-four adversative conjunctions found in the texts. the writer is going to give some representative to be analyzed: (1) ... does not show that they are really working for the people’s interests but for their own business interests. the word “but” is categorized as simple contrastive adversative because it shows interests contradiction between people and government. ... admitted their mistake. but, can they really confess to what they have done? the word “but” is categorized as containing ‘and’ proper adversative. proper, here, means in spite ofrelation between admitted and confess. the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 134 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 (5) ... they treated the animals with respect. however, the same respect was overlooked for the people. the word “however” is categorized as emphatic contrastive adversative since it shows a contradiction between the treating level of animals and human. emphatic means something is done strictly. (6) we have a large population with a great potential among our youth to excel in sports. however, they are not given a chance. the word “however” is categorized as emphatic proper adversative. it shows a pity contradiction between the great of youth population with the chances that can be given. 4) temporality there are nine temporality conjunction found in the text. the writer is going to give some representative to be analyzed: (1) finally, they have admitted their mistake. the word “finally” is categorized as simple conclusive temporal. (5) ship all remaining critters to ragunan, then close the surabaya zoo ... the word “then” is categorized as sequential simple temporal. wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 135 (22) meanwhile, north korea’s nuclear weapons program is another problem. the word “meanwhile” is categorized as durative complex temporal. 2. lexical cohesion a. reiteration reiteration is a form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of a lexical item and a number of things in using synonymy, antonym, hyponymy, and meronymy at one end of the scale. it will be identified through the following classes: 1) repetitions the writer found twenty repetitions in the research; here is some representative for analysis: (5) despite the numerous sign in the zoo not to feed the animals, people have a habit to still feed them and dump left over, ... the word ‘feed’ is reiterated twice as verb. (8) there was a time when garuda was the least preferred airline. now, i can’t wait my next trip with garuda. the word “garuda” is reiterated twice as noun (the name of a well known airline). garuda has done it, while mas has done it too, but in a different consistency... the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 136 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 the word “has done it too” is reiterated twice as verb clause. (12) do the best, think the best, and god will give you the best. the word “best” is reiterated three times as adjectiva. 2) synonymy the writer found fourteen synonyms in the data, here is some representatives for the analysis: (15) ... there are many advantages we can derive from singapore. ... in a way that gives mutual benefits. ... the meaning of “advantages” is similar with “benefits” that means keuntungan. (25) the great thinkers always think how to help his people’s prosperity. ... the president today did nothing to improve welfare but to teach ... the meaning of “prosperity” is similar with “welfare” that means kemakmuran. 3) hyponymy the writer found nineteen hyponyms in the data; here are some representatives for analysis: (8) the culprit is arab league, backed by saudi arabia and qatar in collaboration with ... wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 137 the word “arab league” is hyponym for “saudi arabia and qatar”. (18) men and women are physically different. ... hereby, women are respectfully treated as human beings. the word “human” is hyponymy for “men” and “women”. 4) meronymy the writer found four meronyms in the data; here are some representatives for the analysis: (18) western women need to learn ... how to devote and submit themselves to their husband and family ... the word “family” is meronymy for “husband” because a family usually consists of husband, wife, and children. ... i can’t imagine how a female teacher ... but with a job and education, she can survive... the word “education” is meronymy for “teachers” because education relates with teachers, students, school, learn, study, etc. 5) antonym the writer found twelve antonyms in the data; here is some representatives for analysis: the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 138 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 (3) he brings misery and suffering to muslims and nonmuslims alike. the word “muslims” and “non-muslims” are noun. the “muslims” means person whose religion is islam, whereas “non-muslim” means person whose religion is not islam, such christian, hindu, budha, etc. besides looks from the meaning, “non-muslim” can be identified as antonym through prefiks “non-”. b. collocation the writer analyzed this type based on the whole of each edition because each collocation is related with the topic. there are thirty collocation are found. the writer is going to give some representatives to be analyzed: (10) there are two collocation: bule this word has closely sense with foreigner. ‘bule’ only used by our society to call foreign tourists who have white skin and blond hair. equality this word has closely sense with fairness. they can be categorized as synonym. conclusion discourse analysis leads to analyze of constituents (smaller units) that have particular relationship with one another in a text. there many parts of discourse analysis, and cohesion is one of them. cohesion occurs wulan agustina register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 139 where the interpretation of some elements in the discourse depends on each other, so it deals with the investigation of form. through the investigation and analysis from the data, the writer proposes several findings: 1. based on analysis of grammatical cohesion, the writer found 7 substitutions, 44 references, 12 ellipsis, and 57 conjunctions. 2. based on analysis of lexical cohesion, the writer found 20 repetition, 14 synonyms, 12 antonyms, 19 hyponym, 4 meronyms, and 30 collocations. references amalia. “the types of cohesion and speech act used in dilbert comic strip issued in newspaper”. stain salatiga: thesis unpublished, 2011. arikunto, suharsimi. 1996. prosedur penelitian suatu pendekatan praktek. jakarta: pt rineka cipta. carter, ronald. (1997). working with text: a core book for language analysis. london: butler & tanner ltd. djuroto, totok. (2004). manajemen penerbitan pers. bandung: pt remaja rosdakarya offset. halliday, m.a.k. (1993). an introduction to functional grammar. newcastle: athenaeum press ltd. halliday, m.a.k. & ruqaiya hasan. (1994). cohesion in english. new york: longman inc. leo, sutanto dkk. (2007). essay writing. jogjakarta: cv andi offset. lyons, john. (1971). introduction to theoretical linguistics. cambridge: cambridge university press. mas’ud, fuad. (1998). essential of english grammar: a practical guide. yogyakarta: bpfe anggota ikapi. moleong, lexy. (1993). metodologi penelitian kualitatif. jakarta: depdikbud. the types of cohesion used in the ‘issues of the day’ strip in the jakarta post 140 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 oxford learner’s pocket dictionary (new edition). (2005). china: oxford university press. parker, frank. (2009). linguistics for non-linguistics. london: taylor and francis ltd. department of english louisiana state university. pateda, mansoer. (2001). semantik leksikal. jakarta: pt rineka cipta. sumadiria, haris. (2010). menulis artikel dan tajuk rencana. bandung: simbiosa rekatama media. sumarlam. (2003). analisis wacana. surakarta: pustaka cakra. syamrilaode. (2010). pengertian media massa. retrieved april 19, 2012, from http://id.shvoong.com/writing-and-speaking/2060385pengertian-media-massa/#ixzz1ssxp4tro thomson, aj. & a.v. marrinet. (1986). a practical english grammar (4th ed.). oxford: oxford university press. wahyudi, j.b. (1991). komunikasi jurnalistik. bandung: alumni. warsito, hermawan. (1992). pengantar metodologi penelitian: buku panduan mahasiswa. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. http://id.shvoong.com/writers/syamrilaode/ http://id.shvoong.com/writing-and-speaking/2060385-pengertian-media-massa/#ixzz1ssxp4tro http://id.shvoong.com/writing-and-speaking/2060385-pengertian-media-massa/#ixzz1ssxp4tro microsoft word 05_register 2020 no 2 najibah register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020), pp. 315-332 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i2.315-332 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn : 2503-040x 315 reflective feedbacks and project-based activities to improve the students’ writing skill: an exploratory action research nur najibah sukmawati1 1universitas pamulang, pamulang indonesia email: dosen01859@unpam.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v13i2.315-332 submission track: received: 12-05-2020 final revision: 13-10-2020 available online: 01-12-2020 copyright © 2020 nur najibah sukmawati this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract teaching writing to informatics engineering students has its uniqueness when it comes to what specific issue(s) the students are facing and how to cope with them. this study aims at finding out some feedback for the author’s previous teaching practices in writing a descriptive text which becomes the basis to give an exact intervention as well as to find out whether the intervention is able to improve the students’ skill in writing a descriptive text. this is an exploratory action research to the 30 students of the third semester in informatics engineering study program of a private university in indonesia. to gain feedback on the previous instructional practices, a senior colleague is invited as a consultant and an openended questionnaire was distributed to the students. some issues were found. after a deep discussion with the senior colleague, it is concluded that project-based activities could cope with the issues. to prove it, a writing test and open-ended interview were conducted. during the instructional practices, a collaborator was invited to observe using an observation sheet. the result revealed that project-based activities engaged the students and directed them in accomplishing the task. the test also showed improvement in students’ average score. these findings proved that implementing project-based activities can improve the students’ skill in writing a descriptive text. keywords: exploratory action research; reflective feedbacks; project-based activities nur najibah sukmawati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 316 introduction teaching english for specific purposes has come to a trend that classroom activities are directed to involve students’ active participation (kember, 2009; attard, di iorio, geven, & santa, 2010). classroom is manipulated to represent real life and students are a community representative. moreover, all activities must be oriented to sharpen the skills needed to survive with the rapid change of living in the 21st century. accordingly, education practitioners are demanded to modify activities that make students’ role significant in the instructional process. in contrast, implementing this teaching trend is not supported with gauging the impact to students’ achievement. some problems faced by esp practitioners are their learners being likely to have below-average language proficiency (ibrahim, 2010; robinson, 2013) due to the failure of learning at the secondary level (unal, sadoglu & urukan, 2014) as well as a low motivation for being proficient assuming that it is irrelevant with their future (wahyudin, 2017). these factors cause some difficulties in performing english proficiency, which is generally measured through language skills traditionally sequenced as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. amid technology savvies, writing skill maintains its popularity where written information, transaction and communication take higher frequency than oral ones in use. electronic sources of information such as e-magazine, or e-newspaper, of transaction such as online payment, as well as communication such as social media platforms take the advantage of written forms. on the other hand, the teaching of writing has come to a lean on process rather than product-based approach through a series of steps that signifies students’ ability to explore and define their own problems in writing. the mainstream of writing process does not only acquire students to eventually come with their products. it is also directed to enhance students’ life skills that are useful for their future. in the informatics engineering study program, teaching writing is aimed at enabling the students to express their own thought to their community (richard, 2015) such as explaining the concept of data, procedures in operating new technology products, describing newly-released technology products, and others. this technology-related context is integrated within linguistic components as a medium to deliver meaning. therefore, writing is considered a very reflective feedbacks and project-based activities to improve …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 317 complex cognitive activity (shirzadi & amerian, 2020) that requires continuous and guided practices to achieve good results. in short, the writing skill is considered difficult to practice. accordingly, pedagogical reactions towards the status quo should be vehement. this study is aimed at exploring what teaching method is best implemented to teach my students’ writing skill and whether the teaching method can improve the students’ skill in writing a descriptive text. exploration to the real situation is necessary to know what intervention to do. afterward, the intervention should also be evaluated to the extent to its effectiveness in coping with the students’ problem in learning. such a study is called exploratory action research, which has become popular to conduct in countries where english is taught/learned as a foreign language. an exploratory action research was conducted by meneses (in smith & rebolledo, 2018) who seeks the possibility to improve her students’ participation and inclusion in her english class. it was initiated because her 28 students performed low engagement to the instructional practices so she delved into dimensional perspectives for the cause by creating three different questionnaires for her colleagues, for her students, and for her own critical reflections. the questionnaires gave her ideas to introduce more interactive and fun activities using a teaching medium to review vocabulary, miming, memory games, project work, and group competitions. after implementing those teaching strategies, it was found that her students’ participation improved. another exploratory action research was conducted by aguilera (in smith and rebolledo, 2018) in her english class of 35 students of senior high school. she found that among the four skills, many students lost points in the writing section. then, she started by an informal chat with nine other subject teachers to have an idea about the way they teach writing. next, she asked her coordinator to observe her teaching. and after the lesson, she led a plenary discussion with her students to find out whether the lesson had been helpful. and finally, she interviewed the students whose grades were lower because she felt they could offer further insights. this exploration earns a conclusion that she was unaware of her own role in their learning and better understands the expression ‘teaching-learning process.’ accordingly, she planned some actions nur najibah sukmawati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 318 to do: (1) considering her students’ age and interests when choosing topics; (2) considering the quality of the input she gives and the feedback she provides while they are writing; (3) taking into account the learners’ pace so they can complete the task successfully before moving on to another; and (4) allowing more opportunities for practice. 2 cycles of treatment came up with a finding that her students’ writing skill improved. a classroom action research was conducted by vera maria shanti, syahrial, and irwan koto (2016), in a state senior high school in south bengkulu, indonesia. conducted in two cycles, this study aims at finding out whether project-based learning can improve the students’ skill in writing a descriptive text. using a writing test, observation and teacher’s checklist, and interview, this study found that implementing project-based learning can improve the students’ skill in writing a descriptive text. additionally, this study, published in journal of applied linguistics and literature, also emphasized that one of the steps called ‘monitoring the students’ progress’ gave the most significant contribution so the students’ average score reached (80.31) or improved about 9 points from the previous test. the related studies are in the same context with my study that we attempted to improve the students’ skill. the first two used exploratory action research but they focus on minor skills and are contextualized in general english while my study focus on major skill is contextualized in english for specific purpose. the last one focuses on improving the students’ skill in writing a descriptive text, which is also the main limitation of this study but the authors use action research, which does not come with any reason why project-based activities are used. though it is popular in efl countries, exploratory action research has not yet emerged in indonesia. exploratory action research comes with the idea of emphasizing the urgency of delving into the exact causes teachers and students are facing in their instructional practices to generate the appropriate intervention to give and to put emphasis on finding out whether the intervention is effective without gauging whether the intervention is what the students actually need. a critique is given to the mainstream of classroom action research that treatment, which was aimed to solve the problem, is reflective feedbacks and project-based activities to improve …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 319 potentially not the one needed to solve. it is what smith and rebollledo (2018) wrote in their newly published handbook for exploratory action research published by british council that put the significance of exploration before treatment in order to come up with the exact solution to improve students’ achievement at either the micro or macro level. this reason is plausible so every teacher knows what to do to improve their students’ skill. accordingly, this is novel that exploratory action research should be conducted especially when it is situated in english for specific purpose context. research method this is an exploratory action research that aims to explore, understand, and improve the lecturer’s practices in teaching writing for informatics engineering students. according to smith and rebolledo (2018), exploratory action research is initially designed to criticize teacher researchers who frequently take too-quick decision, lack exploring the situation further, and base it on signs and intuition in improving students’ achievement. exploratory action research puts attention to exploring why the situation is happening, as can be explored through the collection of data, and how to solve it. the step in implementing the exploratory action research is portrayed in figure 1. the exploration stage was commenced by reviewing my practice in teaching writing by thinking about the questions that students need to answer and plan how to explore information to answer my questions. then, some data were collected to clarify the situation to be analyzed and interpreted. the result of analysis is used to reflect on what has happened. this reflection is used as the basis to make an action plan. on the action stage, after deciding to change the teaching method and design a lesson plan to be implemented in teaching a descriptive text, a plan was designed. the next step is to apply the lesson plan. during and after the intervention takes place, the instructional practices were observed by a collaborator that became the basis to be interpreted as a reflection and consideration for further actions that seem necessary. nur najibah sukmawati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 320 figure 1. exploratory action research designed by smith and rebolledo (2018) participants the participants of this study consisted of 30 students of the informatics engineering study program who were undertaking english-for-informaticsengineering class. the students’ demographics were similar in terms of age but has with slightly different proficiency levels in writing a descriptive text as shown in table 1. table 1 also depicts that the students were quite various in terms of the result of their pre-test writing score. it can be seen that two thirds of the students obtained 50 to 60 which means they have sufficient writing skills but are limited in vocabulary, perform many mistakes in grammar though still understood, could not develop their ides more specifically, and made improper cohesive devices. a few of them were workers and performed different writing skill with 1 of them obtained score 60-70. table 1. identity of the object of the study range of score obtained number of students gender profession male female student student worker 40-50 5 5 0 3 2 50-60 20 17 3 18 2 60-70 4 2 2 3 1 70-80 1 0 1 1 0 reflective feedbacks and project-based activities to improve …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 321 instruments open-ended questionnaire open ended questionnaire was used in exploring the instructional situation by formulated questions given to my students as well as in observing the effect of the intervention to the students. the questionnaire was chosen for students because it can delve into their perception more in written form without their names being noticed (smith and rebolledo, 2018), both questionnaires are shown in table 2. testing and assessing in order to find out whether the students’ skill in writing a descriptive text improve after they learn using project-based activities, an instructional writing test is designed. the students were asked to compose a descriptive text about information technology and their composition is assessed by using the rubric shown in table 3. table 2. the questionnaires questionnaire in exploration stage questionnaire in action stage did you find the previous learning activities effective in boosting your writing skill? what do you think about current learning activities? mention specifically the drawbacks of the previous writing activities. do you find the activities effective in boosting your writing skill? mention specifically the strengths of the previous writing activities. do you think your writing skill improves after doing the activities? mention specifically what activities you wish to do in writing a text. table 3. writing indicators no. indicators aspects description range score 1. content unsatisfying not complete and difficult to understand 0-4 fair. provide quite intelligible explanation 5-8 good provide fairly-intelligible explanation 9-12 very good provide intelligible explanation 13-16 excellent provide strongly intelligible explanation 17-20 nur najibah sukmawati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 322 2. organization unsatisfying lack organization, and does not utilize any transitional words/phrases, ideas disconnected, 0-4 fair. lack transitional words/phrases 5-8 good loosely organized but main ideas understood, incomplete but logical transitional words/phrases 9-12 very good fairly well organize and use effective transitional words/phrases 13-16 excellent well organized and use effective transitional words/phrases 17-20 3. grammar unsatisfying unsatisfying errors in grammar are frequent but the text can be understood 0-4 fair. can frequently handle basic constructions quite accurately but doesn’t have consistent control of the grammar. 5-8 good grammar control is good. able to write the language with fair structural accuracy 9-12 very good almost no errors in grammar and consistent in structural accuracy. 13-16 excellent excellent equivalent to that of an educated native writer 17-20 4. vocabulary unsatisfying very limited or poor range, very limited knowledge of words and words forms 0-4 fair limited range, confused use of words and words forms 5-8 good sufficient choice of words but some misuse of words forms and vocabularies 9-12 very good effective choice of words and words forms 13-16 excellent very effective choice of words and words form 17-20 5. mechanic unsatisfying no mastery of convention, dominated by errors of punctuation: periods, commas, semicolons, quotations, and marks and initial capital letters 0-4 fair. frequent errors of punctuation: periods, quotation, semi colons, commas, and marks. 5-8 good occasional errors of punctuation: periods, quotation, semi colons, commas, and marks. 9-12 very good well organized and utilize 13-16 reflective feedbacks and project-based activities to improve …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 323 punctuation: periods, quotation, semi colons, commas, and marks. excellent well organized and utilize punctuation: periods, quotation, semi colons, commas, and marks. 17-20 final score σ each indicator finding & discussion as a reflective teacher, i base my decision on conducting an exploratory action research from a test in a pre-survey on the students’ skill in writing a descriptive text. an instructional test to compose a descriptive text of 200 words was given. then, their composition was assessed using the rubric scoring attached in table 3. the assessment was overall a reflection that some drawbacks were found in their paper test most of which deals with grammatical mistakes. many students committed subject-verb agreement errors in their texts. another common drawback is incoherence, which made their idea wrongly delivered. however, they were good at vocabulary related to describing computer-related materials. this pre-treatment finding was a reason that obtaining average score 54.96 was enough to necessarily explore the students’ problems in writing a descriptive text. exploration stage the exploration stage aims at exploring the real situation as well as reflecting previous instructional practices in order to determine the most feasible intervention to the students in the action stage (smith & rebolledo, 2018). accordingly, some insight was gathered by consulting with my senior colleague and distributing questionnaires to the students. for more insight on the result of pre-treatment test, it was forwarded to the senior colleague who had, by then, been teaching english for the informatics engineering study program for more than 10 years. she addressed some questions to reflect what i had done so far in teaching them writing in order to focus on and limit the issue i was facing. she started her questions by inquiring about my interaction with the students. then, it became more specific to what teaching method was used in teaching them writing and how students’ engagement was in general. this discussion ended with some notes to nur najibah sukmawati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 324 highlight: (1) i put students as the center of the writing process but did not perform a formulaic strategy in facilitating the activities; (2) i focused on the students’ writing process but paid less attention to their engagement to the process; (3) information-exchange and intrapersonal interaction amongst students were very little and collaboration only happened to accomplish the assignment. this reflection elucidated that i needed to focus on evaluating my method in teaching them writing because all the mentioned factors conclude that the instructional activities did not engage the students and to perform clearer steps in running the instructional process is necessarily needed. then, a set of questionnaires was formulated for students to reveal their perception towards the instructional practices used. the items are depicted in table 4. the students’ responses to the items: (1) 45% of the students agree that the previous learning activities are fairly effective. only 15 of them found it effective and 40% thought that it was not effective. it is because of (2) some drawbacks like the activities being not well-organized where students were given the opportunity to work on the assignment leading to confusion. the students found it difficult to autonomously understand the mechanism of writing a text. however (3) some strengths to highlight were deemed fun by the students to collaborate and cooperate with their friends, and they actualized themselves more by working in a small group. the last item (4) concluded that some activities they wished to do in writing are lecturers explaining some examples of composing a text as well as linguistic-related materials. they also want their writing project to be given some reinforcement and feedback from the lecturers. these findings, from both my senior colleague and students, are a basis to decide what intervention to give. after a deep consultation with my colleague and analyzing the results of the questionnaire, we ended up to deciding that it is the teaching method that should be different. the method needed is the one that covers the students’ needs in learning: (1) collaboration among the students within a small group so they can interchange or share one to each other; (2) comprehensive explanation and student’ exposure to the linguistic components of the text; (3) well-directed activities so they are confident that they are doing everything right. accordingly, we decided to conduct projectreflective feedbacks and project-based activities to improve …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 325 based activities. this teaching method is popular in constructivism era, which encourages students to create their own concepts and beliefs toward knowledge (weegar & pacis, 2012) and the teacher provides opportunities for collaborative activities and authentic tasks (nasution & sukmawati, 2019). project-based activities as one of teaching methods in constructivism that bring some principles to the instructional process. it directed students to work around projects (thomas, 2000; larmer, markham, & ravitz, 2003; bell, 2010), which can raise students’ motivation by being fully involved and engaged in the classroom activities. it directed students to plan, implement, reflect, and evaluate their own learning by working on authentic tasks (blank in blank & harwell, 1997; dickinson, et al., 1998; westwood, 2008), so they could still feel the nuance of independence yet directed activities. this also promotes students through sharing information, discussing the project, dividing tasks on each group member, and presenting the project result (guven, 2014) as they wish that they and i could mingle and share information and the nuance of collaborative learning remains there. project-based learning is generally a social practice into which learners socialize through a series of group activities (mali, 2017) that provide learners with opportunities to solve a problem and learn from each other as they coconstruct knowledge (whatley, 2012) by doing a project. simultaneously, this can encourage them to be autonomous learners capable of taking responsibility for their own learning (richards, 2015). the implementation of project-based learning is not rigid and therefore can be modified based on learning situation. referring to stoller (1997), korkmaz & kaptan (2001), project-based learning starts with (1) a teacher and learners negotiating a topic of the project and method of solving the problem; (2) learners are given space to design the project by inquiring into information related to the project, the plan, and the objective of the project; (3) learners gather, analyzed and organized data to answer the problems or the tasks. the project is based on the application of the knowledge they achieve through the process of inquiring; (4) learners define the essential point of the project; (5) learners plan the presentation method; (6) learners design the presentation from the result of analysis and compile the essential information about the nur najibah sukmawati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 326 project; (7) learners present their project; (8) learners evaluate the overall learning process. activities in and improvement after cycle 1 to start the study, a senior colleague was invited to collaborate as a mentor, observer, and evaluator. we first planned a set of lesson plans during the first cycle based on the findings in the exploration stage as well as the students’ result in pre-test. it is decided that the lesson plan was based on steps suggested in project-based activities. there were some findings to reveal after conducting 4 meetings. first, it was observed that the students were enthusiastic when it came to the negotiation process on what topic to explain. initially, they thought that the explanation text focused on a general topic such as explaining things surrounding them, but when they were informed to explain things related to computers, they became enthusiastic as it features in their interest. however, when it came to setting their goal and target, they became confused because they had never been assigned to be autonomous and independent in planning activities to compose the text. most of them decided to use internet-based assistance to gather data. some other chose to directly open their computer and conduct an in-depth analysis related to the topic. however, they could not go consistently with the plan. many of them became passive during group activities. the observation sheet also reveals that some students choosing to use internet-based assistant deviated from the purpose by engaging in social media or other irrelevant activities. in the next meeting, they started to compose a text based on results of discussion in the previous activities, but another problem was found. they were challenged in linguistic matters such as chaining sentences coherently, and committing less grammatical mistakes. my collaborator suggested that grammar-based expository was needed to conduct so they could minimize the mistake. consequently, when it came to the group presentation session, the active students dominated the activity. however, some strength in project-based activities was found. it allowed them to be open to questions and answers. the information exchange happened and the fun atmosphere was captured. at the end of the cycle, a test was conducted and it was found that the students’ average score improved to 58.65. reflective feedbacks and project-based activities to improve …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 327 activities in and improvement after cycle 2 findings from activities in cycle 1 concluded that the average score the students obtained was still low, and the observation sheet also revealed some problems to solve. it is in line with walker (2001) that the implementation has not been without some challenges such as interpersonal conflicts and unequal distributions of workload among the group members. accordingly, cycle 2 was conducted. a plan was redesigned to reach learning quality assurance and to anticipate drawbacks that happened in cycle 1. we decided to focus more on the linguistic features of the text and on implementing a teaching strategy that engages the students’ participation to mitigate the conflict as two major drawbacks found in cycle 1. accordingly, teaching activities were oriented to empower the students’ linguistic mastery, especially in composing complex sentences, and chaining ideas more coherently in order to produce a better text. after that, the students were assigned to work in a small group doing the same project with different topic. they chose to explain the current topic on informatics engineering like big data, internet of things (iof), and social networking. to avoid students’ disengagement during gathering and analyzing data, i assigned each of them to submit a one-page individual report on their personal contribution during the discussion process. this was evidently a success to boost their learning awareness in the group discussion. it can be seen from the result of the observation that many students became more aware of their contribution to the learning practice. in the presentation step, many groups could compose a better writing project that better suits the nature of an explanation text. at the end, a final test to the students’ writing skill was an evidence of improvement where the average score reached 71.3. the students’ average scores from pre-cycle, cycle 1, and cycle 2 is portrayed in table 4. table 4. the students’ average scores in pre-cycle, cycle 1, and cycle 2. pre-cycle cycle 1 cycle 2 54.96 58.65 71.3 during the implementation, project-based activities were evident in encouraging the students’ participation as they were given an equal responsibility to cope with the project. they showed enthusiasm when working nur najibah sukmawati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 328 with their classmates. it gave them more confidence to exchange information. they also found that writing a text cooperatively is feasible to do. the steps offered in project-based activities directed them to finish the task sequentially and it eased them to do so as stated by student 1: now, our learning activities were more directed. we know how to accomplish the task given to our group because our lecturer instructed me to do observation first in order we have insight what to write. i think it is good and new to me that preparation before action is necessary in writing. student 2, in his commentary speech, thought that reading a lot before writing is actually to help him in accomplishing the task: i thought that writing is writing. all you need to do is just write. but my lecturer directed us to collect all data related to the thing we will describe. i found this step essential. student 3 highlighted the evaluation step as a meaningful activity to improve their writing skill: when our group thinks that we already did our best in writing descriptive text. it was actually a text full of revision. other groups could reveal what to revise and that was insightful for our better text. two heads are really better than one. on the other hand, my senior colleague also agreed that the students’ engagement in the project is good and that the activities made them responsible toward the task given to them. in addition, the students were fond of experiencing a series of steps that directed them to accomplish the task. it could be seen from their enthusiasm about sharing and asking within their group and asking for my validation when needed. supported by the finding from the students’ improving average score, it can be concluded that implementing project-based activities can improve the students’ skill in writing a descriptive text. this finding is in line with some studies from simuwardani, nuryatin, and doyin (2019), and shanti, syahrial, and koto (2016) that project-based activities are effective to be implemented to improve students’ skill in writing. conclusion teaching english for specific purposes follows the trend that it aims at bracing the students to survive in the 21st century. accordingly, instructional reflective feedbacks and project-based activities to improve …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 329 practices should be under a method that encourages them to be autonomous, independent, cooperative, and collaborative. project-based activities are evident in accommodating the skills and are relevant in teaching writing to informatics engineering students. along with the process, the students could perform more engaging and collaborative learning activities to actualize and sharpen their skill in writing, which is proven by the improvement of their average score in writing a descriptive text. this study ends with a recommendation that to improve the students’ achievement, we need to be open for input from many perspectives and parties in order to know and decide the best intervention to consider. this is a significant part to come with a treatment that students actually need.[rgt] references attard, a., di iorio, e., geven, k., & santa, r. (2010). student-centered learning: toolkit for students, staff and higher education institutions. bucharest: european students' union (nj1). blank, w. e., & harwell, s. (1997). promising practices for connecting high school to the real world. tampa, fl: university of south florida, 15-21. bell, s. (2010). project-based learning for the 21st century: skills for the future. the clearing house, 83(2), 39-43. dickinson, k. p., soukamneuth, s., yu, h. c., kimball, m., d'amico, r., perry, r.,& curan, s. p. (1998). providing educational services in the summer youth employment and training program. technical assistance guide. http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed420756.pdf (accessed 27/9/2016). guven, z. z. (2014). project based learning: a constructive way toward learner autonomy. international journal of languages’ education and teaching. turkey: necmettin erbakan university department of linguistics. ibrahim, a. (2010). esp at the tertiary level: current situation, application and expectation. english language teaching 3, 200-204. ismuwardani, z., nuryatin, a., & doyin, m. (2019). implementation of project based learning model to increased creativity and self-reliance of students on poetry writing skills. journal of primary education, 8(1), 51-58. nur najibah sukmawati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 330 kaptan, f., & korkmaz, h. (2001). fen eğitiminde probleme dayalı öğrenme yaklaşımı. hacettepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi 20, 185-192. kember, d. (2009). promoting student-centred forms of learning across an entire university. higher education 58.1, 1-13. markham, t., larmer, j., & ravitz, j. (2003). project based learning handbook. a guide to standards-focused pbl for middle and high school teachers. buck institute for education (bie). mali, y. (2017). efl students’ experiences in learning call through project based instructions. teflin journal, 28(2), 170-192. http://dx.doi.org/10.15639/ teflinjournal.v28i2/170-192 nasution, s., & sukmawati, n. (2019). model united nations: improving the students' speaking skill. jees (journal of english educators society), 4(2), 4752. http://doi.org/10.21070/jees.v4i2.2100 richards, j. c. (2015). key issues in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. seidman, a., & brown, s.c. (2006). robinson, j. k. (2013). project-based learning: improving student engagement and performance in the laboratory. analytical and bioanalytical chemistry 405(1), 7-13. shanti, v. m., & koto, i. (2016). project based learning approach to improve students ‘ability to write descriptive text (a classroom action research at grade x sman i bengkulu selatan). joall (journal of applied linguistics & literature), 1(2), 46-54. shirzadi, d. & amerian, m. (2020). washback effects of multiple-choice, cloze, and metalinguistic tests on efl students writing. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 9, 536-544. ttp://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v9i3.23203 smith, r. & rebolledo, p. (2018). a handbook for exploratory action research. london: british council stoller, f. l. (1997). project work: a means to promote language content. english teaching forum 35.4, 2-16 thomas, j. w. (2000). a review of research on project-based learning. california: the autodesk foundation. unal, s., sadoglu, g. p., & durukan, u. g. (2014). teacher educators' views of "model" concept and their mental models. journal of baltic science education, 13(5). 674-694 reflective feedbacks and project-based activities to improve …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 331 wahyudin, a. y. (2016, november). the effect of project-based learning on l2 spoken performance of undergraduate students in english for business class. in ninth international conference on applied linguistics (conaplin 9). atlantis press. whatley, j. (2012). evaluation of a team project based learning module for developing employability skills. informing science and information technology, 9, 75-92. weegar, m. a., & pacis, d. (2012). a comparison of two theories of learningbehaviorism and constructivism as applied to face-to-face and online learning. proceedings e-leader conference, manila. https://www.gcasa.com/conferences/manila/ppt/weegar.pdf (accessed 13/11/2016). westwood, p. s. (2008). what teachers need to know about teaching methods (aust council for ed research). victoria: acer press. nur najibah sukmawati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 332 this page intentionally left blank. khristianto register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 45 the change of mental process in the translation of ronggeng dhukuh paruk from bahasa indonesia into english khristianto faculty of letters the university of muhammadiyah purwokerto kristian.topz@gmail.com abstract mental process (thinking activities) is a part of transitivity system, representing language meaning as a symbol or representation meaning. in translation, this meaning is the most important, determining whether or not a clause is translated correctly. it means a sentence with a mental-process predicate will be right only, if it is realized in the same process. this paper tries to prove this notion, by exploring a novel translation from bahasa to english. it employs halliday’s transitivity as a means to contrast a source text (t1) and a target text (t2). based on the analysis, it is found out that some mental processes in the novel are translated into another process. perception and affection are two subtypes of mental process which are translated into relational process and material process. the change into relational process is identified in many cases; though most of the data are translated into a the same mental process. this change is triggered by the strategies of modulation and transposition. meanwhile, there is only a single case of change into a material process, which is resulted from the different realization, literal to metaphorical expression. thus, this proves that the change of a process in a clause does not necessarily entail a change of meaning. keywords: mental process, perception, affection, transitivity, meaning realization. mailto:kristian.topz@gmail.com the change of mental process in the translation of ronggeng dhukuh paruk from bahasa indonesia into english 46 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 abstact proses mental (thinking activities) merupakan bagian dari sistem transitivas, yang mewakili makna bahasa sebagai simbol atau makna representasi. dalam penerjemahan, makna ini adalah makna terpenting, yang menentukan benar/salah. artinya satu klausa dengan predikat bertipe proses mental hanya akan benar bila diterjemahkan menjadi klausa dengan jenis proses yang sama. tulisan ini akan membuktikan apakah dalil ini selalu benar, dengan mengkaji penerjemahan novel rdp dari bahasa indonesia ke bahasa inggris. teori transitivitas halliday diterapkan sebagai perangkat kontrastif realisasi proses mental dalam teks asli (t1) dan teks terjemahan (t2). dari analisa yang dilakukan, ditemukan sebagian klausa proses mental pada t1 diterjemahkan dengan klausa berpredikat bukan proses mental. proses mental yang mengalami perubahan adalah subtype persepsi dan afeksi. mereka direalisasikan menjadi proses material dan rasional. perubahan menjadi proses relasional merupakan perubahan yang dominan. perubahan ini dipicu oleh strategi penerjemahan modulasi dan transposisi. sementara perubahan menjadi proses material disebabkan oleh pengalihan gaya ungkap dari harfiah menjadi metaforis. terbukti bahwa perubahan proses yang terjadi tidak secara otomatis mengubah makna atau pesan. kata kunci: proses mental, persepsi, afeksi, transitivitas, realisasi makna. introduction mental process refers to a category of activities which may be embodied in a clause. it is just one of the six main types of the processes formulated by halliday (1985). mental process is a type of activity represented in a language to construe “our experience of the world of our own consciousness” (halliday & matthiessen, 2004: 197). the verbs like know, hate, like and the like are the examples. a clause bearing the words will always depict “quantum of change in the flow of events taking place in our own consciousness” (ibid). khristianto register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 47 a clause in a certain type of process in a language logically has to be realized in another clause with similar type when it is translated into another language. however, a different semiotic system may lead a translator to change the processes type due to some determining factors. this paper addresses the issue of process type change in a translation involving indonesian-english, particularly the mental process type. translation is a process of meaning extraction from a text and put the meaning into another. with meaning as its commodity, translation is a communication involving at least two semiotic systems, always operating in a certain context. text, according to halliday dan hasan (1985, tou:1992:14), is a collection of meaning codified in words and structures. it is a process and and product of social meaning in a situational context (ibid:15). further, they explain that a text presents in variables determining their presentation manifestation. text is always influenced by field, tenor, and mode, and also its situational and cultural contexts. a translation work is a realization of single meaning in another language. thus, the meaning, which covers three types of meanings, is represented in different verbal semiotic systems. in translation, the most prominent meaning, “highest value”, to be maintained is the ideational meaning; when tt fails to match ideationally to st, it will not be viewed as a translation (halliday in manfredi, 2008: 64-65). this is general for translation work. a real value as the most important one to be maintained is by context. in a certain case, it is very possible that another meaning, either interpersonal or textual, bears the highest value. halliday sums the criteria of a good translation as, “a text which is a translation (i.e. is equivalent) in respect of those linguistic features which are most the change of mental process in the translation of ronggeng dhukuh paruk from bahasa indonesia into english 48 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 valued in the given translation context.” a translator surely will try to realize all those three meanings from the st in his/her work. thus, it can be said that translation texts are representation of one meaning in different languages. textual realizations there are comparable linguistic phenomena as a way to understand the working semiotic systems. each text involved in translation is created for one meaning to equalize the source work. if it is a novel, the translation should be the same novel in other language(s). this means that the textual realization there illustrates how a language operates for the meaning, and the comparative study on languages in translation can represent their linguistic characteristics. the use of translation text as the source of language description has been done by many researches (yuli & yushan: 2012, lian & jiang: 2014, khristianto: 2014). the first two compare english-chinese, and the third describes indonesia, javanese and english. another research exploring modality in translation is done by mao, li and xue (2014). they analyzed a drama, major barbara, and its two chinese versions as the data corpus to compare the modality system in english and chinese. a study investigating a different facet of functional linguistics was done by lavid, arus, and moraton (2009). it focused on thematisation between english and spanish, using bidirectional translated text in the languages on different genres. similar to previous studies, this study also applied an approach of contrastive functional description. in english-indonesian texts, the study on thematic structure has been done by budiman (2006) and wulandari (2013). both took obama’s speech, the former used obama’s first inaugural speech and the latter selected obama’s speech delivered in his visit to indonesia khristianto register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 49 university, as the translation data to see how the theme structure in two versions are different from one to another. this paper will focus only on the variation of mental process realization from indonesian into english. the data sources are the novels of ronggeng dhukuh paruk (tohari (1982), (2003), and (2006)) in two different languages, bahasa indonesia and english. this applies halliday’s transitivity to see the changes of mental process category in the clauses collected from the sources. discussion as mentioned earlier, mental process is a process characterized by the activity occurring in our mind / consciousness. it includes perception, cognition, and affection. these mental processes in the data analyzed are also found to have a variation or change into other types of processes. each category of the mental process does change into another. the first process of “perception” has been changed into “doing” and “relational”. 1. makin sering terdengar suara tangis bayi. makin sering terdengar suara tangis bayi cir: manner seeing proc. phenomenon the cry of a baby pierced the silence the cry of a baby pierced the silence actor doing proc. goal the datum 1 above shows the process of perception or the so-called process of seeing which is represented by the word "terdengar” (‘sound’) turned out into a process with the verb "pierced", which is “material” type of process. material process is “concerned with our experience of the material world” (halliday & matthiessen, 2003:197). “pierce” means a the change of mental process in the translation of ronggeng dhukuh paruk from bahasa indonesia into english 50 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 physical activity, though it is used metaphorically. meanwhile, the word "sound" clearly represents the activities carried out through the sense of hearing, a perception. a change from mental to material is a big leap, considering both are very different. it is like a change from one extreme to another in a long continuum. the big difference between these processes can be seen in their position on halliday’s diagram (1994:108). the reason behind this drastic change is the different style of expression in t1 and t2. t1 puts the meaning literally; t2 evokes the same meaning in a metaphor. thus, though the wording is different, t2 still maintains the same meaning. another change of the perception process is into a relation process, either attributive or identifying. “relational clauses serve to characterize and to identify” (halliday & matthiessen, 2003:210). as shown in the datum 2, the clause in t1 has a verb "look" representing a perception process done by “visual” sense. it is then changed into a main verb form, to be "was" or linking verb "show" that both embodies a process-attributive relations. similar transitions are also seen in the datum 3 and 4 with the changes of "tampak” (“seen”) into “was" and “terdengar” (‘is heard’) into “was” . 2 tidak tampak tanda srintil lelah tidak tampak tanda srintil lelah seeing proc. phenomenon if srintil was tired, she showed no evidence of it if srintil was tired she showed no evidence… carrier attributive proc. attribute carrier attributive proc. attribute khristianto register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 51 another case is seen from datum 4 in which a main verb “melihat” "to see", perceiving through visual sense, is transferred into "look" that serves as a linking verb to be synonymous with to be; it serves to “characterize” the subject (carrier). the verb as predicate connects the carrier to its complement or attribute. this change is a result of the transposition (vinay and darbelnet in newmark, 1988:86) from an active into a passive construction. it shows a significant transposition from t1, which is packed in simplex clause, into a t2 complex clause. for this newmark (1988:87) further explains, “certain transpositions appear to go beyond linguistic differences and can be regarded as general options available for stylistic consideration. thus a complex sentence can normally be converted to a co-ordinate sentence or to two simple sentences…” (my emphasis). this way provides evidence that a translator has a space to negotiate; he/she can go in another path the author does not take—as long as the writer’s meaning is preserved in the translation. 3. dari tempatnya yang tinggi kedua burung bangau itu melihat dukuh paruk sebagai sebuah gerumbul kecil di tengah padang yang amat luas. dari tempatnya... kedua burung... melihat dukuh paruk... cir senser seeing proc. phenomenon from the high vantage point of the two herons, the village of paruk would have looked like a small thicket in the middle of a broad field. from the high... the village would... looked like a small thicket cir carrier attributive proc. attribute the change of mental process in the translation of ronggeng dhukuh paruk from bahasa indonesia into english 52 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 what happen here is the change in point of view, modulation strategy (vinet and darbelnet in baker and saldanha, 2009:582). they say, ‘[a] translation method consisting of changing a point of view, an evocation, and often a category of thought’ (vinay and darbelnet 1995:346). t1 positions the bird as the acting subject and the village as the object; in t2, they are only a point from which the village is seen, and the village is the subject of passive-like construction using linking verb, “look”. this modulation has made the shift on process type. in addition to the change into relational process of attributive subtype, the perception process is also found to be translated into an identifying relational process. some sample data showing such change is as follows. the original clause with a verb of “mendengar” (‘hear’), which clearly shows the activity of the auditory sense, is then embodied in a target clause into a process of "being"; it shows an identification. one way to prove the identification process is reversibility, the possibility of a reversal of the position of the subject-complement, because either complement or subject refers to a single referent. here again, it can be recognized an obvious transposition involved; the strategy is the culprit for the shift on the process type. 4. tetapi santayib mendengarnya sebagai hiruk-pikuk suasana ribuan monyet di pekuburan dukuh paruk. tetapi santayib mendengar -nya sebagai... senser seeing proc. phenomenon cir. all santayib registered was the cacophony of a thousand screaming monkeys from the village cemetery. all santayib... was the cacophony... token identifyng proc. value khristianto register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 53 another subtype of the mental process is cognition, or thinking process. the verbs included in this subtype are think, remember, remind, know, and etc. in the data, the process of cognition in t1 is transferred into an attributive-relational process. this can be seen in the data below in which the verb “paham” (‘understand’), a thinking process, is then realized into a main process of ‘being’ (was). “was” in the t2 (target text) is the main verb to represent the relational process. 5. boleh jadi srintil belum faham benar makna lirik lagu itu. boleh jadi srintil belum faham… makna… senser knowing proc. phenom. it wasn't likely that she was able to fully fathom the meaning of the lyrics. it wasn't ... she was able to fully… carrier attributive proc. attribute however, it is seen that the meaning of “paham” is equal to the verb “fathom”. this way reveals that “was” in the clause functions to be “an auxiliary” to mean “can”. thus, the change of the process is not there since the cognition process of “paham” (‘understand’) is maintained in its english version, “fathom”. it can be concluded that the cognition process has no change in its translation. the third subtype of mental process is affection, an emotion aspect. it covers the words like love, hate, like, dislike. the affection in the data is turned into an attributive relational process, as in the datum 6. the predicate as the process realization in t1 is the verb “rindu” (‘to long’). the clause with affection process is changed into a relational clause with the change of mental process in the translation of ronggeng dhukuh paruk from bahasa indonesia into english 54 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 "were" as the main verb in the predicate of the target text. the meaning of ‘to long’ is then embodied into an adjective “impatient” in the translation. 6. mereka sudah begitu rindu akan suara calung. mereka sudah begitu rindu akan suara calung senser feeling proc. phenomenon they were impatient to hear the calung ensemble they were impatient… carrier attributive proc. attribute thus, among four subtypes of mental process (perception, cognition, affection and volition), only perception and affection are changed into a different type of process. most changes are identified in the clauses with a perception process. the changes are due to the translation strategies of transposition, and modulation. another factor of the change is the use of metaphorical expression in the target text to realize a literal clause in the source. conclusion a translation of clauses packed in mental process from bahasa indonesia into english in the novel has given an evidence that variation is possible. it opens a potential negotiation between the source and target texts. a target text is not always fully obedient to its source. in another way, a translator does not need to be dictated by an author to express the meaning. as long as the meaning is maintained, a translator has a free space to express it in his/her personal preference. khristianto register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 55 references ahmad t. 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(2004). an introduction to functional grammar (revised ed.). london: arnolds. khristianto. 2013. the various realization of relational process between the javanese and english : a study case of transtivity theory look on ronggeng dukuh paruk. translation conference 2013 (september 2013). jakarta: ltbi, unika atmajaya lavid, julia & arus, jorge & moraton, lara. 2009. comparison and translation: towards a combined methodology for contrastive corpus studies. international journal of english studies (ijes), special issue:2009. university of murcia. lian, zhangjun & jiang, ting. 2014. a study of modality system in chinese-english legal translation from the perspective of sfg. cross-cultural communication, vol.4, no.3, pp.497-503, march 2014. www.cscanada.net manfredi, marina. 2008. translating text and context: translation studies and systemic functional linguistics. the change of mental process in the translation of ronggeng dhukuh paruk from bahasa indonesia into english 56 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 mao, zan, li, na & xue, jiao. 2014. corpus stylistic analysis of modal verbs in major barbara and its chinese versions. theory and practice in language studies, vol. no.1, pp-70-78, january 2014. finland: academy publisher. newmark, peter. (1988). a textbook of translation. london: prentice hall europe. wulandari, diyah fitri. 2013. thematic structure shift found in englishindonesian translation of obama’s speech in indonesia university. proceeding of language shift and maintenance iii (july 2-3, 2013) revised edition. semarang: master program in lingustics, diponegoro university. yuli, sun & yushan, zhao. 2012. a comparison of transitivity system in english and chinese. cross-cultural communication, vol.8, no.4, 2012, pp.75-80. www.cscanada.net http://www.cscanada.net/ 113 the influence of classroom management toward students’ english achievement at smu muhammadiyah salatiga (a case study of second year students of smu muhammadiyah salatiga in the academic year of 2004/2005) triyono state institute of islamic studies (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 2 salatiga, central java, indonesia triyono03@gmail.com abstract this research aims to find out the influence of classroom management toward students‟ achievement in english. the research was conducted at smu muhammadiyah salatiga, central java, indonesia. the writer focuses on the second year students in the academic year of 2004/2005. it is a quantitative research. questionnaire and direct observation are the instruments used to take the data. the score of classroom management of smu muhammadiyah salatiga is 87.6%, fairly high. while the score level of the second year students of smu muhammadiyah salatiga is 72%. this score level is satisfactory category of achievement level of most students. it means that better classroom management influences better english achievement. keywords: classroom management, achievement, smu muhammadiyah abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh manajemen kelas terhadap prestasi siswa dalam bahasa inggris . penelitian ini dilakukan di smu muhammadiyah salatiga , jawa tengah , indonesia . penulis fokus pada siswa tahun kedua pada tahun akademik 2004/2005. ini adalah penelitian kuantitatif yang menggunakan kuesioner dan observasi langsung sebagai instrumen pengambilan data. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa nilai pada pengelolaan kelas smu muhammadiyah salatiga cukup tinggi, yaitu 87,6 %. sementara tingkat skor mahasiswa tahun kedua adalah 72 %. level skor ini termasuk dalam kategori memuaskan dalam mailto:triyono03@gmail.com 114 pencapaian sebagian besar siswa. ini berarti bahwa manajemen kelas yang lebih baik mempengaruhi prestasi bahasa inggris menjadi lebih baik pula. kata kunci : manajemen kelas , prestasi , smu muhammadiyah introduction the primary task of a teacher is to educate. education is an activity done consciously to develop students‟ potential and change self-quality from a low quality to high one (pasaribu and simanjuntak, 1983: 7). students are human beings who need help in order that their potential can be developed harmoniously. in addition, the other assignment of teacher is enhancing students‟ motivation to learn (jones and jones, 1981: 163). low motivation, negative self-attitude, and failure are largely the result of improper learning condition. we should be able to alter students‟ failure rate by changing the condition of classroom learning and as consequence increasing their motivation to succeed. teaching is a complex process that can be conceptualized in a number of different ways. traditionally, language teaching been described in terms of what teacher does, which are the actions and behaviors which teacher carries out in the classroom and the effect of those on learners (richard and lockhard, 1994: 32). many problems are faced in teaching learning process especially for teachers who are responsible to make students understand the materials, to control classroom atmosphere so students feel enjoying and happy in learning process; and succeed in their study. one teacher‟s roles in teaching learning process is a teacher as manager ( usman, 1990: 4). this means that in teaching learning process, a teacher must be able to 115 manage classroom, to control classroom every time and the convertible situation to make the students enjoy the lesson; and the most important thing is that they understand the materials. beside those a teacher has many kinds of tasks which must be done in the classroom such as selecting learning activities, preparing materials, presenting learning activities, asking question, checking students‟ understanding, monitoring students‟ learning, and giving feedback on students‟ learning. classroom management skills are important point in determining a successful teaching. thus, management skills are crucial and fundamental. in the classroom management, there are three areas of expertise needed in the beginning of teaching: a. knowledge of how to manage a classroom b. mastering of subject matter c. understanding of their students‟ sociological and psychological background. according to wadd one of components which make successful in teaching learning process is resources of power. this is to organize all aspects of work in the classroom and has contribution more significantly to extent of the teacher‟s effectiveness. teacher‟s effectiveness is usually measured by the ability to teach and to mange students‟ group in the classroom. they should become effective teachers that are responsible for making students have high achievement. they must know how to manage lesson, how to manage students, how to use method at that is appropriate with the materials, and how to interact with students in classroom activities. the objectives of the study are: (1) to find out the pattern of classroom management in teaching learning process of the second year students of smu muhammadiyah salatiga. (2) to prove 116 whether classroom management influences students‟ achievements significantly. (3) to prove that classroom management in teaching learning process has significant contribution to the students‟ english achievement of the second year of smu muhammadiyah salatiga. research methodology the writer uses certain research methodology covering research design, technique of data collection, research procedures, data presentation, and the method of data analysis and questionnaire result. research design the writer conducts the questionnaire that is about classroom management as independent variable to the students of smu muhammadiyah salatiga to collect data. the writer takes 30 students of second years at smu muhammadyah salatiga in academic 2004/2005. objects of the study in this research are population, sample, and sampling.in sampling, the writer considers that there is a distinction among second class grades (ii a, ii b, ii c, ii d) in the experience of learning english. the total of the sample is as in this table. the formulation of research sample no grade total population total sample 1 ii a 30 7 2 ii b 30 7 3 ii c 30 8 4 ii d 30 8 total 120 30 117 the technique of data collection in this study, the writer collects data as follows questionnaire questionnaire is printed question used to get information from respondent. it is the report of their private or other things they know (kartono, 1990: 135). observation observation is intended to get more data to support the questionnaire. the purpose of the observation is to perceive the nature and extent of the significant interrelated elements with complex social phenomenon. it is to know about condition of school environment, teaching learning process, and about the phenomenon which happens. this method is used to know about history, structure of school organization, the teacher and staff, the students, the school of smu muhammadiyah salatiga as research subject. interview interview method is designed to verify the information obtained through questionnaire or to collect data by direct relation with information / face to face relation (kartono, 1990: 170). here, the writer asks the english teachers of the second year students to know the condition of the students and teachers themselves, to obtain the more accurate data of students‟ english achievement. data about english students‟ achievement was taken from english grade point average of report of second year students of smu muhammadiyah salatiga in the academic year of 2004/2005. 118 data analysis. in order to conduct a good arrangement, the writer uses a statistic formula; further this formula is used to find out the influence of the classroom management toward students‟ english achievement. the writer analysis the research data as follows (wapon, 1988: 369). calculating the score of classroom management. p= x 100 % calculating the score of students’ english achievement. p= x 100 % product moment correlation analysis. rxy = √{ }{ } discussion data analysis there are two variables used by the writer to analyze whether there is or not a positive correlation between classroom management and students‟ english achievement. those are independent variable (x) as classroom management and dependent variable (y) as students' english achievement. 119 first analysis of classroom management the analysis is to find out the score of classroom management. ∑x = 2628 n = 30 p = p = = = 87.6% the score of classroom management of english teacher at smu muhammadiyah salatiga according to the writer is high, (87.6%). second analysis of students’ english achievement this analysis will find out the score of students‟ english achievement. ∑y = 2160 n = 30 p = p = 120 = = 72% the score of students‟ english achievement of the second year students of smu muhammadiyah salatiga is high, (72%). third analysis of the correlation of classroom management and students’ english achievement. this analysis is used to find out the correlation between classroom management and students‟ english achievement. ∑x = 2628 ∑y = 2160 ∑ = 233566 ∑ = 159000 ∑xy = 190650 rxy = √{ }{ } rxy = √{ } { } 121 rxy = √{ }{ } = √ = √ = √ = = 0.419 from the calculation of the product moment correlation analysis, the writer obtains that the arithmetic r is 0.419. to know the significance of variable x to variable y; the arithmetic r should be compared with table r with the number of sample (30 students) and the level of siginificance 5%. it proves that arithmetic calculation is higher than table r because rh is 0.419 while rt is 0.361 there is a positive correlation between classroom management and students‟ english achievement. it can also be said that that better class management influences students‟ english achievement. 122 conclusion there are conclusions that will be presented related to the problems of the study. the first will concern with classroom management, the second will concern with students‟ english achievement and the third will concern with the correlation between classroom management and students‟ english achievement. based on the result of the research, the writer concludes: 1. the classroom management of the english teachers of smu muhammadiyah salatiga is fairly high. the result of this research shows that the score of classroom management is 87.6%. 2. the level of students‟ english achievement can be seen from the score level of students‟ english achievement. the result of this research shows that the score of students‟ english achievement of the second year students of smu muhammadiyah is 72%. this is identified as the satisfactory category of achievement level of the most students. 3. there is positive correlation between classroom management and studnets‟ english achievement. because rh is higher than rt. it is proven by the result of the research showing that the score of rh is 0.419 and rt is 0.361, so rh > rt. 4. better classroom management influences better students‟ english achievement. 123 references s.l, pasaribu and b, simanjuntak. 1983. proses belajar mengajar. bandung: tarsito. veron, f. jones and lovise, jones. 1998. comprehension classroom management. united states of america. richards, jack and lockhard, charles. 1994. reflective teaching in second language classroom. usa: cambridge university press. usman, muh. uzer. 1990. menjadi guru profesional. bandung: remaja rosda karya. wapon, ronald e. 1988. pengantar statistik. jakarta: gramedia (kartono kartini. 1990. metodologi riset sosial. bandung: manar maju. witte, stephen p. and faighley, lester. 1981. coherence, cohesion and writing quality. college composition and communication, 32, 189-204. register journal, vol.8 no.1 june 2015 1979-8903 (print) and 2503-040x (online) http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ 1 english core competencies, basic competencies, and assessment for junior high school in curriculum 2013; between facts and hopes does ichnatun dwi soenoewati state junior high school 3 semarang doesichnatun129@gmail.com abstract this paper focuses on some problems faced by junior high school english targeted teachers concerning with the content, formulation, and the order of core competencies (known as ki) and basic competencies (known as kd) and the assessment in k ‘13 (known as k’13). the material in k ‘13 is regarded as being arranged in balance covering the student’s attitude, knowledge, and skills competencies stressing on language skills as a means of communication to convey ideas and knowledge. based on the k ‘13 implementation mentoring, 13 out of 15 teachers (87%) interpret the core and basic competencies differently and most tend to be unclear. this happened due to the formulation, content, and order of the kis/kds which were illogical, in contrary to mind mapping, and confusing the targeted teachers. moreover, the assessment system, especially attitude assessments are too complicated. keywords: core competencies/basic competencies and assessment in k ‘13, revision of the formulation, content, order of core competencies and basic competencies, and the simplification of attitude assessment abstrak makalah ini membatasi masalah yang dihadapi oleh para guru sasaran mata pelajaran bahasa inggris smp kota semarang yang kesulitan dalam memahami konten, rumusan, dan susunan dalam kompetensi inti (ki), kompetensi dasar (kd) dan penilaian dalam kurikulum 2013 (k’13). kurikulum 2013 mengklaim bahwa materi di dalamnya disusun seimbang yang mencakup sikap, pengetahuan, dan ketrampilan dan menekankan kompetensi berbahasa sebagai alat komunikasi untuk menyampaikan gagasan dan pengetahuan. berdasarkan hasil pendampingan implementasi kurikulum 2013 yang dilakukan penulis, 13 dari 15 guru (87%) menafsirkan ki/kd secara berbeda dan sebagian besar belum jelas arahnya. hal ini terjadi karena rumusan, konten, dan susunan kd sangat tidak logis, tidak mengikuti peta konsep/pemikiran anak, dan membingungkan guru. kata kunci: ki/kd, penilaian sikap, pembenahan rumusan, konten, dan susunan kd, penyederhanaan penilaian sikap. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1327422077&1&& http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1447903941&1&& http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ mailto:doesichnatun129@gmail.com register journal, vol.8 no.1 june 2015 1979-8903 (print) and 2503-040x (online) http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ 2 introduction curriculum is all the subjects taught at educational institutions (kamus bahasa indonesia, 2008).the term curriculum is used to refer to the overall plan or design for a course and how the content for a course is transformed into a blueprint for teaching and learning which enables the desired learning outcomes to be achieved (richards, j.c., 2013). the course setting is tailored to the circumstances and the ability of each level of education in the implementation of the education and employment needs. length of time in the curriculum is usually adjusted with the intent and purpose of the educational system implemented. the curriculum is intended to be directed towards education and the intended purpose in learning activities as a whole. the community needs are always changing. to that end, the educational curriculum should match the needs of the community so that the curriculum needs reforming in accordance with the changing needs of society. the curriculum which is easily understood by teachers with clear formulations, the material in the core competencies (kis) and the basic competencies (kds) which support each other and consecutively, not too complicated for the assessment will greatly assist teachers in planning, implementing, and evaluating learning. as the curriculum is intended to direct education towards the overall direction and purpose, the curriculum should provide a clear description and be easily understood by the teachers as the spearhead of education. based on the results of the implementation of k ‘13 mentoring by the writer in 15 public and private junior high schools in semarang, nearly 87% of teachers still do not understand about the content, formulation, the order of kis/kds and assessment in k ‘13. some teachers misinterpret kd formulations so that they choose wrong teaching materials. by teaching the wrong materials, they will assess wrongly. the reasons are that the kis/kds written in confusing words or phrases, the kds which are illogical, overlapping, jumping, and too narrow, make the teachers meet difficulties in preparing, implementing, and evaluating learning. as a result, teachers teach only what they understand. this would be detrimental to students. the improvement of the content, formulation, and the order of kis/kds and the simplification of the assessment, especially attitude assessment will ease teachers to execute their main duties. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1327422077&1&& http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1447903941&1&& http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ register journal, vol.8 no.1 june 2015 1979-8903 (print) and 2503-040x (online) http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ 3 this paper aims at changing of the content, formulation, and the order of kis/kds and simplification of the assessment, especially attitude assessment to make teachers easier to plan, implement, and evaluate learning. richards (2013) proposed that before we can teach a language, we need to decide what linguistic content to teach. once content has been selected, it then needs to be organized into teachable and learnable units as well as arranged in a rational sequence. this statement is clear enough to understand that if curriculum content and formulation confuse teachers, it’s impossible for them to implement them correctly. confused teachers forced to implement wrong formulation content will fail to execute the process and assessment of learning. at the end, overall education will fail. good tests are those that do the job they are designed to do and which convince the people taking and marking them that they work. good tests also have a positive rather than a negative effect on both students and teachers (harmer, 2007). how can teachers design a good and proper test if they misunderstand the content stated in the basic competencies? furthermore, he added that tests have a powerful effect on student motivation. students often work a lot harder than normal when there is a test or examination in sight. students can be greatly encouraged by success in test, or, conversely demotivated by doing badly (harmer, 2007). a serious test design by teachers will be useless when it doesn’t test the proper competencies just because teachers misunderstand the content and formulation in kis/kds. what do the students work hard for? discussion some changing elements in k ‘13 are output competencies standards (known as skl), process standard (known as standar proses), content standards (known as standar isi), and assessment standards (known as standar penilaian). in this paper, the writer focuses the problem only on changes of content and assessment standards, especially in english for junior high school. the following paragraphs discuss them one by one. content standard http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1327422077&1&& http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1447903941&1&& http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ register journal, vol.8 no.1 june 2015 1979-8903 (print) and 2503-040x (online) http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ 4 changes in content standard are composed of materials that include a balance among attitude, knowledge, and skills competencies. this is in contrast with the previous curriculum which only emphasizes on knowledge and skills. k ‘13 claims that a fundamental change is the material that is taught emphasizing on language skill competencies as communication tools to convey ideas and knowledge in learners’ daily lives. competencies in k ’13 are set forth in ki 1 (spiritual competencies), ki 2 (social competencies), ki 3 (knowledge competencies), and ki 4 (skills competencies). language skill competencies cover the skill competencies to listen, speak, read, and write. competencies 1 and 2 are applied to all subjects at the same level of education, while competencies3 and 4 are different for each subject and each level. in language learning, ki 3 only covers grammar and vocabulary, while ki 4 includes skill competencies, such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. the separation of ki 3 and 4 looks very unnatural in language learning. teachers may combine kd 3 and kd 4 in learning process, but when they come to the assessment, teachers have difficulty choosing the indicators to be tested. if we are going to evaluate the competencies of learners’ knowledge, then we will only involve grammar and vocabulary in isolation. more fatal, in the midterm and end of the semester, or end of the year assessment, skill competencies (ki 4) are not tested. is it possible only testing grammar and vocabulary in such assessment? some teachers, including the writer, break the rule in this case. skill competencies, especially reading skill competency is also tested here. let's have a look at the following example problems taken from the test item in the first mid term test for grade vii: read the text and answer the questions below it. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1327422077&1&& http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1447903941&1&& http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ register journal, vol.8 no.1 june 2015 1979-8903 (print) and 2503-040x (online) http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ 5 dear friends, i just want to say …. believe me; i love you now and forever, not only on february 14. olivia. 1. this is a kind of … card. a. season greeting b. birthday greeting c. graduation greeting d. achievement greeting 2. olivia … her friends. a. hates b. loves c. dislikes d. doesn’t love question 1 asks about the general description of a short functional text which includes reading comprehension skills, while question 2 tests vocabulary which belongs to knowledge competencies. note the opinion of a friend as posted on facebook below: (http://gg.gg/3rynv) she shared her opinion to test the skill competencies in end year assessment by redesigning the test guideline although she knows it breaks the rule. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1327422077&1&& http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1447903941&1&& http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ register journal, vol.8 no.1 june 2015 1979-8903 (print) and 2503-040x (online) http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ 6 regardless of the separation between kd 3 and 4, kd 4 is not explicitly included when students learn to listen, speak, read, and write. notice one example of skill competencies as outlined in kd 4.3 english for junior high school grade vii as follows: menyusun teks lisan dan tulis untuk menyatakan dan menanyakan nama hari, bulan, nama waktu dalam hari, waktu dalam bentuk angka, tanggal, dan tahun, dengan unsur kebahasaan yang benar dan sesuai konteks. english translation: developing oral and written texts to express and ask for the name of the day, the month, the name of the time of day, time in the form of numbers, date, and year, with the correct linguistic elements and in context. where can we find a section which explicitly asks the teacher to teach language skill competencies/skills of listening, speaking, and reading to students except writing? if we look at the kd formulation above, students are only required to be able to compose (write) oral and written texts to express and ask for the name of the day, the month, the name of time of the day, time in the form of numbers, date, and year, with linguistic elements correctly in context. there is no demand on the learners to have a conversation, listening, and reading. again a friend of mine posted on facebook as follows: (http://gg.gg/3rynv) she complained for being unsuccessful to find speaking and writing skills when discussing narrative texts either in grade 8 or 9 in k ‘13. compare these kds found in curriculum 2016 (as translated below). 8.2 (listening) responding to the meaning in the very simple monologue accurately, fluently, and acceptably to interact with the immediate environment in the form of descriptive and procedure texts. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1327422077&1&& http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1447903941&1&& http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ register journal, vol.8 no.1 june 2015 1979-8903 (print) and 2503-040x (online) http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ 7 10.2 (speaking) expressing the meaning in a very simple short monologue to use spoken language variety accurately, fluently, and acceptably to interact with the immediate environment in the form of descriptive and procedure texts. 11. (reading) reading aloud meaningfully very simple and short functional text and short essay in the form of descriptive and procedure texts with acceptable pronunciation, stressing and intonation. 12. (writing) expressing the meaning and rhetorical stages of a very simple, short essay by using a variety of written language accurately, fluently and acceptably to interact with the immediate environment in the form of descriptive and procedure texts. from the above data, it is clear that in the 2006 curriculum, students learn certain material formulated comprehensively so that they can get an idea how to use it directly in everyday life. kis/kds formulator seem to assume that teachers have to be smart in interpreting the formulation of kds on their own. agustien (2014) put forward that the main purpose of language learning is to develop the ability to communicate (communicative competencies/cc) and the core of the ability to communicate is a discourse competency. communicating requires oral and written skills. if the kd formula is confusing teachers, then there is a possibility teacher only deliver one cycle only, namely oral or written. grouping the subject matter in english for grade vii written in kds is less logical. note kd 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 english grade vii in sequence below: understanding the social function, the structure of the text, and linguistic elements in the expression of greeting, leave taking, acknowledgments, and apology, and the response, in accordance with the context of its use. understanding the social function, the structure of the text, and linguistic elements on the introduction of self-expression, as well as the response, greeting, leave taking, acknowledgments, and apology, and the response, in accordance with the context of its use. understanding the social function, the structure of the text, and linguistic elements of text for stating and asking the name of the day, the month, the name of the time of day, time in the form of numbers, date, and year. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1327422077&1&& http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1447903941&1&& http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ register journal, vol.8 no.1 june 2015 1979-8903 (print) and 2503-040x (online) http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ 8 in kd 3.1, one of the subject matters is greeting. this kd is given at the beginning of the meeting between the teachers and learners, and among learners. logically, in the first meeting, other than saying hello, someone will introduce themselves before speaking at length. k ‘13 recommends that teachers provide authentic assessment (assessment standard, krikulum 2013). authentic assessment would be perfect if it begins with authentic learning. however, based on the above basic competencies, 'introduction' will be discussed in week 4, after the students know each other. other than saying 'hi, hello', people greet others in english saying 'good morning, good noon, good afternoon, and good evening'. it is a material ‘names of time in the day and time in the form of number' support greeting. however, these materials belong to kd 3.3 which is taught in about the 6th week ahead. it's too far and illogical. to say ‘good morning’ for example, students should know when the time limit for morning, noon, afternoon, or evening, so that the material ‘names of time in the day and time in the form of number' support greeting. helena (2014) rewrites that teaching to communicate is teaching how to connect ideas logically. illogical subject matters positioning will make students think a bit harder. another problem is english kds for grade vii is not sequential. note kd 3.7 to kd 3:10 sequentially as follows: understanding the social function, the structure of the text, and linguistic elements in the text and ask to declare the nature of people, animals, objects according to the context of its use. understanding the social function, the structure of the text, and linguistic elements in texts to express and ask behavior/action/ function of people, animals, objects, according to the context of its use. understanding the social function, the structure of the text, and linguistic elements of text instruction, the sign or signs (short notice), warning signs (warning/caution), according to the context of its use. understanding the social function, the structure of the text, and linguistic elements of descriptive text stating and asking about descriptions of people, animals, and objects, very short and simple, according to the context of its use. the subject matter at kd 3.7, 3.8, and 3:10 are people, animals, and objects, but the subject matter at kd 3.9 is about instruction, notice or signs and warnings that do not support the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1327422077&1&& http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1447903941&1&& http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ register journal, vol.8 no.1 june 2015 1979-8903 (print) and 2503-040x (online) http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ 9 discussion of kd 3.7, 3.8, and 3.10. it is confusing and messed up learner’s maps of thinking (mind mapping). buzan (2010) wrote "let the mind map that clearly, using a cascading hierarchy, a clear sequence to reach up to the very tip of the branches." students should be given opportunities to think coherently and clearly. if kds are interrupted by another material and the material that is in need of understanding the material have been learned four weeks earlier, we can be sure the learners had forgotten and have to start over from the beginning what it takes to learn kd 3.10. in addition to a waste of time, learners will find it hard to readjust. celce-murcia, et al. (1995) in agustien (2014) explains that the ability of discourse is "choice, sequence, word order, structure, and text of speech to achieve coherent oral and written texts". so besides a language kd should formulate clear language skills, students are expected to choose a similar word, as well as use and arrange them coherently. in addition, most of the kds are drafted too narrowly. a kd only contains a grammar, not a text. consider the example of kd 3.2 english for grade viii as follows: applying text structures and linguistic elements to carry out a social function for declaring and asking about the ability and willingness to perform an action, according to the context of its use. if we simplify this kd, roughly the intention is to ask the students to learn one of the 32 helping verbs, that is can separately, not in the context. the time available in a semester is too valuable just to learn one helping verb in one kd. in addition to spending time, a helping verb can be addressed in the discussion of certain texts, such as a descriptive text, a recount text, a narrative text, and others to be more contextual and easier to remember and understand by learners. when we describe certain people, we can mention that the person could be/do something. for example, if we describe raditya dika, we can describe that he can do the standup comedy, write a book, play movies, and others. suppose we describe certain animals, such as someone’s parrots, we can say that the bird could say hello, aassalamu’alaikum, etc. so it does not have to put one of the 32 helping verbs to be understood by learners in a kd. grammar learned separately will not be easy to memorize. nunan (1998) writes: "grammar which is taught separately through exercise repeatedly without giving an opportunity to students to try it in context will make it difficult for learners to use because learners are not introduced in the relationship between form, meaning, and use." http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1327422077&1&& http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1447903941&1&& http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ register journal, vol.8 no.1 june 2015 1979-8903 (print) and 2503-040x (online) http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ 10 similarly, by studying grammar separately, learners will probably get a perfect score in the written assessment, but will have difficulty in using it outside the classroom. another problem in k ‘13 is, kd formulation in english is confusing. note kd 3.3 english for grade viii as follows: applying text structures and linguistic elements to carry out the social function of expression to give instruction, encourage, prohibit, ask for permission, as well as the way to respond, in accordance with the context of its use. the word 'apply', if we look at the bloom's taxonomy, belongs to skills not knowledge competency. if we understand the kd as it is, teachers will regard ‘applying’ as language skill other than language knowledge. note the passage of 'the new bloom's taxonomy' which is updated by anderson, krathwohl and summarized by elizabeth dalton (2003) the following: table 1. the learning objectives based on the revised bloom's taxonomy by anderson and krathwohl. remembering understandi ng applying analyzing evaluating creating facts remembering facts understanding facts applying facts analyzing using facts, concepts, and procedures evaluating using facts, concepts, and procedures creating using facts, concepts, and procedures concepts remembering concepts understanding concepts applying concepts procedures remembering procedures understanding procedures applying procedures meta cognitive remembering the strategy of meta cognitive the strategy of meta cognitive applying the strategy of meta cognitive analyzing the strategy of meta cognitive evaluating the strategy of meta cognitive creating the strategy of meta cognitive knowledge skills competencies from the table above, it is clear that applying is a skill competency. some teachers are not sure to choose the operational verbs fitting to the kd. assessment standard as discussed above, knowledge and skill competencies which are separated makes teachers difficult to carry out the assessment. attitude competencies assessment burdens teachers a lot. attitude competencies which are assessed in a very detailed and complicated way by observation, self-assessment, peer assessment, and teacher’s journal is a bit ridiculous. teachers should plan the assessment of attitude, knowledge, and skill competencies including any technique that will be used, assessment indicators, assessment instruments, assessment rubrics and assessment guidelines http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1327422077&1&& http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1447903941&1&& http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ register journal, vol.8 no.1 june 2015 1979-8903 (print) and 2503-040x (online) http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ 11 at the beginning of semester, or minimum before a certain kd is carried out. the problems do not end at the planning step. it’s also difficult for teachers to note all students attitude during the learning process. unlike teaching in indonesia, teaching in other countries always involves team teaching. when a teacher is facilitating the learners during the learning process, another teacher takes notes on learners’ attitude. this way of teaching will lessen the teachers’ burden in assessing the learners’ attitude. to know more about assessment planning, here is the example of it: attitude competencies assessment planning k.d. 3.1 and 4.1 subject : english grade/semester : vii _______/1 theme : various issues related to the interaction between teachers and learners during the learning process, inside and outside of the classroom that involves speech acts greeting, leave taking, gratitude, and apologies main material : spoken text of greeting, leave taking, gratitude, and apologies attitude : 1. respecting and appreciating the grace of god. 2. politeness. 3. caring. 4. self-confident assessment techniques meeting remark 1 2 3 observation **) ö ö ö • the observation is not done at every meeting, but any meeting to get the learners attitude as stated in the indicators. self-assessment ***) ö peer assessment ****) teacher journal*****) ö ö ö the resume of attitude assessment for k.d. 3.1 dan 4.1 no. attitude assessment techniques observasion selfassessment peer assessment teacher’s journal 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1327422077&1&& http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1447903941&1&& http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ register journal, vol.8 no.1 june 2015 1979-8903 (print) and 2503-040x (online) http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ 12 1. respecting and appreciating the grace of god. ö ö ö ö ö ö ö 2. polite ö ö ö ö ö ö ö 3. caring ö ö ö ö ö ö ö 4. self confident ö ö ö ö ö ö ö all this assessment could have been done by the teachers, despite having to bother. all that work would be in vain when the school has determined that every student should be given score b for the competencies of his attitude, despite the behavior and attitude. this condition is in fact precisely developing dishonest attitude to the teacher. teachers will write the students' attitude competencies assessment records only for a formality. conclusion based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that the kis/kds and english assessment, especially attitude assessment for junior high school in k ‘13 is very confusing teachers. for that reason, there needs to be improvement on formulation, content, and the order of kis/kds and attitude assessment. formulate the kds simply that all teachers interpret similarly with others. mind the discussion of a helping verb in a kd. a kd should be developed based on a text. the rest (of language competencies) will appear when discussing the text. arrange the kds in line with the learners and teachers mind map to ease both in understanding the content, so that teachers can design a text instrument correctly. teachers should not be necessary to assess the learner’s attitude in detail and very complicated way because the school has set learners attitudes score, i.e. at least b. references agustien, helena (2014). the 2013 english curriculum: the paradigm, interpretation and implementation. semarang: fbs unnes. buzan, tony (2010). the mind map book: unlock your creativity, boost your memory, and change your life. pearson bbc active. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1327422077&1&& http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1447903941&1&& http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ register journal, vol.8 no.1 june 2015 1979-8903 (print) and 2503-040x (online) http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ 13 departemen pendidikan nasional. (2008). kamus bahasa indonesia. jakarta: pusat perbukuan. harmer, jeremy. (2007).how to teach. england: pearson education limited. kementrian pendidikan dan kebudayaan (2014). peraturan menteri pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia nomor 58 tahun 2014 tentang kurikulum 2013 sekolah menengah pertama / tsanawiyah. jakarta: kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia. krathwohl, david r. 2002. a revision of bloom's taxonomy: an overview. theory into practice (2002). vol. 41 (4): 212-218. the ohio state university. nunan, david (1998). teaching grammar in context. oxford university press: elt journal volume 52:2 april 1998. richards, jack c. (2013). curriculum approaches in language teaching: forward, central, and backward design. relc journal. 44(1) 5-33. singapore. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1327422077&1&& http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1447903941&1&& http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/ a study on the english attitude of students from esl and efl country in efl university register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 141 the application of society based school and its implication toward self-governance of the second year students of “smu alternative qaryah thayyibah” of kalibening, salatiga in the academic year of 2007/2008 lina mardliyah english department of education faculty stain salatiga linamardliyah@gmail.com abstract this paper attempts to describe the application of society based school and the implication of such a system as well as to depict the relationship between them toward students’ self-governance at smu alternative qt in the academic year of 2007/2008. the respondents of the study are 20 students of the second grade and 9 teachers. by applying descriptive qualitative research, it found that there is relationship between the application and the implication of society based school toward the students’ self-governance where the students become more ready to live in the future, realize their own personalities better, and have many skills. keywords: society based school, self-governance abstrak tulisan ini mencoba untuk menggambarkan aplikasi sekolah berbasis masyarakat dan implikasi sistem tersebut, serta untuk menggambarkan hubungan antara mereka ke arah selfgovernance/kepemimpinan mandiri siswa di smu alternatif qt pada tahun akademik 2007/2008. responden dalam penelitian ini adalah 20 siswa kelas dua dan 9 guru. dengan menerapkan penelitian deskriptif kualitatif, menemukan bahwa ada hubungan antara aplikasi dan implikasi sekolah berbasis masyarakat terhadap siswa 'selfgovernance, dimana siswa menjadi lebih siap untuk hidup di masa depan, menyadari kepribadian mereka sendiri dengan lebih baik, dan memiliki banyak keterampilan. keywords: sekolah berbasis masyarakat, selfgovernance register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 142 introduction the effort of education quality improvement has become ongoing issue in developing countries, especially indonesia. it happens because there has not been satisfying result of the education output from the current system. many assume that the lack of successor of education instruments, such as curriculum, methods of teaching and learning, facilities, teachers’ professionalism, students’ psychology, has led this unfortunate phenomenon. the teachers, for instance, used to give punishment than reward toward the students. they tend to be commander, administrator rather than facilitator, and learning partner. in turn, the students are presumed as object of education that leaves their psychology. it creates such a terrible burden for the students hinder them to acquire what to be learn. the conventional method of teaching also affects their creativity to develop the potent. moreover, adaptation of the current curriculum application which changes very often worsens the education quality. considering this phenomenon, some educators and scholars attempt to find alternative ways by applying different education system to create a comfortable environment that is fresh, joyful, and friendly in order to establish higher education quality and prepare the students to face the real life in the future. society based school is one of the form of alternative ways which firstly introduced by qaryah thayyibah. bahrudin (2007), as the founder, said that education in indonesia was increasingly shoddy and expensive had driven him to initiate the society based school that emphasizes on students’ center, economical school fee, and high quality. derived from those rationales, the writer decided to conduct this research by addressing the following three major aims. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 143 1. how is the application of society-based school at smu alternative qaryah thayyibah of kalibening salatiga? 2. how is the implication of society-based school toward students’ selfgovernance at smu alternative qaryah thayyibah of kalibening salatiga? 3. is there any relationship between the application of society-based school and its’ implication toward students’ self-governance at smu alternative qaryah thayyibah of kalibening salatiga? education system in indonesia education system in indonesia has got many critics for its failure to answer the challenge in living society. all of component of education are not yet maximal in doing educational process. in the reality, sutrisno (2006: 6) states that education is merely considered as transformation of knowledge. thus, it is not able to reach the real core of learning such as potency, personality, and confidence development. in addition, the education which tends to be directed to the cognitive aspect has contributed in many moral problems in the society. as supriyanto (2004:10) says, the worsening moral performance nowadays is the result of education system which emphasizes on cognitive aspect instead of characteristic shaping. answering such a challenge, society based school is present as an alternative to conduct education. society based school according to bahrudin (2007: 1), society based school emphasizes on the local character development that supported by participations of all register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 144 societies. in the area of implementation, education management using this system is based on: 1. cultural process human beings are the agent of educational process which works for themselves or the other people. culturing process is the basic reason to describe it. therefore, it is true if long life education is a common theory for all people. education, in this case, does not merely refer to school. instead, it involves society who provides real circumstance for the students to develop their abilities. 2. contextual educational community in learning process, qt uses ctl (contextual teaching learning) which means that there is strong relationship between material and reality. it is important that students directly participate and be able to relate between learning contents and the application on daily life. 3. adapted national curriculum as standardization generally, the basic characteristic of conventional curriculum as the background of national curriculum emphasizes on the following items. a. political teaching learning process b. condition of culture, mastery of value’s conventional culture, and basic skill and learning thought c. subject matter d. cognitive aspect meanwhile, curriculum used in qt emphasizes on the alternative model as follows. a. freedom choice b. preferred learning activity register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 145 c. learning process is conducted as a result of teacher and students’ agreement. d. each student is able to decide material to be learned by himself. all of these terms are used to provide basic education oriented to the community. for this reason, students are allowed to find what they really need and look for on the society since they are expected to be the part of society who are capable to solve the problem faced. considering this, society is inevitably necessary to contribute learning success. therefore, students learn with society which always meet changes and realize dynamic education that applies to long life education. learning strategies in teaching learning process of qt school 1. active learning qt places the student as the subject of education. this system based on the philosophy of constructivism underlying on the active thought. some aspects stressed on it are as follows. a. problem solving in every learning process, students should solve the problem. it is usually presented in the beginning of the lesson. the aim is to encourage them to be active in order to face the problem on the lesson. b. discovery and inquiry discovery and inquiry imply that solving problem need insight that can be gotten from many sources, such as books and internet. 2. student as the main actor it is applied to grow students’ basic competencies as human. they are: a. trustworthy register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 146 b. critics c. responsibility d. skill 3. the teacher as partner in this stage, teacher has role as a guide in building students’ interest toward the subject they have chosen. 4. the development of curriculum the curriculum used should be developed and linier to real life. therefore, students are able to use the environment and its community as the source of study. 5. facilities based on truly function research methodology it is a qualitative research that describes the application of society based school and its implication toward students’ self-governance at smu qaryah thayyibah salatiga. hence, descriptive approach is needed to probe the result. meanwhile, the participants of the research consist of 20 second year students and 9 teachers. to collect the data, the writer uses interview, observation, and documentation. discussion the application of society based school according to data obtained from the teachers, qt was established for the unsatisfactory of quality of current education that is conventional and very expensive, especially for low economy level-people. based on those facts, qt tries to apply new concept of education that is able to answer the challenge of real life. to solve the problem, qt offers register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 147 low fee-schooling with extended quality. this concept is in accordance with mr. ad and mr. br statement who says that qt has a commitment to provide such a cheap but high quality school that is affordable for all people, including farmers who live in the villages. another concept offered by qt is the system of teaching learning process. instead of using hierarchical and authoritarian system applied in formal schools, qt employs new education model which is more democratic and flexible that implies freedom. such a concept is equal to mr. ad statement who says that students are free to do all things to develop their potent and creativity. mr. ss similarly conveys that no force against the students to do what they do not want because each human has different skill and willingness. furthermore, mr. ad denotes that freedom system is used by the entire member of learning, regardless the students, teachers, staffs, and even the headmaster. according to him, the students should be placed as the subject of education in the teaching learning process. this system is based on the philosophy of constructivism underlied on active learning. bahrudin (2007: 13) points out that there are some aspects stressed in constructivism. those are problem solving, discovery and inquiry, and sharing. moreover, teachers play a role as facilitator. it means that they place themselves as the companion of learning. mr. br says that teacher is not an authoritative manager in the class. since regarded as learning partner, students are free to speak indonesian, javanese, or any other languages to their teachers. considering teaching method, qt are used to employing fun-oriented method that involves experience and knowledge sharing, discussion, role playing, game, interview, and group study. this statement is supported by mr. mj who says that there should be certain system that is able to develop students’ potent maximally. in this case, teachers should always give register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 148 appreciation and reward to all creativities and attitude they have made despite unsatisfying result. such a thing is due to human basic competencies namely truth, criticism, responsibility, and skill. by applying this concept, students are expected to be more ready to enter their life in the future with confidence and confident to take benefit from the challenge. besides that, freedom given encourages the students to have more skills as life survival, like farming, multimedia designing, film making, and so on. the implication of society based school toward students’ self governance human beings are creatures that could always be involved in educational process. therefore, the cultural processes will develop continuously. this is because they are the messengers of the culture in the civilization. in his process, education should encourage students to learn and society should be the centre of teaching learning process. qaryah thayyibah school is an institution that applies different model in teaching learning process. the differences include the use of educational based society, the strategies developed, and the methods that are used in the process. the concept of society as the center of education is in accordance with iz statement who says that the concept of qt is humanistic. it happens because education is a humanization process of the students to boost their ability based on their potent and uniqueness. qt also applies ctl (contextual teaching learning approach) that support the students to participate in long life education. in this case, they are free to decide what to be learned. as stated by am, the students can create and express their ability and tendency freely without being forced. due to this register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 149 concept, fn adds that students have varieties of skills like making nove, film production, music, theatre, etc. in addition, teachers similarly have important role toward qualities of education as students’ learning partner. hence, mr says, the characteristic of a good teacher is to learn together with students, not to dominate the class activity. overall, the implication of the concept of freedom is fun learning activity since it is supported by society based school, students’ freedom of learning willingness, and cooperative teachers. the relationship between the application and implication of society based school toward students self-governance in this research, the writer focuses on the relationship between two variables of the second year students of smu qt, specified on the students’ psychological development and their self-governance. mr. mj says that by applying the society based school system, students are more ready to live in the future for they have learned to be independent, critical, and responsible of consequences they do. in addition, sq states that by those skills, they can develop their society, particularly in their own village. furthermore, the application of such a system has yielded the increase of students’ creativity and confidence. like mr. mj’s statement, the students are more confident to deliver questions or overcoming their curiosity by discussing. it is showed, for instance, by when they discuss with some lecturers of the educational department of jakarta state university (fip-unj) that was attended by the dean of fip karyadi and the head of the university, bedjo fuyanto (mondah, juli 17 th , 2006) register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 150 conclusion the applications of society based school are cheap-fee schooling with higher quality, freedom to potency and creativity development, the teacher’s role as facilitator and learning companion, and fun teaching learning process. meanwhile, such a system has created students to be more humanistic and motivated to learn. in addition, they are free to decide their choice and it can be seen that students and teachers are equal as learning partners. dealing with the relationship between the applications of society based school and its implication toward students’ self-governance, students are more ready to live in the future, confident to express their ideas, responsible, and skilful. references bahrudin, ahmad. 2007. pendidikan alternative qaryah thayyibah. jogjakarta: lkis. supriyanto, eko. 2004. inovasi pendidikan: isu-isu pembelajaran, manajemen, dan sistem pendidikan di indonesia. surakarta: ums press. sutrisno. 2006. revolusi pendidikan di indonesia: membedah metode dan praktek pendidikan. jogjakarta: ar-ruzz media. a study on the english attitude of students from esl and efl country in efl university register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 173 a descriptive study on the use of colloquial style in english songs endriana sri wahyuni sd negeri 2 daden, rt. 6 rw. ii, majegan, tulung, klaten-indonesia endriana_wahyunisri@yahoo.com abstract this research is to point out the colloquial styles and the meanings used in english songs. the writer took the data from the text of five cassettes consisting of twenty two english songs. the technique used was the purposive random sampling. the writer presented the data taken from the sample then used a qualitative analysis. the table shows a list of sentences from the sample songs (20 samples from 70 samples) having non standard english. the findings of this study showed that the characteristics of colloquial style are used in english songs are structural aspect, denotative meanings and connotative meanings. keywords: colloquial styles, english songs, structural aspect, denotative meanings and connotative meanings. abstrak penelitian ini mengkaji bahasa pergaulan dan maknanya, yang digunakan dalam lagu-lagu bahasa inggris. penulis mengambil data dari lima lirik lagu dalam kaset yang terdiri dua puluh dua lagu bahasa inggris. teknik yang digunakan adalah sampel acak. penulis menyajikan data yang diambil dari sampel, kemudian menggunakan analisis kualitatif. tabel menunjukkan daftar kalimat dari sampel lagu (20 sampel dari 70 sampel) yang memiliki gaya bahasa inggris tidak baku. temuan penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa karakteristik gaya bahasa pergaulan yang digunakan dalam lagu-lagu bahasa inggris adalah dalam aspek struktural, makna denotatif dan makna konotatif. kata kunci: gaya bahasa pergaulan, lagu-lagu bahasa inggris, aspek struktural, makna denotatif, makna konotatif mailto:endriana_wahyunisri@yahoo.com register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 174 introduction word is one of the elements of language. words can be formed into sentences and they give message which may have direct or indirect meanings. people create sentences with their own styles both in spoken and written forms. the use of language should be suited to the situation and purposes. in spoken language, expressive feelings and ideas sometimes are used with the gesture such as flashing eyes, moving the part of the body and other. while in the written forms, language is expressed with the choice of words in language style. based on its use, english can be divided into two (mccrimmon, 1967:170); standard english and nonstandard english. standard english is known but prestige dialect which has social functions. it is, however, neither more logical and more complex, nor more regular than any other dialect. any judgment, therefore, as to the superiority or inferiority of a particular dialect is social judgment, nor linguistics or scientific ones. standard english is used most college educated people who fill position of social financial and professional influence in community. according to mccrimmon (1967: 174), standard english has two variant, namely: formal english and informal english. formal english is usually used in formal situations such as research, business letters, application letters, papers, thesis, seminar and so on. on the other hand, informal english is sometimes called colloquial english, because it is often used in daily communication in relaxed situations. additionally, widarso (1989: 51) says that nonstandard english is one of the variants english has which is not in line with the role of standard english. nonstandard english is considered as a non prestige variety. however, nonstandard english is not wrong. it is dialect spoken by a large section on non-middle class. the most noticeable characteristics of register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 175 nonstandard english is the deletion of “g” consonant at the end of a word. below are some examples of nonstandard words (widarso, 1989: 52): nonstandard english standard english -jessie ain‟t been here since last month -jessie hasn‟t been here since last month -we ain‟t goin‟ nowhere -we aren‟t going anywhere sometimes nonstandard american english is used in english songs, which is intended means to make the songs more attractive and lovely. as a matter of fact, composing a song requires certain anilities and capabilities. the composer needs times to think, to choose the word, to read what she or the listener. many songs use nonstandard english because nonstandard english is often more vivid and expressive compared to the standard variant. besides, nonstandard english communicates more quickly and easily than standard english. nonstandard english usually avoids sentimentality and formality. thus, in this study the researcher formulated the problems as follows; (1) what colloquial styles are used in english songs? (2) what meanings are conveyed in colloquial style used in english songs? colloquial style the word colloquial is derived from latin colloquialism (conversation). according to mccrimmon (1967: 173), the term is defined as a characteristic of an ordinary or familiar conversation rather than formal speech or writing. while websters (1981: 162) states that colloquial is a word used in or characteristic of conversation, especially familiar and informal conversations. in this sense, colloquial style is used in daily speech or everyday conversation and it is more often used in speaking, rather than writing. colloquial also refers to slang, which some linguists as low and vulgar. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 176 educated/standard english educated/standard english is often referred to as “the standard language”. it is clear however, that standard english is not “a language” in any meaningful sense of this term (bex: 1984:118). while guth (1977:357) states that “standard english” is the language of institutions, schools, churches and government. the standard english is a class dialect. it may be defined as the speech of those who enjoy a favored economic and social status in a society. in this sense, the standard english is used to denote the correct english used by educated speakers of english. it means that the term “standard english” is used to show the english is the way educated people speak and write. it is, therefore, the kind of english written and spoken by business executives, lawyers, doctors, ministers, teachers, writers, editors and other professional people. all these groups comprise only a small proportion of those who use the language. formal english english has varieties, and formal english is one of them. formal english is usually used in formal situations such as research, business letters, application letters, papers, thesis and seminar. formal english is also used in oral report to the class, in a discussion of serious issues, or in a paper that treats a serious subject. according to guth (1977:376), formal english is the language of serious discussion. informal english informal english is used in daily conversations. informal usages are found primarily in casual conversations. it is also used in writing designed to sound chatty or familiar. there are people who use informal english in nearly all of their conversations. informal english is used by members of a family in register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 177 their conversation and in writing letters to a close friend, by truck driver with cafeteria servants, etc. uneducated/nonstandard english uneducated/nonstandard english is a variety which does not agree with the rules of standard english. mccrimmon (1967:170) states that nonstandard english is the language of those occupations which do not require “higher education”. nonstandard english is often found is songs, poems and conversations. it is commonly used by black community in america nonstandard english is spoken by many people in informal situations. nonstandard english is the language of the factory, the mine, the lumber camp, the railroad and in general of those occupations which do not require “higher education”. it is essentially spoken rather than written language, but it is often used in writing by novelists, dramatists, and short story writers when they are presenting characters who would be expected to use nonstandard english. clipping there are many ways of forming new words in english, one of which is clipping. clipping is a term referring to the formation of a new word, with the same meaning as the original lexical term, by cutting off a portion and reducing it to a monosyllabic or disyllabic form (katamba, 1994: 182). clipping occurs when the longer word has very common use and a shorter form results because it is simpler and is easily understood. while gatherer (1986:11) says that clipped word can be formed by omitting part of a word. the omission is normally at the end or at the beginning of a word. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 178 slang slang words, although currently popular, suggest a casual, forced, racy, vulgar, offbeat meaning. they may be used in informal oral communication, but they seldom have a place in more structured written communication. slang words come and go so quickly. another expert, alwasilah (1985:47) says that slang is the introduction of new words. while webster (1981:787) states that slang is the language peculiar to a particular group. dictions according to howard (1987:143), diction is the choice of words for the expression of ideas. while hornby (1974:239) says that diction is choice and use of words, style or manner of speaking and writing. research methodology the sample of this thesis was twenty english songs which have colloquial words or expressions. in this case, the writer took the data from the text of five cassettes consisting of twenty two english songs. in this research, the songs were categorized as follows: 1. pop songs according to hornby (1974: 648), the word “pop” is the depiction of scenes of everyday life, comic strips, commercial technique or those records sold in large number and those which are popular on radio, tv and in discotheques. while websters (1981: 1765) says that “pop” is characterized by a popular tune or a mixture of popular and classical music intended to appeal to the people in general. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 179 the songs which were included in pop songs were those songs sung by westlife and britney spears. some of the songs are listed below: season in the sun, fool again, if i let you go, stronger and don‟t let me be the last to know. 2. rock songs hornby (1974: 455) states that rock songs are highly rhythmic, popular music for dancing, played on electric guitars, etc. the songs which were included in rock songs, were those song sung by gun‟n roses, new kid on the block and ugly kid joe. some of the rock songs for this study were: don‟t cry, please don‟t go girl, same side and yesterdays. in this thesis, the technique used was the purposive random sampling. a purposive sampling is a technique of taking sample by using a certain consideration determined by the writer (ali: 1984: 54). this technique was used, based on the consideration that those songs were recently most popular. the techniques of taking the data were as follows: first, the writer selected the songs from five cassettes. the five cassettes consisted of five groups. they were: westlife, britney spears, gun „n roses, ugly kid joe, new kid on the block. second, the writer selected twenty two english songs from the five cassettes. then, the writer compiled the lyrics of the songs that have been selected. third, the writer read all the lyrics of the songs. then, the fourth the writer selected words or expressions belonging to colloquial style and underlined them then put a number of each sentence in the songs which had colloquial words or expressions. the steps for analyzing the data were: first, identifying the sentences which had colloquial words. second, making a list of colloquial and standard register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 180 words or expressions. third, writing and classifying the sentences in the form of table. then, fourth analyzing the sentences which had colloquial words or expressions in terms of their structural, diction and semantic aspects. discussion in this research, the writer presented the data taken from the sample. the data were very important for the writer to show the object being research. in this research, the writer used a qualitative analysis. qualitative refers to the meaning, the definition or analogy or model or metaphor characterizing something and it deals with the meaning of things, and one view of meaning is associative (maanen, 1982: 31). the table below shows a list of sentences (20 samples from 70 samples) having non-standard english. the sentences were taken from the sample songs. no. nonstandard english no. standard english 01 goodbye papa please pray for me 01 goodbye father please pray for me 02 baby, i know the story 02 girl, i know the story 03 that you‟ve been hiding who‟s gonna take my place 03 that you‟ve been hiding who‟s going to take my place 04 i don‟t wanna you see us apart 04 i don‟t want to you see us apart 05 listen to me hear what i say „cause when our love always 05 listen to me hear what i say because when our love always 06 i show you see what you doin‟ 06 i show you see what you register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 181 to me doing to me 07 imagine two us together but i been livin‟ in reality 07 imagine two us together but i been living in reality 08 „cos i‟ve got no fear of losin‟ you 08 because i‟ve got no fear of losing you 09 rules are made for breakin‟ nothin‟ ventured nothin‟ gained 09 rules are made for breaking nothing ventured nothing gained 10 now i‟m gonna confess that i love you 10 now i‟m going to confess that i love you 11 i been keepin‟ it inside feeling‟ i could die 11 i been keeping it inside feeling‟ i could die 12 here on the outside lookin‟ in 12 here on the outside looking in 13 don‟t wanna‟ stay dreamin‟ „bout what could have been 13 don‟t want to stay dreaming about what could have been 14 baby, open your heart 14 girl, open your heart 15 i wanna make you mine 15 i want to make you mine 16 n‟ just can‟t get you off my mind 16 and just can‟t get you off my mind 17 i‟ve gotta go collect double talkin‟ jive 17 i‟ve got to go collect double talking jive 18 back in town an‟ all new friends 18 back in town and all new friends 19 they sayin‟ how ya been? 19 they saying‟ how you been? 20 fucked up and out place 20 please go away register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 182 after reading, identifying the colloquial style and providing the standard expressions, the writer is going to present the characteristic of colloquial style on terms of structure, diction and meaning. a. structural aspects in term of structure, the characteristics of the colloquial style as used by the english songs are as follows: 1. absence of be be as a full verb, has two forms i.e. past form (were, was) and present form (am, is, are), but in the songs these copulas were often absent in the sentences: they sayin‟ how ya been? (no. 19) (they saying‟ how you been?) 2. deletion of „g‟ in the verb+ing form in standard english, the present continuous tense has a formula: s + to be + v-ing, but in nonstandard english the consonant (“g”) is deleted in sentences as the following: a. don‟t let see your doin‟ to me (no. 06) („g‟ in doin‟ is deleted) b. imagine two us together but i been livin‟ in reality (no. 07) („g‟ in livin‟ is deleted) c. cos i‟ve got no fear of losin‟ you (no. 08) („g‟ in losin‟ is deleted) d. rules are made for breakin‟ nothin‟ ventured nothing; gained (no. 09) („g‟ in breakin‟ and nothin‟ is deleted) e. i been keepin‟ it inside feelin‟ i could die (no. 11) („g‟ in keepin‟ and feelin‟ is deleted) register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 183 f. here on the outside lookin‟ in (no. 12) („g‟ in lookin‟ is deleted) g. don‟t wanna stay dreamin‟ „bout (no. 13) („g‟ in dreamin‟ is deleted) h. i gotta go collect double talkin‟ jive (no. 17) („g‟ in dreamin‟ is deleted) i. they sayin‟ how ya been (no. 19) („g‟ in sayin‟ is deleted) b. diction aspect any level of diction falls into one of the following three categories: standard, informal, colloquial (howard: 1987: 55). in this study, there were two forms of diction used: informal and colloquial forms. 1. informal form in standard english every word is written in full, but in the songs there were some forms which were simplified (clipped forms) 1) cause when our love always fades away (no. 05) („cause was simplified from because) 2) „cos i‟ve got no fear of losin‟ you (no. 08) („cos was simplified from because) 3) don‟t wanna stay dreamin „bout (no. 13) („bout was simplified from about) 4) n‟ just can‟t get you off my mind (no. 16) (n‟ was simplified from and) 5) back in town an‟ all new friends (no. 18) (an‟ was simplified from and) register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 184 2. colloquial form a. slang expressions used in the songs are presented below: 1) good bye papa please pray for me (no. 01) (the word papa was used to replace father) 2) baby, i know the story (no. 02) (the word baby was used to replace girl) 3) who‟s gonna take me place (no. 03) (the word gonna was used to replace going to) 4) i don‟t wanna you see us apart (no. 04) (the word wanna was used to replace want to) 5) now i‟m gonna confess that i love you (no. 10) (the word gonna was used to replace going to) 6) don‟t wanna stay dreamin‟ „bout what could have been (no. 13) (the word wanna was used to replace want to) 7) baby, open your heart (no. 14) (the word baby was used to replace girl) 8) i wanna make you mine (no. 15) (the word wanna was used replace want to) 9) i gotta go collect double talkin‟ give (no. 17) (the word gotta was used to replace got to) 10) fucked up and out place (no. 20) (the word fucked up and out place was used to replace go away) b. in the songs, there were some form which had colloquial style. 1) good bye papa please pray for me (no. 01) (the word papa was used to replace father) 2) baby, open your heart (no. 14) register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 185 (the word baby was used to replace girl) 3) fucked up and out place (no. 20) (the word fucked up and out place was used to replace go away) c. in the songs, the pronoun “you” was often pronounced (ja) and spelled (ya): 1) they sayin‟ how ya been (no. 19) (you was pronounced ja) c. semantic aspect semantic is the systematic study of meaning. semantics is the study of how language organizes and expresses meaning (kreidler, 1998: 3). according to owens (1996:22), semantics is a system of rules governing the meaning on content of words and word combination. in this study, the words were analyzed in terms of their denotative and connotative meanings. 1. denotative meaning the denotative meaning of a word refers to what the word actually point to (hodges, 1984:226). while howard (1987:48) says that denotative meaning is the dictionary meaning of a word. in english songs, the writer found some examples of denotative meaning. a. who‟s gonna take my place (no. 03) (who is going to take my place) b. i gotta collect double talkin‟ jive (no. 17) (i‟ve got to go collect double talkin‟ jive) register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 186 2. connotative meaning according to howard (1987:48), connotative meaning is the emotional meaning of word. while hodges (1984:226) says that connotative meaning is what the word suggest or simplifies. in terms of connotative meaning, the writer found some sentences used in the english songs, one of them is: fucked up and out place (no. 20) (please go away) conclusion based on the previous discussion, the following conclusion was drawn: (1) the characteristics of colloquial style are used in english songs; structural aspect (be as full verb in the songs was often absent in the sentences, and in nonstandard english the consonant (g) is replaced with (n‟) in the last word) and diction aspect (clipped forms, slang words, and colloquial styles are used, also „ya‟ sometimes replaces „you‟). (2) denotative meanings make the listener and the readers understand more about the songs. besides, there were also connotative meanings conveyed in the songs; papa (the word “papa” are used in the songs to have the denotative meanings by “father”. this words is used in the songs, because in the closeness in family context and to describe that “papa” is a man of character and respectability) and baby (the word “baby” are used in the songs to have the denotative meaning by “girl”. this word is used in the songs, because the girls to baby a child and to describes that the man have close relationship with someone‟s or the man, to fall in love with his girl, so the man gave her full of love and care attention). register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2008 187 references ali, m., 1984. penelitian kependidikan prosedur dan strategi. bandung: angkasa bandung alwasilah, a.c. 1985. sosiologi bahasa. bandung: angkasa bandung. bex, t. and watts, rj. 1984. standard english the widening debate. new york: routledge. gatherer, wa. 1986. the students handbook of modern english. jakarta: pt gramedia guth, hans p. 1977. american english today. new york: mcgraw-hill book company. hodges, john c. 1984. harbace college handbook. new york, harcout brace and world, inc. hornby, as. 1974. oxford advanced learner’s dictionary of current english. great britain: oxford university press howard, c. jerriel. 1987. the essential english handbook and rethoric, indianapolis: bobbs merril education publishing. katamba, f. 1994. english words. new york:routledge kreidler, c. 1998. introducing english semantics. london: rotledge. maanen, jv and dabbs, jm. 1982. varieties of qualitative research. london sage publications. mccrimmon, jm. 1967. writing with a purpose from source to statement. new york: houghton mifflin company. owens. jr. r. e. 1996. language development: an introduction. new york: state university of new york, 4 th edition websters, 1981. third new international dictionary of the language unabridge, chicago:encyclopedia britanica, inc. widarso, wisnubroto. 1989. bahasa inggris, dialek, ragam, jargon, slang, blends, clipped words. yogyakarta: kanisius. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 35 the influence of reading intensity toward writing skill ibnu mas’ud kammi komisariat salatiga jl. tentara pelajar 02, salatiga masud.ibnu86@gmail.com abstract the aims of this research are to find of reading intensity, to examine the student’ writing skills, and to probe the influence of the students’ reading intensity toward the students’ writing skill. by applying descriptive quantitative approach and using correlation research, the subject of the study are the third year students of smp n 1 grabag, kab. magelang, in the academic year of 2008/2009. meanwhile, the sample of the research are 40 students of two classes that are taken by applying stratified sampling technique. furthermore, there are two variables that are analyzed. they are students’ reading intensity as independent variable and students’ writing skill as dependents variable. based on the calculation of the critical r in the level of significant of 5%, the writer found that rxy aritmethical is higher than rxy table. therefore, there is influence of reading intensity toward writing skill. keywords: reading, intensity, writing abstrak tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui intensitas membaca, dan kemampuan menulis siswa, serta meneliti pengaruh intensitas membaca siswa terhadap kemampuan menulis. dengan menerapkan pendekatan deskriptif kuantitatif dan penelitian korelasi, peneliti memilih siswa kelas 3 smp n 1 grabag, kab. magelang tahun akademik 2008/2009 sebagai subjek studi. sedangkan sampel dari penelitian ini berjumlah 40 siswa dari 2 kelas yang diambil berdasarkan teknik pengambilan sampel secara stratifikasi. ada dua variabel yang dianalisis; intensitas membaca siswa sebagai variabel independen dan kemampuan menulis siswa sebagai variabel dependen. berdasarkan kalkulasi kritikal r pada level signifikan 5%, penulis menemukan bahwa nilai aritmatikal rxy lebih tinggi daripada nilai pada tabel rxy. sehingga, terdapat pengaruh intensitas membaca terhadap kemampuan menulis. kata kunci: membaca, intensitas, menulis register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 36 introduction reading has important roles for students. the students can describe their imagination deeply because of reading. it is one of important thing for students’ life, because reading gives students’ horizon, reading also makes students increase their knowledge. through reading they are able to know more what they want and also make them increase and progress their knowledge. moreover in this period, when technology and information develop quickly, reading is important thing in their future life. it is especially in order to make the students are not left behind in science and technology. it is because of reading helps students minting a competence and fluency in speaking, listening, and writing. most of students do not realize that reading has important roles for them. one of the factor why the students do not realize it is because their teacher seldom to support them. one of the ways to support them is by explaining the importance of reading when the teachers teach their students in some occasions. the problem of reading the problem of reading consists of two kinds. they are internal and external factors. those factors are comprehension of the text, to get main idea and intern problems such as lazy, busy, etc. the comprehension of the texts are not easy to understand if the students less in vocabulary, because to understand it they need know more vocabularies. beside mastery in vocabulary the students have to learn the way of reading, in order to make it enjoy and easy to understand the texts. without comprehension, reading may prove to be almost useless. the external factor is environment. environment influences the students’ reading intensity. when most of their friends dislike reading will register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 37 influence them to read too. once more for external factor is training for reading. when the students don’t get training for reading, reading speed and always tired when they read book, there is no desire and boring because of low in reading. those are some of external factor influence in reading ability. students’ ability students’ ability in reading is complicated. there is a student who understands directly after read a book and the second one is low in comprehension. it happens because of some elements important influence the student’s ability in reading. some of those elements are: physical health, mental health, intelligence, maturity, background of experience, attitude of the learner and attitude or the teacher (dalman, 1982:27). some elements above we need to be aware of interrelationships among them. students’ motivation on reading motivation of the students has important influence in their reading ability. there is student, when he studies english in senior high school really realize that it has close relation with science development, but in another side those are some students look english subject as a difficult one. they inclined to avoid the subject. one more type of students regarded english subject. they do not realize that english has close relation with science discipline for rising and developing science. shortly, students as one of primary element in teaching and learning process, has important influence to make activities reading book to be success or no. in teaching english knows some methods to teach english such as direct method, functional method, grammar translation method etc. recently, most of teachers look that communicative method is a suitable method. the writer assumes that model of teaching english in junior high school is not aim at exercise in reading mastery. in junior high school, generally the register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 38 exercises aim at doing the task of questions structure, memorizing and make short dialogue and also answer the teacher’s question by using english. if the most needed by student is reading ability, why in teaching english subject doesn’t show up more in reading ability especially in junior high school. the comprehension of reading mastery will influences students writing skill, listening and also speaking skill. the influence of reading toward writing skill a student’s ability to write will be greatly enhanced through better reading skill. reading abilities improve through preparation, planning and practice. to increase their writing skill make the reading as the habit, because to write a text that is scientific text needs knowledge broadly. the student can achieve knowledge broadly through reading books. it means we have to realize that writing is more difficult than other skill (reading and speaking skill). some people assumed that accomplished writers simply sit down and write out the perfect letter in paragraph, essay or in other document from start to be finish in one sitting. reading has influence for the student towards their writing skill. generally, the students have problems in their writing especially to make a scientific written to fulfill their task. some factors influence them. the first factor is less in reading. beside those factors the students need about how to write effectively. to write effectively, one must choose a method that is orderly and logical should progress from topic selection, to research, to composition, and finally to completion of the work. realize or unrealized the most difficult part of writing is getting started. with practice and patience, writing will become expressive, creative and consistently easier. the writer suppose if the student always read book daily, his writing skill will be achieve easily. but, if student low in reading his writing skill will decrease. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 39 from the explanation above, the writer is interested to research the students of the junior high school (smp n) 1 grabag in their reading intensity and their writing skill. they are, first to find reading intensity of the third year student third year students of smp n 1 grabag kab.magelang in academic year of 2008/2009. next propose, to find the students’ writing skill of third year students of smp n 1 grabag. and the last is to find out the influence of the students’ reading intensity towards the students’ writing skill. reading intensity reading is the process of finding meaning in written character of symbol and of interpretation and analyzing text; reading is the complements of writing (beene and kopple, 1992:12). as we know, reading is needed by students to increase their knowledge and also to know more about the information. the students who have high intensity in reading will make them increase their information. while, the students who have low intensity in reading they will have less information. reading is a process of transferring data from the book into brain. it needs concentration to make easy catch the message in the book, but it is not easy to apply it. most of the students do not know how to get it easy, especially for them who still in junior high school. writing skill writing is clearly system of human intercommunication bu means of conventional visible mark (gelb, 1952:12). to achieve the students’ writing skill, one of the ways is by improving their reading portion. basically, there are many ways to make our reading more meaningful and helpful. there is no register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 40 best way. it depends on the condition of students themselves. the teacher and the students should find the suitable techniques for it. research methodology in this research, the writer presents what kind of the research approach used. the writer used descriptive quantitative approach. the writer looks all of the students as sample in this research by entering their classroom and asks them some questions. the goals this approach is to make the phenomena and facts become true and clear systematically and accurately. descriptive method in this research includes collecting and analyzing data, finding model and drawing the conclusion based on the data. without description first, to find data and make a conclusion is not easy, so the writer uses descriptive method. type of this research is descriptive correlation research. correlation research is intended to determine whether there is a possible relationship between two or more existing variables and how far the relationship. here, the writer inventing towards writing skill calculated by using arithmetical and product moment correlation techniques. based on the data collected this research includes quantitative research. in this research, the writer takes two classes of the third year student of smp n 1 grabag. the writer takes twenty students in a class. so, the total sample in this research is forty students. in this thesis, the writer used stratified sampling. stratified sampling is technique of taking sample by some subject from population. not the total population becomes sample. there are only 40 students considered as the sample. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 41 in this research, the writer uses primary and secondary data collections. the primary data, collection used questionnaire and test. the second data is interview and documentation. discussion there are to variable that are analyzed, independent variable and dependent variable. independent variable is students’ reading intensity. dependent variable is student’s writing skill. to get data of the students’ reading intensity easily, the writer used questionnaire. the questionnaire consists of fifteen items. there are four choices in each question. the techniques of scoring questionnaire are as follows: a. alternative of response a is scored 4 b. alternative of response b is scored 3 c. alternative of response c is scored 2 d. alternative of response d is scored 1 the total result of reading intensity from the questionnaire of the third grade students of smp 1 grabag from total 40 students is 1.871. whereas, the total score for the writing skill is 2.061. to get the percentage of reading intencity and writing skill and the influence of reading intensity towards writing skill, the writer is going to use the formula as follows: 1. arithmetical calculation a. to find out the score of reading intensity, the writer uses the formula: p = ∑x x 100% nx100 p = 1871 x100% p = the score obtained ∑ = the sum of the score x/y n = the sum of the sample register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 42 40x100 p = 46, 78% note: the result score of reading intensity is 46, 775% b. to find out the score of writing skill, the writer uses the formula: p = ∑x x 100% nx100 p = 2.061 x100% 40x100 p = 51, 53% 2. product moment correlation analysis to find out the product moment of the data, firstly the writer counts the square and the multiple of x and y. the results found that the score of x 2 is 89.173 and the score of y 2 is 111.565. the result of x.y is 97.764. rxy = ∑xy { (∑x) (∑y) } n √ {∑x2 [ (∑x) 2 ] ∑y2} (∑y) 2 n n rxy = 97.764 { 1.817 2.061 } 40 √ {89.173[ (1.871) 2 ] 111.5652} (2.061) 2 40 40 rxy = 1.360,725 2.983,493 rxy = 0,456 register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 43  testing of criteria when rxy arithmetical ≥ rxy table, it means nothing nil hypothesis is refused.  conclusion from the result of statistical experiment, it shows that rxy arithmetical is 0.456 while rxy table is 0.312. so it can be called that rxy arithmetical > rxy table.  interpretation from the result above, it means nothing nilhypothesis is refused. in other words “there is any influence between students’ reading intensity and their writing skill.” hypothetical conclusion after the writer presents the calculation above, the writer formulates the hypothesis as follows. the score of reading intensity of the third year of smp n 1 grabag kab.magelang is good enough. it is proved by the percentage of students’ reading intensity which is 46.78% from the highest percentage of 80%. the score of writing skill of the third year of smp n 1 grabag kab.magelang is good. it is proved by the percentage of their writing skill which is 51.53%. afterwards, statistical hypothesis that says “there is no influence of reading intensity toward writing skill of the third year of smp n 1 grabag kab.magelang in the academic year of 2008/2009” is refused, because after consulting the critical r in the level of significant of 5% the writer found that rxy arithmetical is higher than rxy table. the result of rxy arithmetical: 0.456 while rxy table is 0.312. so the writer concludes that there is any influence of reading intensity toward writing skill. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 44 review of research result based on arithmetical calculation on the students’ reading intensity, the writer that the score of it is 46.78% and the score students’ writing skill is 51.53%. it can be called that the score of the students’ reading intensity and the score of the students’ reading intensity and the score of students’ writing skill is good enough. it is proved by their calculations that show the score of both variables. based on the calculation of product moment correlation analysis, the writer found that the arithmetical r = 0.456. to know the correlation of variable x and y, the arithmetical calculation score should be compare with table r. the result is arithmetical calculate is higher than table r because rxy arithmetical 0.456 while rxy table is 0.312. it means writing skill of the third year students of smp n 1 grabag. based on the field research, most of the students of third years student of smp n 1 grabag who have high intensity reading are read books when they have leisure time. most of them use their leisure time or break time to reads books. sometime, they go to the library and read some books to increase their reading ability. library is one of the facilities that support them. the library is an important part of the system of learning, even to increase their reading. the library is where the student can become educate and find extensive information or almost any subject of the present or past. madding is one of the facilities to apply their writing skill in the school. in the fact, the students who have high in their reading intensity are always written some article or paper in their madding school. they also do the task about writing skill perfectly and collected to their teacher quickly. reading is one a way to increase some writing skill elements. when the students read some books, automatically their information, knowledge, and experience will advance. it makes them easy to write what they want register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 45 based on their information, knowledge and experience. so, read books give a large number benefits to the students towards their writing skill. conclusion based on the data analysis on the previous chapter, the writer concludes the result of those analyses as follows: the reading intensity of the third year students of smp n 1 grabag magelang is good enough. most of some aspects of school support them to increase their reading of english book. the score of reading intensity is 46.78%. the writing skill of the third year students of smp n1 grabag kab.magelang is good enough. it can be seen from the score of writing skill test. the result of this calculation shows that the score of students’ writing test is 51.53% based on the arithmetical product moment, calculation r arithmetical is higher than r table. it is proved by ra rxy arithmetical: 0.456 while rxy table is 0.312. it means there is any influence of reading intensity towards writing skill of the third student of smp n 1 grabag. students reading intensity is independent variable and dependent variable is students’ writing skill. references beene, lynn and william vande kopple. 1992. the riverside handbook. new jersey: houghton mifflin company. dalman, martha. 1982. the teaching of reading. new york: cbs college publishing. gates, arthur. 1994. “characters and purposes of the year book,” reading in elementary school. chichago: university of chicago press. register, vol. 2, no. 1, june 2009 46 gelb, i.j. 1952. a study of writing. chicago: the university of chicago press. russel, david. ”personal value in reading”. the reading teacher. vol. 15 (december 1961). sumanto, 1995. metodologi penelitian sosial pendidikan. yogyakarta: andy offset. 60 an error analysis of english simple present tense of the second year students of smp n 1 susukan regency of semarang in the academic year 2003/2004 agus safudin english department of educational faculty state institute for islamic studies (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 2 salatiga, central java, indonesia aguss5@gmail.com abstract the aim of this research is to find out how far the errors of simple present tense produced by the second year students of smp n 1 susukan. the research was conducted at state junior high school (smp n) 1 susukan, regency of semarang, central java, indonesia. the objects of this research were the eighth graders. this is quantitative research. the writer uses random sampling by lottery. there are about 75 students and the writer took 50% as the sample. the errors made by the students were divided into eight aspects. (1) error in using auxiliary is 36.75%. (2) error in using plural noun is 22.90%. (3) error in using to be is (am, is, are,) is 7.69%. ( 4) error in adverb of manner is 4.27%. (5) error in using verb in simple present tense is 4.78%. (6) error in using possessive sentence 5.24%. (7) error in using imperative sentence is 0.34%. (8) error due to ignorant is 11.28%. relating to those errors there should be the preventing efforts by the teachers such as providing lots of examples of english and indonesian sentences so that the students have greater understanding about the difference of those languages. keywords: error analysis, simple present tense, smp n 1 susukan abstrak tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui sejauh mana kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh siswa tahun kedua, smp n 1 susukan, dalam membuat kalimat simple present tense. penelitian ini dilakukan di smp negeri ( smp n ) 1 susukan, kabupaten semarang, jawa tengah, indonesia. obyek penelitian adalah siswa kelas delapan. dalam penelitian kuantitatif ini, penulis menggunakan random sampling. dari 75 siswa yang ada, peneliti mengambil 50 % dari populasi tersebut sebagai sampel. kesalahan yang dibuat oleh siswa dikelompokkan menjadi delapan aspek. ( 1 ) kesalahan dalam menggunakan auxiliary (36,75 %), ( 2 ) kesalahan dalam mailto:aguss5@gmail.com 61 menggunakan kata benda jamak sebanyak 22.90 %, ( 3 ) kesalahan dalam menggunakan to be( am, is, are ) sebanyak 7.69 %, ( 4 ) kesalahan dalam menggunakan keterangan cara (4,27 %), ( 5 ) kesalahan saat menggunakan kata kerja dalam simple present tense (4.78 %) . ( 6 ) kesalahan dalam menggunakan kalimat posesif (5,24 %), dan ( 7 ) kesalahan dalam menggunakan kalimat imperatif sebanyak 0,34% serta ( 8 ) kesalahan karena kurang memperhatikan sebanyak 11,28 %. berkaitan dengan kesalahankesalahan tersebut, perlu adanya upaya pencegahan oleh guru seperti memberikan banyak contoh kalimat bahasa inggris dan bahasa indonesia sehingga siswa memiliki pemahaman yang lebih baik tentang perbedaan dalam kedua bahasa tersebut . kata kunci : analisis kesalahan , simple present tense , smp n 1 susukan introduction among of many languages being used in the world, english is the widest used by the people and in the books. why english is still used and dominates the world book developments, because many authors and scientists come from english language background. it can be seen, when we are going to read, we will find many references use the english. as the most important language, english is learned in every nation, included indonesia, malaysia, thailand and the other southeast nations. particularly for indonesia english is regarded as the most important foreign language beside arabic or chinese language. this reality can be seen in many schools or universities in which, they choose it as a main subject. as a foreign language, english is difficult to be learned by the nonnative speakers, especially in indonesia, since there are many differences between english and indonesia. in consequences to study language of english needed serious and full of attention. generally, the indonesian students have not cover the english language yet, both active and passive, although it is taught from primary 62 school, junior high school and senior high school. at primary school the material covers reading, listening, speaking, and writing (departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 1999: 1). the four materials are difficult enough for junior high school students so the writer wants to investigate these difficulties to be researched. one of the junior high schools which studies english is smp n 1 susukan, regency of semarang. the students of smp n 1 susukan regency of semarang are obligated to follow the english language subject, because it‟s included to be the main of three subjects in the final test (ujian akhir). based on the problems above, the objectives of research can be specified as follows: 1.) to know the second year students of smp n 1 susukan, regency of semarang‟s error in learning english present tense. 2.) to know the abstracting factors of the second years students in the learning of english simple present tense. 3.) to know the teachers‟ efforts which have been done to overcome the errors. sentence a sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought (warriner, and sheilla, 1973: 15). based on this statement we know that expressing which is conveyed is in complete thought. the complete thought means the thought is meaningful although the sentence is short. simple present tense the simple present tense is divided into two parts namely; simple present tense with verb, (do and does) and simple present tense with (be) a. simple present tense with “do” or “does” 63 “do” and “does” are same in function. they are as the auxiliaries in simple present tense. b. simple present tense with “be” it happens when the subject is followed by noun the uses of simple present tense simple present tense is used to express a. general truth example: the word needs metal. the sun rises in the east. b. the custom and habitual actions. it is often followed by frequently, usually, everyday, and so on. example: i get up at 5.00 in the morning. she loves her husband. c. to express the order or asking (for the people only) example: please let me know how you get along. get out of the room! d. to express the future time, with the future time adverbial (sajekti dkk, 1984: 5). example: she leaves next week. classes begin the day after tomorrow. mistakes, lapses, and error, analysis the interlangua is the result of the learning to corner the second language. the main characteristic of interlanguage is the divergence of structure, as we call errors in language. the errors happened systematically and happened to everyone who learns to cover the second language. the errors being done by the people learn the new language have to be looked as the children‟s mistakes who learn mother language. a child who can‟t say / r / republic or / q / in qor‟an, will we blame them? of course we will not blame them it was general they will say “lepublic” or “koran”. 64 corder has divided to be third of what is called as the language wrong (prawono, 1996: 51). mistakes mistake is the divergence of the structure because the speaker is unable to convey the appropriate expression with the situation or condition. lapses lapses is the divergence of structure because the movement of concentration at the moment such as the tired, thus the lapses happens unconsciously. error analysis error is the divergence of structure because the speaker has not cover the grammar completely. the interfencer‟s factor of error is the language‟s factor which follows the certain pattern, such as indonesian sentence has “d m” (diterangkan menerangkan) but in english is “m d” (menerangkan diterangkan). example: guru bahasa inggris (indonesian) the english teacher (english) research methodology population suharsini arikunto says that the population is all members of research subjects (arikunto, 1989: 192). population is all individuals from whom the data are collected. in this research, population is the second year students of smp negeri susukan, regency of semarang, in academic year of 2003. 65 sample a sample is part of population which is researched by researcher. in this research, the writer takes one class as the sample of the second year students of smp negeri 1 susukan, semarang. sampling sampling is the way of taking sample for getting the sample of research. the writer uses random sampling by lottery. in this case, the writer takes 50% from the whole population as the sample used. the method of collecting data interview is done by the writer to find many real data based to the students ability in mastering tenses, while test instrument in this research is used to know the students‟ errors. data analysis this is the calculation of data collected. the data collected are to find out the proportion of error in each subject and to find out the proportion of error frequency in each type as well as the dominant errors occur. discussion the errors made by the students in learning english simple present tense it‟s made by the second students of smp n 1 susukan in academic year 2003/2004. here the writer did two ways to analyze the errors. the first, to find the dominant errors, is using a percentage descriptive analysis formula as follows: x: 100% where: x: percentage of errors 66 e: various kinds of errors t: test item : the sum of the next is using the reselected category approach. table i. some of errors made by the students of smp negeri 1 susukan in academic year 2003/2004 number of errors e t percentage of error 1 2 3 4 1 7 40 17.5% 2 17 40 42.4% 3 33 40 82.45% 4 30 40 75% 5 33 40 82.5% 6 19 40 47.5% 7 1 40 3.5% 8 25 40 62.5% 9 33 40 82.5% 10 29 40 72.5% 11 26 40 65.00% 12 26 40 65.0% 13 25 40 62.5% 14 31 40 77.5% 15 33 40 82.5% 16 31 40 77.5% 17 27 40 67.5% 18 25 40 62.5% 19 28 40 7.0% 20 1 40 2.5% 21 0 40 0% 67 22 4 40 10% 23 4 40 10% 24 3 40 7.5% 25 5 40 12.5% 26 6 40 15% 27 0 40 0% 28 1 40 2.50% 29 0 40 0% 30 4 40 10% 31 6 40 15% 32 2 40 5% 33 5 40 12.5% 34 5 40 12.5% 35 3 40 7.5% 36 7 40 17.5% 37 2 40 5% 38 2 40 5% 39 7 40 17.5% 40 0 40 0% total 545 1600 1365% related to the simple present tense there were eight errors to be analyzed. they were: 1. the errors in using auxiliary/modifier 2. the errors in using plural or single sentence 3. the errors in using to be 4. the errors in using adverb 5. the errors in using verb 6. the errors in using possessive sentence 7. the errors in using imperative word 8. the errors due to the ignorant 68 after the writer had he computation on the proportion of occurrence partially he then computed the proportion of frequency of occurrence of errors as whole, he had the following formula: pi= where: pi= the proportion of frequency of occurrence of errors as whole fi: absolute frequency of types of errors all levels n: the total number of positive errors of all levels after he had applied the formula he got the computation like below: pi= pi = = 38.25% table ii the proportion of frequency of occurrence of errors number of subject item n errors (pi-pi) % fi pi% 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8 320 215 67.18% -28.93% 2 5 200 134 67.00% -28.75% 3 2 80 45 56.25% -18.00% 4 1 40 25 62.50% -24.35% 5 1 40 28 70.00% -31.75% 6 1 40 31 77.50% -39.25% 7 2 80 2 2.50% 35.75% 8 20 800 66 8.25% 30.00% total 40 1600 545 411.8% 135.93% from the table above, in descending order, the most dominant error through the least dominant one occurred in: 69 1. the errors in using auxiliary/ modifier 2. the errors in using plural or single sentence 3. the errors due to the ignorant 4. the errors in using to be 5. the errors in using possessive sentence 6. the errors in using verb 7. the errors in using adverb of manner 8. the errors in using imperative sentence the possible causes of the errors table iii. causes or sources of errors no causes or sources total percentage 1 transfer 215 39.45% 2 under differentiation 47 8.62% 3 split 28 5.14% 4 ignorance of rule restriction 121 22.20% 5 false concept hypothesized 134 24.59% total 545 100% based on the table above, the writer concludes that 290 errors (53.21%) were interlingual error. those errors were divided in to three kinds, first caused by transfer (215) = 39.45%). second the errors were caused by under differentiation = (47 = 8.62%) and split (28 errors = 4.14%). the possible ways out of preventing those errors the writer believes that the obstacles of learning are natural things. the obstructing factors should get attention in order that the activity in 70 learning english simple present tense has no errors. now we come to the discussion about the possible ways out of the errors: 1. the teacher has to explain the material before giving any test. he can emphasize which is the important material in the lessons. 2. the teacher explains that there are many english‟s language pattern that can not be found in indonesia language pattern. 3. the teacher gives many example of each part in teaching english tense so the students will be clear with every material had been given. 4. the teacher gives many exercise to the students in order to make the students be spirited. if they are able to apply the theory which they get in teaching-learning process, it means that the teaching-learning is to be succesful. 5. after the teacher explains all of material and the students hear it the teacher gives the opportunity, in also the students ask about the difficulties of materials. conclusion 1. the errors made by the students of the second year students of smp n 1 susukan regency of semarang are 8 types. they are: a. the errors in using auxuliary: 215=36.75% b. the errors in using plural or single sentence in simple present tense: 134 = 22.90% c. the errors in using to be (am, is, are) in simple present tense: 45 = 7.69% d. the errors in using the adverb of manner in simple present tense: 25 = 4.27% 71 e. the errors in using verb in simple present tense: 28 = 4.78% f. the errors in using possesive sentence: 31 = 5.24% g. the errors in using imperative sentence in simple present tense: 2 = 0.34% h. the errors due to the ignorant: 66 = 11.28% 2. the possible causes of errors in using simple present tense at the second year students of smp n 1susukan regency of semarang are: a. transfer (215) errors = 39.45%) b. under differentiation (47 errors = 8.62%) c. split (28 errors = 5.14%) d. ignorance of rule restriction (121 errors = 22.20%) e. false concept hypothesized (134 errors 24.29%) 3. the posissible ways out preventing those errors, in using simple present tense at the second year students of smp n 1susukan regency of semarang a. the teacher should ecplain the materials firstly and emphasize the differences between indonesian pattern and english language, both in the grammar or structure b. the teacher provides a lot of example of sentences using simple present tense and ask students to compare english and indonesian sentences so that they find the differencees between them. c. the teacher gives opportunity to the students and ask the possible difficulties dealing with the materials. references departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. 1999. garis garis besar pengajaran. jakarta: aksara jakarta press. 72 suharsimi, arikunto. 1989. metodologi research untuk penulisan paper, skripsi, thesis dan disertasi. yogyakarta: andi ofset. john warriner, aws sheilla. 1973. english grammar and composition. new york. sajekti, et al. 1984. buku materi pokok bahasa inggris i modul universitas terbuka. jakarta: ratna sayekti jakarta. pranowo. 1996. analisis pengajaran bahasa. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. rethinking language education in indonesia register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 79 americanization of non-american storiesin disney films beta setiawati language center, muhammadiyah university of surakarta jl. a. yani tromol pos 1 surakarta abstract the study is intended to know the disney‟s animation films characteristics which are adapted from non american stories that contain americanization in order to be american popular culture products. this qualitative and library research is carried out within the field of american studies. disney‟s animated films which are regarded as artifacts in order to identify american society and culture is used as her primary data. she then compares those disney films with the original stories to discover the changes in making those stories become american popular products. she furthermore uses the sources such as books, magazines, journals, articles, and also internet data for her secondary data. the result of this study shows that most of folk narratives which were used in disney films were adapted from other countries‟ stories. however, disney intentionally adapts foreign countries‟ stories in its animated films by using disney formula to blow up the sale of its products. since disney is one of the most powerful media conglomerates in the world, it works endlessly to set out world entertainment. disney formula in its animated films which has dominated those adapted films are only intended to obtain as much profit as possible without paying attention to the values in children entertainment. keywords: americanization, non american stories, animation, popular culture, formula abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui karakteristik film animasi disney yang diadaptasi dari cerita non amerika yang mengandung unsure amerikanisasi agar menjadi produk budaya amerika yang populer. penelitian kualitatif dan studi pustaka ini dilakukan dalam lingkup studi amerika . film animasi disney yang dianggap sebagai artefak untuk mengidentifikasi masyarakat dan budaya amerika digunakan sebagai data primer. dia register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 80 kemudian membandingkan film-film disney dengan cerita aslinya untuk menemukan gubahan dalam pembuatan cerita-cerita agar menjadi produk populer amerika . dia selanjutnya menggunakan sumber seperti buku , majalah , jurnal , artikel , serta data internet sebagai data sekunder. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar cerita rakyat yang digunakan dalam film-film disney diadaptasi dari cerita negara lain . namun, disney sengaja mengadaptasi cerita luar negeri dalam film animasi dengan menggunakan formula disney untuk meledakkan penjualan produkproduknya . karena disney adalah salah satu konglomerat media yang paling kuat di dunia, karya-karyanya berhasil tanpa henti untuk meramaikan dunia hiburan. formula disney dalam bentuk film animasi yang telah mendominasi film-film yang diadaptasi hanya dimaksudkan untuk memperoleh keuntungan sebanyak mungkin tanpa memperhatikan nilai-nilai pada hiburan anak. kata kunci: amerikanisasi, cerita non amerika, animasi, budayapopuler, formula introduction walt disney corporation is one of the american media conglomerates which have monopoly control of global news and entertainment. it has not only won the hardware and the wires but also, increasingly, the content. over the course of the more than 80 years in operating the company, walt disney company has practically become synonymous with the medium of hand-drawn animation. wasko stated that “it has been regarded as the best american company which provides predictable and reliable family entertainment through its animated feature films” (2001: 112). this corporate control grants disney the power to create cultural icons and allows them to shape and limit the audiences‟ perception of reality which works to create a normative vision of the world. walt disney, the man who is behind that huge company is a legend and a folk hero of the 20th century. his worldwide popularity was based upon the ideals which his register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 81 name represents: imagination, optimism, creation, and self-made success in the american tradition. it brought the people closer to the future, while telling them of the past. walt disney with his enterprises in film, video, theme parks, cable, and network television, cruise ships, toys, clothing, and other consumer products, leads in the construction and promotion of u.s. popular culture. “even, disney now serves as america‟s moral educator” (real,1977: 52). “dominating market power in entertainment mitigated by avuncular representation adheres to disney in large part due to its primary production art form, the animated feature” (ward, 1993: 171). for many years the walt disney company has given the united states and many other countries with unforgettable fairy-tales, love stories, and magical animated adventures. since its inception, disney has given them adaptations of many famous folk tales such as cinderella, bambi, lion king, mulan, aladdin, and so on. it has then evolved into a company that strives to adapt aspects of many other cultures into its masterpieces, and it is most likely done with good intentions. however, in its efforts to expose viewers to other cultures, the storytelling can leave people that are culturally aware or sensitive with a sense that the films are merely bastardization from the original tales and culture. it also promotes a sense of west over east or white supremacy. it is in line with the definition of americanization as the term used for describing the influence of the united states of america on the culture of other countries. it also means that “it is a kind of process to substitute other culture with american culture” (chang and ha-joon,2003: 34). though, the word “disney” is synonymous with innocence to most parents. in fact, there are certain social ideologies indirectly embedded within even the most classic, beloved, and timeless disney‟s animated motion pictures. http://www.bookrags.com/united_states http://www.bookrags.com/country http://www.bookrags.com/american_culture register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 82 the study discusses disney‟s animated film characteristics. from that point, it can explore the ways and reason of disney in wrapping non american stories to be its products. here, the writer only investigates the construction, setting, and content of aladdin (1992), mulan (1998), hunchback of notre dame (1996), and beauty and the beast (1991). those non american stories will be blended in the analysis with some other stories such as lion king, cinderella, little mermaid, etc. those four films have non american story background such as aladdin (arab), mulan (china), hunchback of notre dame (french), and beauty and the beast (french). those stories come from other countries which must have different cultural background from america. discussion racism in disney films in the hand of walt disney, many fairy tales, legends, or ballads from other countries were remade into u.s versions for american viewers. they adapt the story to extend the market and adapt to american culture. most of these "americanized" versions were filmed in american places, and with english-speaking actors. in some cases, an original story from a foreign country is americanized by recasting its leading characters as americans. through years of growth and development, the disney company has been able to place their products and images in the lives of almost all children in america and other countries in the world. even though each culture has their own unique traditions and history, walt disney does not always portray them accurately. there are many ideologies about the characteristics of various races which show that the one is superior to the rest. these cultural notions are often translated to a variety register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 83 of america‟s visual culture, including animation and the disney company (bell et.al, 1995: 171). ´if one was to list all 44 of disney‟s classic hand drawn animated features, they would notice that all but three of the approximately 22 movies telling the story of humans feature those who are not white, while the rest of the animal based tales are predominantly voiced by caucasians” (maio, 1999: 4). every other race is clearly underrepresented. when they are included in the film, they appear as stereotypical representation of other nations who are often described as inferior, ridiculous, wicked, and impolite. beside that, disney has the great ability to shape and frame some values from other countries‟ stories to be the products of american popular culture. the movie that depicts the arabic culture is 1992‟s mega hit aladdin. the aladdin film is regarded as racist by arab american groups in the united states (maio, 1999: 4). before the real movie even begins the barbaric attitude is established in the very controversial song arabian night. parts of the song‟s lyrics announce: “where they cut off your ear if they don‟t like your face, it‟s barbaric, but hey, it‟s home”. the lyrics so offended particular viewers that the american-arab antidiscrimination committee insisted that disney change the lyrics. kanfer stated that after some consideration, two of the three lines were changed to: “where it‟s flat and immense, and the heat is intense, it‟s barbaric, but hey, it‟s home”. (1997: 177) even though the most offensive parts of the original lyrics were replaced, the fact still remains that disney is trying to stress the barbaric culture of the arab world. because disney did not remove the final line from register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 84 the song even after the company was aware of dissatisfaction from its arab audience, the aladdin film is racist. in addition, it seems that disney wants to expose that only in one country, saudi arabia, there was a punishment by removing one‟s hand and beheading one‟s head. it means that the country is still barbaric place. during the movie, the merchant tries to chop off princess jasmine‟s hand when she takes an apple to give to a starving child. the merchant does not know that she will pay for it. it is also contradictive to the islamic faith and the vow to feed the poor or hungry people. in other side, when aladdin helps jasmine to run away from sultan‟s palace, the palace‟s guards cry out to behead him. the readers of arabian night must be confused with the film since they can not find those parts in their reading. discrimination in disney films disney‟s animators can also project american made stereotypes into their animation. we can take an example, all evil characters in aladdin such as jafar and the sultan‟s guards have beards and large, bulbous noses, sinister eyes, and heavy arabic accents. they usually use sword constantly (giroux, 1999: 32). scheinin added in ostmanthat aladdin was modeled on the american actor, tom cruise. the heroes such as aladdin and jasmine, however, are light skinned, speak with american accents. aladdin does not have beard, turban, or an arabic accent because aladdin is voiced by scott weinger (1996: 24). even people call him „al‟, an american name. the original princess badroulbadour became jasmine. in the film, she is not a traditional arab princess who always wears veil anymore but a beautiful belly dancer. a belly dancer is regarded as traditionally lower status to the arab in the view of people in the world (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/stereotypes_of_arabs_and_muslims). jasmine http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/stereotypes_of_arabs_and_muslims register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 85 in disney‟s aladdin had a sense of sexuality rather than royalty. jasmine's innocent sexuality is common for the female characters of disney movies. even though disney adapts and wants to tell the story of a non white culture, arabian culture, all of his main characters are practically american. this ethnic and nationalistic stereotyping is not a new phenomenon in disney cartoons or in animation generally. as schweizer pointed out that “this submerged nationalistic propaganda can be seen as early as pinocchio in 1940 in which the protagonist, pinocchio and the good fairy both have american accents, but villainous character have either italian or english accents “(1998:67). less blatant discrimination can be found in disney‟s the lion king. even though “the picture uses an african tribalism culture, as well as makes its setting within the continent of africa, there is not a single character with african characteristics. instead of using african humans in the film, disney opted to replace them with animals” (kilpatrick and jacquelyn, 1995). this is relevant to american society because the society has not yet fully embraced african-americans as being completely accepted. although modern america is more than willing to acknowledge the culture and habits of african americans, like we can see in the movie tribalism, it is not ready to fully accept african color as the norm. it is shown to the using animals instead of african humans in disney‟s lion king. african americans will always be different in the eyes of the white majority of america, if only by skin color. “disney chose to intentionally overlook the inclusion of africans so that there would not be the chance of offending an immense number of african americans with unintentional production errors” (kilpatrick and jacquelyn, 1995: 5). we can also assume that the lion king is also home to many american overtones. disney depicted the villains, hyenas, as unintelligent register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 86 creatures living a barren, lifeless area, the rough equivalent of the slums and ghettos of america. the hyenas are the equivalent of american minorities who live in these slums, and are portrayed negatively. the lions that live in the areas of rich vegetation and animal-life, on the other hand, are portrayed as the heroes, the positive side of the vast society used in the story. additionally, african-americans voice actors were intentionally hired to voice the lower and unintelligent characters (kanfer, 1997: 179). the american tendency to correlate minority figures living in the less well-to-do areas of the country with societal negativity can be interpreted through this movie. “the crows in 1941‟s dumbo have distinctively black voices while one is even named jim. it was clearly referencing the historic jim crow laws which promoted segregation against african american and now it becomes a taboo label for black people” (kanfer, 1997: 178). he also added that disney does not only portray them in feathers but also as good hearted and chuckleheaded simpletons whose skills are confined to singing and dancing. even though none of the characters in the examples above are visibly black, disney attaches and implies a meaning by using the voice with the image. tavin explains how animals and non-human representations in disney films are not immune to this racial stereotyping. the characters often use language in the form of racially coded accents and inflection (tavin et.al., 2003: 5657). audience can also observe in another disney movie that takes place in africa, 1999 tarzan which eliminates the presence of blacks in africa altogether. it also promotes white supremacy to any who view that film. there is the same case in the relationship between pocahontas and john smith in disney‟s pocahontas. even though the white people in this movie are the enemy, there is still a suggestion of white supremacy because pocahontas essentially falls in love with the first white man she sees register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 87 (edgerton and jackson, 1996: 92). in real life, pocahontas was a very young girl of 12 years old and in fact, she never had any romantic relationship with john smith(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pocahontas_history) who is described as a blond, smoothly muscular, and athletically animated in disney‟s film. while chief powhatan appears more sedate in bold, symmetrical strokes, with slower and more dignified screen movement and dialogue. john smith can fulfills his heroic ideal in vision and plot because in the end of the film, the good colonialist intervenes to save powhatan and order to arrest of ratcliffe, the villain. the facts above show us that disney‟s art is also reflective of america‟s glorification of white culture. even if it was done unconsciously, disney‟s animations help to create a society in which its members conform to the life of white people. in america, being white is seen as being powerful and in control. as a result, characters with stereotypically non white characteristics may be regarded as a different race, such as the evil villains or troublemakers. in disney‟s hunchback of notre dame, judge claude frollo, the french minister of justice is narrated as a harsh character. he catches and kills one of the gypsy women who want to enter notre dame. the killed woman brings the bundle which contains a baby. frollo then realizes that her bundle is a deformed baby, which he attempts to drown because he believes that he is an unholy demon. he is stopped by the archdeacon, who tells him to care for the child to save his own soul from going to hell for killing an innocent woman. he reluctantly agrees, naming the baby quasimodo, which means 'half-formed‟. the movie formulates the cruelty of judge frollo to describe the condition of french‟s justice. in fact, hugo‟s novel did not tell the same. in hugo‟s novel, we are told about quasimodo's background. how he was found as a hideous and abandoned baby and taken in by claude frollo, the archdeacon of notre dame. his love for frollo because he has http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/demon http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/archdeacon http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hell http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/quasimodo http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/claude_frollo http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/claude_frollo http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/claude_frollo http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/archdeacon register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 88 grown him up was described clearly in the novel. frollo is shown to be a formidably intellectual man, forced early on to become a parental figure because he and his younger brother, are left by their parents in young age or they are orphaned(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/the_hunchback_of_notre_dame). in hugo‟s novel, quasimodo was not arrested andlocked in the belltower to protect him from the cruel and wicked world below by frollo but free. in the film, frollo insists that quasimodo should not be among people as cruel as his mother, who abandoned him, and that he must obey frollo's requests in order to thank frollo for taking him in and raising him as his son. quasimodo is watched over by his three guardian angels in the form of stone gargyoles: victor, hugo and laverne. it proofs that disney tried to describe quasimodo‟s desire to be free or to get freedom which is absent in hugo‟s novel. it is also unfair to describe the cruelty of frollo as a french minister of justice since it can give certain stereotypes about french justice to the audience. it also shows that esmeralda's execution is done by burning her at the stake in front of the cathedral. in fact, notre dame cathedral is a gothiccathedral on the eastern half of the île de la cité in paris, france. it is still used as a roman catholic cathedral and is the seat of the archbishop of paris. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/notre_dame_de_paris). whereas in the novel, she is only hanged. as with many of its animated films released during 90s, then disney‟s hunchback of notre dame can be read as discouragement of french national culture(http://www.case.edu/alfil/sce/texts_2001/needham). feminism in disney films a more american concept in disney‟s films is feminism. referring to the issue of american feminism, disney tried to bring the concept of http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/the_hunchback_of_notre_dame http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/gothic_architecture http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/gothic_architecture http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?�le_de_la_cit?� http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/paris http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/france http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/roman_catholic http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/archbishop_of_paris http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/archbishop_of_paris http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/archbishop_of_paris http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/notre_dame_de_paris http://www.case.edu/alfil/sce/texts_2001/needham register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 89 american feminism to his film beauty and the beast. empowered by her intelligence and book smarts, the young heroine belle in beauty and the beast, is portrayed as an independent woman stuck in a provincial village in eighteenth century france. the people see her as odd because she always has her nose in a book. she is pursued by gaston, the ultimate vain, macho male typical of hollywood films of the 1980s but belle rejects him. in the end she gives her love to the beast who holds her captive in the hopes she will fall in love with him and break her fear of him as a young horrific man. when her father is imprisoned by a beast, belle goes to save him. she then decides to make a deal actively, so her father goes back home and belle takes his father‟s place bravely in the beast‟s castle (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/beauty_and_the_beast-film). belle does not only fall in love with the beast, but she also "civilizes" him by instructing him on how to eat properly, control his temper, and dance. belle becomesa model of brave, smart, and active woman who is able to change every single bad thing to be the good one. she has power to transform the beast to be the one who is sensitive, caring, and loving. in the end, belle simply becomes another woman whose life is valued for solving a man's problems. disney has changed the original story in the mme jeanne-marie leprince de beaumont‟s beauty and the beast. in beaumont‟s story, beauty is an obedient girl. when her father lost in a forest and caught in a storm, he found shelter in the beast's palace. as he leaves, he plucks a rose to bring back to beauty, offending his unseen host, who denouncing him as a thief, tells him he must now die. the father begs to be allowed to see his daughters again. the beast says that if one of the man's daughters will return to suffer in his place, he may live. beauty journeys to the beast's castle convinced she will be killed, but instead she is made mistress of the enchanted palace, and the beast asks her to be his wife. she says she can be his friend, and will stay http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/jeanne-marie_leprince_de_beaumont http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/jeanne-marie_leprince_de_beaumont http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thief register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 90 with him forever. she entrusts her life totally without any effort to make her condition better. she does not try to civilize the beast at all. disney makes the magic on passive belle in this film so the audiences always miss its next romantic films. the same case is occurred in aladdin film. in the story of arabian night, princess badroulbadour lives under her father‟s rules. she is a veiled girl who is always in the palace all along day without any complaints. the sultan has arranged her marriage. after being married by the rich aladdin, she lives in her own palace. she never knows her husband‟s business at all. even, she asks her slave to change the old lamp of aladdin, which is in fact, the magic lamp, with the newest lamp. it shows that the princess still lives in the place which applies traditional gender role. in contrast with princess jasmine in disney‟s aladdin, jasmine is another free-spirited, smart, active, and rebellious girl who wants everyone to know that she can do everything the boys can. jasmine, the teenage daughter of the sultan, who must be married before her upcoming birthday, has great power to reject every prince she meets because she wants to be married for true love. she runs away from her palace to have free life skilfully as if she is used to be street girl. she also adapt the ordinary people‟s life fast. she is able to arrange her own life without influence of people around her. moreover, she has great power to influence her father‟s law which asks her to marry a prince so that jasmine can marry anyone she chooses, alladin. disney‟s concept of feminism is also visible in mulan which was used by disney as a platform to jump into the chinese market and released in the midst of intensifying anti-chinese sentiment in the united states (nguyen, 2001: 8).the animators have drawn their visual inspiration from chinese and japanese sources in mulan. the characters' simple lines and the clean look of the backgrounds remind people of classic asian painting. plus, the register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 91 filmmakers haven't "westernized" the characters' features (budd, 1999 90). while there were several cultural aspects incorporated in the making of mulan such as the importance of honor and shame in society, mulan is simply a mirror for american feminist ideas, which reflects the modern perception of the woman as a person that is just as capable, if not better, at doing anything males can. the young chinese girl rendered an entire army of males completely useless. in the legend, it was told that hua mulan distinguished herself in battle and was promoted up the ranks. eventually she became a general known for her brilliant military strategies. all through her 12 year military career, no one ever found out that hua mulan was a woman. according to history, when the war was over, the emperor asked general hua what reward "he" would like. general hua said he had no use for high official positions and only asked for a speedy horse to take him home to his parents. general hua went home ,by that time she was about thirty years old and returned to the weaving loom which she left before the war (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hua_mulan). the audience can not find the part that mulan‟s friends knew her pretending as a man as we see in the film. disney made the trick of mulan that is found as a woman in the middle of the story to expose american feminist idea which now becomes the idea of modern women in the world. gender is an important topic in today's society. most people feel pressure to conform to certain gender stereotypes without really understanding what they are and even without being aware of their influence on our perceptions. gender roles are the qualities and characteristics that are considered essentially feminine or masculine. the traditional gender role rules that a woman's place is in the home while a man's place is to provide for the family. “the media often uses gender to its advantage and disney https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/ https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/ https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/ https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/ register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 92 productions are not different” (bell, 1995: 80). many people are also concerned with the portrayal of women and the questionable behavior in disney films. in disney‟s stories, mothers are missing and men rule the society. bambi‟s mother is killed. snow white‟s mother tries to kill her and is ultimately killed. belle, cinderella, ariel, pocahontas, quasimodo, aladdin are all motherless. filling the motherless in these films are over protective fathers such as triton in little mermaid, eccentric father maurice in beauty and the beast. men exist to save and protect girls and rule kingdoms. typically women are shown in a position of princess, queen, or homemaker, for example, ariel in the little mermaid, jasmine in aladdin, belle in beauty and the beast, and so on. cinderella is a maid and then a princess. it seems as if women are seen as a commodity in a patriarchal society. it also seems that they are illustrated as being subservient to the male characters who typically display powerful behaviors, such as gaston in beauty and the beast, phoebus in hunchback ofnotre dame, aladdin, etc. they are portrayed using forceful behavior in order to get what they want. male dominance in disney films as early as disney's first animated classic, there has always been an emphasis on male dominance for nearly every film. prince charming kisses snow white and brings her back from the dead. then he rides happily ever after with her to his castle in the clouds. whereas, in the original snow white that is well known in europe, snow white is waken up from the coffin because the prince and his men carried the coffin away. the coffin jerked and the piece of poison apple flew out of snow white's mouth, awakening her. the prince then declared his love and soon a wedding was planned. disney made as if the prince can make snow white alived. this also appeared in disney‟s cinderella. cinderella‟s prince is smart enough to find her and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mouth http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wedding register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 93 rescue her from the clutches of the evil stepmother. it is similar when belle takes over the castle as if she is a house manager rather than as equal ruling partner because the film has led us to believe that this beauty does a great job of keeping homes. jasmine as a princess is ultimately subservient, to her father and to aladdin. pocahontas may save her man, but she is never in charge of anything. she is not a ruler. mulan may be the best warrior in her country because she can save her country for the ruling males but she ultimately accepts her woman‟s role by going back home away from politics and power. going even further, many audiences do not see cinderella's personality or actions in a negative light. she is a description of an ideal woman that is expected to be in disney and american culture in general at the time. for the audiences of the movie, cinderella has many admirable qualities, taking a more calm and discreet approach in fulfilling her wishes, and chooses to be kind even to those who mistreat her. the princesses of cinderella and snow white are the result of years of adversity at the hands of walt disney. they both seek their prince charming to come and sweep them from their feet and take them from the harsh reality of life. oddly enough, the princes in these two stories are merely conventional males, instilling the idea that females must remain a passive entity until the time when a man will actively pursue her. the construction of gender identity for girls and women also represents in both the littlemermaid and the lion king, the female characters are constructed within narrowly defined gender roles. all of the female characters in these films are ultimately subordinate to males, and define their sense of power and desire almost exclusively in terms of dominant male narratives, for instance, ariel, the woman-mermaid in the little mermaid, at first glance appears to be engaged in a struggle against parental control. she is motivated by the desire to explore the human world http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/general register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 94 and willing to take a risk in defining the subject and object of her desires. but in the end, the struggle to gain independence from her father, triton, and the sense of desperate striving that motivates her dissolves when ariel makes a mephistophelian pact with the sea witch, ursula. in this trade, ariel gives away her voice to gain a pair of legs so that she can pursue the handsome prince eric. while children might be delighted by ariel's teenage rebelliousness, they are strongly positioned to believe in the end that desire, choice, and empowerment are closely linked to catching and loving handsome men. we can as well implicitly see the traditional gender role in 1998‟s mulan. while this film is not seemingly stereotypical on the outside with a brave and heroic female leader, it does include several negative american ideologies about china. the movie opens with a matchmaking scene. it implies that women can not think for themselves and are only useful in the home where they follow their husband‟s orders. lyrics in the song “ honor to us all recites: “ men wants girls with good taste, calm, obedient, who work fast pace, with good breeding and a tiny waist” (christensen, 2004: 6). she adds that in fact, the arranged marriages that are portrayed here never took place in china. here the animators are projecting mythical ideas and notions that americans have about china into the movie and claiming it as reality. in another side in the movie, when mulan attempts to vocally stop the army from enlisting her injured father, the emperor‟s assistant replies,”silence! you will do well to teach your daughter to hold her tongue in a man‟s presence”(christensen, 2004:7). while these examples also support ways in which disney presents gender stereotypes, it also reflects on ill conceived ideas of the asian culture. in disney‟s hunchback of notre dame, esmerelda‟s power comes from her sexuality. she is able to resist arrest because captain phoebus, the register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 95 blond-haired, blue-eyed hero who has fallen in love with her. she is also a gypsy, and because gypsies are witches, she is able to magically disappear to evade capture by frollo‟s cronies. while seeking sanctuary in notre dame, she becomes friends with quasimodo and discovers her dream. she is not seeking adventure, but help from god for the outcasts of the world. because she and the gypsies "live outside the normal order," we don‟t expect her fate to fall within this order. for instance, she will not be marrying a handsome prince. in the film‟s climax, she is burned at the stake for witchcraft. she doesn‟t die of course. she is saved by quasimodo. in the end, she presumably lives happily-ever-after with phoebus. the traditional gender role in this film is exposed to change the main message of hugo‟s novel which emphasizes esmeralda‟s effort and trial as the main color of the novel. the idea of male dominance in snow white (1937), cinderella (1950), the little mermaid, and the lion king, while is not strictly an american concept, it still remains an example of society at that time through the media. traditionally in american culture, a higher value has been given to whatever is defined as male. harvard law school, for example, did not open its doors to female students until 1950 (marylyn,1996: 66). people can also find in claudia goldin‟s statement in her book understanding the gender gap: an economic history of american women that “as the gendered work that men and women performed within the household economy was transferred to mill and factory, jobs were gendered” (goldin, 1999: 22-24). she also stated that little value and low pay was attached to tasks usually performed by women. for minority women, sex discrimination in employment compounded racial and ethnic discrimination, placing them to jobs at the very bottom of the economic scale. occupational segregation and lower wages, as well as unrecognized, uncompensated labor for those doing housework, left most women economically dependent on men (1989: 24). it http://www.answers.com/topic/unrecognized http://www.answers.com/topic/housework register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 96 is clearly proved that sex discrimination still run in america in the nineteenth century. rebelliousness of teenagers in disney films disney has also repeatedly supported the idea that teenagers are rebellious and deviant people. it is similar with the stereotype that plagues the majority of modern american teens. today, the term teenager has a negative connotation (ostman, 1996: 83). support for this concept can be found very openly in the little mermaid. when the protagonist of the story, ariel, is scolded by her father, king triton, for disobeying an order, she leaves in tears. sebastian, triton's trusted advisor, can make sense of the situation by sarcastically uttering “teenagers...”. more evidence is found in aladdin, where the teenage princess jasmine runs from her palace home to the marketplace. in a matter of minutes, her arm is nearly removed by a shopkeeper for stealing an apple. the character jim hawkins from disney's treasure planet is another example. he is introduced in the movie as a criminal youth that has trouble with the law and communicating with his mother (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/treasure _planet_film). while the ballad of mulan tells of mulan's decision to join the draft. her openness about her decision, and her parents' knowledge of, and acceptance of her course of action are in direct opposition to the mulan story presented by disney, in which mulan runs off in secret to her parents' dismay. it is also one point stresses in teenager rebellion. we can also find this characteristic in hunchback of notredame film. as the festival begins, the two of guards who arrest quasimodo head into town to join and patrol the crowd. at the same time, quasimodo sneaks out of the tower in disguise and watches the festival, where clopin and the gypsies are performing the dance. although frollo does not allow him to appear in the crowd. in beauty and the beast, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/treasure register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 97 belle sneaks into the forbidden west wing, discovering slashed furniture, broken mirrors, a ripped-up portrait with strangely familiar blue eyes, and the enchanted rose although beast has forbidden her to go there. the beast catches her and she flees the castle, only to encounter a pack of wolves. at the last minute, the beast fights off the wolves and a grateful belle returns to the castle and the two start to become friends. the concept of true love in disney films in disney tales there is one true love waiting out there for the hero or heroine. cinderella, sleeping beauty, little mermaid, beauty and the beast, lady and the tramp, pocahontas and others all celebrate this. there are problems in the lives of each of these characters: sleeping beauty and snow white are dead and a kiss makes them alive and married. pocahontas, belle, ariel and cinderella are looking for a better life, looking beyond their bored, looking for existence for happiness. of course happiness is defined as life with a man, one special man. love at first sight is inevitable and appropriate. furthermore prince eric should kiss ariel whether she wants to be kissed or not, because she is "the one" and he has a duty to follow his feelings. there is one ideal romantic mate for everyone in disney‟s stories. one must find this person and marry him or her to have a complete life. in disney films it is not enjoyable to be single because it means to be lonely and unfulfilled. the importance of performance and wealthy in disney films we can also observe that beauty or good looking is everything in disney films. most heroic characters in disney stories are young. in disney's world there are seldom characters that fall in love who are not beautiful or handsome. even animals like bambi and lady and the tramp are the best looking in their worlds. hercules has the body of arnold schwarzenegger register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 98 (chesebrow and bertleson, 1996: 143). belle's beast is really just a young with a curse problem. prince charming is so charming and gorgeous to look at. cinderella makes a big deal about dressing and being beautiful before going to her prince. mulan is described as the most beautiful girl of chinese girls who join in matchmaking. pocahontas looks like a barbie doll. they look beautiful or handsome, dress attractive, and marry good looking person. in addition, being rich and powerful are more appealing in most of disney films. in pocahontas when the british first arrive, the governor sings about the better life filled with mountains of gold. “it's gold and it's mine, mine, mine. there'll be heaps of it, and i‟ll be on top of the heap” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pocahontas_film). the guards of sultan‟s palace in aladdin also sings “who has the gold has the rule” when they look for aladdin because he helps jasmine to run away from the palace. but aladdin can marry jasmine in the end of the story because he has more than the gold, magic lamp that can grant all his wishes. the beast has a great wealth so he can guarantee belle‟s enjoyable life. mulan is not only a girl but also from the ordinary family in china but she can save the chinese troops from the villain so she can get immense attention from the leader of the army, the khan, and people all over her country. in the lion king simba enjoys a relative life of leisure while waiting to ascend to his inherited destiny as monarch. cinderella works hard at the beginning of the film as an indentured servant but the happy ending for her is that she will never have to work again. cinderella as the main character strives for a better life and finally she gets the one who is rich. the significance of magic in disney films success while the disney heroes journey on their quests is achieved with the help of wishing and magic. it is not strictly done by the heroes´ own register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 99 abilities and devices. esmeralda is told as a gypsy, and because gypsies are witches, she is able to magically disappear to evade capture by frollo‟s cronies. pinocchio has jiminy cricket, his conscience. dumbo has timothy mouse, his teacher. ariel the mermaid has sebastian the crab and flounder the fish to guide and teach her. belle the beauty has mentors in the guise of talking furniture to help her find her true love. they also have the magic mirror to see the certain events. the khan troop‟s practice and effort is nothing if it is compared with mulan who has mushu, an unusually small dragon that has been sent by her ancestors to bring mulan back home savely. mulan has her second good luck charm, a cricket named cri-kee. so that she can work hard and she is soon even stronger than the rest although mulan starts out physically weak in comparison to her fellow soldiers. finally she becomes a respected part of her group, which is led by captain li shang. in other side, aladdin is able to reach his dream by the help of smart mouthed genie inside the magic lamp and jafar has a smart-mouthed parrot. cinderella couldn't be successful without the fairy godmother and cinderella herself is a friend and protector to the mice and other animals which are always ready to help her. in pocahontas, john smith learns many things from pocahontas who get wisdom from the spirits. the wish or magic motif is also present in more recent disney‟s productions. the audiences are allowed to laugh at the developmentally disabled in some of disney films. in beauty and the beast, gaston's friend and assistant, le fou is clearly not very intelligent. gaston slaps le fou around and verbally abuses him. these episodes are played in disney film for laughs. gus-gus is the overweight mouse in cinderella. the audiences usually laugh at this object because he is slow of mind. he is also slow of foot because of his girth and we have more reason for audiences and children laughter. the other proof is when the time comes to crown the ugliest member of the crowd http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mushu register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 100 as the king of fools in hunchback of notre dame, quasimodo is chosen and then crowned as the king of fools. the humorous behavior of the crowd leading him to believe he is being honored. moments later, the crowd ties him down and throws food at him. then in another story, dumbo is cruelly ridiculed by the gossipy, wicked female elephants, but clearly we are meant to see this as wrong behavior for the audience. however later in the film the likable and funny crows also make fun of dumbo. the circus clowns use and abuse the big-eared dumbo in hurtful ways (kuenz, at.al., 1995: 112-114). most everyone in dumbo's world except his mother and timothy mouse pretty much treat dumbo with contempt and with cruel laughter. it's only after dumbo proves himself by flying and becoming economically profitable to the circus does the disfigured baby elephant get respect from his circus peers. thus, being ugly and disfigured is laughable and reason for scorn. however, being disfigured is just fine as long as you bring money into the circus and spread the wealth around. riches make the sarcastic laughter go away. culture distortion in disney films there are some kinds of historical distortions that are done by disney corporation in creating stories‟ adaptation to some serious literatures which have helped to define cultures. the disney version of victor hugo‟s the hunchback of notre dame outraged french critics and citizenry (schickel, 1998: 120). disney took a significant part of french literary history and added talking gargoyles, a kindler, gentler hunchback character. the audiences can not find deaths or murders in this story. disney tacked on a romantic happy ending for good measure. hugo´s original tale is hardly recognizable in this disney‟s film. another example of literary distortion involves the greek story, hercules. in disney´s film version, hercules kills register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 101 the minotaur which was theseus in legend. zeus, rather than being the womanizer of the gods is a kind of an animated immortal "father knows best" of the skies. in the film hercules´ mother is hera when in fact hercules´ mother was zeus´ mistress alcmene. in disney´s version hercules slays the medusa when in the greek myth it was actually perseus (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hercules_film). the second type of distortion which occurs in disney tales is the blatant corruption of historical fact and real-life people. pocahontas was an actual person who never had a romance with john smith and in fact married one of the other members of smith's crew and went back with him to great britain. there she died of a disease at an early age. contrast this to the final scene of the disney version of this story as pocahontas says goodbye to her lover, john smith, as the british crew sails back to england without her (edgerton and jackson, 1996: 93). the audiences also can not find the true history in disney‟s mulan. mulan, the story which celebrates the chinese heroine, distorts the history and facts of the events which took place. in the real life legend, mu-lan did not need a dragon to help her win battles. mulan is not offered a job as a confidant to the emperor because of her heroism in the legend. it was something which disney creators simply made up. those stories are distorted for a modern audience who will not be educated about the history of other nations‟ cultures since the modern audience usually ignore them. disney has assured market demand and follows an industry trend of making more money from the sales of video tapes than from box office receipts (van, 1990: 66). there are two questions which are tacitly stated in these video advertisements. the first is as parents how parents can deny their children own and buy re-watchable copy of the latest special animated video release, and the second is as parents how they dare deny their children the archetypal magic and myths of childhood. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 102 although many adults are also included as disney‟s films consumers, most of those films‟ audiences are children. statistics show that “74 percent of children say that they want to copy what they see in the movies” ( schweizer, 1998: 68). sooner than later, children accept what they see in these animation as the “truth”, and do not question whether or not what they see on the screen matches that of the real world around them because their brains are constantly trying to make sense of the world around them. in addition, schweizer believes that children instead focus on the most dramatic images they can see. they also begin constructing their own identities, as well as a feeling about who they are and what they look like in comparison to these images. the simplicity of the visual appearance of a cartoon character allows a person to project themselves onto the character and become so engrossed that they “become” the cartoon. this suggest that children‟s fascination with character in animation is not random influences their views on the cultures of the world (1998: 69). as the result, parents and teachers must be aware of this and be willing to converse with their children about what they are seeing in disney films and all popular culture because the disney company ignores the entertainment quality for the children. disney company isn‟t about family values or american ideals but it is about profit or the increasing wealth for disney shareholders. the stories of disney films are carefully crafted and told from a disney-point-of view or disney design. looking at disney corporate literature may help to put this all into perspective: if the golden rule we learn in aladdin that is the one who owns the gold makes the rules, it applies in the real world. we can see that disney owns the gold and makes the rules. its corporate literature reinforces the power the company has by pointing out its position as the world‟s largest entertainment company, in addition to the foundation of "disney name." both of these factors are necessary for efforts to increase wealth for disney register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 103 shareholders. the disney company has something in common with john smith statement in pocahontas film: it is still seeking land to claim and to tame. it plans to expand into worldwide markets. disney doesn‟t follow the rules but it sets out for world entertainment. it makes its own rules and maintains its power and privilege as producers of cultural texts that serve to rein scribe the ideologies creating dominant and subordinate peoples. conclusion the walt disney company is a symbol of culture. it has produced films that have been translated into many languages around the world, and has exposed these audiences around the world to various cultures. this company was not only able to produce such a well known entertainment for children but also for adults through the contents and the construction of his films. there are some characteristics of disney‟s animated films such as, its production is a kind of an everlasting product since it uses mostly folk narratives particularly fairytales as the basic story, its films always use the most sophisticated technology and technique, and it has great power to communicate through its characters. almost all disney films are not only intended to be the entertainment for american people but also people all over the world. most of folk narratives which were used in disney films were adapted from other countries‟ stories. however, disney intentionally adapts foreign countries‟ stories in its animated films without finding similarities between alien cultures and its own disney‟s rules. in the process of bridging the gap between civilizations, it finds more stability in familiarity and demonstrates disney ideas to dominate its films. it is common for the audiences to find register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 104 disney‟s americanization in almost all its films such as the concept of feminism, discrimination, racism, or rebelliousness in disney‟s adaptation films. it also frames and shapes the values of other countries‟ stories in certain formula that must be well liked by the consumers to blow up the sale of the films. disney rules that there is only one romantic love for every protagonist that is waited to be found, good looking is everything, power is more appealing, every character needs a magic or a wish to get his dream, it is fine to laugh at developmentally disabled characters, it tends to ignore people of color, there is a culture distortion in some its stories, happiness and fulfillment in its films are linked to buying other disney products. the adaptation of some stories from other countries is not meant to glorify the uniqueness of other countries‟ culture but to find out the products which are easy to be made in the form of toys. as one of the most powerful media conglomerates in the world, disney works endlessly to set out world entertainment. although there are so many criticisms toward its films, this company will still make its own rules to use disney formula and maintain its power as producers of cultural texts. in its search for new markets and greater profits, disney consistently and creatively finds ways of presenting its films, as objects of consumption rather than objects of children education. art in the magic kingdom becomes a display intended to create new markets, stimulate children to buy all its products, and provide vehicles for merchandizing its endless collection of toys, gadgets, clothes, home accessories and other commodities. disney has an excellent ability to use films and other forms of children‟s entertainment as launching pads for a huge collection of toys in which it can cooperate with other huge companies to sell its products. that is the most rational reason why disney must be able to create such a fascinating or exciting film register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 105 especially for the children since it will influence its other products in disney store, disney channel, disney magazine, disneyland, and disney world. 9disney‟s pre-condition to reach top of films showing have been started by introducing the original soundtrack of those films. it carries the popular singers‟ names such as phil collins, peabo bryson, celine dion, regina belle, elton john, ricky martin, boyzone, and so on. disney has always been serious to think about the way of their films precondition. it is clear that various sectors were done to get one and the same aim, maximization of profit. in the audiences‟ point of view, they also get some advantage such as they feel comfortable and satisfied in watching each disney‟s film because of the using of high technology and the newest technique in disney‟s film. the entire data above have meaning for cultural industrial growth in indonesia because global capitalism growth also induces our country. the first, indonesian animators or film script writers can imitate disney‟s ways in integrating all media power that they own for the sake of their sale. the producer of si unyil can learn disney‟s ways in increasing the sale in domestic consumers specifically. although we know clearly that industry of our media is still left behind and has not been ready to compete with american animation, we must start to learn to use sophisticated technology to make indonesian animation better so that our local figures such as gatutkaca, arjuna, si unyil, kabayan, si entong will be more popular than tarzan, mickey mouse or winnie the pooh. secondly, disney corporation has the power to reproduce and transmit disney formula that maintain and sustain its power and authority as producers of cultural texts. it has the ability to be involved in almost any type of media market that it desires. this allows them to make money in a wide variety of ways since disney has made great efforts to expand its audience to the international community. the “disneyzation” is register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 106 also included in the way to make money. as the consumers of its films, the people sometimes do not realize the disney‟s messages such as americanization and consumerism which are sent through its films whereas the audiences are world wide. so, parents or teachers must be responsive of this and eager to discuss about the film content, meaning, and message in disney films or other popular culture products with their children to filter the suitable values for indonesian children. references addison, e. 1993. saving other women from other men: disney’s aladdin. journal of popular culture, 20 (2) bell, elizabeth, lynda haas, and laura sells. 1995. from mouse to mermaid: the politics of film, gender, and culture. indiana university press, indianapolis. berland, d. i. 1982. disney and freud: walt meets the idol. journal of popular culture. 23(3). brockway, r.w. 1989. the masks of mickey mouse: symbol of a generation. journal of popular culture, 22 (4), 25. bryman. a, 2000. disney and his worlds. routledge, london. chang & ha-joon. 2003. globalization, economic development, and the role of the 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of language learning in behaviorism perspective khoiru rakhman abidin english department of education faculty stain salatiga khoirurakhmanabidin@gmail.com abstract the aims of the study are (1) the concepts of language learning in behaviorism perspective, (2) the relation between language and learning in behaviorism perspective, (3) the influence of behaviorism in language learning. this is a descriptive qualitative study. the results showed that (1) behaviorism theories of languages also give good contribution in language learning process that describes a child can learn language from their environments, (2) behaviorism perspective defines as change of behavior through experience, it means human learn something from their environments, (3) human uses language for communication in the world and he also spreads his culture with his language so human gets knowledge of language through learning. keywords: behaviorism, language, learning, language learning abstrak tujuan dari studi ini adalah untuk meneliti ( 1 ) konsep pembelajaran bahasa dalam perspektif behaviorisme , ( 2 ) hubungan antara bahasa dan pembelajaran dalam perspektif behaviorisme , ( 3 ) pengaruh behaviorisme dalam pembelajaran bahasa . penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif kualitatif . hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ( 1 ) teori behaviorisme tentang bahasa juga memberikan kontribusi yang baik dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa yang dimana seorang anak bisa belajar bahasa dari lingkungan mereka , ( 2 ) perspektif behaviorisme didefinisikan sebagai perubahan perilaku melalui pengalaman. itu berarti bahwa manusia belajar sesuatu dari lingkungan mereka, ( 3 ) manusia menggunakan bahasa untuk berkomunikasi dan berbagi dalam hal budaya melalui bahasa sehingga manusia mendapatkan pengetahuan tentang bahasa melalui pembelajaran. kata kunci : behaviorisme , bahasa , belajar, pembelajaran bahasa register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2009 86 introduction language is important for communication in this world. we need language to communicate each other. we learn language since we were children until we became man. language is a system to communicate from one aspect to another .it. is intimately tied to man’s feeling activity. it is bound up with nationality, religion and feeling. it is used for work, worship, etc (lado robert, 1964:11).in linguistic, language is an arbitrary system of speech sounds or sequences of speech sounds which can be used in interpersonal communication by an aggregation of human beings and rather exhaustively catalogs things, process and event in human environment (ramelan, 1984:15). learning is basic to human existence and fundamental to education. it is the base of operation for the study of psychology and to understand the human mind. indeed no other topic in psychology has been as thoroughly researched as that of learning. the problem of learning has concerned students of human behavior from the beginning and is has been central concern with the issues and problems of learning. in thorndike’s behaviorism there are four laws of learning: law of readiness, law of exercise, law of effect, law of associative shifting (george, 1980). in behaviorism perspective, learning is as habit of information. it means learning is mechanical process as habit of information and proceeds by means of the frequent reinforcement of stimulus and response. the first successful assault on behaviorist theory came from chomsky. he called behaviorism on the question of how the mind was able to transfer what was learnt in one stimulusresponse sequence to other novel situations. there was a vague concept of generalization in behaviorist theory, but this always stated register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2009 87 over and never explained. chomsky dismissed the generalization idea as unworkable, because it simply could not explain how from a finite range of experience, the human mind was able to cope with infinite range of possible situation (tom, 1987:54). behaviorism is a trend of psychology which studies the behaviorism theories. the behaviorism derived from positivism philosophy which is proposed by august comte. behaviorism is particularly concerned with epistemology, that is, with understanding the nature and limits of knowledge. behavior is a function of genetic endowment, as evolution selects certain characteristic over the lifetime of the species. (2003) in this statement the writer formulates the problems as the following: 1. how is the concepts of language learning in behaviorism perspective? 2. how is the relation between language and learning in behaviorism perspective? 3. how is the influence of behaviorism in language learning? research methodology this paper will conduct library research in order to get some data in this study. the research method, which will be used by writer, as the following. 1. method of collecting data about language and learning in behaviorism perspective, the writer uses library research to study the writing sources, which is published. a. secondary data source register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2009 88 the secondary data source is the data, which support and complete the primary data, for an example book about language, learning and behaviorism book theory such as :  peter hariot, 1970, an introduction to the psychology of language, mc graw hill, london.  gazda m george and cousini j raymond, 1980, theory of learning a comparative approach, peacock publisher inc.  lado robert, 1964, language teaching a scientific approach, mc graw hill inc, new york  ramelan, 1984, introduction to linguistic, ikip, semarang  hutchinson tom and waters alan, 1987, english for specific purpose. cambridge university press, london 2. the methods of analyzing data a. descriptive method the descriptive method means it describes all variable of research systematically. (arikunto,1994:25) b. this is still a general description to understand this research easily; the writer uses the books, which are appropriate with the research. it means the writer looks for books, which have relation with the research in this study. 3. method of study to find the answer of problem above the writer uses: a. thematic method it means that the writer uses term when collect books, which are related to the theme. the writer formulates the problems, which will be studied. b. non-statistic analysis method (qualitative method). register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2009 89 this analysis is done by reading and collecting data (warsito, 1993: 23) discussion there are some theories of learning language, i.e.: 1. behaviorism theories in behaviorism theories there are several theories of learning such as: a. thorndike connectionism thorndike explained that, learning as trial and error. trial is defined by length of time ( a number of errors) involved in a single reacing of the goal. he says, language cannot learn by trial and error theories. according to thorndike there are four laws of learning: 1) law of readiness law of readiness characterizes many of the circumstances under which a learner tends to be satisfied or annoyed. 2) law of exercise law of exercise has two forms: the use of a connection will increase it strength. the diffuse of a connection leads to it is weakening or forgetting. 3) law of effect throndike interpreted a number of experiments as showing that the effects of reward and punishment were not equal and opposite as had been implied in the earlier statements on the effects of satisfiers and annoyers. 4) law of associative shifting in law of associative shifting thorndike explained that, if a response can be kept intact through a series of gradual change in register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2009 90 the stimulating situation, it may finally be given to a totally new stimulus. 2. nativism theories the nativism position holds that much of the capacity for learning and memory in both human and nonhuman is innate. it is part of genetic makeup of species and it is relatively independent of any particular experience that may occur after birth. 3. chomsky’s theory: good points: a. explains why language is learned relatively quickly b. explains how language is learnt despite poverty of the stimulus bad points: a. very little evidence for adult like grammatical knowledge in young children b. young children make errors chomsky would not predict c. cannot explain why children make grammatical errors even after extensive language exposure. (chomsky: 2003) behaviorism concepts of learning language learning in behaviorism perspectives is divined as change in behavior due to experiences. behaviorist finds several theories of learning, which influences the learning concept. those are: classical conditioning, thorndike connectionism and operant conditioning. the concept of learning has been channeled into three main streams as: conditioning, verbal learning, trial and error. in behaviorism concept of learning, there are two periods: register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2009 91 1. classical behaviorism ivan pavlov the pioneer of classical conditioning theory is doing experiments about the relation between stimulus and response. pavlov researched on her dogs. he find that, dog gets stimuli from food and it also response it, with it is sense. pavlov found that stimuli from food and it also responses it, with it sense. pavlov found that stimuli make response. although the experiments were performed on dogs, it is assumed that the process applies to man behavior. in language learning, only some parts might be explained by conditioning, for example: the arbitrary connection between their meanings. (george 1980: 4) 2. neo behaviorism skinner finds the operant theory; it takes behavior, as it fundamental subject factor in learning process. skinner researched on application of operant theory to human behavior. skinner divides two kinds of responses in learning process. those are respondents and operant; both of them have bound up relation and influence each other. in thorndike connectionism theories, learning is defined as trial and error. trial is defined by length time involved in a single reaching of the goal. thorndike finds four laws of learning: a. law of readiness b. law of exercise c. law of effect d. law of associative shifting (ernest, 1988: 114) register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2009 92 behaviorism concept of language behaviorist says that, people acquire language through language acquisition, because the most fundamental concept of language is language acquisition. according to behaviorist, humans are born in this world without any perception of language or tabularasa and he learning language from his environment. language is fundamental part of human behavior and behaviorist has examined it such and sought to formulate consistent theoris of first acquisition. (robert, 1964: 23) implication of behaviorism of learning and language in language learning behaviorism learning theoris gives several implications in language learning process. those are as follows: 1. shaping teacher usually teaches simple behavior in the scholl, they do not teach behavior in teaching learning process. the complex behavior can be taught through shaping or successive approximations. shaping refers to procedure in which successive approximation to some terminal behavior is reinforced. this process begins with the purposes of study, assignment analysis, students activities and response to the reinforcement. (blankship, 1981: 227) frazner states five steps of student’s behavior in learning process: a. come on time in the class b. actives in learning process c. show the good result of the test d. doing theirs homework e. complement register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2009 93 2. modelling methods modelling is the one types of learning on behavior. the language teacher often uses this method in language learning process. a learner imitates the teacher’s behavior in learning process, ex: an english teacher reads english book regularly in the class in language learning process. teacher is model for students in learning process then, the students will imitate behavior. the students will also read regularly in the class like their teacher. 3. reward and punishment theories in the learning process a teacher often gives a punishment to their students because of students guiltiest. this punishment should be applied in wise ways in the class. the students often get reward when they get good achievements in learning process. this method is based on skinner theory of reward and punishment. in teaching learning process students usually get a difficult with foreign language subject, so, they often get punishment from their teacher. reward and punishment are one of the implications of skinner behaviorism theories in teaching learning process especially in language learning. 4. programmed learning programmed learning is the application of the principles of operant conditioning. this learning process happens when the students get assignment from the teacher and they do it. in language learning process the teacher give assignment to the students to read the story in their foreign language book they will do it. programmed learning has four purposes such as: a. summarize the learning material b. to force the students read the learning materials c. give the result of learning directly to the teacher register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2009 94 d. use effective time in learning 5. assignment or task according behaviorist there are components of learning those are: a. purposes and study in behavioral b. divides task into sub task c. determine the relation between sub task d. determine material and procedures of sub task e. giving feedback in the end of sub task (gazda:22) these learning component means the students always do the task and divide it into sub task. in language learning process the students always practice the task from language teacher, then, the result will be analyze by the teacher. (ibid: 206) the last implication of behaviorism of language and learning in language learning is language acquisition theories. the behaviorist has found the language acquisition theories and these theories has been applied until today. behaviorist says that human born without any perception of language or it is called tabula rasa and human learns language from their environments. the language is form of culture and human uses the language as means of communicating. it means that human communicates with their own language. the behaviorism theories of learning give good implication in teaching learning especially in language learning process. chomsky expressed this in a much stronger form. he believed that the input children receive was degenerated and an insufficient basis for language learning. in this theory of language acquisition is explained on the basis assuming that children have innate language learning capacities that enable them to acquire language despite the impoverished input. working in this register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2009 95 same framework pinker in his 1994 publication proposed that the language is an instinct that has evolved out of adaption throughout the evolution of man. the innate linguistic capacities contain universal grammatical principles that are subsequently set according to the language-specific characteristics in the input. according to thorndike there are two implications of behaviorism in language learning. those are theoretical and practical. in theoretical implication, the implication of behaviorism is based on the theory of learning in behaviorism. thorndike stated that the four laws of learning gives good contribution in learning language. in practical implication, thorndike stressed the importance of habits and procedures in learning especially in language learning process. (george: 22) according to the skinner the theoretical implications of operant theory creating an effective behavioral language, vocabulary and grammar such a language must allow behavioral phenomena to be coherently described. among the useful aspect of the contemporary language of operant theory are the distinction between omission and elicitation of responses, the extension of this vocabulary discriminate the usage of response. a behavioral language may be particularly effective in extensions to verbal behavior. speaking and writing are kinds of behavior, but vocabulary creates difficulties for a behavioral account. for example human speak using words. this vocabulary not only fails to distinguish spoken to written verbal behavior but also treats words as manipulable things rather than as kinds of responses. verbal behavior has often been treated as if skinner derived all language from the stimulus – response associations of other varieties of behaviorism. (george: 169) register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2009 96 conclusion the concepts of language learning in behaviorism perspectives based on the behaviorism theories of learning, which gives good contribution in teaching learning process. behaviorism theories of languages also give good contribution in language learning process. with language acquisition a child can learn language from their environments. the relation between language and learning in behaviorism perspectives has deep relation which influences each others. in behaviorism perspective learning defined as change of behavior through experience it means human learn something from their environments. language in behaviorism perspective can be divided as several items those are: a. language as a system which includes: phonetic, phonemic, phonology, syntactic, semantic b. language as inter-personal behavior c. language as skill behavior these three items are the concept of language in behaviorism perspectives. behaviorist has found the learning theories and language theories both of them have a relation especially in language learning. human acquires language with a learning a language. language is form of culture. human uses language for communication in the world and they also spread their culture with their language. human get knowledge of language through learning. references arikunto suharsimi. 1994.metodologi pendidikaan. rineka cipta: jakarta. register, vol. 2, no. 2, november 2009 97 chomsky, 1987, the role of language acquisition, www. philosophyoflangauge.com chomsky, 2003, natives theories of learning, www.theoryoflearning.com gazda m george and corsisi j raymond, 1980, theories of learning a comparative approaches, peacock publisher inc: itasca ilinois gordon h bower and ernest, 1988, theory of learning, prentice hall inc, englewood cliff: london hermawan warsito, 1993, pengantar metode penelitian, rineka cipta: bandung lado robert, 1969, language teaching a scientific approach, mc graw hill: new york siti nurhasanah register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 81 the use of community language learning method to increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation siti nurhasanah sitinurhasanah270@yahoo.co.id abstract community language learning (cll) is a language teaching method which involves psychological aspect and students work together to develop what skill of a language they would like to learn. this method firstly developed by charles a. curran and his association which is called counseling-learning theory. within the language teaching tradition cll is sometimes cited as an example of a humanistic approach. the roles of the teacher is called counselor and the learners are called client in the language classroom. the research will use community language learning (cll) method to increases the students’ participation in speaking class for the students of international class program state institute of islamic studies (iain) salatiga batch 2013/2014 academic year 2013. the researcher uses classroom action research (car) who accompanied by an observer. to know the students’ participation, the researcher conducts pretest and posttest within 2 cycles. each cycle consists of planning, acting, observing and reflecting. the research shows that the students’ participation increased not only their conversation but also their motivation. based on the results and findings, the students could develop their participation which can be seen by the increasing average between pretest and posttest from the cycle 1 to the cycle 2. keywords: community language learning, method, classroom action research, language, participation the use of community language learning method to increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation 82 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 abstrak community language learning (cll) merupakan metode pengajaran bahasa yang melibatkan aspek psikologi dimana peserta didik ikut bekerja sama dalam mengembangkan keahlian berbahasa yang ingin mereka pelajari. metode ini pertama kali dikembangkan oleh charles a. curran dan asosiasinya yang disebut teori counseling-learning. ada pula yang menyebut bahwa metode ini merupakan pendekatan humanisme. pengajarnya seolah-olah bertindak sebagai konselor dan peserta didiknya sebagai klien. selanjutnya penulis juga menggunakan metode cll untuk meningkatkan partisipasi mahasiswa dalam kelas speaking di program khusus kelas internasional (kki) iain salatiga tahun akademik 2013/2014 angkatan 2013. penelitian yang digunakan adalah penelitian tindakan kelas (ptk) dimana penulis sebagai peneliti dan ditemani oleh satu orang sebagai pengamat. untuk mengetahui peningkatan partisipasi mahasiswa di kelas tersebut, peneliti mengadakan pretes dan postes dalam 2 siklus. masing-masing siklus berisi perencanaan, aksi, observasi dan refleksi. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa mengalami peningkatan tidak hanya pada partisipasi percakapan bahasa inggris mereka tetapi juga motivasi belajar mereka. hal ini bisa dilihat dari peningkatan rata-rata nilai dari pretes ke postes baik di siklus 1 hingga di siklus 2. kata kunci: community language learning, metode, penelitian tindakan kelas, bahasa, partisipasi introduction english as the international language plays an important role in this era. it is the first international language used for international trade, tourism, education, and other important international affairs to communicate among nations in the world including students in the universities such as students of international class program state institute of islamic studies (iain) salatiga. siti nurhasanah register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 83 international class program is a new program that has been established by iain salatiga in october 1st, 2010. in this program, students and lectures use foreign languages including arabic and english as the deliver language in the classroom. it means the students must be able to speak in english as their daily conversation in the classroom although they are different backgrounds from language major, natural sciences and social sciences. another problem is the students come from different kinds of the schools such as gontor (islamic boarding school), ma/ pk (islamic senior high school), and sma (senior high school). this condition influences the speaking ability especially for students’ conversation of international class program batch 2013. they are shy, less confident and quiet when they should speak in english both inside and outside of the classroom. at the fact, speaking is one of language skill where the students should share their ideas, thoughts, and emotions because the language indicates the ability of students to arrange the words to have conversation and discussion with their friends and lecturers. in addition it becomes challenge for the students to master foreign language especially english well. they have projection to study abroad for master degree or to be international teacher in the future. therefore it is very important to them for engaging in communication by using english for the students of international class program. in learning language, the most fundamental concept is psychology. according to marion e. bunch (1977: 3), individual instances of learning range all the way from the simplest change in behavior resulting from practice to the most complex of those in the category of the higher mental processes. the use of community language learning method to increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation 84 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 learning is a basic and central component of the distinctive activities that constitute the subject matter of psychology. learning including retention, on which it depends, is at the heart of perception, thinking, imagination, reasoning, judgment, attitudes, personality traits, systems of values, and the development and organization of the activities that constitute the personality of the individual (marion e. bunch, 1977: 3). to improve the ability of students in learning language, it is better to involve psychological aspects like charles arthur curran did when he has taught la forge, his student. curran has used a method called community language learning (cll). cll is a method to react the sensitivity of learner for learning communicative intent. it should be noted that communicative intent is sometimes forced by the number and knowledge of learners. it has made cll places unusual demands on teachers of language. they have to be highly fluent and sensitive to atmosphere in both l1 (native language) and l2 (foreign language). cll is firstly developed by charles a. curran and his associates. currant is a specialist in counseling and a professor of psychology at loyola university, chicago, (jack c richards and thedore s. rodgers, 1986 p. 113). his application of psychological counseling techniques for learning is known as counselinglearning. community language learning represents the use of counseling-learning theory to teach languages, (jack c richards and thedore s. rodgers, 1986 p. 113). in counseling learning theory, it can be measured by performance. learning usually related to change in stimulus-response relationships that result from practice and the evidence that learning has happened is a change in successive performances like students of international class siti nurhasanah register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 85 batch 2013 should do. they have to perform drama twice in a year using foreign language arabic and english. it is very interesting to know how cll method will be applied to improve the students’ participation in classroom conversation. the problems and successes experienced by one or two different student groups in the classroom may not necessarily represent language learning universals. other attentions have been expressed related to the lack of a syllabus, which makes objectives unclear, evaluation difficult to accomplish, and focus on fluency rather than accuracy, which may lead to inadequate control of the grammatical system of the target language. on the other hand, cll emphasizes the positive benefits of a method that focus on the learner, stresses the humanistic side of language learning, and not merely its linguistic dimensions. because of this condition, teacher should encourage students to strive for independence. the teacher should also be culturally sensitive and prepared to redesign tile language class into more culturally compatible organizational forms. it makes the writer is interested in this method to increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation for the students of international class program focus on batch 2013 by conducting classroom action research. research methodology according to kemmis, car (classroom action research) is a form of self reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situation in order to improve the rationality and justices, their understanding of these practices and situations in which the practices are carried out (hopkins, 1993 : 44). the use of community language learning method to increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation 86 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 another definition proposed by robert rapport (1993) is that classroom action research aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to the goals of social science by joint collaboration within a mutually acceptable ethical framework (hopkins, 1993 p. 44). from the definitions above the researcher conclude that car as one of the form of research that tries out ideas in practice for a social situation to improve or change something and try to have a real effect on the certain situation. research procedure in this car, there are some steps as kemmis stated. it consists of two cycles and each cycle has the procedures as follows: 1. planning some activities in planning such as: a. preparing materials, making lesson-plan, and designing the steps in doing the action. b. preparing students’ attendance list and scoring. c. preparing sheets for classroom observation to know the situation of teaching learning process when the method or technique is implemented. d. preparing a test including pretest and posttest. siti nurhasanah register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 87 2. action here are activities in action: a. giving pretest for students of international class program batch 2013 b. teaching speaking (conversation) through community language learning c. giving chances for students to share their ideas, activities or ask any difficulties or problems d. asking the students some questions orally and the students answer orally related to the themes such as passion, hobby, dream, education, culture, and so on. e. giving posttest that will be attached in appendixes and written in lesson plan for cycle 1 and 2. 3. observation observation is one of the instruments used in collecting the data. as a scientific method, observation can be systematically used to do serve and note the phenomena, investigate what students feeling, thinking, and something they do in teaching learning process. the writer plans to do this observation flexible and open to record the unexpected. 4. reflection after the researcher has been accomplished to analyze the observation, the researcher will plan for the next cycle. if the researcher finds problems in the first cycle, she will do better for the next cycle. the use of community language learning method to increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation 88 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 discussions there are two cycles. in each cycle, the steps consist of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. cycle 1 1. planning before conducting the research, the researcher prepared the instruments such as: a. designing lesson-plan and preparing materials lesson plan is a teacher activities orientation so that teaching learning process can be arranged well. in the first meeting, the researcher prepares materials about passion; hobby; and interest of the students international class program batch 2013. then, the second meeting is about international events and chances. b. preparing students’ attendance list and scoring. c. preparing sheets for classroom observation to know the situation of teaching learning process when the method or technique is implemented. d. preparing a test including pretest and post test. for pretest, the researcher uses oral test to know the students’ profile of speaking skill by giving them chances to speak one by one. for post test, the researcher gives writing test. siti nurhasanah register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 89 2. acting a) the implementation of the action 1 the researcher as the teacher and accompanied by the observer entered the class. the researcher created a good condition by asking them to make a circle and sit on the floor then the students gave attention to the teacher. she gave the students’ mind map about community language learning (cll) to give them understanding on how the study looked like and the benefits by joining this class. after few minutes, every student introduced their names including their nicknames. every student gave big applause for themselves. after they have introduced themselves, they looked motivated to speak more. then the researcher would like to see their talents. therefore she asked them to propose three topics based on their passion, hobby, and interest. she gave the students 15 minutes to find three topics and asked them to explain the reasons. this activity became the pretest to measure their speaking skill including pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and fluency. then every student told their topics with their reasons. it was very interesting for them because most of them speak naturally and the observer wrote the topics as materials for the next meetings. she got more than 20 topics and clarified them based on the student priorities. the topics they proposed such as education, literature, writing, technology, economic, the use of community language learning method to increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation 90 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 entrepreneurship, business, social conflict, traveling, study abroad, culture, music, art, and sport. during their talk, the observer gave them assessments. every student spoke about three minutes. after that, the researcher gave them comment. she also encouraged them to have no worries about mistakes when they were speaking and just be confident. b) the implementation of the action 2 the next meeting the researcher greeted the students as usual. every student in the group read and discussed the material for 15 minutes, after that they had to present their thought and feeling related to international chances. each group told what they thought about student exchange, short course, international conference, voluntary activity, and master degree for 7 to 10 minutes. after they got the descriptions about international programs, the researcher asked them to write their dream for 20 minutes. the writings were the expression of their feeling and thought. from this activity, the researcher made it to be posttest. 3. observation in the first cycle, the writer and the observer have observed the teaching learning process. the researcher could see that the students of icp batch 2013 basically are motivated to speak english. however they face some problems. for example, some student can speak but the grammar is incorrect, some of them speak siti nurhasanah register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 91 quite well but they need to improve their pronunciation, some of them have no confidence. sometimes some students are not ready to express their ideas when they do not have time to prepare material regarding the topic. it means some of them cannot speak naturally such as in informal situation. but they are motivated to increase their conversation through community language learning because of their dream to get international chances. by analyzing the result of pretest and post test above, there is an increase of the students’ grade of international class program batch 2013. it is 0.03 from 2.75 to 2.78. this increase of the students’ grade shows a little improvement of the students’ participation in classroom conversation. thus, the researcher appreciate of their effort, they already tried to improve their speaking from enough level to be good level, and from good level to be very good level. 4. reflection after analyzing the result of action in cycle 1, the researcher can assume that it is very important for the teacher to create comfortable condition in the classroom, it might be an informal situation but they are serious to learn and they express their ideas naturally. there is no gap among teacher and students in teaching learning process. the teacher must encourage the students before, during, and end of the class so that they are motivated to realize their dreams and express their feelings. the teacher also should appreciate what the students speak and give the students more assessment about the material and practice in speaking. the use of community language learning method to increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation 92 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 action 1 did not give satisfied result because the students are still less confident, shy and afraid of making mistake in grammar especially for the students of islamic and arabic departments. it means that the background of their departments influences their mind. therefore, it is very necessary to continue the next cycle to encourage them for participating in classroom conversation. the second cycle is carried out as follow up of the first cycle. to get the effectiveness for the next cycle, the researcher will prepare better. cycle 2 1. planning before conducting the research, the researcher prepared the instruments such as: a. designing lesson-plan and preparing materials lesson plan is a teacher activities orientation so that teaching learning process can be arranged well. in the third meeting, the researcher prepares materials about issues of international conference for the students of international class program batch 2013. then, the fourth meeting is about youth and world peace. b. preparing students’ attendance list and scoring. c. preparing sheets for classroom observation to know the situation of teaching learning process when the method or technique is implemented. d. preparing a test including pretest and posttest. for pretest, the researcher uses oral test to know the students’ profile of siti nurhasanah register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 93 speaking skill by giving them chances to speak one by one. for posttest, the researcher gives writing test. 2. acting a. the implementation of the action 1 the researcher and the observer entered the class, then the researcher as well as become the teacher controlled the situation by asking them to make a circle and sit on the floor. the students give attention to the teacher. all students laughed, actually some students were interested in to share their arguments and some of them have confidence to express their opinion but every student has spoken although some of them were active to talk and some of them did not speak. we continued to the next topic about social activity. this activity also became the assessment as pretest for the cycle 2. b. the implementation of the action 2 the researcher as the teacher greeted the students as usual. the researcher created a good condition for the students until they had paid attention to the teacher. after that, the teacher divided them in to three groups by counting 1 to 3. the students went to their groups and identified the problem of the topic then they tried to arrange script and practiced their roles in front of their friends. this condition also became their preparation before they perform art and language exhibition (ale) because every batch of international class program should perform drama twice in a year, arabic and english drama. the use of community language learning method to increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation 94 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 after their discussion and performance, i gave them a post test as the assessment of cycle 2. 3. observation in the cycle 2, the researcher was accompanied by the observer observed teaching and learning process through cll method. by monitoring the students’ activities, the writer could know that the students have had high motivation to speak in english. the second cycle shows better improvement than those in the first cycle. in the second cycle, the students have more confidence and become active to discuss asean community. the researcher really appreciated of the students because they have shown big effort to improve their english. the research showed that cll method was appropriate to be applied for students of international class program batch 2013 because the relation between teacher and student like counselor and client had appeared in this activity. the teacher role was succeed to implement cll method and the students could respond what the teacher direct to them. when the teacher proposed some topics then they could explore deeply, they felt enjoyable to express their ideas, by analyzing the result of pretest and posttest in cycle 2, there is an increase of the students’ grade of international class program batch 2013 at the main that has been obtained. it is 0.16 from 2.99 to 3.15. compare to cycle 1, the increase of mean is 0.13 from 0.03 to 0.16. this increase of the students’ grade shows an improvement of the student speaking skill. therefore, cll method siti nurhasanah register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 95 is appropriate to be implemented for the students of international class program batch 2013 to increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation. they have tried their motivation to improve their speaking, from good to be very good level. 4. reflection after analyzing and comparing the result of implementation between cycle i and ii, the writer can say that cll (community language learning) method could increase the students’ participation in the classroom conversation of the students international class program batch 2013. in addition, it is very important for every teacher to encourage students by giving motivation before and after the lesson. the teacher also should appreciate what every student did and spoke. the researcher believes that every teacher has their own method but after doing classroom action research (car) for the students of international class program batch 2013, cll is appropriate to be applied for teaching and learning foreign language. besides this method involves psychological aspect, the students have become more confident and more enjoyable to speak naturally to express their ideas, share problems, and propose questions so that this condition do not make a gap between teacher and students then they can be enjoy in learning english. in addition, this method is one of ways to dig students’ talent, encourage and appreciate what they do and speak, so that the students reach their dreams by realizing the word of international class program. it means cll method which is implemented by the researcher also has had a purpose to make the use of community language learning method to increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation 96 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 students active in classroom conversation after that the students to be more active through joining some international events and chances such as short courses, student exchanges, international conferences, voluntary activities, and study abroad for master degrees. conclusion based on the theoretical review and the implementation of the study, the writer can draw the conclusion as follows: 1. the profile of the students’ participation in classroom conversation showed that generally they were quiet and less confident to speak english in the beginning of the lesson, especially for the students of non-english department of international class program batch 2013. moreover, some students could speak english but the grammars were incorrect, some of them could spoke well enough but need the improvement of pronunciations. 2. based on the teaching and learning process by implementing community language learning (cll) method, the students could develop their participation in classroom conversation although sometimes there were grammatical errors. in addition, the students were unconfident to speak english but after using community language learning (cll) method, there were good responses from the students. 3. the result of the students’ participation can be seen from the increasing average between pretest and posttest in the first cycle to the second cycle. in the first cycle, the mean of pretest is 2.75 and the mean of posttest 2.78. then in the second cycle, the mean of pretest is 2.99 and siti nurhasanah register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 97 the mean of posttest is 3.15. the percentage of students’ participation who have gotten very good grade increase from 0% in pretest to 5.26% in posttest of the cycle 1, and 26.32% in pretest to 42.11% in posttest of the cycle 2. from the result of the test, the writer concludes that generally cll method could increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation. references richards, jack c. 1986. approaches and methods in language teaching. new york: cambridge university press. lado robert. 1961. language teaching. new york. branen, julia, mixing methods. 1993. qualitative and quantitative research. avenbury: england. la forge, p.g. 1975. research profiles with community language learning. apple river, iii.: apple river press. brown, h. douglas. 1987. principles of language learning and teaching. englewood cliffs, new jersey, prentice hall moskowitz, g. 1978. caring and sharing in the foreign language class. rowley, mass.: newbury house. stevick, e.w. 1980. teaching languages: a way and ways. rowley, mass.: newbury house. septiani, elda. 2010. what is community language learning. accessed from http://tanpopofight.blogspot.com/2010/05/what-iscommunity-language-learning.html on saturday at 04.05 http://tanpopofight.blogspot.com/2010/05/what-is-community-language-learning.html%20%20on%20saturday%20at%2004.05 http://tanpopofight.blogspot.com/2010/05/what-is-community-language-learning.html%20%20on%20saturday%20at%2004.05 the use of community language learning method to increase the students’ participation in classroom conversation 98 register, vol. 8, no. 1, june 2015 rhalmi, mohammed. 2009. accessed from http://www.myenglishpages.com/blog/community-languagelearning/ on monday, march 13, 2014 at 12.09 pm nunan, david.1991. language teaching methodology. new york: practice hall. elliot, john. 1991. action research for educational change. buckingham, philadelphia: open university press. http://www.myenglishpages.com/blog/community-language-learning/ http://www.myenglishpages.com/blog/community-language-learning/ register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 17 perception and lexicon labeling ability on a child with language delay diagnosed as autistic spectrum disorder: a psycholinguistic study rohmani nur indah faculty of humanities and culture maulana malik ibrahim state islamic university (uin) malang. jl. gajayana no. 50 malang, east java, indonesia rohmani_indah@yahoo.com abstract this research focuses on the semantics acquisition of a child with language delay diagnosed as autistic spectrum disorder (asd). the research problem is on how the child acquired the ability to comprehend meaning. it aims at answering the questions on how the child identified lexical meanings and how he labeled targeted lexicons of his first language. the approach employed in this research is descriptive qualitative to get adequate explanation on a specific language phenomenon, namely semantics acquisition. its design is case study with the type neo-ethnographic. as the data collection method, it uses participant observation of longitudinal study considering that the research subject has familial relation with the researcher. the data analysis shows that the semantic acquisition of the research subject has complexity in vocabulary enrichment. the research subject often performs echolalic speech when he is asked to identify or label certain object given. the typical idiosyncratic speech is shown by the unique feature of limited syllable and prosody. in general, his ability to identify lexical meanings is far exceeding his ability to label objects. he also has sensitivity to perceive the non-verbal symbol performed by the people he knows well. the use of verbal language supported by non-verbal language facilitates his perception. he finds it difficult to comprehend the lexicons having similar sound as he assumes that one lexicon represents one object which typically belongs to concrete object. in addition, the ability of the research subject in labeling objects cannot be developed easily because of his difficulty in expressing ideas through words. to pronounce the words correctly, he shows high anxiety by lowering down his speech. in selecting the lexicon he also finds it hard to use pronoun, to label homonyms and to apply both polysemy and hyponym. accordingly, he tends to communicate only to fulfill his needs by asking things, asking the listeners to do or not to do something, and register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 18 protesting something as shown in the contexts. further, he is likely to label objects by the lexicons got from the immediate exposure. keywords: autistic spectrum disorder (asd), language acquisition, psycholinguistics abstrak penelitian ini berfokus pada pemerolehan bahasa semantik seorang anak dengan keterlambatan bahasa yang diduga sebagai gangguan spectrum autis (asd). masalah penelitian pada bagaimana anak itu mempunyai kemampuan untuk mengartikan. hal ini bertujuan untuk menjawab pertanyaan bagaimana anak itu mengidentifikasi makna leksikal dan bagaimana dia menamai kosa kata yang dimaksud dengan bahasa pertamanya. pendekatan yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah kualitatif deskriptif untuk memperoleh penjelasan yang mendalam pada fenomena bahasa tertentu, yaitu pemerolehan bahasa semantic. rancangannya adalah studi kasus dengan tipe neoethnographic. seperti metode pengumpulan data, ini menggunakan pengamatan partisipasi dari penelitian longitudinal yang mempertimbangkan bahwa subyek penelitian ini memiliki hubungan family dengan peneliti. analisis data menunjukkan bahwa pemerolehan bahasa semantic dari subyek penelitian memiliki kekayaan kompleksitas kosa kata. subyek peneliti sering melakukan bahasa echolalic ketika dia disuruh untuk mengidentifkasi atau menamai obyek tertentu yang diberikan. tipe bahasa idiosyncratic terlihat dari bentuk unik dari suku kata dan prosody yang terbatas. secara umum, kemampuannya untuk mengidentifikasi makna leksikal yaitu jauh melampui kemampuannya untuk menamai obyek. dia juga memiliki sensitivitas untuk mempersepsikan bahasa non verbal dengan baik yang dilakukan oleh orang yang dia cukup kenal. penggunaan bahasa verbal didukung oleh bahasa non verbal membantu pemahaman dia. dia menemukan kesulitan untuk memahami kosa kata yang memiliki bunyi sama seperti yang menurut dia bahwa satu kosa kata mewakili satu obyek yang mana biasanya milik dari obyek yang nyata. selain itu, kemampuan subyek peneliti dalam menamai obyek tidak dapat dikembangkan dengan mudah karena kesulitannya dalam mengungkapkan gagasan melau kata-kata. untuk mengucapkan secara benar, dia mengalami kecemasan yang tinggi dengan merendahkan suara bicaranya. dalam memilih kosa kata dia juga menemukan kesulitan untuk menggunakan kata ganti, menamai homonym dan mengaplikasikan polisemi dan hiponim. oleh sebab itu, dia cenderung untuk hanya berkomunikasi untuk memenuhi kebutuhannya dengan menanyakan benda-benda, menanyakan pendengar untuk melakukan atau tidak melakukan sesuatu dan memprotes sesuatu register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 19 seperti dalam suatu situasi. selanjutnya, dia mungkin menamai obyek dengan kosa kata yang diperoleh dari tempat yang terbuka secara cepat. kata kunci: gangguan spectrum autis (asd), pemerolehan bahasa, psikolinguistik introduction autism is one of the up-to-date topics on the discussion of psycholinguistics, especially in the field of language disorders. until now the ins and outs of autism has not been socialized as a whole although the incidence or prevalence of growth disorders in children has increased mainly in the last decade. the term autism was introduced by leo kanner in 1943 until it has become concern in indonesia since last 1-2 decades. 43% of persons with autism have abnormalities in the parietal lobe of his brain that caused the child not to care about the environment. the disorder is also found in small brain (cerebellum), especially in lobes vi and vii that are responsible for sensory processes, memory, thinking, learning and concentration of attention (handojo, 2004). the number of purkinye cells in small brain of a child's brain structure with autism spectrum is very small that cause disruption of serotonin and dopamine balance. the result is a disruption or confusion of impulses in the brain. in addition there is biochemical brain disorder that is lack of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that serves one of the forward information in the brain (budhiman et al, 2002: 12) the prevalence of autism these days increases significantly. kaplan and morris reported that one in six children in america suffer from problems such as autism, dyslexia aggressiveness, and attention deficit hyperactivity disoder (adhd) (in mccandless, 2003: 6). register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 20 indonesia, as mentioned in the reader's digest november 2007, is ranked well below the u.s. in terms of environmental quality as the impact of pollution in all aspects. meanwhile, the level of disruption due to brain injury such as autism positively correlated with the level of pollution, thus it can be concluded that the prevalence of autism in indonesia especially in big cities is higher than the incidence of autism in america. people with autism spectrum have language disorders or precisely delays in speaking, including inability to digest the information submitted by other people because of difficulties in capturing the meaning of sentence utterances. children‟s‟ learning difficulties due to weak ability to focus, shown by the slow process of learning support this condition. language acquisition both in phonological, morphological, syntax and semantics are often constrained child's tendency to echolalia or the repetition of the word. children need appropriate learning strategies to suppress the tendency of echolalia. learning with speech therapy is not enough to guarantee the permanence of language skills since teaching children without enrichment and periodic repetition of vocabulary could cause loss of acquired vocabulary. that's why this study focuses on aspects of vocabulary as part of the acquisition at the level of lexical semantics. thus, it will obtain a description of the pattern of acquisition of syntactic of persons with autism who have language disorders such as delays in talking. based on the above research background, the general problem is: how is meaning understanding in the process of the semantic acquisition for autism spectrum children with speech delay? the problems in particular are: (1) how is the ability of the child with autism spectrum in identifying lexical meaning of his/her mother tongue? and (2) how does s/he label the targeted lexicon? register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 21 language disorders broadly speaking, language disorders include the study of language disability caused by imperfections of the organ of hearing or speech, limited cognitive abilities and psychogenic disorders, and difficulty in processing linguistic information. in speaking, there is the process of removing thoughts and feelings (of brain) orally, in the form of words or sentences. the role of the brain is to receive and understand the input language through the ears. the good function of the brain and organ of speech will make it easier to talk properly. however, those who have abnormalities of brain function and speech would have difficulty in speaking, both receptive and productive. this is known as language disorders. the fundamental reason to study language disorders is to consider the types of teaching techniques that can help children with language disorders and theoretically to determine the capacity of the normal development of language acquisition. moreover, any specific deviation will lead us in understanding the direction of the relationship between systems of different languages. for example, language in children with mental retardation will prove about the role of intelligence in language development. it is important to note that language disorders affect the delay in language acquisition. for example, five-year-old son has a language competence equivalent to two-year-old or deviation from the standard acquisition – children acquire language in a different order from most children, or the child has a very different capacity from their own native language. when it is viewed from the origin, language disorders can be categorized into developing language disorders (interference due to inborn abnormalities) and acquired language disorders (interference from surgery, stroke, accident or aging). register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 22 autism spectrum and its communication capabilities autism spectrum disorders in the diagnostic criteria based on dsmiv-r are: first, qualitative disorders in reciprocal social interaction, including non-verbal behavior such as eye contact, facial expressions, and positions body; failure to develop peer relationships; lack of spontaneity in sharing enjoyment, interests or achievements with other people; and less able to engage social or emotional reciprocity. second, qualitative disorders of communication language developmental delay or inability to speak at all; difficulty to initiate or sustain conversation with others for individuals who are able to speak; language use which is characterized with stereotypes, repetitive or lack of meaning; and lack of ability to pretend in a game. third, rigid repetitive and stereotype patterns of behavior, interests and activities – preoccupies on one or more patterns of interest; inflexibility in routines or specific rituals and non-functional; stereotype and repetitive motor movement; and settled preoccupation on object parts. a child can be diagnosed as having autistic disorder when symptoms are already visible before the child reaches the age of 36 months (ginanjar, 2007: 6). children with autisms have specific behaviors classified handojo (2004: 13) in 2 types, namely excessive and deficits behavior. excessive behaviors include hyperactivity and tantrums manifested in screaming, kicking, biting, scratching, hitting, etc. as well as self-abuse. deficit behaviors are manifested in speech disorder, social behavior disorder, pretending to be deaf and inappropriate emotion such as laughing or crying for no reason and daydreaming. in addition to disruption in communication, behavior and social interaction, persons with autism spectrum also experience sensory integration disorder of modulation, discrimination and motor. in individuals with sensory dysfunction, there is an interruption in the sensory recording and register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 23 interpretation that cause problems in the process of learning, developmental or behavioral (kranowitz in gina, 2007: 7). therefore, sensory integration therapies that involve strong stimulation on sense are needed in order the brain improve and restore its functionality. the perspective is in line with doman (2006: xvi) that the human brain has the immeasurably ability to restore (neuroplasticity) and recover (neurogenesis) themselves. children with autism spectrum have different brain from normal children. some studies show that the abnormalities comprise differences in brain structure, immaturity of brain cells in the amygdala, and the excessive substantial development of alba and gricea in the frontal lobes. this condition causes sensory integration disorder – the ability to organize and process sensory input as well as use it to respond appropriately. the sensory dysfunctions above have a major impact on cognitive development, emotional development, and social interaction skills including language. due to the impaired neurological and sensory integration, the developments of these aspects are also experiencing delays or problems. to overcome the problem of sensory, from an early age, children with autism spectrum have tried to avoid the accumulation of stimuli (stimuli overload). ginanjar (2007: 8) concludes that most of coping behaviors are grouped into diagnostic criteria for autistic disorders such as repetitive behavior and stereotype, avoiding eye contact, withdrawal from social interactions, obsessions on certain objects or activities, repeating the words and sentences (echolalia), and implementing a rigid routine. because of the complexity of the problems experienced by sa children, the coping behaviors which are developed is often not effective even sometimes hinder the development in various aspects. hence, it can be concluded from the above discussion that the spectrum of autism is complex disorder which is differentiated by its register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 24 prevalence trigger. the disorder has impacts on the trouble to learn and communicate verbally that is caused by the limited vocabulary so that children often speak in a language that cannot be understood by the people around him. research method this research focuses on the semantic acquisition of a child with language delay diagnosed as autistic spectrum disorder (asd). the research problem is on how the child acquired the ability to comprehend meaning. it aims at answering the questions on how the child identified lexical meanings and how he labeled targeted lexicons of his first language. the approach employed in this research is descriptive qualitative to get adequate explanation on a specific language phenomenon namely semantic acquisition. its design is case study with neo-ethnographic. as the data collection method, it uses participant observation of longitudinal study considering that the research subject has familial relation with the researcher. this study focuses on the application of the theory of meaning on the acquisition of semantic relations in children with special needs such as autism spectrum. if a normal child can acquire language naturally with adequate environmental exposure, it is not the case with children with autism spectrum. it takes a certain technique, patterned and tiered to ensure ease of language acquisition in children, especially vocabulary. this research will contribute significantly to the development of child language as well as a key to the success of communication skills improvement. with improved communication skills, children will be able to verbally express their desire, can understand what the other person say, may better receive a lesson delivered through an incomprehensible language, and then register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 25 can control their behavior because the tantrums attitude due to his confusion would be much reduced. this is the significant linkage between the reduction in hyperactivity, increased ability to learn and concentrate and the development of verbal communication skills that begins with the acquisition of vocabulary. the results of this study will be the foundation in preparing the learning patterns of vocabulary that is more integrated to achieve the expected progress. discussion and finding ability perception and lexicon labeling of autistic individuals in this section, the data are presented based on the type of lexicon that shows the imbalance between the ability of the subject in perception and labeling. in each of the target lexicon, it describes supporting parts to form communication, perception and label of the subject. there are some words that the subject could not directly label although the subject can perceive or mere imitate. data 1 imperative verb meaning 'get' or 'off something' target lexicon supporting lexicon subjek perception subjek label ambil (take) ... itu (that) ambil ambil taruh (put) ... di situ (there) taruh taruh cari (look for) mana, ... (where) cari cari kembalikan (give it back) ayo ... (come on) kembalikan minta (request) .... satu (one) minta minta kasihkan (give) ayo ... (come on) kasihkan kasih bawa (bring) ... sini (here) bawa bawa data 2 register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 26 noun related to activities target lexicon supporting lexicon subjek perception subjek label meja (table) ambil ... (take) meja ayo makan (let‟s eat) kursi (chair) bawa ....(bring) kursi duduk sini (sit down here) asbak (ashtray) angkat ... (lift) asbak buang sini (throw it here) toko (store) ke ... (to) toko beli (buy) data 3 nouns related to the child song lyric target lexicon supporting lexicon subjek perception subjek label delman pada hari minggu kuturut ayah ke kota naik ... (on sunday, i follow my father to city on ...) delman hari minggu hujan (rain) tik-tik-tik bunyi... (tick-tick-tick sound of rain) hujan tik-tik data 4 the word that always stuck with the emergence of other words target lexicon supporting lexicon subjek perception subjek label pintu (door) ketuk ... (knock) pintu pintu tutup (door close) sudah (already) ... ya? (yes) sudah sudah selesai (already done) terima kasih (thank you) bilang ... (say) terima kasih terima kasih sama-sama (you are welcome) mata (eye) ini ... (this) mata matahari (sun) register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 27 data 5 nouns refer to other objects that are not relevant. target lexicon supporting lexicon subjek perception subjek label laptop (laptop) komputer (computer) main ... (play) laptop komputer setrika (iron) bakso (meat ball) beli ... (buy) bakso goreng (fry) tolong (help) mama ... (mom) tolong betulkan (help, fix it) minggir (step aside) data 6 words refer to other relevant parts of words target lexicon supporting lexicon subjek perception subjek label belok (turn) ... sini (here) belok lewat (pass) rambutan (a kind of fruit) beli ...(buy) rambutan rambut (hair) kipas angin (fan) matikan ... (turn off) kipas angin pesawat (plane) data 7 words containing linkage or similarity pronunciation with different meanings target lexicon supporting lexicon subjek perception subjek label dada (chest) (anggota badan (part of body)) lihat ... (look) da da (bye) (melambaikan tangan (waving)) da da register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 28 data 8 noun representing some objects that have linkage type. target lexicon supporting lexicon subjek perception subjek label tahu (a kind of food) makan ... (eat) tahu, tempe tempe garpu (fork) ambil ... (take) garpu, sendok (fork, spoon) sendok menggambar (drawing) ayo ... (come on) menggambar, belajar, menulis (draw, learn, write) belajar pulpen (pen) pinjam ... (borrow) pulpen, pensil, spidol (pen, pencil, marker) pensil kerupuk (a kind of food) minta ... (request) kerupuk, keripik, kue kue (cake) tebang (felling) ... pohon (tree) tebang, gunting, potong (felling, cutting) gunting (scissors) cabe (chilli) ada ... (there is ..) cabe, pedas, asam (chilli, hot, sour) pedas botol (botle) ... diisi (here) botol, gelas, cangkir, teko (bottles, glasses, cups, teapots gelas (glass) mulas (stomachace) perut ... (stomach) mulas, panas, perih, sakit, kembung, mual (stomachace, heat, soreness, pain, bloating, nausea) panas (hot) gatal (itch) kaki ... (foot) gatal, panas, kesemutan, pegal (itching, burning, tingling, aching panas (hot) jeruk (oranges) buah ... (fruit) jeruk, apel, pir, tomat (oranges, apples, pears, tomatoes) apel (aple) register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 29 data 9 nouns which are members of a common word target lexicon supporting lexicon subjek perception subjek label binatang (animal) gambar ... (draw) kucing (cat) buahbuahan (fruit) ini ... (this ) apel (aple) data 10 question words adopted from other person target lexicon supporting lexicon subjek perception subjek label sakit (sick) jojo ... sakit sakit ta? (are you sick?) sudah (already) eek .... sudah sudah belum?(are you done?) makan (eat) minta ... (request) makan makan ya?(will you eat?) mau (want) jojo ... mau mama mau? (do you want it mom?) the ability of the subject to communicate on the targeted ability is two-way interactions both verbally and non-verbally including the ability to understand the purpose and express the desire. verbal communication skills require listening and speaking. in general, most individuals with autism spectrum experience obstacles in the development of speech, including what was experienced by the subject. the type and level of severity of problems in language development is very diverse, in this case the vocabulary of the subject can be quite limited. in autistic individuals, such as the subject, echolalia or idiosyncratic often appears with unique character of limited syllables, at least prosody and register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 30 lack of pragmatic. the data 1 to data 10 which have been described above show the phenomena. the subject apparently got difficulty in using pronoun; hence it was often reversed, as in one instance in the data 10. the subjects also did not want to understand synonymy and homonymy like the word 'dada' and 'da-da'. this finding agrees with hitti (2004: 2) that children with verbal autism spectrum prefer to identify and label something, although the pronunciation is not perfect or even less precise perception. furthermore, the subject tends to communicate only to meet his needs as to ask for something, to do something or to protest. language for social interaction such as addressing, say hello and exchange pleasantries can not be achieved. if the subject wanted to have self introduction, the subject chose gestures such as touching the other person's cheek or arm. when giving greeting, the subject immediately embraced the other person to express a sense of missed and glad to meet. vocabulary owned by the subject does not allow him to express empathic abilities as most people. the main cause of speaking difficulty of children with the autism spectrum is sensory processing system disorder. the subject could hear but the perception is sometimes different from what is heard as in the data 7 and 9. this condition sometimes causes the subjects had difficulties in catching the meaning of the conversation. eye contact is also a difficult thing to do, hence the listener need to remind he subject repeatedly. the subject was not able to express thoughts through words; as a result his emotions sometimes went up if his intention was not understood by the listener. to recite the lexicon appropriately, the subject got anxiety to speak so that the subject turned down the volume of voice although the pronunciation was correct. the important thing to note in this aspect of language is that the inability of the subject to talk (speech) does not necessarily indicate that this individual has not achieved the language as register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 31 described by ginanjar (2007: 16), because the subject is gradually able to improve his language skills. in general, the subject's ability to understand language beyond their ability in speaking, as it appears in the data 8. to express wishes, opinions and feelings, the subject has been trained to string words and sentences by pointing images and labeling, this reflects his ability to understand the world and self as speech therapy (ginanjar, 2007: 17). some individuals with autism spectrum get difficulties in capturing non-verbal symbols such as body language, gestures, facial expressions, and intonation. however, it is not the case with the subject of the research. the subject has the sensitivity to perceive non-verbal symbols of other person whom the subject knew well. if the symbol is shown by foreigners, the subject does not consider them. the ability to appoint objects or direct his view to the designated objects rarely arise because prepositions 'ini‟ (this) or 'itu‟ (that) are very slowly achieved. however, the use of verbal language together with non-verbal signs is emphasized as visual signs are better understood by the subject. hence, the learning patterns should combine communication with pictures. to learn nouns and verbs, the subject understand them after they were demonstrated overall, in identifying lexical meaning or perception of the lexicon, the subject may achieve targeted perceptions by some of the following conditions: (1) repeated lexicon should be pronounced clearly; (2) eye contact helps complete perception through the identification of the hearer‟s lips; (3) gesture supports communication; (4) imitation of labeling must be done until the learner‟s acquisition is close to accurate pronunciation to avoid repeated mistakes; and (5) communication should be supported by context which helps understanding such as prom or samples as well as media like pictures. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 32 data 11 the summary of examples of the targeted lexicons with the semantic capabilities data type of lexicon perception ability labeling ability 1 imperative verbs have meaning 'get' or 'off something' accurate accurate except „kembalikan‟ (give it back) 2 nouns related to activities accurate not accurate 3 nouns related to parts of children song lyrics. accurate not accurate 4 the word that always stuck with the emergence of other words accurate almost accurate 5 noun that refers to other objects that are not relevant accurate not accurate 6 words that refer to other relevant parts of words accurate not accurate except „rambutan’ (a kind of fruit) 7 words containing linkage or similarity pronunciation with different meanings not accurate accurate 8 noun representing some object that has linkage type accurate not accurate 9 nouns which are members of a common word not accurate not accurate 10 question words adopted from other person accurate not accurate in the table above, the inaccuracy of perception appears to the concept of homonymy (data 7) and hyponymy (data 9). words containing pronunciation linkage or similarity to other meanings complicate the subject to understand them because he assumes that each lexicon represents different objects. this principle is regarded as an absolute regularity so that if irregularities appear, autistic individuals will regard it as a threat. as a result, register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 33 his emotions rise as the phenomenon does not meet his intention – a lexicon for a single object. similarly, it also takes place in the understanding of nouns which are members of a common word. in the subject understanding, group of objects is an absurd interpretation because the subject only understands the concept of a lexicon for one object. the subject considers that one lexicon or hyponym member is communicative enough comparing to group labeling which is abstract in the subject perception. this finding agrees with the results of the research on children vocabulary acquisition conducted by roger brown (in pecei, 2006). brown explains that the sequence of children language acquisition is from concrete to abstract. when a child is in a certain age, she/he can develop the cognitive ability to differentiate or discriminate objects. the subject of the research has developed this capability so that it appears a few words in the observation period which is then removed from the list of data because the subject has achieved them. furthermore, the subject is gradually expected to show the hierarchy of vocabularies acquired. brown also finds that category of words obtained by a child is not caused by the simplicity of form or because of the frequency of using such words, but it is more because of compliance with child cognitive development. this phenomenon appears in the data 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 10. overall, the ability of the subjects in labeling the targeted lexicons are still not satisfactory and highly dependent on several conditions: (1) lexicon is imitated repeatedly until at least near correct pronunciation, (2) eye contact must exist to help the subject to imitate the lip mimic of the model, (3) labeling should be supported by context that helps the subject‟s understanding such as prom or a sample or media like images. in the table above, the incorrectness of the label appears on almost all data except the imperative verb of 'get' or 'off something' (data 1), words that register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 34 the emergence are always sticking with other words (data 4) and words having linkage or pronunciation similarity to other meanings (data 7). the three types of data are easier to pronounce than the targeted lexicon on other data. verbs are easier to memorize than nouns as in the data 2. similarly, it is also in the lyrics of songs in the data 3. the frequency of words spoken by other parties made the subject memorizes words which the references indirectly refer to the targeted lexicon as in the data 5, 8, 9 and 10. the subjects also had difficulty in distinguishing questions raised by other parties as in data 10, hence there is a label of adoption of question words. these findings relate to the results of the research on children vocabulary acquisition conducted by david messer (in peccei, 2006). he examines that language learning environment and its role in children language acquisition. for the subject, there is a strong tendency that labeling is influenced by vocabularies heard frequently. the results of analysis of this study also find that language learning environment constructs has a very important role in training children vocabulary. the subject used the lexicon label that has semantic property relevance. even some words tend to be memorized easier if jangan (don‟t) or tidak (no) are added to these words. as the finding of messer, the vocabulary of children is more important than the application of theory of parameters and principles proposed by chomsky because fewer children apply the principles of grammar and prefer to use lexicons and vocabulary enrichment. the subjects prefer objects labeling with holophrastic speaking style (one word to represent a single sentence) as in the data 1, 6, and 7. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 35 conclusions and suggestions this study analyzed the ability to acquire lexical semantics or meaning of individuals with autism spectrum with language delay. as a result, it obtains a description of the ability of perception and labeling lexicon of the research subject as follows: in the semantic level of language proficiency, the subject meets obstacles in the vocabulary enrichment. echolalia often appears when the subject was asked to perceive or identify objects. the subject labeled the objects idiosyncratically characterized with limited syllables and prosody. vocabulary enrichment of the subjects cannot be achieved automatically but through conditioning and training because of his difficulties in communication ability. the achievement of the subject's perception is better than the ability in labeling; the subject could hear but his perception could be different. this condition sometimes caused the subjects had difficulty in capturing the meaning of conversation that triggered his emotions. eye contact is also a difficult thing to do, hence the listener must often remind the subjects. the subject also has the sensitivity to perceive non-verbal symbols only from person who the subject knows well. the use of verbal language with nonverbal facilitates the perception of the subject. words having linkage or similarity pronunciation with other meanings complicate the understanding of the subject who assumes that each lexicon applies to different objects. this principle is regarded as an absolute regularity so that deviations will trigger the subject‟s emotion. the subject requires a lexicon for a single object with a preference to concrete words. labeling ability of the subject is not easy to develop because of his inability to express thoughts through words; as a result his emotions register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 36 sometimes went up if the other parties did not successfully capture his intention in communication. to recite the lexicon appropriately, the subject had an anxiety to speak so that the subject turned down the voice even though the subject had correct pronunciation. in the lexicon diction, the subject had difficulty in using pronouns, labeling homonymy and applying polysemy as well as hyponymy. the subjects tend to communicate only to meet his needs as to ask for something, to do something or to protest. vocabularies which could be labeled by the subject often did not express empathic abilities as most people. inappropriateness in labeling often appears except on imperative verb of 'get' or 'off something', words that the emergence are always stuck in other words, and words that have spelling linkage or similarity with other meanings. subjects tended to label with the words the subject remembered from the initial exposure. based on empirical findings, the researcher recommends to the relevant parties as follows: for academicians, especially teachers need to know the barriers of language learners. the particular pattern of communication in persons with autism spectrum should not have to be constraints in teaching and learning. the results of this study can be used as reference of semantics patterns of autistic that can be a reference for how to communicate with them. for those interested in psycholinguistics studies, they are expected to continue to develop the discourse on the field of language disorders. this study presents interesting findings on the uniqueness of the semantic patterns of persons with autism spectrum which is very specific compared to language barriers in diverse typologies. for researchers in the field of language, the phenomenon of language acquisition deviations need to be developed further. this study can serve as initial reference about the acquisition of semantics that need to be further register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 37 associated with the acquisition of pragmatic and syntactic. in addition, it should be followed up with research on language symptoms in persons with autism spectrum such as asperger's syndrome, attention deficit disorder, attention deficit hyperactive disorder, pervasive development disorder not specified, cerebral palsy, and so forth. references budhiman, m., shattock, p, dan ariani, e. 2002. langkah awal menanggulangi autisme dengan memperbaiki metabolisme tubuh. jakarta: nirmala. carrol, d.w. 1986. psychology of language. pacivic grove-california: brooks/cole publishing company. chaer, a. 2003. psikolinguistik:kajian teoretik. jakarta: pt rineka cipta. clark, h & clark, e.v. 1977. psychology and language: an introduction to psycholinguistics. new york: harcourt broce jovanovich inc. doman, g. 2006. apa yang dapat dilakukan pada anak anda yang cedera otak. jakarta: gr press. field, j. 2003. psycholinguistics: a resource book for students. new york: routledge. fromkin, v; blair, d & collins, p. 2002. an introduction to language. sydney: harcourt, ltd gleason, j. & ratner, m. 1998. psycholinguistics: 2 nd edition. victoria: wadsworth thomson learning. ginanjar, a.s. 2007. memahami spektrum autistik secara holistik. disertation (accessed from www.putrakembara.com, 20 agustus 2007) handojo, y. 2004. autisma: petunjuk praktis & pedoman materi untuk mengajar anak normal, autis dan prilaku lain. jakarta: gramedia hitti, m. 2004. gender affects language in autistic children. webmd medical news indah, r.n & rahman, a. 2008. psikolinguistik: konsep dan isu umum. malang: uin press http://www.putrakembara.com/ register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 38 mccandless, j. 2003. children with starving brains anak-anak dengan otak yang “lapar”: panduan penanganan medis untuk penyandang gangguan spektrum autisme, ed.2. jakarta: grasindo nababan, s.u. 1992. psikolinguistik: suatu pengantar. jakarta: gramedia. piccei, j.s. 2006. child language. london: routledge. schovel, t. 2004. psycholinguistics: oxford introductions to language study. oxford: oxford university press. staum, m.j. 2004. music therapy and language for the autistic child. diakses dari www.percepp.demon.co.uk/autism.htm register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.100-125 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 100 an investigation into the classroom talk of iranian efl novice vs. experienced teachers amir ghajarieh department of language teaching and translation, university of ershad-damavand author’s email ghajarieh.amir@e-damavandihe.ac.ir nastaran jalali department of language teaching and translation, university of ershad-damavand author’s email nastaranjalali.71@gmail.com mohammad-amin mozaheb* department of foreign languages language center, imam sadiq university author’s email mozaheb.ma@gmail.com doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.100-125 corresponding author* submission track: received: 29-09-2019 final revision: 20-11-2019 available online: 01-12-2019 abstract this study investigates the classroom talk of iranian efl novice versus experienced teachers with emphasis on the quality of communicative features through a linguistic lens provided by the sett (self-evaluation of teacher talk) framework and ttfs (teacher talk functional scale) checklist. in so doing, 10 intermediate-level classrooms running by five novice and five experienced teachers were observed, each case twice. eight distinctive mailto:ghajarieh.amir@e-damavandihe.ac.ir amir ghajarieh, nastaran jalali,mohammad-amin mozaheb 101 communicative features of tt emerged upon the initial analysis of database obtained from the audio-recordings of 20 class sessions, totaling 30 hours of naturally generated input. subsequently, the audio-recorded materials were carefully transcribed and analyzed in correspondence with the observation data in an attempt to compare how novice and experienced teachers present their talk. the results indicated both novice and experienced teachers enact communicative aspects of classroom talk; however, the quality of presentation in the case of the experienced group was far better. this in turn highlights the importance of raising awareness regarding tt features in teacher training courses. new communicative aspects of teacher talk highlighted in this study, including the use of l1 and language gradation, would help define new research paths exploring the classroom discourse. further research inspired by this study needs to explore other aspects of teacher-student interactions in various educational settings. keywords: classroom talk, teacher talk, discourse, novice teachers, teacher education introduction teacher talk investigation in the context of language learning classrooms has been the focal point of a fair number of studies over the past recent years. however, such element of the classroom discourse still appears to be far from being fully understood and the teachers’ role in efl classroom context may need to be reconsidered (rahmani doqaruni, 2017). according to walsh (2002), teachers have been mostly criticized over their excessive ttt (teacher talking time). additionally, in-service and pre-service courses have suggested teachers to reduce their talking time. thus, the focus was on quantity rather than quality of how teachers communicate in the classroom. as he mentioned (2002, p.4), this has to be otherwise; that is “the focus should be on quality rather than quantity by recognizing the relationship between language use and pedagogic purpose”. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.100-125 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 102 upon addressing the dominance of teaching methods as the only route to successful language learning, research into the communicative features of language teaching in the post-method era has gain prominence in recent decades. prior to such a turning point and paradigm shift in the language teaching disciple, the underlying assumption in language teaching predominantly revolved around how one could find the “right method”. for instance, scherer and wertheimer (1964) investigated the comparative effectiveness of various methods such as grammar translation, audiolingualism, and cognitive code, but they could not pin down which methodology had more priority over others (ellis, 1985, p.143, 2015). despite the outward differences of these language teaching methods in their basic principles, they led to very similar patterns of classroom communication and their plausible language learning outcomes were to a great extent similar to one another. emphasizing method as the basic principle was revisited by researchers in language learning and practical teaching line of research given that they began to make the assumption that the major variable affecting sla (second language acquisition) was the classroom interaction. as ellis (1985, 2015) mentioned, “an offshoot of the comparative method studies, then, was to direct researchers’ attention to the process of classroom interaction by collecting language data from the classroom itself”. further, he contended the classroom process has different forms; namely, interaction analysis, teacher talk and discourse analysis. in terms of his assumptions, all classroom processes, including giving instructions, asking questions, providing feedback, are in close contact with teacher talk and hence, an important part of classroom research. amir ghajarieh, nastaran jalali,mohammad-amin mozaheb 103 according to aisyah (2016, p.64), “teacher talk is a big influence on students’ understanding and acquisition of a language. students can learn a lot from the talk that the teacher gives, both in first and foreign language.” teacher talk in communicative framework of post-method era with the demise of method in language teaching, as stern notes, “several developments indicate a shift in language pedagogy away from the single method concept as the main approach to language teaching” (1983, p. 477). teachers and students as the main players in classroom interaction took the center stage in the post method era with research into communicative aspects of classroom interaction gaining prominence in recent decades (e.g. see incecay, 2010; sert, 2013). no one can deny the role of teachers in constructing and leading the classroom interaction, particular their active participation in any talk around the text and classroom discussions. while in the post method era, teachers’ cognitions and perceptions concerning language teaching have been investigated in quite a number of studies, various aspects of their performance in class and the discourses produced in interactions with students would appear to require further detailed analysis due to the humanistic nature of teaching and training that influence the mind and behavior of language learners in the classroom context. teaching process and classroom interaction without examining teachers' behavior--in particular the characteristics of teacher talk--is incomplete. teacher talk is what every learner can intrinsically benefit from the moment he/she steps in class. the quality of such medium in an educational setting would arguably be influential in the case of the learners as many of whom consider the teacher as a trustable source of language knowledge and frame of reference in debates and issue brought up in class. a growing number register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.100-125 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 104 of studies, including tsui, (2003) and akbari and tajik (2012), have investigated experienced and novice teachers' talk in the literature. however, previous studies on teacher talk were mostly focused on experienced teachers (asik & gonen, 2016) with just a few aimed at highlighting the crucial factor in in-experienced efl teachers (e.g. rahmani doqaruni, 2017). additionally, few (if any) of these studies analyzed the teacher talk through the linguistics lens with emphasis on both teachers' cognition and behavior. as such teacher talk should be studied in detail to identify how various factors, including experience, can affect teacher performance in an efl context. teacher talk categories many researchers focus on various features of teacher talk classified into different categories. for instance, in 1970 flander developed a system of interaction analysis (fiac) with emphasis on how teacher talk can be viewed in seven categories and two sub-categories of indirect influence as well as direct influence. indirect influence embodies accepting feeling, appraisal, accepting students’ ideas and asking questions. direct influence is divided into giving directions and lectures as well as criticizing authority. each of these categories has different functions and affects students. hence, using the right portion of these categories would lead to an effective teaching and learning process (aisyah, 2016). a while after flanders’ (1970) study, maskowitz (1971) developed ‘flint’ system standing for the foreign language interaction system that encompasses all of the categories in the flanders’ classification along with a number of other dimensions. she developed the new model to describe another interaction analysis instrument amir ghajarieh, nastaran jalali,mohammad-amin mozaheb 105 for the foreign language classroom and to assess nonverbal communications as well as the quantity of student and teacher talk in the target language. describing her model, she emphasized nonverbal behavior adopted by the teacher. for instance, when the teacher without saying a word calls on students by merely pointing at them or using the head nodding to have them speak. it can be asserted that this is the main difference comparing flint model with fiac model. walsh’s (2006a) sett framework is founded upon social constructivist theory has roots in conversation analysis with the sett standing for self-evaluation of teacher talk. the model used in the analysis of classroom discourse mainly focuses on teacher-fronted classrooms, highlighting the relationship between teacher talk quality and learners’ contribution in an efl context. additionally, it suggests that a relationship exists between teacher talk and pedagogic purposes. walsh (2006a) holds the classroom context cannot stand in isolation and that context is shaped by participants and through interactions with pedagogic objectives. the term ‘mode’ (walsh, 2006b, p.62) is defined as an l2 classroom micro context which has pedagogic goals and interactional features determined by the teachers’ use of language. walsh’s model provides a descriptive system which teachers can apply to understand interactional processes in their own classrooms. the sett framework (walsh, 2006a, p.140) is identified by four patterns of modes; namely, “managerial mode, material mode, classroom context mode and skill and system mode.” a thin number of iranian researchers such as (poorebrahim, et al., 2015; shamsipour & allami, 2012), divided teacher talk features in two categories of constructive (encouraging) and obstructive (interfering). according to their investigations constructive features of teacher talk based on observations and register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.100-125 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 106 visual-recordings contain confirmation check, scaffolding, direct error correction, content feedback, extended wait-time, referential questions and display questions. obstructive features also encompass the areas of teacher echo, teacher interruption and turn completion (poorebrahim et al., 2015). english language teacher talk functional scale (ttfs) was another model developed and validated by iranian researchers (khany & malmir, 2017). the scale is aimed at developing a teacher talk analysis tool whose items are confined to the elt (english language teaching) classroom for “lack of an existing assessment tool” (p. 39). one of the advantages of their scale over other similar models is that it can be used for classroom interactions which are not necessarily led by teachers (see appendix a and appendix b representing ttfs developed by khany and malmir (2017) founded on major components of tt from the literature). a growing body of literature on the classroom discourse with a focus on novice and experienced teachers has been carried out (e.g. doganay & ozturk, 2011; fereitas, jimenez & mellado, 2004; melnick & meister, 2008; rahmani doqaruni 2017). one of these recent studies, rahmani doqaruni (2017), compared novice and experienced teachers to scrutinize emerging communicative features in their talk. he utilized audio-recorded materials and semi-structured interviews, with the findings suggesting that the classroom behavior of experienced teachers is more stable and less variable. furthermore, the study noted that due to the confrontation of experienced teachers with different teaching contexts, they have become more aware of the details that can affect their performance as a teacher. amir ghajarieh, nastaran jalali,mohammad-amin mozaheb 107 research questions with regard to the importance of intersection between teacher talk and teacher training course for preand in-service teachers, this study is an attempt to investigate distinctive communicative features of teacher talk through a linguistic lens provided by the sett framework and ttfs checklist with the teaching experience focused as the potential influencing variable. for the purposes of this study, the following research questions have been adopted: 1. what are the distinctive communicative features of an experienced teacher versus a novice teacher based on recurring patterns of teacher talk? 2. how such distinctive communicative features can affect the quality of teacher talk in terms of experience? research method in this study, ten teachers hired at safir english institute, located in iranian capital city of tehran were selected as the study cases for further investigation and exploration in the classroom talk research area. prior to their recruitment at safir institute, all teacher cases had attended and passed preservice training courses. it is also worth noting that they taught intermediatelevel english courses and were categorized as novice and experienced teachers. upon examine the related studies, in the case of teacher education, experienced teachers had at least four to five years of experience (e.g., gatbonton, 1999; tsui, 2003) and were coded as et1, et2, et3, et4 and et5 in the present study. novice teachers were those who had just completed their training or they had less than four years of experience. this group of teachers was coded as nt1, nt2, nt3, nt4 and nt5. all teachers were female with register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.100-125 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 108 five of whom having related educational background holding a bachelor's and/or master's in english language teaching. teachers were not fully aware that one of the researchers intended to examine distinctive communicative features of experienced versus novice teachers and were simply informed that the study aimed to investigate their talk. a further note on the cases of this study is that et1, et2, et3, et4 and et5 possessed teaching experience of over ten, seven, nine, ten and six years of experience, respectively. whereas nt1-nt5 had the teaching experience ranging from one to three years. ten intact efl classes were chosen for this study, each consists an average of ten students signing up for intermediate level english courses. all the classrooms were equipped with high quality video cameras. when need be, one of the authors checked the videos. while the main instrumentations in this study were audio recorded material and the observation, one of the authors made use of a checklist developed by khany and malmir (2017) to further validate the observation data. moreover, an interview was conducted with a supervisor at safir institute regarding preservice courses organized by the managing board at the language teaching center. instruments and procedure this study rests upon a corpus obtained from observation of twenty class sessions run by novice and experienced teachers with the number of session being a “reasonable sample size” in a wide array of similar studies. one of the authors observed ten classes each of them twice, with five+five running by novice and experienced teachers. additionally, in term of data collection procedure, this study took the following measures. initially, each classroom amir ghajarieh, nastaran jalali,mohammad-amin mozaheb 109 was observed twice by a validated checklist developed by khany and malmir (2017) (see appendix a& b) with each session lasting for 90 minutes. additionally, a voice recorder was placed near each teacher in order to record the teacher’s voice clearly and capture the classroom interaction. all classes at safir institute are equipped with video cameras capturing high quality visual data. the researchers accessed such data in case of more clarification. nevertheless, the major portion of data was gathered through audio recorded materials alongside observations. as mentioned earlier, this study is a case study and “one of the advantages is its unobstructiveness; the presence of the observer does not influence what is being observed” (ary et al., 2014, p. 489). the observer did not interrupt the flow of communication occurring in each observed class, instead she silently auditing classrooms while taking notes if need be. first step taken towards finding answers of research questions was to analyze audio recorded materials and results obtained from each observed classroom. by so doing, data in its entirety were transcribed followed by identification of distinctive communicative features that emerged in novice and experienced teachers’ talk. distinctive communicative features were analyzed and categorized based on the sett (self-evaluation of teacher talk) framework (walsh, 2006a). results & discussion the first research question adopted in this study deals with the distinctive communicative features of experienced versus a novice teacher based on recurring patterns of tt. the sett framework (self-evaluation of register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.100-125 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 110 teacher talk) developed by walsh (2006a), was adopted for the purposes of this study. the sett is a comprehensive framework aimed at evaluating the interface between language in use and its possible pedagogic purpose in a classroom micro-context called ‘mode’ (walsh, 2006a). different teacher talk features were developed by walsh among which 6 features were chosen to fit the obtained data in this study based on the preliminary analysis of recurring themes in teacher talk. different types of communicative features were coded into one of the following patterns: 1. display questions 2. referential questions 3. direct and indirect repair 4. negotiation of meaning through clarification request and repetition 5. content and form-focused feedback 6. extended wait time 7. language grading 8. teachers use of first language this typology was developed based on sett and ttfs, with this study further analyzing some other features as contributions to these models. two of the authors acted as the raters of the coded data, and the high index for interrater reliability for the two was established (.90) using cohen's kappa. it is also notable that in seeking to ensure the raters have not imposed any ideology based on coded categories, thematic analysis was used to identify recurring themes emerging from the data. amir ghajarieh, nastaran jalali,mohammad-amin mozaheb 111 table 1. coded themes investigated in teacher talk ( walsh, 2006; p.,141) features of teacher talk description a scaffolding 1 reformulation (rephrasing a learner’s contribution) 2 extension (extending a learner’s contribution) 3 modeling (providing an example for learner(s)) b direct repair correcting an error quickly and directly. c content feedback giving feedback to the message rather the words used. d extended wait-time allowing sufficient time (several seconds) for students to respond or formulate a response. e referential questions genuine questions to which the teacher does not know the answer. f seeking clarification teacher asks a student to clarify something the student has said. student asks teacher to clarify something the teacher has said. register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.100-125 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 112 g extended learner turn learner turn of more than one utterance. h teacher echo teacher repeats teacher’s previous utterance. teacher repeats a learner’s contribution. i teacher interruptions interrupting a learner’s contribution. j extended teacher turn teacher turn of more than one utterance. k turn completion completing a learner’s contribution for the learner. l display questions asking questions to which teacher knows the answer. m formfocused feedback giving feedback on the words used, not the message. the second research question refers to the impact of teachers’ experience on the quality of teacher talk with regard to communicative features. investigating eight features of teacher talk revealed that experienced amir ghajarieh, nastaran jalali,mohammad-amin mozaheb 113 teachers are generally better in terms of quality of their talk. moreover, the findings of the research suggest that these tt features should be taught to novice teachers as well as experienced teachers in pre-service teacher training program which helps teachers to improve their performance, in this regard safir institute had asked for the findings of this research. in order to address the second research question concerning how such distinctive communicative features could reveal the experience of teachers, this study analyzed data gained from observation sessions and recorded materials. the following subsections present the results of this study. analysis of display questions grounded on data obtained from observation and recorded materials, one can argue that both novice and experienced teachers made use of display questions in a wide range of modes or micro-contexts, particularly while checking their students’ comprehension, mostly in the reading tasks. below is an excerpt from teacher talk in a classroom run by a novice teacher nt1: what is the meaning of “make an effort” here? st: i don’t know nt1: ok, read the text again and try to guess the meaning. an example of display question in experienced teacher talk: et2: what do we call people who travel a lot? st: travelholic? (students laugh) et2: (teacher made more examples) for example marco polo or ibn battuta st: … register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.100-125 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 114 et2: they love to travel we call them “globetrotter” st: globetrotter? et2: yes (with an enthusiastic voice) globetrotter both examples mentioned above were instances of display questions with the teachers knowing the answers. yet the example provided by the experienced teacher appears to be far better in terms of quality, representing more lexical items and repetition technique. one can see the experienced one elaborated more and gave examples to get the idea across well to the students. thus, it can be argued that this is a favorable communicative feature emerging in the talk of an experienced teacher due to her teaching experience. analysis of referential questions in the analyzed data, both groups of novice and experienced teachers frequently used referential questions to ensure comprehension with their students. below are two excerpts from novice and experienced teachers while utilizing referential questions in their talk: excerpt from novice teacher nt3: what do you think you will be doing 5 years from now? st: i think i’ll be…um… i’ll be working in my own company nt3: your own company? st: yes, my own company excerpt from experienced teacher et4: ladies? is there any of these singers you wish you had been to their concerts in the past? st: yes, yes, amr diab, he has a wonderful voice amir ghajarieh, nastaran jalali,mohammad-amin mozaheb 115 et4: what would you have done if you had been to their concert? (then she asked them to discuss this in groups) the underlined questions in the above excerpts indicate how referential question are represented in the case of both novice and experienced cases analyzed in this study. whilst both teachers used referential questions, experienced teacher continued the example with group work and continued the task with learner/ learner interaction. such feature did not exist in the case of in-experienced teachers. analysis of direct and indirect repair both groups of teachers mostly gave direct feedback on the students’ pronunciation errors. nevertheless, it was identified that some novice teachers either ignored the students’ grammatical errors while speaking or corrected them on the spot. for instance, in the case of nt5 below, “very much cars” was a sentence produced by a student which the teacher corrected its mistake directly and immediately. yet, most of the experienced teachers wrote their students’ errors on a piece of paper so as not to distract them while speaking, and at the end of each session they put their students' errors on the board, indirectly corrected them with the help of the learners. direct error correction may seem far less time-consuming and the teacher opts for a very open and direct approach to error correction as preferred by their learners. safir institute seemingly took an opposing view on this issue and most teachers in their classes were trying to correct errors indirectly, which based on walsh's (2002) assumptions reduces interruption and maintains the flow. an excerpt of a novice teacher illustrating the direct repair st: very much cars register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.100-125 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 116 nt5: there were many cars (she interrupted the student and explained that “very” is used for adjectives and car is a noun) an excerpt of an experienced teacher illustrating the direct repair st: she want [sic] to went to the party et4: (remains silent and just takes notes, when all students finished speaking then she wrote their mistakes on the board and asked them to identify mistakes and correct them). negotiation of meaning through clarification request and repetition observations and recordings indicate that both novice and experienced teachers negotiate meanings during their instruction as a communicative feature of tt emerging in an l2 classroom micro context (walsh, 2006a). clarification request and repetition as a way of meaning negotiation were frequently used by both groups. although experienced teachers sometimes moved beyond the classroom subject and discussed the students’ favorite topics, including books and movies, to engage them in negotiation of meaning and interaction. this seemingly reflects the novice teachers’ inclination to the content of the book rather than other subjects. an example of repetition in a novice teacher talk: st: all about his brave nt4: all about his bravery? st: yes, bravery nt4: bravery that’s it amir ghajarieh, nastaran jalali,mohammad-amin mozaheb 117 an example of clarification request in an experienced teacher classroom: et2: what is it about? st: it’s a movie et2: about what? (a clarification request by the teacher) st: music, it’s musical in the above example, et2 asked “about what” to elicited more clarification on the part of the student thereby making a connection between the content of the book and the student’s personal experience beyond the classroom context, which could lead to more learner involvement. experienced teachers mostly sought for clarification about subjects beyond the content of the book. in this way, they could engage students with a real communication. otherwise, the focus of novice teachers was to a great extent on the content of the book. nunan (1987, p. 144) highlights that “there is growing evidence that, in communicative classes, interaction, may in fact, not be very communicative after all and there is also the feeling that the only real communication between learners takes place during the break or after the class”. content and form-focused feedback both novice and experienced teachers participating in this study demonstrated some level of focus on the message rather than form, though it appeared that the experienced teachers’ emphasis on content was more obvious. “feedback on content involves responding to the content of what learners are saying rather than commenting solely on the form” (haydarova, 2018). in most cases, they tried not to interrupt students for correcting their grammatical errors. in the case of grammatical problems on the part of students they solely took notes. this is consistent with what thornbury (1996) asserted register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.100-125 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 118 as regards content-focused feedback which is one of the communicative features of teacher talk. analysis of extended wait-time experienced teachers appeared to be more patient during the q&a tasks. after asking questions they waited for a few seconds, allowing the student to think and process in their mind. the novice teachers, on the other hand, allowed less than enough wait time. while, this was not true in the case of all observed novice teachers, most of them had this problem. one can, thus, argue that such issue may be due to their unawareness concerning the importance of this communicative feature in teacher talk. extended wait-time by teachers can lead to more learner involvement which supports similar findings by huan and wang (2011). additionally, it can increase the number of students’ responses and lead to more complex answers as well as learner/learner interaction (walsh, 2002). an excerpt showing wait time in a novice teacher’s classroom: nt4: how do you pronounce these words? “rid” and “ride” (she wrote these 2 words on the board, then she waited only for 2 seconds and then she pronounced the correct form) nt4: this is rid /rid/ and this is ride /raid/ an excerpt showing wait time in an experienced teacher’s classroom: et1: what kind of play it is? st: … et1: what kind of play? think about it… (wait time) st: music? et1: uhu, musical (she waited and gave the student a second chance to think more) amir ghajarieh, nastaran jalali,mohammad-amin mozaheb 119 in the first example nt4 asked a question from students and waited for only 2 seconds, which was not enough for the process of thinking. otherwise, et1 asked a question and said “think about it” then waited for a longer time to give the student a second chance to think about the answer. analysis of language grading: based on one of the researcher's talk with the institute's supervisor, all teachers at safir institute passed some pre-service courses which had an emphasis on this issue; all teachers should bring their talk to the level of students, although it does not mean that they should understand each and every word. observations revealed that in some cases novice teachers overused difficult words while speaking which means that they were not aware of how difficult their language may appear to students. this is on the same note with stanley and stevenson's assertion (2017) on difficulties novice english language teachers have with level adaptation to make their speech more understandable to learners. but all-in-all, the teacher educators in pre-service courses of this institute did an admirable job in highlighting language grading consistency. teachers’ use of first language: one of the strictest house rules that applies at safir indicates none of the students or teachers are allowed to use their first language (persian) in the classroom. all-in-all, teachers obeyed this rule, yet in some cases teachers spoke only one persian word to make sure comprehension occurred. thus, there was not a significant difference between novice and experienced teachers’ use of l1. the results indicated that in terms of display and referential questions, both novice and experienced teachers used various questions in the process of register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.100-125 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 120 their teaching; however, quality of display and referential questions in experienced teachers' talk was more acceptable. their instruction through asking questions was followed by more desirable examples or group work. indirect and direct error correction was visible in the process of giving instruction to learners by both novice and experienced teachers. although novice teachers sometimes seem to be impatient about students’ errors and corrected them on the spot; experienced ones in most cases were trying to write students’ errors on a piece of paper and share them with all students at the end of conversation. students appeared to be satisfied with indirect error correction specially in the analyzed talk relating to experienced teachers as it represented more comprehensive examples. asking questions by teachers is a kind of providing input (hasan, 2006) and it is an integral part of classroom interaction (ho, 2005). language learners have an opportunity to participate in the classroom interaction when they are asked a question. thus, questioning plays an important role in language acquisition (ozcan, 2010). also, teachers’ directed questions can increase the amount of time for students to talk. according to ozcan (2010) the most important factor within an effective efl course is students’ participation, learners need to be stimulated through questioning. therefore, asking questions by teachers is one of the most common methods in facilitating students’ involvements (ozcan, 2010). the focus of the present study is on display and referential questions in teacher talk, since it is an effective way which enables students to be more productive (bozorgian & fallah, 2017). moreover, long and sato (1983) and van lier (1988) emphasized that referential questions can create discourse which produce a flow of conversation from students to the teacher and may amir ghajarieh, nastaran jalali,mohammad-amin mozaheb 121 create a more communicative speech. referential questions are questions which the teacher does not know the answer to them or more specifically, they do not have a particular answer and thus, they are used to create genuine communication. additionally, these kinds of questions have a specific purpose of allowing students to express their opinions and exchange information (ellis, 1994; thompson,1997; thornbury, 1996). furthermore, ozcan (2010) indicated that referential questions encourage more learner involvement in the classroom and the answer to such questions are not limited. thus, students can provide longer answers, in other words, it can increase students’ talk time. besides, negotiation of meaning through clarification request and repetition were frequently used by teachers. however, experienced teachers sometimes went beyond the classroom's main focus and discussed students’ favorite topics. novice teachers, on the other hand, appeared to be more loyal to the content of the book. moreover, the focus of both groups of teachers was mostly on the content and message rather than form owing to the outcome of pre-service courses offered at safir institute. additionally, teachers should be aware of the relationship between their experience and the rate of professional growth through these courses which help teachers feel more confident about their own talk. at the end of practical phase of this study, one of the authors shared the results with safir institute and had an interview with one novice and one experienced teacher - both teachers claiming that they were neither aware of such frameworks which help them to evaluate their own talk, nor were they informed of tt significance on students’ involvement. the results of this study are in line with the findings of previous studies on teacher characteristics and language education such as tsui (2003) register journal vol. 12, no. 2, (2019), pp.100-125 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 122 and akbari & tajik (2012) highlighting experience as an intervening fact. additionally, such findings are quite in harmony with the observation that rahmani doqaruni (2017, p.17) made regarding the experienced teachers in his study who "used the least number of" communication strategies. he assumed that the difference lies, out of other possibilities mentioned, in the teacher education program. in terms of contributions to the theory in the teacher talk research, the findings show the sett framework used as the foundation of many studies in teacher talk need to be tailed based on the context as mentioned by previous studies (e.g. pande, 2019). language grading and teachers’ use of first language were two elements that should be incorporated into the model for future studies on teacher talk in an efl situation. conclusion research into teacher talk is of noteworthy significance in the literature on teacher education and l2 language teaching. the results of this study lead to a more profound understanding of the teacher talk function in the classroom discourse and would benefit pre-service teachers on how to use language and critique their own performance particularly through the use of seet and the ttfs frameworks. moreover, using these frameworks help teachers to encourage learner involvement in the classroom. as asik and gonen (2016) believe, the sett framework helps teachers develop a more critical eye by evaluating their use of language. amir ghajarieh, nastaran jalali,mohammad-amin mozaheb 123 we are aware of this study’s limitations due to investigating eight features of teacher in experienced and novice teachers based on the data obtained from cases focused in this study. as such there is a need to examine other features as well, including scaffolding, turn completion and teacher echo. additionally, this study investigated teacher talk in ten cases recruited at safir institute, other institutes and schools can be the subject of study for further analysis. other researchers need to conduct their research with a larger number of participants and in various teaching contexts. we hope to have contributed to defining new research paths that explore the potential of communicative aspects of classroom talk in the post method era within the language teaching discipline and teacher education studies. new lines of research in classroom talk can also highlight the intersection of teacher-student interaction with preand in-service teacher training courses. references aisyah, n. 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(2006b). investigating classroom discourse. new york: routledge. microsoft word 02_register 2020 no 2 tan & listyani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020), pp. 257-276 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i2.257-276 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn : 2503-040x 257 the use of communicative language learning (cll) to teach speaking at a taiwanese elementary school: implementation and students’ responses laura yosephine tan,1 listyani listyani2* 1,2fakultas bahasa dan seni, universitas kristen satya wacana, jl. diponegoro no.52-60, salatiga, kec. sidorejo, kota salatiga, jawa tengah 50711, indonesia *corresponding author email: listyani@staff.uksw.edu doi: 10.18326/rgt.v13i2.257-276 submission track: received: 10-06-2020 final revision: 13-10-2020 available online: 01-12-2020 copyright © 2020 laura yosephine tan, listyani listyani this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract speaking is one of the important skills to master. the importance of learning speaking skills helps people to share their ideas, agreement or disagreement, compliments, and so on to others. some students feel a lack of practice in learning english because of the insufficient support they receive, including those in taiwan. therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate how taiwanese teachers apply cll in speaking activities and the students' responses towards speaking activities which implement cll at an elementary school in taiwan. data for this qualitative study were gathered from semi-structured interviews and reflective journals. the participants were one taiwanese english teacher and 64 elementary school students, grade 4 and 5. data from the semi-structured interview were recorded, then transcribed. only one teacher was interviewed because she was the only english teacher at that school who was willing to be interviewed. after that, themes were drawn based on the transcribed interviews. based on the data, it was found that the taiwanese english teacher who taught english at that particular elementary school applied cll to teach the english language. some activities such as group discussion and think-pair-share were done. in the taiwanese elementary school where the study was conducted, these activities were found useful because students could gain more vocabulary, a fun atmosphere created inside the classroom, and better fluency and pronunciation. keywords: speaking; cll; taiwanese; elementary school; students’ responses laura yosephine tan, listyani listyani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 258 introduction in studying the english language, students are expected to master all skills like listening, reading, writing, and speaking. speaking is one of the most difficult skills to master. in learning speaking skills, students may face some challenges like being afraid of the wrong grammatical accuracy and fluency, lack of vocabulary, and anxiety. teaching speaking aims to encourage students to practice their speaking ability more often. besides, when a teacher teaches speaking, the teacher often focuses more on tenses rather than giving the students opportunities to practice their oral skills. it can make students feel a lack of support from the teacher and chances to practice speaking. one of the strategies to make students practice speaking is cll. this study focused more on investigating how a taiwanese english teacher applied cll in speaking activities and describing students’ responses towards speaking activities with the use of cll at an elementary school in taiwan. at this particular elementary school, the stages of learning the english language are writing, reading, listening, and speaking. english teachers focused more on reading and writing. students had difficulties in practicing their english because they lacked support inside and outside the school. in school, the english teacher used cll in teaching the english language. this strategy provides some variation of activities and tasks that could encourage students in their learning. there are team practices, jigsaw puzzles, and cooperative projects. these strategies were chosen because the activities and tasks gave students more time to practice rather than listen to the teacher. based on those facts, we saw there was an urgency to conduct research in this matter. this study will answer two research questions, which are as follows: how does the teacher apply cll in speaking activities at a taiwanese elementary school? what are the students' responses in speaking activities using cll at that particular taiwaese elementary school? the results of this study are expected to be beneficial to english teachers and students. the findings would hopefully be useful for english teachers, in general, to get more information about the activities and tasks to encourage students to learn the english language. the results may hopefully stimulate students by using some ways that were discussed in this study. a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 259 speaking one of the important skills in learning the english language is speaking. speaking is a way for people to interact and communicate with others to accomplish a discussion (raba, 2017). likewise, the importance of talk simplifies ideas, which is stated by barner and todd (1977). the purpose of speaking is to be able to use language for expressing ideas, feelings or something to others with interactive skills like greetings, apologies, agreement and disagreement, and so on. some factors cause students in practicing a speaking skill. khamkhien (2010) stated that some factors influence the students' speaking skill, e.g. age, native language, behavior, and experience in learning english. zhang (2009) claimed that speaking is the hardest skill to master and some esl still have inability to communicate orally in the english language. it is difficult because there are some problems encountered in learning speaking like the lack of pronunciation, vocabulary, and tenses. moreover, a lack of support in a classroom atmosphere will give students more anxiety in practicing their speaking ability. the fear of making a mistake while speaking, shyness, wrong tenses and so forth can cause students to show weak speaking skills. besides, learning speaking is also learning to behave with each other while practicing oral skills. teaching speaking there are some elementary school students in general that lack good speaking skills because they may be afraid of making grammatical errors or pronunciations mistakes. english teachers should consider this issue. in learning a foreign language, teaching speaking for students is important because it can give students more support in practicing their speaking skills. one of the purposes of teaching speaking is motivating students to improve both their accuracy and fluency. anuradha et al (2014) mentioned 10 important principles of teaching speaking skills. first, in teaching speaking, teachers should give support to students from the beginning. next, students who tend to repeat what they say and answer many questions with only one word should be accepted. after that, students are free to speak with their background laura yosephine tan, listyani listyani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 260 knowledge. then, teachers can drill students with grammar use in many situations. also, back-chaining or tail-forwarding methods to create complete sentences can boost students’ speaking skill. moreover, in practicing the language, the active and passive students can be controlled by doing role play and pair work. furthermore, a lesson plan should be well prepared to help teachers while doing the teaching process. also important for teachers is to give learners a chance to learn from their errors and give sympathy to each weaknesses. solcova (2011) illustrated the unsuccessful teaching of speaking that gives more attention to grammar and vocabulary rather than speaking opportunities does not improve students’ speaking skills. based on solcova’s illustration, teaching speaking can be useless when a teacher focuses more on vocabulary rather than the speaking skill itself. it would limit students' time to practice their speaking skill. moreover, kusrini (2012) claimed that vocabulary is the main factor that makes students have difficulties expressing their ideas to others. this may give an effect that some students, during a discussion, speak their mother tongue because it is easier to tell their idea by using the first language. some teachers claim that cooperative learning can be beneficial for students who lack the opportunity to communicate. this strategy gives students more chance to have a conversation with others (gao, 2011; han, 2009; huang, 2012; ma, 2006; nie, 2010). cll (cooperative language learning) activities in english lessons in cooperative learning, jolliffe (2007) suggested that students work in a group to learn and support each other. having cll activities and tasks in any english classroom can develop the use of language in many situations. slavin (1980) concluded that applying cooperative learning is the most effective environment in gaining students' attitudes and behaviors. by using this way students will not just interact in a group, but they are are learning to behave for each other during a discussion. furthermore, one implication of wanger and wanger’s (2015) cooperative learning is that participants in group work with the same task can comfort each other by having a conversation. the point is that cooperative learning can convince each individual in a group by interacting with them. in a cooperative learning strategy, there are several learning tasks a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 261 like a jigsaw, group discussion (team practice), and cooperative projects. calderon (1990) mentioned that the effectiveness of cooperative learning demands of teachers' commitments of time and effort. the point is teaching speaking using cll activities in an english classroom can be useful for students and teachers. whereas some are convinced that cooperative learning allows students to practice their speaking skills, others view that cooperative learning is insufficient to help students in increasing students' pronunciation han, 2006; huang, 2011; lin, 2009; qiu, 2014). in making this comment, slavin (1980) concluded that applying cooperative learning is the most effective environment in gaining students' attitudes and behaviors. by using this way students will interact in a group, given that they are assigned to behave for each other during a discussion. furthermore, one implication of wanger and wanger’s (2015) cooperative learning is that participants in group work with the same task can comfort each other by having a conversation. the point is that cooperative learning can convince each individual in a group by interacting with them. in a cooperative learning strategy, there are several learning tasks and learning focus like a jigsaw, group discussion (team practice), and cooperative projects. jigsaw task the first is jigsaw—one of the tasks in cooperative learning. it involves dividing students into home groups, each discussing a different topic. after discussion, each group should rearrange into the topic groups to develop the materials. the last part involves students going back to the home groups to evaluate opinions. in this activity, students learn to evaluate their own learning by collaborating with two groups’ members. a student may feel uncomfortable with this activity. aronson (1978) said that students in a group who have a higher level of understanding but have negative attitudes will rarely fail compared to those who with lower comprehension. furthermore, reese (2009) also mentioned the problem of using the jigsaw method. it is like gathering different levels of students in one group. it might make the low-level students feel difficulties. in short, the higher student's level will work more rather than the lower student's level. this may laura yosephine tan, listyani listyani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 262 give low-level learners the feeling of hardship to follow a discussion. based on those statements, mengduo and xiaoling (2010) argued that students may feel anxious self-esteem in a classroom. lin (2010) claimed that teachers and students from taiwan use the jigsaw technique in an english classroom. this activity is common in taiwan for teaching speaking. furthermore, astane and berimani (2014) said that the effectiveness of using jigsaw in speaking skill is to create a kind of team atmosphere among the groups. what is more important is the use of jigsaw in an english classroom gives an amazing effect to each individual for cooperative structure. even though there might be a challenge, each student has an opportunity to practice their speaking skill. group discussion (team practice) task the second task is a group discussion. this is similar to team practice because it enables developing and mastering a topic by taking part in group work. antoni (2014) put forth that the method of using small group discussion is as follows: a teacher will divide students into several groups, each group with a different topic. the teacher should give roles to students and every group must discuss the given topic. hamzah and ting (2010) showed the students' positive replies about the group work activities in a classroom. positive replies mean students can learn from others while discussing a topic. when it comes to the topic of a group discussion activity, most students will readily agree that it will give positive feedback to students in a classroom. nihalani, et al (2010) found out that how students collaborate in a group is successful. on the other hand, nihalani also says when a group performance reflects the groups' member level instead of the whole group together. in summary, badache (2011) explained group work is an instruction method where students of different levels work together for a specific objective. the essence of this method is to work together in a group with different members' levels to discuss a specific objective. cooperative project tasks the third task is a cooperative project. it is discovery learning where a topic will be chosen by students. students will be divided into several groups or a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 263 pairs. they may have a different topic to discuss. they can research it on the internet, interviews, libraries, and so on. in the end, they must present in front of the classroom. in the cooperative project, it has several more activities. according to olsen and kagan (1992), cll has three activities, the first of which is the three-step interview. in this activity, students will work in pair. the role involves one of the members acting as the interviewer and the other, the interviewee. they will learn based on their sharing by doing the interview. next, a roundtable activity called round robin. students will work in a group. each group will be given one pen and a piece of paper. one member of a group will make a contribution and then pass it to the other member. each member contributes orally in turn. the third activity is solve-pair-share: the teacher will tell students about a problem, to which each student needs to find a solution individually. they explain their strategy to solve the problem by doing the interview or round robin structures. think-pair-share after that, think-pair-share (tps) is one of the cll activities. it is a problem-solving task. kusrini (2012) mentioned that the think-pair-share method gives students more opportunities to be active in sharing, thinking, and pairing with others. furthermore, tps strategy has a positive impact on students' learning interest in the teaching process, according to kaniyem (2010). this activity can help students to solve a problem easily. moreover, lyman in astiyandha (2013) suggested that there are seven advantages of think-pair-share methods. it is quick and time saving. a discussion is more productive and gives students more time to think before students share it. students have a chance to study higher-level thinking skills from their peers and increase their self-trust when they present for the whole class. the ‘pair’ step ensures that no student is out of a discussion and each student will have their time to speak. students and the teacher gain a chance to think and argue in group discussion. this technique can be used for all grade levels and class sizes. this technique seems to have both advantages and weaknesses. diyah et al (2013) mentioned two weaknesses of tps. first, not all students will pay attention to the topic given because they can discuss it together with their pair. laura yosephine tan, listyani listyani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 264 second, a student with a low understanding about the topic will do a conversation with others about a different topic. as a result, students sometimes underestimate a topic given by the teacher. what is more important is that think-pair-share helps students to learn how to create a democratic moment when they are free to argue and suggest a topic (kusrini (2012). this method is not just for helping students to solve a problem but also to train their critical thinking skills to come to solutions. the last activity is numbered heads, which is done in a traditional classroom. each student will call a number. they will be divided into a team. the teacher will ask a question to each group, which will in turn head together and discuss about the question and make sure each member can explain the answer. the teacher will call a student's number to explain the result. previous studies on cll implementation some previous studies have been done on cooperative learning in english language classrooms to enhance yemeni students’ speaking skills and attitudes (attamimi, 2014). to collect the data, the researcher used a quasi-experimental method. the participants were sixty undergraduates at hadhramout unversity in yemen. the results showed substantial learner speaking abilities and attitudes after using cooperative learning methods. another study was done by christie and listyani (2018) aimed at finding teachers’ strategies to improve students’ self confidence in speaking at smk 1 and smk 2 in tamiang layang. the participants were four teachers from different schools: smk1 and smk 2 in central borneo, indonesia. these teachers used four strategies such as role-play, storytelling, small group discussion, and songs. the results of the research showed that the strategies were very useful to support students’ self-confidence in speaking because every strategy gives students more opportunity to practice their speaking. another study done by dahler (2020) on 48 students from class vii of smp bina mitra wahana pekanbaru also found that community language learning (cll) method effective for teaching speaking skill. dahler’s (2020) study was also supported by ilyas (2017), whose study concluded that cll gave good influence on students’ speaking skill. it was found that cll helped students to a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 265 express ideas systematically; the ideas were well-organized, understandable, and standardized. moreover, cll improved the result of students’ score in speaking skill. the mean score increased from 54.74 in pre-test to 72.86. in summary, these studies showed that cll could give more chances to students in learning the english language because it has several activities and tasks that give students more opportunity. research method this research was conducted at an elementary school in taiwan between from october to november 2019. the school was chosen because the english teacher there implemented cll in the english classroom. one of us was doing her teaching practicum in the school. she thus had a double role, as a researcher and a student-teacher. the student-teacher taught from third-fifth grades in elementary school. research participants the participants of this study were one english teacher and 64 taiwanese elementary school students. they were fourth and fifth-graders selected for their relatively high english ability level. each grade consisted of 32 students. the taiwanese english teacher there was the only one, among eight english teachers altogether, who was willing to be interviewed and give more information about implemented cll in teaching the english language. busy activities and schedule clashes had been the biggest problems for us for not being able to interview the other teachers. research design this study used qualitative methods to get the results. according to flick (2014), qualitative research was interested in analyzing issues, practices, social production by gathering non-standardized data, texts and images rather than numbers and statistics. the point was not just analyzing numbers but the progress of learning in each participant like what they felt about the method that the english teachers used to encourage them to speak the english language. the purpose of using this method was that the student-teacher can analyze each students' progress in learning the english language. laura yosephine tan, listyani listyani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 266 data collection instruments the research instruments were semi-structured interviews and reflective journals. the first method was a semi-structured interview. this was conducted with one of the english teachers because she taught every grade of elementary school. this method would help to answer the first research question of this study about how the teacher used cll in speaking activity at a taiwanese elementary school. the second method was reflective journals, which was done for the fourth and fifth-grade elementary school students. this method would show what the students’ responses were in speaking activities with the use of cll. the participants were given reflective questions after the english lesson for speaking using cll. data analysis procedures after completing the data collection policies from the semi-structured interview and reflective journals, the results were analyzed. the result of the semi-structured interview showed the ways the teacher implemented cll in speaking activities at the elementary school. the reflective journals exposed students’ responses in speaking activities with the use of cll. after all the data were gathered, the interviews were transcribed and reflective journals were identified based on the participants’ responses. from all the data collected, themes were drawn. findings and discussion this part explained the semi-structured interview and reflective journals by the english teacher and the fourth until the fifth-grade students at a taiwanese elementary school. the findings were about how the english teacher implemented cll in speaking activities and what the students' responses were during the speaking activities using cll at the elementary school. how cll was applied in speaking activities the semi-structured interviews were recorded by the studentteacher—one of the researchers. the english teacher used cll activities to help students in the learning of the english language. the interviewee was teacher a. she had had an experience of about ten years in teaching a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 267 english. at school, students usually still spoke in taiwanese language during the english lesson. teacher a mentioned in the interview that the students liked to speak taiwanese most of the time. therefore, the teachers could not force students too much to speak in english because foreign languages were rarely spoken outside of the classroom. the english teachers had their own methods to handle it. teacher a mentioned in the interview that she applied cll as stated in the excerpt below. excerpt 1: “the way students practice speaking, we use a board game. students need to practice board game in english because there are so many sentence patterns. teachers use cooperative learning strategies such as think-pairshare and group discussion (these are explained in the later section). in wrap-up activity, students write and speak the english language in a group.” (the interview with the english teacher, oct 14, 2019) the teacher gave students motivation during learning english language. teacher a said excerpt 2: “on the whiteboard, i make a column with five layers. each layer equals one point. if a student speaks in english correctly, the students' name will cling to a column. the highest score will get a reward” (the interview with the english teacher, oct 14, 2019) based on the interview results, the english teacher used some cll activities— pair group practice and group discussion. during the lesson, the teacher encouraged students by giving a reward for students who speak english properly. as a result, many students were encouraged to speak in english. students’ responses in speaking activities using cll this part discussed the results from the reflective journals. the reflective questions were based on group discussions and think-pair-share activities. these journals were given to the students after they got the activities, which were based on cll. group discussion in the first cooperative activity, the student-teacher taught the fifth-grade students a lesson on animals. in the activity session, the student-teacher gave laura yosephine tan, listyani listyani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 268 the guessing game. students were given some descriptions of one animal. for example, lives under the sea and has eight tentacles. students had to guess the name of that animal. students were divided into several groups consisting of three or four people. each group had one green board to write the answer. this game had five rounds. the winning group would get a gift from the student-teacher. the game went well. at the end of the lesson, students were asked to answer three reflective questions. the results are explained in the graphic below. this is clarified in figure 1. figure 1. grade v students’ feelings the result of the data from the reflective journal is as follows. based on a group discussion related to the first reflective question, 30 out of 32 students (93.75%) in the fifth grade replied, “ i feel very happy because the game is fun.” the other two out of 32 students (6.25%) did not reply. the second reflective question was about the problems of speaking english that the students faced. the result is demonstrated in figure 2. it was shown that 22 out of 32 students (68.75%) in the fifth grade answered that they did not have a problem by replying " no, i don't " and 10 out of 32 students (31.25%) faced a problem by answering " yes because i don't know how to speak english." it means that the problem was represented by their lack of knowledge about how to speak in english. the third reflective question was about the students’ self-confidence in speaking. this result is clarified in figure 3. a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 269 figure 2. problems faced by students in speaking english figure 3. students’ self-confidence twenty-six out of 32 students (81.25%) felt satisfied " yes, because i learn so much english". six out of 32 students (19.75%) answered: "no because the words are hard." in short, most of the students wrote that they enjoyed the activity when they learned in a group even though some students spoke their mother tongue several times. think-pair-share / pair group practice in the second cooperative activity, think-pair-share, the student-teacher taught the fourth-grade students about can you swim? in this activity, the student-teacher played the song called "what can you do?" the students and student-teacher danced and sang together. in the whilst teaching, students were taught about the sentence patterns and vocabulary inside the student laura yosephine tan, listyani listyani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 270 book. this is clarified in figure 4. the result is then elaborated in figure 5. in the student book, it had a game called snake and ladders. students were divided into pairs or a group of two. in that game, students played it by asking and answering based on the dialogue. figure 4: snake and ladders game for grade iv the data from the reflective journals dealing with speaking activities were shown in in figure 5. figure 5. think-pair-share a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 271 based on think-pair-share activity, 29 out of 32 students in the fourth grade (90.62%) thought that the game was fun and the sentences were quite easy by saying "it's fun and the words are easy". however, while playing the game, three out of 32 students (9.48%) still preferred speaking in their mother tongue, taiwanese, because in the students’ opinion, they felt more confident in speaking their first language. in short, in the first cll activity, many students were able to speak and did not have a problem with speaking the english language. overall, when the student-teacher did the oral practice with gif pictures, students were excited to answer the student-teacher’s questions. in addition, when they discussed in a group, most of them spoke in the english language. this is in line with hamzah and ting’s (2010) theory stating that the students' responses about the group work activities of cll showed positive feedback. in the second cll activity, 29 students thought the sentence patterns were easy. the student-teacher used snake and ladder games with a dialogue. students could practice in pair. this intersects with (2012)kusrini’s theory that the think-pair-share strategy gives students more chances to be active in sharing, thinking, and pairing each other. they could speak in english pretty loud and clear. even though, fewer students preferred to speak the first language by translating the dialogues into the taiwanese language. overall, bourner (2003) and mcguiness & brien (2007) mentioned that one of the judgment instruments for a teachers is reflection. the students' reflections could show their real feelings and effects on the cll strategy that the teacher used. conclusion from this study, it was found that the taiwanese english teacher used cll activities such as think-pair-share and group discussion. these activities could help students study the english language. the reason behind the teacher’s use of cll was because it has many activities that allow students more time to speak. moreover, the teacher also gave students an element of surprise to reduce the students’ use of mother tongue. laura yosephine tan, listyani listyani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 272 besides, the students' responses to cll activities showed positive replied. first, from the group discussion, the student-teacher used a guessing game inside the classroom. more than half of the students enjoyed the class during cll activities because they did not have a problem with speaking, even though some students still spoke in their mother tongue language. second, from thinkpair-share, the student-teacher used the snake-and-ladder game with dialogues. 91 percent of the students stated that the sentences from dialogues were easy. the other nine percent of the students preferred to translate the sentences into their first language. overall, many students were capable of speaking english properly because cll activities were fun. unfortunately, there was a limitation during collecting data which became the major weakness of this study. eight english teachers taught elementary school students. the plan was to interview at least two of them but it could only be done with one english teacher, and it was only once. this happened because their schedules were busy. at least, the researcher was able to interview the english teacher who taught all grades of the elementary school. other than that, the reflective journals were initially planned to be done three times, but it was done only once during a group discussion activity. seen from the students’ abilities, it can be concluded overall that the students still lacked vocabulary for showing what they felt. this pushed the researcher to do the reflective journal for think-pair-share activity orally. there are some suggestions for future researchers, such as conducting more interviews with more respondents and writing a reflective journal protocol with their first language. this kind of research may have a good impact on helping students’ with their speaking and giving suggestions for english teachers in choosing a 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(2014). effectiveness of cooperative learning in enhancing speaking skills and attitudes towards learning english. international journal of linguistics, 6(4), 27-45. retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ daf0/8049c122e864108f202a2581c2f03b7ba281.pdf bahsan, b & holsblat, r.(2017). reflective journals as a research tool: the case of student teachers’ development of teamwork. teacher education and development, 1-15. retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/ doi/pdf/10.1080/2331186x.2017.1374234 cahyani, f. (2018). the use of think pair share technique to improve students’ speaking performance. research in english and education, 3(1), 76-90. retrieved from http://www.jim.unsyiah.ac.id/read/article/view/9237/ 3876 christie, l. s. & listyani, l. 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(2017). teaching speaking skills in communication classroom. international journal of media, journalism and mass communications, 3(3), 14-21. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ 325650985_teaching_speaking_skills in_communication_classroom ilyas, m. (2017). the influence of cll on efl learners’ speaking skill. j-shmic: journal of english for academic articles. retrieved from https://journal.uir.ac.id/ index.php/jshmic/article/view/1987 o’keeffe, j., buytaert, w., mijic, a., brozović,n., & sinha, r. (2016). the use of semistructure interviews for the characterization of farmer irrigation practices. hydrology and earth system science, 20, 1911-1924. retrieved from https://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/20/1911/2016/hess-20-19112016.pdf a study of language learning strategy …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 275 kessler,c. (1992). cooperative language learning. new jersey: englewood cliffs. maulani et al. (2019).teaching speaking by using think-pair-share teaching strategy. the journal of english literacy education, 6(2), 102-106. retrieved from https://ejournal.unsri.ac.id/index.php/jenglish/article/download/9951/52 04 munawar, m. (2015). improving speaking skills through the learning community technique. english education journal, 6(4), 484-496. retrieved from http://www.jurnal.unsyiah.ac.id/eej/article/download/2857/2719 kinahan, m. p. 2017. teacher and seating arrangements and assignments: a qualitative study (thesis). boston: northeastern university. retrieved from https://repository.library.northeastern.edu/files/neu:cj82q019x/fulltext.pd f partiwi, a. n. 2014. improving speaking skills through cooperative language leaning for seventh grade of smpn 4 yogyakarta in the academic year of 2013/2014. a thesis. universitas negeri yogyakarta. prayoga, f. (2018). the impact of topic based group discussion pf efl learners’ speaking performance. journal of research and method in education, 8(2), 4045. retrieved from http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jrme/papers/vol8%20issue-2/version-6/h0802064045.pdf rahman, m. s. (2017). the advantageous and disadvantageous of using qualitative and qualitative approached and methods in language “testing and assessment” research: a literature review. journal of education and learning, 6(1), 102-112. retrieved from http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/ index.php/jel/article/download/64330/34611 rahmawati, r. (2017). improving english speaking ability using the teamgames-tournament technique. english education journal, 8(1),1-13. retrieved from http://www.jurnal.unsyiah.ac.id/eej/article/view/6124 roswati, m. & zaim, d. r. (2014). improving students’ speaking skill by using thinkpair-share strategy at the second emester of syariah class a at language center of uin suka riau. journal english language teaching, 2(1),1-12. retrieved from http://ejournal.unp.ac.id/index.php/elt/article/download/ 4602/3642 laura yosephine tan, listyani listyani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 276 hermiati. (2017). the effectiveness of think pair square strategy in teaching students’ listening comprehension at the second grade in sma negri 3 sidap. a thesis. universitas islam negeri alauddin makassar. wang, w. 2017. improving students’ oral skills through a cooperative learning approach to teaching chinese college english. a thesis. university of victoria. yulianingsih, l. (2014). the use of think pair and share technique in teaching reading to the seventh grade of senior high school. language, education and literature, 5(2), 99-108. retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9bf4/527ade86afe003808d0d87fb8059 092b22fe.pdf rethinking language education in indonesia register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 111 a correlative study of reading speed and reading comprehension of the second year students of smp islam sultan fattah salatiga in the academic year of 2007/2008 inna naili izzatul laila english department of educational faculty state institute for islamic studies (stain)salatiga innanaili@gmail.com abstract this study is conducted to find out the profile of students’ speed reading skill and the students’ reading comprehension, as well as to prove if there is significant correlation between the students’ skill in reading speed and reading comprehension of students of smp islam sultan fattah salatiga in the academic year of 2007/2008. the writer applies random sampling technique to take the sample (40) from the total of population of 81 students. furthermore, the profile of students’ reading speed skill in the text comprehension is observed through applying reading speed limited by time. from such a test, the writer knows how many words produced by students every minute. the students’ reading comprehension, in addition, can be seen from the result of the answered of questions. the data is analyzed using correlative statistics. from the result, the writer finds that there is no correlation between reading speed and reading comprehension of the students. it is shown from the result r0=0,027 and rt=0,312 in the level of significance 5%. then, there are many factors that influence reading speed and the comprehension as children weakness of vocabularies and the lack of concentration in reading. keywords: reading speed, reading comprehension abstrak studi ini dilakukan untuk mendeskripsikan kemampuan siswa dalam membaca cepat dan pemahaman dalam membaca, serta mencari hubungan yang signifikan antara kemampuan siswa dalam membaca cepat dan memahami bacaan siswa smp islam sultan fattah salatiga tahun akademik 2007/2008. penulis menggunakan teknik random sampling untuk menentukan sampel (40) dari total populasi 81 siswa. lebih jauh lagi, kemampuan siswa dalam membaca cepat diukur melalui tes membaca cepat yang dibatasi oleh waktu. dari tes tersebut, peneliti dapat mengetahui berapa banyak kata yang diproduksi oleh siswa setiap menit. di samping itu, mailto:innanaili@gmail.com register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 112 pemahaman siswa terhadap bacaan dapat dilihat dari hasil dari pertanyaanpertanyaan yang dijawab oleh siswa. data dianalisis menggunakan formula statistik korelatif. dari hasil tersebut, peneliti menemukan bahwa tidak ada hubungan yang significant antara kecepatan siswa dalam membaca dengan pemahaman terhadap bacaan. hal itu terlihat dari hasil r0=0,027 dan rt=0,312 di level signifikansi 5%. selain itu, ada banyak factor yang mempengaruhi kecepatan membaca dan pemahaman seperti kurangnya kosakata dan konsentrasi saat membaca. kata kunci: kecepatan membaca, pemahaman dalam membaca introduction reading is one of the language skills that should be emphasized in teaching and learning english. it is an ability to comprehend, not simply recognize letters, forms, and symbols. without comprehending, reading maybe useless. according to carrein and eisterhold (1991), comprehending the text is an interactive process between the reader’s background knowledge and the text itself. furthermore, there are many factors influencing students’ ability of reading comprehension; one of them is reading speed. skill in speed reading is interesting to those who continually read a great deal of material in a short time, for sure with comprehension. a skillful speed reader is able to understand the meaning of sentence at glance, the average reader usually reads 200 to 250 words per minute. however, a skillful speed reader may read over 6000 words per minute. to improve the students’ ability to comprehend the reading text accompanied by speed reading, therefore, teachers have to help the students increase their ability in efficient reading habits. to support such an aim, the writer is encouraged to conduct a research dealing with reading speed and reading comprehension as well as it significance correlation of both items. this study aims to answer the following research questions. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 113 1. how far is the students’ speed reading in the second years of smp islam sultan fattah in the academic year 2007/2008? 2. how far is the students’ reading comprehension skill of the second years of smp islam sultan fattah in the academic year 2007/2008? 3. is there any significant correlation between the students’ reading speed and reading comprehension of the second years of smp islam sultan fattah in the academic year 2007/2008? definition of reading many definitions and explanations of reading have been formulated, some complementary to another, others contradictory. according to edithia (1988), reading is the meaningful interpretation of printed or written verbal symbol. it means that reading is a result of the interaction between perception of graphic symbols that represent language and the reader’s language skill, cognitive skill, and the knowledge of the world. rivers (1981) states that reading is the most important activity in a language class, not only as a source of information and pleasurable activity, but also as a means of consolidating and extending one’s knowledge of the language. meanwhile, martha dallman (1977) defines reading as a verbal process interrelated to thinking and with all other communication abilities such as listening, speaking, and writing. specifically, reading is the process of reconstructing from the printed patterns on the page of the ideas and information intended by author. furthermore, mahmoud (1992) conveys that reading is the ability to comprehend, not simply to recognize letters, forms, and symbols. the purpose of reading register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 114 dealing with the purpose of reading, mahmoud (1992) points out that reading has many goals. some of them are: 1. reading for specific information is a common form of reading used to discover specific or limited information. 2. reading for application is used to accomplish a special task. 3. reading for pleasure and entertainment includes reading popular magazines, newspaper, novels, and other similar materials. 4. reading for ides; this type of reading requires paying special attention to main ideas and concepts and the nature of the presented information. the reader’s skills through major topics, headings, illustrations and conclusions in order to obtain a general idea of the content. reading for specific ides is enhanced, through familiarity with the overall knowledge of the subject. 5. reading for understanding; it requires comprehension of the relationship between the information introduced and overall knowledge of the subject. then, it requires understanding in the relationship of topics to sentences, paragraphs, and the main ideas. the reader must observe the association between facts, data, and other details. the method of reading mahmoud (1992) elaborates the six methods to fulfilling the purpose of reading. they are: 1. previewing 2. skimming and scanning 3. reading for study register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 115 4. critical reading 5. reading for critical evaluation, which can be undertaken in two stages, namely introductory and intensive stage. 6. speed reading speed reading speed reading is a collection of reading methods which attempt to increase rates of reading without greatly reducing comprehension or retention. it is characterized by analyzing trade-offs between measurement of speed and comprehension, recognizing that different types of reading call for different speed and comprehension rates, and that those rates may be improved with practice. kinds of speed reading in applying this method, an efficient reader varies his speed based on the material requirement (raygor et.all, 1981) that is distinguished into four major rates of reading i.e.: 1. skimming rate it is used to find reference, to locate new material, to answer a specific question, or to get the general idea of a selection passage. 2. very rapid reading rate it is important to review familiar material, to get reading a light novel or fast-moving short story for its plot. 3. rapid rate register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 116 it is used in fiction, characterization, mood, sensory imagery, or anticipation of outcome, or in nonfictional text. it is also employed to find the main idea, make generalization, or sequence. 4. average rate it is applied in the more complex fiction for characterization and plot analysis, nonfiction of mode rate difficulty to notice the detail, to grasp the relationship between main ideas, or to distinguish between fact and opinion. 5. slow rate it is used to master content, including detail, to read highly factual material, to evaluate quality and literary merit, or to solve a problem of the directions. reading comprehension edithia (1988) states that reading comprehension most likely occurs when students are reading what they want to read. or at least when they see some reasons to do so. comprehension itself is a construction process because if involves all of the elements of the reading process, working together. it is the rason of purpose for reading. research methodology it is a quantitative research that consists of two variables i.e. the reading speed as independent variable (x) and the reading comprehension as dependent variable (y). the writer uses test and documentation as data collection method and correlative study as technique of data analysis that is formulated as follows. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 117                            n y y n x x n yx xy r xy 2 2 2 2 )()( ))(( in which, r ∑xy ∑x ∑y ∑x 2 n : : : : : : correlation coefficient of variable x and y the sum of the product multiplying the reading speed test score and reading comprehension test scores the sum of the reading speed test scores the sum of the reading comprehension test scores the sum of square reading speed test scores total number of respondent the subject of the research is the second year students of smp islam sultan fattah salatiga in the academic year of 2007/2008 that consists of 81 students. to determine the sample, the writer use random sampling technique. derived from such a technique of sample, the writer examines 40 students for the sake of the study. discussion to find the students’ reading speed, the writer uses reading sppd tes that is limited by time. from this test, the writer observes how many words produced by students every minute. the students’ reading comprehension, moreover, can be seen from the result of the answered questions that follow the text. there ten items and four choices for each questions. for each correct answer, then, the writer will give ten points. table 1 represents the result of the reading speed. table 1 register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 118 the result of reading speed (x) no name the score 1 nofi fatmawati putri 84 2 siti zumrotun 101 3 rizka rahmawati 119 4 winda listyaningtyas 140 5 mutik atul khusniyah 94 6 henny octoviana 92 7 ika 105 8 lia octavia 98 9 nafiatun 146 10 siti nurjanah 119 11 anna setyani 138 12 istianah 144 13 eko sadono 103 14 agus aslimin 93 15 aulia rizqillah 124 16 arifin 95 17 heru hermawan 90 18 iskandar 106 19 ariyanto 163 20 tofan 144 21 ahmad luqman 87 22 arifatul khuzaimah 94 23 teguh prasetyo 71 24 fitri fatonah 98 25 afandi 90 26 setyowati 152 27 ihya'udin 81 28 rubiyanto 91 29 melda dwi vaulalina 123 30 suwandi 101 31 uswatun khasanah 93 32 vivin 93 33 poniah 124 34 intan puspita sari 124 register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 119 35 solekhah puji lestari 86 36 sulastri 71 37 nur azizah 129 38 alfi nikmah 86 39 siti rusmiati 115 40 putri nuryanti 114 in this step, the writer determines the measurement for result of reading speed. to determine the interval, the writer uses formula: 23 25,23 4 1)71163( 4 1)(       i i i bbba i note: i = interval ba = highest score bb = lowest score the percentage distribution of reading speed of the subject of the study can be seen in the table 2. table 2 the percentage distribution of reading speed no score sample percentage criteria 1 140-163 6 15% excellent 2 117-139 8 20% good 3 94-116 12 30% fair 4 71-93 14 35% poor total 40 100% in order to obtain the result of the students’ reading speed, the writer uses formula: register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 120 025,108 %100 100.40 4321 %100 100.     p p n x p in which: p: the score obtained ∑x: the sum of score x n: sample meanwhile, the students’ reading comprehension is shown on the following table. table 3 the result of reading comprehension (y) no name the score 1 nofi fatmawati putri 50 2 siti zumrotun 40 3 rizka rahmawati 30 4 winda listyaningtyas 30 5 mutik atul khusniyah 60 6 henny octoviana 50 7 ika 50 8 lia octavia 60 9 nafiatun 60 10 siti nurjanah 40 11 anna setyani 50 12 istianah 60 13 eko sadono 50 14 agus aslimin 40 15 aulia rizqillah 50 16 arifin 50 17 heru hermawan 50 18 iskandar 50 19 ariyanto 30 register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 121 20 tofan 50 21 ahmad luqman 30 22 arifatul khuzaimah 50 23 teguh prasetyo 40 24 fitri fatonah 40 25 afandi 40 26 setyowati 70 27 ihya'udin 30 28 rubiyanto 40 29 melda dwi vaulalina 50 30 suwandi 40 31 uswatun khasanah 40 32 vivin 60 33 poniah 30 34 intan puspita sari 30 35 solekhah puji lestari 50 36 sulastri 50 37 nur azizah 30 38 alfi nikmah 50 39 siti rusmiati 40 40 putri nuryanti 50 in this research, the writer also classifies the result of reading comprehension as described as follows. 10 25,10 4 1)3070( 4 1)(       i i i bbba i note: i = interval ba= highest score bb= lowest score register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 122 the percentage of students’ reading comprehension is shown on the following table. table 4 the percentage distribution of reading comprehension no score sample percentage criteria 1 60-69 6 15% excellent 2 50-59 16 40% good 3 40-49 10 25% fair 4 30-39 8 20% poor total 40 100% to measure the result of the students’ reading comprehension, the writer uses the formula: 25,45 %100 100.40 1810 %100 100.     p p n x p in which: p: the score obtained ∑y: the sum of score y n: sample correlation analysis to measure the correlation between reading speed and reading comprehension, the writer employs the following formula.                            n y y n x x n yx xy r xy 2 2 2 2 )()( ))(( furthermore, the result is shown in the following table. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 123 table 5 the computation of coefficient x and y no x y x y xy 1 84 50 7056 2500 4200 2 101 40 10201 1600 4040 3 119 30 14161 900 3570 4 140 30 19600 900 4200 5 94 60 8836 3600 5640 6 92 50 8464 2500 4600 7 105 50 11025 2500 5250 8 98 60 9604 3600 5880 9 146 60 21316 3600 8760 10 119 40 14161 1600 4760 11 138 50 19044 2500 6900 12 144 60 20736 3600 8640 13 103 50 10609 2500 5150 14 93 40 8649 1600 3720 15 124 50 15376 2500 6200 16 95 50 9025 2500 4750 17 90 50 8100 2500 4500 18 106 50 11236 2500 5300 19 163 30 26569 900 4890 20 144 50 20736 2500 7200 21 87 30 7569 900 2610 22 94 50 8836 2500 4700 23 71 40 5041 1600 2840 24 98 40 9604 1600 3920 25 90 40 8100 1600 3600 26 152 70 23104 4900 10640 27 81 30 6561 900 2430 28 91 40 8281 1600 3640 29 123 50 15129 2500 6150 30 101 40 10201 1600 4040 31 93 40 8649 1600 3720 32 93 60 8649 3600 5580 33 124 30 15376 900 3720 register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 124 34 124 30 15376 900 3720 35 86 50 7396 2500 4300 36 71 50 5041 2500 3550 37 129 30 16641 900 3870 38 86 50 7396 2500 4300 39 115 40 13225 1600 4600 40 114 50 12996 2500 5700 4321 1810 487675 86100 195780 from the result above, the r0 = 0,0272 and the rt= 0,312. on the 5% signification degree, r0 <rt. it means that h0 is received where there is no correlation between reading speed and reading comprehension. based on the result of the speed reading test, the writer finds that there are 8 students that still need a lot of time for understanding the passage. this problem happens because the students feel insecure when they came across with many unknown words, so it influenced the students’ speed in reading. meanwhile, there are 10 students classified into fair criteria since they have reasonable vocabulary. rate of reading is not the primary goal in reading, but abilities and needs. an excellent reader usually has ability to apply reading strategy. the have not only a good vocabulary mastery but also high concentration when they face the text. a poor reader, in other side, has the lack of inellcetual maturity to bring meaning to the printed material. he tends to decode even familiar word slowly. some of them have the binocular or fusion difficulties. they also have inadequate comprehension ability. most of the poor readers make too many regressions. conclusion from the analysis conducted, the speed reading of the second year of students of smp islam sultan fattah salatiga in the academic year 2007/2008 is poor. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 125 however, their reading comprehension are good. meanwhile, there is no correlation between reading speed and reading comprehension of the students. it happens because the students still require time to comprehend the passage. references mahmoud, shah. 1992. research and writing a complete guide an handbook. virginia: butterway publications. raygor, alton. reading at efficient rates. university of minnesota. simanjuntak, editia. 1988. developing reading skill for efl students. jakarta: depdikbud. 36 women in achebe’s novel “things fall apart” mundi rahayu english language and literature, faculty of humanities and culture maulana malik ibahim state islamic university (uin) of malang. jl. gajayana no.50 malang, east java, indonesia mundi_rahayu@yahoo.com abstract this paper explores the image of women in chinua achebe novel‘s things fall apart. as the prominent postcolonial writer, achebe has a vivid expression describing the social cultural values of the ibo community in nigeria, africa. analysis of the novel is done through the perspective of postcolonial feminism. postcolonial feminism finds the relation and intersection between postcolonialism and feminism. this interplay is interesting to observe. the findings show that in traditional patriarchal culture as in the novel, women are portrayed happy, harmonious members of the community, even when they are repeatedly beaten and barren from any say in the communal decision-making process and constantly reviled in sayings and proverbs. however some other interesting findings are that the women also have big role in the belief system of the community, and in achebe‘s novel he made it an amusement, for example by punishing okonkwo because of his beating to his wife in the sacred time. keywords: postcolonial feminism, traditional patriarchal culture, community abstrak penelitian ini bermaksud untuk menyelami penggambaran wanita dalam novel chinua achebe yang berjudul things fall apart. sebagai penulis terkenal sejak era pasca penjajahan, achebe dapat memberikan gambaran nyata mengenai nilai-nilai sosial budaya dari komunitas ibo di nigeria, afrika. ketika menganalisis novel ini, penulis menggunakan perspektif feminisme pasca penjajahan. dalam perspektif tersebut, didapatkan adanya hubungan antara pasca-kolonialisme dengan feminisme yang saling mempengaruhi. keadaan saling mempengaruhi ini sangat menarik untuk diteliti. dalam penelitian ini ditemukan bahwa dalam budaya patriarki tradisional seperti yang dilukiskan dalam novel, para wanita digambarkan mailto:mundi_rahayu@yahoo.com 37 dalam keadaan bahagia, dan sebagai anggota komunitas yang harmonis; bahkan ketika mereka berkali-kali dianiaya dan tidak 'dianggap keberadaannya ketika ada proses pembuatan keputusan dalam kelompok, serta secara terus-menerus dicaci-maki dalam bentuk berbagai sindiran dan ungkapan tak langsung. meskipun begitu, ada hal menarik lain yang ditemukan dalam penelitian ini, dimana para wanita pun juga mempunyai peran yang besar yang tertuang dalam sistem kepercayaan pada komunitas tersebut, contohnya ketika mereka menghukum okonkwo karena telah memukul istrinya pada waktu yang dikeramatkan. kata kunci: feminisme pasca penjajahan, budaya patriarki tradisional, komunitas introduction things fall apart (1958) is a novel, depicting the life of okonkwo along with the tradition and culture of a communal igbo society in nigeria, africa at the time of the community‘s encountering with outside white power. the story is set in the 1890s, when missionaries and colonial government made its intrusion into igbo society. the main character, okonkwo, is an ambitious and powerful leader of the community, who places the high importance of physical strength and courage. as the strong and powerful man in a clan, okonkwo‘s life is good; he is a hard worker, his compound is large, he has no troubles with his three wives, his garden grows yams, and he is respected by his fellow villagers. however, one day there is an incident in which okonkwo accidentally kills a clansman, so that he is banished from the village for seven years. during the seven years of exile, he thinks that he can be back and gains his power and pride in his village, umuofa. but his downfall is triggered by his blindness to changes happened to the circumstances; the missionary church, which brings with it the new authority of the british district commissioner. in this process, okonkwo is destroyed, because his 38 unwillingness to change set him apart from the community and he is fighting alone against colonialism. he ends his life tragically. one of the most interesting aspects of achebe‘s novel is its cultural richness of ibo community in nigeria, africa, presented in simple english language but full of beautiful expression. the author, chinua achebe, has his own way of writing. it seems that he wants to show that his culture is noble and dignified, of which he counters many white people‘s perception towards black people. born as a nigerian and educated in his homeland and continued to england, emphasized his character as an african. his english is good and he made is such a way that his english is able to present the thought and feeling of the nigerian indigenous people. he has his own way to claim that the black people is civilized and noble. that is why achebe was furious to the description of black people in the novels of joyce cary‘s novel mister johnson and conrad‘s heart of darkness that portrayed the black people as undignified, stupid, slavishly adores his white colonies boss. he wanted to fight back the ‗stereotyping‘ through the writing of this novel. the spirit to fight against the black stereotyping made by white writers marks chinua achebe‘s works; novels and poems, and at the beginning it can be found out in this novel, things fall apart. this novel is authentic, in the sense that it is written by nigerian writer and is discussing about their own culture. under the spirit of dignity, the writer portrays the black people and their culture in sympathetic way. however, the culture itself is portrayed as something that is not stagnant. it is dynamic and possibly changes from time to time and from places to other places. the dynamic covers many aspects of culture, including the way people and tradition treat women in such a patriarchal community. 39 the social and cultural condition of the people of such patriarchal community at a certain period of time is reflected in this novel in such a way that we will get an idea that this is the real condition of community, in which man is the patriarch and woman is the subordinates. in this novel, however, achebe presents the cultural complexity and dynamic of the society, in africa at the end of 19th century. the reader will be presented with the ibo traditional culture, including how they treat the women, and its values all of which are worthy in building the perception on the culture. the novel provides many customs, ceremonies, and their belief system that involve all of the members of the community, men and women, child and adult. for example, we will find many rites such as funeral ceremony, wedding ceremony, baby initiation and other rites held because of a certain cause that is closely related to their belief system. this culture is a complex one and it also develops and changes. in many cultures of different societies, women are colonized subjects and have been relegated to the position of ‗other‘. as mentioned above, this novel describes the culture of ibo society in sympathetic way. however, there is still a question, how it treats the women. for that reason, it is interesting to explore the image of women in this novel, the existing socio-cultural situation, and the factors conditioning the male‘s attitudes toward women. postcolonial feminism postcolonial literature refers to a body of literature written by authors with roots in countries that were once colonies established by european nations. postcolonial literature includes works by authors with cultural roots in south asia, africa, and the caribbean, and other places in which colonial independence movement arose and colonized people achieved autonomy in the past hundred years (murfin,2006: 496). in this notion, achebe is one of 40 the most outstanding postcolonial writers. chinua achebe is the first african writer who had the acclaimed the man booker international prize in 2007 for his first novel things fall apart. the achebe‘s novels mostly tell about the african community, its cultural and custom richness. many ceremonies, traditional festivals and customs are presented in english language that is rich with proverbs, metaphors, legends, myths, and taboos. this is not surprising because achebe as the pioneer of the modern african writing has a great desire to, as kirsten said, show both the outside world and african youth that the african past was orderly, dignified and complex and altogether a worthy heritage (in ashcroft, 1995:237). achebe‘s mission through his works is in line with what ketu h. katrak (in ashcroft, 1996) stated that social responsibility must be the basis of any theorizing on postcolonial literature as well as the root of the creative work of the writers themselves. achebe completely realized that the colonized countries got destroyed culturally, socially and politically. this is what he spoke aloud in his works. african cultural values are systematically denigrated by colonialist ideologist and institutions demand positive representation, and this restitutive impulse has frequently been seen to conflict with feminist reformation. in the further movement of decolonizing, it is important then to see the roles of women. most of the society in africa is patriarchal. they give more importance and roles on the male much more than the female. it is important, then to talk about the notion of ‗double colonization‘. double colonization is coined by ketu katrak, referring to the notion that women in formerly colonized societies were doubly colonized by both imperial and patriarchal ideologies – became a catch-phrase of postcolonial and feminist discourses in the 1980s (in ashcroft, 1996:240). this condition leads to the more complex 41 struggle and movement of women. in many cases the imperial colonization comes first to be fought against, and unfortunately ignored the other. under such condition, there are some black african women writers that fight against the double colonization. however, most of the men african writers, especially achebe, ignored the women issue in the course of fighting the colonialism and cultural imperialism. this is because any aspects of life, including the women, are focused on the issue of dignifying the past and restoring african self-confidence. kirsten holst petersen stated that achebe‘s much praised objectivity with regard to the merits and flaws of traditional ibo society becomes less than praiseworthy seen in this (the women issues) light. (in ashcroft, 1995:237). women in achebe reflect the social condition of the society of 1890s. in the traditional culture, women are happy, harmonious members of the community, even when they are repeatedly beaten and barren from any say in the communal decision-making process and constantly reviled in sayings and proverbs. it would appear that in traditional wisdom behaving like woman is to behave like an inferior being. therefore, this is interesting to find further, how achebe portraits the women in his novels. does he ignore women issues in his novel? in what way he presents the women? women in things fall apart this novel tells the story of a strong man in umuofia, a small village of ibo society, in 1900s, named okonkwo. he is a hard worker, a great warrior and successfully gets prosperous life. although he inherited no barn nor title, he was able to make it by himself. with the setting of agrarian patriarchal society of igbo (or ibo), this man, okonkwo set his mind to keep his pride and value against his surrounding world. 42 in things fall apart, patriarchy intrudes into any sphere of life. what we can read from the beginning of this novel is the world that centers on male. the man is everything and the woman is nothing. woman is the man‘s possession, as wives and other possession like yam barns, and title. men who have all these possession will be respected and get the highest title in the clan. there was a wealthy man in okonkwo‘s village who had three huge barns, nine wives and thirty children. his name was nwakibie and he had taken the highest but one title which a man could take in the clan. (18) domestically, women belong to the man. the man will do anything to keep his prestige and dignity as the head of the family. to maintain the patriarchal society, men create the educational system in which the next generation is thought what to do and how to behave as what the father wanted. this educational system will maintain the values of the tradition. in doing this educational function, okonkwo is highly aware of the male and female jobs and knowledge. when ezinma, his daughter of his second wife, asked him to bring his chair for him, he replied that this is boy‘s job. although, ezinma was strong and smart enough to do the job. ‗yes,‘ and after a pause she said: ‗can i bring your chair for you?‘ ‗no, that‘s a boy‘s job.‘ (42) in okonkwo‘s mind, men must be strong, violent, and hard worker. he wanted these characteristics belong to his sons. that a man must be able to control women is kept in his mind. he wanted him to be a prosperous man, having enough in his barn to feed the ancestors with regular sacrifices. and so he was happy when he heard him grumbling about women. that showed that in time he would be able to control his womenfolk. no matter how prosperous a man was, if he was unable to rule his women and his children (and especially his women) he was not a really a man. (49-50) 43 for that reason, it is good in his opinion that man has to do anything, even violent one to ensure his own power. okonkwo beat and shot his wife, ekwefi only for small things. okonkwo second wife had merely cut a few leaves off it to wrap some food, and she said so. without further argument okonkwo gave her a sound beating and left her and her only daughter weeping. (37) and so when he called ikefemuna to fetch his gun, the wife who had just been beaten murmured something about guns that never shot. unfortunately for her, okonkwo heard it and ran madly into his room for the loaded gun, ran out again and aimed at the as she clambered over the dwarf wall of the barn. (37) to ensure that the sons obey him and value the tradition as okonkwo did, he was proud of telling the stories to his sons about his wars, violence and bloodshed. he was determined that this custom must be preserved and valued. this kind of stories differs from female stories that tell much about fable, animal stories or legend. he told them the stories of the land, masculine stories of violence and bloodshed. nwoyne knew that it was right to be masculine and to be violent, but somehow he still preferred the stories that his mother used to tell, stories of tortoise and his wily ways, and of the bird eneke-ntioba who challenged the whole world to a wrestling contest and was finally thrown by the cat. (50) not only different but male stories are more respected than mother‘s stories. the woman‘ stories only refer to the foolish women and children. this male-centered society is highly patriarchal. he now knew that they were for foolish women and children, and he knew that his father wanted him to be a man. ….so nwoyer and ikefemuna would listen to okonkwo‘s stories about tribal wars or how, years ago, he had stalked his victim overpowered him and obtained his first human head. (51) 44 in this novel, the agrarian people make a living by growing yam. the yam — is synonymous with virility. this prestigious plant brings with it the owner‘s respect and dignity. that is why the yam stands for manliness, the plant for men. yam stood for manliness, and he who could feed his family on yams from one harvest to another was a very great man indeed . . . . yam, the king of crops, is a very exacting king (31-32) consequently, to produce an abundant harvest, the traditional farmer needs a good workforce. women constitute and still do the core of the rural workforce — farming, tending animals, nurturing children. in preparing for festival, all of the women will be very busy preparing the abundant foods for all of the villages and their relatives from outside of village. in any kind of ceremony, women work hard with many activities. women [are] to be seen not heard, coming and going, with mounds of foofoo, pots of water, market baskets, fetching kola, being scolded and beaten before they disappear behind the huts of their compound (34) in this novel, as the mirror of the society at that time, okonkwo, chauvinistically believes that women‘s place is in the home (41), although in fact many economic activities are held by the women, at public sphere. the social structure of this ibo community can be seen from the way the people stand or sit in the ceremony. the titled men and elders (the most respected men) sit on their special seat called stool. the crowd, people watching the ceremony, stands a bit distant. on the other side, the women just look on from the fringe. they are not involved in the meeting, not even as audience. the women are like the outsiders. ―it was clear from the way the crowd stood or sat that the ceremony was for men. there were many women, but they looked on from the fringe like outsiders‖ (83) 45 for centuries, african women languished on the fringe of their universe — neglected, exploited, degenerated, and indeed made to feel like outsiders. they were not invited to stay when men were engaged in any discussion. they were not included in councils of war, because war is man‘s job in patriarchal society. they did not form part of the masquerades representing the judiciary and ancestral spirits. because women are socially construed as the unimportant, anything having connotation with bad things or bad characteristic will refer to the femininity. okonkwo‘s father, unuoika was a weak and poor man. he had no titles, no enough food for his family and had much debt. when he consulted his fate to agbala, the priestess who has power from her god, he got the answer to do hard working like a man. ―you, unuoika, are known in all the clan for the weaknesses of your matchet and your hoe. …they cross seven rivers to make their farms, you stay at home and offer sacrifices to a reluctant soil. go home and work like a man.(17) when a man is not powerful enough, not respected, he is not considered as a man. this happens to unuoika, okonkwo‘s father. the cocoyam with smaller size and consequently has lesser value than other yams, is regarded as female. unoka, okonkwo‘s father, is considered an untitled man, connoting femininity (20). coco-yam, of smaller size and lesser value than other yams, is regarded as female. osugo has taken no title; and so, in a gathering of his peers, okonkwo unkindly tells him, ―this meeting is for men‖ (28). this novel also tells about the incident in which okonkwo felt guilty 46 because of killing ikemefuna. he felt guilty, although according to their rule ikemefuna has to be killed, but it should not be done with his own. on the other hand, he in fact loves this boy. he did it spontaneously, he was afraid of being told weak. guilt-ridden after murdering ikemefuna, his surrogate son, okonkwo sternly reprimands himself not to ―become like a shivering old woman‖ (60) so, okonkwo never tolerated the ‗feminine trait‘ in himself. when okonkwo was punished because of accidentally killed a boy of his clan, he must go out of the village, along with all of his family. this he considers the worst insult. fleeing after the murder, okonkwo has no other refuge than his mother‘s town, which, of course, has to be called mbanta — ―small town‖ — as being opposed in okonkwo‘s thinking to the rugged, wild, violent, strong, masculine connotations of his umuofia (meaning ―children of the forest‖). such excessive emphases on virility, sex-role stereotyping, gender discrimination, and violence create an imbalance, a resultant denigration of the female principle. according to mezu, things fall apart is redolent of violent conflicts occasioned by the utter lack of a moderating female influence. one example, of this absence can be found in achebe‘s employment of the folktale narrating the conflict between earth, representing fertility or the female principle, and sky, representing the male principle. donald weinstock and cathy ramadan argue that ―the [folktale s] initial quarrel between earth and sky represents the struggle between masculine and female powers and principles‖ (127). okonkwo, who occasionally but reluctantly yields his tender emotions most often expressed perversely towards ikemefuna and nwoye, is a paradigm for sky who withholds rain but releases it reluctantly and perversely, since rain falls as it has never fallen before, preventing vulture, who represents the female principle, from returning to deliver his message, just as nwoye, with 47 his effeminate nature, does not return to okonkwo‘s compound. (20-21) the only woman respected in umuofia is chielo, the priestess of the oracle of the hills and caves, who is removed from the pale of normalcy. clothed in the mystic mantle of the divinity she serves, chielo transforms from the ordinary. she can reprimand okonkwo and even scream curses at him: ―beware of exchanging words with agbala (the name of the oracle of the hills and caves). does a man speak when a god speaks? beware!‖ (95). yet if okonkwo is powerless before a goddess‘s priestess, he can, at least, control his own women. so, when nwoye‘s mother asks if ikemefuna will be staying long with them, okonkwo bellows to her: ―do what you are told woman. when did you become one of the ndichie (clan elders)?‖ (18). in the last part of this novel, okonkwo‘s consequent despair and fall represent the despair and break-up of the igbo clan before the invincible forces of the white man‘s religions and political organizations. all of the events under patriarchal community, with the absence of that female principle that could have maintained balance and sanity lead to the downfall of the community. as in the following part of the novel: it is true that a child belongs to its father. but when a father beats his child, it seeks sympathy in its mother‘s hut. a man belongs to his fatherland when things are good and life is sweet. but when there is sorrow and bitterness, he finds refuge in his motherland. your mother is there to protect you. (124) when this community got sorrow and bitterness, they can not find the refuge to their ‗mother‘, because the mother – the representation of all women – is not empowered, so that she can not be a place for refugee. 48 conclusion this novel shows that women in patriarchal traditional community are the ‗other‘. women are the men‘s possession, domestically and politically. although women have big roles in many social activities, the political decision is on the male‘s hands. women do not have position in public place. however, achebe portrayed the women as happy, harmonious members of the community, even when they are repeatedly beaten and barren from any say in the communal decision-making process and constantly reviled in sayings and proverbs. some other interesting finding is that the only place women get respect is in their belief system. women have big role in the belief system of the community, by having a priestess that has unchallenged authority, even by a powerful man. in achebe‘s novel he made it an amusement, for example by punishing okonkwo because of his beating to his wife in the sacred time. in their belief system, the most important god is the ani goddess, the biggest and most influenced one, because it relates to the fertility and welfare. the god and goddess has messenger. the messenger who is mentioned many times in this novel is chielo, the priestess, the one that is honored by people because she is the ‗messenger‘ of the god. people are afraid of her and obey whatever she says. this social construction is rooted in the patriarchal culture that gives priority that men are the authority and women are their belonging. in such culture all aspects of life centered on men. anything positive, good, and strong deals with men while the opposite one deals with female. this condition reduces the roles of women in the real life and leads the leader of this community into his destruction. 49 references achebe, chinua. 2006. things fall apart. london: penguin books. ashcroft, bill, et al. (ed), 1995. the post-colonial studies reader, london: routlege. mezu, rose ure, women in achebe’s world. murfin, ross. c. (ed). 2006. the scarlet letter nathaniel howthorne, boston: edward/st martin‘s. teeuw, a. 2003. sastera dan ilmu sastera, jakarta: dunia pustaka jaya. tong, rosemarie, 2002. feminist thought: pengantar paling komprehensif kepada aliran utama pemikiran feminist (terj. oleh aquarini priyatna prabasmoro) jogyakarta: jalasutra. microsoft word 06_register 2020 no 2 sebastinus register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020), pp. 333-350 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i2.333-350 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn : 2503-040x 333 language use and language attitudes of sumbawanese speakers in bali sebastianus menggo,1* i made suastra2 1universitas katolik indonesia santu paulus ruteng – indonesia, 2universitas udayana, denpasar – indonesia *corresponding author email: sebastian.pradana@gmail.com doi: 10.18326/rgt.v13i2.333-350 submission track: received: 28-08-2020 final revision: 14-11-2020 available online: 01-12-2020 copyright © 2020 sebastianus menggo, i made suastra this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract this study examines the language maintenance model for a local language in another language community, specifically sumbawanese language maintenance in the balinese community. this study encompasses 1) the sumbawanese speakers’ competence of sumbawanese language, 2) sumbawanese language use patterns in the balinese community, 3) language attitudes of sumbawanese speakers toward their language. this study focuses on denpasar's several locations, where most of the language interaction occurred, and data were collected through observation, interviews, and questionnaires. the data were analyzed using a software program, namely an excel chart data series. the research subjects were both older and younger sumbawanese speakers. an analysis of language attitudes also considered the roles of language choice and language change in maintaining cultural diversity and ethnic identity, which will psychologically provide a feeling of assurance in personal linguistic competence. with sumbawanese speakers, the context of communicating in balinese society will be thoroughly considered. the findings show that speakers of sumbawa language have good competence towards sumbawa language, rarely use sumbawa language, and have more positive than negative attitudes towards their language. speakers are stimulated to maintain the frequency of language use and their positive language attitudes to be competent intercultural speakers. keywords: balinese; language use; language attitude; language change; sumbawanese sebastianus menggo, i made suastra register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 334 introduction bali's language development significantly relies on social and cultural factors, as the balinese community emphasizes their practices or customs. intercultural speakers' success can mediate and negotiate between cultures' message and language use in the multilingual and multicultural group of intercultural citizens (byram, 2008; ratnasari, 2018). in keeping with such multilingual and multicultural interaction, the speakers are permitted to use code-switching as tolerance and adaptation to the local contexts (baker, 2009). a phenomenon that often emerges in bilingual or multilingual communities is the gradual disappearance, strengthening, or, sometimes, mixing of languages (wardhaugh, 2006). this holds true in bali too, where the balinese constitute the majority. other languages will only be used in specific or otherwise acceptable contexts by its speakers. the use of languages commonly understood by speakers of the surrounding community will significantly impact speakers' attitudes toward that language in their efforts to make themselves heard or to persuade others (holmes, 1992; menggo et al., 2019; schoel et al., 2012). we will refer to this phenomenon as language attitude, the implications of which are often reflected in language choice and politeness level in language use. several factors can commonly affect levels of speaker politeness: differences in power (privileges) of the social ranks, the distance that distinguished from characteristic differences of each speaker, and level of interest (scollon & suzanne, 2001). a speaker’s language or dialect will be easier to understand if the listener likes or respects the speaker, which commonly occurs in groups with close relationships (holmes, 1992). this is also related to the speakers’ motives, which will eventually be realized as deeds, habits, or behaviors (menggo, 2018). if the speakers have positive attitudes on community languages, the native speakers of those languages feel accepted in society; consequently, they feel permitted to speak the languages. this study's findings show that speakers' language attitudes can be identified by observing the speaker and their relationship. one piece of evidence for this is that a speaker with a positive language attitude will eventually use the concerned language even without considerable motivation to do so (jendra, 2007). a language use and language attitudes …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 335 speaker's positive or negative attitude will depend mostly on the language's social value in its community (berowa et al., 2018; ladegaard, 2000). several studies have been conducted to provide empirical evidence that language attitude is a very important dimension in interaction and learning success. it reflects the openness to other cultures, a person's thoughts, survival in business, and many more. a study conducted by berowa et al. (2018) claimed that vietnamese students did not have sufficient ability to communicate in english when they first arrived in the philippines. however, because of their positive language attitude toward language communityteachers, classmates, and friends-they have a certain level of english proficiency that enables them to convey their thoughts and exchange ideas in their daily activities. besides, dweik, nofal, qawasmeh (2014) found out the muslim arabs of vancouver have positive language attitudes towards canada's english community. positive language attitude is considered a good instrument for achieving their educational, financial aspirations, intercultural communication, as well as career development in canada. however, the concept of speakers’ language use and language attitudes can be well identified in the real interaction between the speaker and the community from a sociolinguistic perspective that has not been strongly supported by recent research findings. therefore, this study is expected to fill a gap in the literature and help other researchers interested in studying language use and language attitudes in different parts of the world. based on the above description, the researchers formulated three research problems, namely (1) how competent do the sumbawanese speakers use sumbawa language? (2) how often do the sumbawanese speakers use sumbawa language? and (3) how are sumbawanese speakers’ attitudes towards sumbawa language in bali community? language attitudes and language use sumbawanese is considered a common language without any level of politeness in its use. speech level that refers to the level of politeness according to the language use context in sumbawanese has a small variation in its everyday use in any location. moreover, the speech level in sumbawanese is sebastianus menggo, i made suastra register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 336 driven by several factors, such as vocabulary, sentence structure, speaker age, office environment, and speech tone (tika et al., 2015). studies on language attitude have focused on diglossia as the general concept, limiting the scope of research. diglossia is an exceptionally stable language situation in which two or more language varieties are accepted by a specific group in a community and are still being taught at a formal educational level, even if not frequently used in everyday conversation (wardhaugh, 2006). its relationship to language attitude is based on social factors within the community where the language is used. these factors can serve as a significant point of departure for further analysis of speaker language attitude. language attitude is mostly related to the speaker's orientation, which is classified as an instrumental orientation that deals with the consideration of speakers in the sign language and integrative orientation that deals with the personal interest in high cultural aspects of the language (chaer, 2004). therefore, to pursue further research on language attitude, the social position of a given language in a multilingual community and other language speakers' perspective are decisive factors. speaker comprehension of some regions of a given language derives from the speaker's interpretation and understanding of that language. this understanding is formed through the speaker's four cognitive abilities: attention, judgment and comparison, point of view, and the general structure of the language (kovecses, 2006). the concept of language attitude can be understood by looking closely at the meaning of attitude. attitude plays an essential role in language use. it is defined as a human dynamics process that justifies personal belief in the truth of using a particular language (mardiana, 2020). moreover, attitude is closely related to mental condition and deeds as whatever a person thinks, feels, and wants to do are also related to a specific condition (chaer, 2004). this idea aligns with the notion proposed by crystal (1998), who defines language attitude as one's psychological construction regarding one's own language or others' language. the attitude intended can be positive or negative (dewi & setiadi, 2018; yürekli & afacan, 2020). this statement implies that deeds triggering an attitude are related to a motive. an attitude does not always reflect behavior; only the speaker can accurately differentiate between attitude and language use and language attitudes …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 337 behavior (jendra, 2007). therefore, a speaker’s language attitude can be investigated through actual data, such as daily conversations. in brief, the relationship between these concepts can be shown as follows: figure 1. a conceptual model of language attitude (adapted from jendra, 2007) as shown in figure 1 above, attitude is a decision or conclusion of a deed within the scope of habit. the figure shows that deeds are a definite form of behavior, mostly affected by context. in different contexts, a habit will not be triggered, and thus no attitude will be revealed. therefore, a particular context that can facilitate a deed in response to language attitude is the natural context. in everyday conversation, the more frequent language use occurs, the more this conversation can be categorized as a close relationship between the speakers and vice versa (scollon & suzanne, 2001). apart from context, another factor that can foster a relevant language attitude is the relationship among speakers in contexts where distance does not significantly affect the speakers’ language choice. language attitude has three interrelated components; the components are cognitive, affective, and conative (garrett, 2010; rokeach, 1972). cognitive refers to someone’s knowledge about right or wrong, good or bad, and desirable or undesirable. affective is viewed as a judgment on a specific matter, and conative or behavioral refers to tendencies that affect action. these three components were used to analyze data obtained from sumbawanese speakers, which reflect various adjustments to the balinese community’s social sebastianus menggo, i made suastra register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 338 environment. this study builds on a previous study on language contact phenomenon and language development in heterogenic locations. research method this research is a qualitative study with a phenomenological method. primary data were obtained through observation, interviews, and questionnaires. the research method included data gathering and analysis. this research is based on the philosophy of phenomenology, which brings a qualitative approach to the analysis. research location the research study was conducted in several locations where sumbawanese speakers commonly interact around denpasar and badung regency. these locations were chosen because they are migrant destinations with a relatively high rate of multicultural and multilingual interactions involving sumbawanese in the balinese community. one specific location from where most data were obtained was around a part of panjer that offers numerous employment opportunities and boarding houses for sumbawanese migrants. data sources the data in this study are both oral and written. the primary data are vocabulary items, sentences, and even spoken texts from sumbawanese speakers in the various contexts of family, friendship, education, and religion. there were 10 participants, and they were sumbawanese speakers in bali. those participants were chosen by using purposive sampling and snowball techniques. in oral interviews, they were asked about their social lives and were also requested to fill a set of questionnaires. these secondary data were classified into two categories: a) sociolinguistics survey findings and b) information on the language, culture, and traditions of the sumbawanese community in bali. detailed data from the respondents can be seen in appendix 1. research instrument several instruments were needed as the main and secondary instruments to gather the necessary data for this study. the main instrument in this language use and language attitudes …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 339 research was the human instrument, which was used for data collection to be naturally oriented to the respondents as the subject (moleong, 2010). this perspective classifies this study as ethnography research with characteristics of observation participation. to ensure the reliability and validity of the data, as well as to keep track of research progress, several data collection instruments (linguistics surveys) were also required to conduct an in-depth interview with the respondents. according to the context, these sets of questions were arranged to provide concrete, specific, and appropriate data. these questions aim to reveal evidence rather than draw conclusions (showalter, 1991). the set of questions was adapted from several sources (dhanawaty, 2002; mahsun, 2005; nursaid et al., 2000; showalter, 1991). the source of these questions was modified and altered to fit the research scope in terms of the language use, language attitude, and context of sumbawanese speakers in bali. for example, in terms of language choice in the questionnaire, instead of asking the context preference to the indonesian language, the balinese language is also added in the choice of preference. data analysis data were analyzed using the excel chart data series software program and then continued by qualitative interpretation. data from the questionnaire deployed numerical calculations of the percentage. meanwhile, the interview data were presented qualitatively as they relied on the respondents' responses. findings and discussion sumbawanese speakers’ language use and attitude sumbawanese speakers who mostly originated from bima in sumbawa have communities of speakers in several locations. one such location in denpasar is panjer, which has numerous sumbawanese speakers due to reasonably priced lodging (boarding houses) for sumbawanese migrants looking for jobs in bali. all respondents were aged between 20 and 30 years old, only three of whom were married. a common finding among the sumbawanese respondents was the indonesian language's influence on sumbawanese language maintenance, use, sebastianus menggo, i made suastra register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 340 and attitude. by higher frequency of language use of the indonesian language, sumbawanese speakers can gain a positive impact on their career and economic standing and their social status. two of the three married respondents reported that they used indonesian more often, even with their families. the general results of the respondents' questionnaires are as follows: figure 2. respondents’ sumbawanese language use in bali this figure shows the level of language competence and language use frequency based on questionnaires and observation. the sumbawanese language is mostly bima language, where even though there are several distinctive characteristics difference, bima language is the majority’s tongue in sumbawa that mostly affects sumbawanese language. this sumbawanese language is well understood, as are other languages. however, sumbawanese speakers most frequently used indonesian. besides, from age and occupation, levels in figure 2 also show how the context of language use (the multilingual community) significantly affects the frequency of language use. this concept is in line with a research study conducted by (dweik & qawar, 2015), who examined language use in a multilingual community in quebec, canada. they claimed that language use in the multilingual community is triggered by several factors, such as the frequency of language use, dominant speakers, social and economic functions, and language and culture pride. besides that, language attitudes could be negative, positive, ambivalent, or lackadaisical, depending on language use and language attitudes …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 341 social, psychological, historical, and political factors associated with the languages. there could also be a shift in users' attitudes towards languages in certain situations (ifeyinwa, 2014). cognitive factors for sumbawanese speakers cognitive factors among sumbawanese language speakers involve the proper and acceptable matter of language use by speakers of other languages. this relationship with speakers of other languages results from the balinese community's influence as the majority in bali that steadily affecting other speakers' language use through solid practices of balinese culture. moreover, the balinese themselves are mostly regarded as part of a multilingual community, which implies the importance of language variety among sumbawanese speakers. this belief is reflected in the range of languages understood by the respondents (apart from sumbawanese and bima), which include indonesian, javanese, english, and even spanish. the cognitive factor can be linked to the speaker's competence of language use in a multilingual community, particularly in intercultural interactions where a speaker is flexible and adaptable toward multiple identities (winchester, 2009). the sumbawanese level of language competence reported in the questionnaire shows that speakers' comprehension of their own language is still relatively strong, and more than 50% of the respondents view their sumbawa ethnic identity positively. however, even with the respondents’ feelings of pride and commitment to their language, more than 50% also acknowledged that the current younger generation has begun to abandon their ethnic culture. furthermore, respondents’ knowledge of sumbawanese vocabulary and semantic fields shows that they generally understand the same meaning of specific vocabulary in the same form as the indonesian language. this finding also shows how the similarity of indonesian and sumbawanese language will further affect language shift. the indonesian speakers are likely to speak more than one language due to this similarity, including the national language (bahasa indonesia) and regional languages, such as javanese, sundanese, balinese, and sumbawanese, and many more (kartika-ningsih & rose, 2018). moreover, language shift has occurred for several reasons-linguistic and cultural similarities with the majority, group as well as the majority's attitudes sebastianus menggo, i made suastra register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 342 to the minority, and/or minority language, the exogamy and endogamy scenarios. absence of other speakers of a language in the neighbourhood and workplace, length of stay in the new surroundings, education and social background of the speakers, and linguistic market place (speakers find it socioeconomically worthwhile) (søndergaard & norrby, 2006). affective aspects for sumbawanese speakers sumbawanese speakers’ judgments are reflected in their questionnaire responses, which show that in several contexts of multilingual interaction, such as hospitals, markets, and other public places, sumbawanese speakers will not hesitate to interact with other language speakers using the indonesian language. this goes to show how sumbawanese speakers have positive attitudes toward other ethnic language communities. aside from one respondent who expressed doubts about his own language values and merits to himself, nine out of 10 of sumbawanese speakers agreed that the sumbawanese language had positive values. the speakers' positive attitudes toward other community languages greatly impact language maintenance of such languages strongly and positively (dweik & al-obaidi, 2014; wamalwa & oluoch, 2013). in several other examples of interactions with speakers of other languages, such as at school, in friendly conversations, and at work, most sumbawanese speakers considered it fair to use the indonesian language. this pattern will further accelerate the decline of sumbawanese language maintenance in bali, despite it having been encouraged by strong tolerance of other indigenous languages. in the other fields of the questionnaire, nine out of 10 sumbawanese language respondents realized the value of communication among different ethnicities. they thus chose to emphasize indonesian's use to their children as indonesian can help them in their current community and their workplace (kartika-ningsih & rose, 2018). for further details, several examples of language units (below) can graphically demonstrate sumbawanese language competence levels (figure 2). these data are taken from one of the respondents, eti kumiaty (several words are typed in italics to show the language similarity). language use and language attitudes …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 343 table 2. vocabulary example indonesian language sumbawanese language english indonesian language sumbawane se language english air oi water gemuk mpore fat akar amu root gigi isit teeth anak ana child gigit ngenge bite anjing lako dog ganteng gra handsome ampun ampen forgive gempa linir earthquake angin angin wind hama hama pest api afi fire halus ales smooth atap atap roof harus pokok must ayam ayam chicken hantam boe fight bagaimana bone how hapus hapus erase baik taho good hibur hibur cheer up banyak mboto many hijau jiao green basah mbeca wet hitam me'e black batu batu stone hutan wuba forest benar pas true ibu ina mother beras loto rice ia sia yes bengkak winte swollen ikan uta fish buruk lenge bad, unwell ingin sate want burung pio bird intip milik perk cacing caceng worn iri no beri jealous cecak bertek lizard jahat jahat liar cincin cincin ring jahit nda'u sewing cium (orang) nu kiss jatuh ma'u fall cium (bau) lu ngolo smell jendela jelaja window cuci duba wash jenasah mayet corpse daging hi'i meat juga tutu too darah ro'a blood kain kere fabric dandang panci pot kera bote monkey dengki keselar envious kerbau kebo buffalo dagu sangkok chin kunci kunci key datang mai come kotor sampu dirty datar datar flat lama le long time deras rango ai, heavy lambat le ngeluet slow dinding dining wall larut ancer late dorong dunggi push napas iyak breath duduk doho sit pendek poro short ember ember bucket perut loko stomach empat upa four rumput mpori grass ekor keto tail tanah dana land elang elang eagle tanam nanam planting enam enam six tiga telu three enteng enteng easy ular sawa snake gantung kaletong hanging tebal tebe thick garam sia salt ular sawa snake example phrase: “adik ayah saya”  ari ama mada sebastianus menggo, i made suastra register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 344 example sentence: “ladangnya ditanami ubi kayu”  ladangnya nggada kai bojo sumbawanese language comprehension among its speakers can be improved as it is currently gradually weakening. this finding is confirmed through several vocabulary entries only minimally understood by the sumbawanese, such as in the nine entries for social life contexts, where only the word dusun, whose equivalence is kompo in sumbawanese, were known by the respondents. out of 29 religious vocabulary entries, only seven respondents knew their translations. out of 21 art vocabulary entries, only ten translations were known (one of which is the same as in the indonesian language). finally, out of the 25 occupational vocabulary items, only four translations were known, three in indonesian. conative factors for sumbawanese speakers conative factors for sumbawanese language speakers showed similar patterns. the ten speakers used indonesian in several contexts as their preferred means of communication to solve varied community problems. eight out of ten respondents said that they used other languages more often than sumbawanese. four out of eight respondents used indonesian daily, while the other four reported using indonesian quite often. the fact that sumbawanese was only minimally used with minimum interaction is one-factor threatening local language maintenance in a multilingual community. eight out of ten respondents (80%) admitted that they rarely interact in sumbawanese. its frequency in media, such as newspapers, radio, and television, is also low, where 90% of the other respondents admitted they had never seen or heard any sumbawanese. language maintenance is in danger when its speakers cease to use it in an increasingly reduced number of communicative domains, and cease to pass it on from one generation to the next (wamalwa & oluoch, 2013). in line with language endangerment (unesco, 2003) affirmed that a language is in danger caused by two factors: external and internal factors. external factors, including military, economic, religious, cultural, or educational subjugation and internal factor is a community's negative attitude toward its language. language use and language attitudes …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 345 the discussion is written to interpret and describe the significance of the findings in light of what was already known about the issues being investigated and explain any new understanding or insights about the problem after considering the findings. it should connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or hypotheses you posed and the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction; this section should always explain how your study has moved the reader's understanding of the research problem forward from where you left them at the end of the introduction. conclusion this study examines the sumbawanese speakers’ competence, frequency of language use, and attitudes toward sumbawanese language. first, the sumbawanese speakers have good competence toward sumbawanese language. second, sumbawanese speakers aged between 20 and 30 years old rarely use the sumbawanese language. the state of sumbawanese language use in the balinese community has gradually declined due to language attitudes affected by multilingualism in the community and the speakers' tendencies when interacting with other speakers of language speakers in various contexts. several vocabulary examples have shown how indonesian, as the national language, significantly affects language choice. the minimal frequency of sumbawanese language interaction has also contributed to this decline. third, sumbawanese speakers do not only have positive but negative sides as well. sumbawanese speakers have more positive than negative attitudes toward their own language community in bali. one of the negative sides is lacking of usage of the sumbawanese language in their daily activities. implication this article has shown that language use and language attitudes have an important role in language maintenance. a language attitude ensures the maintenance of cultural diversity. the intercultural speakers and intercultural citizens need to be actively promoted in this preservation. community social gathering, cultural celebration, and other community language programs can be sebastianus menggo, i made suastra register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 346 applied for the sumbawanese speakers to increase the frequency of the sumbawanese language use. the family has an important role in encouraging language competence and positive language attitudes to be competent intercultural speakers and good intercultural citizens. acknowledgments the researchers would like to gratefully acknowledge the rector of universitas katolik indonesia santu paulus ruteng, flores, indonesia, and prof i made suastra from universitas udayana, denpasar, indonesia for their support and grant given in finishing this research.[rgt] references baker, w. 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(2020). journal writing and diary journal writing : effects on students ’ writing proficiency and student and teacher attitudes. register journal, 13(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i1.1-48 language use and language attitudes …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 349 appendix 1. list of the respondent no name sex age place of birth origin address education level occupation period of stay in denpasar ethnic 1 irfan effendi m 28 bima samba nae village west rasanae bima regency ntb province jl. mataram no.7 kuta bali bachelor stylish and make up wedding since 2014 mbojo (bima) 2 nuryanti f 21 parangina parangina village sape bima regency ntb province jl. waturenggong gang 3 br. tegal sari panjer denpasar selatan high school student since 2014 mbojo (bima) 3 nurmaesy arah f 19 sangia sangia village sape bima regency ntb province jl. waturenggong gang 3 br. tegalsari panjer denpasar selatan high school student since 2014 mbojo (bima) 4 eti kurniaty f 20 lewirato lewirato village mpunda bima regency ntb province jl. waturenggong no.60 high school student since 2013 mbojo (bima) 5 suratman m.r m 56 bima talabiu village woha bima regency ntb province banjar sedana sertha ubung denpasar bachelor night bus agent since 2001 mbojo (bima) 6 moh.ahya r septiawan m 20 dompu dompu village dompu regency ntb province jln. padma werkudara legian high school photography since 2015 mbojo (bima) 7 buchari muslim m 43 rato rato sila village bolo bima regency ntb province perum wahyu graha buduk mengwi bali bachelor enterpreneur since 2007 mbojo (bima) 8 indah afrianti f 25 bima bajo village soromandi bima regency ntb province jl. waturenggong gang 3 br. tegalsari panjer denpasar selatan bachelor student since 2015 mbojo (bima) 9 sri rahayu f 20 sape wodi/parang ina village sape bima regency ntb province jl. waturenggong gang 3 br. tegalsari panjer denpasar selatan high school sales pt. unilever since 2016 mbojo (bima) 10 suratman s.h m 40 belu tente village woha bima regency ntb province gedahulu xx1/8 br. prajasari peguyungan denpasar utara bachelor police since 1999 mbojo (bima) sebastianus menggo, i made suastra register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 350 this page intentionally left blank. rethinking language education in indonesia register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 57 the existence of learnersin language learning ruwandi english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 2 salatiga, central java, indonesia abstract caring of students in teaching-learning process should be one of the most important attentions of teachers. they should be the central body by which the measurement of success or failure is underpinned. teachers will be considered successful when their students get scores above the passing grade. however, they must fail when the students get unsatisfactory achievements. even though students’ success is the end of the aim of teaching-learning process but their involvement is not taken into account accordingly. to achieve such a goal, their internal potentials should be revitalized. the inner potentials include attitude, motivation, aptitude, and intelligence. the successful study can be achieved when the four internal potential are well managed. for that reason, teachers’ attention should be addressed to intensify the potentials to get the significant yield. keywords:care of, internal potentials, attitude, motivation, aptitude,intelligence abstrak kepedulian terhadap siswa dalam proses belajar-mengajar harus menjadi salah satu hal yang perlu diperhatikan oleh guru. mereka harus menjadi pusat dimana pengukuran keberhasilan atau kegagalan dikaji. guru akan dianggap berhasil bila siswanya mendapatkan nilai di atas batas rata-rata. namun, mereka dianggap gagal ketika siswa mendapatkan prestasi yang tidak memuaskan. meskipun keberhasilan siswa adalah akhir dari tujuan proses belajar-mengajar, tapi keterlibatan mereka tidak diperhitungkan secara layak. untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, potensi internal mereka harus direvitalisasi. potensi internal meliputi sikap, motivasi, bakat, dan kecerdasan. studi yang berhasil dapat tercapai ketika keempat potensi internal tersebut dikelola dengan baik. oleh karena itu, perhatian guru harus ditujukan untuk mengintensifkan potensi tersebut guna mendapatkan hasil yang signifikan. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 58 kata kunci: perhatian, potensi internal, sikap, motivasi, bakat, kecerdasan introduction within education world, students are included into raw input. that raw input should be cultivated and nurtured simultaneously to be ripe-input that is outstandingly called out-put. the cultivation of the input is formally conducted in teaching learning processes in classroom, although it may be outside, sometime. the quality of the output is certainly dependent upon the quality of the cultivation. thus, the raw-input will be best out-put if the students are cultivated well in the processes. therefore, since students are the raw input, they belong to one of the important determinants to achieve the successful teaching-learning processes. the existence of students in language classroom is influential. they are determinants that should be taken into account for the better achievement of teaching learning processes programmed. to so doing, they should be involved in a few designs of teaching learning processes in order that the processes can be accomplished effectively. they, for instance, can be involved to communicate the objectives they are going to achieve. teachers may also invite them to create conducive situation for language learning, to make simple teaching aids, and to improve the quality of teaching. in addition, the teachers may communicate the methods used so they become well prepared since they go out of home teaching. students should be invited in accelerating teaching-learning processes because they are living beings. they are not only still objects that should receive knowledge given by their teachers. besides, they should not only register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 59 become information receiver but the information giver. the cooperation between teachers and students in one hand and among students on the other hand may make the warmer-academic interaction among the determinants in the class. such a kind of consideration to students creates the humanistic situation in those processes. thus, students become real living subjects who know something and not merely still objects knowing nothing. this is the fact that they have had invaluable experiences that can be used to intensify the quality of the processes. since students are one of the determinants that influence the successful teaching-learning processes, they can also be invaluable capital to achieve their own success. thus, the quality of the processes can be influenced by the students so as the quality of the output. not so many students, however, realize that they have intentional position to consider their own success in their study. most of them just turn the quality of teachinglearning processes as well as the quality of the out-put into their teachers. the teachers are likely the only determinants who are able to create and manipulate everything. they look like the only goalkeepers. when their students are successful, all will admire them. vice versa, if the students fail to get the satisfactory goal, the teachers should look being the only persons who should commit to the result of the processes. supervisors will immediately investigate them about whether or not they are well prepared in considering teaching instruments to achieve the goals. in addition, parents usually complain about the qualifications of the teachers when their children not succeed to pass examination. sarcastically, sometimes, the stakeholders accuse them incapable of teaching. realizing that the students are one of the determinants invaluable in considering their success, teachers should try making them aware of their having inner potentials. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 60 there are several internal potentials coming from students that should be made use. among the potentials are for instance attitude, motivation, aptitude, and intelligence. the teaching-learning processes, in fact, will be ideal if the students have positive attitude to the subject studied, are well motivated, have positive assumption to their aptitude as well as their intelligence. if the processes are well conducted, this is unimaginable when they will obtain satisfactorily results of a program or study. ramelan (1984) says the result of teaching may also be caused by the students because they have strong motivation to learn language. they may also have high iq and language aptitude. quoting lambert’s research results, he affirms that students’ motivation plays the most vital role in the teachinglearning processes. for that reasons, it is necessary to best regard such previous students’ potentials. they should be aware that they have individual-innate potentials having to be made use. as ramelan’s and lambert’s points of view, their potentials must be used to improve the result of their learning qualities. this is teachers’ responsibility to communicate those potentials. teachers are necessary to talk about students’ potentials from the very beginning. this should be the essential starting point to create interactive teaching-learning processes. they are responsible for reminding the students concerning their inner potentials because their awareness is very contributive to achieve successful learning processes. they should make them believe in the pre and post teaching-learning activities. this is also possible to invite them to be adult learners in informal interactions. in short, many ways can be used by teachers to involve students in all academic activities. if the students have been involved to consider their success, the writer more believes that their learning result also will be better then. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 61 in the following chapters, the writer is going to discuss such kinds of influential potentials that come from students in a brief. discussion attitude recently i taught english to common-adult students in an undergraduate program of non-english department in state institute for islamic studies (stain) of salatiga. the students have not studied english since they graduated from diploma years ago. even, some of them have not learnt the language for several years. they studied english at the time because they should join the subject. they had no privilege target except achieving the least expectation namely to get the least or the minimal score of passing grade. this was the only expectation they were going to achieve, nothing else. these students should take a seat in my class because the indonesian curriculum demands them to do. english is one of the compulsory subjects having to be taken in their study at the department. in other words, they studied english since they were forced to study; unless they had better take the other subject. from a little interview i conducted in my class, i knew that the adult students were forced to study english. at the first meeting, i proposed several questions to the students. when i asked them why they studied english; most of them argued that they did so because they should do. if english could be substituted by the other subject; or if there were still alternatives, they would be better to replace english with the subject. however, since there were no alternatives, liked or disliked they should adjust with the curriculum requirement. unfortunately, if they refused to take the subject into account, automatically they could not join the class as well as finish their study. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 62 precisely, my adult students believed that english was very complicated to study. their negative attitudetowards english did not come into being in a short period. even this had established from the very beginning when they studied english at the first-secondary school. the impression has accumulated and strongly established within their innermost mind so far. unfortunately, that negative attitude to it became more and more psychologically powerful when they got terrible experiences when they studied english. brutal punishments given by teachers when they made mistakes, for instance, were very traumatic. the side effect of the punishments usually made negative mind-set and was not easy to change. finally, they keep having negative impressions or attitudes in the following english course. this attitude is very hard to change because it has been a conviction they believe a lot. i did not still stand when i knew that my adult students have had a negative attitude to english. i tried very hard to convince them that english is easy. english is the same as the other languages as indonesia, arabic, russia, and the like. all of them can be studied so can english. you, students, should study english because this is the only international language that is widely used around the world. two-third of the world population use it as a means of communication in any fields. you should realize that the use of it will be more and more significant when indonesia has joined the world-free market. however, this is not an easy job to change my students’ belief. it is not an overnight business. therefore, even though i have tried to change their perception to english, they keep standing still. they keep having negative attitude to the language. negative attitudes to english bring about negative affects to the study of it. some of the facts i found in my class were for instance: students were not well motivated to study the language. they were also not serious to register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 63 overcome problems concerning the english study. they were likely sitting at the class, but their thoughts were moving around outside the classroom. therefore, they did not concentrate to accept the explanations from their lecturer. and the most fatal effect of such a kind of attitudes is their mind-set by which they must pass through though they have no absolute efforts and only get the least passing grade. it seems that there has a certain warranty that they must pass through because their lecturer should do so. brown (1980) says that attitudes affect human beings. they develop early in childhood caused by parents’ and peers’ attitudes, contact with people who are ‘’different’’ in any number of ways, and interacting affective factors in the human experience. the attitudes form a part of one’s perception of self, of others, and of the culture in which one is living. in fact the research of personal attitude to language learning is not something new. several researchers have conducted researches concerning the attitude. most of the research results show that positive attitude to language will elicit positive impression to the study of it. conversely, negative attitude to a certain language will bring about negative transfer to the study of it. finally, they come into conclusion that personal attitude has significant relation to the successful study of language. brown (1980) says that in 1972, gardner and lambert conducted a research concerning language study in canada. they examined the effect of attitudes on language learning. after studying the interrelationship of a number of different types of attitudes, they defined motivation as a construct made up of certain attitudes. the most important of these is group-specific, the attitude the learner has toward the members of the cultural group whose language he is learning. at the final of their research they concluded that students who have a positive attitudes to french-canadians and who have desire to understand them and to empathize with them will have high register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 64 integrative motivation to learn french. that attitude is a factor of the learner’s attitudes toward his own native culture, his degree of ethnocentrism, and the extent to which he prefers his own language over the one language he is learning as a second language. brown (1980) also exemplifies the research result from john oller and his colleagues. they conducted several large-scale researches of the relationship between attitudes and language success. they looked at the relationship of chinese, japanese, and mexican students’ achievement in english to their attitudes toward self, the native language group, the target language group, their reasons for learning english, and their reasons for traveling to united states. the researchers were able to identify a few meaningful clusters of attitudinal variables that dealt positively with attained proficiency. each of the three researches yielded slightly differing conclusions, but for the most part, positive attitudes toward self, the native language group, the target language group enhanced proficiency. brown (1980) affirms that the second language learner benefits from positive attitudes and negative attitudes may lead to decreased motivation and in all likelihood unsuccessful attainment of proficiency. yet teacher needs to realize that everyone has both positive and negative attitudes. the negative attitudes can be changed, often by exposure to reality, by encounters with actual persons from other cultures. negative attitudes usually emerge either from false stereotyping of from undue ethnocentrism. teachers can assist in dispelling what one often myths about other cultures, and substitute those myths with a realistic understanding of the other culture as one that is different from one’s own, yet to be respected and valued. since attitudes deal with the successful study of language, english teachers have a big job to change students’ negative attitudes to the language. in these terms, they should convince the students that english is not an register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 65 exterminate subject. studying english is the same as the study of other languages. without positive attitudes, this is impossible to succeed in the study of the language. motivation motivation plays an important role in the study of a foreign language. it belongs to one of the factors that not only considers student success in the study but is also considered by his/her success in comprehending the existence of it. some students are aware it is important and is very crucial to be revitalized. however, they could not manifest the importance of it in their study. it is likely humankind having soul but does not realize that they have the soul. they do not know where they should stand with the motivation. for the reason, even though this is often discussed but the students are still confused to comprehend and utilize that motivation. motivation is an innate state of emotion; therefore, everybody has this capacity. because of this innateness, this is ineffectively managed. as previously explained, sometimes a language learner does not realize that it is a very big impulse being useful to promote his/her zest. he/she studies as if he/she does not have it. this is the time to more understand the reality and the use of the motivation. the writer believes that the awareness of its reality may make studying more effective. several studies show motivation is one of the determinants of success or failure. brown (1980), for instance, affirms it is the everything terms the most often used to explain one’s success or failure in finishing absolutely any difficult duties. this is easy to say he/she succeeds in his/her duties due simply to the fact that he/she is well motivated. thus we can say a foreign language learner will be successful if he/she is motivated. conversely, the foreign language learner will fail because of his/her imperfect motivation. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 66 this is supported by any studies and experiments showing that motivation is a key to learning. brown (980) says motivation is an internal drive, impulse, emotion, or desire that moves one to a meticulous action. more exclusively, humankinds commonly posses needs or drives that are more or less innate, however their power is environmentally stipulated. ausubel cited by brown (1980) identifies six necessities of humankinds that belong to the divisions of motivations, for instance: the necessity for exploration as investigating the deep structure of words, observing the other side of mountain for looking for the unknown; the necessity for manipulation as using environment to cause change; the necessity for activity as moving and exercising physically or mentally; the necessity for stimulation because humans need to be encouraged by their environment, others, ideas, thoughts, and feelings; the necessity for knowledge as processing and internalizing the result of exploration, manipulation, activity, and stimulation to overcome contradictions, to search the solutions of problems and for self-consistent systems of knowledge; and the necessity for ego enhancement since one needs to be known, accepted, and approved by the other. joyce, bruce joyce at. al. (1980) say among the most widely discussed topics in second language learning is the role of motivation in the successful acquisition of the target language. wilga m. rivers (1983) reminds us concerning the importance of motivation especially for the second or the foreign language learner from the very beginning. we should remember that motivation is a private realm of the learner. as educators we need to attempt to manipulate it for our students not for us, though we see that it is the consumer’s necessity. our role is to understand it. then we should try to meet the necessities and wants of our students well by promoting their motivation in directions that are satisfying register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 67 them. it is absolutely true that our students may not always realize consciously of what they need and may have only blurred glimmerings what they want. thus we can help them to explain these two, so that their innate motivation – that energizing force each living entity processes – may bring them ahead to wonderful and satisfying learning under our attention and nurture. he uses the terms ‘nurture’ not direction because what we look for to stimulate is self-directed learning that results from self-realizing motivation. actually motivation is not as simple as what people think and feel. this is a very complex state of human mentality. consequently, we need to understand it mentally rather than physically. eysenck at.al. cited by slameto (1987) says that motivation is a process considering activity, intensity, consistency, and the general direction of human behavior. it is a sophisticated concept dealing with the other concepts as aptitude, self-conception, attitude, and the like. sometimes students look unmotivated in the point of views of teachers but actually, they are well motivated. in one hand the students may well be motivated but there are also many outside efforts, for instance from friends, that trigger them for being unmotivated. thus, motivation is not simple, but as complicated as the humans themselves are. lado (1983) explains human motivation is infinitely more complicated than animal motivation. he exemplifies perhaps, a wealthy person having all his obvious needs completely satisfied may by an act of his will choose to leave of all his comforts and wealth and go to some isolated and primitive community to work for his fellow men under unbelievable hardships. in the process of socializations he may learn a strange language in short term when earlier in school he performed poorly in foreign languages. language learning is dealt with human motivation moderated and partly controlled by the will. high motivation increases learning. for example, when dull practice is shown to contribute to language learning register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 68 which in turn contributes to the fulfillment of some future spiritual goal, the learners wills to continue the dull practice and wills to learn instead of yielding to the superficially more pleasurable activity of sleeping or watching a movie. motivation is an innate energy. it is an abstract state of mental activities. sometimes this is very difficult to understand though by the owners themselves. it is very important for a foreign language learner, because it may consider the success or the failure of the foreign language learning. because motivation is sometimes so difficult to understand by the owners, language teachers are responsible to help their students to comprehend its existence in the human selves, thus they may intensify the use of it in their studying. aptitude everybody has an innate ability to master languages. however, one has different aptitude in the process and the progress of that language mastery. the fact says that everyone speed in catching up language is individually isolated and various. some pupils master language very fast but others learn language in a normal speed. the other pupils, in fact, learn language very slowly. the latter, accordingly, needs the longer opportunity compared with those having the normal and faster speeds in language learning. although students study at the same class in a group of learners but they will show different behavior in acquisition of the language. tony wright (1988) affirms that the social atmosphere of the classroom depends to a great extent on the strength of each individual’s participation. as a counterpoint to our discussion of the role of the learner in the context of group activity let us now observe it from the point of view of the individual learner. in spite of the tendency towards establishing group register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 69 norms of behavior in the classroom, every learner remains an individual; no learning group is ever totally homogenous except in cases of shared culture or roughly compatible age ranges. even within such a group there is likely to be a series of differences among the individual learners. the following is a scheme for studying the behavior of individual learners based on actual observation of classroom interaction rather than psychological theory. figure 1 teacher (b) oracular (a) enthusiast individual student group (d) rebel (c) participator student group (after mcleish, quoted by wright, 1988) four main types of learner are distinguished in this analysis. bearing in mind that individual could be placed anywhere on this diagram and thus can differ according to the degree of the tendency towards being of any one type; the types are as follows: 1. the enthusiast – this type tends towards the teacher as a point of reference but at the same time is concerned with the goals of the learning group. 2. the oracular – again, this centers on the teacher but this time is much more oriented towards the satisfaction of personal goals. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 70 3. the participator focuses attention both on group goals and on group solidarity. 4. the rebel leans towards the learning group for his or her point of reference but is mainly concerned with the satisfaction of his own goals. in the process of language learning, not all pupils realize that they have different aptitude in the learning process. most of the pupils assume that everybody has equal aptitude in the learning. the assumption becomes more sophisticated when their teachers also have the same assumption to the students’ aptitude. as a result, they will give the same treatment to all students in the class; never mind whether their students are fast or slow learners. finally, both the students and the teachers agree to vote that ones have excellent aptitude to those who learn very fast and others are stupid or inaptitude to those who are very slow in language learning. usually, the terms aptitude and inaptitude elicit significant effects to language learners. students who feel aptitude will be well motivated to learn. but on the contrary, those who feel inaptitude will be less motivated and even become frustrated to study. they will be reluctant to study hard by reasoning that even though they have tried many they will get the same results. this is since they are inaptitude. actually, the slow learner students must have different strategy to study language from those who learn fast. they should be aware that they are different from the fast learners. they may spend the longer times to comprehend language materials; thus they need the longer times too to study. consequently, they must be more patient than those who fast learn. however, this is very difficult to come into being. the slow learners like to spend the same time as the fast learners. they not stay at school when they finish studying early. they are reluctant to join discussion to sharp their knowledge. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 71 they never go to library and more like to gossip or just chat with friends, though they have opportunity to do. this is the fact that those who are active in discussion are the fast learners not the slow ones. then, when they fail in the study they just say that they are inaptitude to study language. the saying can be true because they are impatient to study not because they are inaptitude. since aptitude concerns with language learning processes, language teachers need to invite students to make a lot efforts. they should do a lot because the aptitude can be manipulated. report in researches say that inaptitude students are able to master language well because they have unmatched patient. they always study hard and consult with their teachers when they find difficulties. they absolutely pro-active to confirm to all who are able to solve their problems. finally, they enjoy their efforts in a fairly short time. and they become skillful in using language as the skills of the fast learners. to understand whether students have good aptitude or not, teachers may conduct an aptitude test. aptitude test is administered to measure students’ aptitude for learning. in language study, it can be used to predict what kind of performance expected to be mastered by students. david p. harris (1969) suggests that at the time of speaking, the examinees may have little or no knowledge of the language to be studied, and the test is employed to assess their potential. thus it can be administered for those or common people who know nothing. in addition, when they have been joining language classes, it is useful to determine the following level of difficulties, materials, and students’ grades. harmer (2001) says some students are better at learning languages than others. at least that is the generally held view, and in the 1950s and 1960s it crystallized around the belief that it was possible to predict a register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 72 student’s future progress on the basis of linguistic aptitude test. nevertheless, it immediately became apparent that such tests were inconsistent in a number of ways. they did not appear to assess anything than general intellectual capability even though they apparently looked for linguistic talents. further, they favored analytic type learners over their more ‘holistic’ counterparts, so that the tests were especially suited for people who have little trouble doing grammar-focused tasks. those with a more ‘general’ view of things – whose analytical capabilities are not so highly developed, and who receive and use language in a more message-oriented way – appeared to be at a disadvantage. in fact, analytic aptitude is probably not the critical factor in success. quoting peter skehan he says that what distinguishes exceptional students from the rest is that they have unusual memories, particularly for the retention of things that they hear. harmer (2001) says that another damning criticism of traditional aptitude tests is that while they may distinguish between the most and the least ‘intelligent’ students they are less effective at distinguishing between the majorities of students who fall between these two extremes. what they do carry out is to influence the way in which both teachers and students behave. it has been suggested that students who score badly on aptitude tests will become de-motivated and that this will then contribute to precisely the failure that the test predicted. in addition, teachers who know that particular students have achieved high scores will be tempted to treat those students differently from students whose score was low. aptitude tests end up being selffulfilling prophecies whereas it would be much better for both teacher and students to be optimistic about all of the people in the class. although there is still a debate concerning the importance or the effectiveness of aptitude test but students’ aptitude closely deals with the speed of language mastery. the worry is about the result of the aptitude test register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 73 to the mastery; whether or not students who get low scores in aptitude test must fail and those who get high score must be successful. there is also assumption that the students getting low scores will be de-motivated in language learning. if so, the solution is how to deconstruct students’ demotivation to motivation to improve the students’ aptitude to language learning. therefore, there must be a clear cut between the aptitude test and students’ aptitude. aptitude test is not the solution to the betterment of the students’ aptitude to the learning. this is only one of the ways to predict the students’ aptitude in the learning. therefore, the importance is the management of the aptitude in the classroom learning. aptitude is different from intelligence. lado (1983) states there is a verbal aptitude distinct from general intelligence. individuals are different in their ability to learn a second language. some individuals learn more by memorizing related sentences, others by analogy, still others by rules and systems. individual differences in quantity of learning and quality of achievement are surprisingly enormous. some individuals, for example, may learn three times as much as some of their classmates in eight weeks of exhaustive study of a second language. in view of these differences, students should not be forced to pursue exactly the same steps in the class or in planned learning. from the reviews above, it is clear that there are absolutely no aptitude and inaptitude students. all students must be aware that this is their business to be successful in the language learning. however, those who feel slow in learning, in fact, should revitalize their ability to pursue their success by studying a lot. this way may produce optimistic students to achieve the better result in language learning. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 74 intelligence the relation between language study and intelligence is similar with that of language, brain, language acquisition, and language development. the relation of them in brain is conceptual but the products of the relation are very concrete. take for instance; humans are able to produce language utterances after their brain is stimulated by verbal behaviors from outside. formerly, they only receive the stimuli from others before having abilities to produce the utterances. then, the recipient tries to retain the stimuli in the deepest brain possessed by all humans that will be recalled sometime when they have been able to produce the language utterances starting from the meaningless to the meaningful ones. amazingly, at the certain age – approximately six years, the young humans have become matured in the language productions. they are able to use the language by recalling the language stocks in their brain through oral or written symbols. this is absolutely the work of brain sent to the humans’ organs of speech. thus, before they produce the language symbols, they receive the language stimuli or verbal behaviors. the stimuli are processed in the brain, and by the instruction of it, the organs of speech produce the language symbols. at the course of the time, the process of receiving, processing, producing, and developing of language symbols becomes polarized and complicated. for the reason, there are two working processes done by the brain namely acquisition and production. at the former activity, the brain receives and processes the language stimuli and at the later stage, it produces and develops into the most sophisticated language use. this is the fact that the work of brain shares to all stages namely from the receiving through processing and from the production through development. in addition, the work is also important for the all stages. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 75 humans will have a great stock of languages when their brains are able to receive the stimuli well. similarly, the stimuli can be retained longer and stronger when they are able to process those stimuli right. besides, the language products and the development of them may change significantly when the brains work soundly too. the stage of the processes begins from the simplest through the complicated in accordance with the development of humans’ brain. humans are only able to receive when the quality and capacity of their brains are still simple. however, they are very skillful to produce unimaginable language utterances when their brain capacity and quality develop. there are several intelligences in our brain. howard gardner quoted by harmer (2001) says that humans have a range of intelligences. they do not only have a single intelligence, in fact. according to him, there are seven types of intelligences namely musical/rhythmic, verbal/linguistic, visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, logical/mathematical, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. all people posses all of these intelligences, but in each person, one or more of them is more pronounced. the types of the pronouncing intelligences the humans’ posses will determine the typical occupation. people who have strength in logical and mathematical intelligence will tend to be scientists. they having strength in visual/spatial intelligence might well be that of navigators. the athletes might be the typical end state of people who are strong in bodily/kinesthetic intelligence. those who have verbal/linguistic intelligence will be skillful in the use of language and so on. besides, he adds another intelligence namely naturalistic intelligence to account for the ability to recognize and classify patterns in nature. then, goleman adds the ninth ‘emotional intelligence that includes the ability to empathize, control, impulse, and self-motivate. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 76 neuro-linguistic programming practitioners use different terms concerning the ways in which humans experience the world. they consist of visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, and gustatory or ‘vacog’. revell and norman quoted by harmer (2001) say all people have these systems in experiencing the world, even though; they only have one ‘preferred primary system’. when people tend to have more pronounced auditory system, they will be easy to be stimulated by music. others, who have visual as their primary preferred system, respond most powerfully to images. based on the formulation vacog concept, this is clear that students will respond differently to stimuli and environment. dede teeler quoted by harmer (2001) says that kinesthetic students will behave differently when introduced to the internet as language learning equipment from the dominant visual learners. the latter will need demonstration of what to be done before they dive into internet tasks, unlike their kinesthetic friends who just get on and do it. harmer (2001) says that vacog also shows some students will get most the things they hear whereas others need to see them. this recommends that purely oral presentations of language will be most appropriate for some individuals in a group. while visual material and written text may be more effective for other students. although the two suggestions use different terms concerning language and intelligence but both of which show that there is a much-closed relation between language learning and the intelligence? in addition, they agree that all human beings have such a kind of intelligences. the former emphasizes that everyone has different speed in language learning because the one has a different pronounced intelligence. this is the fact the speed of language mastery is very influenced by the intelligence. thus, people who have the more pronounced verbal/linguistic intelligence will be faster in register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 77 acquiring language than the others. the latter, however, more emphasizes the learning styles characterizing the students. some of the bodies may be visual learners while others are auditory. this also suggests that teachers should give different treatments and use different teaching apparatuses in the language learning. in conclusion, the same learning task and the same teaching equipment may not be appropriate for all of our students. conclusion at the preceding chapters, the writer has received several students’ internal potentials influential in teaching-learning processes. the potentials determine the success or the failure of study. if the potentials are well organized within the learner-selves, it is unimaginable that the students will get an amazing success. the students’ potentials identified in this paper are not the ends themselves. academicians may have different corners to view the potentials. in addition, they vary to see them but the insight is useful to extend the paradigm of students’ contribution to successful study. the writer believes that the four components above namely aptitude, motivation, attitude, and intelligence are the major terms used to exploit students’ potentials. references brown, douglas, h. 1980. principles of language learning and teaching.new jersey: prentice-hall international. inc., englewood cliffs. harmer, jeremy. 2001. the practice of english language teaching. longman: england. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 78 harris, david p. 1969. testing english as a second language. mcgraw-hill book company: new york. joyce, bruce and weil, marsha. 1980. models of teaching.new jersey: prentice-hall international, inc. englewood cliffs. lado, robert.1983. language teaching: a scientific approach.bombaynew delhi: mcgraw-hill publishing co. ltd. ramelan, 1984. introduction to linguistics for students of english in indonesia.semarang: ikip semarang press. rivers, wilga m. 1983. communicating naturally in a second language: theory and practice in language teaching.cambridge: cambridge university press. slameto, 1987. belajar dan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhinya. jakarta: bina aksara. wright, tony, 1988. roles of teachers and learners.oxford: oxford university press. 211 the differencesbetween thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs due to progressive assimilation sofa zakiyatul muna english department of educational faculty institut agama islam negeri (iain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no.02 salatiga, central java, indonesia shovazakia84@gmail.com abstract pronunciation is an important aspect in learning english and it is varied in different area. there are several types of dialect differences in speaking english and geographical dialect is one of them. in pronouncing plural verbs and third singular present verbs in english, the differences are happened. this research investigates the differences between thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs with s/es ending. the aim of this research are to find out the differences and similarities between thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs and the factors that influence it. the design of this research is case study by investigating thai and indonesian undergraduates of iain salatiga in several period of time. data is collected through documentation and interview. documentation is conducted by recording respondents’ pronunciation. the recording is analyzed and combined with interview report to answer research problems. from the analysis, it is found that the differences and similarities of thai and indonesian undergraduates are substitution and omission of s/es suffix pronunciation. it is influenced by the geographic dialects and the existence of consonants in native language. the differences between thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs due to progressive assimilation 212 keywords : plural noun and third singular present verbs, progressive assimilation, case study. abstrak pronunciation merupakan suatu aspek penting dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris yang bervariasi di berbagai daerah. ada beberapa tipe perbedaan dialek dalam berbicara bahasa inggris, salah satunya adalah dialek geografis. perbedaan dalam pelafalan bahasa inggris diantaranya terjadi dalam pelafalan plural nouns(kata benda jamak) dan third singular present verbs (kata kerja bentuk present orang ketiga tunggal) dalam bahasa inggris. riset ini bertujuan untuk meneliti perbedaan dan persamaan antara mahasiswa thailand dan indonesia dalam melafalkan plural nouns dan third singular present verbs serta fakfor-faktor yang mempengaruhinya. penelitian ini merupakan studi kasus dengan meneliti mahasiswa thailand dan indonesia di iain salatiga dalam jangka beberapa waktu. data dikumpulkan melalui dokumentasi dan wawancara. dokumentasi dilakukan dengan cara merekam pronunciation para responden. hasil rekaman dianalisis dan dipadukan dengan hasil interview untuk menjawab rumusan masalah. dari hasil analisis, ditemukan bahwa perbedaan dan persamaan mahasiswa thailand dan indonesia dalam pelafalan kata benda jamak dan kata kerja present orang ketiga tunggal dengan akhiran s/es penggantian dan penghilangan pelafalan akhiran s/es. hal ini dipengaruhi oleh dialek geografis dan keberadaan konsonan dalam bahasa asli. kata kunci: kata benda jamak, kata kerja present orang ketiga tunggal, asimilasi progresif, studi kasus. introduction pronunciation is an important aspect in learning english. we have to be able to speak it properly as native speak it. in english, there are two studies of linguistics which deal with sound, namely phonetics and phonology (mcmahon, 2002:1). although pronunciation is an important matter, it cannot be expected to be homogenous and it is natural that it varies in time and places. it does not matter as long as the language understandable. because people have different mother tongue which automatically set their speech organ to produce the sound, it can be sofa zakiyatul muna 213 understood that they find difficulties in pronouncing foreign language, in this case english. other factors that influence the differences of pronunciation are geographic, social, historical factors and individual peculiarities. people often pronounce plural nouns and third singular verbs in daily conversation. in english grammar, the general rules of plural noun and third singular verbs should be added by s/es (frank, 1972:3). beside grammar, english learners have to consider phonetic rule of s/es pronunciation. according to hamann and schmitz, the general rule of the pronunciation is it can be pronounced with three forms, those are /s/, /z/ and /ɪz/ (2005:52). sometimes students and undergraduates get difficulties in pronouncing words ended with s/es such in plural form and present verb correctly. the common mistakes are substituting the “s” sound where the “z” should be, some words that should be spelled with an “s” sound but pronounced with “z” sound. they also do not spell the /iz/ sound properly. pronunciation problem is also faced by the students in iain salatiga. they do not pay attention to the pronunciation of –s or –es ending. they ignore the phonological rule of these suffixes in different words. they only apply the same rule for every word ended with –s or –es, adding the sound “s” in the end of the word without knowing the phonological rules. they do not recognize when they have to use “z” sound or “iz” sound. this problem is not only faced by indonesian undergraduates, but also thai undergraduates since in 2014 there are several thai undergraduates in iain salatiga. the writer is interested to conduct a research based on this phenomena so in can help the undergraduates to pronounce the words properly by understanding the the differences between thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs due to progressive assimilation 214 pronunciation rule. progressive assimilation in english phonetics and phonology, we can find many connected speech phenomena and it is usually described in terms of some kind of process or change. one of these phenomena is assimilation. ramelan (2004:172) defines assimilation as the process in which one phoneme is replaced by another phoneme as the result of combining one morpheme with another. meanwhile, in the glossary of phonetic term by lodge (2009:226), assimilation is a term that refers to cases where there are alternative pronunciations of the same lexical item and where a phonetic feature is shared by a number of contiguous syllable places, for example, place of articulation, nasality. there will be various sound of a lexical item because it is influenced by its surrounding sound of the lexical item. according to roach (2000: 124), there are two kinds of assimilation, regressive and progressive assimilation. progressive assimilation is the alteration that occurs when the phoneme is affected by one that comes earlier in the utterance. one example of progressive assimilation is the assimilation of voice with the suffixes /s/ and /z/ when the verb carries third person singular –s suffix, or a noun carries an –s plural suffix or an –s possessive suffix, that suffix will be pronounced as s if the preceding consonant is voiceless and z if the preceding consonant is voiced. lorenz (2009:17) calls this kind of assimilation with grammaticalized assimilation. sofa zakiyatul muna 215 indonesia, pattani malay and english phonetics and phonology indonesian phonetics and phonology vowels :([i], [і], [e], [ɛ], [a], [ə], [ↄ], [o], [u], [u] (marsono, 1999: 36) diphthongs :[aі], [oi], [au] (marsono, 1999: 51) consonants :b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z (marsono, 1999:101). pattani malays phonetics and phonology vowels : they are 8 single non-nasalized vowels /i, e, ɛ, ɨ, a, u, o, ↄ/ and 4 simple nasalized vowels / έ, ã, ũ, ↄ/. diphthongs : /ai, ae, aέ, ao, au/ consonants : /p, b, t, d, c, ɉ, k, g, ?, s, ˠ, h, m, n, ɲ,ŋ, r, l, w, y, z/ (yupho, 1989: 126-127). english phonetics and phonology vowels : ɪ, i, e, ӕ, ɒ, ʊ, u, ʌ, ə, i:, з:, ɑ:, ↄ:, u: (roach, 2000: 14-18) diphthongs : іə, eə, ʊə, eі, aі, ↄі, eʊ, aʊ (roach, 2000:20). consonants : p b, t d,k g,f ,v,θ ð,s,z,ʃ,ʒ,h, tʃ, dʒ, m, n ɳ, l, w, r , j (roach (2000:52). phonetic rule of pronouncing s/es suffix if the end of the words is voiceless sound (p, t, k, f, θ, h) it should be pronounced /s/. if the end of the words is voiced (p,t,k,f, b,d,g, v,ð,z, ʒ, l, r, j, w, m, n, ɳ,) sound, it should be pronounced /z/. the last rule is if it the differences between thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs due to progressive assimilation 216 is ended with /s, ʃ, tʃ, dʒ/ sounds, it should be pronounced /ɪz/. research method this research used qualitative approach and the type is case study. according to mackey and gass (2005:171) defines case study as kind of research that aim to provide a holistic description of language learningor use within a specific population and setting. the data of the research is the pronunciation of s/es suffix in plural nouns and third singular present verbs by 4 thailand and 4 indonesian undergraduates of third semester students iain salatiga 2015/2016. it was collected through interview and recording from june up to august. 4 indonesian undergraduates are coded with symbol a, b, c, and d; and thai undergraduates are coded with p, q, r, s. all of respondents are interviewed based on some questions prepared by the writer and they are asked to read the list of words which consist of 30 plural nouns, 30 present verbs and a paragraph with s/es suffix in the end of the words. after collecting data, the writer analyze and compare the differences and similarities of thai and indonesian undergraduates of iain salatiga in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs due to progressive assimilation. the writer also investigates the factors that influence the differences and similarities between two groups. discussion interview of thai undergraduates according to thai undergraduates, they learn english since they was in kindergarten class. english in thailand is the foreign language. they have learned about pronunciation before but only the basic materials such as vocal, consonant both voiced and voiceless, and sofa zakiyatul muna 217 diphthongs. as interviewed, they do not know about the phonetic rule of s/es ending. they learn the pronunciation of s/es ending by hearing some dialogs from any sources such as internet or native speaker which they called ‘learning by ear’. learning english in indonesia make them face some difficulties because they have not known about indonesian language (bahasa) completely. when they did not know about the meaning of a certain word, they will not get a clear definition of the word through an explanation using bahasa. although there are some similarities of pattani malay and indonesian language, but it is absolutely different. because of its differences, it will influence the pronunciation include s/es ending. indonesian undergraduates according to indonesian undergraduates, most of them learn english since they was in primary school. they do not know about the pronunciation rule of s/es ending, especially in plural noun and third singular verbs, because they never learn it before. in the previous schools, the teacher does not explain about the pronunciation/phonetic rule of s/es ending. the teacher only focuses on the grammatical rule of s/es ending and pronunciation is not considered as an important aspect. according to them, native language will influence the pronunciation of target language, in this case english. native language will cause different accent, so they assumed that thai and indonesian undergraduates will have different accent in speaking english. the differences between thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs due to progressive assimilation 218 recording indonesian phonetic classification no words dictionary transcripti on subject description 1 begins /bɪ’ɡɪnz/ abc d substitution of /z/ sound to be /s/ sound 2 brushes /brʌʃɪz/ b substitution of /ɪz/ sound with /əs/ sound 3 buys /baɪz/ abcd substitution of /z sound to be /s/ 4 catches /kӕtʃɪz/ abc substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 5 cries /kraɪz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 6 dances /dɑ:nsɪz/ bc substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 7 drinks /drɪŋks/ 8 eats /i:ts/ 9 falls /fɔ:lz/ bcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 10 fixes /fɪksɪz/ 11 flies /flaɪz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 12 kisses /kɪsɪz/ ab substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 13 lives /lɪvz/ acd substitution of z sound to b s sound 14 looks /lʊks/ 15 opens /’eʊpənz/ abcd substitution of z to be s sound 16 passes /pɑ:sɪz/ abc substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 17 plays /pleɪz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound. 18 puts /pʊts/ 19 says /seɪz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 20 sees /si:z/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 21 sits /sɪts/ 22 stays /steɪz/ abc substitution of z sound to be s sound 23 stops /stɒps/ sofa zakiyatul muna 219 24 takes /teɪks/ 25 tries /traɪz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 26 washes /wɒʃɪz/ b substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 27 watches /wɒtʃɪz/ ab substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 28 waters /wɔ:tərz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 29 wishes /wɪʃɪz/ ab substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 30 writes /raɪts/ noun 1 animals /’ӕnɪmlz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 2 apples /’ӕplz/ abc substitution of z sound to be s sound 3 books /bʊks/ 4 boys /bɔɪz/ abc substitution of z sound to be s sound 5 cars /kɑ:rz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 6 cats /kӕts/ 7 cities /’sɪtiz/ abc 8 countries /’kʌntriz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 9 dictionaries /’dɪkʃənriz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 10 dogs /dɔgz/ abc substitution of z sound to be s sound 11 dolls /dɒlz/ b substitution of z sound to be s sound 12 eggs /egz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 13 elephants /’elɪfənts/ 14 exercises /eksəsaɪzɪz / bc substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 15 fishes /fɪʃɪz/ bc substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 16 flowers /’flaʊərz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 17 giraffes /dʒə’rɑ:fs/ abd substitution of s sound to be əs sound 18 girls /gз:lz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 19 horses /hɔ:sɪz/ bc substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound the differences between thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs due to progressive assimilation 220 20 houses /haʊsɪz/ bcd substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 21 hats /hӕts/ 22 hotels /hɒtӕlz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 23 keys /ki:z/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 24 offices /’ɒfɪsɪz/ ab substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 25 oranges /’ɒrɪndʒɪz / b substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 26 tables /’teɪblz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 27 teachers /ti:tʃərz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 28 umbrellas /ʌm’breləz / abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 29 uncles /’ʌŋklz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound 30 wolves /wʊlfs/ b substitution of s sound to be əs sound words in paragraph comes /kʌmz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound lives /lɪvz/ bcd substitution of z sound to be s sound teaches /ti:tʃɪz/ bc substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound likes /laɪks/ walks /wɔ:ks/ arrives /ə’raɪvz/ acd substitution of z sound to be s sound enjoys /ɪn’dʒɔɪz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound jobs /dʒɒbz/ abc substitution of z sound to be s sound loves /lʌvz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound students /stju:dnts/ misses /mɪsɪz/ bcd substitution of ɪz sound to be ɪs sound gives /gɪvz/ b substitution of z sound to be s sound sofa zakiyatul muna 221 asks /ɑ:sks/ bc omission of s sound questions /’kwestʃənz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound corrects /kə’rekts/ speaks /spi:ks/ forgets /fə’gets/ names /neɪmz/ abcd substitution of z sound to be s sound finishes /’fɪnɪʃɪz/ abc substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound thai phonetic classification no words dictionary transcription subject description 1 begins /bɪ’ɡɪnz/ prs substitution of z sound to be s sound 2 brushes /brʌʃɪz/ qrs omission of ɪz sound 3 buys /baɪz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 4 catches /kӕtʃɪz/ rs omission of ɪz sound 5 cries /kraɪz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 6 dances /dɑ:nsɪz/ pqrs omission of ɪz sound 7 drinks /drɪŋks/ 8 eats /i:ts/ 9 falls /fɔ:lz/ rs substitution of z sound to be s sound 10 fixes /fɪksɪz/ ps substitution of ɪz sound to be ɪs sound 11 flies /flaɪz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 12 kisses /kɪsɪz/ qrs substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 13 lives /lɪvz/ qrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 14 looks /lʊks/ 15 opens /’eʊpənz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound the differences between thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs due to progressive assimilation 222 16 passes /pɑ:sɪz/ rs omission of ɪz sound 17 plays /pleɪz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 18 puts /pʊts/ 19 says /seɪz/ rs substitution of z sound to be s sound 20 sees /si:z/ s omission of s sound 21 sits /sɪts/ 22 stays /steɪz/ prs substitution of z sound to be s sound 23 stops /stɒps/ 24 takes /teɪks/ 25 tries /traɪz/ pqr substitution of z sound to be s sound 26 washes /wɒʃɪz/ qrs substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 27 watches /wɒtʃɪz/ ps substitution of ɪz sound to be əz sound 28 waters /wɔ:tərz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 29 wishes /wɪʃɪz/ pqr substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 30 writes /raɪts/ noun 1 animals /’ӕnɪmlz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 2 apples /’ӕplz/ p substitution of z sound to be s sound 3 books /bʊks/ 4 boys /bɔɪz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 5 cars /kɑ:rz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 6 cats /kӕts/ 7 cities /’sɪtiz/ pqr substitution of z sound to be s sound 8 countries /’kʌntriz/ pqr substitution of z sound to be s sound 9 dictionarie s /’dɪkʃənriz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound sofa zakiyatul muna 223 10 dogs /dɔgz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 11 dolls /dɒlz/ pr substitution of z sound to be s sound 12 eggs /egz/ pqs substitution of z sound to be s sound 13 elephants /’elɪfənts/ 14 exercises /eksəsaɪzɪz/ prs omission of ɪz sound 15 fishes /fɪʃɪz/ pqrs omission of ɪz sound 16 flowers /’flaʊərz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 17 giraffes /dʒə’rɑ:fs/ pqrs substitution of s sound to be əs sound 18 girls /gз:lz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 19 horses /hɔ:sɪz/ pqrs omission of ɪz sound 20 houses /haʊsɪz/ pqrs omission of ɪz sound 21 hats /hӕts/ 22 hotels /hɒtӕlz/ pqr substitution of z sound to be s sound 23 keys /ki:z/ pqr substitution of z sound to be s sound 24 offices /’ɒfɪsɪz/ pqr omission of ɪz sound 25 oranges /’ɒrɪndʒɪz/ qr substitution of ɪz sound to be s sound 26 tables /’teɪblz/ pqrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 27 teachers /ti:tʃərz/ pqr substitution of z sound to be s sound 28 umbrellas /ʌm’breləz/ qrs omission of z sound 29 uncles /’ʌŋklz/ qrs substitution of z sound to be s sound 30 wolves /wʊlfs/ pq substitution of s sound to be əs paragraph 1 comes /kʌmz/ pqs omission of z sound 2 lives /lɪvz/ qrs omission of z sound 3 teaches /ti:tʃɪz/ r substitution of ɪz sound to be əs sound 4 likes /laɪks/ rs omission of s sound the differences between thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs due to progressive assimilation 224 5 walks /wɔ:ks/ s omission of s sound 6 arrives /ə’raɪvz/ ps substitution of z sound to be s sound 7 enjoys /ɪn’dʒɔɪz/ pqr substitution of z sound to be s sound 8 jobs /dʒɒbz/ pqs substitution of z sound to be s sound 9 loves /lʌvz/ pqr substitution of z sound to be s sound 10 students /stju:dnts/ 11 misses /mɪsɪz/ pqrs substitution of ɪz sound to be ɪs sound 12 gives /gɪvz/ pqs substitution of z sound to be s sound 13 asks /ɑ:sks/ pqr omission of s sound 14 questions /’kwestʃənz/ pq substitution of z sound to be s sound 15 corrects /kə’rekts/ qr omission of s sound 16 speaks /spi:ks/ pr omission of s sound 17 forgets /fə’gets/ qr omission of s sound 18 names /neɪmz/ pr omission of z sound 19 finishes /’fɪnɪʃɪz/ pqrs omission of ɪz sound thai and indonesian phonetic differences no categories of differences thai undergraduates indonesian undergraduates 1 substitution of z sound to be s sound = = 2 substitution of ɪz sound to be ɪs sound − + 3 substitution of /ɪz/ sound to be əs sound − + 4 substitution of s/z sound to be əs sound. = = 5 substitution of ɪz sound to be s sound + − 6 omission of s/z sound + − sofa zakiyatul muna 225 7 omission of ɪz sound. + − note: + more words are pronounced through this way. − less words are pronounced through this way. =words pronounced this way are same substitution of /z/ sound to be /s/ sound based on the research, both thai and indonesian undergraduates pronounce most of the word by substitute /z/ sound to be /s/ sound. the word such as begins, buys, cries, falls, lives, animals, apples which should be pronounce by adding /z/ sound are pronounced as /s/ sound. one of the reason why they substitute /z/ sound to be /s/ sound is they do not know about the phonetic rule of the pronunciation of s/es ending. although both /s/ and /z/ exist in both thai and indonesian language, but /z/ sound is rarely being used in the end of the word. because they do not know the rule, it is more comfortable to use /s/ sound than /z/ sound. substitution of ɪz sound to be ɪs sound compared with thai undergraduates, indonesian undergraduates more often pronounce the list of words by substitute /ɪz/ sound to be /ɪs/ sound than thai undergraduates. this occurs related to the fact that bahasa indonesia has many loanwords, one of them are from the dutch because of the dutch colonialism from 19th centuries. suffix of dutch vocabulary such as -ical, -isch; in vocabulary of bahasa indonesia it becomes –is for example: economical, economisch to be ekonomis, practical, practisch to be praktis, logical, logisch to be logis. not only loanwords from dutch, the differences between thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs due to progressive assimilation 226 loanwords from english also influence the pronunciation of the word by substitute /ɪz/ sound to be ɪs sound for example publicist to be publisis, guitarist to be gitaris, pianist to be pianis (pusbadepdiknas, 2000:45). based on this explanation, there is a tendency to pronounce the word by /ɪs/ than /ɪz/ because in the vocabulary of bahasa indonesia, many of them have suffix /ɪs/ sound. substitution of /ɪz/ sound to be /əs/ sound indonesian undergraduates pronounce more words with substitution of /ɪz/ sound to be əs sound than thai undergraduates. according to the phonetic rule, the word brushes, catches, dances, kisses, passes, washes, watches, wishes, exercises, finishes, horses, houses, offices, oranges, teaches, finishes; the es ending should be pronounced by /ɪz/. as the result of the research, indonesian undergraduates substitute the /ɪz/ sound to be /əs/ sound. thai undergraduates do, but they are fewer than indonesian undergraduates. substitution of s/z sound to be əs sound based on the result of the research, the substitution of s/z sound to be əs sound in pronouncing third singular verbs and plural nouns between thai and indonesian undergraduates are balance. there are two words which are pronounced by substitute s/z sound for both thai and indonesian undergraduates. pronunciation of third singular verbs and plural nouns show that english allows consonant cluster. this type of consonant cluster is difficult to produce for both thai and indonesian undergraduates. some respondents from both thailand and indonesia sometimes fail to produce the words correctly. as the result of the research, thai and sofa zakiyatul muna 227 indonesian undergraduates pronounce ‘giraffes’/dʒə’rɑ:fs/ and ‘wolves’/wʊlfs/ by substitute /s/ sound to be /əs/, so they add /ə/ sound before /s/ sound to cope the difficulties. substitution of ɪz sound to be s sound in pronouncing the word ‘oranges’; two of thai undergraduates (q and r) substitute ɪz sound to be s sound. according to the phonetic rule of third singular verb and plural noun, ‘oranges’ should be pronounced /’ɒrɪndʒɪz/, but thai undergraduates pronounce it as /’ɒrɪndʒs/. although a little difficult to pronounce consonant cluster of english words, they try to repeat the pronunciation of oranges /’ɒrɪndʒɪz/ by /’ɒrɪndʒs/ because they do not know about pronunciation/phonetic rule of s/es ending. omission of s/z sound in pronouncing the provided words, thai undergraduates omit s/z sound in some words like sees, umbrellas, comes, lives, likes, walks, asks, corrects, speaks, forgets and names. indonesian undergraduates do so, but only a specific word such as ‘asks’. it is too difficult for indonesian undergraduates to pronounce a consonant cluster which consists of three consonant and a vowel in beginning. omission of ɪz sound the omission of ɪz sound occur when thai undergraduates pronounces the list of words, especially in paragraph. most of third singular second verbs and plural in paragraph are pronounced by thai undergraduates by omitting ɪz sound. as explained in chapter ii, in pattani malays /z/ sound is found in most of loan words. it is rarely found the differences between thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs due to progressive assimilation 228 in the root of pattani malay words. most of pattani words are pronounced with vocal in the end of the words. the omission of ɪz sound does not happen to indonesian undergraduates. conclusion the differences of thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing third singular verbs and plural nouns are: more indonesian undergraduates pronounce third singular verbs and plural nouns by substitute /ɪz/ sound to be ɪs sound as in fishes, watches, and wishes. indonesian undergraduates pronounce more verbs and plural nouns are pronounced by substitute /ɪz/ sound to be əs sound as in brushes, catches, dances, kisses, passes, washes, watches, wishes, exercises, finishes, horses, houses, offices, oranges, teaches, finishes. thailand undergraduates pronounce more third singular verbs and plural noun by omitting plural maker [s, z, ɪz] sound. for indonesian undergraduates, it only happens in the word ‘asks’ because it is too difficult to pronounce consonant cluster of this word. the similarities of thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing third singular verbs and plural nouns are: both thai and indonesian undergraduates pronounce many vocabularies (third singular verbs and plural noun) by substitute z sound to be s sound because z sound is rarely pronounced in their native language. both thai and indonesian undergraduates pronounce many vocabularies (third singular verbs and plural noun) by substitute [s/z] sound to be /əs/. there is a tendency of both thai and indonesian undergraduates to add /ə/ sound before /s/ or /z/ sound because suffix consonant clusters are difficult to pronounce, so to cope with this both thai and indonesian undergraduates sofa zakiyatul muna 229 add /ə/ sound before s/z sound. factors that influence the differences of thai and indonesian undergraduates of iain salatiga in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular verbs due to progressive assimilation are: (1) geographic dialects. according to kreidler (2004:2), how much people contact with other speakers of the language and what influence there has been from speakers of other language will create the differences. because thai undergraduates does not contact frequently with other speaker, they have several differences in pronouncing english words from indonesian undergraduates. (2) native language. native language of thai and indonesian undergraduates will influence the pronunciation of english third singular verbs and plural nouns. thai undergraduates find difficulties in learning english in indonesia, because they also have to learn bahasa indonesia to understand the material in the class, and it will influence the pronunciation. the differences between thai and indonesian undergraduates in pronouncing plural nouns and third singular present verbs due to progressive assimilation 230 references frank, marcella. (1972). modern english: a practical reference guide. new jersey: prentice hall-inc hamann, c.. &schmitz, c.(2005). phonetics and phonology: reader for first year english linguistics. oldernburg: university of oldenburg press. lodge, ken. 2009. a critical introduction to phonetics. new york: continuum international publishing group. lorenz, gunter.2009. english phonetics theory: ba course (british english). pdf. retrieved from www.pdfsearchengine.org mackey, alison, & gass, m. susan. 2005. second language research: methodology and design. london: lawrence erlbaum associates publisher marsono. 1999. fonetik. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. mcmahon, april. 2002. an introduction to english phonology. edinburgh: edinburgh university press. pusbadepdiknas. 2000. pedoman umum ejaan bahasa indonesia yang disempurnakan. pdf. retrieved from www.pdfsearchengine.org. ramelan. (2003). english phonetics. semarang : upt unnes press roach, peter. 2000. english phonetics and phonology: a practical course. cambridge: cambridge university press. yupho, nawanit. 1989. consonant clusters and stress rules in pattani malay. mon khmer studies. pdf. retrieved from www.pdfsearchengine .org. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.123-152 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 123 investigating cultural dimensions in efl textbook by using byram checklist *soni ariawan1 universitas islam negeri mataram1, english language education study program, faculty of education and teacher training e-mail : soniariawan@uinmataram.ac.id corresponding author* doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i1.123-152 submission track: received: 25-03-2020 final revision: 23-05-2020 available online: 01-06-2020 abstract the present study is a content analysis that aims to investigate cultural dimension in an english textbook prescribed for senior high school in indonesia which is officially published by the ministry of education and culture in 2017. the data include 11 conversations, 17 reading texts, and 83 visual elements that are analysed qualitatively by employing byram’s checklist. the findings show that stereotypes and national identity dominate the cultural dimensions with 28.05% and followed by social interaction and socialisation and life cycle with 15.9%. the occurrence of national geography soni ariawan 124 is significant with 12.2%. however, social identity and social group, belief and behaviour, national history and social and political institutions are prescribed with less than 10%. the inclusion of various cultural dimensions has certain purposes. the inclusion of national identity, for instance, is pivotal for learners since the textbook is prescribed for senior high school students who are tremendously curious to determine their characters. this idea is aligned with the aim of the curriculum to facilitate the development of students with good character, good behaviour and strong nationality. it is concluded that the english textbook in indonesia is on the way to its perfection in terms of proportionally represented cultural dimensions. however, the presence of various cultural aspects of the target culture and international target culture is also important to help students develop cultural competence and a certain level of respect as well as tolerance for others. keywords: textbook, cultural dimensions, cultural competence, national identity introduction cultural content is pivotal in the selection of an appropriate efl textbook and the nurturing of cultural awareness in the minds of efl learners (bahrami, 2015). english as an international language (eil) implies that learning english does not only involve considering the common ground that enables speakers to communicate like native speakers, but it must also consider the use of varieties of english that represent uniqueness and support language rights in the context of international communication (jenkins, 2006). native and non-native discourse and non-native and non-native discourse have to be culturally considered since they have particular intercultural insights and knowledge that are relevant to achieving pedagogical goals successfully (alptekin, 2002). in the context of indonesia, the central government produces textbooks and distributes them to schools. the newest curriculum, the 2013 curriculum, was launched with a package of textbooks for junior and senior high school in register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.123-152 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 125 the middle of 2013. the ministry of education and culture (moec) aims to achieve the national goal of character-based education through the textbooks. consequently, they should be designed with the text and the context of learning in mind. the first edition of the textbook for the 2013 curriculum is crucial for encouraging english teachers to prepare relevant activities to support a successful teaching and learning process. the textbook also accommodates the diversity of indonesian culture and contextualises it in an english language learning environment. many studies have been undertaken to analyse authentic content and cultural content in the indonesian textbook. they have focused on investigating students’ and teachers’ experiences dealing with the efl textbook. however, there are only a few local studies relating to the efl textbook that the ministry of national education and culture publishes. the textbook for the 2013 curriculum has been revised three times since 2014, and the previous study only explored cultural content in the 2014 version of the efl textbook, but no local study has been undertaken regarding the 2017 version of the efl textbook for the 2013 curriculum. this study aims to analyse cultural content in the 2017 efl textbook for grade 10 in indonesia using byram’s (1989) checklist to investigate how the culture is represented in the textbook. the textbook is seen as a cultural artefact (gray, 2000) that plays pivotal functions. it can be considered to be an ambassador for language practice, grammar, vocabulary, activities, and culture. in other words, textbooks are the entry point through which a certain group in the community soni ariawan 126 reveals its cultural content. it can transmit social ideologies and practices (apple & beyer, 1983). the real issue has to do with global course books that the british promoted in which the content incorporated government-backed enterprises in an economic and ideological agenda (phillipson, 1992). the hidden agenda incorporated in the textbooks drew the attention of moroccan english teachers because they assumed that native cultural content would lead to the erosion of belief (hyde, 1994). it was also an issue in saudi arabia and china, where efl textbooks have no references to english-speaking cultures (gray, 2000). crawford (1990) argues that dealing with the negative effects of textbooks may distort the content because they often present an idealised, white, and middle-class view of the world and avoid controversial issues instead of addressing the specific needs of learners. another point is that textbooks are produced for the global market and individuals’ financial benefit. as a result, students may not be interested in learning, and they may find it difficult to process the language and content introduced since they are unfamiliar with the context (alptekin, 1993). hutchinson and torres (1994) note that not only students but also teachers who do not follow textbook content in its entirety. they mostly adapt, change, add and delete some points. these problems are claimed to be the consequence of textbooks that focus solely on systematic knowledge (properties of language) rather than also focusing on schematic knowledge (which refers to socially-acquired knowledge) (alptekin, 1993). cortazzi and jin (1999) propose different ways of incorporating appropriate cultural content in language textbooks: they involve the source culture, target culture, and international target culture. “source culture” is register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.123-152 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 127 related the learners’ culture, with which they are familiar, and “target culture” refers to english-speaking countries’ cultures or inner-circle countries’ cultures (for instance, the cultures of the united states, canada, australia, the united kingdom, and new zealand). international target cultures concern a variety of cultures from around the world. the focus of cultural representation in efl textbooks should accommodate proportional amounts of the source culture, target culture, and international target culture. it depends to a large extent on the learning objectives. target cultures should not dominate the cultural content in efl textbooks; local cultural representations are crucial as well (hermawan & noerkhasanah, 2012). learners can gain cognitive power and positive contributions to their zones of proximal development (zdp) as they learn familiar content (cummins, 1994), and strong personal attachment among teachers and learners is beneficial to the learning process (isik, 2008). furthermore, the process of learning local culture through efl in the classroom makes students interact and negotiate and define their own identities. learning the target language ensures that students not only acquire sufficient basic efl skills, verbalize their local cultural knowledge, and receive information about a foreign culture (prastiwi, 2013). it is suggested that local educators or teachers determine the linguistic information, cultural content, and teaching methodology and pedagogy that are appropriate for the local context (mckay, 2003) so that learners can use english to tell others about their own culture. researchers have conducted extensive local and international studies of cultural content in english textbooks. they employ various theoretical soni ariawan 128 frameworks as analytical frameworks to generate data and use quantitative and qualitative methods to analyse and present the data. to begin with, candrawati, nitiasih, and seken's (2014) study deals with sociocultural representation in an efl textbook. they investigate age, gender, social distance and status, politeness strategies, genres, registers, major dialects, and background knowledge of the target language group in an efl etextbook entitled developing english competencies in indonesia. qualitative discourse content analysis is the research method and a coding process is developed to collect the data. to analyse the data, qualitative and quantitative approaches are employed: the frequency of occurrences of sociocultural elements is observed and the description of elements in their entirety is presented. the findings show that the textbook is male-oriented and predominantly involves 12-to-18-year-olds. the study also concludes that the authors seem aware of the sociocultural aspects of the efl textbook but are not aware of how to present them proportionally. however, the cultural aspects that this study highlights tend to highlight gender and sociolinguistic studies rather than comprehensive aspects of culture within an efl textbook. another study, by faris (2014), examines the efl textbook, look ahead, which was designed for senior high school in indonesia. the study aims to determine the types of cultures presented and how they are presented. the data is selected from the reading passages, while the illustrations are only analysed if necessary. the study employs cortazzi and jin's (1999) approach regarding the type of culture (source culture, target culture, and international target culture) and adaskou, britten, and fahsi's (1990) discussion of four senses of culture (the aesthetic sense, sociological sense, semantic sense, and pragmatic sense). qualitative content analysis is used to analyse the data by selecting the register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.123-152 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 129 unit of analysis, selecting content categories, and analysing the data. the research findings reveal that the target culture is predominant at 77.05% and is mostly represented in the form of aesthetic sense. rashidi and meihami (2016) also employ cortazzi and jin's (1999) and adaskou et al.'s (1990) theoretical frameworks to examine three different secondary school elt textbooks selected from the inner (the united kingdom), outer (india) and expanding (iran) circle countries. the purpose of the study is to explore the cultural content and to identify the cultural elements disseminated in the textbooks. the dialogue and reading sections are analysed using the two frameworks and quantitatively assessed (counted). the findings show that elt textbooks of the inner, outer, and expanding circle countries represent l2 and international cultural content differently. furthermore, different countries try to present their l1 cultural content more than cultural content from other countries. the inner circle countries tend to present l1 and l2 cultures when they design elt textbooks, while the outer and expanding circle countries tend to insert more international culture for intercultural content and understanding. however, the three types of countries highlight aesthetic cultural elements most dominantly in the elt textbooks. another theoretical approach is employed in the study by chao (2011) in taiwan. it adopts the five dimensions of culture including product, practice, perspective, community, and person (moran, 2001). the data is collected from 20 units of the student book entitled new american inside out. the focus of the analysis includes the main reading texts and listening scripts (receptive skills), the main speaking and writing practices (productive skills), and the soni ariawan 130 main pictures (visual texts), and it employs a coding process and adopted theoretical frameworks to generate the data. the study finds that perspective is the main cultural dimension described in the textbook followed by product, person, and practice, while community is the lowest. a similar theoretical framework is evident in fitriyah's study (2015) on cultural content in a junior high school textbook in indonesia entitled when english rings a bell, published by the ministry of national education and culture. she uses patrick moran’s (2001) categories of culture so-called knowing about, knowing how, knowing why, and knowing oneself to analyse the selected reading passages. the findings of this study confirm that the textbook includes the local perspective and exhibits features related to the local culture or source culture. this is why the government approves the textbook (fitriyah, 2015). the study is not an indepth analysis and does not further address the language used in the textbook to indicate a certain dimension of culture. other theoretical approaches that examine cultural content in efl textbook are present in (piaget, 1928) and (lee, 2007). rodriguez and espinar (2015) investigate three efl textbooks for adults in spain, employing these conceptual models of cultural learning that encompass knowledge, behaviour, and attitudes. they also use lee’s idea about specific culture: big c culture and small c culture explore the more specific aspects of culture revealed in the textbooks. big c culture encompasses ethnic groups, geography/history/politics/regional variations, arts/crafts, and other visible elements of culture, while small c culture includes individualism/collectivism, equality, fairness, competition, materialism, confrontation, level of formality, and other invisible elements of culture. the study reveals that big c cultures tend to be the most dominant in the three textbooks. interestingly, the small c register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.123-152 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 131 cultural aspects occur more frequently in b1-level textbooks. however, the discussion does not explain the reason for this finding. the study only focuses on investigating aspects of culture without further exploring the types of culture, that is, source culture, target culture, international target culture, or neutral culture. dweik and al-sayyed (2015) use another approach to examine an efl textbook in saudi arabia. they employ a 12-item cultural checklist comprising history and politics, ecology, leisure time, music and the arts, names, literature and science, family and male-female relationships, education, food and drinks, religion and religious rituals, economy, dress, and social behaviour. it examines the conversation, reading passages, and pictures in a students’ textbook and workbook. the findings of this study indicate that arabic culture is more dominant, followed by international culture and british culture. history and politics are the cultural elements most often represented in the textbook. the researchers suggest to include more religious aspects in the efl textbook because, in the context of saudi arabia, religion brings tolerance and teaches an understanding of different cultural backgrounds, which facilitates intercultural understanding. arsland (2016) develops a question checklist and item frequency analysis to investigate cultural content in efl textbooks used for third and fourth grade students in a state school in turkey. he specifies that the study solely explores the elements of native culture, target culture, and international culture revealed in the listening scripts and does not explore images and reading passages. the question checklist and item frequency analysis focus on soni ariawan 132 finding general information and detailed information to facilitate data acquisition. the study finds that cultural items are represented more often in the textbook for the third grade than in that for the fourth grade, and the international cultural elements have the highest frequency in the textbooks. the researchers recommend that the textbook developer insert native culture as well as source culture in the content of efl textbooks since they are fruitful for students’ reflection about the values, beliefs, and traditions of other cultures and their own culture. cho and park (2016) introduce another approach to analyse multicultural content in efl textbooks in korea. they investigate 52 textbooks for elementary and secondary students from the third to the ninth grade. a multicultural content analysis frame (mcaf) that includes identity, diversity and pluralism, and social justice and a multicultural description analysis frame (mdaf) that encompasses the balance of material distribution, accuracy and scope of information, distortion and stereotypes, a balance in perspectives, and korean ethnic-centeredness. the study finds that minority groups are less represented in the textbooks, and this impacts the tension between ethnic nationalism and the multicultural perspective in korean textbooks. a future study is suggested to find out what the accommodation strategies are for a multicultural country like korea, whether they entail moving forward from nationalism to multiculturalism or maintaining nationalism and excluding multiculturalism even further to create a new model of multiculturalism within nationalism. aliakbari and jamalvandi (2012) conduct an analysis of five high school textbooks in china that employs ramirez and hall's (1990) insights about cultural dimensions (social, personal, religion, arts, and the humanities). they register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.123-152 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 133 also highlight cultural categories that include chinese, english-speaking countries’, non-english-speaking western countries’, eastern countries’, and cross-national culture. the data is derived from the analysis of written and visual texts quantitatively by counting the frequency of occurrences through a coding process. the findings reveal that the most often represented cultural elements are religion, arts, and the humanities, while personal themes are the least described in the textbook. furthermore, in terms of culture categories, the most frequently occurring cultural materials in both the written and visual modes are attributed to english-speaking countries (40%), while the cultural materials associated with china constitute only 35%, and those related to eastern countries are the least highlighted. it is recommended that elt textbooks in china be revised, and it is pivotal for material developers to present equal numbers of cultural dimensions as well as cultural categories. the same theoretical approach is used to investigate instructional materials of the iran language institute at the advanced level. rashidi (2010) examines the vocabulary and reading section to gain the data and analyses them using ramirez and hall’s (1990) categorizations. the findings reveal that more than 90% of cultural representation comprises aspects of culture from english speaking countries with only 5 out of 8 of cultural elements described. syahri and susanti's (2016) study focuses on local and target culture percentages in english textbooks for senior high school in indonesia. they analyse nine textbooks in which paragraphs and pictures are used as data units. byram’s (1989) checklist is used as the theoretical approach to quantitatively and qualitatively to analyse the data, followed by the categorisation of the soni ariawan 134 cultural aspects under cortazzi and jin’s (1999) types of culture: source culture, target culture, and international target culture. the findings show that only half of the selected-analysed textbooks present local cultures as opposed to target and international target culture. the study discusses types of culture but does not elaborate on how and which cultural aspects are represented in the textbooks. further research dealing with more specific cultural aspects of culture and their representation is necessary. the present study employs byram’s (1989) checklist, which provides eight cultural dimensions. michael byram is considered to be one of the most prominent researchers on intercultural learning and cultural content in the context of foreign language textbooks. he has proposed these criteria to comprehensively and critically investigate textbooks that encompass not only sociological factors but also social, historical, and geographical factors (sorongan, susanti, & syahri, 2014). there are eight cultural-dimension checklist items proposed by byram's (1989). first dimensions are social identity and social group which include social class, ethnic minority and majority, regional identity, professional identity, and an individual’s social identities. second dimension is social interaction that encompasses a situation or manner used in a certain group of society; it includes verbal and non-verbal behaviour in social interaction, differing levels of formality, and characters (feelings, attitudes, values, and perceived problems). third dimensions are belief and behaviour which concern about daily activities in society that involve religious and moral values. fourth dimensions are social and political institution that deal with institutions in the country, for instance, a specific department for certain business affairs, and seeks to look at the meaning and values of the institution. fifth dimension are socialisation and the life cycle register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.123-152 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 135 that include a smaller level of institutions, for instance, family, school, and the office, as well as ceremonies that mark passage through stages of social life. sixth dimension is national history which encompasses historical and contemporary moments, which are pivotal for supporting teaching and learning in the classroom. seventh dimension is national geography that refers to geographical features associated with a certain group of people and their environment. the last dimensions are stereotypes and national identity which reveals the landmarks of nations, including artefacts, popular places, or people. research method the present study focuses on the analysis of cultural dimension in the 2017 grade 10 english textbook in indonesia. it is a qualitative study that investigates buku siswa bahasa inggris sma kelas 10, which was revised in 2017 in accordance with the 2013 curriculum. it consists of 15 chapters that present 17 reading passages, 11 dialogues, and 83 images. the analysis employs byram’s (1989) checklist which provides eight cultural dimensions. the study is categorised as a content analysis in which the researcher establishes a set of categories and counts the data that belongs to the categories. content analysis aims to identify meaning from a certain document or archive (miles, huberman, & saldana, 2013). a broad-based definition dealing with content analysis is present in krippendorf's (2004) text: it defines content analysis as a technique that aims for replicable and valid inferences from texts as to the contexts of their use. in addition to giving this definition, he explains that content analysis is an analytical technique for measuring the frequency, order or intensity of occurrences of words, phrases, or sentences. the analysed soni ariawan 136 text can take the written, spoken, or visual form, for instance books, pictures, films, and documents, in the context of communication, and the content can vary, including words, pictures, themes, ideas and any messages (cohen, manion, & morrison, 2000; neuman, 1997) a content analysis study involves three general steps for analysing data: data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion and verification (miles and huberman, 2013). this study employs a priori coding (stemler, 2001) by establishing a coding checklist prior to the analysis based upon the theoretical frameworks applied and revising the categories accordingly. the step after coding is data display in the form of graphs, tables, or charts. it seeks to support the explanations of the findings quantitatively and is followed by communicative elaboration. the last step is a conclusion based on the findings. the main purpose of content analysis is transferability instead of generalizability: the findings may not be the same as those of other studies, but they are relevant in certain contexts (white & marsh, 2006). however, weber (1990) notes that there is no single exact method of conducting content analysis. hence, the researcher has constructed the guides to consistently select and analyse the data. there are five guides in selecting and analysing the conversation. first, every conversation is explored in this study despite its length and section in which it occurs. second, a conversation in the speaking or exercise section is still investigated if it presents a character or context that enables the researcher to interpret it accurately. third, conversations revealed in the images or tied to illustrations are not analysed because they are investigated as part of the visual analysis. fourth, the analysis of cultural dimension in conversations focuses on finding the contexts of conversation and arranging them into lists of cultural register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.123-152 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 137 dimensions and categories. finally, it should be considered that one conversation may represent more than one cultural dimension or category. in addition, the researcher also developed a guide used to select and analyse the reading texts. first, every reading text is analysed in this study despite its length. second, one reading text may reveal more than one cultural dimension and category. the last one is about the method used for investigating where researcher generates a main idea or context for the text and labelling it with cultural dimensions and categories. illustration in the textbook is also part of unit analysis. illustrations can take the form of photographs, drawings, and cartoons. the focus of investigation is the character portrayed in the illustration. “character” means that the illustration which reveals a context that researchers can interpret. the researcher applies several guides to consistently select the unit of analysis and investigate the cultural dimensions. first, every illustration in the textbook is investigated. the illustration can be defined as a picture, a photograph, a drawing, or a cartoon that reveals a certain character or context. second, if one chapter, even one page, reveals more than one illustration that presents the same or a different character or context, those illustrations are counted and investigated to determine the frequency of the illustration. third, repeated illustrations are also counted because they show the frequency of cultural representation in the textbook. fourth, one illustration may represent more than one character, and it is labelled according to those relevant cultural dimensions or categories. fifth, a caption, instruction, or written text dealing with the illustration will be considered if necessary to accurately interpret the data. the soni ariawan 138 last one is an illustration without a certain character, context, or scene will be labelled as an uncategorised cultural dimension. it may indicate an unnecessary illustration incorporated in the textbook or inconsistency between the illustration and caption. results & discussion this part encompasses three main parts: the analysis of conversations, reading texts and visual elements. byram’s (1989) checklist is used to analyse the cultural dimensions incorporated in the textbook. the theoretical frameworks are applied to three units of analysis (conversations, reading texts, and visual elements) to gain a comprehensive overview dealing with cultural dimension in the textbook. the findings are presented through the discussion of the analysis to answer the research questions constructed at the beginning of the study. what are the cultural dimensions revealed in the grade 10 english textbook for senior high school in indonesia? the analysis is presented according to the dimensions disseminated in each unit. table 1: frequency and percentage of cultural dimensions dimensions frequency percentage 1. a. social identity and social group 15 9.1% 2. b. social interaction 26 15.9% 3. c. belief and behaviour 13 7.9% d. social and political institutions 3 1.8% e. socialisation and the life cycle 26 15.9% 4. f. national history 10 6.1% 5. g. national geography 20 12.2% 6. h. stereotype and national identity 46 28.05% 7. i. uncategorised 5 3.05% register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.123-152 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 139 total 164 100% stereotype and national identity the most prominent cultural dimensions in the english textbook have to do with stereotype and national identity (28.05% of the total dimensions portrayed in conversations, reading texts, and visual illustrations). stereotypes and national identity are disseminated in various forms, including artefact, popular places, and popular people. the inclusion of national identity is pivotal for learners because the textbook is prescribed for senior high school, during which learners have high curiosity and are on a quest to determine their own characters. hence, presenting popular people who have many achievements or have made many contributions, for example, may give senior high school learners good role models. this idea is aligned with the main aim of the 2013 curriculum: developing students with good character and behaviour. presenting popular places such as tourist area is important as it grants learners sufficient information dealing with their environment. in relation to english language learning, students find it easier to learn a language through content which they are familiar with and interested in. social interaction social interaction refers to the situation and manner used in a certain group of society. this encompasses verbal and non-verbal communication, characters such as feelings, attitudes, values, and perceived problems. for soni ariawan 140 example, in conversation analysis, the researcher found that alif’s friends congratulate him and he thanks them. this indicates a friendly situation and common communication manners in indonesia: saying, “thank you,” to those who congratulate us. verbal communication can also be identified in the congratulatory content. rudi comments on ben’s jacket, ben comments on rudi’s outfit, and andi is congratulated. the conversation seems proportional once every person gets his/her turn to speak; this is how people respect each other in social contexts. another form of social interaction dimension revealed in the conversation is that non-verbal communication like a handshake. it is very common in indonesia to shake hand with each other to congratulate even in the time when we meet each other. handshaking can be identified as a friendly warm greeting and it belongs to attitude. the inclusion of social interaction in the textbook may aim to provide a clear picture of how people conduct verbal and non-verbal communication daily. as a result, learners may understand a language as a communication tool that should be understood linguistically and used in the proper context. socialisation and the life cycle socialisation and life cycle have the same occurrences with social interaction, 26%. byram (1989) defines socialisation and life cycle as a lower level of institutions that more specifically concerns schools, families, and officers as socialisation institutions. three themes represent this dimension: “congratulating other,” “long weekend activities,” and “biology register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.123-152 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 141 project.” the representations involve two forms of socialisation institutions: school and family. school is described through several sub-dimensions, including teaching and learning activities and a formal school uniform. teaching and learning activities are identified through an illustration of a teacher and student teaching and learning in the class. the setting of several conversations takes place at schools. it is also evident in the caption of every illustration. school uniforms in indonesia comprise white shirts and grey pants/skirts. most illustrations dealing with school that include students wearing school uniforms. other forms of this dimension feature a graduation ceremony, student competition, extracurricular activities, the classroom setting, and a school announcement. the inclusion of school and family in the socialisation and life cycle dimension is considered as a means of building learners’ awareness of school activities and family orientation. the two lower levels of institutions, that is, the school and the family, are fundamental socialisation institutions for the introduction of culture or values because learners are familiar with the activities within those environments. in other words, it is easier for learners to learn a language through a culture in which they are familiar with. national geography another dimension that has high representation is national geography (11.8%). it takes the form of the geographical features of certain places (a mountain, forest, waterfall, etc.). the presentation of the geographical dimension is crucial for providing learners with sufficient information. it can be used as a material for teaching soni ariawan 142 descriptive or narrative text in the english-teaching and english-learning context. in addition, the representation of national geography in the textbook can be interpreted as the introduction of nature and the promotion of tourism sites. hence, learners may be aware of the geographical features in their environments. moreover, in the language-teaching and language-learning context, presenting geographical features could be included in the text recounting lesson: this involves describing a place or narrative text, which is easy for the learners to do because it is about their own environment. however, the representation of niagara falls may promote the united states’ and canada’s cultural aspects. therefore, learners become aware of cultural aspects of other countries. social identity and social group the social identity and social group dimension achieve a frequency of 8.9%, and it is disseminated in the form of social status, social class, and professional identity. social identity and social group refer to the identification of certain groups within the nation and include social status, social class, majority and minority ethnic groups, and professional identity (byram, 2004). in the english textbook, social status describes the nobility and the ordinary class in indonesia, while social class entails different situations among the rich and disadvantaged class and people living in the city and village. social status differences exist in “meeting idols,” showing how celebrities and fans have different social statuses. celebrities are assumed to be high-class people since their fans worship them, and their fans are assumed to have a lower-class status. the fans are very register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.123-152 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 143 excited about meeting their idols and describe it as an unforgettable experience. this shows celebrities’ and fans’ class differences in indonesian society. this phenomenon is also evident in the text about issumboshi, which draws a contrast between village and city conditions. people living in the village tend to be associated as poor and disadvantaged, while those who live in the city tend to be viewed as rich, educated, and have many advantages. different social statuses are also evident reading texts such as habibie’s story: his father is an agriculturalist, but his mother is a noble woman from java. the same thing is also associated with cut nyak dhien that is portrayed in the textbook, who is from an aristocratic family and marries a man from an aristocratic family as well. these descriptions reveal the differences in social class between aristocrats and ordinary people. the conditions are replicated in several places in indonesia, where people are categorised under several social statuses. the representation of professional identity, social class, and social status aims to provide learners with a comprehensive understanding regarding differences in social class and social status that exist in society. in language learning, this is important because different social classes or statuses might communicate in culturally different ways. in addition to this dimension, professional identity is described to inspire learners to be professionals and to offer them role models. belief and behaviour the belief and behaviour dimension constitutes 7.7% of all dimensions represented in all the units. it is presented in the form of religious identity, soni ariawan 144 which includes religious behaviour, religious character, good behaviour, and holy places. religious value is evident in several themes, for instance, “a letter from saidah”: the greetings are written in an islamic way, “assalamu alaikum,” which means, “peace be upon you.” it is very common for muslims to state that sentence when they meet, communicate, or interact. another religious value is evident in the text about cut nyak dhien: she is described as a female muslim hero from aceh. religious activity is only evident in the text about issumboshi. it indicates that the queen is praying in the temple before doing other activities. the temple is the holy prayer building for buddhists. furthermore, moral values are disseminated through three themes: “habibie” (though his father is an agriculturalist, he successfully pursues his degree in germany and returns to indonesia to contribute to its national development), “malin kundang” (a child should respect his/her mother, otherwise he/she will be unfortunate in life) and “strong wind” (those who are patient and honest when confronting problems will achieve the best results). determining which religious values to present is a sensitive matter. the representation of belief and behaviour is fundamental since it serves to give students the perspective that different religions may be associated with different values or behaviours and that does not matter. presenting various forms of belief and behaviour may give students wider perspectives of tolerance. however, it is still less represented in the textbook. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.123-152 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 145 national history another dimension in the textbook is that of national history. it represents only 5.9% in the form of stores about heroes and innovation. the textbook includes historical figures such as bung tomo and cut nyak dhien as the symbol of struggle for indonesians in surabaya and aceh respectively. bung tomo is the leader of surabaya’s people, who led the battle against the dutch, while cut nyak dhien is a female indonesian hero who led the battle in aceh. another indicator of national history is the illustration of b. j. habibie, a well-known, influential public figure in indonesia. another form of national history is the representation of the taj mahal, a famous monument and historical building in indian national history. incorporating national history in an english textbook may enable learners to familiarise themselves with their own culture and other cultures, especially in the national history context. in the indonesian context, one of the learning objectives for every subject as stated in the curriculum is to build learners’ character. presenting national heroes and the national history of indonesia and its achievement of independence is considered to be government efforts to build learners’ national character. in the english-learning context, national history can be presented to learners through the process of teaching students to recount the text. students are bound to find it interesting because they are familiar with the figures in the stories. the inclusion of national heroes and innovation may build learners’ awareness of the importance of taking lessons from them. the lessons deal with their motivation to make good contributions to their countries. students are expected to take soni ariawan 146 these lessons and hold onto them as basic principles in their lives, thus contributing positively to their countries. social and political institution the dimension that considered least represented is that of social and political institutions: only 4.7%. it is represented through government institutions that focus on technology affairs in reading texts. there is government institution representation in, which addresses a cancellation announcement. the text describes how government authorities engaged in a security ban of a concert in singapore. another representation of this dimension is about the battle of surabaya: the governor of surabaya made an agreement with the dutch at the time. these are described as a political institution. one more representation of social and political institution occurs in the textbook is about b.j.habibie. he is described as an influential figure in the technology department of the ministry of science and technology in the republic of indonesia. this clearly shows how the social and political dimensions are incorporated in the textbook. learners are expected to know that the information deals with social and political institutions. however, the representations are considerably fewer. apart from the eight cultural dimensions above, uncategorised dimensions also occur among the visual elements. they relate to unclear illustrations that do not present characters related to the described dimensions. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.123-152 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 147 conclusion since 2013 curriculum was officially implemented, the english textbook has been revised for four times, and the present study investigates the newest version of the textbook. the focus of the study is the exploration of cultural aspects represented in the textbook. data for analysis is selected from the textbook; it includes conversations, reading texts, and visual elements. stereotype and national identity dominate the cultural dimensions in the english textbook. indications of stereotypes and national identity are disseminated in various form, including artefacts, popular places, and popular people. artefacts encompass popular buildings and historical buildings, while popular people take the form of national heroes, football players, and artists. the inclusion of national identity is pivotal for learners because the textbook is prescribed for senior high school learners, who are tremendously curious to determine their characters. hence, presenting representations of popular people who have many achievements or have made many contributions, for example, may be useful for senior high school learners and may give them good role models. this idea is aligned with the main aim of the 2013 curriculum, which is to facilitate the development of students with good character, good behaviour, and strong nationality. on the other hand, byram (2004) promotes intercultural citizenship that includes linguistic competence and cultural competence to indicate that learners should learn not only the language but also the culture of the language. in addition, hymes (1972) further explains that communicative competence can be understood as the ability to use language not only grammatically but also appropriately. intercultural competence will help students develop soni ariawan 148 multicultural awareness and a certain level of respect and tolerance for others (cortazzi & jin, 1999; mckay, 2003). the researcher concludes that the present english textbook is on the way to perfection in terms of proportionally represented cultural dimensions. the textbook has widely incorporated local culture in form of the eight dimensions, however, presenting other cultures, target language culture and international culture, toward intercultural communicative competence. references adaskou, k., britten, d., & fahsi, b. 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(2006). content analysis: a flexible methodology. library trends, 55, 22–45. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.99-122 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 99 the scavenger hunt: a technique for enhancing culture learning and intercultural communication practice martha nandari santoso1* universitas kristen satya wacana, indonesia1 e-mail : martha.nandari@uksw.edu1 corresponding author* doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i1.99-122 submission track: received: 10-04-2020 final revision: 26-05-2020 available online: 01-06-2020 abstract in this changing era, which is characterized by the interconnected world, and the increasing mobility of people, the need to be able to communicate interculturally is evident. to be successful in intercultural communication, one does not only need to be linguistically competent but also culturally knowledgeable and sensitive. bearing in mind these cultural needs, this paper details the scavenger hunt technique as a tool for enhancing culture learning and intercultural communication practice. although this technique applies to martha nandari santoso 100 students of any major, this study was specifically implemented to a group of english as a foreign language (efl) students in indonesia. participants of this study were nine (9) male and twenty (20) female students of the english language education program at a private university in central java, indonesia. the students did the scavenger hunt in a group of four or five during their three-day trip to a multicultural setting in indonesia: bali island, and documented the activities in vlogs. the students’ vlogs which were data of this study were analyzed by using a qualitative content analysis approach. the findings showed that the scavenger hunt task resulted in the students' learning on cultural knowledge, intercultural communication, intercultural adaptation, information technology, and soft skills. during the three-day program, the students could also use english in a meaningful way. the study presented the strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations of this study, as well as some ideas for further research. keywords: culture learning, intercultural communication, efl,scavenger hunt. introduction several studies on the efl teaching have indicated that linguistic skills without cultural knowledge and awareness might be inadequate for effective communication (alptekin, 2002; bahman, 1990; council of europe, 2001). cultural knowledge and awareness in the context of efl today is not merely directed to the culture of native speakers of english, but to the culture of the world, as english is now used as a medium of communication across nations (alptekin, 2002). to facilitate culture learning and intercultural communication, theories and practice within the classroom environment might not suffice. practice in real-world situations and problems, with the first-hand experience, using experiential learning, has been reported to be significantly useful (shih, 2015). this kind of learning uses an approach that focuses on the process (wright, 2000). practice like this kind enables students to implement the lessons in the classroom (myers & jones, 1993). register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.99-122 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 101 this article briefly reviews culture and intercultural communication learning for efl students and the use of experiential learning in the form of a scavenger hunt technique for the students’ practice. the application of the scavenger hunt exercises is described in detail, and the results of the activities which the students documented in a form of vlogs are presented and discussed. the article closes with a summary, which includes the strengths, weaknesses of this study, and recommendations for future implementation of this scavenger hunt technique. some topics for further studies are also provided. culture learning and intercultural communication in efl context culture, in brief, can be described as "a set of knowledge, behaviors, attitudes, ideas, and traditions formed within, owned, and shared by a group of people and passed down from generation to generation" (shih, 2015, p.409). halverson (1985) developed the concept of culture in two big categories: the big “c” culture and the small “c” culture. shih (2015, p.409) described halverson’s categories of the big “c” culture as “visible aspects of culture such as food, art, artifacts, geography, history, and institutions,” and the small “c” culture as “less visible or invisible aspects of culture, such as language symbols (verbal and nonverbal), values, beliefs, and behaviors associated with a group of people”. while lee (2009) listed the big “c” culture referring to things like arts, history, geography, business, education, festivals and customs of a target speech society and the small “c” culture referring to values, norms, and beliefs that varies according to socio-cultural martha nandari santoso 102 factors such as freedom, privacy, equality, informality, fairness, control over time and competition. paige, jorstad, siaya, klein, and colby (2003) divided culture learning in three aspects: the cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects. the cognitive aspect of culture learning is the learning of knowledge of culture, which includes the big “c” culture and small “c” culture. the affective culture learning is when learners can accept the learned culture as something positive, and the behavioral aspect of culture learning is when one is aware of the learned culture and can behave appropriately in the learned culture. the three elements of culture learning are best learned in context and under the circumstances of the learned culture (shih 2015). the static approach of culture learning regards cultural knowledge as unchanging (brooks, 1975). the dynamic approach of culture learning considers culture as constructed by a group of people so it may change and culture learning should be obtained through interaction and communication with the local people (paige et al., 2003). shih (2015, p.407) in her study argued that cultural knowledge could be gained through “cultural immersion” such as “observing, participating in experiential learning activities and engaging with a culture". culture learning is to enable students to reflect their own culture to or possibly in contrast to another culture (mckay, 2002; kramsch, 1993). in other words, learning the culture of others is connected to the understanding of one's own culture. a situation where people/s who have different cultural backgrounds interact is called intercultural communication (issa, 2016). “intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual process in which people from different cultures create shared meanings” (girik allo, 2018, p.160). the students' knowledge of the diversity of culture is vital in register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.99-122 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 103 cross-cultural encounters (mc kay, 2002). a misunderstanding may occur, should people communicate without an understanding of each other's cultures. "culture determines what we perceive, how we react to situations, and how we relate to other people” (hall & hall, 1990, p.136). with the increasing mobility of people and the constantly changing world, people are likely to encounter intercultural communication situations in their daily lives, the workplace, and in almost all aspects of life. therefore, culture learning has become increasingly important and been included in the higher education curriculum. in the context of efl in this globalized world, efl students do not use english to speak with native speakers of english only as they may be in contact with people all over the world using english as the medium of communication. consequently, teachers can not teach the cultures of the native speakers of english only, as they used to. mckay (2002) argued that as english is widely spoken as an international language, the paradigm of the target culture learning is no longer directed to the cultures of the countries that use english as the first language, but to the international culture. in this way, students may learn about the cultures of the peoples from the countries that they are interested in visiting, although they may not be people whose first language is english. borrowing the terms of the three concentric spheres of global english proposed by kachru (1985, p.12-15), the target of culture learning can be of the culture of “inner circle” countries that include: usa, uk, canada, australia, and new zealand, or of “outer or extended circle” countries that use english as a second language, or of the “expanding circle” martha nandari santoso 104 countries that use english as a foreign language. in the context of learning english in indonesia, where english is a foreign language, occasions, when english is to be used, will likely be among people of different nationalities with different cultural backgrounds. in other words, communication in english will mostly be intercultural communication. the scavenger hunt as a pedagogical tool scholars have found the advantages of employing authentic learning activities or experiential learning to enhance learning. the scavenger hunt technique, among the others such as problem-solving, and a group project, belongs to this type of learning. in collinsdictionary.com, a “scavenger hunt” is defined as “a game, usually played outdoors, in which the players must collect various objects from a list of things they have been given." (https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/scavenger-hunt). as a pedagogical tool, a scavenger hunt technique has been used in various fields, both in language and culture studies and in other areas. in business studies, for example, doyle, helms, and westrup (2016) implemented the scavenger hunt technique to nine students and two faculty members from dalton (ga) state college during their nine-day trip to monterrey, mexico. they reported that "the use of scavenger hunt experiment can be economical to the study abroad program and can replace the typical city tour" (p.84). they also observed that students learned to read city maps and use public transportation in the city. other learnings from the scavenger hunt in this study are "long-term interest in mexico, in international travel, in learning another language, and in pursuing careers in international business" (p.85). the use of scavenger hunt exercises to support business schools are https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/scavenger https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/hunt https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/must_1 https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/list https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/scavenger-hunt register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.99-122 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 105 also acknowledged by some researchers, in particular to compensate the students’ inadequate work experience (shipp, lamb & mokwa, 1993), and to support language awareness and learning (doyle et al., 2016; kaplan, 1997). another study was done by renner, cahoon, and allegri (2016), who investigated the use of scavenger hunt exercise for facilitating campus library orientation for students of health sciences at the university of north carolina at chapel hill (unc). the results were described to be beyond orienting students to the library. both students and the library staff seemed to enjoy the activity. it was reported that the library staff didn't feel like working extra, but they felt the assistance they provided during the hunts was just like the course of regular work. the scavenger hunt was also done in some other settings. in geography courses, krakowka (2012) used a scavenger hunt task as one of the types of field trips. in his example, students received a map of the scavenger hunt about central park, new york. students had to answer questions and find a specific location. the findings indicated that this activity enabled students to connect between reality and theory, accentuate learning, and motivate students to explore further. the scavenger hunt is also used to enhance learning in the field of archeology (holzinger, lehner, fassold, & holzinger, 2011), to develop interest in a topic (klopfer, perry, squire, jan, & steinkuehler, 2005), and to build student camaraderie (kassens & enz, 2018). in the context of efl, a number of studies revealed the benefits of the use of the scavenger hunts in the teaching of intercultural skills and language martha nandari santoso 106 skills. in a study conducted in japan, butler, watkins, and wilkins (2012) used this technique successfully to nine efl students at kansai university of international studies. the nine students had to complete a scavenger hunt task in a group of three students in the areas of osaka and kobe. the nature of the task was to speak in english with their team members and english speaking foreigners as they completed the task. for example, they had to shop for some groceries at a store run by an english speaking foreigner, visit a coffee shop and meet a foreigner who was the researcher's friend but who was unknown to the students. they should speak to the foreigner who had a clue to do the next scavenger hunt task. findings indicated that the activity enhances students’ autonomy of learning and integrates the learning of communication across culture into their daily life activities. mclean (2006), in his article, reported that altherton high school in louisville, kentucky, usa implemented the scavenger hunt technique for students from korea, somalia, croatia, iraq, mexico, and other foreign countries who came there to study english. these students had to do a scavenger hunt of louisville city landmarks. students reported that they liked doing the scavenger hunt. they loved the group work, they learned about the technology downtown, and all of them enjoyed doing tasks outside the wall of the classroom. even the teachers who were involved in supervising the students also benefited from the scavenger hunt task as they became expert in using a gps unit and got to know different places downtown. a study of the use of the scavenger hunt technique for intercultural learning, an essential aspect of language learning, was conducted by wesp and baumann (2012). participants of this study were nine undergraduate students at a public university in st. croix in the us virgin island (usvi) and register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.99-122 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 107 11 undergraduate students at a public university on the us mainland. although both groups of students were majoring in psychology, the researchers affirmed the applicability of this technique in other settings for intercultural learning by students of all majors, which include efl students. the nine usvi students were hosting the eleven us mainland students. the scavenger hunt task was prepared by the hosting students to be completed by the visiting students. the task was about historical issues, culture, language, and food. besides doing a scavenger hunt, they had other course activities, which included dinner with the host students, class meals, and tours of a plantation, a reef, and a social service program. the findings revealed that the students believed the scavenger hunt was more effective for culture learning compared to other activities in the course. it enabled the students to explore different aspects of culture not only for the visiting students but also for the hosting students as they devised questions, verified answers, and interacted with their mainland counterparts. the activity was also reported to add cultural contacts and lead to friendship as students continued interacting through social media. sampson and jackson (2007), cited in wesp and baumann (2012), highlighted that an enjoyable initial cultural experience is vital to building a more receptive attitude to learning other cultures. for the learning of english skills, the scavenger hunt has also been used primarily in the efl elementary students. in the study conducted by alghamdy (2019), 52 efl elementary students in al baha city, saudi arabia, were taught english through games, which included the scavenger hunt martha nandari santoso 108 technique. the researcher found that the students' learning achievement improved, and interactions among peers increased. wen and copeland (2003) in their project also suggested making use of the word wall scavenger hunt technique for teaching vocabulary. in this technique, students have to choose words from the resources that the teacher has prepared in the classroom, such as magazines, posters, signs, or other materials that have english texts for the students to peruse. the words of the students' choice are then written on cards and collected in a grab bag. the words were then learned by having students to guess the words with clues from the teacher. in this way, students choose their own words they want to learn. wen and copeland (2003) believed that this technique could be engaging, low stress, and fun. research method in this study, the scavenger hunt exercise was applied to nine (9) male and twenty (20) female efl students of the english education program (eep) at a private university in central java, indonesia, who were taking the language, culture, and identity course in semester two in the year 2018/2019. one of the projects in this course was a three-day culture trip to bali island where the students had to do the scavenger hunt exercise. bali island was chosen for some reasons. first, bali is a place in indonesia where we can find people from many different nationalities. in that situation, exposure to english variety and opportunities to use english to the international community should be huge. and since the balinese have a culture that is different from the culture of the students who mostly come from register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.99-122 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 109 regions in java island, this location choice would enable the students to encounter numerous cultures both from the local balinese and foreigners. the project was given in week ten after students had learned about basic cultural knowledge in the previous weeks in the classroom. the students were divided into groups of four or five to arrange their bali trip, and then to travel and do the scavenger hunt exercise in their group. the scavenger hunt exercise was designed based on several concepts. first, students need to learn both the big “c” culture or the visible ones such as food, arts, english variety, and the small “c” culture or the less visible ones such as belief, norms, and values. to acquire the big “c” culture knowledge, students had to: take out menus from five different restaurants, visit popular cultural places in bali, find artifacts such as children’s toys, local products, and sweets or snacks that were foreign to them, look through travel brochures or magazines to see businesses offered in the city and identify the origin of those businesses. as for obtaining the small “c” culture, students had to speak to both the balinese local people and foreigners, ask them about reasons for coming to bali and their opinions of bali, interview the balinese who is at least fifty years old to know their views of bali now and then, when they were young. the second concept was based on mc. kay's (2002 ) and kramsch’s (1993) views that said that learning another culture should help understanding one's own culture. students were encouraged to use the analytical skills to see similarities and differences in what they observed. for obtaining this martha nandari santoso 110 objective, the tasks given were to find five similar and five different things they found in bali as compared to the ones in their hometown, compare food there in bali and balinese food in their hometown. the next concept was that the target culture is not necessarily the cultures of the people who speak english as their first language, as english now is an international language. thus, students may choose their own target culture to learn by giving them the freedom to choose people from which country they would like to interact with or based on the country they would like to visit. and since indonesia is already a multicultural country, students were also assigned to interact with the local people in bali and people from other islands different from their own. students did the scavenger hunt exercise with their group and recorded the results in vlogs. after the trip, students wrote their trip reports individually. the strategy used was adopted from the experiential approach to culture learning proposed by hess cited in shih (2015), which consists of the action-reflection-response strategy. the action was done through the scavenger hunt exercise, which the students did in a group and documented in vlogs. the reflection was done through making a trip report individually, and the response was the cognitive, affective and behavior changes after the learning experience. the primary purpose of this study was to describe the scavenger hunt activities and some examples of what the students did. the author did not include what the students thought about the activities and the behavior changes after the learning experience. the students’ documentation of the scavenger hunt exercises in a form of vlogs which were data of this study were processed by using a qualitative content analysis approach proposed by register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.99-122 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 111 kawulich (2004). following the procedure in this approach, the author watched the vlogs several times, took notes of the students’ main activities in the vlogs, put them in a table and arranged them into categories to develop themes. results & discussion following the three-cycle strategy mentioned earlier: the actionreflection response strategy, this three-day scavenger hunt experience in bali, which the students documented in vlogs, and the individual student's reflection resulted in the completion of the first two steps (action and reflection) of the strategy. but as mentioned earlier in the method, in this study, the author focused on the actions and did not include discussions on the reflections and response. the students’ actions during the scavenger hunt activities which were documented in vlogs can be accessed from the links presented in the following table. martha nandari santoso 112 the presentation of this session is divided into three main categories: the scavengers’ results and discussion on (1) the visible culture, (2) the less visible culture, and (3) other learning. topics on the big “c” such as food, toys, cultural places, similarities and differences, and different expressions of greetings belong to the visible culture. the less visible culture includes intercultural communication practice with foreigners and local indonesian, and intercultural encounters and adaptation. the other learning comprises of it and soft skills learning. each topic is described in the following paragraphs. the visible culture food register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.99-122 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 113 on the category of the more visible culture, one of the focuses of the scavenger hunt exercise was learning about food in bali, which covered both balinese food and food from other countries. in the vlogs, students made a review of menus from balinese, japanese, thai, chinese, singaporean, and middle eastern restaurants. they admitted that it was the first time for them to taste some of the food, such as ayam betutu (chicken cooked with balinese spices). students also compared nasi campur (rice with various side dishes) in bali and nasi campur in their hometown, which they described to be significantly different in taste. during their exploration of a traditional market, students found snacks that were foreign to them. they included reto, ulibegino, miluk, and bagiak. these snacks have balinese names, so nonbalinese will not have any idea of them, just by hearing the names. in their vlogs, the scavengers showed the snacks, described the ingredients, the texture, the shape, and the taste. they appreciated these foreign snacks. they said ‘yummy’ all the time. toys children's toys are also rich in culture. the scavengers captured western toys such as avenger's toys, barbie, and superman dolls. they also demonstrated how to play some traditional musical instruments such as icik-icik by shaking it, or ketipung by hitting it, and kalimba by picking the strings. other toys include ketapel (slingshot), and a toy frog, which produces sounds of a frog. toys reflect the culture of the producers and users (gorman, 2019) and can become good sources for further cultural learning. martha nandari santoso 114 cultural places during the scavenger hunt exercise, students visited some cultural places and managed to learn about the aesthetic values behind them. one of the cultural icons was garuda wisnu kencana, which is a gigantic statue of a hindu god (wisnu) riding a mythical garuda bird. they described the statue, the meaning, and how to get there. the students who traveled to bali by the land transportation and ferry to cross the bali strait from java, used the opportunity to visit rama shinta park on the way from gilimanuk port (in bali) to the nearest city in bali (denpasar). this group captured and described rama shinta statue, another famous statue about king rama and his wife, shinta. similarities and differences during the activities, students found that the convenience store in bali and the one in their hometown was similar in the lightning, displaying method, and the interior. but they were different in the sale products which mostly were local balinese products such as kopi bali (balinese coffee), pia bali (a kind of danish pie from bali), and brem rasa anggur (fermented glutenous rice cake with grape flavor). they also found differences in ritual stuff, such as incents and offerings that were available almost everywhere in public areas in bali. different expressions of greetings as students interact with people/s from different nationalities in english, students were exposed to a variety of english, for example, an australian greeted: 'how ya' or ' how are ya' mate' or 'good day, mate.' students specifically also asked the foreigners how to say 'how are you' in their register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.99-122 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 115 language. they learned from the japanese 'konichiwa', 'o-genki desu ka,' and were informed that there‘s no expression such as ‘i’m fine’ in japanese. the less visible culture interactions with foreigners and other ethnic groups in indonesia on the category of the less visible culture, although still at the beginning level, the students survived in adjusting themselves in the new environments. they managed to approach foreigners and start a conversation well, by greeting them, saying a few opening words and could stay relaxed during the social interaction. they found that the foreigners’ reasons for coming to bali were mostly for entertainment, holiday, or shopping. the foreigners they spoke to were those coming from russia (3 people), australia (1 person), new zealand (1 person), the philippines (1 person), japan (1 person), the u.s (1 person), france (1 person), and india (1 person). this fact shows that from ten foreigners they spoke to, only three people come from the inner-circle countries ( the u.s, australia, and new zealand), two from the outer or extended circle countries (the philippines and india), and the other five are from the expanding circle countries (russia – three people, japan and france one person each). in other words, the countries the students are interested in consist of 50% countries that use english as the first and second language, and the other 50% are countries that use english as a foreign language. besides interviewing the balinese, which was required for all groups, they interviewed people from ambon, makassar, jakarta, and medan – martha nandari santoso 116 several big cities in indonesia. from the interviews, students found out their reasons for coming to bali. their intentions were ranging from having a job with better pay, marrying a balinese, or just for avoiding the rainy season in their region. intercultural encounters and adaptation the students practice their conversation prompts, responded to questions, and maintained a good dialog. they asked questions to the foreigners, such as reasons for coming to bali, length of stay in bali, differences between bali and their home country, and other issues. during the interviews, students encountered several intercultural differences and learned how to adapt to them. for example, a russian that they met in the lodge told them that she was surprised and a bit scared to be greeted 'good morning' by a policeman in the street in bali. she thought she had done some offense. she was at last relieved only after knowing that the policeman was just friendly to her. the students laughed, listening to this story. they were amused as the foreigner’s reaction to a simple greeting by the policeman was beyond their anticipation. another intercultural adaptation happened when a japanese man they would interview refused to have his video taken. not to miss the opportunity, students managed to make some adaptation. they understood the japanese’ objection and offered an audio recording instead of a video recording. the japanese then agreed. on another interview with a filipino, the students were asked by the filipino: ‘how old are you?’ a taboo topic asked to a foreigner. but in register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.99-122 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 117 response to this question, the students smiled widely, instead of being offended, and answered the question happily. the students responded appropriately. they seemed to understand that a taboo topic was relative and affected by socio-cultural factors such as who said that, to whom, and in what circumstances. the question was said by a middle-aged filipino lady, to students who were all girls in their late teens or early twenties, in a relaxed and friendly conversation engagement in a resort place. other learning apart from their culture learning and intercultural communication practice, students developed their information technological skills for making the vlogs with various techniques. sometimes they gave a prolog, and at other times they used a question and answer technique in presenting their findings. during their vlog making, they alternately used a monopod and tripod depending on the situation, inserted texts, and completed the vlog with appropriate background music, and creative animation. students also developed their soft skills, which include cooperation, leadership, participation, confidence, and navigating skills. and as students of efl who scarcely can practice speaking english outside english classrooms, the scavenger hunt exercise in bali has conditioned the students to make meaningful communication in english in real-life situations. conclusion martha nandari santoso 118 the three-day scavenger hunt exercise has resulted in the students' learning on both the big “c” culture or the visible ones and the small “c” culture or the less visible ones. the visible include the learning of balinese food and food from countries outside indonesia, toys, and artifacts from different parts of the world, english variety, and understanding of some cultural places. while the less visible culture includes the learning of communicating with the residents in bali and local indonesian people asking about their views on some topics and also interacting with people from ten nationalities by using english, learning to start a talk appropriately, and maintain the conversation in a relaxed way. during the interactions, students also encountered cultural differences or people's reactions that were different from their basic assumptions of responses. besides obtaining cultural knowledge and intercultural communication experience, students developed their it skills in particular for making their reflection in vlogs, soft skills for working in a team, navigating abilities, confidence. also, they had a lot of opportunities to practice english in a meaningful way. the strength of this scavenger hunt exercise was that students enjoyed learning. starting from the day when this project was announced, the students were excited already. the students' positive responses were similar to those of other scavenger hunt researchers (butler et al.,2012; doyle et al., 2016; kaplan, 1997; krakowka, 2012; renner et al., 2016; wesp & baumann, 2012). the researcher realized that this scavenger hunt exercise could have resulted better if the time hadn't been only three days. the three day trip to bali was indeed too short, as the first and last day were mostly spent for the traveling time, effectively resting only the second day for doing the scavenger register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.99-122 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 119 hunt exercise. my recommendation is a week or ten days for doing this kind of task with reflection and evaluation on every other day. in this way, changes after learning may be more evident, and students may have an opportunity to have recycling of learning by retrying after reflection and do the practice repeatedly. a more complete result could be obtained if reactions from the faculty were also studied. investigation on the faculty's views could become a topic for further research. further study can also be conducted by collecting longitudinal student data to see their affective and behavior changes as a result of learning and see their success in intercultural communication and ultimately in their career life. references alptekin, c. 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(2013). a virtual walk through london: culture learning through a cultural immersion experience. computer assisted language learning, 28 (5), 407–428. doi:10.1080/09588221.2013.851703 shipp, s., lamb, c. jr., & mokwa, m. p. (1993). developing and enhancing marketing skills: written and oral communication, intuition, creativity and computer use. marketing education review, 3 (3), 2-8. sinanu, f. l. (2017). instruction for scavenger hunt [class handout]. faculty of language and arts, universitas kristen satya wacana, salatiga, central java. stajcic, n. (2013). understanding culture: food as a means of communication. hemispheres 28, 5-16. wesp, r., & baumann, a. (2012). a cultural scavenger hunt: tools of engagement. psychology learning & teaching, 11 (3), 423–427. doi:10.2304/plat.2012.11.3.423 wright, d.a. (2000). culture as information and culture as affective process: a comparative study. foreign language annals, 33(3), 330–341. doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.2000.tb00610.x register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.99-122 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 123 “from teacher-centered to students-centered to collaborative learning” illuminating my teacher knowledge through narrative inquiry hanung triyoko english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 02 salatiga, central java, indonesia hanungina@yahoo.co.id abstract teacher knowledge refers to the ways teachers know themselves and their professional work situations. this paper applies the narrative inquiry method to illuminate my own teacher knowledge. through each vignette told in this paper, i will inquire into what i know and feel about english teachinglearning process and illuminate my teacher knowledge by referring to what education experts say regarding particular concepts of english teachinglearning. my students and i will have greater chance to share the values behind the students-centered classroom interaction, the internet-based learning, or other kind of learning to follow in the future when ‗we‘, not only ‗i‘ redefine education practices at schools keywords: narrative inquiry, teacher knowledge, vignette abstrak pengetahuan seorang guru berkenaan dengan bagaimana mereka memahami diri mereka sendiri dan keadaan yang berhubungan dengan pekerjaan mereka secara professional. penelitian ini menerapkan metode naratif inquiri untuk menambah pengetahuan keguruan saya secara pribadi. melalui setiap penggambaran yang ditampilkan dalam penelitian ini, saya bermaksud memperdalam mengenai apa yang saya ketahui dan apa yang saya rasakan mengenai proses pembelajaran serta memperkaya pengetahuan mengajar saya berdasarkan beberapa dalil dari para ahli pendidikan yang berhubungan dengan beberapa konsep pembelajaran bahasa inggris. saya dan para mahasiswa saya pun akan memperoleh lebih banyak kesempatan untuk menyampaikan nilai-nilai yang diperoleh dibalik interaksi kelas yang berpusat pada peserta didik, pembelajaran berdasarkan internet,ataupun mailto:hanungina@yahoo.co.id berbagai pembelajaran lain nantinya, dimana istilah 'kita', sebagai ganti untuk istilah 'saya' dapat diterapkan dalam pelaksanaan proses pendidikan di sekolah. kata kunci: pendekatan naratif inkuiri, pengetahuan mengajar, sketsa introduction there is still a strong dispute on whether the content knowledge or the pedagogical knowledge is the most important attribute of a quality teacher. a research done by kukla-acevedo proves that both are equally important in effective teaching (2009). as an english teacher who is not a graduate of an english teacher college, i often find it very challenging to prove for myself that i am able to teach. i read books and research reports on pedagogical theory and practices and i like to apply some recommendations on effective teaching provided by educational experts in my own classroom. nevertheless, i never find myself as a confident teacher who feels all right with all that have happened in the classroom. i feel like there is always a gap between realities in my classroom and the ideal teaching practices as described in the books and research reports. xu and connely argue that teachers‘ knowledge is more critical than knowledge-for-teachers (2009, p. 223). bearing in mind that content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge as knowledge-for-teachers, i believe it is time for me to know about my own teacher knowledge in order to gain more confidence in teaching. by definition, teacher knowledge is ―a narrative construct which references the totality of a person‘s personal practical knowledge gained from formal and informal educational experience‖ (xu & connelly 2009, p. 221). teacher knowledge refers to the ways teachers know themselves and their professional work situations. this paper applies the narrative inquiry method to illuminate my own teacher knowledge. the narrative inquiry itself is adopted here because through thinking narratively, i can see everything that i experienced as happening in particular time and place and so i see each experience in sequential flow and that ―inquiry itself is a narrative process‖(xu & connelly 2009, p. 223). on the following are vignettes narrating my experiences in learning english, in becoming a novice teacher-educator, in joining the 6 months international inservice teacher certification organized by cambridge university in bali, in lessening the gap between the ideals and the realities of teaching english in my own classrooms, in taking leaves from teaching routines while pursuing a master degree on educational leadership and management at la trobe university, australia. in each vignette, i will inquire into what i know and feel about english teaching-learning process and illuminate my teacher knowledge by referring to what education experts say regarding particular concepts of english teaching-learning. my english learning i had learnt english for six years prior to my study at the university. in my school times, students learnt english through classroom learning activities highly controlled by the teachers. students were therefore so dependent on the classroom learning pace. i learnt english in ways very common to any english teaching in schools at that time, by focusing on the structures of discrete english, generally presented from the simple to complex structures, then to compare the structures to their counterparts in bahasa and used this knowledge to translate texts, principally designed for school usages, from english into bahasa or vice versa. reading skill and writing skill were emphasized than the speaking and listening skills since students would unlikely use their english for other purposes than the academic purpose. students’ performance in english was measured from their test results which items were mostly close ended questions and multiple choices. i was accepted at the department of english literature at the faculty of letters of the gadjah mada university in 1993 as i was one among the 28 out of 10.600 applicants passing the very competitive selection test to the department. my performance in english was above the average english performance of senior high-school students because the selection test itself was designed to qualify very limited top achiever to major in english literature, where students would very likely study different kind of english, the more complex and extraordinary english as used in literary works. nevertheless, in the university, i learnt english much in the same traditions of english teachinglearning where students tried to gain as many advantages as possible from classroom activities highly controlled by teachers. the difference was that students were exposed to more examples of english usages outside the academic world. through my extensive readings on the prescribed english novels, poems, dramas, and short stories, and lecture sessions on appreciating and analysing meticulous literary works i was involved in learning english as the inseparable part of cultures and values of the english natives. i might have instilled some values of the western people, such as egalitarianism and critical thinking, even though the classroom activities might not be designed to invoke those values. the vignette above shows that the prevalent view of teaching adjoining my learning english is that teachers believe students will learn nothing unless teachers make effort to teach them what to learn therefore the classroom activities are so structured (raz 1982, p. 110). the rampant learning styles adopted by students in my school time is what so called as surface learning where students understand and remember knowledge already exist as it is provided by teachers, and absorb new information that do not change students engraved thinking process (offir et al. 2008, p. 1175) from the vignette of my learning english above, i like to accentuate on three things as follow. 1. i tagged along similar path of english learning like other students in indonesia did 6 six years of formal classroom sessions with learning activities highly controlled by teachers except that i also joined english course outside school that provided less controlled learning activities. 2. at the university, i studied english as both a means of communication and expressions of cultures and values. 3. to certain degree, i was integrating myself to the values and cultures of english native speakers. it would be really hard for me to look into the worth of any literary works in particular community if i failed to understand the values and cultures of that community. the fact that i also joined english course outside school may become one of the reasons why i managed to always score higher than the average. this course gave me additional learning activities that other students could not have in their formal education. lier (1996, p. 43) says to guarantee improvement in language learning students must occupy their minds with that language between lessons as well as in lessons. my involvement in the course was also an indicator of my having higher motivation to learn english that helped me much in my learning (bernaus & gardner 2008). however, there is also another explanation for this. perhaps i was one of what jeffrey calls as high assessment focus students or students who win the games of learning by following exactly all rules prescribed by teachers (2009, p. 199). high assessment focus students are the successful ones in surface learning. my learning english at the university makes me believe that discussion on english structures must not serve as the most important section in textbooks or classroom activities since as expressions of cultures, english usage is very dependent on the users. i know that the choices for the use of particular forms or structures of english do not depend merely on the information content, time of events, etc but also on the purposes, identities, and social variables of the users (mcconachy 2009, p. 117). my attitude toward teaching-learning english has also changed through my experience studying in the faculty of english literature. i preferred to look at the purposes of someone using particular chunk of english rather than the structures of that discrete english. literary persons are very skilful in their choices of language and so if i am to teach english i believe i will let my students to study variety of possible pieces of english to achieve the users‘ purposes to communicate in english. this is in line to what cadman (2008, p. 30) says that teachers‘ attitude and priority influence the teaching learning process. being a novice english teacher-educator it was indeed startling, or other might look at it as silly, for me to get the position as teacher-educator as i was not a graduate of a teachercollege. soon as i got the position, i knew that i had chosen the right profession. my father and mother were teachers and i felt like i was born to be a teacher too. i was impressed with the value of egalitarianism shared by english spoken communities as described in the literary works that on my first day teaching, i came to the class earlier hoping that students could see me as different teacher since other teachers generally came to class only after all students sat in the class and showed readiness for their sessions. that first thing i did in my first teaching and my other behaviours to show that i liked to be treated more as a friend for their learning rather than as a teacher having higher authority in classroom activities did not work as what i expected. very few students felt quite at ease with this changing value in my classroom. consequently, the teaching-learning process in my classroom went in the same direction taken by other classrooms, where learning was still very dependent on teachers’ control and performance. even though, i taught them more on the usage of english than on its structures, i did not really encourage my students to challenge the curriculum that emphasized on the teaching of english structures. indeed, by playing a role as knowledge provider, i felt more secure. i felt like i was on the stage showing off my skills, my english, to compensate for my lacks of pedagogical knowledge. besides, i believed most of my students were still lacks of content knowledge and my role as knowledge provider would boost up their english mastery. anyway, they could learn how to teach later when people put trust on their english mastery, just like what had happened to me. the content knowledge or the pedagogical knowledge influences on teachers‘ performances were not parts of the considerations for appointing me as teaching staff at stain salatiga. my being alumni of a reputable english department of gadjah mada university plainly convinced the selection committee that i would be able to fulfil my jobs. albeit no complaints from my students so far, i did face some problems of teaching due to my lack of prior knowledge and experiences on pedagogical practices. it was told in the vignette that i was carried away with the dominant local cultures that put me as the master in the classroom, instead of me instilling new values to my classroom. this diminished my initial intention to promote new learning through new teacher-students relationship which was more egalitarian. according to sowden, non-native english teacher often face obstacles for implementing particular teaching methodologies when students perceived that there are some imported values in the methodologies (2007, p. 304) this is perhaps a reason why not all my students feel secure with my new approach in our interaction. regarding the array of experiences that students have at school in a whole, students may not remember all what their teachers taught but they will very likely not forget how they are treated (nguyen 2009, p. 655). while other teachers are still keeping the hierarchy, it will be hard for students to treat me differently so as to lessen the power distance between me and my students. i was also unable to share the egalitarian value because i enjoyed my role as knowledge provider, which automatically positions my students as the ones need the learning, not me. bernaus and gardner (2008, p. 399) say teachers may apply any teaching strategy they think as of value for students but students have to perceived it as such in order for this strategy to be effective. furthermore, since the prevailing cultures in my classroom still inhibit the desirable situations of my planned changes, the possibility for me to fail in implementing my plan is bigger (wang & cheng 2005, p. 20). joining an international in-service english teacher certification from march to august 2005 i joined the cambridge international inservice english teacher certification organized by indonesiaaustralia language foundation bali (ialf bali). i expected that this training would focus on upgrading my teaching skills than my english skills because the committee has standardized the level of the participants’ english proficiency through ielts. this training really improved my teaching skills in many ways. i experienced teaching as well as observing many classroom practices that used variety of approaches, methods and techniques as offered by many experts in english teaching in their publications and research. i knew the importance of real communications, authentic materials, and opportunities for students to engage in the tasks as active english users through conversations, discussion, or team works. i also developed the habit of careful planning for each lesson i would have by sequencing classroom activities and allocating the time for each activity to be done and ensuring students talking time to be much higher than my talking time so students would have more chances to use their english. from the training, i developed more skills in teaching english and i learnt the new trends in teaching english called as student-centered education, which put more weight on active learning experiences than on lectures, on critical thinking and open ended questions than on memorization and close ended questions, on simulations and role plays than on drills and imitating, and on self-paced or team-based learning than on teacher-control learning and competition-based learning (felder and brent 1996 in isikoglu et al. 2009, p. 351). this training put me to new learning situation where students were the center of the teachinglearning process as this training was delivered this way, for example by letting the trainees do peer-assessment and self-assessment through peerobservation and selfreflection on their microteaching practices. this also changed my belief and attitude to teaching-learning. attitude and belief are dynamic and situated and they change as product of new situational experience (ellis 2008, p. 23). lessening the gap between the ideals and the realities of teaching english in my own classrooms the international certificate for teaching english from cambridge university had boosted my self-confidence to teach even more. i had very little doubt on my ability to be an effective teacher-educator since i had equipped myself with satisfactory content knowledge of english, adequate pedagogical knowledge and a belief that i had chosen the right profession. i was contented with my efforts to practice what i had learnt in the training until the time when i had to choose once again on which one to follow, my lesson plans or my classroom dynamic. very often i could not implement my lesson plans because my students were so distinct in their abilities and learning styles that doing all the planned activities in my lesson plans could let some students gain more advantages in learning and make others struggle to keep up with the pace of learning. my purpose to use a well-planned lesson to promote a more studentscentred approach to learning english came to no avail because some students were still unable to be more responsible with their learning. for examples, lively discussion was still hard to occur because weak students would rather say nothing rather than to be seen as poor students who always made mistake because they were accustomed to classroom practice that avoids mistakes whatsoever. dardjowijoyo argues that it is indeed hard for teachers in indonesia to make students talk because ‗to talk‘ can mean ‗to lessen‘ teachers‘ authority (2001, p. 315). team works and peer conversations could not provide same chances for all students to learn because strong students would be made dominant by the shared value that the more knowledgeable people were in the higher level of the social hierarchy and therefore had the authority to control the group. indeed, my gradual shift of roles from a depositor of knowledge to a facilitator of knowledge gaining through involving students in classroom decision making and frequent peer teaching was taken by many students as a form of aversion to share my knowledge with them. my changing classroom practices are often blocked by the sociocultural values in indonesia where teachers are considered as the fountain of knowledge that pour into students‘ mind all that students need to study and students deposit all without reserve (lewis 1997, p. 14). i cannot neglect both the discrepancies between the ideals and the realities of teaching english in my own classrooms or the discrepancies between my personal and my students‘ collective view of learning in order to create changes in learning and to address them one by one can cause minimum impact (jeffrey 2009, p. 195) pursuing a further study at la trobe university, australia i was taking two years leave from doing my teaching jobs when i got an australian partnership scholarship (aps) to study at la trobe university melbourne from july 2007 to july 2009. i was enrolled at a master’s program of educational leadership and management. here, i found very different practices of education than what i had experienced while i was studying at gadjah mada university. i had more choices of courses to take based on my own preferences. i needed to finish 12 courses in all in two years and only six of them were compulsory while in gadjah mada, i had to finish 16 compulsory courses out of 18 total courses. at la trobe, i could access the on-line library resources in 24 hours and there was a huge amount of electronic journals and books and links to multiple databases that i could always count whenever i had to do research to complete the tasks, which generally required students to produce knowledge, by critically analysed theories and conceptions, and to relate them to students previous knowledge and local contexts, not merely preserved knowledge by doing exams. i was also given freedom to choose among variety of tasks that i would like to perform to measure the outcomes of my learning. there were lots of discussion in the classrooms and i could see that most students were ready to contribute to the discussion because lecturers had notified the various questions to discuss and resources to help students do research on those questions from the beginning of the semester and all was done with the lms (the learning management system), an online computer program that linked all students taking the same course and used for all members of the class to communicate and most importantly to share knowledge. here, in australia, i was not dependent on lecturers in my learning because lecturers themselves never wanted to control students learning and they served students well by becoming facilitator, motivator, and collaborator in students’ learning through maximizing the use of library and the internet. on the technology for education course, i worked with 4 other students in online discussion facilitated by the internet to complete a task. i did not even need to leave my home for the discussion. i also practiced creating my own web quest, an online program in which i build up learning resources available in the internet for the users to accomplish certain learning tasks. my learning at la trobe is the reality of what i could only imagine before as the kind of learning fostered by students-centered education. i have never experienced or seen myself a classroom teaching-learning process where students really have autonomy and responsibility in their learning. i could only envision the learning activities promoted by studentscentered education from the books. in my training as told previously, i could only apprehend half of the teaching-learning practices in studentscentered education since i was trained as a teacher and my students were my fellow trainees so our classrooms were not real. below are very noticeable things in my learning at la trobe that sustain the description of student-centered education. 1. i have more freedom in choosing what to learn 2. i have more choices in doing tasks to measure my learning outcomes 3. i am able to learn on my own pace through the availability of huge learning resources and the facilitation of lecturers. thank to the pre-departure training that i took part in before leaving to australia that i was not stunned by my real first experience as a student in the students-centered education. i could develop my autonomy in learning as required by this kind of education because i was made to take control in my own learning by lecturers‘ attitudes and facilitation. i was given all the opportunities to consult my learning problems with lecturers and they would do their best to address my learning needs, even though it was quite personal, like i needed to leave their classroom earlier as i was worried to take public transport late in the evening when the course was held in the evening, but they also remind me of my learning tasks during the weeks to come. according to healey (2007, p. 384) taking the control in their own hands is the prerequisite for students‘ autonomy. at la trobe, i have even undergone a new kind of learning, which i have known very little thing about it from books i read before i came to australia, a learning which is facilitated mostly by the internet. in this new learning, i hit upon three features so dissimilar to my previous learning experiences. those are: 1. the use of the internet as more than just an educational tool because the internet very often serves as provider of knowledge, a facilitator, organisator, and other roles that teacher commonly play in teachercentered as well as students-centered education. 2. learners are not united by the four walls of the classroom because they are taking the same course. they are united by the same interest in learning particular area of study with unlimited people around the world. 3. students-teacher interactions do not occur at schools only. they can be anywhere but they can still interact for the sake of learning facilitated by the internet. i am so amazed with my learning experiences facilitated by the internet. i feel like i have everything i possibly need to gain as many benefit as possible from my learning in australia. i am very motivated to utilize various learning materials provided by the internet such as videos, podcasts, journals, discussion forums, games, blogs, web quests, etc. to accelerate my learning. i agree entirely to list of advantages proposed by egbert, paulus, and nakamichy (2002, p. 112) on the learning facilitated by the internet, such as supported experiential learning, enabled individual, pair or team works, promoted exploratory and global learning, enhanced student achievement, availability of authentic materials, facilitation of greater interaction, individualized instruction and independence and increased motivation. regarding particularly to my experience involved in online discussion, i think i like it better than the face-to-face discussions. as a nonnative english speakers, i sometimes feel doubtful whether i am articulate enough in expressing my opinions upon certain issues worrying that my classmates may not really apprehend what i am saying due to my pronunciation or wrong dictions. i do not feel this doubt in on line discussion because i can always check and recheck my sentences, without worrying my pronunciations, and i also have more time to provide data for my arguments. in their research, coffin, north, and martin (2009, p. 87) find that in online discussion students select evidences more carefully, reticent students become more involved, and students have more time to think before replying. in on line discussion the present of lecturers can also be maintained in order not to interfere with students‘ autonomy. in my on line discussion told above, the lecturer just gave the starting questions to discuss but did not involve in the discussion, because she wanted us to take control of the discussion and responsible for the outcomes. this method is suggested by arnold and ducati (2006, p. 46) for teachers facilitating online discussion. the learning skills developed from learning activities facilitated by the internet are various. the definition of literacy as one of the basic skills in learning includes more than just an ability to access information from written texts. digital literacies involve other skills such as importing texts, dragging, dropping, editing, scanning and deciding what is important and what is not, and being able to process that information in the given time (kinnane 2008, p. 2). my learning activities at la trobe university i believe are more adaptable cross-culturally than learning activities frequently mentioned in textbooks describing the students-centered education. i think many concepts in the students-centered education, such as autonomy, independence, selfassessment, and so on are easier to apprehend than to practice for many students at schools whose prevalent culture values are harmony, hierarchy, and indirectness. in the new learning facilitated by the internet, the conceptions of collaboration, community of learning, and connectedness, may sound less threatening to students‘ from communal type of cultures as asian students generally. the conception of learning community is indeed very fundamental in this new learning. the new learning is the practice of a new theory of learning called as the connectivism theory. kop and hill (2008, p. 1) argue that in the theory of connectivism knowledge is ―actuated through the process of a learner connecting to and feeding information into a learning community‖. kop and hill (2008, p. 6) further argue knowledge is ―situated within a community in which a ‗more knowledgeable other‘ facilitates the move from the periphery to the centre of the community‖. in connectivism, the conceptions of ‗transferring knowledge‘ or ‗building knowledge‘ are no longer the centre of discussion because learning activities are more like growing or developing ‗selves‘ and ‗community‘ (kop & hill 2008, p. 9). the recognition of ‗community of learning‘ and ‗more knowledgeable other‘ as basic elements of this new learning i think will give this new learning more values conforming to values in communal cultures therefore it will not create more cultural challenges for any type of cultures to adopt this new learning. i am also enthusiast to think of what can i do more in my classroom after having this new learning facilitated by the internet and being able to develop my web quest. i do not question on the benefits of implementing this new learning to my english teaching. clarke and bowe (2007, p. 19) claim that the far-reaching use of visuals, either still or moving, animations, sound effects, interactivity, and the text supported with voice over instructions are all very helpful for english as second language students. besides, students can always go back to their favourite sites of learning as many as they like and they can also have direct feedback on their performance when they are doing games, quizzes, or tests provided. the most anticipated problems in implementing this new learning in my work contexts are that first, we may not have good internet connection and second, that my students are not culturally prepared for this new learning. egbert et al (2002, p. 112) warns teachers of these potential problems that prevent them from implementing the learning facilitated by technology. those are: 1. time pressures outside and during class 2. lack of resources and materials 3. insufficient guidelines, standards, and curricula 4. lack of support for integrating computers 5. a clash between new and old technologies 6. lack of leadership 7. inadequate training and technical support in order to be successful in a learning facilitated by the internet, my students should first apprehend that this learning is different to their traditional learning in a sense that to compensate for the flexibility of time and place of this learning, being independence in their learning is a must (felix 1998, p. 217). rendering to the students‘ autonomy in a learning facilitated by the internet, healey (2007, p. 385) says to be autonomous students must know their learning goals, their preferred ways of learning, ways to be motivated, and they also need to develop learning community that enable the members achieve their goals in various ways and to be able to make decisions in learning as adults. connecting new learning with previous knowledge it is obvious that i need to find a new way to cope with the learning situation in my own classroom to eventually see that my students treat me more like a friend in learning than a provider of knowledge and that they are autonomous in their learning so they will all take advantages of any classroom activities that are compromised to serve their learning needs. i have to restart my personal project to create a classroom interaction that is more studentscentered. i have learnt from what i have done so far in my classroom that: 1. the initiative to shift from a teacher-centered to students-centered approach was not shared by all students. it belonged to me and few strong students who took the shift as an opportunity to accelerate their learning. 2. my students were so diverse in their learning styles and abilities that blatantly following activities in lessons plan could favour some students learning styles and do unjust to the others‘. 3. my open-mindedness to what happens in my classroom dynamics and to individual treat of my students can become very helpful for me to encourage students autonomy in their learning and to keep them secure with any changes necessary for the shift from a teacher-centered to studentscentered classroom interaction. why do i think that my students will learn better when they are autonomous? why do i feel cosy with the students-centered classroom interaction while many of my students felt threatened by it? why cannot i just teach in the ways familiar to my students, the ―chalk and talk‖ method? one answer satisfies all these questions. i have experienced my self this kind of learning. i learnt from many english literary works the value of egalitarianism, which i believe is one of the basic values in students-centered classroom interaction. i was trained how to practice students-centered education in my own teaching in an international training implementing the students-centered education and now i am studying in australia, in which the students-centered education is the common approach and indeed there has been a shift to new learning as the advancement of the students-centered education and is facilitated by the internet. i have the opportunity to constantly challenge my view of learning, to compare my traditional view of learning with my new learning. the key point is that i have undergone a situation where i keep connecting my previous knowledge on teaching-learning practices with my new learning on teaching-learning practices and that this connecting process is personal. conclusion in order to have classroom situations in which i become a friend in learning not a sole provider of learning, students become autonomous and responsible for their own learning, and teaching-learning become a shared activity for people everywhere and anytime not limited to school building or school time, i know i have to ensure that all my students involve in personal activity to connect their previous knowledge with their new learning. my students and i will have greater chance to share the values behind the studentscentered classroom interaction, the internetbased learning, or other kind of learning to follow in the future when ‗we‘, not only ‗i‘ redefine education practices at schools and we have to redefine it through continuous collaborative learning. 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teaching‘, the asian efl journal quarterly, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 7-32. xu, s. & connelly, f. m. 2009, ‗narrative inquiry for teacher education and development: focus on english as a foreign language in china‘, teaching and teacher education, vol. 25, pp. 219-27. rethinking language education in indonesia register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 22 5 and 7 year old childrenwith no english background respondtoward parents’ stimulus using the comprehensible inputs on direct english daily conversations at home setia rini english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 2 salatiga, central java, indonesia abstract this paper seeks to explorehow the comprehensible inputs are given by mother responded by the children who have no english background and what are the discourse features which aid children‟s comprehension and ability to maintain the conversation. this study is conducted in the writer‟s home with her sons in order to apply the comprehensible inputs. the results shows that the children ages 5 and 7 years old who have no english background are able to give the responses unless the questions or the stimulus given must be followed by the non verbal language such as gesture and the body movements. in this case, the results can be varied. from the stimulus using the comprehensible inputs, the children are also giving different responses. it can be in the form of non-verbal language such as nodding or by repeating the last word said by their mother. it is suggested that parents should give encouragement to the children and help them in acquiring the second language at home. keywords: parents‟ stimulus, comprehensible inputs, daily conversation, with noenglish background. abstrak studi ini berusaha untuk mengeksplorasi bagaimana input yang dapat dipahami, yang diberikan oleh ibu, direspon oleh anak yang tidak memiliki latar belakang bahasa inggris dan apa saja fitur diskursus yang membantu pemahaman anak dan kemampuan untuk melakukan percakapan . penelitian ini dilakukan di rumah penulis terhadap putranya dalam menerapkan input yang dapat dipahami . hasil menunjukkan bahwa anak-anak berusia usia 5 dan 7 tahun yang tidak memiliki latar belakang bahasa inggris mampu memberikan tanggapan dengan catatan bahwa pertanyaan atau stimulus yang register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 23 diberikan harus diikuti dengan bahasa non verbal seperti sikap dan gerakan tubuh . dalam hal ini , hasilnya dapat bervariasi . dari stimulus yang menggunakan input yang dapat dipahami , anak juga memberikan respon yang berbeda . hal ini dapat dalam bentuk bahasa non -verbal seperti mengangguk atau dengan mengulang kata terakhir yang dikatakan oleh ibu mereka . berdasarkan temuan tersebut, orang tua disarankan untuk memberikan dorongan kepada anak dan membantu mereka dalam perolehan bahasa kedua di rumah. kata kunci: stimulus orangtua , input yang dapat dipahami , percakapan sehari-hari , tidak memiliki latar belakang bahasa inggris introduction communication in english has now become a new trend in the modern families. it can be a tool to improve the social strata among them beside make their children fluent in speaking english. the way the children give responses to their parents‟ stimulus will be derived from the examples given and from the process of imitation then the children try to produce the responses as well as they can. both parents play an important role in their child's language development. if the mother spends more time with the children than the father, the language she speaks to the children will probably have more of an impact than the language the father speaks to the children. however, this does not mean that the father's language will not or cannot be acquired by the children. if the father makes an effort to spend quality language time with the children (reading stories, playing games, engaging in active conversation with the children), the children can and will learn the language he uses with them. the children of those ages will only give simple responses because they do not get the intensive course on the subject in their formal education. as we know that in the kindergarten, they do not get the real english subject, register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 24 while in the elementary school, especially in salatiga, this subject will be taught at the fourth level and only as the local capacity. children who have never learned the second language or the target language will try to give very simple responses such as saying yes or no or even just nodding. i try to apply this to my two sons as the object of the study. both of them always try to give many different responses toward my questions and statements as the comprehensible inputs in english. the most important thing to me to do is how they can understand english as the means of communication in everyday life in their home. children have the capacity to develop new language more naturally than do adults do. children, who learn more than one language before adolescence, will acquire those languages with more ease and "native-like" ability than they would try to study those languages as adults. in this case, the point is that both of my two sons have never been taught english by anybody. therefore, the stimulus given must be followed by non-verbal aspects of communications or the body language and the facial expressions. i used auxiliary sequences and auxiliary-initial clauses in everyday, spontaneous speech, such as young children are routinely exposed to. these types of communication will become an effort to force the children to acquire the target language as well. acquiring a second language could be a lifelong learning process for some, and still, learners may never fully become native-like in the second language. children, however, by around the age of 5-8, have more or less mastered the first language, with the exception of vocabulary and a few grammatical structures. the children‟s task therefore simply understands the input given by their parent. as also stated by krassen (2000) that language can be acquired outside the target language environment, even without formal instruction, providing that learner are exposed to the comprehensible inputs. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 25 the purpose of this study is to investigate how the comprehensible inputs given by mother are responded by the children who have no english background and to investigate what the discourse features, which aid children‟s comprehension and ability to maintain the conversation. the limitation of the study in this paper, i just analyze how to deliver the appropriate type of questions as the inputs given to 5-7 years old children who have no english background and the way to respond it. second language acquisition how children acquire native language (l1) and the relevance of this to foreign language (l2) learning has long been debated. although evidence for l2 learning ability declining with age is controversial, a common notion is that children learn l2s easily, whilst older learners rarely achieve fluency. this assumption stems from „critical period‟ (cp) ideas. a cp was popularized by eric lenneberg in 1967 for l1 acquisition, but considerable interest now surrounds age effects on second language acquisition (sla). at the level of child second language acquisition, suchinteraction has been studied primarily as language-in-play,with the focus on learner output, but research on caretakerlanguage and foreigner talk has also led to studies of whether,and how, children simplify, repeat, and expand utterances asthey speak with less proficient interlocutors. types of questions in order stimulating or reinforcing my children‟s language production in the second language, though my children have no english background, mother as the stimulant or the reinforcer in the process or producing the second language try to find the most appropriate questions, which make them as the comprehensible inputs. therefore, the process of the interactions will http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/critical_period http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/eric_lenneberg register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 26 be in the natural situation where there are no disturbances and barriers in the second language acquisition. there are five types of questions can be asked to children aged 5-8 years who have no english backgrounds. (hatch: 1978:419) categorizes them into;(1) display questioning as the type of questioning used by the teacher in the classroom; (2) repeated questions as all occurrences where the initial questions were repeated verbatim to the same listener; (3) modified questions as questions which failed to produce an answer and which the questioner repeated in modified forms;(4) initial questions as questions that the native speakers directed to language learners, either singly or as a group, includes repeated or rephrased questions addressed to different listeners. (5) referential questions as questions occurred mostly in non-classroom settings. this type of questions can also be classified into open-ended questions; questions requiring provision of information rather than question referred. non-verbal aspects of communications in communicating english with non-native children, the non-verbal aspects of communication play a highly important and essential role in foreign language acquisition among children and mother. as we know that mother speaks with the vocal organs but mother and children converse with the entire bodies. conversations which include the process of questioning or giving the comprehensible input and answering or responding the input given, consist of much more than a simple interchange of spoken words. non-verbal communication has mainly been distinguished from verbal communication. lorscher (1980) quoting lyons,s (1977) description on non verbal communication which are including gestures, mimicry, proxemic behavior, speech pauses and pitch. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 27 then there are ten phenomena constitute the non-verbal communication, such as bodily contact, proximity, posture, physical appearance, facial and gestural movements, direction of gaze, and timing of speech, emotional tone of speech, speech errors and accent. there are seven non verbal phenomena as described by knapp (1977) taken from the lorscher (2002), they are body motion or kinesic behavior, physical characteristic, touching behavior, paralanguage, proxemics, artifacts, environmental factors. by noting the description of non-verbal phenomena above, so nodding becomes the facial and gestural movements. the indonesian children who have no english background will respond in different way toward the comprehensible input given. this research is qualitative approach to get a clear description of the interaction between mother and children with focus on two type of questions, referential questions with the reason that such questions are usually occurred in non – classroom setting, which means that the questions are occurred at home during the daily activities and the display questions. the subject of the study is two of the researcher‟s children aged 5 and 7 years old who have no english background. the location of data collection takes place in the researcher‟s house. the data are collected in the form of recorded data and used as the data base in order to identify which type of mother‟s questions and statements are considered to create the comprehensible inputs on the children. the data are in the form of speech and action. the conversations occur spontaneously without any specific guidelines for mother and children for choosing the topics. the aim of this study is investigating the appropriate type of questioning to children aged 5-8 years old who has no english background using the comprehensible input and the way to give respond as the language production, so the unit of analysis of the study is in the form children‟s utterances as the responses of the inputs register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 28 and mother‟s utterances as the stimulus for the comprehensible inputs. in techniques of data collection, i used the direct questioning with both of my sons in english about the daily topics, the direct questioning lasted for approximately ten minutes, and a small tape recorder was placed near the parent in order o get the natural data. technique of data analysis, there are some steps in doing the analysis are first through transcribing or recording the interaction i made with both of my sons. this transcription becomes a subject of analysis that makes the analysis easier to conduct. in the form of written material, the interaction among my children and i involving question and answer can be easily notified. in transcribing the data, i presented the data as follows: full stops (.), comma (,), question mark (?), exclamation mark (!), turn numbers (1, 2, 3...). the participants are coded; mother (m), children 1 (c1) and children 2 (c2). the utterances were transcribed as they were said without any correction to the grammatical error. second is selecting. after the transcription was done, i selected the mother‟s questions and statements as the comprehensible inputs and rewrote them on a separate sheet of paper. this was done to make the analysis easier. the third is categorizing the turns; questions and statements based on the questions types (display questions and referential questions). i also recorded my children‟s responses to those questions and statements, so that it would be easier whether mother‟s inputs stimulate answers from children. then i categorized children‟s responses in three categories; no response (including non-verbal response), short answer (for one or two words answer) and long answer (for more than two words answer). discussion the followings are my findings and discussions that show the mother and children interactions conducted every day in a week, which are then register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 29 transcribed. the two children are both male whose respond will be analyzed through the comprehensible input given by their mother as the researcher. for the purpose of analysis, then the data taken from the tape recorder first is categorized into turns. the term turn denotes an utterance or uninterrupted sequence of utterances, produced by a single speaker (sack, schegloff and jefferson: 1974). the two categories of turns are questions and statements. table 1 distribution of turns speaker questions statement s total gesture movements mother 9 11 20 10 45% 55% 100 % 100% zulfan 0 5 5 0 0% 100% 100% 0% yoga 2 8 10 0 20% 80% 100% 0% from the tabulation above, the total number (45%) for questions and (55%) for statements, mother dominates the conversation as the process of giving the comprehensible inputs which are followed by the non verbal language, in this case is called gesture movements, because while giving the inputs, mother inserted the gesture movements to make children understand what their mother said as the process of comprehending the inputs. the children do not make non-verbal language while responding the comprehensible input given by the mother, and they tend to respond directly through nodding or answering yes or no toward the inputs. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 30 table 2 types of questions speaker display referential total mother 0 20 20 0% 100% 100% the questions asked by mother were referential questions. these interactions do not take place in a classroom and the conversations were about various matters unrelated to structured classroom dialogues. this result supports the findings of long and sato (1983) who found their analysis of six esl lessons to adults in usa, that the dominant type of questioning used by teachers in the classroom was display questioning, while referential questions occurred mostly in non – classroom settings. mother‟s questions, which belong to referential questions mostly, are dominated with questions, (100%) that are questions requiring only yes / no answers. mother tried to focus the questions, which are related to the daily topics, and which are spontaneously asked based on the situation where the children are: in the morning while preparing their self to go to school: mother : “hi, good morning dik yoga” yoga : “good morning, ibu” mother : “how are you dik yoga?” yoga : “how are you dik yoga?” mother :”dik yoga, have you got breakfast? eat?” (mother moves her hand to her mouth) yoga : “belum makan” mother : “yesterday you‟ve got a broken arm, right?” (mother puts her right hand into her left hand) yoga : “broken” mother :”dik, the cat is eating gereh, right?”(mother pointed her finger to the cat in front of them which is still eating the bone of the fried salted fish) yoga : (nodding) register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 31 mother :”the cat‟s mother is coming ya dik.”(mother pointed the cat‟s mother which is coming to her kitten which is still having the bone of fried salted fish) yoga :”( nodding) after going back from school: mother :”welcome home, dik yoga…..you are dropped by bu sri, right?” yoga :”( smile and nodding) mother :”do you feel happy? you get home by being dropped by sri and bentar?” yoga :” ojo ngomong ngono. buk kolak!” mother :”oh, you want me to make you kolak, right? yoga :”yes”. they were in their spare time in the afternoon: mother : “mas zulfan, do you like watching the siluman sinetron in indosiar?” zulfan : “yes.” mother : “yoga, you like watching the cd series of ultraman, right?” yoga :”yes.” mother : “mas zulfan, will you have a sleep right now?” zulfan :”no.” in the evening: mother :” mas zulfan, you have already finished taking a bath, right?”(mother moves her hand into the body and acted like the one who are taking a bath) zulfan :”yes!” mother :”mas zulfan, do you feel fresh?”(mother acted by folding both of her arms) zulfan :”yes, sudah mandi badan segar.” mother :”mas zulfan, you choose to wear that pajama, don‟t you feel hot?”(mother acted that she felt hot by clapping her front shirt) zulfan :”no.” yoga :”mamah, bukakan bungkusan wafer ini, mah.” register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 32 mother :”okey, take that basket over there, please.” (mother pointed her hand to the position of the basket) yoga :”basket? ini?.” mother :”yes. inside the basket, there is a scissor. (mother showed one of the children the symbol of a scissor using her right hand.) yes, good. you are a good boy. (mother shows her right thumb up). thank you.” yoga :”thank you.” mother :”dik yoga, you were crying this morning, hoa, hoa, right? (mother put one of her right hand neat her right eyes) yoga : “yes.” the unit analysis of this study is mother‟s utterances in the form of comprehensible inputs and children‟s utterances as the direct responses toward the inputs given. 1. mother: “hi, good morning dik yoga” yoga : “good morning, ibuk” mother delivered the inputs in the form of greeting. the situation took place in the morning. one the children responded it by saying “good morning ibuk”. actually the child has been introduced the way to respond such greeting by his mother, as the researcher, but he still used the word ibuk not mother, because he imitated her mother‟s way of calling his name, dik yoga. 2. mother: “how are you dik yoga?” yoga : “how are you dik yoga?” in this case, mother still delivered the inputs in the form of greeting. the situation took place in the morning. one the children responded it by saying “how are you ibuk”. actually the child has been introduced the way to respond such greeting by his mother, as the researcher, but he still used the word ibuk not mother, because he imitated her mother‟s way of calling his name, dik yoga. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 33 3. mother:”dik yoga, have you got breakfast? eat?” (mother moves her hand to her mouth) yoga : “belum makan” the way mother delivered the input was also followed by the non-verbal language in the form of body motion or kinesic behavior. she showed her son the way one eats. the child then understood toward the inputs so he replied “belum makan”. it means that he understands what the mother said, and he replied it in his first language. the situation of that conversation took place when mother as the researcher were feeding him before going to school. 4. mother: “yesterday you’ve got a broken arm, right? broken” (mother puts her right hand into her left hand) yoga : “broken” in this case, mother tried to move to other topic dealing with his current condition. the child has a broken arm due to a small accident that took place at home in the morning, while everybody was preparing everything to go to school and to the office. he fell down from a motorcycle and he got his left arm broken. then mother asked him that yesterday he got a broken arm. the way the mother gave the input was also followed by non-verbal language in the form of body motion, she held her left arm and moved it up and down in the similar way the one has a broken arm. then the respond given by the child is by saying “broken”. in this case, he actually understood and tried to imitate what his mother said in the last word, because she tried to make him understand to what she said and still showed him the moving of her left arm. 5. mother:”dik, the cat is eating gereh, right?”(mother pointed her finger to the cat in front of them which is still eating the bone of the fried salted fish) yoga : (nodding) register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 34 in this case, mother was feeding him for breakfast before going to school and they had “gereh” or fried salted fish. while they had it, the cat was coming toward them and mother gave the bone of the fried salted fish to the cat. then she said that the cat is eating gereh. she used the word „gereh‟ in order to make the child understand what the cat is doing. the child gave that respond by nodding as the form of non-verbal language. it means that he understood what the input given by his mother. 6. mother:”the cat’s mother is coming ya dik.”(mother pointed the cat‟s mother which is coming to her kitten which is still having the bone of fried salted fish) yoga :”( nodding) still, mother fed her second son. while feeding her son, the mother of the cat is coming toward them. therefore, mother said to her son that the mother of the cat is coming and in this case, mother pointed her finger to the cat‟s mother that is coming to her kitten that is still having the bone of fried salted fish. then the boy responded it by nodding. it means that he could understand the input given by the mother in the target language. in the morning, her second son, zulfan who are 7 years old, has gone to school with his father early in the morning at around 6.30 a.m. zulfan is still in first year of elementary school and he returns home at 10.45 a.m. the comprehensible inputs are given to her second son, yoga, who is 5 years old. he is still in the first year of the kindergarten. he goes to school at 7.30 a.m. and he goes home at 10.00 a.m. 7. mother:”welcome home, dik yoga…..you are dropped by bu sri, right?”(mother open her to hands acted that she welcomes someone) yoga :”( smile and nodding) register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 35 in this case, her son went home by being dropped by his teacher, named sri. therefore, mother welcomed him by giving the input in the target language. she acted as if she welcomes someone. she inserted the word „bu sri‟ not your teacher, means that her son will easily identify what she already said to her son. yoga understood toward his mother‟s saying, then he gave responds in the form of non-verbal language, in this case, he showed his facial expression through smiling and body motion in this case nodding. 8. mother:”do you feel happy? you get home by being dropped by bu sri and bentar?” yoga :” ojo ngomong ngono. buk kolak!” in this situation, the boy seems uncomfortable, because he has just already got home, perhaps he felt so tired. his mother kept on asking him as the process of giving the comprehensible inputs, by asking the question in the same context, that he got home by being dropped by his teacher, bu sri and his friend, bentar, bu sri‟s nephew. so he would probably feel happy. therefore, he replied surprisingly. he said,” ojo ngomong ngono”. it means that he forbade his mother not to speak in the target language. then he continued by saying “bu kolak”. he asked for a glass of „kolak‟ a kind of beverages that is made from boiled water that is mixed with the essence of coconut, sugar, and bananas. it is because he felt thirsty. 9. mother:”oh, you want me to make you kolak pisang, right?” (mother tried to explain him in the target language and pointing her finger into his body and her body) yoga :”yes”. in this case mother tried to make sure that he wanted her mother to make him kolak pisang, by inserting the words‟ kolak pisang‟ and she explained it in the target language and tried also to use a body motion as the non verbal register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 36 language such as pointing her finger to her body and his body. then he replied by saying „yes‟ showing that he understood to what his mother said. 10. mother: “mas zulfan, do you like watching the siluman sinetron in indosiar?” (mother pointed her finger to the television) zulfan : “yes.” in the different context of time, this conversation took place in the spare time after going back from school. mother tried to give the input to her first son, zulfan who was still watching the siluman sinetron program in television. the word „sinetron‟ is derived from the word electronic cinema that is broadcasted in the form of series. the word „siluman‟ means the movie about the javanese myths creature. zulfan was able to reply the input given by his mother directly by referring to the word „siluman sinetron in indosiar‟. the word indosiar has also familiar to him, because it is one of the television channels in indonesia. the way the mother delivered the question was by calling his name, „mas zulfan‟, it means to get his attention, not his younger brother‟s attention and by pointing her finger to the television. 1. mother : “dik yoga, you like watching the cd series of ultraman, right?” yoga :”yes.” in this case, mother tried to get her second son‟s attention by calling his name, dik yoga. then she tried to ask about one of his cd robotic hero‟s collections entitled „ultraman cosmos‟. yoga replied „yes‟ because he got the word „cd‟ and „ultraman‟ that he has it at his collections and he was familiar with those words. 2. mother : “mas zulfan, will you have a sleep right now?”(mother put her hands close to her left cheek and she closed her eyes showing the activity of sleeping) zulfan :”no.” register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 37 in this case mother gave the input followed by the non verbal language, such as body motion through putting her hands close to her left cheek and she closed her eyes showing the activity of sleeping, so her first son would understand it easily and finally he replied „no‟, because he didn‟t want to sleep in the time they were speaking. 3. mother :” mas zulfan, you have already finished taking a bath right?”(mother moves her hand into the body and acted like the one who are taking a bath) zulfan :”yes!” in this case, the situation took place in the evening when her sons had already finished taking a bath. mother got her first son‟s attention by calling „mas zulfan‟, so that the one who would be responsible to give the respond is he. in focusing on the action of taking a bath, then mother acted as the one who is still taking a bath, she used her non-verbal language in the form of body motion. the child can respond again directly by saying „yes‟. 4. mother :”mas zulfan, do you feel fresh?”(mother acted by folding both of her arms) zulfan :”yes, sudah mandi badan segar.” in this case, mother gave input still dealing with the activity of taking a bath. she asked him by also getting his attention first then asked his feeling after taking a bath followed by the non verbal language again, she showed him the way one performed the action of feeling fresh by folding her both arms. then her first son replied „yes‟ because he understood the input given and continue to say in his first language „sudah mandi badan segar‟ which means that after taking a bath then he feels fresh on his body. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 38 5. mother :”mas zulfan, you choose to wear that pajama, don’t you feel hot?”(mother acted that she felt hot by clapping her front shirt) zulfan :”no.” in this case, also, the situation is still dealing the activity after taking a bath. he put on his pajamas in the hot weather. that is why mother asked him about the feeling of having the pajamas. so the context is still known by the child. she delivered the input followed by the non verbal language in this case is body motion, she acted that she felt hot by clapping her front shirt back and forth. the boy then replied by saying „no‟, because he understood what the input given by his mother and he actually would wear that kind of shirt, so he didn‟t care to the weather whether it was cold or hot. 6. yoga :”mamah, bukakan bungkusan wafer ini, mah.” mother :”okey, take that basket over there, please.” (mother pointed her hand to the position of the basket) yoga :”basket? ini?.” mother :”yes. inside the basket, there is a scissor. (mother showed one of the children the symbol of a scissor using her right hand.) yes, good. you are a good boy. (mother shows her right thumb up). thank you.” yoga :”thank you.” by the time, the conversation between the first son and the mother took place, and then the second son was entering the room by handling a pack of wafer. the boy then asked her to open the pack of wafer, but still in his first language. then mother tried to give her order as the input in the target language. she said that the boy should take the basket as the place of the scissor; she pointed her finger to the position of the basket. then he replied by imitating what his mother said, “basket?”, “ini?” and he come forward to register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 39 the position of the basket. then mother replied again in the target language, by saying „yes‟. she explained him that there is a scissor inside the basket, mother followed her word with the body motion as the non verbal language, and she moved her right hand to show him what a scissor is like. then she said „good‟ because the boy could find the scissor. she continued to say „you are good boy‟ and showed her son her right thumb up. then she said „thank you‟, and finally the boy can reply in the right way, thank you. 7. mother :”dik yoga, you were crying this morning, hoa, hoa, right? (mother put one of her right hand near her right eyes) yoga : “yes.” in this case, mother tried to give the input to her second son to remind him that this morning he cried so hard. she showed her son the way the one cried by putting her fingers close to her eyes, and said „hoa,hoa. the child understood to what her mother said, so he replied „yes‟. from the classification of the interaction among mother and the children as the process of giving the comprehensible inputs and the children‟s responds were found that mostly mother delivered the questions by getting the attention one of the children who would be asked through calling his name. it is expected that one of them will answer the questions as the input given by the mother. mother mostly inserting the non verbal language while delivering the comprehensible inputs in the form of statements and referential questions by showing the body language or gesture movements to the children such as acting in the similar way the children do their activities. the way both children give, the responds are varied. it can be seen that for some inputs are responded by using three categories; no response (including non-verbal response), in this case they nod, short answer (for one or two words answer); in this case they say yes or no, and long answer (for register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 40 more than two words answer); in this case they answer the questions by using their own first language. conclusion after analyzing the data above, i can conclude that the children who have no english background at all are able to be stimulated to the english conversation using english, which are accompanied, by some body language, gesture, or non-verbal language. this can lead them to the more intensive communication without forcing them to produce complex responses. the most important thing is that they are able to comprehend the inputs, which are given in the target language as the process of acquiring the second or the foreign language. by knowing the importance of english as the international means of communications, most of the english teachers and those who are able to speak english can prepare their children to understand english in the daily lives through stimulating them with the target language which are accompanied by the body language or non verbal language as the process of giving the comprehensible inputs, so that the children will be able to process the inputs easily. references harley, b. 1986. age in second language acquisition. clevedon: multilingual matters. hatch, e.m. 1978. discourse analysis and second language acquisition. in hatch, e.m. second language acquistion: a book of readings. 401435. rowley, mass.: newbury house krashen, s.d. 1975. the critical period for language acquisition and its possible bases. in d. aaronson and r.w. rieber (eds), developmental psycholinguistics and communication disorders. new york: new york academy of sciences. register, vol. 1, n0. 1, 2008 41 krashen, s. 2000. what does it take to acquire language?, esl magazine v3 n3:p22-23. long, m and sato,c.j. 1983. classroom foreigner talk discourse: forms and functions of teacher‟s questions. in h.seliger &m.long (ed.) classroom oriented research in second language acquisition 26885. rowley, massachusetts: newbury house publishers. piaget, j. 1926. the language and thought of the child. translated by e. claperede. london: kegan paul flanigan, beverly olson. peer tutoring and second language acquisition in the elementary school.retrieved from http://applij.oxfordjournal.org/misc/term.dtl lorscher, wolfgang. non verbal aspects of teacherpupil communication in the foreign language classroom. lorscher@rz.uni.leipzig. http://applij.oxfordjournal.org/misc/term.dtl mailto:lorscher@rz.uni.leipzig register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 100 a lacanian reading of the two novels the scarlet letter and private memoirs and confessions of a justified sinner marjan yazdanpanahi phd in english literature (romanticism) lancaster university bailrigg, lancaster uk, la1 4yw marjazdanmy@yahoo.com abstract this paper discusses two novels the private memoirs and confessions of a justified sinner and the scarlet letter written by james hogg and nathaniel hawthorn from the perspective of jacques lacan theories: the mirror stage, the-name-of-the-father and desire. the mirror stage refers to historical value and an essential libidinal relationship with the body-image. the-name-of-thefather is defined as the prohibitive role of the father as the one who lays down the incest taboo in the oedipus complex. meanwhile, desire is neither the appetite for satisfaction, nor the demand for love, but the difference that results from the subtraction of the first from the second. keywords: lacanian reading, the mirror stage, the-name-of-the-father and desire abstrak dalam jurnal ini akan dibahas dua novel yang berjudul the private memoirs and confessions of a justified sinner dan the scarlett letter yang merupakan karya dari james hogg dan nathaniel hawthorn dengan menggunakan perspektif jacques lacan dalam teori-teorinya yang berkenaan dengan tahap cermin panggung, nama-sang-ayah, dan hasrat. cermin panggung merujuk kepada nilai historis dan hubungan libidinal utama dengan kesan utama. nama-sang-ayah didefinisikan sebagai peran penghalang dari seorang ayah sebagai seseorang yang melakukan perbuatan tabu berupa perzinahan sebagai penderita oedipus complex (penyuka orang yang lebih tua). sementara itu, hasrat yang dimaksud disini bukanlah berupa nafsu untuk kepuasan ataupun keinginan untuk bercinta, namun tak lain berupa selisih hasil pengurangan nilai yang pertama dari yang kedua. kata kunci: membaca ala lacania, cermin panggung, nama-sang-ayah, dan hasrat mailto:marjazdanmy@yahoo.com register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 101 introduction psychoanalytic studies of literature have become of the growing interest in literary studies. jacques lacan is one of the most important figures in this area. his theories have influenced psychoanalysis, literary theory and philosophy. it is the purpose of this paper to see how we can have a lacanian reading of the two novels the private memoirs and confessions of a justified sinner by james hogg and the scarlet letter by nathaniel hawthorn. the interesting thing about this is that these two novels were written and published nearly one century before lacan‘s ideas were introduced to the world. in fact, he was not born until fifty years after the publication of these two novels. however, if we look at his theories, we will see that they are true about the characters and what happens to them in these two novels. this paper deals with three of his most important theories including the mirror stage, the-name-of-the-father and desire. at first, we will see how and in which part of these two novels the mirror stage takes place. we will then see how the-name-of-the-father comes into the scene. this paves the way to find some traces of desire in thee two novels. discussion if we look at the private memoirs and confessions of a justified sinner, we will see that when robert wringhim meets the devil for the first time, he finds the devil‘s face and features completely the same as his own face: what was my astonishment, on perceiving that he was the same being as myself! the clothes were the same to the smallest item. the form was the same; the apparent age; the colour of the hair; the eyes; and as far as recollection could serve me from viewing my own features in a glass, the features too were the very same. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 102 (hogg, 1981:116-117) robert stresses the fact that when he looks at the devil, it seems as if he has looked himself in a piece of glass. the reason is that the devil seems so similar to him in features. therefore, looking at the devil is just the same as looking in a mirror or a piece of glass. what‘s more, at first, he tries to avoid him but he can‘t and that‘s what happens in the mirror stage, a theory by lacan. the mirror stage is a stage at the life of a six-month-old child. the child looks at the image of himself in the mirror. this is the first time he sees himself as a unified whole. before that, he was conscious of himself as just a fragmented body. however, when he sees himself in the mirror, he sees that the head is connected to the body and so are the hands and the legs. however, there is a threat in this. according to dylan evans, ‗the synthesis of this image produces a sense of contrast with the uncoordination of the body which is experienced as a fragmented body; this contrast is felt by the infant as a rivalry with its own image, because the wholeness of the image threatens the subject with fragmentation, and the mirror stage thereby gives rise to an aggressive tension between the subject and the image‘ (evans, 1996:115). this is what jacques lacan says about the mirroe stage: [the mirror stage is] a phenomenon to which i assign a twofold value. in the first place, it has historical value as it marks a decisive turningpoint in the mental development of the child. in the second place, it typifies an essential libidinal relationship with the body-image. (lacan, 1951b:14 in evans, 1996:115) these two aspects of the mirror stage including its historical value and the relationship of the child to its image will be discussed here in relation to these two novels. we will first see how the characters in the novels feel about their images and then we will see how they change after they see their own images. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 103 in the mirror stage, when an infant sees his own image in the mirror, he feels that he is threatened by that unified image which he can see there. the child has to solve this problem. therefore, as evans writes, ‗in order to resolve this aggressive tension, the subject identifies with the image‘ (evans, 1996:115). this is what happens to robert in the confessions of a justified sinner. at first, there is a distancing force between robert and the devil. however, he is soon attracted to him and in fact identifies with him because he starts to obey him for the rest of his life. this is how robert describes his feelings about his first meeting with the devil (gil-martin): i tried to shun him being bent on my own contemplations; but he cast himself in my way, so that i could not well avoid him; and more than that, i felt a sort of invisible power that drew me towards him, something like a force of enchantment which i could not resist. (confessions of a justified sinner, p. 116) therefore, robert is attracted to the devil who is like his own image. robert‘s character is fragmented like that of a child and that‘s why he identifies with the devil when he sees him. he has some religious conflicts before he meets the devil which shows us that his character is fragmented. he commits some sins and he knows it‘s wrong to do so. however, when he compares them to some other big sins which he does not commit he thinks that he might be forgiven: that i was a great, a transcendent sinner, i confess. but still i had hopes of forgiveness, because i never sinned from principle, but accident; and then i always tried to repent of these by the slump for individually it was impossible; and though not always successful in my endeavours, i could not help that. (ibid, p. 116) this suggests that robert is not really sure about himself. he knows that he is a big sinner and he is not sure whether or not he is forgiven. just before he meets gil-martin, he is welcomed by his father ‗into the register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 104 community of the just upon earth‘ (confessions of a justified sinner, p. 115). his mother also welcomes him into ‗the society of the just made perfect‘ (ibid, p.115). such phrases as ‗the just‘ and ‗the just made perfect‘ turn out to be ironical because later in the novel we see that robert commits sins and also crimes. the word perfect which is used ironically here can show the fragmented and imperfect character of robert which seeks to become a unified whole and perfect by befriending gil-martin. gil-martin for robert is just like the image of a child which according to sean homer ‗provides him/her with a sense of unification and wholeness. therefore, the character of gil-martin is a perfect one and therefore superior to his own which is not perfect. that‘s why when the devil tries to convince him that he is one of ‗the elect‘, he is surprised that he is given such a high status by such a superior character: i confess that i was greatly flattered by these compliments paid to my abilities by a youth of such superior qualifications. (ibid, p. 125) if we look at the exact definition of the mirror stage in an introductory dictionary of lacanian psychology, we will see that it is described as ‗the formation of the ego via the process of identification; the ego is the result of identifying with one‘s own specular image‘ (evans, 1996: 115). that‘s what has happened to robert. he forms his ego for his whole life after he identifies with the devil. the devil is his specular image which in lacan‘s theory is the image of one in the mirror as one looks at himself in the mirror. he changes himself according to what gil-martin says. therefore, he tries to identify with him. according to dylan evans, in lacan‘s theory, ‗the little other is the other who is not really other, but a reflection and projection of the ego‘ (ibid. p.133). therefore, gil-martin can be considered as the projection of robert‘s register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 105 ego and consequently, his other. this other is not different from the subject. it is somehow the same. it is the image of the subject with which the subject (robert) becomes one. if we look at what lacan says about this other, we find out about the similarity of the subject to his own image (other). lacan talks about the ‗phenomena of transitivism in which one finds the infant taking as equivalent his own action and that of the other‘ (miller, 1988: 169). we can see the word ‗transivitism‘ here. therefore, there is a change for the infant when he looks in the mirror. we can see the moment of change for robert too. the devil starts to exercise his influence on robert from this point in the novel. he acts according to the devil‘s will till the end of his life. in fact, he obeys the devil in every respect. in other words, he becomes one with the devil and that‘s what lacan thinks to happen in what he calls the imaginary order. the imaginary order is one of the three orders in lacan‘s theory which include symbolic, imaginary and the real order. according to dylan evans, ‗the basis of the imaginary order continues to be the formation of the ego in the mirror stage‘ (evans, 1996: 82). therefore, we can see that this mirror stage is related to the imaginary order. as evans writes, ‗the principal illusions of the imaginary are those of wholeness, synthesis, autonomy, duality and, above all similarity‘.(ibid, p.82). robert is united with the devil for the rest of his life. that‘s what happens to him after he identifies with the devil as his own image. we can easily see these ideas of wholeness, synthesis and similarity here which were ‗the principal illusions of the imaginary‘. robert and the devil make a whole for the rest of the story. wherever one is, the other one can be found too. this is more obvious when robert says: ‗i rejoiced in him, was proud of him, and soon could not live without him‘ (confessions of a justified sinner: 127). elsewhere, he calls him something like his shadow: ‗he was constant to me as my shadow‘ (ibid, p. 132). that is how they make one whole. by becoming one with the register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 106 devil robert tries to gain autonomy too. the devil convinces him that he is one of ‗the elect‘. he tells him that he has been chosen to undertake a great mission: you are dedicated to the great work of the lord; for which reasons i have resolved to attach myself as closely to you as possible, and to render you all the service of which my poor abilities are capable. (ibid, p. 125) that‘s when he sees himself separate and different from others. that‘s how he tries to gain autonomy. in fact, he thinks he has the power to do whatever is good (in his opinion) on earth. this is how it seems that robert has gone through the mirror stage. the mirror stage happens in the scarlet letter too. when hester and pearl go to the forest and they meet dimmesdale there, pearl seems to go through the mirror stage while her mother is talking to dimmesdale. this happens when the child near the water. pearl looks herself in the water and the water pearl looks herself in acts as a mirror. she can see herself in it and then she goes through this mirror stage: just where she had paused the brook chanced to form a pool, so smooth and quiet that it reflected a perfect image of her little figure, with all the brilliant picturesqueness of her beauty, in its adornment of flowers and wreathed foliage, but more refined and spiritualized than reality. (confessions of a justified sinner: 141) this is the moment of change for pearl. this is the moment when she enters the imaginary order. she sees her image in the water. the image is hers, but as we can see in this quotation, it is more ‗refined‘. therefore, we can see that this image is superior to her. this image changes her. this is the moment when she disobeys her mother. the reason is that she has gained autonomy which lacan talks about register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 107 in his theory of the imaginary order. in fact, she becomes independent. that‘s the moment when hester feels some change in pearl‘s relationship to her: hester felt herself, in some indistinct and tantalizing manner, estranged from pearl; as if the child, in her lonely ramble through the forest, had strayed out of the sphere in which she and her mother dwelt together, and was now vainly seeking to return to it. (the scarlet letter: 141) that autonomy of the child becomes more obvious when hester calls her but she doesn‘t take notice. she stays there looking at hester and dimmesdale. now she has the power to oppose her mother. for example, we see that ‗pearl, without responding in any manner to these honey-sweet expressions, remained on the other side of the brook‘(ibid,p. 141). later on we see an authoritative reaction by her: ‗assuming a singular air of authority, pearl stretched out her hand, with the small forefinger extended, and pointing evidently towards her mother‘s breast‘ (the scarlet letter: 142). the word authority is explicitly stated here. this shows that she has gained autonomy. that‘s how it seems that pearl experiences some kind of mirror stage. there is a contrast between these two novels regarding the mirror stage through which these two characters go. in the private memoirs and confessions of a justified sinner, robert‘s meeting with the devil makes him go through such a process as the mirror stage and become one with somebody else who is a projection of himself. however, in the scarlet letter, pearl goes through this stage and becomes one with her own image. in fact, she achieves wholeness by trying to be unified with her own image. she succeeds in becoming autonomous because she has the power to oppose her mother when she calls her to her side. robert, on the other hand, tries to become one with the devil but doing so makes him fragmented at the end. he does not get the result he was seeking. he loses control over his body and actions instead of gaining control over them. this was not what he was looking for. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 108 he liked to have the power to wipe out evil on earth but the process turns out to be a different one. therefore, he does not really gain that autonomy for which he makes himself unified with the devil. this is so horrible that robert thinks gil-martin is actually his second self because he is not conscious of many crimes he is accused of near the end of his memoirs: i was a being incomprehensible to myself. either i had a second self, who transacted business in my likeness, or else my body was at times possessed by a body over which it had no control, and of whose actions my own soul was wholly unconscious. (confessions of a justified sinner: 182) therefore, we can see that he is not sure whether it is him committing these crimes or an external being. there has always been much debate about whether this gil-martin really exists or not. according to douglas gifford, ‗the devil and the other supernatural apparitions may not exist at all, and may merely be a link with creatures of a diseased mind‘ (gilford, 1976: 144). therefore, the devil might not have had an external existence. all of these incidents can be a product of robert‘s mind. this is explicitly stated at the end of the novel when we are told that he may have been ‗a religious maniac, who wrote and wrote about a deluded creature, till he arrived at that height of madness, that he believed himself the very object whom he had been all along describing‘ (confessions of a justified sinner: 254). therefore, we see that there is a possibility that gil-martin does not have an external existence. there can be a lacanian reading of this. if we consider gil-martin‘s existence as a hallucination of robert‘s mind, the reason for this can be found by looking at lacan‘s definition of the word ‗hallucination‘. according to lacan, ‗psychotic hallucinations are a consequence of the operation of foreclosure. foreclosure refers to the absence of the name-of-the-father‘ (evans, 1996: 77). register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 109 there is a need to define lacan‘s theory of the name-of-the-father here. in an introductory dictionary of lacanian psychoanalysis, this expression is defined as ‗the prohibitive role of the father as the one who lays down the incest taboo in the oedipus complex‘ (ibid, p. 119). in oedipus complex, the child has some hostile feelings toward his parent. the term was coined by sigmund freud. he thought that only boys are jealous of their father. however, lacan thought that this is possible for both girls and boys. he believed that girls also become jealous of their father when his presence separates the child from the mother. this prohibitive role of the father is called the-name-of-the-father. his presence imposes some ‗laws‘ upon the child because the child cannot be with his mother as much as he likes. the child finds out that his mother needs his father and likes to be with him. this is what seems to be lacking in the private memoirs and confessions of a justified sinner. the father figure is really absent in this novel. we have the laird of dalcastle to whom her mother had married but supposedly he is not his real father because he denies that robert is his son: i was the second son of this unhappy marriage, and, long ere before i was born, my father according to the flesh disclaimed all relation or connection with me, and all interest in me, save what the law compelled him to take, which was togrant me a scanty maintenance. (confession of a justified sinner: 98) he calls wringhim his father. throughout the novel it is suggested that wringhim is his real father. robert himself puts the word ‗father‘ in italics when he writes, ‗―no,‖ said my pastor, and father, (as i shall henceforth dominate him,)‘ (ibid, p. 99). we never see him feeling jealous towards a father. according to lacan, this absence of the father figure can lead to hallucination. however, in the scarlet letter we have the opposite case. when pearl and hester are in the forest and hester meets dimmesdale she talks and register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 110 walks with him. it seems that pearl has a special feeling about the relationship between dimmesdale and her mother: now she fixed her bright, wild eyes on her mother, now on the minister, now included them both in the same glance; as if to detect and explain to herself the relation which they bore to one another. (the scarlet letter: 142) she does not seem to like it at all. this is directly expressed in the novel when we are told that ‗whether influenced by the jealousy that seems instinctive with every petted child towards a dangerous rival, or from whatever caprice of her freakish nature, pearl would show no favor to the clergyman‘ (ibid, p. 144). this shows us exactly the oedipus complex in the child and consequently her experiencing the-name-of-the-father. now that she sees dimmesdale with her mother, she considers him as a ‗rival‘. he has been talking to her mother while she was away. before this meeting with dimmesdale, hester is with her daughter all the time. pearl has never separated from her mother but now the minister‘s presence has made her separate from her mother. that‘s why when the minister leaves, she is happy and feels that she can be with her mother again. she considers her mother her own just after the minister leaves: …so that these two fated ones, with earth‘s heaviest burden on them, might there sit down together, and find a single hour‘s rest and solace. and was pearl, too, lightly dancing from the margin of the brook,-now that the intrusive third person was gone, and taking her old place by her mother‘s side. (the scarlet letter: 145) therefore, we can see that she feels the minister has taken her place. he is called ‗the intrusive third person‘. that‘s exactly what the oedipus complex is about. the father figure here is considered as a third party who prohibits the child‘s relationship with her mother. here, pearl has such an experience. in lacan‘s theory, this can happen to girls too and we see that it register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 111 happens to pearl. theses feelings are because the minister is her real father. although she is not conscious of the fact yet, she can feel the threat of his presence. that‘s why she feels somehow jealous of him. all these happen because hester is really in love with dimmesdale. they have been lovers since seven years before. we know that the subtitle of the scarlet letter is ‗a romance‘. this proves that the scarlet letter is in fact a love story. from the beginning, there are some references to the love that is hidden in the story and is going to be revealed later. according to ernest sandeen, ‗what is brought out most forcefully by her statuesque yet elegant figure, her abundance of dark, glossy hair, her regular features and rich complexion, her ―marked brow and deep black eyes,‖ is an impression of great erotic power‘ (sandeen: 352). this is when hester comes out of the prison door at the beginning of the story. according to mark van doren also, ‗she is said to cast a spell over those who behold her‘ (doren, 1949: 151). he goes on to say that ‗she is a passionate woman whom hawthorn does not need to call passionate, for he has the evidence‘ (doren: 151). one of the evidences he thinks is ‗her continuing love, so unconfessed that we can only assume it to be there‘(ibid, 151). the descriptions given by hawthorn about hester help us develop a positive attitude towards hester from the beginning although everybody else in that small town criticize her for what she had done. she is so much in love that she doesn‘t feel any remorse for her illegal relationship with dimmesdale. even when she appears out of the prison door, the description we get of her is of a determined woman: until , on the threshold of the prison door, she repelled him, by an action marked with natural dignity and force of character, and stepped into the open air, as if by her own free-will. (the scarlet letter: 39) register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 112 here, we can see that she is not ashamed of what she has done. it seems as if she has come in front of people ‗by her own free-will‘. this is because she is in love and she doesn‘t think what she has done has been wrong. according to ernest sandeen also, ‗hester prynn can never bring herself to regard her relations with arthur dimmesdale as ―sinful‖‘ (sandeen: 352). the reason is that even seven years later, again we see her in the forest with dimmesdale trying to convince him to go away with her. she cannot forget dimmesdale. we can easily see hester‘s passionate reaction in the forest. when hester reveals that chillingworth is her husband, dimmesdale is so offended that he thinks he cannot forgive her: ‗woman, woman, thou art accountable for this! i cannot forgive thee‘ (the scarlet letter: 132). but this is the worst that can happen to hester. she cannot tolerate this. we see that ‗all the world had frowned on her,-for seven long years had it frowned upon this lonely woman,and still she bore it all, nor ever once turned away her firm, sad eyes. heaven, likewise, had frowned upon her, and she had not died. but the frown of this pale, weak, sinful, and sorrow-stricken man was what hester could not bear and live‘ (ibid, p. 132-133). it is here we can see the extent of love hester feels for dimmesdale. in fact, she desires him. desire is a word for which lacan has a theory. it is important to him that the word ‗desire‘ not be confused with the words ‗need‘ and ‗demand‘. for lacan need is ‗a purely biological instinct, an appetite which emerges according to the requirements of the organism and which abates completely (even if only temporarily)‘ (evans, 1996: 37). therefore, when a baby is hungry and cries, the hunger he feels is a need. however, he should articulate his need to make his mother notice him. according to evans, in lacan‘s theory, ‗need must be articulated in demand‘ (ibid). therefore, the vocal expression of the need is called demand. in this example, after the mother register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 113 feeds the baby, her presence ‗soon aquires an importance in itself, an importance that goes beyond the satisfaction of need, since this presence symbolizes the other‘s (the mother‘s) love. hence, demand soon takes on a double function, serving both as an articulation of need and as a demand for love‘ (ibid). however, when the subject (baby) asks for more love from the mother, he sees that the mother cannot provide him with ‗that unconditional love which the subject craves‘(ibid). and according to evans, the result is that ‗the other aspect of demand, the craving for love, remains unsatisfied, and this leftover is desire‘ (ibid). after all these explanations, the definition lacan has given us is that ‗desire is neither the appetite for satisfaction, nor the demand for love, but the difference that results from the subtraction of the first from the second‘(evans, 1996: 37). therefore, we can see that one‘s demand for love should remain unfulfilled for ‗desire‘ to form. if we consider hester‘s case, we will see that her marriage is unsuccessful. when she is speaking to chillingworth, she says: ‗thou knowest that i was frank with thee. i felt no love, nor feigned any‘ (the scarlet letter: 53). therefore, we see that she felt no love for her husband. that‘s why that aspect of her demand, the one for ‗unconditional love‘ has remained unanswered. therefore, she desires love. that‘s what she has found in dimmesdale. she doesn‘t love her husband. we are told in the novel that chillingworth is an old man. he is often referred to as ‗old chillingworth‘ the contrast between chillingworth and hester is felt more when we read those descriptions of hester‘s beauty. the description we read at the beginning when she comes out of the prison door is one example. even after seven years, when she removes the scarlet letter from her breast and takes off her cap from her hair, ‗down it fell upon her shoulders, dark and rich, with at once a shadow and a light in its abundance, and imparting the charm of softness to her features‘ (the scarlet letter: 138). register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 114 the whole novel suggests that she does not love her husband. it seems that her marriage has been unsuccessful. even chillingworth confesses to this. he also thinks that her marriage to her has been wrong. he says it somewhere at the beginning of the novel when he meets hester in prison: ―i,-a man of thought,-the bookworm of great libraries,-a man already in decay, having given my best years to feed the hungry dream of knowledge, what had i to do with youth and beauty like thine own! (ibid, p. 53) according to darrel abel also, chillingworth ‗married her before she was mature enough to know the needs of her nature‘ (abel, 1961: 302). that‘s why she feels no love for chillingworth and this leads to her desire for dimmesdale. he also desires her. he acts as his lover all throughout the novel. he is a religious figure but he loves hester so much that he transgresses the rules of his religion and still feels no remorse. this is what he tells hester: ‗of penance i have had enough! of penitence there has been none‘ (the scarlet letter: 130). this shows that he has had no repentance. therefore, he does not really regret what he has done. according to ernest sandeen, ‗the obvious explanation would seem to be that in some unacknowledged depth of his psyche he is still in love and can no more regret his passion than hester can regret hers‘ (sandeen: 354). therefore, we see that he is still thinking of hester and loves her. that‘s why when hester asks him to flee with her, he agrees and all the love which he felt for hester returns: ―do i feel joy again?‖ cried he, wondering at himself. ―methought the germ of it was dead in me! oh hester, thou art my better angel! i seem to have flung myselfsick, sin-stained, and sorrow-blackeneddown upon these forest leaves, and to have risen up all made anew, and with new powers to glorify him that hath been merciful. this is already a better life! why did we not find it sooner?‖ (the scarlet letter: 137) register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 115 dimmesdale and hester desire each other but they can‘t be with each other. that‘s why we can use the word ‗desire‘ because desire in never fulfilled. lacan talks about ‗the unconditional love‘ in his theory. the other party is not capable of fulfilling the subject with that kind of love. that‘s what happens to hester. she demands love from her husband. however, he can‘t give her this kind of love because she doesn‘t love him. she tries to find it in dimmesdale but again her desire can‘t be fulfilled. the reason is that dimmesdale is a clergyman who has already transgressed the borderlines with having this illegal relationship with hester, a married woman. he confesses at the end of the novel and they never join each other. therefore, the desire is still unanswered and that‘s a part of the definition of this word. in the private memoirs and confessions of a justified sinner also, we can feel this desire in robert‘s mother. from the beginning of the story we can see that the marriage is an unhappy one. lady dalcastle seems so devoted to religion that she cannot forget her prayers even on the night of her marriage: ‗sure, mr. colwan, you won‘t go to bed to-night, at such an important period of your life, without first saying prayers for yourself and me‘ (confessions of a justified sinner: 4). however, the husband is the exact opposite. he is not devoted to religion at all. we are told that ‗the laird was what his country neighbours called ―a droll, careless chap,‖ with the very limited proportion of the fear of god in his heart, and very nearly as little of the fear of man‘ (confessions of a justified sinner: 2). that‘s why when lady dalcastle asks him to say prayers at the night of their marriage, he answers: ‗prayers, mistress! lord help your crazed head, is this a night for prayers?‘ (ibid, p. 4). this discordance becomes more obvious the day after they get married. when the laird searches for his wife and finds her the next day, lady dalcastle says: ‗sir, i will let you know, that i detest your principles and your person alike‘ register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 116 (ibid, p. 8). louis simpson also calls the wife ‗a presbyterian bigot‘ (simpson and hogg, 1962: 74). the word bigot suggests the extent to which she is strict about religion. therefore, we can easily feel how different this husband and wife are. that‘s why lady dalcastle feels no love for her husband. her husband is not religious at all and that‘s what is lacking in him. however, she can see this divinity in mr. wringhim. he is religious enough for her. even at the night of their marriage the only person whose company she enjoys is the minister: the only enjoyment in which she appeared to partake, was in now and then stealing a word of sweet conversation with her favorite pastor about divine things. (confessions of a justified sinner: 3) that‘s why she is always with him and he acts as her counselor. robert is also brought up under his care: ‗robert was brought up with mr. wringhim, the laird paying a certain allowance for him yearly‘ (ibid, p. 18). therefore, her desire for love is also unanswered and that‘s why she is always with wringhim. he suits her better because he is religious. that‘s how she tries to satisfy herself. in short, she desires wringhim. this is how desire, one of the theories of lacan is true about this novel too. conclusion in conclusion, we can see how it is possible to have a lacanian reading of the two novels the private memoirs and cofessions of a justified sinner and the scarlet letter although the writers did not have such a thing in mind when they wrote these novels. however, psychoanalysis is concerned with human nature. therefore, it should be true about all men throughout the history of mankind no matter when and where they lived. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 117 we could see how robert and pearl go through the mirror stage. the theory of the-name-of-the-father was then brought in and was related to the mirror stage. this was where there was a contrast between these two novels. we could also see how it was possible that robert had had hallucination in the novel. at the end, desire in hester and lady dalcastle was dealt with and the fact that their marriages were unsuccessful. and that‘s how lacan has got a theory for all of these. references abel, darrel. ‗hawthorn‘s hester‘ in gross, seymore, bradley, sculley, beatty, richmond croom, long, e. hudson (eds). 1961. the scarlet letter. 3 rd edition. new york and london: w.w. norton & company. pp. 300-308 doren, mark van. 1949. nathaniel hawthorne. the united states of america: william sloan associates, inc. evans, dylan. 1996. an introductory dictionary of lacanian psychoanalysis. london: brunner-routledge. gilford, douglas. 1976. james hogg. edinburgh: the ramsay head press. hogg, james. 1981. the private memoirs and confessions of a justified sinner.oxford: oxford university press. jacques-allain miller (ed). 1988. the seminars of jacques lacan, translated by john forrester.cambridge: cambridge university press. sandeen, ernest, ‗the scarlet letter as a love story‘, in the scarlet letter, ed by gross, seymore, bradley, sculley, beatty, richmond croom, long, e. hudson (w.w. norton & company) pp. 350-361 simpson, louis, james hogg, a critical study (edinburgh and london: oliver &boyd, 1962). 63 the use of conceptual metaphor in gola gong’s novel bila waktu bicara faizal risdianto english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 02 salatiga, central java, indonesia faizrisd@gmail.com abstract this study aims at describing conceptual metaphor in gola gong‘s novel ―bila waktu bicara‖ in the perspective of george lakoff‘s theories of metaphor. this research is a (qualitative) bibliographical research. the object of the study is the use of metaphor in gola gong‘s novel ―bila waktu bicara‖ and there are 59 metaphorical expressions. having analyzed the data, the researcher concludes that there are seven most outstanding conceptual mapping on that novel: time is an individual, the world is the hell or paradise, people is a stream of water, seeing is touching, eye ball is a container, body part is a landscape, ambulance is an individual. among this seven conceptual mappings, the conceptual pattern of time is an individual is the most frequent use and it shows that there has been an increase of creativity in the creation of socioreligious metaphor of indonesian young novelist such as gola gong. keywords: s ource domain, conceptual metaphor, g eorge lakoff abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan mengenai metafora konseptual yang ditemukan dalam novel karya gola gong yang berjudul ―bila waktu bicara” dari perspektif george lakoff dalam teorinya mengenai metafora. penelitian ini termasuk penelitian bibliografi (kualitatif). objek dalam penelitian ini adalah penggunaan majas metafora dalam novel karya gola gong tersebut, dan hasil dari penelitian ini ditemukan adanya 59 ekspresi yang mengandung majas metafora. setelah menganalisis data, penulis dapat menyimpulkan bahwa ada tujuh konsep pemetaan yang paling terkenal dalam novel tersebut; waktu adalah sebuah individu, dunia itu adalah antara surga atau neraka, manusia adalah aliran air, melihat berarti merasakan, bola mata sebagai wadahnya, anggota tubuh adalah mailto:faizrisd@gmail.com 64 pemandangan, dan ambulans adalah sebuah individu. di antara ketujuh pembagian konsep-konsep tersebut, pola konsep bahwa waktu itu bersifat pribadi adalah konsep yang paling sering digunakan dalam novel tersebut, dan hal ini menunjukkan bahwa ada peningkatan kreatifitas yang dimiliki oleh para pengarang novel muda indonesia dalam pembuatan novel yang mengandung metafora sosial keagamaan seperti halnya gola gong. kata kunci: target domain, metafora konseptual, goerge lakoff introduction one of interesting problems in language study is the use of metaphor. one of its mysteries is the public confusion in encountering metaphorical expression that says something that is different to what it really means. hawkes says ―language which doesn’t mean what it says‖ (1980:1). this fact creates the impression that the user of metaphor looks like a liar or deceiver. when juliet said to romeo ―the lights that shines from your eyes‖ she did not mean to say that from romeo‘s eyeballs radiating or shining on the chamber they stayed. when a poet says,‖ a poem is a bird‖, s/he did not mean to state that the poem can flap its wings and tail. those two instances are only part of many examples that create the impression of metaphor as the expression full of ―absurdity‖ and ‗falsity‖ (max black in ortony, 1993:21). one of the interesting studies of metaphor is the use of metaphor in literary works of art. the outstanding feature of metaphor in this case lies on its uniqueness and specification that are very different to other genre of writing like business, political discourses, science and technology. such uniqueness refers to the poetic function of literary wok to convey the messages or ideas of man of letters towards his or her readers (culler, 1975:55). culler says, ―by showing what properties of language were being exploited in particular texts and how they were extended or organized‖ 65 (1975:55). besides, using poetic words in his or her literary works of art, the men of letters effectively use their literary woks as effective weapons to enlighten and improve his society and humanity in general. above all, literary works prefer showing to telling its readers about the moral consciousness. it helps them indirectly finding good lessons of life regardless whatever literary works they are. back to the objective of this writing, in this process language plays a crucial role, for every messages prepared by the men of letters are played beautifully by the use of the language of metaphor. considering above explanation, this paper analyzes the use of lakoffian conceptual metaphor in gola gong‘s novel bila waktu bicara. to define what had been analyzed in this research, it had been formulated the problem of this paper: what‘s the uniqueness of conceptual metaphor in gola gong‘s novel bila waktu bicara? research methodology this research is a qualitative descriptive research. the objects in this study were 59 metaphorical expressions taken from gola gong‘s novel bila waktu bicara. those metaphorical expressions were obtained through frequent reading and analysis. this study employed the researcher as the instrument to find adequate and profound data and analyze them. the procedures and steps that had been used in this research were (1) the provision of data, (2) classification and data analysis, and (3) presentation of data analysis. the stage of provision of data related to problems of classification. meanwhile, the phase of data analysis related to the collection of data of metaphoric expression in gola gong‘s bila waktu bicara. the last stage was the stage to report the results of the analysis 66 which had been conducted in this research. in order to get the best results the data which were the object of the research had been selected carefully and systematically. discussion metaphor in literary use, metaphor (from the greek: metapherin rhetorical trope) is defined as an indirect comparison between two or more seemingly unrelated subjects that typically uses ―is a‖ to join the first subjects for example: ― man is a wolf ―. this is an elliptical form compared to simile sentence man is like a wolf. a metaphor is commonly confused with a simile, which compares two subjects using ―like‖ or ―as‖. an example of a simile: ―he was as sly as a fox.‖ in the simplest case, a metaphor takes the form: ―the first subject is a second subject.‖ edi subroto (1986:45) said that a metaphorical expression can be categorized as metaphor if it can give a new enjoyment in reading language expression, kicking out monotony and enliven inanimate object, and actualizing something that which actually crippled or paralyzed. in the development of theories of metaphor there are several domestic and foreign linguists who have tried to describe their complex conception about metaphor. they are: rachmad djoko pradopo (1987), edi subroto(1991), herman waluyo(1991), aminuddin (1995),stephen ullmann (1972), andrew orthony (1993),and wellek (1993). these conceptions will be elaborated one by one: pradopo (1987:66) explains that categorically metaphor consists of two terms, main term or tenor (principal term) and the second term or vehicle (secondary term). the main term or tenor tells about the compared entities whereas the second term or vehicle tells about the comparison or the things 67 compared. then it is said that metaphor sees things by the medium of other entities. this metaphor explains something with the same result which actually has different meaning. edi subroto (1995:38) explains that metaphor is created particularly based on the similarity of two referents. the first referent is called tenor and the second one is called vehicle. the similarity of both referents is the basic builder of metaphor creation. according to edi subroto, one important factor in the affectivity of metaphor is the distance between tenor and vehicle. if the distance of both of them is very close in their similarity level, the metaphor is less expressive, less effective. on the contrary, if the similarity level of both elements is not so real, the metaphor has expressive power. the metaphor like ―black wolf‖ to depict ―night shadow‖ like what has arthur rimbaud said in his poem is the example of effective and expressive metaphor (edi subroto, 1995:39). according to herman waluyo (1991:84), metaphor is an insight or approach towards object through direct or indirect comparison. aminuddin (1995:304), in his stilistika explained that metaphor is: one of the forms of figurative language which created and recreated through comparison and the transfer of semantic features via direct or indirect comparison. the indonesian metaphor of ―aku ini binatang jalang‖( i am the untamed animal) for example, is a form of metaphor which used direct comparison but in the metaphor of ―jam mengerdip‖ something is compared to the blinking as indirect nature. viewed to its function, the use of metaphor is functioned to enrich the nature of imagery description and the picturing of meaning of an elaboration. ullmann said that the subjects of metaphor are by telling the things that we compared to. in his semantic an introduction to the science of meaning, ullman explained about both things by giving the term of tenor and vehicle, 68 whereas the common feature that they have has formed the ground of metaphor. this had been stated in these following sentences: the basic structure of metaphor is very simple. there are two terms present: the thing we are talking about and that to which we are comparing it. in richard‘s terminology, the former is the tenor, the later the vehicle, whereas the feature or features they have in common from the ground of the metaphor (ullman, 1972:213). it means that the basic structure of metaphor is very simple. there are two things that we are talking about the things we talk and the things we compared to. the first term of richard from the early start is tenor (direction/objectives) and the latest is vehicle. this remains us to the idiosyncrasies of daily lexicon which form the ground of metaphor. in the view of andrew ortony (1993:2), in his book entitled metaphor and thought: it seems preferable, however, to attempt to relate two alternative approaches to metaphor metaphor as an essential characteristic of the creativity of language; and metaphor as deviant and parasitic upon normal usage to a more fundamental and pervasive difference of opinion about the relationship between language and the world. it means that, however, it is better to relate two alternatives of approach in metaphor – metaphor as the main character from language creativity; and metaphor as a deviation and parasitic from the normal language toward deep fundamental difference from the opinion of the relationship between language and the world. furthermore rene wellek (1993:235) explained that metaphor compared two world and conveying theme through one idiom to other idiom as the works of shakespeare (raging sea, the wild storm in the meadow, the gloomy lake). 69 in general, it can be concluded that what have been said by the above linguistic experts have enrich our knowledge about the theories of metaphor started from the tenor and vehicle explained by i.a richard (1936). even though sometimes using different terminology, outstanding linguists like pradopo, edi subroto, waluyo, aminnuddin,wellek and ullmann give an emphasis to the theory of richard, whereas andrew ortony has added his viewpoints which insisted on the inconsistencies between ―the two terms‖ in metaphor called as tension. conceptual metaphor it is true that all of us speak in metaphors whether we realize it or not. in metaphors we live by, george lakoff, a linguist, and mark johnson, a philosopher, suggest that metaphors not only make our thoughts more vivid and interesting but that they actually structure our perceptions and understanding. thinking of marriage as a ―contract agreement,‖ for example, leads to one set of expectations, while thinking of it as ‗team play‖, ―a negotiated settlement,‖ ‗russian roulette,‖ ―an indissoluble merger,‖ or ―a religious sacrament‖ will carry different sets of expectations. when a government thinks of its enemies as ‗turkeys‖ or ―clowns‖ it does not take them as serious threats, but if they said that they are ―pawns‖ in the hands of the communists, they will be taken seriously indeed. metaphors we live by has led many readers to a new recognition of how profoundly metaphors not only shape our view of life in the present but set up the expectations that determine what life will be for us in the future (1980:13). metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourisha matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language. moreover, metaphor is typically viewed as characteristic of language alone, a 70 matter of words rather than thought or action. for this reason, most people think they can get along perfectly without metaphor. we have found, on the contrary, that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. the concepts that govern our thought are not just matter of the intellect. they also govern our everyday functioning, down to the most common details. our concepts structure what we perceive, how we get around in the world and how we relate to other people. our conceptual system thus plays a central role in defining our everyday realities. if we are right in suggesting that our conceptual system is largely metaphorical, then the way we thinks what we experience, and what we do every day is very much a matter of metaphor. the conceptual system used by mankind in wherever society strongly influenced our style and style of thinking and doing is metaphorical. the non-metaphorical thinking is only possible if we discuss merely physical realities. the greater the level of abstraction made by people, the greater of the metaphorical layers needed to state the result of human thinking. many people ignored these for several reasons. one of them is the reason that few form of metaphor is considered ―dead‖ and has unknown origin. the other reason is that we do not know what happen on our conceptual system in our thinking. (1993:224).the clearer depiction of the view that most of our conceptual system is metaphorical can be seen in the instances of conceptual metaphor by lakoff and turner (1989:3-4) that is given then name of the metaphor life is a journey. in this metaphor the mental domain) ―journey‖ as the source domain is compared to mental domain of ―life‖ as the target domain. the conceptual mapping between the concepts is: 71 life is a journey. the person leading a life is a traveller. his purposes are destinations. the means fro achieving purposes are routes. difficulties in life are impediments to travel counsellors are guides. progress is the distance travelled. counsellors are guides. progress is the distance travelled things you gauge your progress by are the landmarks. material resources and talents are provisions. the conception of the metaphor life is a journey can be applied into other examples like what have been said by (in ortony 1993:206) like the metaphor of love is a journey our relationship has hit a dead-end street. we can’t turn back now. we’re at the crossroads. 72 the relationship isn’t going anywhere. we’re spinning our wheels. our relationship is off the track. it should be understood that the above metaphorical conception is not the only form, but there are hundreds and thousands form and mental domain mapping which compared on mental domain to other mental domain like what had been elaborate by lakoff in the metaphor of life is a journey, change is motion, causes are forces, seeing is knowing, thinking as body movement, time passing is a movement over a landscape etc. from this, the researcher can defined that according to george lakoff metaphor is the most important conceptual construction in the development of human thinking history. the conceptual system which used daily in each and every society will influence our ways of thinking and doing which metaphorical in nature. the synopsis of the novel it is an interesting and inspiring story about an arrogant man in yogyakarta, indonesia named menggung broto. he is the richest and powerful man who thinks that he can do everything he wants by using his power and wealth. one of his biggest dreams is having a son who will inherit his business dynasty and imperium. one day his wife is pregnant and after nine months and ten days his wife give birth in one hospital. at that time there is a doctor, bagaskara, his nephew who helps that process. unintentionally, there are also the poor 73 marwoto‘s wife who will gave birth at the same hospital. unlucky moment occurres when menggung broto‘s baby is dead and marwoto‘s baby is alive. bagaskara is the only person who knew this sad moment. then secretly bagaskara takes marwoto‘s baby and give it to menggung broto. wickedly he says to marwoto that his baby is dead and menggung broto‘s son is alive. then, four years later, the young doctor, bagaskara, goes around several countries like bangkok, bangladesh and india to escape reality and forget his problem but he could not do it. he could not remove the shadow of marwoto‘s sad face and finally he goes home to tell the truth about marwoto‘s son. biography of gola gong gola gong is well-known as free-lance journalist, novelist, screen play writer and poet. many of his poems had been published in suara muhammadiyah, mitra desa pr, republika, media indonesia, harian banten and also adil. his poems are collected in the antology of jejak tiga (1988), ode kampung (1995), antologi puisi indonesia (ksi angkasa, 1997), and kumpulan 7 penyair serang bebegig (list, 1998). his one scene comedy plays script entitled ―kampung maling‖, was performed on stage by forum kesenian banten in banten art building. now he is working in rcti jakarta as scriptwriter. after the performance of his new cinema electronic of ―pada-mu aku bersimpuh‖, the production house of pt. indika entertainment produces ―petualangan si roy‖. this ―cine-tron‖ is an adaptation of his adventure novel of balada si roy, mata elang, and aku seorang kapiten. 74 the analysis of the use of metaphor in gola gong’s novel bila waktu bicara the following paragraphs are the result of analysis toward 59 sentences which contain metaphor in gola gong‘s novel bila waktu bicara. these sentences had been analyzed by using george lakoff‘s theory of conceptual metaphor. in this analysis it can be found seven most outstanding conceptual mapping of metaphor: no the names of conceptual metaphor pattern the available data 1 time is an individual 22 sentences 2 the world is the hell or paradise 18 sentences 3 people is a stream of water 6 sentences 4 seeing is touching 4 sentences 5 eye ball is a container 3 sentences 6 body part is a landscape 3 sentences 7 ambulance is an individual 2 sentences the first pattern: time is an individual in general, there are 22 metaphorical data in gola gong‘s novel bila waktu bicara which showing the pattern of time is an individual. here are three most outstanding samples: (1) dia mencoba mengejar waktu-nya yang berdetak cepat. dia tahu, waktu yang terlewat tak mungkin dipegang lagi. dia mesti mengejarnya, agar tak tertinggal! atau dia menyerahkannya saja : biarlah waktu yang berbicara! dia akan pasrah menerima resikonya, sepahit apapun. (gola gong 2004:15) (2) dia tidak menuruti kata hatinya untuk pulang ke yogyakarta, menengok ayah ibunya, mas dan mbakyunya, serta kerabatkerabatnya. dia sengaja berlari meninggalkan sang waktu yang menarik-nariknya agar pulang‖. (gola gong 75 2004:75). (3) ―saya sudah melanggar yang pertama. tentu saya tidak ingin membuat kesalahan lagi. ibaratnya, saya digenggam oleh waktu‖ (gola gong 2004:129). in the metaphorical expression (1) the source domain is the abstract form of the word ―waktu‖ or ―time‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the word of ―bicara‖ or ―speaks‖. this metaphorical expression has a story context when bagaskara, the main character begin to realize the greatest mistake of his life time. but his enormous life burden make him motionless and trying to escape the reality. he needs more time to ponder about his past mistakes or sins. he has a firm intention someday if his heart is ready to confess all of his mistakes and to make positive steps to improve his past wrong doings. in this metaphorical expression the author tries to tell the reader about the great blessing and bounty that allah swt gives to us. he uses or more exactly personifies the abstract form of time as if it can talk like human being. this way is intended to make easy the audience to understand the importance or values of time. in the metaphorical expression (2) the source domain is the abstract form of the word ―waktu‖ or ―time‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the word of ―yang menarik-nariknya agar pulang‖ or ―drew out or pull him to go home‖. this metaphorical expression has a story line that the main character eventhough understand about the importance or the values of his life time, he does not have the intention of going back to his family in yogyakarta. 76 intentionally he wants to escape reality of his past life problem by travelling abroad. in this metaphorical expression the writer uses the indonesian phrase of ―menarik-nariknya agar pulang‖ or ―drew out him to go back home‖ as the personification of the abstract form of ―sang waktu‖ or ―the time‖. the author explains the reader about the importance of trying to do the best of to make use of our life time. in the metaphorical expression (3) the source domain is the abstract form of the word ―waktu‖ or ―time‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete passive voice form of the verb ―digenggam‖ or ―gripped‖. this metaphorical expression has the context where bagas begin to realize his past mistakes and decides to go back to his home town, yogyakarta to improve his wrong steps. once again the author personifies the abstract form of time which can do human activity like ―menggenggam ― or ―gripped‖. the second pattern: the world is the hell or paradise. in general, there are 18 metaphorical data in gola gong‘s novel bila waktu bicara which showing the pattern of the world is the hell or paradise. here are three most outstanding samples: (4) pada suasana seperti ini, ternyata selimut hangat dari malaikat surga melindungi mereka. (gola gong 2004:38) (5) tentu setan neraka akan tertawa terbahak-bahak karena ummat muhammad saw berhasil di adu domba dan saling gontokgontokan. (gola gong 2004:43). (6) kesempatan ini digunakan oleh para iblis untuk mengepung marwoto, yang sedang gundah gulana. bisikan-bisikan maut dari kayu bakar neraka itu mencoba menyeretnya untuk membangkang pada ke-esaan allah. (gola 77 gong, 2004:110) in this metaphorical expression of (4) ―pada suasana seperti ini, ternyata selimut hangat dari malaikat surga melindungi mereka‖ the source domain is the abstract form of the word ―selimut hangat‖ or ―warm blanket‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the phrase ―malaikat surga yang melindungi mereka‖ or ―the heavenly angel who protect them‖. this metaphorical expression has the contextual background where there is a group of young generation in malioboro street of yogyakarta who hold charity music concert to help the victim of flooded area all over the countries. this situation is depicted as a time where human seat of emotion is touched by positive drives, which in islamic teaching is said as the whisper, or the drive of heavenly angels. such positive drives of angels metaphorically are depicted in the phrase of ―selimut hangat‖ or ―warm blanket‖. the word ―blanket‖ means ― thick, woolen covering used on beds, or for keeping human body to stay warm ― whereas the word ―hangat‖ or ―warm‖ means ―having a fairly high degree of heat (between cool and hot)‖. the word ―warm‖ is also defined as the non-solar energy that comes up from the burned and boiled things. figuratively the word ―warm‖ is used to depict a feeling of joy or pleasure. in this metaphor the author intends to explain that the whispers or positive drives from heavenly angel is ―warm blanket‖ which cover or influence people to do positive things in every condition. in the metaphorical expression of (5) ―tentu setan neraka akan tertawa terbahak-bahak karena ummat muhammad saw berhasil di adu domba dan saling gontok-gontokan. ― the source domain is the clause ―ummat muhammad saw berhasil di adu domba dan saling gontok gontokan ― or ―the ummah of prophet muhammad pbuh were successfully provoked‖ whereas the target domain is the clause of ―setan 78 neraka akan tertawa terbahak-bahak‖ or ―the devil will laugh uproariously‖. this metaphorical expression has a context when the ambulance carrying menggung broto‘s wife make the passing vehicle and anyone near him aside or away from the ambulance. why is that so? since menggung broto is the richest and most influential people in yogyakarta so that when the ambulance carrying his wife will give birth by then all have to step aside. this shows the arrogance of the rich against the poor and the commoners. to explain this idea the author uses a religious metaphorical expression on the clause of ―tentu setan neraka akan tertawa terbahakbahak karena ummat muhammad saw berhasil di adu domba dan saling gontokgontokan. ― or ―the ummah of prophet muhammad pbuh were successfully provoked‖ in the real world indeed, the readers can not see the satan who laughs uproariously. the concept of ―satanic hell‖ is a religious concept that is defined as an evil spirit from hell that always persuades people to do evil things. these evil creatures have such bad tempers like making a provocation among human being. in a creative and genius way, the author uses these religious concepts into sentences in the novel so the reader can understand abstract concepts in more tangible context. in this metaphorical expression (6) ―mereka itu sebetulnya orangorang yang membuat dusta atas nama allah. padahal allah itu penuh karunia kepada hamba-nya. tapi, kebanyakan mereka tidak mau bersyukur padanya! akibatnya para iblis tertawa terbahak-bahak, sementara itu para malaikat menunduk sedih‖. (gola gong 2004:93). in this metaphorical expression the source domain are the human‘s mistakes or sins while the target domain is the bad implications that would befall towards the sinner in 79 hereafter. this metaphorical expression has the context of the story when bagaskara as the young doctors is very sad because he make fatal mistake when he lies that the born baby of marwoto‘s wife died. it was a big lie since actually the baby is not dead but he gives him to menggung broto‘s family. this is bagaskara‘s secret so that nobody else knows. this metaphorical expression shows that there are many people who are willing to lie in order to get compliments from others by making lies in the name of god. according to islamic principle this will carry heavy and bad implications in this world and also in hereafter. this will make the devils happy and saddened the angels. although in reality the reader can not see the demons and angels, but this concept is an important concept to be our life principle in living our life. the third pattern: people is a stream of water in general, there are 6 metaphorical data in gola gong‘s novel bila waktu bicara which showing the pattern of people is a stream of water. here are three most outstanding samples: (7) dia menikmati orang-orang yang mengalir seperti air bah di depan kamarnya. luber kemana-mana. calcutta ini jika diibaratkan gelas, sudah terlalu penuh oleh air. tak tertampung lagi. (gola gong 2004:23) (8) mereka luber ke mana-mana. ibarat ember yang ditadahkan di sebuah kran bocor, begitulah suasana malam itu di jantung kota yogyakarta: malioboro. manusia seperti tidak ada habishabisnya. tumpah ruah. (gola gong 2004:35) (9) rio sudah terbawa arus. seorang ibu menggendongnya tadi. arus itu sangat kuat sekali menuju sebuah gubuk kecil di bibir sungai. (gola 80 gong 2004:170). in the metaphorical expression (7) the source domain is the the word ―orang-orang‖ or ―a group of people‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the word of ―yang mengalir seperti air bah‖ or ―who flow like the water of the flood‖. this metaphorical expression has the context of the story when bagaskara in a time of his sadness lives in the crowded poor city of calcutta, india. it is a place where millions of people living in poor condition. it is an over-crowded city which gola gong tried to compare to the stream of flood water. its inhabitants ―spills over‖ every where. in the metaphorical expression (8) the source domain is the abstract form of the word ―manusia‖ or ―human being‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the word of ―luber kemana-mana‖ or ―overflowing all over the places‖ or in the phrase ― tumpah ruah‖ or ―spilled everywhere‖. this metaphorical expression has the context of the story when bagaskara tells the reader about the night life in malioboro street, yogyakarta. the metaphorical expression used by the author is similar to the depiction of the over-populated city of calcutta, india above. in the metaphorical expression (9) the source domain is the word ―rio‖ or ―a boy named rio‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the word of ―sudah terbawa arus (orang banyak)‖ or ―brought by the current of moving people‖. this metaphorical expression has the context of the story where bagas brings ―rio‖ the son of marwoto to bank of the river code, a place where marwoto lives in a poor condition, falls sick and at last faces death agony. this bagas‘ righteous intention is supported by many of marwoto‘s neighbors 81 who happily bring rio to see marwoto. since there are so many people who bring rio to see marwoto, it is like the current or stream of water. the fourth pattern: seeing is touching in general, there are 4 metaphorical data in gola gong‘s novel bila waktu bicara which showing the pattern of seeing is touching. here are three most outstanding samples: (10)si dokter itu membalik. menatap wajah linda. tajam. menyengat. ―saya pernah membunuh seseorang, linda…‖ (gola gong 2004:31) (11)tanpa diduga, saat itu juga menggung broto berdiri goyah. terguncang juga hatinya. kedua tangannya di turunkan. dia menatap kedua perawat itu, yang juga sedang menatapnya. mata mereka beradu. (gola gong, 2004:63) (12)wajah itu seperti menghakimi dan menyoroti setiap kebejatannya dengan senyum pedih yang tergores di bibir piasnya. (gola gong, 2004:78) in the metaphorical expression (10) the source domain is the word ―mata‖ or ―human eyes‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the word of ―tajam‖ or ―sharp‖ and ―menyengat‖ or ―sting‖. this metaphorical expression has the context of the story when bagaskara tries to make linda understand about the reason why he keeps wandering and escaping reality. by seeing and saying the truth bagaskara wants to touch linda‘s consciousness and understanding. in fact, seeing is not just physical movement but it is an action of touching one‘s emotion or 82 psychological states. in the metaphorical expression (11) the source domain is the word ―mata‖ or ―human eyes‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the word of ―beradu‖ or ―collided‖. this metaphorical expression has the context of the story when the boastful menggung broto is shaken seeing marwoto‘s pregnant wife who fall to the floor of the hospital. he couldn‘t stand seeing such scene. when he see it the nurses also see him. their eyes collide. the word ―collide‖ here is not only physical contact but also the touch of emotion between the boastful menggung broto and the nurses. in the metaphorical expression (12) the source domain is the word ―mata‖ or ―human eyes‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the word of ―menghakimi‖ or ―judge‖ and ― menyoroti‖ or ―irradiate‖ this metaphorical expression has the context of the story when bagaskara is often haunted by the remembrance of his guilt towards marwoto. his sad face of losing his son makes bagaskara create the shadows which ―judge‖ and ―irradiate‖ every single step of his walks. the fifth pattern: eye ball is a container in general, there are only three metaphorical data in gola gong‘s novel bila waktu bicara which showing the pattern of eyeball is a container. the two of them are: (12) dalam bola mata hitamnya yang selalu bergerak-gerak penuh kegelisahan itu, tersimpan sederet pen yesalan yang berkepanjangan. (gola gong 2004:14) 83 (13)tergambar telaga kesedihan di kedua bola mata itu(gola gong 2004:14) in the metaphorical expression (12) the source domain is the word ―bola mata‖ or ―eyeball‖ whereas the target domain is the abstract form of the word of ―tersimpan sederet penyesalan‖ or ―keep the feeling of regret‖. this metaphorical expression has the context of the story when bagaskara always keeps the feeling of guilt and regrets towards marwoto. bagaskara‘s eyeballs are not only for seeing object but also reflected his feeling of guilt and sadness. in the metaphorical expression (13) the source domain is the word ―bola mata‖ or ―eyeball‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the phrase of ―telaga kesedihan‖ or ―sea of sadness‖. similarly like the metaphorical expression (12) , bagaskara‘s eyeballs were the container of his feeling of guilt and sadness towards the poor marwoto. the sixth pattern: body part is a landscape in general, there are only three metaphorical data in gola gong‘s novel bila waktu bicara which showing the pattern of body part is a landscape. they are: (14) butir-butir keringat bertebaran di dadanya (gola gong 2004:15) (15) marwoto melepas isterinya dengan hati lapang. (gola gong, 2004:63). in the metaphorical expression (14) the source domain is the concrete form of the word ―butir-butir keringat‖ or ―grains of sweat‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the word of ―bertebaran‖ or ―scrattered‖. 84 this metaphorical expression has the context of the story when bagaskara stays in the cheap guest house in sudder street of calcutta city. the air is very hot so that his grains of sweats are scattered all over his chest. the chest of human beings in this case is treated like a landscape. in the metaphorical expression (16) the source domain is the abstract form of the word ―hati‖ or ―human‘s heart‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the word of ―lapang‖ or ―spacious or ―roomy‖. this metaphorical expression has the context of the story when marwoto sincerely take down the process of his wife‘s child birth to the gynecologist doctor and his god. in this case, gola gong creatively narrated the human heart compared to spacious field or roomy space. as if the human body part is a landscape. the seventh pattern: ambulance is an individual in general, there are only two metaphorical data in gola gong‘s novel body part is a landscape which showing the pattern of ambulance is an individual. they are: (17) ambulans memekikkan sirinenya (gola gong, 2004:43) (18) sirene ambulans terus meraung-raung. (gola gong 2004:47) in the metaphorical expression (17) the source domain is the concrete form of the word ―ambulans‖ or ―ambulance‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the word of ―memekikkan sirinenya‖ or ―shouted its siren‖. in this case the ambulance is treated like individual or human being who can yell, scream or shout to everyone. this metaphorical expression has the context of the story when the ambulance which brings the pregnant menggung broto‘s wife went to the 85 hospital. the author tried to elaborate about the arrogance of menggung broto‘s family reflected by the loud shout of the ambulance siren. it is not only physical entity but a reflection of socio-cultural condition where there is a wide gap between the rich and the poor. in the metaphorical expression (18) the source domain is the concrete form of the word ―sirine ambulans‖ or ―ambulance sirens‖ whereas the target domain is the concrete form of the word of ―terus meraung-raung‖ or ―keeps on moaning‖. in this case the ambulance is treated like individual or human being who can groan and moan to everyone. this metaphorical expression has the similar context as the above scene when the ambulance which brought the pregnant menggung broto‘s wife went to the hospital. conclusion having analyzed the data, the researcher can draw the conclusion that gola gong in his novel bila waktu bicara has effectively and creatively used metaphorical expressions in telling the reader about the importance or the value of our time. metaphorically ―time‖ as abstract object treated as concrete object the same as individual who can do many things like human being. this most frequent pattern of conceptual metaphor time is an individual is gola gong‘s best vehicle to convey the moral and religious message. the metaphorical expressions are also a strong socio-cultural criticism towards indonesian daily life problems. finally, the researcher suggest that there are many opportunities and facets to make a lingual research about this study particularly a research on the metaphorical expression of indonesian novels. this work requires deeper and broader observation, interpretation and analysis. the study towards this most outstanding figurative language offers deeper interpretation about the 86 linguistic unique feature of formal speech. this suggestion is aimed to all language researcher and the students of english department , particularly the program of english linguistics. references cuddon, j.a. 1979. a dictionary of literary terms. great britain: w&j mackay ltd. culler, j. 1975. structuralist poetics. london: routled & keagan paul. edi subroto, d. 1991. ―metafora dan kemetaforaan: analisis pada beberapa puisi indonesia‖ dalam majalah haluan sastra budaya no.17 th. xx oktober 1991. surakarta. sebelas maret university press. edi subroto, d. 1992. pengantar metode penelitian linguistik struktural. surakarta: sebelas maret university press. edi subroto, d. dkk. 1999. kajian stilistika novel berbahasa jawa tahun 1980-an. jakarta. pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa . gong, gola. 2004. bila waktu bicara. surakarta. era publishing. hawkes, t. 1980. metaphor. new york: methuen & co. keraf, gorys. 2004. diksi dan gaya bahasa. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. levin, samuel. 1977. the semantics of metaphor. baltimore: the john hopkins university. ortony, andrew. (ed). 1993. metaphor & thought. london: cambrigde university press. piantanida, m. & garman, n. b. 1999. the qualitative dissertation: a guide for students and faculty. london, sage. saeed,j. 1997. semantics. massachusetts: blackwell publishers. scott, a.f. 1980. current literary terms: a concise dictionary. london: the macmillan press. ullmann, stephen. 1997. semantics: an introduction to the science of meaning. oxford: basil blackwell ltd. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 135 violating the maxims of quality and quantity on the ‘demo sabun’ sketch of extravaganza situation comedy tv setia rini english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 2 salatiga, central java, indonesia abstract this study focuses on analyzing the violation of maxims as proposed by grice in his cooperative principles. the subject of the study is on one of tv sitcoms broadcasted by one of the private owned tv station in indonesia. the writer collected the data by transcribing the dialogues among the comedian in one sketch. in this modern era there are many busy people who need such kind of entertainment to lead them release their fatigue after having a day work. this situation invites some creative people to produce humor which is then packaged in the form situation comedy. these sitcoms can be broadcasted in many television stations now. in creating such funny expressions, there must be the violation on some maxims. by violating the maxims; the humorous verbal interaction can be achieved. the writer found that there are two types of violation on maxims of quality and quantity in one of the extravaganza‘s sketches. key words: violation, maxims, humor abstrak penelitian ini berfokus pada analisis pelanggaran maksim-maksim sesuai dengan teori yang dipaparkan oleh grice dalam prinsip-prinsip kooperatifnya. subyek dalam penelitian ini adalah salah satu sitkom yang ditayangkan di salah satu saluran televisi swasta di indonesia. penulis mengumpulkan data dengan membuat traskip percakapan yang dilakukan oleh para komedian dalam satu sketsa. pada era modern seperti saat ini, dimana banyak orang yang terlalu sibuk dengan pekerjaan mereka, sangat membutuhkan hiburan yang dapat membantu melepaskan kepenatan setelah seharian bekerja. situasi seperti ini akhirnya menarik orang-orang yang kreatif untuk membuat lawakan yang akhirnya dikemas dalam bentuk situasi komedi atau sitkom. dan sekarang sitkom-sitkom tersebut akhirnya dapat ditayangkan di beberapa register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 136 stasiun televisi. kemudian untuk membentuk beberapa ekspresi-ekspresi yang lucu, dalam adegan harus dilakukan pelanggaran pada beberapa maksim. dengan melanggar maksim-maksim tersebut, akan diperoleh interaksi verbal yang humoris. penulis menemukan bahwa ada dua jenis pelanggaran maksim-maksim tersebut, yakni pelanggaran pada maksim kualitas dan maksim kuantitas pada salah satu sketsa dalam acara extravaganza. kata kunci: pelanggaran, maxim, humor introduction in every day life, people need to get a kind of entertainment to refresh their mind after having business in whole weeks. people need the topic of humor to make them laugh a lot and feel happy. some of the tv stations in indonesia present the programs in the form of various situation comedies tv. there are many situation comedies on some tv stations such as office boy for rcti, abdel dan temon for global tv, coffee bean show for metro tv. one of the tv broadcasters is trans tv; it broadcasts the situation comedies or humor genres such as bajaj bajuri, ngelenong nyok, extravaganza abg, komedi betawi, suami-suami takut istri, sketsa ajah and extravaganza that are able to entertain people in their spare time. extravaganza situation comedy tv is broadcasted in the form of series of sketches for each episode. the extravaganza sitcom program is mostly viewed by the tv viewers because the contents of sketches are very funny and varied and deals with the current issues. it is played by some talented comedians like virnie ismail, tora sudiro, ronny dozer, tike priyatna kusumah, sogi indra duaja, indra birowo, ronald surapraja, mike amalia, tj, aming, luna maya, katty sharon, omesh and some of the new comers. they entertain lots of audiences on saturday evening and monday evening at 7 to 9 pm but then it is replaced to be broadcasted at 8 to 10 pm with full of intellectual ideas which sometimes also inserting some taboo ideas. in each register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 137 episode, it consists of many sketches and presented in ten minutes then it is broken by the commercial breaks. after presenting the sketches, the other segment is bincangbincang extravaganza, sinden gosip, and extra news. bincang bincang extravaganza deals with the interview with the guest star and the imitation of the guest star performed by one of the comedians for example if the guest star‘s name is dewi persik, so the imitation of the guest star‘s name is dewi bersisik and so on. in sinden gosip, two female of the extravaganza‘s comedians called tike, tije watije dress like sinden (a javanese traditional singer) and one male comedian called tora sudiro who must perform like a female dresses in indonesian traditional costumes represents the involving of the tribes all over indonesia. in extra news, they perform as news presenters and present the funny news by giving the different pictures for the news presented. we know that such a kind of genre is so popular among us but studies of television comedy are rare. according to wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, a situation comedy is a genre of comedy programs which originated in radio, but today they are found almost exclusive on common television as one of its dominant narrative forms. sitcoms usually consist of recurring characters in environment such as a home, a workplace and generally include laugh tracks or studio audiences. some tv comedies have different comedy format, a sketch comedy, which generally featured new characters and situations each outing, or the humorous monologue or dialogue which did not feature character. often these other formats were presented within a variety format mixed with musical performances. as we know that the humor in sitcoms varies, it is usually character driven, which result in running gags during the series. the extravaganza situation comedy is a sketch comedy filled by some humorous dialogues. it is also featured by the characters for different register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 138 situations and always makes the audiences laugh at them a lot due to the jokes they present. what make the audiences laugh at them a lot is not only a matter of the jokes but also of the costumes they wear for the appropriate situations and body language they act when they perform for certain characters which are followed by musical performances. most of the sketches presented in the sitcoms must be prepared as well as possible. in the back of the stage they make the preparation by practicing the scripts altogether. but there is the one who is in charge of writing the scripts or we can call him/her a scriptwriter. in creating the scripts that deal with social reality, the scriptwriter must be able to violate the maxim. as we know that the scripts for humorous utterances can also be interpreted from pragmatics angle by employing grice‘s cooperative principle. pragmatics is the branch of linguistics which studies how speakers use language to achieve their goals and how hearers interpret the meaning the speaker wishes to convey (aitchison 2003:104). he added that a conversation depends not only on the speaker, who is trying to deliver a message, but also on the hearer, who draws a conclusion from the implication of the utterance, depending on the context in which it occurs. in contrast to syntax and semantics, pragmatics focuses on human cooperation and knowledge instead of on linguistic meaning and structure only. semantics, which concentrates on the study of meaning of the lexical item and lexical structure, is the precursor to pragmatics, which focuses on the intended meaning dependent on the context (aitchison 2003:88104). the scripts for the extravaganza sitcoms are also written in the form of conversation which consists of many utterances presented for each sketch which is then interpreted by the audiences based on the contexts and mostly create laughter. in order to show what goes on in conversation, grice register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 139 introduced four conversational maxims. a speaker might fail to observe a maxim but still get the intended meaning through to the hearer. failing to observe a maxim is often referred to as ‗breaking a maxim‘ or violating the maxims. in sitcoms these maxims are constantly broken to create humor. the writer focuses on the violation of maxim quality and quantity that can create humorous situation in verbal interaction. dealing the description above, there is a simple problem formulation in a simple question as follows; what kind of maxims violated in the extravaganza situation comedy on sketches ‗demo sabun‘? and how the maxims are violated in the sketch? definition of humor the definition of humor is ultimately depends on the purpose for which it is used. as attardo (1994:4) points out, in the field of literary criticism, for example, there is a need for a fine-grained categorization, whereas linguists have often been happy with broader definitions, arguing that whatever evokes laughter or is felt to be funny is humor, i.e. that humor can be deduced from its effect. however, laughter as such is not necessarily a condition for humor. many views of humor are based merely on circular statements. for example humor is based on the will to laugh. humor is based on what is funny. we laugh at what is funny. humor is based on the ludicrous. in other words, humor is whatever is intended to be funny, even if it might not always be perceived or interpreted as such. this definition does have its problems, since measuring intention is hardly easy; yet it is useful because it accounts for humor as a fundamentally social phenomenon as well as one whose manifestations can vary greatly in different cultures. that is why most tv channels broadcast such kind of program for the purpose of entertaining people which stimulate them to laugh. it can be scrutinized that there are no basic differences of humor from different culture, that all the things and register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 140 actions performed by some humorists can be perceived as funny will result in laugh. cooperative principle in order to explain how hearers interpret the utterance, grice introduced cooperative principle (cp). the cp states: ―make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged‖ (grundy 1995:37). according to this principle, both speaker and hearer converse with the willingness to deliver and interpret a message. the speaker and hearer cooperate and that is why they communicate efficiently (thomas 1995:63). based on the definition above it means that when people converse, they need to cooperate with the ideas and the message so that there will be no miss communication among the speaker and the hearer. for example, the communication among the speakers in tv sitcoms can be accepted by the hearer. in this case the tv viewers, they can accept the utterances produced by the comedians. it means that there cooperative principles occur, and it is responded by laughing at what they hear and see. conversational maxims in order to illustrate how we interpret meaning, grice presented, in addition to the cooperative principle, four conversational maxims to show how we communicate effectively in the light of certain rules. he formulates the principle and its maxims in logic and conversation (1975) as follows: make your contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. so, when we communicate with other people, we must deliver the message as it is required based on the context so that we can interpret and understand the implicatures of an utterance as effective as possible. from register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 141 what has been stated by grice, it can be formulated, in communication whatever messages are delivered, it must follow the path of contexts, so that the messages can be understood based on their observation toward those related maxims. we can communicate each other by following certain rules as formulated by grice called the conversational maxims as described below: maxim of quantity maxim of quantity requires the speaker to give the right amount of information when s/he speaks, which means not to be too brief or to give more information than the situation requires. consider the example when someone asks, by way of greeting, ―how are you doing today‖?, and then a speaker says: ―i‘m feeling good today, but yesterday i was very ill, and the day before that, even worse‖,. in the greeting context the utterance contains too much information and the maxim is not being observed. the speaker fails observing the maxim. in short, first, when we make the conversation, make our contributions as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange) and second, do not make our contributions more or less informative than is required. maxim of quality the maxim of quality is a matter of giving the right information. the speaker says nothing that s/he knows to be false or for which s/he lacks sufficient evidence (thomas 1995:67). the other maxims are dependent on this maxim since, if a speaker does not convey the truth then the utterance is false, even if the right amount of information is given or the speaker is clear and orderly when speaking (finegan 1994:341). an example of nonobservance is: ―you look good with your new haircut‖ when one actually believes the opposite. the statement is then an untruth, the speaker fails to register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 142 observe the maxim in order to be polite. in short, (1) not say what they believe to be false, (2) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. maxim of relevance the maxim of relevance requires the speaker to be relevant to the context and situation in which the utterance occurs (thomas 1995:70). for instance, a speaker should not say ―i am on the phone‖ when someone asks if s/he wants dinner. here the utterance meaning is irrelevant and the speaker fails to observe the maxim. in short, be relevant. in other case, most comedians violate this maxim also. again, the purpose is to make it funny and the audiences will laugh at what they produced. maxim of manner the maxim of manner is a matter of being clear and orderly when conversing. the speaker describes things in the order in which they occurred and avoids ambiguity and obscurity (thomas 1995:64). a speaker fails to observe the maxim of manner when s/he says ―i went to bed and got undressed‖ when, of course, s/he undressed first and then went to bed. in short, (1) avoid obscurity of expression, (2) avoid ambiguity, (3) be brief, (4) be orderly people are supposed to follow this cooperative principle and its maxims in order to arrive at meaningful verbal exchanges in their communication in an effective way. violation of the four maxims and achievement of humor grice (1975) stated that the sense of humor achieved by violating the maxims of the cooperative principle deliberately. but different from dull and uninteresting conversation, humor is the embodiment of intelligence. one of its conspicuous features is funny and comical. humor shows a brisk and register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 143 happy attitude and an optimistic belief, as well profound meaning. another feature of humor is implicit. it doesn‘t show the opinions, comments, suggestion directly. through all various techniques of language, it exposes the absurd and suspicious of the problem, which attracts people to reasoning, deduction. the example below is going to analyze the humor caused by violating cooperative principles of conversation in detail. some examples together with brief analyses on violating each maxim of cp concerned provided below: violating maxim of quantity violating maxim of quantity is when people in conversations offer more or less information than is required, which thus creates humorous effects. nevertheless, as we mentioned above, in people‘s daily communication, the interlocutors often offer too much or inadequate information, that is to say, it deviates from the maxims of quantity. example 1: a: why don‘t you study hard? b: the more we study, the more we know. the more we know, the more we forget. the more we forget, the less we know. the less we know, the less we forget. the less we forget, the more we know. so why study? putting aside b‘s series of sentence patterns—―the more…the more…‖ and ―the less…the less…‖ we can see that what b actually expresses is that study is no use. his seemingly logical remarks sound sensible at the first sight but on the second thought turn out to just be an excuse that he has found for himself. obviously, b here offers more information deliberately than is required in a‘s question. and this is just how the sense of humor is embedded. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 144 in this case, when we consider at most utterances found in the comedy scripts, there are many violations occurred in this maxim in order to make it funny such as the speakers give the information in an exchange is not as informative as it is required, and most of them are more informative than it is required. as can be observed in the following example in bold: (data 1) ronald: pemirsa jika anda mendapat masalah dengan yang kotorkotor, seperti piring kotor, gelas kotor, baju kotor serta pikiran kotor, silahkan anda mencuci dengan sabun cuci sanjay. password yang harus anda ucapkan sebelum anda mencuci adalah „ bersihbersihin sanjay‟. actually, it is impossible for dirty mind (pikiran kotor) to be washed by detergent. after observing such kind of information, the result of such kind of violation in maxim of quantity is something funny. violating maxims of quality this violation means people in conversations may offer false information or offer information with not enough evidence purposely, which thus creates humorous effects. according to the maxim of quality, the interlocutors should offer the true information to others. they should not say what they believe to be false. neither should they say that for which they lack adequate evidence. however, there are still many examples to flout the maxim of quality in the purpose to gain some special targets, using such techniques as irony, metaphor, hyperbole. example 2: diner: waiter, there‘s a fly in my soup. waiter: don‘t worry; there‘ll be no extra charge. the waiter made a smart reaction to the dinner‘s obvious complaint at the fly. he beat around the bushes intentionally, i.e. consciously disregarding the register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 145 actual complaint of the diner and simply following the literal meaning. but most probably his sense of humor may dissipate the initially apparent anger on the part of the diner and thus avoids an otherwise possible dispute. the speakers in the comedy usually give the wrong information in order to create humor by violating this maxim. consider the other example below: (data 2) ronald: buk, anda pasti akan terkejut lagi. maukan ibu mencuci baju ibuk yang sudah bersih ini dengan sabun sanjay. dijamin baju ibu akan berubah menjadi baju baru. jangan lupa passwordnya buk, „bersih – bersihin sanjay‟. lalu masukkan baju ibuk yang sudah bersih dan tuangkan sabun sanjay ke dalam mesin ini lalu tunggu sebentar. stop, sekarang kita buka mesin cucinya dan silahkan ibuk ambil baju yang ibu cuci. here the comedian gives the wrong information, and that someone does not need to rewash a clean cloth. violating maxim of relation this violation is when people may offer irrelevant information deliberately. according to the maxim of relation, the interlocutors should make their contribution relevant. this maxim demands that the hearer should give answers relevant to what the speaker has said in their dialogue. the ―relevant theory‖ includes two sides. one is under the same condition, the more situation effect, the closer relation they are; the other is under the same condition, the less efforts to handle, the more relevant they are (sperber &wilson , 1986 , p125). the technique of violating the maxim of relation is obviously used in the following jokes: register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 146 example 5 jay, my brother-in-law, was studying political science at u.c.l.a. one summer. many mornings the lure of the beach won out over his obligation to attend class, until finally he realized he‘d fail the course if he missed any more lectures. when jay walked into class late, the professor interrupted his talk about folkways, customs and mores. he consulted his seating chart, then called on jay: ―please tell the class what mores are.‖ jay‘s sense of humor took over as he sang out, ―when the moon hits your eye like a pizza pie, that‘s a mores are .jay is late for school. so the professor asks him to explain what mores is. it implies that it is not a good mores always late for class. jay violates the maxim of relation purposely and not answers correctly. but his reply tests the professor and has the sense of humor. the maxim of relevant literally means the conversation between interlocutors is coherent. if the one is talking a, and the other one continue with b, their communication is unsuccessful, or it may be a humorous end. violating maxims of manner that is, people may disregard the basic maxim of being perspicuous and thus creates humorous effects in their conversations. to achieve the effect of humor, the usually use technique of violating the maxim of manner is the technique of violating the maxim of avoiding ambiguity. it is also the most frequently used one of the four techniques discussed in this paper. through ignoring the issue /topic, occasion, background, misusing or abusing the grammar of the language, all those behaviors will lead to violating of the maxim of manner is resulted in sense of humor. example 3 landlor : ―in a word, when are you going to pay your arrears?‖ register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 147 hard-up author: ―i will satisfy your demands as soon as i receive the money which the publisher will pay me if he accepts the novel i am going to send him as soon as the work is finished which i am about to commence when i have found a suitable subject and necessary inspirations.‖ the deliberately disorderly sentence organization showed us a picture of a poor author who wished his promise of an unknown future remuneration were to comfort the landlord for a period of time, which sounds to us outsiders amusing but sad. the maxim of manner is different from other maxims in that it relates not to what is said but rather, to how what is said is to be said. the interlocutors should try to avoid obscurity and ambiguity when trying to pass a message. they should also try to be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity), and the last requirement is to be orderly. this maxim requires that the conveyed meaning should be adequately clear. discussion the writer chooses one of the sketches in one of these series of extravaganza tv sitcom, and then she transcribes the scripts of the sketch in the written form. after transcribing them, the writer classifies the scripts into a piece of utterances delivered by the comedians. the writer then analyzes the expressions, which considered violating on maxims of gricean cooperative principles. the title of the sketch is “demo sabun”. in this sketch there are two comedians of extravaganza. the first is ronald surapraja who is acting as a detergent promotion man, and the second is tike priyatnakusumah who is acting as a customer of the detergent. the setting of this sketch is in front of the house. there are two tables, on the table there is a big basket for clothes and some package of detergent that has been entitled ‗sanjay‘. next to the tables is a washing machine but it is made from a large, hard paper. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 148 ronald : pemirsa jika anda mendapat masalah dengan yang kotor-kotor, seperti piring kotor, gelas kotor, baju kotor serta pikiran kotor, silahkan anda mencuci dengan sabun cuci sanjay. password yang harus anda ucapkan sebelum anda mencuci adalah „ bersihbersihin sanjay’. in this case, ronald as one of the comedian in extravaganza acted as a person who is in charge of promoting a detergent which is so familiar among the female, called sunlight. firstly, ronald introduces the function of this detergent for cleaning some dirty kitchen tools and house equipment, such as on plates, glasses, clothes and mind. ronald mentions the word ‗dirty mind‘ that can be cleaned by sunlight. in this case he has tried to violate the maxim of quantity by offering more information like in ‗dirty mind‘. also he violates maxim of quality by presenting false information. secondly, he suggested the audiences to clean it with the detergent called „sanjay‟. as we know so far that there is no detergent called „sanjay‟ but ‗sunlight‘. again, he violates the maxim of quality by offering false information. the third, he asks the audiences to mention the password before washing those dirty things. he introduces the password „bersih-bersihin sanjay‟. most female has been familiar with this term introduced in the tv commercial breaks. it must be „bersih-bersihnya sunlight‘. again he violates the maxim of quality by offering false information. as a result, the audiences will laugh at this humor because this violation is aimed at creating humorous effects. tike: permisi pak, saya dapat masalah dengan baju saya kotor sekali pak, baju saya tadinya warnanya putih sekarang berubah jadi hitam. saya minta tolong di cucikan ya pak. in her turn, tike acted as a customer who complains that she got a trouble with her dirty clothes. actually the color of her cloth is white, but it turns into register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 149 black. she asks ronald to clean it. in this case, tike also tries to violate the maxim of quality by offering false information. in daily life, people almost never get the problem in such a way. a white colored clothes turns into the black one. except, the cloth falls down into the bowl of ink. ronald: baik buk, silahkan langsung saja bajunya dimasukkan ke dalam mesin cuci ini lalu akan saya tuangkan sabun cuci sanjay ini ke dalamnya , dan mesinnya akan saya nyalakan. kita tunggu sebentar saja, tidak perlu lama – lama. sekarang kita buka ya buk dan silahkan ambil baju anda. as a good promotion man, ronald serves her better. he asks her to put her dirty cloth into the washing machine and he pours the powder detergent ‗sanjay‘ into it and he turns it on. he said that it needs no longer time for doing it and then he invites her to open the washing machine and put up the cloth. in this case, ronald violates the maxims of quality by saying ‗saya tuangkan sabun cuci sanjay ini ke dalamnya‘. instead of saying ‗saya tuangkan sabun cuci sunlight ini ke dalamnya‘, so that this can create humorous effect and make people laugh by watching it. ronald: buk, anda pasti akan terkejut lagi. maukan ibu mencuci baju ibuk yang sudah bersih ini dengan sabun sanjay. dijamin baju ibu akan berubah menjadi baju baru. jangan lupa passwordnya buk, ‘bersih – bersihin sanjay’. lalu masukkan baju ibuk yang sudah bersih dan tuangkan sabun sanjay ke dalam mesin ini lalu tunggu sebentar. stop, sekarang kita buka mesin cucinya dan silahkan ibuk ambil baju yang ibu cuci. in order to make the customer is more interested in the product, ronald told her that she will be more surprise when she washes again her already clean cloth with the ‗sanjay‘ detergent. the cloth will turn as a new one. in this case, ronald violates the maxims quality, by giving false information. the information given is not based on the sufficient evidence, but there is a register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 150 reason for the comedians saying something false; make it as a humorous expression to the audience to laugh at it. tike: wah, ajaib. baju saya sekarang berubah jadi sangat baru dan dengan penampilan yang berbeda, ada bungkusnya!. again, tike is so surprise because her cloth is turning new; moreover it is also covered by a good packaging. in this case, tike violates the maxim of quality by presenting false information. the implicature is that after being washed by sanjay detergent for the second time, a very dirty cloth turns whiter and even be a new full package cloth. ronald: hebat kan buk, karena sabun cuci sanjay ini mengandung ekstrak daun pepaya. sehingga baju yang kotor bisa menjadi bersih, dicuci lagi dengan sabun sanjay baju bersih anda berubah jadi seperti baru, dan dicuci lagi dengan sabun cuci sanjay baju anda berubah jadi baju baru yang tentu saja berubah dari kaos menjadi kemeja yang masih dalam kemasan. conclusion the writer investigates the scripts which ignore what is relevant to the situations in order to make them come off as flustered, odd and stupid in humorous situations. then after transcribing the spoken data into the written data, the writer analyzes the script conversation of one of the sketches to find the pragmatic manipulation of the conversation through finding the conversational implicatures of the transcriptions and the result of this study is that based on the analysis of the pragmatic manipulation of the extravaganza comedy tv, the content of the humor is dealing with the trademark of a kind of famous product of detergent called ―sunlight‖ which is very popular among the housewives. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 151 this kind of detergent is very much useful for many things around the house. it is used to clean up the kitchen utensils, clothes or even the fruits and vegetables. people believe that wash many things using this detergent will make the things clean. as we know that the comedian also imitates the password of this detergent‘s tv advertisement that should be “bersih – bersihnya sunlight”, but then it is said “bersih – bersihin sanjay”. this kind of pragmatic manipulation is made to make the humor itself become more interesting and funnier so that the audiences come into the laughter. the example of the usefulness of the detergent then is manipulated to the very fantastic result. such as in the process of cleaning the dirty shirt become clean and purely white and the process of cleaning the already clean shirt become new clothes in a wrapped form. the violation of maxims in conversation has a result in something funny and humorous. this kind of programs has many advantages and one of them is entertaining people. references aitchison, jean. 2003. teach yourself linguistics. london: hodder and stroughton educational. dornerus,emma. breaking maxims in conversation: a comparative study of how script writers break maxims in desperate housewives and that 70‟s show http://ethesis.helsiki.fi/julkasut/hum/engla/pg/jaskanen/index.html grice, h.p. 1975. logic and conversation. new york: academic press levinson, stephen c. 1983. pragmatics. cambridge: cambridge university press. leech, geoffrey n. 1983. principles of pragmatics. usa. longman. lin-qiong, yan. pragmatic interpretation and humor production and comprehension. us-china foreign language. issn 15398080,usa. april 2007, volume 5, no.4 http://ethesis.helsiki.fi/julkasut/hum/engla/pg/jaskanen/index.html register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 152 parker, frank. ph.d. 1999. linguistics for non-linguists. london. tailor and francis ltd. situationcomedy-wikipedia, http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/situation_comedy the humor of sitcoms.www.sitlec.unibo.it/ishs2002/abstract http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/situation_comedy 154 the structure of teacher’s directives of the english lecturers of muhammadiyah university semarang rr. dewi wahyu mustikasari english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no.2 salatiga, central java, indonesia dewi.w.mustikasari@gmail.com abstract teacher‘s directive is an interesting item to discuss since it can be elaborated into command, order, request, and advice. furthermore, it can be developed that teacher‘s directive has several structures. the structure of teacher‘s directives can be classified into three kinds: imperative, interrogative, and declarative. i would like to discuss about the various forms by which directives are realized in the classroom in this study. the subjects of the study were 10 english lecturers of muhammadiyah university semarang. the instrument of the study is dct questionnaires, which is consisted of 10 certain situations. the result shows that most of the subjects of study prefer to produce declarative with 74 utterances (50%). second, they choose imperative with 50 utterances (34%). next, they construct interrogative with 23 utterances (16%). declaratives provide powerful directives than the other types. declaratives gain an explicit expression. teachers like to use declaratives, since declaratives are understandable. it will minimize the misinterpretation from the students. keywords: illocutionary act, directives, teacher’s directives, the structure of teacher’s directives abstrak instruksi pengajar adalah item yang menarik untuk dibahas karena hal tersebut dapat diuraikan ke dalam bentuk perintah, pemesanan, permintaan, dan saran. selain itu, intstruksi pengajar memiliki beberapa struktur . struktur instruksi pengajar dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi tiga jenis: imperatif , interogatif , dan deklaratif . dalam penelitian ini, peneliti membahas tentang berbagai bentuk instruksi yang dipahami dalam kelas. subyek penelitian adalah 10 dosen 155 bahasa inggris dari universitas muhammadiyah semarang. instrumen penelitian ini adalah kuesioner dct, yang terdiri dari 10 situasi tertentu . hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar subjek penelitian lebih cenderung untuk menuturkan instruksi deklaratif dengan 74 tuturan (50 %). kedua, mereka memilih instruksi imperatif dengan 50 tuturan (34 %). selanjutnya, mereka memilih instruksi interogatif dengan 23 tuturan (16 %). ujaran deklaratif memberikan instruksi yang kuat daripada jenis lainnya karena adanya ekspresi eksplisit. pendidik cenderung menggunakan tuturan deklaratif, karena sifatnya yang mudah dimengerti sehingga meminimalkan salah tafsir pada mahasiswa. kata kunci : tindak ilokusi, instruksi, petunjuk pengajar, struktur instruksi guru introduction teacher is the center of attraction in the classroom, since he plays an important role in the classroom. based on brown (2001: 166-168) there are several kinds of the roles of teacher, namely teacher as controller, teacher as director, teacher as manager, teacher as facilitator, and teacher as resource. furthermore, no matter what is the teacher role in the classroom, teacher always acts as the central focus of the students‘ attention. giving model to the students, it is teacher‘s duty to provide knowledge, good behavior and attitude. it is in line with the opinion of holmes (1993: 97) that ―the teacher-pupil relationship is asymmetrical one; the teacher is the older and more knowledgeable than the pupils. the teacher is expected to be in control, to preserve an appropriate social distance from pupils, and to instruct and inform the children: to teach them the body of facts and skills the society values.‖ building communication with the students, it could be interesting and tricky at the same time. this situation could happen because the students might 156 have different interpretations when teacher produces utterances. using the spoken meaning, the speaker and the listener can negotiate the meaning, so the understanding of communication is negotiable; depend on the context in which the communication takes place (context dependence) and the shared knowledge of two parties (eggins, 1994:56—57). as it is negotiable, the oral communication usually uses the un-grammatical form. teacher communicates with the students not only produces utterances containing grammatical structures and words, but also produces the action. actions performed by utterances are called speech acts (yule, 1996:47). there are three kinds of acts: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. the three acts perform difference functions. according to yule (1996:48) locutionary act is a basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistics expression. the locutionary act is an act of saying something that has a meaning. the second is illocutionary act. it refers to the performing act which not only has a semantic meaning, but also a force of utterance. the last is perlocutionary act. it is an utterance which has an effect to the listener. meanwhile, leech (1993:316) claims that the locutionary act as an act (to say something), locutionary act as an act which committed by producing an utterance (like promise, predict, etc), the perlocutionary act as an act produced by an effect of locutionary and illocutionary act. searle mentioned on rani that there are five acts for describing the illocutionary acts: declarations, representatives, expressives, directives, and commissives. directives are kinds of speech acts that used by the speakers to get or ask someone else to do something. they express what the speaker wants. they can be a command, an order, a request, an advice (rani, 2004:162). consider the following examples of directives: 157 don‘t go anywhere! open the door! could you lend me some of money? michael halliday (1978:33) is cited by hudson (1980: 49) mentions that there are three dimensional on which an act of communication: field, mode, tenor. field is why and about what the purpose and subject matter of the communication. mode is how the means used in the communication: speech or writing. tenor is to whom the relations between participants; how the speaker defines how he sees the person with whom he is communicating. dealing with the above definition, teacher as the person who controls the class produces directives quite often. holmes (1993: 97) clarifies that ―to regard a great many of teacher‘s utterances as directive in function.‖ the function of teacher‘s utterances are directive, because of teacher‘s utterances consist of command, order, request, and advice. the teacher sometimes does not realize that he makes utterances that the purpose is to get students to do something. holmes (1993: 98-107) claims that the structure of teacher‘s directives can be classified into three kinds: imperative, interrogative, and declarative. meanwhile, wardhaugh (2006: 284) he clarified that ―we can try to classify them by grammatical structure along a number of dimensions, e.g. their clausal type and complexity: activepassive, statementquestion requestexclamatory, various combinations of these and so on.‖ talking about teacher‘s directives, holmes (1993: 98-107) suggests that it needs to consider the social factors to discuss it. the social factors are the participant, the setting, the topic, and the function of communication. it can be elaborated more details. first, the participant deals with two factors such as 158 who are speaking and who are they speaking to. second, the setting or social context of the interaction: where are they speaking? third, the topic concerns with what is being talked about. finally yet importantly, the function of communication suggests why they are speaking (holmes, 2001: 10). there was a research discussing about the structure of teacher‘s directives. it was janet holmes‘s research with the title the structure of teachers‘ directives (1993). the data were collected from the elementary school classroom in new zealand and britain. she focused her study on directives, which is restricted in the analysis of utterances intended to elicit a non-verbal response, to get the students to do but not say something. the aim was to describe the various forms by which directives are realized in the classroom. the finding was the directives were divided into three categories: imperative, interrogative, and declarative. in this study, i would like to discuss about the various forms by which directives are realized in the classroom. teacher produces directives such as command, order, request, and advice. the purpose of the act is to get the students to do certain activities. research methodology subject, instruments, and procedures of data collection the subjects of the study were 10 english lecturers of muhammadiyah university semarang. i conducted this study in the year of 2010. there were five female and five male lecturers who have various ages and social background. i did not involve as the subject of study during the collection of data. 159 the instrument of the study is dct questionnaires. it consisted of 10 certain situations, it followed by blank spaces on which the subjects asked to give responses for teacher‘s directives. the english lecturers have to imagine that the speakers in the real life interactions, for example: situation 1 you are preparing to enter the class to teach your students. there are some of the students are seating out side of the class. you want your students to enter the class. what would you say to get your students enter the class? ............................................................................................................. ............................................................................................. based on the situations described, the subjects were asked to produce directives in the blank spaces provided. the situations were provided by several directives acts such as command, order, request, and advice. as a result, there were 147 utterances. ( i enclosed it in the appendix). for the procedures, during the data collection, i gave the subject of study the dct questionnaires. they had to answer the questionnaires in english, since they teach english. it took more than one week to get the data. they answered the questionnaires on the paper sheets. data analysis i analyzed the data using the opinion of holmes (1993: 98-107). she claims that the structure of teacher‘s directives can be classified into three kinds: imperative, interrogative, and declarative. it can be elaborated more details on table 1. 160 table 1 structure of teacher‘s directives imperatives base form of verb speak up. put your hands down. you + imperative you just see the picture. you go no with your work. present participle form of verb looking at me. sitting up straight please. verb-ellipsis hands up. everybody on the mat. imperative + modifier children looking this way please. turn around please jo. let + first person pronoun let‘s finish there. let‘s try. interrogatives modals would you open the window? david will you read this page for me? non-modal interrogative directives people at the back are you listening? who can i see sitting quietly? declaratives embedded agent i want you to draw a picture. i‘d like arnold‘s group on the mat now. hints i can see some nice sitting up. helen is sitting nicely. source: language and communication discussion data findings i found that there 147 utterances. the subject of the study preferred to produce declarative with 74 utterances (50%). second, they chose imperative with 50 utterances (34%). next, they constructed interrogative with 23 161 utterances (16%). it can be clarified on table 2. the lecturer as the person who has the superior position produced more casual choice of words to the students. even though, i found several utterances that constructed with formal choice of words. the classroom setting was provided in the various situations in the questionnaires. the situations made it possible for the subject of the study to produced directives that consist of command, order, request, and advice. the topics of situations talked about the various activities dealing with the teaching and learning process. table 2 the data of structure of teacher‘s directives imperatives base form of verb 9 50 34% you + imperative 9 present participle form of verb 2 verb-ellipsis 1 imperative + modifier 25 let + first person pronoun 4 interrogative s modals 16 23 16% non-modal interrogative directives 7 declaratives embedded agent 67 74 50% hints 7 the following are examples of teacher‘s directives that the subject of the study constructed when responding to the situation in dct questionnaires. situation 1: want your students to enter the class (1) hello, guys. are you coming or not? (2) let's enter the class. 162 situation 2: do not want ahmad to join your class (3) i'm sorry. as our agreement, you may join the class next week. (4) sorry, i can't let you join my class. situation 3: want to tell both of them to stop talking and listen to your explanation (5) excuse me, would you share your discussion with us? (implied 'stop talking') (6) guys, can you stop talking? situation 4: want your student to get the eraser on the administration office (7) can somebody do volunteering to take an eraser? (8) please go to the administration office and ask an eraser to mrs. wati. situation 5: want the students to make the assignment and submit the assignment today (9) i would like you to make the assignment and submit it today! (10) i want you to do the assignment in class and submit it today before 12.00. situation 6: want the students to answer the question and write the answer on the board (11) ahmad, now you answer the question and write it on the board. 163 (12) fika, please write your answer in the board. situation 7: want to motivate heru that he should spend times to study or he will fail (13) heru, i need you to study hard to pass this semester. (14) i don't want to see you fail this semester. situation 8: want the students prepare and study the selected chapters for the final-semester test. (15) ok, please prepare yourself for your next exam. (16) study harder than before, please! situation 9: want to tell the students that there is a punishment for them if they broke your rules (17) for those who discussing and opening the book will be punished. (18) i will kick you out if you discuss it with your friends. situation 10: want to ask the student to submit the answer sheet and force him to leave your class (19) ahamad, because you've cheated on the test, i really appreciate if you leave the class. (20) bambang, close your book and plaese submit your paper and leave the class (implied 'stop cheating'). 164 analysis the following are the details information about the structure of teacher‘s directives that is taken from the data: imperatives the subject of the study liked to use this form, eventhough it took for about 34% of the data. they constructed this form, since it is relatively explicit. they would like to make the directives clearly and direct to the point of what were they going to say with the students. there were several variants of imperatives according to holmes. i found they constructed the various variants in completing the questionnaires. the variants are: a. base form of verb, e.g. speak up. this is the simple form of the imperative. the subject of the study produced this form to make their rules more explicit. the purpose is to minimize the differences of interpretation from the students. most of them liked to construct negative form rather than positive form. the examples are: don't cheating. don't try to do that because i can anlayze it well. don't forget to study the selected chapters. study hard and good luck! b. you + imperative, e.g. you just see the picture. 165 this form had the same frequency of occurrences from the previous form. the function of ―you‖ is used to address all of students, small group of students and the individual student. the examples are:  you may leave this class after doing those things (addressing individual student).  ahmad, now you answer the question and write it on the board (addressing individual student).  you can continue your discussion later, after the class finish (addressing small group of students).  you should prepare for your next final exam (addressing all of students).  you have to be confident with your own answer (addressing all of students). c. present participle form of verb, e.g. looking at me the subject of the study rarely used this third form. i am not sure what is the reason why they rarely used it. on the contrary, this was a kind of unique form that the new zealanders produced the imperatives, since holmes found frequently used by them. she found some difficulties to categorize the utterances, but at the end, she made up her mind to classify these utterances into the form of present participle form of verb. the examples of this form from the data are:  discussing and opening the book are disallowed.  referring to regulation and agreement. d. verb-ellipsis, e.g. everybody on the mat 166 this form also seldom used by the subject of the study. the form eliminated the verb and directed to the noun. there is an example of this form: let's up stair for the class. e. imperative + modifier, e.g. children looking this way please. this form occurred frequently in the data of imperatives. teacher used the post-modifier such as please and ok after the imperatives as suggested by holmes, but it is not quite often. on the contrary, i found a large number of the imperatives appeared with the form of premodifier. the function of ―please‖ and ―ok‖ is to soften the directives. it can be clarified by the following examples:  study harder than before, please!  please go in front of the class.  ok, please prepare yourself for your next exam.  please listen carefully.  please help the class to get the eraser, just ask to the office. thank you. f. let + first person pronoun, e.g. let‘s finish there. there was a small amount of this form in the data. i found that the subject of the study used this form to suggest solidarity rather than power. as it can be recognized that teacher has a superior position, they tended to use more casual choice of word to the subordinates. the examples are:  let's enter the class.  let's do that.. 167  let's start from ahmad…  let's come to the class, its time to start the class. interrogatives it was surprised that the form of interrogatives to convey directives occurred 16 % from the whole data. it happened this way because the subject of the study liked to mention the directives in an explicit way. the form of interrogatives is less powerful to get the students to the action. there were two types of interrogatives constructed by the subject of the study: a. modals, e.g. would you open the window? there were a large number of the interrogatives data that is used the form of modals. the subject of the study used ―please‖ to make the directives softer. it tended to get the students‘ willingness to do the teacher‘s expectation. it can be described by the following examples:  would you please enter the class?  james, would you please get the eraser on the administration office?  brown, would you please answer and write your answer on the board?  mas, could you help me to get the eraser in the office, please?  can somebody help to find an eraser, please? b. non-modal interrogative directives, e.g. people at the back are you listening? the subject of the study rarely used the second form of interrogative directives. it was because of this form is not commanding enough to get the students to do something. the examples are:  hello, guys. are you coming or not? 168  anyone want to answer it?  is anyone want to answer question no.2?  are you coming?  do you want to joint the class or not? declaratives declaratives forms were the most frequently occurred in the data of directives. it was occurred 50% from the whole data. there were two types of declaratives: embedded agent and hints. the previous type was expressed explicitly, and on the other hand, the last type was implicitly. a. embedded agent e.g. i want you to draw a picture. most of the data of declaratives constructed this form. the subject of the study preferred to produce this kind of form, since they would like straight to the point. they liked to be explicit, so that the students would not have different interpretation. the following examples are taken from a large number of the data:  so, would you listen to someone's speaking first, then later we'll let you speak.  any cheating may get consequences.  you may leave the class now!  sorry, i can't let you join my class.  i will give you e if you do it.  i would like to start the lesson. 169  i'd like to explain the lesson and you can talk your problem after i finish my explanation.  ricky, would you submit the answer sheet! i don't want any of my students cheating and you can leave the class now.  i'm sorry. as our agreement, you may join the class next week b. hints the subject of study was rarely used this type, since the form was expressed implicitly. the disadvantage of this type was the students might be confused with the teacher‘s expressions. it happened because teacher‘s expression conveyed an implication meaning. it can be shown by the following examples:  excuse me, would you share your discussion with us? (implied 'stop talking')  thank you, dewi. submit your answer sheet, please! (implied 'stop cheating')  bambang, close your book and plaese submit your paper and leave the class (implied 'stop cheating')  any problem mas? (implied 'stop talking') conclusion in conclusion, the result shows that most of the subjects of study prefer to produce declarative with 74 utterances (50%). second, they choose imperative with 50 utterances (34%). next, they construct interrogative with 23 utterances (16%). declaratives provide powerful directives than the other types. declaratives gain an explicit expression. teachers like to use 170 declaratives, since declaratives are understandable. it will minimize the misinterpretation from the students. references brown, douglas. 2001. teaching by principles (second edition). new york: longman, inc. eggins, suzzane. 1994. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. london: pinter publisher. holmes, janet. 1993. the structure of teachers’ directives: in richard, jack and schmidt, richard (eds). pp. 89-115. holmes, janet. 2001. an introduction to sociolinguistics (second edition). new york: longman. hudson, richard. anthony. 1980. sociolinguistics. cambridge: cambridge university press. leech, geoffrey. oka, m.d.d. (penerjemah). 1993. prinsip-prinsip pragmatik. jakarta: universitas indonesia press. rani, abdul; arifin, bustanul; martutik. 2004. analisis wacana: sebuah kajian bahasa dalam pemakaian. malang: bayu media. wardraugh, ronald. 2006. an introduction to sociolinguistics (fifth edition). london: blackwell publisher, ltd. yule, george. 1996. pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 107 the application of “the mystery guest game” to enhance the students english verbal communication of grade x-1 of sma pabelan in 2010/2011 agus sudiyatno sman 1 pabelan desa semowo, pabelan, kabupaten semarang sudiyatnoagus@yahoo.co.id abstract this classroom action research was carried out due to the students‟ low achievement in the verbal performance. there was a question whether the application of “the mystery guest game” could increase the students‟ skill in communication. the purpose of this research was (1) to increase the students‟ skill in their verbal communication, (2) to increase their interests in learning the language. after having finished the research for 2 cycles, the result was gained as follows. at the cycle i, the students‟ performance showed 41 sentences during 21 minutes. it means in 21 minutes students could ask 41 recorded questions during the class observation. the rate is 1.95. at the second week the rate showed 2.58 which show an increase of 32%. at the third week, the rate shows an increase of 83% compared to the second performance. at the cycle ii, the increase of student‟s performance showed 15% or of 5.45 compared to the third week of the cycle i. the students‟ performance at the second week increases to 6.95 or 27.6%. at the third week the students performance increase to 160 sentences or 4.60% compared to the second week. the students‟ responses based on the questionnaires show that 85% students were interested in the teaching and the game is the main reason. the percentage of performance was 77%. those evidences showed that “the mystery guest game“ increased students‟ interest in english during the teaching game. keywords: “the mystery guest game”, verbal, enthusiasm abstrak penelitian tindakan kelas ini dilaksanakan karena prestasi rendah siswa dalam performa verbal. ada sebuah pertanyaan apakah penerapan “permainan tamu misterius” dapat meningkatkan ketrampilan siswa dalam berkomunikasi. tujuan penelitian ini (1) untuk meningkatkan ketrampilan siswa dalam register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 108 komunikasi verbalnya, (2) untuk meningkatkan minat mereka dalam belajar bahasa. setelah menyelesaikan penelitian selam 2 siklus, diperoleh hasil sebagai berikut. pada siklus i, performa siswa menghasilkan 41 kalimat selama 21 menit. ini berarti dalam 21 menit siswa dapat bertanya 41 catatan pertanyaan selama pengamatan kelas. nilainya sebesar 1, 95. pada minggu kedua nilainya menjadi 2. 58 yang mana menunjukan peningkatan sebesar 32 %. pada minggu ketiga, nilainya menunjukan peningkatan sebesar 83 % dibandingkan dengan penampilan pertama. pada siklus ii, peningkatan performa siswa sebesar 15 % atau 5.45 dibanding dengan minggu ketiga dari siklus i. performa siswa pada minggu kedua naik menjadi 6.95 atau 27.6%. pada minggu ketiga performa siswa naik menjadi 160 kalimat atau 4.60% dibandingkan dengan minggu kedua. respon siswa berdasarkan kuisioner nampak bahwa 85% siswa tertarik dengan pengajaran dan permainannya adalah alasan utama. posentase performa sebesar 77%. fakta tersebut menunjukkan bahwa “permainan tamu misterius” menaikan minat siswa terhadap bahasa inggris selama permainan pengajaran tersebut. kata kunci: “permainan tamu misterius”, verbal, antusiasme introduction it is a public secret that graduations of high school students in indonesia have low proficiency in spoken english though on the level of casual dialogues. this case may be traced back to many factors underlies it. first, the national suggested syllabus exposes few kinds of finding such as: (a) the limited classrom teaching hours on the syllabus, 4 hours each week, is still distributed for other skills, listening, reading and writing. although there is a flexibility of teaching topics in arranging teaching items in the syllabus, the four skils can not be left; (b) at the national examination, the major material being tested is reading with 35 items while listening is just 15 items. writing and speaking can not be found on the test. this may cause english teachers focus on preparing the final examination by drilling the reading and listening exercise. thus, the success of study is based on ”the items drilling”. how excellent the students‟ proficiency is, if they get failed in the national register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 109 examination they can not be considered ”successful” either. this thought may influence the way of thinking for almost english teachers, at least weaken their teaching motivation. second, it was found out over the past experience that teachers having insufficient techniques of teaching prefer using textbooks. they thought that textbook teaching was more practical and saving time. such kind of attitudes may mislead the concept of teaching language : teachers tend to teach the language not teaching students to communicate. third, another problem is the students‟ motivation. students who are highly motivated tend to learn more and initiate to acquire the language better than the less motivated ones language teaching and learning theory says that the students‟ learning will be successful if it is run in the relaxing situation. it means the classes are free from stress, anxieties and bullying. as a result, students as members of the class community will feel secured to express their learning competencies (krashen in brown, 2007: 323). hence, teaching techniques using games played on televisions such as tak-tik-boom, tebak lagu, berpacu bersama melodi, pesona tiga belas or ,satu melawan seratus have the positive aspects of creativity, challenging , and increasing the solidarity among friends. this activity will reduce tension and stress, in the other way round encourage the spirit of members of the team during playing the game. “ the mystery guest game” is taken from the television game. it is perfomed in group of 2, 3 or more. the duties of group members are to collect data or information of certain people or subjects. the members have to get the information by asking the referent. the subject being asked in the game is called ”the mystery guest” and the referents are the students who know all data of the mystery guest. the referents have only one tone answer, register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 110 ”yes”, or ”no”. ”yes” if the expected answer agrees with the available data and ”no” if the answer does not match with the available data. based on the above description, the research focuses on the efectivity of using “ the mystery guest game” to enhance students abilities in the english classsroom and the impact of the game on students interest and classroom atmosphere. research method this action research was conducted at sma negeri 1 pabelan, kab semarang, grade x-1 semester 1 2010/2011. it was started in september 2010 and ended in december 2010. the research subject was 22 students (13 males and 9 females). the data were collected through class observation, questionaires and the students verbal performance. this action research was conducted in two cycles and each cycle was followed by sequence activities, mainly planning, action, class observation and reflection. the outlook feature of the game looked like ”pesona tiga belas” with a little modification where a group of panelists asked several questions in a limited time. when the alarm clock rang, the panelists stopped asking and guessed the hiding person. on this report, such game was called ”the mystery guest game” as shown on the title of this paper. the questionaire sheet had ten questions to gain the students responses. five questions asked students opinions about their interest, teacher‟s teaching techniques and instruction, classroom athmosphere and other aspects of the classroom teaching . the other two questions asked students problems during the teaching hours, and the rest of the questions were about students‟ instructional motivation. the questionaires mainly register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 111 required students free opinions, thus the questions were ”yes/no” and open ended ones. discussion and findings cycle 1 teaching preparation the topic of this cycle was the family tree.the mystery guest for cycle 1 was from the following reading text slightly adopted from lembaga bahasa lia, entitles all about people , basic i. it excerpts as follows: hi! i‟d like to tell you about my family. let me start with my grand parents: they are robert and betty. my granpa is 95 and grandma is 94 years old.they live together with us in a big house called the roberts. it is situated in the country side. our grandparents have two sons, my uncle and my father. my uncle who is two years older than my father is named paul. he got married with sandra in 1987. they have a daughter and a son. they are michael and michel. michael is a firefighter and his sister is a nurse. my father‟s name is david, my mother is mary. they have two sons, my brother bob and me. bob is 44 years old. he is an accountant. sally is my sister in law. i‟m two years younger than him. my name is john stanley. my friends call me stanley. i‟ve been working as postman since 1990. susana, my wife is an english teacher in the nearest elementary school. she‟s been teaching for almost 15 years. we have two daughters and two sons. our first daughter is 16 years old. her name is alicia. jimmy is two years younger than alicia. our second daughter, inda is about twelve years old. peter, our second son is 10 years old. he is the naughtiest. among of them. however, we love him so. we are so happy and proud of our extended family and we will keep it that way. there were several activities for teaching preparation, such as planning teaching-learning process, deciding the topic, preparing the lesson plans, register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 112 providing teaching aids, developing teaching scenes such as making small group works (3 or 4 persons), explaining its respective job description, game‟s procedures, scoring system, preparing observation team work and preparing observation instrument. before doing the class observation, there were several teaching learning processes comprising clinical evaluation to students‟ grammars, correcting their questions, pronunciation, techniques of drawing conclusion and description of the “mystery guest” data. after 3 times of clinical evaluation, the performance test was carried out. the researcher was assisted by other teachers to take pictures using a handy camera and conduct observation. the result of observation was written in the scoring sheet. the similar topic was presented by each group in turns. the presentation was observed, recorded, and scored. the notes included students‟ activities in their groups, the length of time, and students‟ interest during presentation. classroom activities in the early teaching, the teacher introduced a short passage about a certain family. students were required to listen to the text being dictated. the text exposed the family members including their names and its relationship. after the first listening, the teacher distributed the blank family tree diagram. then the teacher repeated the dictation of the text, while the students filled up the family tree diagram. after finishing the job, the teacher gave students the text to check the answer. the text showed more or less similar to the above example in basic i. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 113 those activities were followed by teacher‟s questions asking about the family‟s relationship, their names, ages, as well as their jobs. the last step students were instructed to read the text in detail. the questions were: is it male? is he/she the grandpa‟s age? is he/she david‟s age? is he/she stanley‟s age? is he/she the school student‟s age? is he/she retired? is he/she public servant? is he/she a doctor? the key success of catching the mystery guest is by asking general to more specific questions, for examples: asking the ages, followed by the professions/jobs, the family relationship and finally ”catching guest” by asking the closing question. ”is he/she ..........? (mentioning the name)” after finishing the reading activities, “the mystery guest game” would start. the students had to make grouping, act out as the referent or to be the panel. the mystery guest was taken from the previous reading text they had just learned. the referents‟ duties just gave two short answers while the maximum roles were on the hands of the groups of speakers. on that time they were free to ask as many questions as they could to catch “the mystery guest” in a limited time. their performances, then, were observed and recorded. in the end, the questionnaires were distributed to know how the students‟ feelings and comment. at the end of cycle i, there was an evaluation. evaluation of cycle 1 the scores on the observation sheet shows how students‟ reactions from one game to the other games. the indicators comprises three kinds of category: active, fair, poor. those indicators have close relationship with the number of questions the students ask . ”active” means that students ask more register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 114 than 4 questions in a minute, ”fair” is between 3-4, and ”poor” is 0-2 questions. on the first and second week, there were not any students asking more than 4 questions per minute. on the third week there were 2 students asking more than 4, the rest of them, the majority, only asking 1 – 2 questions. on the teaching learning process of the second week, there were 7 students on the fair group who asked 3 -4 questions, while the passive group decreased to 12 students. on the third week there were 2 students belong to the active group, 6 students on the fair group, and the rest, 14 students on the passive group. the result of their performance can be observed on table 1. table 1 the result of observation for cycle 1 gro up no names the data being observed number of questions length of observation students performance active fair less active onward weeks onward weeks onward weeks onward weeks onward weeks 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 galih ratih nofi 1 3 4 2 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 1,5 v v v v v v v v v 2 hana wildan ani 2 3 2 3 2 1 5 4 2 1,21 v v v v v v v v v 3 ayub adib khoirul 1 2 2 2 2 1 5 3 3 2,25 v v v v v v v v 4 rosyid ali adi 3 2 2 1 4 1 2 4 2 3 2 2,15 v v v v v v v v register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 115 5 dewi winda dera hesti 2 2 1 3 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 2 3 1,40 v v v v v v v v v v v 6 joko agus ridho 2 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 4 2 1,52 v v v v v v 7 richo wawan rozikin 2 2 1 4 3 1 3 1 2 3 3 1,50 v v v v v v one of the weaknesses of the first cycle was too many people joined in one group, while the time location provided to ask questions was very limited. in another case, the management of grouping and its job description was not good, hence, one student dominated the group. cycle 2 teaching preparation based on the weakness of students‟ performances in cycle 1, there were some improvements for teaching steps. these improvements included not only the limiting members of each group, the time duration for students‟ performances but also giving more detailed job description for the members of group. the game‟s rules for cycle 2 presentation were also different: (1) every group had one minute to carry out their presentation; (2) every group had chances 3 times for trial presentation using their hand out, after that they had to practice without it; (3) “the mystery guest” should live in one of countries in asia, europe, america, or africa such as enlisted on the table below; (4) the questions should address to the names of continents, register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 116 nationalities, or languages; (5) the winner was the group that its members asked most questions in one minute table 2 the identities of mystery guests names countries nationalities languages siti nur haliza malaysia malaysian malay sasuhe japan japanese japanese sahrur khan india indian indian lin piao china chinese chinese hitler germany german german john, the pope italy italian italian sarkozi france french french david villa spain spanish spanish barrack obama usa american english eric estrada mexico mexican spanish messi argentina argentine spanish ronaldo brazil brazilian portuguese husni mubarok egypt egyptian arabic nelson mandela south africa african english moamar ghadafi libya libyan arabic/italian kahlil nigeria african arabic teaching activities and evaluation the result of students‟ performances in cycle 2 can be overlooked on table 3 below. it was found out that 16 out of 22 students could ask more than 4 questions in one minute. it means that their performances belonged to ”the active” category. if all questions were totalled in numbers, the questions were register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 117 accumulated to 120 sentences or on average means 5,45 (more than 5 sentences) could be responded by the group members. in addition, on the first meeting, 6 students fell on ”the fair” category, but no one fell on ”the poor” one. in other words, 28% students did not yet respond in the optimum way. on the second week almost all students could ask more than 4 questions in one minute (21 students or 95%). the whole sentences were counted totally to 153. it means that one student could ask 6,95 or between 6 to 7 sentences per minute. there was only one student remained less active on the second week. it was adi. table 3 student‟s performance group numbers names of members number of questions performances active >4 fair 3 – 4 poor 0 2 onward week onward week onward week onward week 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 fatkur galih 7 6 5 5 4 11 v v v v -v v v 2 wildan hana 7 3 7 9 5 4 v v v v v v 3 adib khoirul 4 7 5 5 9 8 v v v v v v 4 adi rozikin 5 5 4 5 3 4 v v v - - v v v 5 dewi winda 7 6 7 6 12 8 v v v v v v 6 ayub agus 6 5 5 8 5 5 v v v v v v 7 richo wawan 7 4 8 7 10 8 v v v v v v register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 118 8 hesti ali 6 7 6 8 7 5 v v v v v v 9 ratih nofi 9 6 8 9 13 15 v v v v v v 10 ani dera 2 2 6 9 5 6 - - v v v v v v 11 ridho joko 4 5 5 10 7 8 v v v v v v v number of sentences per minute 12 0 153 160 16 21 18 4 1 6 surprisingly, adi that was ”active” on the first week degraded to ”fair” on the second week. he was the only less active student in comparison with his other fellows, ani, dera and hana. on the whole, this the third week‟s presentation may be the best presentation during cycle 2, if it is viewed on the total questions being collected. on the week, all students could manage better recording than that of the previous weeks, 160 sentences. most contribution were supported by several students who could ask more than 7 sentences in one minute. more than that 3 students asked 8 questions, one student 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 15 respectively. those questions were uttered without looking at their notebooks. on the week, however, there were 4 students could not maintain their best performances as their record showed ”less” than the first and second week. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 119 the analysis of questionaire by observing data of the students‟ performances on cycle 1 and 2 on the table 4, there were several findings. those quantitative data was in line with the qualitative data as well as the teacher‟s daily observation in the classroom. table 4 the comparison of the result on cycle 1 and 2 cycle active fair poor onward week onward week onward week 1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd cycle 1 2 4 7 6 18 12 14 % 0 0 9 18 31,8 27,2 81,8 54,2 63,6 cycle 2 16 21 18 4 1 6 % 72,7 95 81,8 18 4,5 27,2 0 0 0 on the first, second, and third week in cycle 1 there were not any students who actively responded the game. even the smart students getting good scores in the academic raport didn‟t talk much. that silence broke up at last on the third week by two male students. several students still felt doubtful on this ”silent period”. they might be on the period of learning a new concept: the game and its techniques of playing. usually on this phase the students kept silent to wait until they were ready to make a response. it‟s not surprising that in the end two male students tried to be active. male persons felt more confident than female, or male persons were extrovert and females introvert. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 120 on the contrary in cycle 2, all students were active by giving positive responses. starting from the first until second and third week, the percentage number of students belonged to the ”active” category, rose 72%,7%, 95% , and 81,8% respectively. it was assumed that on this stage the students began to enjoy the game. the answer of the first question of the questionaire shows that 86% of the students had fun. the students admitted thet they got a reward during the play. the students‟ answer on the first question matched with the third question, they were interested in the learnin process. those above answers of students were not supported by the answers of questions 2, 4, and 5. the students complained with the teacher‟s technique of teaching in the classroom. the answer of sixth question shows that the students got difficulties to raise question in the game. contrastly, in the classroom activities, there were only 8 students (36%) had problems of making questions because they were shy and a bit nervous. the rest of them, 64% could answer well. when the questionaire (question no. 7) asked them whether something disturbed them on the process of the teaching, only 2 students answered ”yes" because of being fooled down by other friends and 19 students found no difficulties to play the game. question no. 8 asked the students whether they got support from ”other people”, for example parents, relatives or close friends. 77% students answered ”yes”. question no.9 asked them wether they liked english or not. 54% students answered that they did not like that subject. 46% answered that they like english because they need english to get job, it is international language and they want to be able to communicate with expatriates. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 121 conclusion and suggestion based on the above research study, it was concluded that the application of the ”mystery guest game” in teaching english proved useful in enhancing the students english verbal communication of grade x-1 sman 1 pabelan. eventhough the students had poor performance in cycle 1, they got significant improvement in cycle 2. the teaching learning process recorded by a camera showed that the students responded positively: they reacted, shouted, laughed and clapped their hands to show enthusiasm. that game was effective to increase the students‟ interest in learning english. the game provided the students competition, group work, and relax atmosphere that decreased students‟ anxieties. it contributed to the students confidences in communication. based on the conclusion, hence this finding is worth to all language practitioners, teachers and tutors. any kinds of language games when they are managed well, they will contribute to language learning. in addition, this finding shows that games make students enjoy the class and encourage students to speak more productively. it is also wise to say that the school or education institutes should teach and facilitate their students to run language games in their curriculum or provide more references or educational software to develop this so good skills. references arikunto, suharsimi. et all. 2006. penelitian tindakan kelas. jakarta: penerbit bumi aksara. atmoyuwono,siswadi. et all. 1994. all about people: basic i. jakarta: lembaga bahasa lia. brown, h.d. 2008. prinsip pembelajaran dan pengajaran bahasa. jakarta:kedutaan besar amerika. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.49-76 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 49 efl classes must go online! teaching activities and challenges during covid-19 pandemic in indonesia arief eko priyo atmojo1*, arif nugroho2 iain surakarta, indonesia12 arief.atmojo93@gmail.com1, arifnugroho.iainsurakarta@gmail.com2 *corresponding author doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i1.49-76 submission track: received: 28-04-2020 final revision: 28-05-2020 available online: 01-06-2020 abstract in view of the covid-19 pandemic and government policy to carry out online learning, the present research is aimed at investigating how efl teachers carry out online efl learning and its challenges. 16 efl teachers volunteered to participate in this research through invitation. the efl teachers were requested to make written reflections regarding their practices in carrying out online efl learning and the challenges they encounter. five of them were involved in a follow-up interview individually. semi-structured interview was administered. data coding was done and appropriate extracts were informed in results section. to validate the data, data coding was done independently by arief eko priyo atmojo, arif nugroho 50 both researchers, continued by several cycles of discussion. as results, the efl teachers have carried out online learning through a series of activities ranging from checking the students’ attendance to giving score on the students’ works synchronously or asynchronously depending on each school policy. various applications and platforms ranging from learning management system to additional resource are employed. however, many problems emerge from the students, the teachers, and the students’ parents along with the valid reasons. therefore, the online learning does not run well since it lacks of preparation and planning. implications for better online learning are discussed. future prospective researches are directed and encouraged. keywords: covid-19, efl teachers, online efl learning, technology enhanced language learning, technology in language learning. introduction coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) originating from hubei province of the people’s republic of china has become a current pandemic over the world. many countries have been affected by this virus. in late january 2020, a global health emergency state was announced by the who emergency committee as covid-19 confirmed cases have been increasing internationally (mcaleer, 2020; velavan & meyer, 2020). covid-19 has spread in all continents, but antarctica as of 26 february 2020. latest news on covid-19 have overloaded worldwide mass media every day in 2020 (mcaleer, 2020). in 1 april 2020, the number of confirmed covid-19 cases in indonesia has reached more than 1.500 cases (who, 2020). the national disaster management authority of republic of indonesia has decided to extend the period of disaster emergency caused by covid-19 pandemic until 29 may 2020 (bnpb, 2020). the global spread of covid-19 pandemic causes class suspensions resulting in the needs of online learning (moorhouse, 2020). register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.49-76 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 51 the minister of education and culture of republic of indonesia has instructed schools to carry out online learning since 17 march 2020 for covid-19 affected areas (mendikbud, 2020b). soon after that, the minister of education and culture of republic of indonesia has ordered all education units to run online learning from 24 march 2020 due to the increasing spread of covid-19 and maintaining the health of students, teachers, and all educational staffs (mendikbud, 2020a). these policies lead students to learn from home and teachers to work from home, too. it fully replaces face-to-face learning in classroom setting into online learning which possibly lasts till the end of semester due to the covid-19 pandemic. it becomes a new challenge for both students and teachers to run online learning. according to cao et al. (2020), these actions certainly give impact on education, particularly students’ growth. online learning researches usually explore stand-alone online learning tools, instructional methodologies or techniques, unique environments within a blended learning program, and comparison between classroom-based and fully online learning. the emphasis is commonly on the students’ attitude, perception, assessment, evaluation, satisfaction, and performance (gonzalez & louis, 2018; sun, 2014). although a big number of research has been done quantitatively and qualitatively to investigate the effectiveness of online learning (gonzalez & louis, 2018), a research on online language learning carried out during a pandemic is very rarely found, especially in english as foreign language (efl) context in secondary school settings as most online language learning researches have been done in tertiary education level (chin– arief eko priyo atmojo, arif nugroho 52 hsi lin & warschauer, 2015). this pandemic causes the fully online language learning to occur in a sudden and completely unprepared situation. whereas, a particular research investigating fully online language learning is very rare (sun, 2014), especially during a pandemic. english still becomes the most renowned foreign language in indonesian schools. it remains as the first foreign language. it has been officially taught in indonesian secondary schools since a long time ago (jayanti & norahmi, 2014; kam, 2002; lie, 2007; yusny, 2013). as a foreign language, english has gained a special status among other foreign languages existing in indonesia because of many true causes (lauder, 2008). secondary school students are required to take this subject since it is compulsory throughout secondary schools in indonesia. this subject is determined as essential among other subjects. students are also required to take this subject in national examination (jayanti & norahmi, 2014; lie, 2007; yusny, 2013; zein, 2018). almost 11,000,000 students learn english in formal education every year and they are very diverse (lie, 2007). undoubtedly, indonesia has become one of the most prospective markets to teach english (zein, 2018). in global context, english becomes a school subject and is required to own a bargain in job position. it occurs as high unemployment exists and english mastery is much appreciated in workplace, business, and tourism. it shows the economic benefits of mastering english to people (jayanti & norahmi, 2014; smith, 1991). not surprisingly, the current issues and trends of english language teaching (elt) are mainly concerned by education experts, pedagogical practitioners, language policy makers, and linguists (jayanti & norahmi, 2014). in lights of the importance of english in indonesia and international world, the ministry of education and culture issued a decree in 1967 register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.49-76 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 53 explaining the functions and purposes of teaching english in secondary schools. english is believed to function in (1) accelerating national development since a great deal of modern science resources are only available in english; (2) creating relationships with other nations; and (3) implementing national foreign policy. moreover, the purposes of teaching english in secondary schools are to equip students with the mastery of four english language skills such as reading textbooks, communicating with and learning from foreigners, and promoting indonesian culture to other nations (jayanti & norahmi, 2014; smith, 1991). online learning goes on to spread internationally since students and teachers feel comfortable and see possibility in setting up and accessing opportunities to learn alternatively (white, 2008). online learning means a set of learning activities in a subject delivered through network giving access and exchange of knowledge. this terminology has appeared specially to point out an approach of teaching and learning which involves internet technology. online learning environment is not only useful for students to access knowledge and materials but also to associate and make collaboration among course participants (krish, 2008). online learning is also perceived as the utilization of internet in accessing materials; having interaction with contents, teachers, and other students; and gaining assistance in learning process to gain knowledge, make meaning, and progress through learning experience (ally, 2008). online learning is defined as learning carried out from a distance assisted by electronic devices, for instance tablets, smartphones, laptops, and computers which require internet connection (gonzalez & louis, 2018). arief eko priyo atmojo, arif nugroho 54 the widespread use of online learning inevitably brings students into alternative places for online language learning (plaisance, 2018). online language learning (oll) may point various learning adjustments, namely a web-facilitated learning, a hybrid or blended learning, and a fully virtual or online learning. moreover, the online language learning in efl context in secondary school settings during the covid-19 pandemic takes place in fully online language learning because students and teachers are not possible to gather in a face-to-face context (blake, 2011). in view of the covid-19 pandemic and government policy to carry out online learning which causes students to learn from home and teachers to teach from home too, this research investigates how efl teachers carry out online efl learning and what challenges they deal with as well as valid reasons. drawing on written reflections data from secondary school teachers from various cities in indonesia, this research contributes to the realm of online language learning researches. it enriches the knowledge of how efl secondary school teachers in indonesia carry out online efl learning in a sudden and completely unprepared situation due to the covid-19 pandemic. it also sheds some lights on the challenges they encounter during their practices of carrying out online learning. therefore, questions leading the present research are: (1) how do efl teachers carry out online efl learning during the covid-19 pandemic? (2) what challenges do efl teachers deal with in carrying out online efl learning during the covid-19 pandemic? research method research context and participants this research was carried out in indonesia which ranks second in language diversity among other countries worldwide (zein, 2018), where register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.49-76 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 55 english has been put into priority as the first foreign language and become compulsory for secondary school students (jayanti & norahmi, 2014; lie, 2007; yusny, 2013; zein, 2018). however, english is very rarely spoken in indonesians social life. it is mostly used for academic, professional, and business purposes (lie, 2007; yusny, 2013). indonesian efl teachers tend to use indonesian for both written and oral communication purposes in academic forums (lie, 2007) and classrooms (marcellino, 2005). they do not keep their english proficiency after receiving formal teacher education and training. their proficiency is possible to decrease as time goes by (wulyani, elgort, & coxhead, 2019). not surprisingly, many indonesian efl teachers do not master the language they teach (lie, 2007). english is determined as a foreign language in the present research (wulyani et al., 2019). the participants were 16 efl teachers consisting of 12 females and 4 males from 11 different cities and 16 distinct secondary schools in indonesia. all teachers owned a college degree to teach english as a foreign language. they had experience in teaching english as a foreign language which ranged from 1 to 18 years. their mother tongue is their regional languages respectively. as a national language, indonesian becomes their second language functioning for communicative purposes among people having distinct regional language and instructional media in schools and formal events (lie, 2007). arief eko priyo atmojo, arif nugroho 56 data collection and analysis 16 efl teachers (called as t1–t16) volunteered to become participants in this research through invitation. according to a list of questions, the efl teachers were requested to make written reflections regarding their practices in carrying out online efl learning and the challenges they encounter. furthermore, five of them (i.e. t3, t7, t8, t9, and t10) were involved in a follow-up interview individually since they provided attractive narrations and impactful topics in the written reflections and were determined feasible to be investigated further. semi-structured interviews were administered and took place about 30 minutes for every interviewee. the participants were asked to share detailed explanations on teaching procedures, online learning tools used, and samples of materials, quizzes, assignments, as well as projects given to the students to depict the practices of online efl learning which they carried out during the covid-19 pandemic as pointed out in the written reflections. the teachers were also led to discover the challenges they encountered in carrying out online efl learning during the covid-19 pandemic and reveal valid reasons behind. all interviews were recorded in audio format and transcribed to be analyzed further. agreement was obtained from all participants before the research was carried out. in lights of the research questions and recent online learning theories (ally, 2008; gonzalez & louis, 2018; krish, 2008), the data were carefully reviewed and significant codes reflecting the practices of online efl learning during the covid-19 pandemic and its challenges were identified. interview transcripts were read several times to obtain initial points of the practices of online efl learning and its challenges. data coding was done to exhibit classification and emerging trends. repetitive and unimportant data were also deleted. ultimately, appropriate extracts on the practices of online efl register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.49-76 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 57 learning and its challenges were informed in results section. some changes in terms of grammar were made to ensure the language efficacy of the extracts without altering the intention and meaning. to validate the data, data coding was done independently by both researchers, continued by several cycles of discussion to achieve an agreement about the results. results & discussion this section conveys three key themes related to the practices of online efl learning and the challenges encountered. it includes what applications and platforms used by the teachers, how they carry out online efl learning, and what challenges they encounter along with the valid reasons. for each of the three themes, the most representative extracts from the participants’ responses are picked out. the written reflections are labelled as ‘wr’ whereas the interviews are labelled as ‘int’. applications and platforms used by the teachers the teachers use several applications and platforms which can be categorized into eight types. they are as follows: (1) learning management system; (2) chat and message; (3) video conference; (4) content maker; (5) assessment; (6) video streaming and sharing; (7) online learning provider; and (8) additional resource. the teachers do not employ game, artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and augmented reality. the teachers employ google classroom and schoology for managing their online learning in general. arief eko priyo atmojo, arif nugroho 58 i decide to use google classroom because it does not need to be installed on their smartphones, so the students do not complain about spending their internet quota and requiring stable internet connection. the students only need to login by using their gmail account and input the class code. so, it is easier and more accessible than other applications (t14, wr). the first application which i use is schoology. i utilize it to post materials related to proverb and riddle (t7, wr). the teachers also employ whatsapp to do many activities similarly to learning management system. i use whatsapp to share materials, give information about task or project, have discussion, provide question and answer session, and give personal feedback to students (t8, int). zoom is chosen to carry out possible activities in tele-conference setting. i utilize zoom to explain materials orally like in face-to-face meeting, have oral discussion with students, and provide question and answer session (t4, wr). several content maker applications are also employed by the teachers. they are autodesk sketchbook, teded, and faststone capture. the second application which i use is autodesk sketchbook. it is used to replace the function of whiteboard to present materials. we can create materials in written and drawing forms (t3, wr). teded and faststone capture are both video maker application. i utilize faststone capture to create a screen-casting video. in brief, i explain the materials orally by showing powerpoint slides. meanwhile, teded is used to create a lesson video by editing available online videos (t9, int). google forms, quizizz, and kahoot are assessment applications which are employed by the teachers. they are used to create online quiz for students in the forms of multiple choices, essay, and true or false alternatives. i utilize kahoot to create quizzes in multiple choices of four options and true or false alternatives. i also use google forms to create quizzes in multiple choices of four options and essay forms. kahoot needs more stable internet connection whereas google forms is more accessible in unstable internet connection. google forms also provides ease in score processing (t15, wr). register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.49-76 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 59 i employ quizizz to create quizzes in multiple choices form (t7, wr). youtube is mostly used by the teachers as visual materials resource in the forms of video and animation. i attach youtube video links in my google classroom classes to provide my students with visual materials (t2, wr). ruangguru is one of online learning provider applications. the teacher takes some quiz items provided by this application. i select some items of quizzes provided by ruangguru which are relevant with the materials that i teach. i do some screenshots with my smartphones to capture some quiz items. i then share the selected quiz items through whatsapp and ask my students to answer them (t3, int). the teachers also provide several websites as additional resources for their students. those websites are such as http://en.childrenslibrary.org/, https://belajar.kemdikbud.go.id, and https://kelaspintar.id. i ask my students to visit http://en.childrenslibrary.org/ and select a book which is available on the website. i give them time in one week to read the selected book. they are then required to write a review on the book they read. it is typically a reading assignment, particularly extensive reading assignment (t9, int). the teachers’ activities in carrying out online efl learning there are teachers who carry out their online learning in synchronous mode and asynchronous mode. the synchronous mode means that the teachers carry out online learning at certain time in a week. in the other hand, the asynchronous mode means that the teachers carry out online learning in a range of longer period, one week for instance. so, the asynchronous mode is more flexible than the synchronous mode. however, majority of the teachers carry out their online learning in synchronous mode since it is their schools’ policy. http://en.childrenslibrary.org/ https://belajar.kemdikbud.go.id/ https://kelaspintar.id/ http://en.childrenslibrary.org/ arief eko priyo atmojo, arif nugroho 60 my school has set up the schedule for this online learning, so i must follow the rule of my institution (t7, wr). my school does not give specific schedule to conduct the online learning. the most important thing is that each teacher must do teaching activities such as providing materials or assigning task or project for students every one week (t16, wr). first, the teachers check the students’ attendance. the teachers then adopt ready to use materials in the forms of powerpoint slides, youtube videos, and word documents or create their own materials in the forms of videos, pictures, powerpoint slides, word documents, and pdf documents. the materials are uploaded by the teachers into learning management system such as google classroom and schoology or shared through messaging application such as whatsapp. after that, the teachers explain the materials by utilizing zoom, for instance. the teachers’ explanation can also be included in the materials such as in videos, word documents, and pdf documents. the teachers then create online quizzes in the forms of multiple choices, essays, and true or false alternatives to assess the students’ mastery of the subject. the teachers also assign the students to do some tasks and projects since some teachers apply project-based learning in their online learning. to gain deeper understanding and refine the students’ lack of knowledge, the teachers carry out discussion along with the students. the teachers also provide question and answer session to engage the students and solve their learning problems. the teachers then give personal feedback on the students’ works. the feedback is meant to help the students to progress in their learning personally. at the end, the teachers give score for every student’s assessment. i ask my students to indicate if they are present in the online learning as scheduled by mentioning their name and say that they are present in the comment of my attendance checking post in google classroom (t9, wr). register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.49-76 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 61 i download some ready to use materials related to my teaching topics in the forms of powerpoint slides. i also download several relevant videos from youtube to enrich the students’ understanding on the topics. i then share those materials through whatsapp (t8, int). i create some modules in pdf document format. i upload those modules to google drive. then, i give the google drive links to my students so they can access the modules and read them as materials for their learning. i create these modules since i think that materials available on the students’ textbook is hard to be learnt independently (t10, int). i upload my materials to schoology as the learning management system. i upload the materials in many classes that i teach since i teach two different grades, namely grade tenth and eleventh (t7, wr). i explain the materials through tele-conference facilitated by zoom application. here, i explain the materials orally by seeing my students’ faces on my laptop screen (t16, wr). i create materials in word documents. i include my explanation which is usually delivered directly and orally into the materials. so, i write down the important points and briefs of the materials and my explanation into the same word document (t13, wr). i create online quizzes in the forms of multiple choices, essays, and true or false alternatives (t15, wr). i assign my students a project to write a hortatory exposition text and an analytical exposition text with topics related to covid-19 (t6, wr). i carry out discussion on the generic structure of narrative text by posing some questions first to stimulate the discussion. the questions which i pose guide the students to critically understand the materials and initiate their questioning and reasoning ability. the students may answer my questions and ask other questions. so, there is knowledge exchange in this lively discussion (t9, int). i facilitate question and answer session through whatsapp. this question and answer session takes place in whatsapp group of each class that i teach. students are allowed to ask questions related to their learning difficulties and lack of knowledge on the topics being taught (t7, int). arief eko priyo atmojo, arif nugroho 62 i always give personal feedback to my students’ works through google classroom private comments feature and whatsapp personal chat. i want my students to know what should be improved and how to improve it for better results. it leads the students to have good progress in their learning (t1, wr). i always give score on my students’ works since it must be reported on report books at the end of the semester. it also gives the students insights and reflections on how much they master the subject (t2, wr). a series of activities carried out by the teachers is just like teaching activities in face-to-face class generally. the chronological order of the activities is similar to face-to-face class activities. the teachers just move the face-to-face class into online learning environment. they still do not consider much on the differences between face-to-face class and online learning. the teachers also do not maximize the use of technology in online learning. they do not employ game, artificial intelligence, augmented reality, and virtual reality. it seems that teachers’ knowledge and skill on the use of technology in online learning need to be improved. the teachers should also be creative and innovative in providing activities for students in online learning environment. in short, moving face-to-face class into online learning environment is not enough. the teachers must be knowledgeable and skillful to teach through online learning. they must master the content (the language they teach), technology in online language learning, and pedagogy of foreign language learning. the challenges and valid reasons many problems emerge in the online efl learning carried out by the teachers. the problems come from the students, the teachers, and the students’ parents. the valid reasons behind these problems are identified. the first problem is that some students do not have their own smartphone. it is usually caused by the financial condition of their family. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.49-76 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 63 there are some students in my classes who do not own a smartphone. their parents cannot afford a smartphone for their children due to their financial condition (t3, wr). the second one is about unstable internet connection. the cellular signal and internet coverage still become a problem in remote and rural areas. in fact, some students live in remote, rural, and mountainous areas. some of my students complain about the unstable internet connection since they live in remote and mountainous areas (t5, wr). the financial condition of the students and their family also generate another problem that is the inability to afford sufficient internet quota for online learning. they can only afford a small internet quota that is not enough to take part in the online learning comfortably. sometimes, my students do not have internet quota so they cannot access the internet and participate in the online learning. this problem happens because the income is not equally distributed to all inhabitants. not all students come from a family of high or medium income which is able to afford decent livelihood (t8, int). many students have low digital literacy. they find difficulties in operating the applications and platforms used for online learning. a logical reasoning behind this is that the students did not use to learn through online learning and interact with those applications and platforms. at first, my students do not know how to copy paste and edit text in whatsapp group to fill in the attendance list. lots of my students also find difficulties in operating google classroom since they have never tried this application before. it makes me to create some tutorial videos on the use of google classroom to help them understand the way to operate it and how to copy paste and edit text in whatsapp group (t10, int). besides having low digital literacy, some students also have low literacy in general. they cannot understand the teacher’s instruction well although it arief eko priyo atmojo, arif nugroho 64 has been written clearly. it is usually because they do not carefully read the teacher’s instruction and lazy to read the teacher’s instruction. sometimes, they skip the instruction if the words are too many for them. i must repeatedly give the same information to my students simply because they are not careful enough to read the information. their literacy is not good (t10, wr). some students are not punctual in attending the online learning as scheduled by the schools at certain time in a week. they are absent at the hours the online learning scheduled and ask the teachers about what has been taught and assigned in the afternoon. it happens since the students have misperceptions in mind. in my students’ opinion, learning from home is just like holidays. they go to sleep from morning to almost afternoon. they do not attend the online learning as scheduled in the morning until noon. they contact me in the afternoon and ask if there is any task or project given to them. whereas, i do not serve them if it is not working hours (t11, wr). some students submit their works after the deadline. this can be caused by some reasons. some students are lazy to do the task or project given by the teacher. it can be because their internet quota runs out. they may also experience unstable internet connection when submitting their works in the last minutes. it can happen for students who do not have their own smartphones so they must borrow their parents’ or siblings’ smartphones which are also used for online learning too. it may also be caused by their misperception that their works are not scored by the teacher. several students cannot meet the deadline of tasks. they submit their works lately since they do not own smartphones. they must borrow smartphones from their parents or siblings. whereas, their siblings also require the smartphone to participate in online learning (t9, wr). another emerging problem is students’ different level of mastery on the subject which is generated from students’ cognition and learning style. it has register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.49-76 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 65 been common that the students’ mastery on the subject vary in a class, even in face-to-face class. it becomes a new challenge about how to teach students with low cognition and various learning style in online learning environment. i find difficulties in delivering the materials to the students who need extra guidance in learning. it is due to their low cognition. it is rather difficult for me to teach them through online learning (t8, wr). it is difficult to provide learning experience based on each student learning style. so, my students cannot achieve mastery on the subject optimally since they are not provided with learning experience which suits their learning style. it is hard and takes lots of time to prepare various learning experiences based on each student learning style in online learning environment (t7, int). some students complain about the workload they have to do in online learning. they suffer from lots of tasks and projects assigned to them with deadlines. the students feel heavier burden of learning through online learning. it is because the students learn about 14 subjects through fully online learning and all of these subjects have assignments to be done by the students with deadlines (t7, int). some students have low awareness on the online learning. they perceive that online learning is not important. this problem happens because the students have misperceptions about online learning. they assume that online learning is informal and just like holidays so they are too relaxed. sometimes, several students forget to participate in the online learning. they have low awareness on the online learning. they think that it is informal. it seems cliché to them since they have never experienced online learning before (t8, int). as the problems come from the students, the teachers also encounter challenges coming from themselves. at first, the teachers find difficulties in creating materials which are easy to learn in online learning setting since some arief eko priyo atmojo, arif nugroho 66 teachers only use low technology applications due to the lack of facilities that their students suffer from. it is also due to the teachers’ lack of experience and knowledge in carrying out the online learning. i have difficulties in creating materials which are still in accordance with the core competence and the basic competence and easily understood by the students in independent learning since many students do not have adequate facilities to take part in an interactive online learning, for example, having their own smartphones with adequate specifications, stable internet connection, and adequate internet quota (t10, int). the teachers also find a problem in giving personal feedback to the students. it happens since the allotted time is still not enough and several students submit their works lately. i cannot give personal feedback in real-time to each student work. the allotted time for online learning as scheduled by the school is not enough. some students also submit their works lately, so i cannot give personal feedback to their works as soon as possible. the students also reply my feedback at different time. it is better if we can give personal feedback on the students’ works in real-time (t1, wr). the absence of adequate facilities for high technology integration becomes another problem in the online learning. it has been known that many students get troubled with unstable internet connection, inability to afford adequate internet quota, and lack of smartphones. without adequate facilities, the teachers cannot carry out an interactive online learning. they can only give materials for independent learning at home, tasks or projects, and quizzes. still, the teachers must choose the applications which do not require much internet quota and can still run in slow internet connection like google classroom, google forms, and whatsapp. i have not been able to carry out an interactive and engaging online learning since the facilities for online learning are still very minimal and far to carry out an interactive and engaging online learning. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.49-76 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 67 besides, the students’ financial condition still cannot afford the required facilities (t3, int). further, the teachers find difficulties in engaging low motivated and passive students in online learning setting. it is indicated by few students who get involved in discussion. some students do not focus and even go to sleep when they participate in tele-conference. it happens due to the students’ laziness, unstable internet connection, and low english language proficiency which demotivates them to participate in discussion and question and answer session conducted using english. the students’ english language proficiency becomes another problem in this online learning. it is because the students do not use english in daily communication both inside and outside classroom. my students tend to be passive and do not say many words when i give instruction or have discussion in english. they then ask about my instruction using indonesian. they usually participate actively in discussion when we use indonesian. they did not use to use english in discussion and other daily activities. they get confused in expressing their ideas and questions in english. they have low english language proficiency (t6, wr). the teachers also complain about their lack of preparation and readiness in carrying out the online learning. it is because the online learning is not planned and prepared before. it happens suddenly to respond the covid-19 pandemic in indonesia. i feel that i am not ready to move from face-to-face class to online learning since the online learning is carried out so suddenly in an emergency condition and is not prepared in advance (t7, int). moreover, the teachers find difficulties in teaching moral value to their students. it is hard for them to educate their students morality through online learning since the teachers and the students are separated by far distance. arief eko priyo atmojo, arif nugroho 68 it is hard to teach moral value to my students through online learning because of the distance so that i cannot provide exemplary attitude directly and intensively to my students (t7, int). in online learning, it is also hard to strengthen the emotional bond between the teacher and the students. it is due to the absence of physical touch and interaction in online learning. the emotional bond between the teacher and the students is not very well facilitated since it is limited by far distance resulting in no faceto-face meeting and physical touch such as smiling and shaking hands which usually strengthen the emotional bond between the teacher and the students (t7, int). communication and interaction between the teacher and the students are quite important in learning process. however, online learning still cannot facilitate communication and interaction as well as face-to-face class. it happens since the teacher and the students are limited by far distance. so, the communication and interaction between them are not optimized. my students cannot reach me directly when they do not understand the materials or experience problems in learning. they find difficulties in having communication and interaction with me in online learning environment. i also reflect that online communication and interaction cannot replace face-to-face meeting in learning context (t5, wr). another problem is the absence of parents’ care. parents are hoped to monitor and maintain their children in participating in online learning. however, some parents do not take care of their children learning. they are busy with their works and business. many parents do not monitor and take care of their children’s learning through online learning. it is because they are busy to work and their works cannot be done at home. they do not work from home since they work in informal sector (t12, wr). the last problem is that the excessive use of smartphones and laptops can result in sore eyes. it is because the screen of smartphone and laptop emits radiations which are not good for our eyes and health. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.49-76 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 69 i and my students experience fatigue and burnout when staring at our smartphone or laptop screens for a long time. it is due to the radiation effect from smartphones or laptops which are not good for our eyes if we use them for a long time (t8, int). the results show that the teachers carried out online efl learning during the covid-19 pandemic. the teachers employ many applicable applications and platforms based on their knowledge and the possibility of their students to access those applications and platforms due to the lack of the students’ facilities. those applications and platforms range from learning management system to additional resource. there are two ways in carrying out the online learning, namely synchronous and asynchronous mode. the majority of the teachers carry out the online learning in synchronous mode since their schools or institutions have given the rule and exact schedule to carry out the online learning. moreover, the teachers carry out a series of activities to teach the students through online learning ranging from checking the students’ attendance to giving score on the students’ works. however, many challenges emerge from the students, the teachers, and the students’ parents. the cause of each problem has been investigated and presented in the results section. many online learning applications quickly appear every day. teachers are allowed to deliver materials to their students’ smartphones. teachers can employ some educational applications, references, and games to facilitate class activities (son, 2018). synchronous-based applications are useful to create contexts and facilitate teachers and students to interact with each other in realtime. moreover, asynchronous-based applications can be utilized for low technology use through discussions and written responses. a thorough and arief eko priyo atmojo, arif nugroho 70 balanced mix of activities can attract students to online learning (plaisance, 2018). teachers should provide simple, obvious, and proper instructions about what to do, how to do it, and where students must submit their works. activities should be determined by considering objectives and arranged sequentially in tasks reflecting real-life situations to gain students’ interest and make them motivated (gonzalez & louis, 2018). teachers must be able to recognize disengagement, present meaningful activity, provide question and answer session, and offer ice-breaking activity to maintain students’ engagement. sufficient challenge, resource, and feedback must also be provided for students (green, 2016). challenges include relating pedagogies with technologies, designing interactive activities, enhancing formal learning, gaining students’ support, and dealing with problems in the use of technology (son, 2018). other difficulties in fully online learning are meeting scheduled participation and regular learning, maintaining persistent engagement, becoming a self-directed learner with high motivation, and socializing (sun, 2014). problems also come from the inability to afford smartphone and internet quota for students as well as the unstable internet connection. good pedagogy will be nonsense if there are problems in technology access (burston, 2014; cakrawati, 2017). preparing online learning spend more time than preparing face-to-face class (krish, 2008). online learning needs a bigger investment than face‐to‐ face class to make it properly designed and implemented (green, 2016). it must be skillfully carried out to avoid friction and disengagement since online students can feel like in isolation and disconnection (plaisance, 2018). it also requires more responsible and autonomous students. they have to be selfdirected learners with high motivation who spend time effectively to prepare, register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.49-76 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 71 maintain, manage, and reflect on their learning and participation (gonzalez & louis, 2018). moreover, student-teacher and student-material interactions have significant and positive effects on students’ satisfaction. thus, teachers need to scaffold interactions of student-teacher and student-material to enhance students’ learning (chin‐hsi lin, zheng, & zhang, 2017). the challenges encountered must inspire teachers to be reflective, open, creative, and adaptive to dynamic changes. it reminds teachers to keep exploring technology for enhancing foreign language learning. teachers need to identify applications and use them based on the objectives. to select and utilize suitable applications timely, teachers need practical preparation and learning on recognizing applications, organizing activities, maintaining students’ engagement, and evaluating students’ learning. teachers are encouraged to have active participation in professional development opportunities to develop their competency on technology integration in language teaching (son, 2018). training should be given to make them wellprepared to carry out online learning in emergency incidents (moorhouse, 2020). conclusion the present research gives contributions to the literature on online language learning in efl context from teachers’ perspective. efl teachers have carried out online learning through a series of activities ranging from checking the students’ attendance to giving score on the students’ works synchronously or asynchronously depending on each school policy due to the arief eko priyo atmojo, arif nugroho 72 covid-19 pandemic. various applications and platforms ranging from learning management system to additional resource are employed to carry out the online learning. however, many problems emerge from the students, the teachers, and the students’ parents. as results, the online learning does not run well since it lacks of preparation and planning. planning and preparation should inevitably be done for better online learning in the future since online learning requires more time than face-toface class to be well-prepared and ready. the teachers must be trained and prepared with sufficient knowledge and skill to maximize their practices in carrying out the online learning. the students have to be familiarized with online learning to enhance their digital literacy and refine their misperceptions about online learning. the students’ parents must also be notified to monitor and maintain their children participation and engagement in the online learning. however, the students’ lack of facilities on smartphones, internet quota, and stable internet connection are still critical due to the financial condition of the students’ families. the future teacher education and training must include the integration of technology in language learning, technology enhanced language learning, information and communication technology in language learning, and online language learning courses in their curriculum since the needs of technology integration in language learning is inevitable. more researches are encouraged to investigate the practices of online efl learning in low technology context and the needs of teacher professional development on technology integration in language learning. as suggested by moorhouse (2020), extensive researches which explore the switch of face-to-face class into online learning are also worth to carry out. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.49-76 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; 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(2018). english, multilingualism and globalisation in indonesia: a love triangle: why indonesia should move towards multilingual education. english today, 35(1), 48–53. https://doi.org/10.1017/s026607841800010x 19 indonesian and english lexical metaphoric expressions used in online competition news text siti tarwiyah fitk uin walisongo semarang sititarwiyah98@yahoo.co.id abstract the subject of this article deals with discourse semantics. the focus of its description is metaphoric expressions used to express competition news in online media. based on some theories about metaphor, the writer tries to search for kinds of metaphoric expressions used and the reasons behind the use of the expressions. the result shows that english and indonesian language use lexical metaphors with three specifications, i.e. anthropomorphic, animal, and synesthetic. the choice of specific lexical metaphoric expressions is related to situational and cultural aspects. key words: metaphor, online media news, cultural aspects abstrak subyek artikel ini berhubungan dengan semantik wacana. fokus deskripsinya ialah ekspresi metaforis yang digunakan untuk mengungkapkan berita kompetisi di media online. didasarkan pada beberapa teori tentang metafora, penulis mencoba untuk mencari jenis ekspresi metaforis yang digunakan dan alasan di balik penggunaan ekspresi tersebut. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa bahasa inggris dan bahasa indonesia menggunakan metafora leksikal dengan tiga spesifikasi, yaitu metafora antropomorfik, metafora binatang dan metafora sinestetik. pilihan ekspresi metaforis leksikal tertentu berkaitan dengan aspek situasi dan budaya. indonesian and english lexical metaphoric expressions used in online competition news text 20 kata kunci: metafora, berita media online, aspek budaya introduction every nation or community has its own ways to express information, thought, idea, attitude, and stand point. this is in line with saussure opinion (in crystal, 1993:407) that the relationship between signifier (form) and signified (meaning) is arbitrary. this arbitrariness mainly depends on culture of the society and how they see phenomena around them. javanese people consider their interlocutors in choosing which speech level to use, ngoko, kromo, or basa. english people see the importance of time through the use of tenses. eskimo differentiate five kinds of snow represented by five terms. indonesian people see the difference among padi, beras, and nasi which are called rice in english. on the other hand, language also influences choices of interpretation to things around the language users. sapir (in hodge and gunther, 1993:210) said, “... language habits of our community predisposes certain choices of interpretation. in indonesian language padi is different from beras and nasi. all of which are called rice in english. this results in an interpretation that all those three things are different that must be treated differently in accordance with their functions. metaphor, as one of figurative languages may be seen as another example of the difference in language use. every speech community often has distinctive symbols to refer to certain referents. english people may say dr. yusuf is a butcher, pass with flying colors, feel blue, which cannot be found in indonesian language. siti tarwiyah 21 the definitions of metaphor from some experts seem varied. metaphor or figure of speech is “a word or phrase which is used for special effect, and which does not have its usual or literal meaning” (richards, 1990: 105). the greek translation of metaphor simply means ‘transfer’. it is a transfer because it replaces a certain word which cannot fully express the writer’s mind. johnson (1972:26) defines metaphor as “carry beyond”. it is an expression that literally denotes one thing but at the same time it is used to refer to something else. the changing of the referent is influenced by its context. metaphor is based on perception of similarities between two references, i.e., thing which is being talked and which is being compared (ullmann, 1972:213). it is a normal thing that we see some same metaphoric expressions in many languages as far as they have clear analogies (1972:238) metaphor is a variation of language which can be found in any language. lakoff and johnson in metaphors we live by admits this phenomenon. they say that metaphors is used both in literature and in daily language in any language and dialect (in hatch and cheryl, 1995:87). some examples of universal metaphors are analogizing darkness with sadness or bad luck (cirlot in abdul wahab, 1991:15), catch or grab means understand (ullmann, 1972:238), assuming heat as anger (lakoff and johnson in hatch and cheryl, 1995:96). meanwhile, harimurti says that is the use of a certain word or expression for another object or concept based on analogy or similarities (1983:106). metaphor is an analogy that compares two indonesian and english lexical metaphoric expressions used in online competition news text 22 things directly (gorys keraf, 1987:139 and anton m. moeliono, 1988:580). abdul wahab, an indonesian linguist who has observed metaphoric problems, defines metaphor as an expression whose meaning cannot be grasped directly from its form because the meaning is predicated on the expression. the meaning is formulated based on understanding and experience of the thing meant to refer something else (1995:72). metaphor is a creative power of language. it may give the freshness in language, avoid boredom, revive dead things (language), and actualize things (language) which are paralyzed. that is why metaphoric expressions are mainly used in literature with the creativity of men of letters in processing language (edi soebroto, 1986:46). metaphoric concept is actually based on relativism paradigm that is figured by edward sapir (1921) and whorf (1956). according to this school, meaning is the result of mental processes. this is due to unseparated relationship between human and their society, which influences human’s thought about their life (sapir in sampson, 1980:82-83). metaphor is an important in our conceptual system. it may also reinforce social values of its user. “metaphors are fundamental parts of our conceptual system. we could not eliminate them from our vocabulary or our press.” (nelson in pangestuti, 1997:183) “… by framing an issue in a particular way, metaphors reinforce certain social values….” (1997:182) some rude or taboo expressions tend to be siti tarwiyah 23 metaphorized in order to be more polite or cultured. indonesian people prefer using pekerja seks komersial to cabul, keluarga pra-sejahtera to keluarga miskin that are more euphemistic. every nation or language community has different ways of expressing information, idea, attitude and stand. saussure said that the relationship between form (signifier) and meaning (signified) is arbitrary (crystal, 1993:407). this difference depends on the culture of the community and the way they view phenomena around them. javanese people often take the status of their interlocutor into account, which is then used as consideration whether to use krama or ngoko. the use of tense in english asserts the importance of time within english people. people in eskimo have more than five words to refer to different snow. indonesian people have padi, gabah, and beras, while english people only have rice. all these expressions and norms of speech are tightly related to the view of each people on the realities around them. the principle of arbitrary can also be seen in the use of metaphor. besides its universal every language community often has different symbol to refer to a certain referent. english people has no cry over the spilt milk, which is expressed as nasi sudah menjadi bubur in indonesian language. chagga speakers see a sexy woman as lilya ‘oven’ but indonesian people see this woman as a guitar. as a kind of creativity of language use, metaphors are interesting to be observed. in which domain it should be looked? searle claimed that metaphor is an utterance meaning rather than sentence meaning and should be investigated pragmatically (morgan, indonesian and english lexical metaphoric expressions used in online competition news text 24 1980:139). abdul wahab asserted that social and cultural context, human perception, comprehension, and sometimes myth and symbolism should be taken into account when we discuss metaphor (1995:93). this is to say that enough knowledge about this world is highly recommended in the discussion. metaphor has something to do with human perception system of this universe and feeling (hatch and cheryl, 1995:95). suggesting the similar argument, george lakoff and mark johnson (1980) say, “… metaphor is not just a matter of language, that is, of mere words. we shall argue that …. human thought processes are largely metaphoric. this is what we mean when we say that human conceptual system is metaphorically structured and defined.” (in abdul wahab, 1995:76) lexical metaphor is identified from the use of a certain word that denotes a certain thing or reality to refer to another thing or reality. the word flooded in in the protest flooded in is an example of lexical metaphor. flooded usually refers to a large quantity of water covering an area that is usually dry. the congruent expressions to describe a big protest are protest were received in large quantities and even very many people protested. research methodology a. object of the study the object of this study is online competition news text uploaded from october to december 2014. siti tarwiyah 25 b. unit of analysis this research is focused on metaphoric expressions used to express competition news. the analysis involves lexemes in its context or grammar. it is realized at the lexico-grammar strata. according to eggins (1994: 82), if the stratum of language to be analyzed is lexico-grammar, the unit of analysis is clause. c. technique of data collection the data of this study was collected by downloading online competition news text uploaded from october to december 2014. d. technique of data analysis the data was analyzed by using the following steps: a. reading the news b. segmenting the news into clauses c. identifying the metaphoric expressions d. identifying semantic relations between symbol (metaphoric expressions) and referents. e. interpreting the influence of cultural aspects toward the use of symbols. discussion 1. anthropomorphic metaphors the tables below shows indonesian and english lexical metaphors used in indonesian online competition news. indonesian and english lexical metaphoric expressions used in online competition news text 26 table 1 indonesian anthropomorphic metaphors no. expression the change from referent  symbol meaning 1. singkirkan unggulan pertama (ib1) opponent/people  unused thing defeat 2. menyingkirkan unggulan pertama (ib3) opponent/people  unused thing defeating 3. mengukuhkan provinsi ibu kota negara (id2) winning  title decide as the winnerl 4. menggeser dominasi jateng (id3) opponent/people  thing outdo 5. membabat semua kategori (ia4) cathegory  grass win 6. menyabet 29 emas (ia5) medal  people/things win 7. kejutan besar ditorehkan (ib2) winning  latex, sap got table 2 english anthropomorphic metaphors no. expression the change from referent  symbol meaning 1. societal shift (ea6) people  thing slight change 2. a push toward gender quality quality  concrete thing motivation siti tarwiyah 27 (ea7) 3. give himself a shot (eb1) game  battle play 4. shot up the ranking (eb3) game  battle get higher rank 5. it was neck and neck nerveous  human body nervous 6. maiden world sperseries (eb13) event  people first event 7. edged past denmark’ mads pieler (eb15) people  thing outdo 8. a stunning performance (ec2) game  fight good 9. by sweeping their ... (ec3) opponent/people  unused thing outdo 10. the other wins came (ec5) winning  human/animal win the game 11. they moved to second place winning  place become the second winner 12. on the provisional standing winning  position winning non-metaphoric expressions (in meaning column) describe the semantic relationship between referent and symbol clearer. the meanings are drawn based on the context of each expression and the shared semantic features between metaphoric and non-metaphoric expressions or symbol and referent as shown in the following examples: (1) menyingkirkan unggulan pertama (ib3) (2) defeating the seed no 1 indonesian and english lexical metaphoric expressions used in online competition news text 28 “getting rid of the seed no 1” throwing something away giving no chance to play in the next round done with effort done with effort the thing moves from the previous place the team leave the next round menyingkirkan “getting rid of” is said to symbolize defeating because of those similar semantic features. opponent/people  thing dominates symbolization of metaphors of this kind. the symbol used are singkirkan (ib1), menyingkirkan (ib3), menggeser (id3). the meaning conveyed is to defeat/to outdo/to win. again, the defeated team is seen as the victim. the same symbolization is also often used in english. the used symbols are societal (ea6), edged past (eb15), and sweeping (ec3). the symbols which may be typical are membabat (ia4), menyabet (ia5), ditorehkan (ib2). this is due to the relationship between all those expressions with agricultural setting of community life, which is still dominant in indonesia. meanwhile, some english metaphoric expressions are closed to their modern tradition. it can be seen from the use of shot (eb1) and shot up (eb3) which employ such modern tool as gun. the same symbols are not found in indonesian online compettition news. 2. animal metaphors metaphors of this kind can be seen from the examples in table 3 and 4 below: table 3: indonesian animal metaphors siti tarwiyah 29 no. expression the change from referent  symbol meaning 1. menunjukkan taringnya (ia1) team  animal good play 2. taring itu ditunjukkan (ia2) team  animal good play 3. mengincar kemenangan (ia6) winning  prey pursue 4. jadi incaran (ia7) winning  prey pursue 5. memburu nomor individual (ic6) winning  prey pursue table 4 english animal metaphors no. expression the change from referent  symbol meaning 1. flying regionally (ed2) team  animal play 2. a hawk in flight (ed3) team  animal team from the data in the two tables, it may also be concluded that indonesian animal metaphors are dominantly pertaining to hunting. such symbols as taring (ia2)/taringnya (ia1), mengincar (ia6)/incaran (ia7), memburu (ic6) are closed to the natural way of live. meanwhile, english has fly (ed2) and hawk (ed3), cooccured with flight (ed3) which are may be seen as having correlation with technology or modern way of life. indonesian and english lexical metaphoric expressions used in online competition news text 30 3. synesthetic metaphors table 5 and 6 below summarize synaesthetic metaphors that express game processes and results in online competition news. table 5 indonesian synaesthetic metaphors no expression the change from referent  symbol meaning 1. pertandingan digelar (ia3, ib8) competition  mat held 2. menundukkan pasangan no. 1 (ib4) to defeat  to nod defeat 3. lolos dari pasangan tiongkok (ib5) to win  to save from siege win 4. diserang/menyeran g (ib6, ib7) competition  battle play 5. ajang word military parachuting championship (ic1) event  place event 6. merebut medali emas (ic3) to compete  to fight over win 7. medali dipersembahkan (ic4) medal  offering given 8. ni putu mencatat ketepatan 0,57 cm (ic5) to parachute  to note to parachute to 0,57 cm 9. mengumpulkan medali (ic7) medal  common collection win 10. merebut gelar juara (id4) to compete  to fight over win 11. kegembiraan terpancar (id5) happiness  light happy for the winning 12. mendulang 8 winning  gold win siti tarwiyah 31 medali (id6) table 6 english synesthetic metaphors no expression the change from referent  symbol meaning 1. earned a medal (ea1,3,4,5) winning  earning got 2. takes second place (ea2) winning  position becomes the second winner 3. entering the men’s single final (eb2) game  room/place playing 4. stunned no 4 seed (eb4) to compete  to fight over played 5. trailled for much of (eb5) event  place/road played 6. he stepped it up (eb6) winning  ladder won 7. to take the next six points (eb7) winning  concrete thing to win 8. shot past his opponent (eb9) competition  battle outdo 9. quelled kento moonota (eb10) competition  battle outdo 10. lost his way (eb11) play  track played badly 11. earned a shot (eb12) competition  battle play 12. a title clash with (eb14) to compete  to fight over play 13. indonesia beats armenia (ec1) to compete  to fight over outdoes indonesian and english lexical metaphoric expressions used in online competition news text 32 14. their latest victim (ec4) to compete  to fight over opponent 15. indonesia pounded 4-0 (ec8) to compete  to fight over won 16. true test came in the third round (ec9) play  test good play 17. beating romania (ec10) opponent  victim outdoing 18. the lead up to the third round (ec11) competition  track play 19. given the opponent’s line up (ec12) competition  track chance 20. medina was outstanding over foisor (ec13) winning  reputation win over 21. taking three wins (ec14) winning  concrete thing getting 22. the team challenged china (ec15) to compete  to fight over played 23. first place honour (ed1) winning  place becomes the first winner 24. a top place to be for .... (ed4) winning  place becomes the first winner 25. ku team placed first in .... (ed5) winning  place won 26. a first place award (ed6) winning  place winning most of metaphoric expressions found both in indonesian and english online competition news are antropomorphic. the symbolization of competition as fighting or battle is dominant in those two languages. it is shown by 42% of indonesian and 42.3% of english metaphors. the symbols used are lolos (ib5), siti tarwiyah 33 diserang/menyerang (ib6, ib7), merebut (ic3, id4), stunned (eb4), shot (eb9, eb12), quelled (eb10), clash (eb 14), beats (ec1), victim (ec4), pounded (ec8), challenged (ec15). conclusion the conclusions may be made based on the data analysis in the previous part are: (1) metaphoric expressions are used to intensify meaning, to represent the writer’s sense of things being described, (2) metaphoric expressions used in the online competition news falls into three cathegories, i.e. anthropomorphic, animal, and synesthetic metaphor, (3) metaphoric expressions used in the online competition news are tightly related to the way the writer sees the phenomenon, which is influenced by cultural aspects of the writer. indonesian and english lexical metaphoric expressions used in online competition news text 34 references crystal, david. 1993. the cambridge encyclopedia of language. cambridge: cambridge university press. deddy mulyana dan rakhmat jalaluddin. 1996. komunikasi antarbudaya. bandung: penerbit pt remaja rosdakarya. edi subroto, d. 1986. semantik leksikal i. surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. eggins, suzanne.1994. an introduction to systematic functional linguistics. london: pinter publisher. fairclough, norman. 1989. language and power. new york: longman group ltd. hatch, evelyn dan cheryl brown. 1995. vocabulary, semantics and language education. cambridge: cambridge university press. hodge, robert dan gunther kress. language as ideologi. london: routledge. johnson, wendell stacy. 1972. words, things and celebrations. harcourt brace javanovich inc. mansoer pateda. 1998. semantik leksikal (ed. kedua). jakarta: penerbit rineka cipta. morgan, jeffy l. 1980. “observations on the pragmatics of metaphor”, dalam metaphor and thought (ed. andrew ortony). cambridge: cambridge university press. pangestuti wiedarti. 1997. “ragam bahasa jurnalistik dalam rubrik konsultasi seksualitas”, dalam ragam jurnalistik dan pengajaran bahasa indonesia (ed. sudaryanto dan sulistiyo). semarang: citra almamater. richards, jack, john platt and heidi weber. 1990. longman dictionary of applied linguistics. harlow: longman group limited. sampson, geoffrey. 1980. school of linguistics. london: hutchinson & co. ltd. 186 the social context of early child second language acquisition (sla) maslihatul umami english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 02 salatiga, central java, indonesia umamie@gmail.com abstract this article addresses the material on language acquisition in a social context and focuses on the gradual shift in the child‘s use of words, from labeling specific and often single referents to the use of words for signifying categories of objects, actions, or attributes. the aims of this study are to search and explore the information whether the social context of second language acquisition occurred and whether it gives consequences toward cognitive development of the children. it can be seen from the results of this study that the rate and breadth of this shift varies from one social context to another, and that it has differential consequences for cognitive development dependent on the social context in which it occurs. the crucial significance of actively stimulating language growth in the classroom, especially by teachers of the socially disadvantaged, is stressed. keywords: social context, second language acquisition, children abstrak artikel ini membahas tentang pemerolehan bahasa dalam konteks sosial dan berfokus pada perubahan bertahap dalam penggunaan kata-kata pada anak, mulai dari menandai acuan tertentu dan sering pula acuan tunggal hingga penggunaan kata-kata untuk menandakan kategori objek, tindakan, atau atribut. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mencari dan menyelidiki informasi tentang konteks sosial pemerolehan bahasa kedua yang terjadi dan apakah hal itu memberikan konsekuensi terhadap perkembangan kognitif anak. hal ini dapat dilihat dari hasil penelitian bahwa tingkat dan luasnya pergeseran ini bervariasi dari satu konteks sosial ke konteks yang lain, dan bahwa pergeseran ini memiliki konsekuensi diferensial untuk perkembangan kognitif tergantung pada konteks sosial di mana itu terjadi. kemudian, signifikansi krusial dari http://us.mg60.mail.yahoo.com/yab-fe/mu/mainview?.src=neo&themename=purple&stab=1323127350452 187 usaha merangsang pertumbuhan bahasa di dalam kelas secara aktif, terutama oleh guru-guru yang kurang beruntung secara sosial, perlu ditekankan. kata kunci : konteks sosial , akuisisi bahasa kedua , anak-anak introduction children, surrounded by a sea of words, sequentially and selectively acquires the nouns, verbs, and phrases of their language as well as the gestures, intonations and dialect of those with whom he interacts. the rate and breadth of this complex acquisition is proportional to the scope of their verbal interactions with those charged with their care. language is so pervasive in human behavior that the process of language acquisition is often taken for granted. a comprehensive treatment of this process is obviously beyond the scope of this paper. there are too many gaps in our current knowledge to make such an attempt feasible. in consideration of such limitations, therefore, this paper will focus upon social conditions that affect language acquisition. more specifically, it will focus upon the gradual shift in the child‘s use of words, from labeling specific and often single referents to the use of words for signifying categories of objects, actions, or attributes. the hypothesis advanced here is that the rate and breadth of this shift varies from one social context to another, and that it has differential consequences for cognitive development dependent on the social context in which it occurs. this hypothesis will be examined and discussed chiefly in terms of the pertinent literature, with occasional reference to empirical studies. the need to modify the cognitive growth patterns of young childrenparticularly of those children who live in the slum areas of our major cities-has added new impetus to the search for a clarification of the relationship between 188 language and thought. it is our intention to examine aspects of word acquisition as related to conceptual development of verbal mediation. the literature on the development of language, structured largely in terms of maturational theory and based on the congruent findings of careful investigators, specifies an approximate sequence and timetable of children‘s verbal development. the focus of many of these studies has been on the rate of language acquisition, the unit studied being the number of different words elicited from the young child in a standard setting. here, the social environment is viewed either as a hampering or as enhancing medium in which the development of speech occurs, and the basic process of growth is considered neurophysiologically determined. although these studies have given us more facts about the increase of the child‘s active vocabulary, they develop within the context of modern psychological theories such as those of hebb and hunt (1992). similarities in the quantitative features of overt behavior (i.e., the size of spoken vocabulary) are assumed, by normatively oriented researchers, to be behaviors functionally equivalent for groups of children differing in background. however, studies limited to word counting afford little insight into the dynamic relationship between social experience and language. while many of these investigators (gesell & templin: 1997) may be aware that the content of speech is culturally determined, too often their writings have not reflected this awareness. in contradistinction to the maturational approach to language development as exemplified by the investigators mentioned above, osgood‘s model of language conceptualizes words as abbreviated motor behavior (osgood: 1999) .while his approach permits a simplified description of the complex behavior of language, it focuses on variables which would appear to be tangential to language acquisition. more importantly, motor learning 189 requires little social interaction, but language cannot be acquired in an interpersonal vacuum. on the other hand, the theoretical writings of bernstein (1990), and the recently translated book of vygotsky (2000), present approaches which are useful in the study of language acquisition in a social context. in his writings, berstein (1990) emphasized status as a major social determinant of speech patterns within social groups. more centrally related to the approach taken in this paper are hypotheses advanced by vygotsky (1970) three decades ago. he proposed that the conditions that influence the development of speech (overt language) are also related to the development of verbal meditation (covert language). further, he suggested that a socially determined learning condition of central importance in the acquisition of language is the availability of adults for engaging the child in dialogue (mccarthy: 1991). consequently, the central theme of this discussion, partially based on vygotsky‘s thinking (1970), is that children develop and test their tentative notions (hypotheses) about the meanings of words and the structure of sentences chiefly through verbal interaction with more verbally mature speakers. the acquisition of label social interaction with verbally mature individuals, which affects language acquisition, begins with the occurrence of the infant‘s earliest vocal responses. some findings have illustrated the effects of social environment on vocalization in children as young as six month (brodbeck and irwin, 1996). the child‘s language development in the first two years of life is primarily in the nature of increasing comprehension of speech of those around him. by age two, a child has developed speaking vocabulary, which may range from 3 to 300 words. in the next two years, the child shifts from using words exclusively 190 as labels with singles referents to the use of words, which have multiple referents (rudimentary categories). this process of acquiring and enlarging the use of labels can be sketched in general terms. at an elementary stage of language acquisition, before first birthday, the child perceives a word as being one of a multitude of attributes of an object (shape, weight, color, and name). by the repeated association of seeing and touching the object, and hearing the name of the object, the child acquires a bond between word and referent. usually, the source of auditory stimulation is the mother. in addition, children engage in communicative interaction with siblings, relatives, other children, teachers and neighbors. the role of more impersonal sources of communication, e.g., television and radio, has become increasingly important in children‘s acquisition of words. for example, simple learning is well understood by advertisers. the highly predictable association between the picture of the coca cola bottle and its name from the tv sound track is a fact of great utility in label acquisition of words. put on a more technical level, in describing language acquisition, some researchers rely on the conditioning paradigm. however, such a model presents certain difficulties in that it emphasizes a one-to-one relationship between stimulus and response. in reality, the word to be learned is usually embedded in a sentence (the verbal context) and its referent (the object that is to be paired with the word) is surrounded by a multitude of extraneous features in the environment. learning labels requires selective attention-the inhibition of irrelevant aspects of the learning environment. this learning of new verbal responses, particularly by young children, can be facilitated by a relative invariance in the environment. one of the major characteristics of the home, a natural setting for language acquisition, is its intrinsic variability. this is particularly true of lower-class homes that have 191 been described, and transient in their inhabitants than middle-class homes. children raised in such lower-class homes participated in the studies reported below. in spite of the complexities and difficulties involved in the process of label acquisition, children do acquire words in the midst of the ―noise‖ of the natural environment. some accomplish this more readily than others do. the abundance of opportunities for hearing the names of objects while seeing and touching them is such that most two-year-old can understand and use effectively a number of labels. receptive labeling children from different social classes vary in their knowledge of words. some studies of social class differences have recorded systematic variations in verbal indices of children grouped according to fathers and/or education. children from high-in-come, high-status families have been found to speak in longer sentences, more articulately, and with a more varied vocabulary than do their lower-class peers (templin, 1997). thus, in order to understand better the implications of such findings, it is necessary to examine qualitative as well as quantitative differences in children‘s verbal behavior. one example of qualitative differences in children‘s verbal behavior emerged from an item analysis of the responses of young negro children to a receptive verbal task, the peabody picture vocabulary test (ppvt) (seidman: 1991). briefly described, the ppvt consists of a series of increasingly difficult items, which require the child to display his comprehension of labels, when confronted with four drawings, by pointing to the correct picture-referent. the standardization group for this test consisted solely of white children residing in and around nashville, tennessee (seidman: 1991) 192 as part of a larger investigation, the ppvt was administered to fouryear-old, lower-class negro children, who had been selected to participate in a pre-school enrichment program. this program involves the research and teaching staff of the institute for developmental studies, new york medical college, who are also engaged in a variety of projects involving lower-class negro children. currently, pre-school enrichment classes are being held in eight manhattan elementary schools. the peabody picture vocabulary test (ppvt) protocols of approximately 40 experimental and control childrenbefore entering enrichment-was selected for this illustration (seidman: 1991). of the first 35 words of the test, clusters of items that the children had failed were identified. there, clusters of words were found to be particularly difficult: action words (digging, tying, pouring, building, pickling); words related to rural living (leaf, bee, bush, nest); and words whose referents may be rate in low-income homes (kangaroo, caboose, accident. other studies, such as that by eells (1991), have shown similar trends in that older lower-class children failed to identify words, such as ―harp,‖ the referents of which are not usually available in lower-class environments. these results raised a question of great interest to us: why did these lower-class children have such a high percentage of failure with action words? if the environment provides abundant opportunity for the child to hear simple labels, then action words are as likely to be heard by lower-class children as by middle-class children. perhaps the explanation lies in the learning environment. children from low-income homes have relatively little opportunity to engage in active dialogue when learning labels. milner (1996) has described the paucity of verbal interaction of children with adults in the low-income negro home. it is our contention, therefore, partially supported by bernstein‘s (1998) research that the crucial difference between middle-class and lower class individuals is not in the quality of language, but in its use. the functional 193 diversity in language may be a direct result of the occupational and educational experiences of the speaker. middle-class occupations generally require and permit verbal interaction with a variety of people. the individual must continually adjust his speech in terms of rate, intonation, vocabulary, and grammatical complexity, in an attempt to provide optimal communication. in contrast to this, the verbal interaction required in lower-class occupations is of a routine, highly conventionalized nature. the middle-class individual, then, develops a more flexible to use of language than that found in persons from lower-class backgrounds. the gap between the speaker‘s verbal skill and the listener‘s potential for comprehension is greatest in adult-child verbal interactions. here, the ability to use language flexibly is most important-it permits the adults to adjust his speech to fit the child‘s level of comprehension. however, if the lower-class child has to rely upon the frequency of cooccurrence of label and referent to a greater extent than the middle-class child, then, for him, the invariance between word and referent must also be greater. yet, the learning of verbs and gerunds by frequency of occurrence instead of by active dialogue is more difficult than is the learning of labels for specific objects. gerunds such as ―trying‖ were failed, not because the children were deficient in experience with the referent but rather because they had difficulty in fitting the label to the varying forms of action observed and experienced. this fitting process, which consists of selecting the specific connection between word and referent, occurs more easily when there is a variety of verbal interaction with adults. the middle-class child learns by feedback, by being heard, corrected, and modified-by gaining ―operant control‖ over his/her social environment by using words that they hear. the child learns by interacting with and adult teacher who plays an active role in simplifying the various components of word-referent relation-ships. 194 in this discussion, the acquisition of labels has been conceptualized as the result of the interaction of two major variables. one, the stability of the word-referent relationship, refers to the features of the referent and the degree of its invariance within the learning context in the natural environment. the second variable, derived from the frequency and type of verbal interaction during language acquisition, refers to the amount of corrective feedback the child receives while learning a new label, i.e., the consistency with which his speech is listened to, corrected, and modified. figure 1 illustrates the postulated relation of these two variables, in the acquisition of specific labels (a) and of action words (b). words such as ―coca cola‖ and ―ball‖ have characteristics of high stability and physical constancy and they occur within relatively few learning contexts. such words are easily learned by the mere frequency of co-occurrence of word and referent, and require little corrective feedback. because of the relatively lower stability of the word referent relationship for words such as ―key‖ and ―teacher,‖ a somewhat greater amount of corrective feedback is necessary for their acquisition. (line a.) a b ―coca cola‖ ―ball‖ ―key ‖ ―teacher‖ specific labels high stabili ty y y stability of wordreferent relationship low stability action words 195 most action words occur in contexts of moderate to high variance. as the stability of the word-referent relationship decreases, the amount of corrective feedback repaired for acquisition increases. (line b.) this relationship is postulated for words that are abundant in the natural environment of lower class as well as middle-class children-but not for words such as ―caboose,‖ and ―accident‖ which may occur infrequently in the lowerclass setting. therefore, the postulated interaction rather than experiential rarity may explain more simply the slower rate acquisition of labels and action words by lower-class children. briefly, our analysis indicates that the child‘s acquisition of words with shifting and complex referents will be impeded if required adult-child verbal interaction is insufficient or lacking. the acquisition of categories while the child acquiring new labels he also is gaining additional referents for those labels already in his repertoire. young children, unskilled in the used of words, often reveal their understanding of the nuances of a label, i.e., the multiplicity of their referents, though non-verbal behavior. long before the two-year-old can correctly pronounce the word ―horse,‖ he indicates that he knows several referents for the word when he hears it spoken by pointing to his rocking horse or reaching for his stuffed animal. by the quality and amount of corrective feedback he gives, the actively participating adult determines the breadth of the generalization and the precision of the discrimination the child relies upon while learning multiple referents. the peabody picture vocabulary test data discussed earlier indicate that lower-class children, because of insufficient corrective feedback, have great difficulty in acquiring words that appear in a number of different contexts. the specific context in which a label is first acquired, one characterized by low 196 ―noise‖ or one in which these is frequent reoccurrence of label and referent, is limiting and restrictive. generalizing a word from one setting to another requires the discovery of the irrelevant variations that accompany. as brown (1988) has said: ―…. a speech invariance is a signal to form some hypothesis [italic ours] about the corresponding invariance of referent.‖ this process of discovering invariance common to multiple instances of a label is fundamental for the conceptual as well as the verbal development of the young child. however, little is known about the mechanics of this process, beyond the recognition that both generalizations and discriminations have to be made by the child learning multiple meanings of words. it means by means of corrective feedback, the child learns that a ―dog‖ is not a horse or cat or some other grossly similar object in his environment (discrimination). he also learns that ―dog‖ is not only that white thing with black spots, but it is also that big brown thing that makes a loud noise, and that other thing with the long floppy ears (generalization). example from as-salaam kindergarten, bandungan, semarang, indonesia some examples of the verbalizations of lower-class and middle-class of as-salaam kindergarten are given below. (the concept was represented by pictures of four men at work: a policeman, a doctor, a farmer, and a sailor). lower-class first-graders i. ―because doctor nurses these other people‖ ii. ―because the man and big bill (policeman) like each other‖ iii. ―because they look the same‖ middle-class first-grades i. ―because they all men‖ ii. ―all the same, all of them are men‖ iii. ―they are both people.‖ 197 two hyphoteses which were formulated in the major study are relevant here. verbally less-experienced children were expected to short the stimulus card into a larger number of piles. it was also anticipated that middle-class children (as a group, considered to be verbally more-experienced) would offer an explicit statement of a concept, e.g., ―they are all animals,‖ while the verbal rationale of lower-class children would reflect a specific aspect of communality, e.g., ―they all have leggs.‖ these hyphoteses were partially substantiated . the examples given above illustrate the general tenor of responses given by the children. the middle-class children tended to produce category labels more often than their lower-class peers who instead were inclined to focus on non-essential attributes. we may say that those children who were successful on this task were those who had developed skills for discovering the crucial, invariant features of objects having the same name. based on the examples, the individual‘s ability to solve complex problems is related to the use of the children in making up language in verbal mediation. jensen (1999) defines verbal mediation as ―... verbal behavior which facilitates futher learning which controls behavior, and which permits the development of conceptual thinking.‖ in some of their research, the kendlers (2000) have found and increase with age in children‘s reliance on words as mediators while solving a reversal shift problem. antecedent conditions necessary for the development of verbal mediation have not yet been explored. in this paper, the reseracher posit, that while the children gains practice in correctly identifying objects having the same name, and while they develop their knowledge about the hierarchy of category-names, they also develop skills of used in verbal mediation. again, we ascribe a crucial role in the 198 development of verbal mediation to the availability of adults, who serve as language models, and who participate in an ongoing dialogue with the children. evidence currently available suggests that some children who can be described as proficient in overt language skills, also rely upon covert languageor verbal mediational processeswhen approaching complex problems. luria‘s studies (1991) of speech-delayed twins exemplify the parallel development of verbal skills and verbal mediation. children from backgrounds of educational retardation have been shown to perform poorly on verbal and conceptual tasks. jensen (1999) taught a group of educationlly retarded adolescent to use verbal mediation in a task which required the learning of a list of paired associates. these subjects learned to construct a sentence around each pair of meaningful words. a control group of subjects from similar background, who were not isntructed in this use of verbal mediation, took five times as long to learn the deficiencies not only in overt verbal skills but also in verbal mediational behavior. in our stress on the importance of variety in stimulation, our position is in basic agreement with other developmental theorists concerned with cognitive processes. however, we have also attempted to specify the demands on the child as he learns. the child,confronted with several disparate objects having a label in common, has to identify those critical features by invoking mediating responses. in both of these learning situations the child is actively searching for invariance among features of his environment. the tools he uses in this search have been sharpened in his verbal communication with others. communication and cognition, traditionally treated as separate aspects of language, are posited here as fundamentally interrelated in the early stages of language acquisition. language is seen as functional behavior for the young child. while he uses his slowly developing communicative skills to inform those who care for him about his needs, he is also organizing his perceptual 199 and social world through language. the social environment in which these function develop are highly complex. particular importance is the amount of attention paid to the child‘s own attempts at early verbalizations: the opportunity made available to the child to learn by feedback, by being heard, corrected and modified-by gaining‖operant control‖ over his social environment as he uses words that he has heard. in our analysis, the child from a lower socio-economic background may experience a deficient amount of verbal interaction. he learns most of his language by means of receptive exposure-by hearing, rather than by the correction of his own active speech. words acquired with little corrective feedback in a stable learning environment will be the minimum use as mediators, at a later stage of development. in contrast, the child whose language acquisition is characterized by active participation with a more verbally mature individual not only develops greater verbal proficiency-as a result of being listened to and corrected but also is more likely to rely on, and use effectively words as mediators. language is a socially-conditioned relationship betwen the child‘s internal and external worlds. once able to use words as mediators, the child can effectively change his own social and material reality. conclusion can educational implications for pre-school programs be drawn from a theoretical statement on language acquisition? though some of the ideas presented in this paper may be utilized by the early childhood educator, primarily, this treatment of verbal behavior is presented as a model of label acquisition. ideas developed with in the context of a simplified and abstract treatment of language may have to undergo substantial modification in order to 200 be applied in the classroom. however, some general points related to enrichment can be made, based upon the above discussion. certainly, the crucial importance of actively stimulating language growth in the classroom is recognized by teachers of the socially disavantaged. but the felling of urgency they bring to the task of increasing the verbal repertoire of children sometimes results in a stress on quantitative growth only. this emphasis on vocabulary expansion is not surprising in light of the maturational approach to language. if the communicative and cognitive functions are significantly related at the beginning of language acquisition, it becomes important to discover ways for these aspects of language to be maintained interrelatedly in enrichment programs. a mechanical approach to vocabulary building will not produce the desired end of developing useful verbal skills. the teacher should utilized student‘s deeply personal experiences as basic content while imparting the mechanics of letters. similary, the teacher in the enrichment classroom can discover the interests and concerns of her children by being sensitive to their products. in this case, in an enrichment program combining instruction and research, the researcher and her teacher-colleagues worked with the children. each child was asked to re-tell a standard story in front of a tape recorder. in studying the modifications of the story made by each child, much was learned about sequential language as well as about the themes of particular interest to young children raised in low-income areas. these children also told a ―made up‖ story, and in these fantasy products, they often related events of concern. though some of the children spoke with poor articulation and others could not think up their ―own‖ story, many children in this group displayed forcefulness of style and communicative strength in their descriptions. as was the researcher purpose, this paper has stressed the acquisition of highly developed linguistic patterns as being crucial to young children. 201 because language is both a highly personal and an objectively necessary tool, however, the educator must be wary lest children learn to resent the acquisition of verbal skills. the teaching of words must be carried out with originality, flexibility, and restraint. in becoming aware of some of the feature underlying label acquisition, the classroom teacher can create a variety of learning contexts built around experience of significance to the children. the teacher who is aware of the importance of verbal dialogue in the shift from labeling to categorizing, can direct learning not only by her own interactions, but, also, by helping children in the classroom to be effective speakers as well as active listeners. references bernstein (1998). learning strategies in second language acquisition. cambridge: cambridge university press. brodbeck & erwin (1996). sociolinguistics: an introduction to language and society. ny penguin brown (1988). the learning curve: elevating childrens academic and competence, a discovery of speech variations. northvale nj:jason aronson eells (1991), second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis, mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbraum gesell & templin (1991). interpersonal dynamics in second language education: the visible and invisible classroom. thousand oaks: sage hebb & hunt (1992). a time to speak: a psycholinguistic inquiry into the critical period for human speech. florence ky: wadswort publishing. jensen(1999), on language.new york: new press 202 kendlers (2000), words as mediators in second language acquisition learning, florence,ky: wadsworth publishing lincoln, y.s & & guba,e.g(1985), naturalistic inquiry, beverly hills, ca, sage publications luria(1991),the development of verbal skill and verbal mediation of second language learner, cambridge: cambridge university press mccarthy (1991), second language acquisition: an introductory course. mahwah,nj. lawrence elrbraum. milner(1996), negro mentality, university park, pa: the pennsylvinia state university osgood (1999). understanding second language learning difficulties: looking beneath the surface. thousand oaks. ca: sage patton, michael q (1980), qualitative evaluation methods, london : sage publications seidman, jerome m (1991), the child, a book of readings, montreal: holt, rinehart and winston, inc templin (1991), a child‘s learning of two languages. in e.m. hatch,ed. second language acquisition: a book of readings. rowley,mass: newbury house. taylor,s & bogdan,r (1998), introduction to qualitative research methods(3 rd ed),new york: wiles. vygostky (1970) attitudes and motivation in second language learning. rowley, m.a: newbury house publications. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.208-230 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 208 persuasive power concerning covid-19 employed by premier imran khan: a sociopolitical discourse analysis zafar iqbal1, *muhammad zammad aslam2, talha aslam3, rehana ashraf4, muhammad kashif5, hafiz nasir6 department of english, minhaj university, lahore, pakistan1, universiti utara malaysia2, bahria business school, bahria university, islamabad, pakistan3, m.phil scholar, ncba&e, multan, pakistan456 e-mail: zafar.iqbal.publishing@gmail.com1, zammad.aslam@gmail.com2, talha.aslam387@gmail.com3 *corresponding author doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i1.208-230 submission track: received: 12-05-2020 final revision: 29-05-2020 available online: 01-06-2020 abstract the researchers investigate pakistani premier imran khan’s (ik) addresses to the nation concerning awareness about the causes, effects, precautions, and zafar iqbal, muhammad zammad aslam, talha aslam, rehana ashraf, muhammad kashif, hafiz nasir 209 solutions of the novel corona virus (covid-19). till the date, experts are not sure whether the vaccine will get developed or would we have to live with this as we did with hiv or dengue. consequently, leaders would need to address their nations, focusing specifically on precautions. the present research employs aristotle’s persuasive and rhetorical devices, integrating them with socio-political discourse analysis (spda), to understand the social and political convincing style employed by the premiere. the researchers analyzed the data employing a qualitative approach. there are reliable findings to suggest that ik has used stable linguistic features to persuade the minds of the people, convincing them to follow the precautionary measures as ‘the only cure.’ the defending arguments about semi-lockdown or smart-lockdown were well-defined persuading the individuals; for instance, he suggested the smartlockdown during his first address and faced criticism from the opposition. later, the opposition and the world appreciated the policy of ik, the premier of pakistan, even being a developing country in the sight of the world. after one month of the first patient of the corona case reported in china, the policy of smart-lockdown was followed by most of the states fighting against covid19. moreover, the premier successfully persuaded the international financial organizations – imf, world bank, development banks, convincing them to waive off the pending payments of developing countries for the upcoming year. keywords: covid19, persuasion, socio-political discourse analysis, speeches, linguistic features introduction the research depicts the socio-political discourse analysis of the speeches of premier imran khan (ik) with the perspective that he uses persuasive strategies (ethos, logos, pathos, and some other strategies of persuasion; see sibtain et al., 2020 for details) to create the awareness related to the consequences and precautions of novel covid-19. political speech is a persuasive longstanding political genre (latif, 2016). speech discourse is the most known type of composed talk, which is broadly practiced by individuals, register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.208-230 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 210 which can also be referred to as the most precise type of written content. spda is a tool that helps the researchers and audience to understand the implicit meanings in the composed text or speech in the context of social and political scenarios. the covid-19 retains various signs like fever, pneumonia, lung infection, cough, flu, and respiratory issues (hani et al., 2020; wmhc, 2020). even though coronavirus was commonly found in animals around the world but rare cases in humans until december of 2019. who (world health organization) named this term covid-19, which is an abbreviation of co ‘corona’, vi ‘virus,’ d, ‘december,’ and 19 ‘2019’. in december 2019, it affected the lower breathing tract of the patients by pneumonia in the city of wuhan, china (li et al., 2020; who, 2020). after the reporting of a few cases, this virus spread immediately and quickly, within one month (january 31, 2020 – february 29, 2020), the cases were reported in thousands; more than three thousand died in china alone (who, 2020a). most of the medical experts claim covid-19 as a type of flu, but it is more harmful than the conventional flu and spreads from one person to another through physical contact, nasal exhales (cough & sneeze) and point of contacts like, handshakes, mutual contact of surfaces, and hugs (who, 2020b). who (2020b) recommended some precautions to avoid it because the vaccination is always the last resort in viral diseases since they take months and years to get developed and tested, meanwhile, only the safety precautions can keep us safe from the disease. we can avoid it by using an effective face mask, wearing gloves, washing hands as per the expert guidelines (before and after performing zafar iqbal, muhammad zammad aslam, talha aslam, rehana ashraf, muhammad kashif, hafiz nasir 211 any human social activity), using hand sanitizer, self-isolation, and avoiding crowds. the researchers reviewed the topic related literature with extensive reading of the published articles. they observed that political leaders consciously/intentionally utilize various language skills to persuade masses and stakeholders to impose ideologies locally and internationally (norali & rezaei, 2016). therefore, the researchers analyze the speeches of ik that are concerned with the novel covid-19. imran khan, premier of pakistan, has profound language and persuasive skills that affect the mind of the listeners, and listeners happily accept his ideology (sibtain et al., 2020). coronavirus was firstly found in december 2019 in wuhan, china. therefore, the scientists and researchers instantly started to find the sources and symptoms of the novel covid 19, and prof. yong-zhen zhang and his team published his first article on covid-19 in january 2020 (who, 2020). moreover, they claimed that the virus spread very quickly in china within one month, primarily due to new year because it is the period when a high level of human mobility can be found among the people of china (wu et al., 2020). nevertheless, it is too early to expect susceptible populations because now, it has spread at a large scale throughout the world. china, even being the origin, has controlled it at the maximum capacity, but still, it could return at any point in time as it is still out there in the world. within four months, it has reached more than 216 countries, territories, or areas (who, 2020). the vaccine for the cure of the virus is under development stages, and, till the date, it does come out in the final shape, the earth is endangered. the fundamental source of the spread of covid-19 is gathering and traveling of register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.208-230 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 212 individuals, as an affected person can affect many others whom he or she meets or fulfills any of the conditions mentioned earlier of physical contact. however, many countries, including china and pakistan, locked-down the whole countries, some did it at very early stages, and some took their fair amount of time for the decision. till the date, more than 5.2 million people have been affected, and more than 337736 people have died (who, 2020, may 25). however, the number of increasing cases of confirmed corona affected patients has not stopped yet. henceforth, the researchers aim to highlight and discuss the role played by pakistani premier imran khan through his speeches, creating awareness about the precautions as well as taking the people in confidence by explaining his cabinet’s steps and role to keep the people of the nation safe. theoretical contribution sibtain et al. (2020) employed aristotle’s rhetorical devices on the speeches of ik; and concluded that the leaders consciously employ them applicably to persuade the minds of the people through media (print, social and electronic media). the researchers of the present study also extracted the speeches/addresses of ik for analysis collecting the data from electronic media, which availed in video form from youtube. the researchers also engaged rhetorical devices employed in speeches to impose ideology(ies) on the minds of the people locally and internationally. for instance, there is no protest raised against the steps taken by the pakistani government concerning covid-19. additionally, international leaders and organizations (precisely who) also zafar iqbal, muhammad zammad aslam, talha aslam, rehana ashraf, muhammad kashif, hafiz nasir 213 appreciated and granted aid to the developing countries that ik requested from international organizations (who, imf, world bank). the study participates in the field of linguistic persuasion employing rhetorical devices – ethos; through this device, the speakers use the ethical language based on morality to attract the attention of individuals (audience/spectators). secondly, they use the rhetorical device ‘logos’ to prove the ideology correct and authentic through logic. lastly, they use the device ’pathos’ to evoke the emotions of spectators through the speeches, and the individuals agree to the voice of orator (higgin & walker, 2012; ting, 2018; sibtain et al., 2020). socio-political discourse analysis political discourse is an essential perspective that helps to build implicit and explicit meanings in the targeted text, specifically in a social and political context (van dijk, 2018; 2006; 2005; 1997b; 1998). although it narrates social practices, power relations, and abstract considerations, additionally, it is an approach to communicate, through words, in speech (discourse) or composed structure (written form). a language that is utilized with the end goal of correspondence with other people by writing a text or using speech sounds to communicate is called discourse (sharififar & rahimi, 2015). discourse can be investigated in various ways with various goals by setting, translation, and depiction yet additionally clarification of how and why it functions (rogers & schaenen, 2014). discourse is a part of the language with a practical approach and deals with every kind of person’s intellect. in contrast, discourse analysis is an objective type of technique structure that considers the content of discourse or any kind of framework which deals with register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.208-230 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 214 any method of communication to study text in context (sibtain et al., 2020; sharififar & rahimi, 2015). kirvalidze & samnidze (2016) argue that political discourse could be divided into; the political context, social ideology, psychological effects, and the individual’s perception that can be exposed through political discourse analysis. the text can be broken down into three indivisible parts, i.e., language, interaction, and communication (van dijk, 1997b). further, in the contemporary era, political discourse analysis is an interdisciplinary methodology functioning at macro and micro-scale levels – incorporated at the linguistic and social levels. political discourse analysis is based on occasions at an educational level, which comprehends specific convictions, personalities, legislative (political) issues, philosophies, and some other things identified with it (wodak, 2011; dunmire, 2012; kervalidze & samnidize, 2016) moreover, according to kirvalidze & samnidze (2016), political discourse analysis can be combined with various type of analyses like psychological sciences that appraises philosophy. that is the reason it turned into the most generally utilized technique in the field of present-day linguistics. it additionally uncovers the belief systems and power relations mostly in political discourse. moreover, pda is a blend of speculations identified with smaller-scale human science, society, and power (van dijk, 2001; kirvalidze & samnidze, 2016; sibtain et al., 2020). it is a comprehensive method and technique for clarifying while investigating the discourse. a few critics state that there is not a specific method existing for pda or gathering information through pda. instead, it is a crude material for dissecting and analyzing zafar iqbal, muhammad zammad aslam, talha aslam, rehana ashraf, muhammad kashif, hafiz nasir 215 content inside a unique setting. the essential job of pda is to uncover the connection of language, philosophical values, power, society, and other perspectives. xie (2018) suggests that pda is a tool to conduct speech discourse that turned out to be progressively well known and get more thoughtfulness regarding the individuals. in the contemporary era, conducting discourse study in english speeches is exceptionally become mainstream since the english language has a significant effect at the universal level. hence, political individuals, through speeches or debates, influence and persuade others, keeping compelling arguments to get the emotional and political support (fischer & gottweis, 2012). sarfo & krampa (2013) argue that we could interpret the implicit meanings using persuasive and linguistic devices, especially in a social context. speeches have also received considerable attention from scholars, researchers, and linguists. these studies mostly highlighted issues of racism, identity, cultural transmission, and other prominent political issues. apart from that, while some of the studies were conducted at pragmatic, semantic, stylistic, and lexicon-grammatical levels. however, the researchers of the present study analyze the spoken text employing spda accompanied by persuasive and linguistic strategies employed by ik in his addresses to nation from march 17march 30, 2020, examining the text according to its quality and social acceptance. for instance, hassan (2018) claims that qualitative investigation, employing the conceptual frameworks of cda, enables the researchers and spectators to know the hidden meaning of the text primarily through its relationship with social and political context. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.208-230 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 216 research gap and novelty the significance of the present examination lies in its noteworthy investigation and analysis of spoken discourse that plays a significant role in the field of applied linguistics, especially in discourse analysis. the study additionally adds various aspects to the field of political discourse analysis by uncovering the job of political instruments in the development of spoken discourse inside specific settings/contexts that also help the reader to understand the socio-political ideology that lies in the speeches delivered by the politicians. besides, the examination endeavor will likewise help normal pursuers in scrutinizing the discourse of media that are emotionally controlled by various on-screen characters to propel their political advantages. so, it additionally makes the explorers ready for additional exploration to be led on media discourse by utilizing distinctive theoretical frameworks. right now, the flow of inquiry is exceptionally critical in its point and examination as it uncovered the concealed motivation of spoken media discourse. the researchers aim to find persuasive strategies in ik speeches related to coronavirus. moreover, the researchers analyze the data with the perspective of political discourse analysis by employing van dijk’s political discourse model (1997b). however, there has been little work done on ik speeches related to covid-19, especially with the perspective of spda. moreover, the researchers find the aristotelian persuasive strategies in the premier’s speeches that make the speeches more effective. hence, the problem, as mentioned earlier, has not been discussed by researchers, and yet it needs to be solved. so, the following points are going to be discussed objectively: zafar iqbal, muhammad zammad aslam, talha aslam, rehana ashraf, muhammad kashif, hafiz nasir 217 the research would bring out the persuasive strategies employed by ik in his speeches to impose his ideology on the mind of the people. the researchers explore that political discourse helps the researchers to find out the hidden agenda through social and political context. research method the researchers have analyzed the text with a qualitative method and an analytical approach. in this study, the researchers collected the data through random but purposive sampling technique from the speeches of imran khan related to the novel coronavirus. moreover, the data is collected from the video speeches available on youtube. the researchers have used the tools to interpret the targeted text: rhetorical and persuasive devices have been employed by the researchers as the tools and model to interpret the data adapted and followed the models of higgin & walker, 2012; ting, 2018; and sibtain et al., 2020. all the prior mentioned researchers analyzed the data employing these devices and sub-devices. a conceptual framework of the research the researchers adapted and modified the term socio-political discourse analysis specifically from sibtain et al. (2020), which they utilized register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.208-230 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 218 for investigation of mesmerizing features and rhetorical devices. moreover, through which, they analyzed the political speeches of ik (pm of pakistan) in the socio-political scenario. so, the researchers merged the pda model of van djik (1997b) with general political discourses analyzed by (sibtain et al., 2020; sharif, 2015; renkema, as cited in nordquist, 2017). van dijk (1997b) argues that “without collapsing political discourse analysis into critical discourse analysis, we would like to retain both aspects of the ambiguous designation: pda is, both, about political discourse, and it is also a critical enterprise. in the spirit of contemporary approaches in cda, this would mean that critical-political discourse analysis deals especially with the reproduction of political power, power abuse, or domination through political discourse, including the various forms of resistance or counter-power against such forms of discursive dominance” (p. 11). fairclough & fairclough (2012) & van dijk (1993b) have stated that political discourse analysis deals with the consequences of political & social inequality and discursive conditions that result from such domination (van dijk, 1997b, p. 11). furthermore, the language used in political speeches cannot be understood only by its literal meanings because mostly the politicians use the rhetorical and figurative language that could be understood only through social and political discourse. results & discussion according to wang (2010), cda is mostly applied to socio-political discourse, including visual, written, and spoken texts that consider language as a cultural and social practice. however, the purpose of the present research is zafar iqbal, muhammad zammad aslam, talha aslam, rehana ashraf, muhammad kashif, hafiz nasir 219 to describe the discourse of ik’s addresses related to the creation of awareness about the pandemic of coronavirus. moreover, ik possesses strong language skills that can impose his viewpoint on the minds of viewers and listeners (shah & noreen, 2018). in this section, the researchers analyze premier imran khan’s addresses/speeches with the theme that ik persuades the minds of people with his persuasive language and practical spoken skills. he imprints his sociopolitical ideology and impacts opinion formation. this article is related to mr. khan’s ideological strategy to win the confidence of people relevant to the consequences of the novel covid-19. persuasive strategies according to sibtain et al. (2020), there are following aristotelian persuasive strategies that can be found in imran khan’s speeches: a) ethos the meaning of ethos is to persuade people with ethics by using the language based on religion or mortality. such as most of the people, and the politicians in pakistan, belong to islam religion, and before starting their activities, they mostly offer some holy words from the holy quran like the verse ِحيم حٰمِن الرَّ in the name of allah almighty, who is the most) ,بِسِم ہللاِ الرَّ beneficent, the most merciful). the researchers’ term this as the ‘holy commencement spell’ for any ordinary or specific good deed. in addition to this, imran khan also adds a few religious words from the holy quran following the commencement spell; ُإِيَّاَك نَْعبُدُ وإِيَّاَك نَْستَِعين (verse 05, surah fatihah, alquran) (trans. thee (alone) we worship; thee (alone) we ask for register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.208-230 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 220 help) in the starting of every speech/address. according to asgha (2017), ik always starts his speech according to the religious and societal norms and cultural relevance and ethics that people like and pay attention to. in his first address to the nation on march 17, 2020, ik being the premier of pakistan, has addressed the nation about the effects of the novel covid-19 on the world with the perspective of the awareness about the symptoms, causes, effects, safety precautions and steps that the government has taken to keep the nation safe from this disease (khan, 2020, march 17). ik has strong language skills and can quickly get the confidence of the people, such as persuasive strategies are familiar in all speeches that persuade the mind of the people towards specific purposes. the people mostly accept his ideology (sibtain, 2020), such as, in his 22nd march’s address, he starts his speech with the possessive pronoun “my pakistanis” that affects the mind of the people because this pronoun shows his love with the nation, as he would consider the whole nation his family. moreover, he makes the nation realize that he has no discrimination against anyone on the social and political level and being the premier of pakistan; he considers the whole nation equal in his eyes. for instance, vulchanova et al. (2019) argue that language power can change the perception of the people, and ik has that power, and due to his persuasive skills of language, he attracts the attention of the people and imposes his ideology on their mind. importantly, he starts the speech with the words that the people of his country want to listen to; then he comes to the point in his speech where the people feel fascinated and captivated. for instance, mere pakistanio… aaik zafar iqbal, muhammad zammad aslam, talha aslam, rehana ashraf, muhammad kashif, hafiz nasir 221 bari behas chali hoi hy… puray lockdown ka matlab mulk main curfew… logon ko ghron main band kr diya jaye… (khan, 2020, march 22). in the text, as mentioned earlier, khan gives the reason why he comes here to bring his nation in confidence and why he is not in favor of lockdown in the country. so, khan uses all the words within the social context to make the people understand why he has come on tv to address; then, he elaborates on the problems in detail. such as, according to martin & nakayama (2010), “discourse is the language in use, and it means that all the discourse is social. besides, the language used, the words and meanings that are communicated – it all depends not only on the context but also on the social relations that are part of that interaction (p. 233). further, khan describes the social and ethical barriers that do not allow the government to lockdown the country. for example, khan says that twentyfive percent (25%) people of pakistan living below the line of poverty, and the government cannot provide them food at home (khan, 2020, march 22). in the above-discussed statement, khan has given the reason why the government is not in favor of locking down the country entirely. so, we could support the comments with the words of van dijk (1997b) that if we want to make translucent to the ideological opposition in political discourse, then it becomes necessary to explain the discourse by examining the context of the discourse as political & social background of the conflict, historical and its main participants (van dijk, 1998b, p. 61-63). moreover, premier imran khan treats the nation as if the nation deserves the right to know all these details. he is making sure to make the people realize their right to information by continually referring to the register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.208-230 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 222 prosperous countries of the world and their implied strategies. it is yet another persuasive technique where he directly compares his plans and strategies with the best of the world and proves his points through international validation in the best manner possible. b) logos logos is the second persuasive strategy that emphasizes logical appeal. the logical explanations in the addresses of the premier are very well formulated and backed with reason. he logically compares his strategies with the best from across the world and provides a distinctive explanation to whatever he has implemented. he has a specific style of stressing on numbers, measurable facts, reliable information, and points of relevance. as in his march 22, 2020, address, he also gives some logic to prove his ideology, as well as sibtain et al. (2020), claims that we could find aristotelian’s second persuasive strategy (logos) in ik speeches. so, the researchers argue that ik, throughout his speeches, gives reasons why he calls the nation for an address. for instance, in his second address, he says that “he ‘comes’ to address the nation to clarify that he has not proclaimed the full lockdown in the country, because the government could not afford to feed the nation and needy people at their homes” (khan, 2020, march 22). then, he gives the reasons for how the people could detain themselves in self-quarantine and why. through these reasons, he emphasis self-quarantine and define why people have to go for self-quarantine because the virus is being spread due to the social gathering, and we can save the country with the dangerous covid zafar iqbal, muhammad zammad aslam, talha aslam, rehana ashraf, muhammad kashif, hafiz nasir 223 19 if the people isolate themselves and avoid to attend the public gathering. all the comments as mentioned earlier clear that khan uses persuasive strategies in a political context that persuades and helps in opinion formation, such as (higgin & walker, 2012; ting, 2018; sibtain et al., 2020) argue that persuasive language is often helpful to get the attention of the people and impose their ideology on the mind of the people. moreover, van dijk (1997b) comments that the purpose of discourse analysis is to explore the relationships of determination and causality that function between discursive events, texts, and practices, as well as the relationships of determination and causality functions between broader cultural, political and social structures, processes and relations. c) pathos moreover, the third persuasive and rhetorical device that ik uses in his speeches is pathos (sibtain et al., 2020). according to ting (2018), higgin & walker (2012), and sibtain et al. (2020), pathos is a persuasive strategy used by aristotle in his work to create the feeling of catharsis for the spectators. however, the study aims to point out the elements of pathos in khan’s speeches, such as, in his speech on march 23, 2020, he uses this rhetorical device to persuade the minds of people through emotional words and these emotional words could also be found in other speeches of premier of pakistan imran khan. for example, he uses the emotional words like my pakistanis, 25% poor people, i am thinking for the poor and needy people, be in selfquarantine, that is a trial from allah, and i want to bring you in confidence, (khan, 2020, march 22) there are stress and high tone to convince the people that they should accept and follow his ideology and agenda related to register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.208-230 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 224 coronavirus. the hidden agenda in his speech could be understood only through social and political contexts. for instance, van dijk (1997b) explains that “at the most general and abstract level, shared cultural values may be declared typical for political systems” (p. 16). he is also firm in sandwiching the emotions, as he starts with the words of appreciation and often ends with words of appreciation. furthermore, after this speech, ik proclaimed to lockdown the country and go-ahead to his next agenda of relaxation in debt and being granted aid by the imf and world bank through uno. for instance, his live television address, he has appealed to the different financial and political world organizations and leaders for help for the poor people in developing countries. such as, a news report on april 12, 2020, depicted that imran khan appealed to the world’s heads of financial institutions, united nations, a nd world leaders to “launch an initiative that will give debt relief to the developing countries to combat coronavirus (gul, 2020).” during his address, khan said that his appeal would be supportive for the solution of problems being faced by the developing countries, i.e., like the high debt-to-gdp ratio, which pakistan is also facing nowadays. moreover, khan argues that his primary concern was that the poor people should not die of hunger due to the lockdown while containing the covid-19 pandemic. through his persuasive and strong language skills, he made uno convince for debt relaxation and financial aid for his country, so he fulfills the food needs for his poor people. therefore, pda enables the researchers to point out the zafar iqbal, muhammad zammad aslam, talha aslam, rehana ashraf, muhammad kashif, hafiz nasir 225 hidden agenda in political speeches through social and political context van dijk (1997b). conclusion a few outlined key points from the results of the analysis are that premier imran khan has a firm grasp on stressing on the essential factors of communication. the ethical appeal is very well generated as we observe the intactness of all the cultural and societal ethics as well as religious ethics. the pathos is very well connected as he understands the pain points and does enough to stress upon them. he is logical about facts, numbers, certainty, and the precise nature of things. he portrays every event through the showcase of a timeline. the data analysis, the researchers find that imran khan the leader of pakistan has strong language skills that he uses to persuade the people, for instance, he, in his speeches related to covid 19, creates the awareness for his nation about the causes, effects, symptoms, solutions, and the steps that have been taken by his cabinet. he uses the language that the nation likes and feels that he is speaking their words for them. moreover, he highlights the problems related to financial matters and suggests that people must follow precautions like hand-washing and self-isolation in order to keep themselves away from this virus because the state would not be able to bear the responsibility of food and other necessities due to the lack of funds. then he urges the uno for debt relaxation and funds for the help of their poor masses. moreover, through pda, we can understand the hidden agenda in khan’s speeches, especially by employing the model of pda by van dijk (1997b). register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.208-230 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 226 references dunmire, p. l. 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singer is closely related to the idea proposes within the song lyrics. whereas, the result of the grammatical and lexical analysis gives a depiction of cohesion and coherence of the song discourse of “we will not go down (song for gaza)”. there are eight (8) forms of first plural personal pronoun of “we”, four (4) second plural personal pronoun of ‘you” and seven (7) third personal pronouns in various forms. on the other side, it is difficult to find lexical aspects of this song discourse. there is only one form of anaphoric repetition. the repetition of the sentence “we will not go down” seven times is to influence the hearers whether they are supporters or opponents of the idea brought by the singer/the author that whatever happens palestinian people will not surrender to every force, nation or people that want to colonialize them. key words: discourse analysis, song for gaza, palestinian people. abstrak riset pustaka ini bertujuan untuk menemukan tiga aspek analisis wacana: kontekstual, gramatikal dan leksikal dalam lirik lagu berjudul “we will not go down (song for gaza)” karya michael heart. setelah discourse analysis of a song lyric entitled "we will not go down” 140 diadakan analisis dapat diketahui bahwa pengalaman dan latar belakang kehidupan seorang penulis and penyanyi lagu sangat berkaitan dengan ide yang dikemukakan dalam lirik lagu tersebut. sedangkan hasil analisis gramatikal dan leksikal memberi gambaran adanya kohesi dan koherensi dalam lirik lagu. terdapat delapan (8) bentuk pronomina pertama jamak, empat (4) pronominal kedua jamak dan tujuh (7) pronominal ketiga dalam bentuk yang bervariasi. di sisi yang lain, sulit menemukan aspek leksikal dalam wacana lagu. hanya ada satu bentuk repetisi anaforis. pengulangan tujuh kali kalimat “we will not go down” dimaksudkan untuk mempengaruhi pendengar entah mereka mendukung atau menentang ide yang dikemukakan penulis atau penyanyi lagu bahwa apapun yang terjadi orang palestina tidak akan menyerah kepada kekuatan, bangsa atau orang yang ingin menjajah mereka. kata kunci: analisis wacana, lagu untuk gaza, orang palestina. introduction human is social living being, who always need company in their life. it is hard to imagine that they should live alone without anyone to accompany them. they always need others in order to facilitate their efforts to provide themselves with their necessities of life. to carry out the cooperation among others, they need a means of communication, which is called ‘language’. hornby (1992:62) defines that language is a system of sounds and words used by humans to express their thoughts and feelings. other definition is given by carrol as quoted by ramelan that language is an arbitrary system of sounds or sequences of speech sounds which is used or can be used to interpersonal communication (ramelan, 1992:10). in other words, it can be said that language is a system of sounds used as a means to communicate human’s feelings faizal risdianto 141 and thoughts with others. ramelan states that the use of language enables the members of a social group to cooperate with one another for their own benefits .regarding the use of language, the writer can say that the role of language is very important in human life as a means to communicate ideas, feelings and desires among individuals as the part of social community. by the use of language, we can communicate and express our ideas, our feeling and also share information with other people. one way to communicate with language is by the use of music. the word “music” was derived from greek word “mousike” taken from the name of god which led the world of art and science. the primary subject matters of music are feelings and sounds. these imply that the content of music is a revelation of feelings and sounds and that music gives us more sensitive understanding of them. according to webster (1983:781) “music is the science of art ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination and in temporal relationship to produce a composition having unity and continuity as well as rhythm, melody, and harmony as its elements”. greek philosophers and ancient indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. m. stubbs' textbook (stubbs 1983:1), discourse analysis is defined as: a) concerned with language use beyond the boundaries of a sentence/utterance, b) concerned with the interrelationships between language and society and discourse analysis of a song lyric entitled "we will not go down” 142 c) concerned with the interactive or dialogic properties of everyday communication. discourse analysis is how texts relate to contexts of situation and context of culture, how texts are produced as a social practice, what texts tell us about happenings, what people think, believe etc., and how texts represent ideology (power struggle etc.) in this study, the writer will focus on the implication meanings of the michael heart’s song lyric entitled “we will not go down (song for gaza)”. michael heart (born annas allaf ‎ ) is a syrian american singer-songwriter, recording artist, guitarist, producer and audio engineer based in los angeles, ca. he was born in syria and raised in europe (switzerland and austria) and the united states. in january 2009, he composed and released a song in support of the palestinian civilian victims of the israeli war in gaza. the song is called "we will not go down (song for gaza)" and gained popularity on sites like youtube. the official youtube video of the song was viewed over 1 million times within a month of its release; the recording of the song was broadcast on radio and television in many countries along with blogs and websites worldwide and it was chanted in many demonstrations in cities ranging from sydney, australia to london, england. the palestine argentine delegation embassy website also put the song with lyrics on its page. heart initially made the mp3 of the song freely downloadable from his official website, which he reports has been downloaded over 500,000 times, encouraging the listeners to make a donation to united nations relief and works agency for palestine refugees in the near faizal risdianto 143 east (unrwa). after incessant emails from people asking why the song hadn't been made available on itunes, he finally uploaded it to the apple music site in july 2010. there are many people who like to listen to this song, but they don’t really know the true meaning of this song, especially in indonesia. so the writer specifies the problem through the following question: what are the contextual, grammatical and lexical aspect of the song lyrics entitled “we will not go down” by michael heart?. it is hoped that after reading this paper, the readers can be able to know the true meaning of this song, so they not just able to sing it and listen to it, but they can also understand it. research methodology in conducting this study, the writer used the qualitative approach which means that the data were analyzed qualitatively. berg (1989:2) states that “quality refers to the what, how, when, and where of a thing-its essence and ambience. qualitative research thus refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and description of things.” the data in this study is in the form of paraphrasing the song lyrics of we will not go down by michael heart. there are two kinds of data in this research: main or primary data and secondary data. the main data was taken from michael heart’s song entitled “we will not go down (song for gaza)”. the secondary data were taken from the relevant sources from the internet that may support the analysis and find the answer from the problems. discourse analysis of a song lyric entitled "we will not go down” 144 the procedure of collecting the data in this study was divided into several steps: (1) reading in the first step, the writer will read and re-read and also listen to the song in order to get the meaning and the feeling. (2) analyzing next is analyzing the words which need to be explained to find the meaning. (3) reporting the data which had been analyzed will be drawn in the form of conclusion by paraphrasing the song based on the implicated meaning. the theme of the song is about the struggle of the moslems against the zionist israel’s army. people of palestine still do not want to give up even though israel has destroyed homes, schools and mosques of the moslems. the israel’s army has killed so many people of palestine. so many women and children killed in the war. however, the muslims still want to fight with israel’s army. discussion & finding text might be said that the term of the text is restricted to written language. modern linguistics has introduced the concept of text that includes every type of utterance. for examples, text may be a magazine article, a television interview, a conversation or a cooking recipe. besides that, according to de beaugrande and dressler (1981), text is defined as communicative events which have seven criteria; there are: cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informative, situational, and textual. the term of discourse is restricted to spoken language. discourse is influenced by contexts of situation and context of culture, how texts are produced as a social practice, what texts tell us about faizal risdianto 145 happenings, what people think, believe etc., and how texts represent ideology (power struggle etc.). discourse competence refers to the selection, sequencing, and arrangement of words, structures, and utterances to achieve a unified in spoken. this is where the top-down communicative intent and socio-cultural knowledge intersect with the lexical and grammatical resources to express message and attitudes and to create coherent texts. lyrics (in singular form lyric) are a set of words that make up a song. the writer of lyrics is a lyricist or lyrist. the meaning of lyrics can either be explicit or implicit. some lyrics are abstract, almost unintelligible, and, in such cases, their explication emphasizes form, articulation, meter, and symmetry of expression. the lyricist of traditional musical forms such as opera is known as a librettist. lyric derives from the greek word lyrikos, meaning "singing to the lyre". the word lyric came to be used for the "words of a song"; this meaning was recorded in 1876. the common plural (perhaps because of the association between the plurals lyrics and words), predominates contemporary usage. use of the singular form lyric remains grammatically acceptable, yet remains considered erroneous in referring to a singular song word as a lyric. lyrics can be studied from an academic perspective. for example, some lyrics can be considered a form of social commentary. lyrics often contain political, social and economic themes as well as aesthetic elements, and so can connote messages which are culturally discourse analysis of a song lyric entitled "we will not go down” 146 significant. these messages can either be explicit or implied through metaphor or symbolism. contextual and inferential analysis there are several contexts within this analysis that is sociocultural and situational contexts. based on this contextual analysis then it will be explained about inferential aspect. socio-cultural contexts the comprehension of cultural and social context can be developed through the understanding of external context analysis of a discourse (sumarlam, 2003:5). in this case, it can be observed the cultural and social context by trying to find out the background of the making of the song lyrics. reading articles from websites and blogs it can be known that during the war in gaza, michael heart wrote a humanitarian song entitled “we will not go gown (song for gaza)” in january 2009. it is written in order to support of the palestinians victims from the israeli aggression. the song was very well-known in all over the world because it is spread as a free mp3 which means it can be downloaded without any charge. it has been downloaded by over half a million people from the official websites and not yet counted from other web-sites. more than 500 new clips have been made with “we will not go down” by people all over the world, and thousands of websites have uploaded the clip and posted the lyrics. as the first release, the official video on youtube has viewed by over one million people within the faizal risdianto 147 first month. and the appreciations of the song are very high since the statistic shows that over 10,000 e-mails, comments, and messages are sent to respond this song. the protest towards palestinians victims can be seen from these lines of song lyrics: (1) a blinding flash of white light (2) lit up the sky over gaza tonight (3) people running for cover (4) not knowing whether they're dead or alive (5) they came with their tanks and their planes (6) with ravaging fiery flames (7) and nothing remains (8) just a voice rising up in the smoky haze (9) we will not go down (10) in the night, without a fight (11) you can burn up our mosques and our homes and our schools (12) but our spirit will never die (13) we will not go down (14) in gaza tonight (15) women and children alike (16) murdered and massacred night after night (17) while the so-called leaders of countries afar (18) debated on whose wrong or right (19) but their powerless words were in vain discourse analysis of a song lyric entitled "we will not go down” 148 (20) and the bombs fell down like acid rain (21) but through the tears and the blood and the pain (22) you can still hear that voice through the smoky haze (23) we will not go down (24) in the night, without a fight (25) you can burn up our mosques and our homes and our schools (26) but our spirit will never die (27) we will not go down (28) in gaza tonight (29) we will not go down (30) in the night, without a fight (31) you can burn up our mosques and our homes and our schools (32) but our spirit will never die (33) we will not go down (34) in the night, without a fight (35) we will not go down (36) in gaza tonight in addition, the song has also been translated into a dozen languages and subtitled on numerous clips. besides his popularity achieved from the song, he also received some critiques. the first, of course, comes from the israeli politician because they would get the disadvantages from it. besides that, many people also claimed that heart is a follower of any particular religion. therefore, to encounter that, heart explained that the song has nothing to do with religion. it is faizal risdianto 149 only a humanitarian song in nature. based on the above explanation, it can be drawn to the conclusion that how phenomenal this song so it can gain many respects, responds, or claims from many people around the world. situational context situational context consists of physical, epistemic, social context with personal, locational and temporal analogical interpretation principle: a. physical context. these are some aspects of physical context and its analysis. (1) based on locational interpretation, the real situation which is expressed in this song lyric is in chaotic area of gaza, palestine and the far away countries neglecting the suffering of palestinian people. (2) the topic of conversation is the voice and steadfastness of palestinian people facing the dreadful terror of israeli murdered and massacred palestinian people for years. b. epistemic context based on epistemic context, it can be assumed that there is a common understanding between the speaker/the writer of song lyrics and the hearer/the reader about the bittering truth and evidence of the misery of palestinian people particularly in the area of gaza and the importance of establishing world’s peace. discourse analysis of a song lyric entitled "we will not go down” 150 c. social context in the perspective of participant’s activeness, this discourse can be categorized as a monologue discourse (baryadi, 2002:10). this discourse does not involve the hearer who can turn as the hearer treats in this discourse remains to be the hearer. the interpretation about the hearer in social context can be viewed by analyzing the speeches of the speaker. the misery or the suffering of palestinian gaza is the saddening problem that worries the speaker so much. it is a naked truth that the more powerful terrorizing, murdering and destroying the weak without any accepted rational and humanistic consideration for normal healthy-minded people. in social life this is a shameful thing and a dreadful violation of human rights. grammatical aspect analysis grammatical aspect analysis in discourse analysis consists of reference, substitution, elliptical aspect, and conjunction. these are some grammatical aspect found in the analysis of song lyrics of “we will not go down (song for gaza)”. 1. reference a. personal reference faizal risdianto 151 first personal reference found in song lyrics of “we will not go down (song for gaza) can be viewed in line of these verses below: (9) we will not go down (13) we will not go down (23) we will not go down (27) we will not go down (29) we will not go down (33) we will not go down (35) we will not go down the element of “we” in line (9), (13), (23), (27), (29), (33) and (35) is the first plural personal pronoun reference. in this case, the element of “we” refers to the voice of palestinian gaza and for everyone who support the struggle of palestinian people to achieve their independence from the annexation of israel. the second personal reference in this song can be seen in line of these verses: (11) you can burn up our mosques and our homes and our schools (22) you can still hear that voice through the smoky haze (25) you can burn up our mosques and our homes and our schools (31) you can burn up our mosques and our homes and our schools discourse analysis of a song lyric entitled "we will not go down” 152 all the elements of “you” in line (11), (22), (25) and (31) refer to the hearer. the use of the word “you” here refer to plural personal pronoun reference. the third personal reference in this song can be seen in line of these verses: (1) a blinding flash of white light (3) people running for cover (5) they came with their tanks and their planes (8) just a voice rising up in the smoky haze (15) women and children alike (17) while the so-called leaders of countries afar (19) but their powerless words were in vain (20) and the bombs fell down like acid rain all the elements of “a blinding flash of white light” in line (1), “people” in line (3), “they” in line (5), “a voice” in line (8), “women and children” in line (15), “leaders of countries afar” in line (17), “powerless words” in line (19) and “the bombs” in line (20) refer to the third personal pronoun reference. all of them consist of two category: the plural third personal pronoun like “people”, “they”, “women and children”, “leaders of countries afar”, “powerless words” and “the bombs” and there are only two data of singular third personal pronoun found in the song lyrics “a blinding flash of white light” in line (1) and “a voice” in line (8). faizal risdianto 153 b. demonstrative reference demonstrative reference is easily marked by the use of the forms of “this”, “that”, “these”, and “those” and there is only one data can be found in the song lyrics: (22) you can still hear that voice through the smoky haze the use of “that” on the phrase “that voice” refers to the voice of freedom in the mind of palestinian people. 2. substitution substitution is the replacement of particular element which refers to the same realities (sumarlam, 2003: 28). this substitution can be seen in the line of verses below: (3) people running for cover (4) not knowing whether they're dead or alive (8) just a voice rising up in the smoky haze (19) but their powerless words were in vain the word “they” in line (4), “a voice” in line (8), “their” in line (19) refer to palestinian people that is simply wrote by the song writer as “people” in line (3). 3. elliptical aspect elliptical grammatical aspect can be viewed below: discourse analysis of a song lyric entitled "we will not go down” 154 (3) people ørunning for cover (4) not knowing whether theyø're dead or alive (8) just a voice ørising up in the smoky haze (21) but through the tears and the blood and the painø. (22) you can still hear that voiceø through the smoky haze the actual grammatical construction is: (3) people (of palestine are) running for cover (4) not knowing whether they (are) dead or alive (8) just a voice (which is) rising up in the smoky haze (21) but through the tears and the blood and the pain (of palestinian) (22) you can still hear that voice (of palestinian) through the smoky haze 4. conjunction there are some elements of conjunction which can be found in the song lyrics “we will not go down (song for gaza)”: (4) not knowing whether they're dead or alive (5) they came with their tanks and their planes (7) and nothing remains (11) you can burn up our mosques and our homes and our schools (15) women and children alike (16) murdered and massacred night after night (19) but their powerless words were in vain (20) and the bombs fell down like acid rain faizal risdianto 155 (21) but through the tears and the blood and the pain (25) you can burn up our mosques and our homes and our schools (26) but our spirit will never die (31) you can burn up our mosques and our homes and our schools (32) but our spirit will never die there are 11 forms of conjunction “and” in line (5), (7), (11), (15), (16), (20), (21), (25) and (31) whereas there are four (4) forms of conjunction “but” in line (19), (21), (26) and (32). there is only one data of the form of conjunction “or” in line (4). lexical aspect analysis lexical aspect used in this discourse to support cohesion and coherence in semantic perspective. there are some lexical aspects in the song lyrics “we will not go down (song for gaza)”. 1. repetition the terminology used in this repetition refers to the terminology used by gorys keraf (in sumarlam, 2003:35). in this discourse there is only one form of repetition that is anaphoric repetition. anaphoric repetition is the repetition of lingual constituent in a form of word or the initial phrase on every verse or subsequent sentence. the sentence “we will not go down in line (9) is repeated in the sentence in line (13). and it is also repeated without change in line (13), (23), (27), (29), (33) and (35). discourse analysis of a song lyric entitled "we will not go down” 156 (9) we will not go down (13) we will not go down (23) we will not go down (27) we will not go down (29) we will not go down (33) we will not go down (35) we will not go down the objective of the repetition of the sentence “we will not go down” seven times is to influence the hearers whether they are supporters or opponents of the idea brought by the singer/the author that whatever happens palestinian people will not surrender to every force, nation or people that want to destroy and take the legacy of their ancestors. the israeli may burn up palestinian mosques, homes and schools but they cannot destroy their zeal or enthusiasm to fight against the enemies or colonialists. 2. synonymy synonymy can be found in these verses: (1) a blinding flash of white light (20) and the bombs fell down like acid rain in the first line of the song lyrics there is a phrase “a blinding flash of white light” which has a synonymic relation to the phrase “the bombs” in 20th line. conclusion faizal risdianto 157 the song lyrics “we will not go down (song for gaza) has been analyzed based on the aspects of discourse analysis. contextual aspect illustrates a vivid picture of song lyric reality and song writer’s reality. many efforts had been made to comprehend contextual aspects. one of them is investigating the background and the life experience of the song lyric author and singer and then it is connected to the speeches of the verses or lines produced in the song lyrics. music news from internet gives great contribution to the understanding of the contextual meaning and analysis. the result of the grammatical and lexical aspect gives a depiction of cohesion and coherence of the song discourse of “we will not go down (song for gaza)”. it can be seen that there are eight (8) forms of first plural personal pronoun of “we”, four (4) second plural personal pronoun of ‘you” and seven (7) third personal pronoun in various forms like the elements of “a blinding flash of white light” ,“people” ,“they” ,“a voice” ,“women and children”, “leaders of countries afar”, “powerless words” and “the bombs”. on the other side, it is difficult to find lexical aspects of this song discourse. there is only one form of anaphoric repetition. it is the repetition of the sentence “we will not go down” seven times is to influence the hearers whether they are supporters or opponents of the idea brought by the singer/the author that whatever happens palestinian people will not surrender to every force, nation or people that want to destroy and take the legacy of their ancestors. references discourse analysis of a song lyric entitled "we will not go down” 158 alba-juez, laura. 2009. perspectives on discourse analysis: theory and practice. england: cambridge scholars publishing. baryadi, 2002. dasar-dasar analisis wacana dalam ilmu bahasa. yogyakarta. pustaka gondosuli. beaugrande, robert & ulrich, dressler. 1981. introduction to text linguistics.london.longman press. berg, l. bruce, (1989). qualitative research methodes for the social science: introduction to qualitative research. methods. new york: john wiley and sons press. halliday mak, hasan r (1976) cohesion in english. longman, london. hornby, a.s. oxford advanced learner’s dictionary of current english. england. oxford university press. ramlan, 1992. introduction to linguistic analysis.semarang.ikip press. sumarlam. 2003. teori dan praktik analisis wacana. surakarta. pustaka cakra. stubbs, michael. 1983. discourse analysis..chicago.university of chicago press. webster's ninth new collegiate dictionary. merriam-webster inc, 1983 michael heart 'we will not go down' played in london gaza rally 17th jan 2009 youtube video “we will not go down (song for gaza)” official video at youtube http://www.rabble.ca/rabbletv/program-guide/best-net/songgaza-we-will-not-go-down http://www.alertnet.org/db/blogs/29542/c1be2c8229a2af970d6 f1f2767c8646c.htm http://www.groundreport.com/arts_and_culture/we-willnot-go-down-song-for-gaza/2888268 http://www.michaelheart.com/michael_heart_bio.html http://www.palestina.int.ar/noticias/enero08/noticia_452.html http://www.michaelheart.com/song_for_gaza.html https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/michael_heart 93 the analysis of grammatical and textual equivalence used in the translation of paolini‘s novel of “inheritance” into indonesian badi’atul azmina state institute for islamic studies (iain) salatiga cow.az19@gmail.com abstract this study examines kinds of grammatical and textual equivalence which are used by poppy d. chusfani in translating english into indonesia language of christopher paolini‘s novel of “inheritance” as well as the most dominant equivalence used by poppy d. chusfani in translating english into indonesia language of christopher paolini‘s novel of “inheritance”. this is descriptive qualitative research and the method of collecting data of this study are documentation and library research. the data in the novel which have been collected are classified into two kinds of equivalence; grammatical equivalence (number, gender, person, tense/aspect and voice) and textual equivalence (reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion). after analyzing and classifying the data, researcher discovered that there are 25 data of number, 27 data of gender, 38 data of person, 12 data of tense/aspect and 12 data of voice. furthermore, researcher discovered that there are 33 data of reference, 9 data of substitution and ellipsis, 35 data of conjunction and 17 data of lexical cohesion.those data presented are representative from all of the data in the novel, because the writer takes the data by its part among the translated sentences contained grammatical and textual (cohesion) equivalence. to sum up, the result shows that poppy d. chusfani uses all kinds of grammatical and textual (cohesion) equivalence, after all, grammatical equivalence of person is the most dominant data (38) the analysis of grammatical and textual equivalence used in the translation of paolini‘s novel of “inheritance” into indonesian 94 used by poppy d. chusfani in translating english into indonesia language of christopher paolini‘s novel of “inheritance” keywords: concept of equivalence, grammatical equivalence, textual equivalence, inheritance novel abstrak penelitian ini menelaah macam-macam padanan kata grammatikal dan tekstual yang digunakan oleh poppy d. chusfani dalam menerjemahkan bahasa inggris ke indonesia dari novel “inheritance” karya christopher paolini begitu juga menelah padanan kata yang paling dominan digunakan. penelitian ini merupakan deskriptif kualiatif dan metode pengumpulan datanya adalah dokumentasi dan studi pustaka. data yang telah dikumpulkan dalam novel ini telah dikelompokkan berdasarkan dua macam padanan kata; grammatikal (nomor, jenis kelamin, orang, bentuk kata kerja dan kalimat pasif) dan tekstual (rujukan, penggantian, peniadaan, kata hubung dan kohesi leksikal). setelah menganalisis dan menggolongkan data, peneliti menemukan bahwa ada 25 data nomor, 27 data jender, 38 data orang, 12 data bentuk kata kerja, dan 12 bentuk kalimat pasif. di samping itu, peneliti juga menemukan 33 data rujukan, 9 data penggantian dan peniadaan, 35 data kata hubung, dan 17 data kohesi leksikal. data yang disajikan tersebut mewakili semua data yang ada dalam novel karena peneliti mengambil data menurut bagian kalimat terjemahan yang mengandung padanan kata grammatikal dan tekstual. kesimpulannya, hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa poppy d. chusfani menggunakan semua macam padanan kata grammatikal dan tekstual, namun padanan kata orang merupakan data yang paling dominan (38) yang digunakan dalam menerjemahkan bahasa inggris ke indonesia dari novel “inheritance” karya christopher paolini. keywords: konsep padanan kata, padanan gramatikal, padanan tekstual. introduction this study examines how the concept of grammatical and textual equivalence used by poppy d. chusfani in translating badi’atul azmina 95 english into indonesia language of christopher paolini ‘s novel of “inheritance”. the previous study are “an analysis of students’ ability in translating grammatical equivalence” (e.g. ruhansah, 2013), “the question of grammatical equivalence in translation” (e.g. sudartini, n.d.) and “an analysis of technical devices in translation procedures applied by listiana srisanti in translating a j.k. rowling’s novel” (e.g. lina, 2013). few published studies focus on grammatical and textual equivalence in relation with novel translation. this study aims to find and analyze the kinds of grammatical and textual equivalence which are used by poppy d. chusfani in translating english into indonesia language of christopher paolini‘s novel of “inheritance” as well as to find the most dominant equivalence used by poppy d. chusfani in translating english into indonesia language of christopher paolini‘s novel of “inheritance”. this discussion gives additional information to the readers about analysis of grammatical and textual equivalence in translation of written language. theoretically, the result of the research expected to inspire others to hold further research. meanwhile, the result of the study will be useful for additional information in teaching translation concerning grammatical and textual equivalence practically. understanding the world of translation translation is an activity of transferring meaning from the source language into the target language. many experts give their definitions about translation. a deeper opinion was revealed by brislin (1976:1, in widiyantari 2012: 58) that “translation is the general the analysis of grammatical and textual equivalence used in the translation of paolini‘s novel of “inheritance” into indonesian 96 term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to another (target) whether the languages are in written or oral form”. according to brislin, translation is a general term that refers tothe transfer of idea or thought from the source language to the targetlanguage either written or spoken. therefore the core of translation isthe transforming of message, meaning or idea from the source languageto the target one. whereas, in the term of language style, both languagesused must be appropriate each other so that it will give the same effect between the reader of the source text and the reader of the translation version. that is because the resulted translation is accurate, understandable and acceptable. meanwhile, catford (1974:20) stated that “translation may be defined as the replacement of textual in one language (sl), by textual material in another language”. in this definition, translator will only changethe text material or the passage in source language into the target language.besides, in the real activity translator will not only transfer the substance material but he/she also has to consider the language style and the culture. nida and taber (1974:14) mentioned that “translation consists ofreproducing in the receptor language and secondly in terms of style”. it means that translation is the reexpression into target language from the source language, with first focus on the meaning expression and then the style of the expression as the second. the mastery of the culture and both languages used is not a guarantee that someone can be a qualified translator. many requirements have to be possessed. bell (1991:36) said “the translator must, as acommunicator, possess the knowledge and skill.” badi’atul azmina 97 it means that a translator should have a wide deep insight and also skill. furthermore, he has to master the translation theory and also has an understanding about the types of translation. bell also revealed that “…the professional (technical)translator has access to five distinct kinds of knowledge: target language(tl) knowledge; text-type knowledge; source language (sl) knowledge;subject area (“realworld”) knowledge and contrastive knowledge.” in doing the process of translation, a translator does not only transfer the meaning (widiyantari, 2012: 57-59). there are several aspects that should be taken into consideration such as the problems of non-equivalence. baker (1992: 18) states that the choice of a suitable equivalent will always depend not only on the linguistic system or systems being handled by the translator, but also on the way both the writer of the source text and the procedure of the target text, i.e. the translator, choose to manipulate the linguistic systems in question. the comparison of texts in different languages inevitably involves a theory of equivalence. equivalence can be said to be the central issue in translation although its definition, relevance, and applicability within the field of translation theory have caused heated controversy, and many different theories of the concept of equivalence have been elaborated within this field in the past fifty years proposed by leonardi (2000). furthermore, mona baker in the book of in other words (1992) defines six types of equivalence: (1) equivalence at word level, (2) equivalence above the word level, (3) grammatical equivalence, (4) textual equivalence; thematic and word order, (5) textual equivalence; cohesion, and (6) pragmatic equivalence. the analysis of grammatical and textual equivalence used in the translation of paolini‘s novel of “inheritance” into indonesian 98 however, newmark states that knowledge of text-linguistics, in no way dispenses with the lexical, grammatical and referential problems that have to be solved at the particular and specific points of the text. the problems of coherence and cohesion coincide when the meanings of sentence joins are to be determined (1993: 4). for this reason, grammatical and textual (cohesion) equivalence are obviously important for translator to account for in the text. consequently, the writer limits this study only on grammatical and textual (cohesion) equivalence. grammatical equivalence refers to the diversity of grammatical categories across languages. baker (1992) notes that grammatical rules may vary across languages and this may pose some problems in the terms of finding a direct correspondence in the target language which later may induce the translator either to add or to omit information in the target language because of the lack of particular grammatical devices in the target language itself (p. 82). it includes: 1. number the idea of countability is probably universal in the sense that it is readily accessible to all human beings and is expressed in the lexical structure of all languages. however, not all languages have a grammatical category of number, and those that do not necessarily view countability in the same terms (baker, 1992: 87). 2. gender gender is a grammatical distinction according to which a noun or pronoun is classified as either masculine or feminine in some languages. the distinction applies to nouns which refer to badi’atul azmina 99 animate beings as well as those which refer to inanimate objects (baker, 1992: 90). 3. person the category of person relates to the notion of participant roles. in most languages, participant roles are systematically defined through a closed system of pronouns which may be organized along a variety of dimensions (baker, 1992: 95). 4. tense/aspect tense and aspect are grammatical categories in a large number of languages. the form of the verb in languages which have these categories usually indicates two main types of information: time relations and aspectual differences (baker, 1992: 98). 5. voice voice is a grammatical category which defines the relationship between a verb and its subject (baker, 1992: 102). while textual equivalence refers to the equivalence in the terms of information and cohesion. it is up to the translator to decide whether or not to maintain the cohesive ties as well as the coherence of the source language (p. 132). it consists: 1. reference the term reference is traditionally used in semantics for the relationship which holds between a word and what it points to in the real world. the reference of chair would therefore be a particular chair that is being identified on a particular occasion (baker 1992: 181). there are three types of reference: personal, the analysis of grammatical and textual equivalence used in the translation of paolini‘s novel of “inheritance” into indonesian 100 demonstrative and comparative reference (halliday and hasan 1976: 38-39). 2. substitution and ellipsis unlike reference, substitution and ellipsis are grammatical rather than semantic relationships. in substitution, an item (or items) is replaced by another item (or items), while ellipsis involves the omission of an item. in other words, in ellipsis, an item is replaced by nothing (baker, 1992: 186-187). 3. conjunction conjunction involves the use of formal markers to relate sentences, clauses and paragraphs to each other (baker 1992: 190). 4. lexical cohesion lexical cohesion refers to the role played by the selection of vocabulary in organizing relations within a text (baker, 1992: 202). halliday and hasan (1976) divide lexical cohesion into two main categories: reiteration and collocation. reiteration, as the name suggests, involves repetition of lexical items. a reiterated item may be a repetition of an earlier item, a synonym or near synonym, a super ordinate, or a general word (baker, 1992: 203). collocation, as a subclass of lexical cohesion in halliday and hasan’s model, covers any instance which involves a pair of lexical items that are associated with each other in the language in some way (baker, 1992: 203). in addition, text is the object of translation. the strategies of translation and how the translator translates language are seen in the target text. the writer chooses inheritance, english novel written by badi’atul azmina 101 christopher paolini for the reason that it is translated by poppy d. chusfani. she is a great editor, translator and writer (hanifah, 2013: 1). she has certain strategies how to find the adequate equivalence from english into indonesia language. the strategies includes how to translate conversion, ‘he’ or ’she’, generic ‘you’, tenses, activepassive form and conjunction. for example, poppy (2013: 14) says that some active sentences in english are easier to read if it is translated into passive in indonesia. this type of translator’s strategies and preference will cause problems of equivalence based on mona baker’s theory of equivalence, including problems in grammatical and textual (cohesion) equivalence. research methodology research method in this research, a qualitative descriptive method is used. bogdan and taylor (1972:5) define “qualitative method” as a kind of research that produces descriptive data as the result include theoretical review, people’s common perspective and unique human’s behavior. deal with this concept, kirk and miller (1986:9) states that qualitative descriptive is a part of sociology whish depends on observation to human’s language and human’s attitudes fundamentally. data source sumanto states that data sources are divided into primary and secondary sources (sumanto, 1995:11). primary source is the the analysis of grammatical and textual equivalence used in the translation of paolini‘s novel of “inheritance” into indonesian 102 research data obtained directly from the original source (no intermediaries) that are specifically collected by the researchers to address issues in research (ruslan, 2004:31).it has relation with the object of the research. the primary resource is taking from english and indonesia novel of inheritane by christopher paolini. the writer conducted the research within one month namely in july 20th until august 20th, 2015. besides, she only takes the data from the novel until chapter 21 in both english and indonesian novel because the novel consists of 80 chapters and more that 900 pages. for instance, she takes it started from page 1 until page 122 in english epub book version and it started from page 1 until page 209 in indonesian book version. those data presented are representative from all of the data in the novel, because the writer takes the data by its part among the translated sentences contained grammatical and textual (cohesion) equivalence. technique of data collection in this research, the technique of data collection is documentation. documentation may refer to the process of providing evidence (to document something or to the communicable material used to provide such documentation). in addition, the writer also uses library research or study of the library (hadi, 1981:4). badi’atul azmina 103 method of data analysis the writer defines analysis as consisting of three current flows activity: data reduction, data display and drawing conclusion/verifications (miles and hubberman, 1994: 10-12). a. data reduction data reductionrefers to the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting, and transforming the data that appear in written-up field or transcriptions. data reduction is a form of analysis that sharpens sorts, focuses, discards, and organizes data in such a way that “final” conclusions can be drawn and verified. qualitative data can be reduced and transformed in many ways: through selection, through summary or paraphrase, through being subsumed in a larger pattern, and so on. b. data display a display is an organized, compressed assembly of information that permits conclusion drawing and action. designing a display-deciding on the rows and columns of a matrix for qualitative data and deciding which data, in which form, should be entered in the cells-are analytic activities. c. drawing conclusion and verifications from the start of data collection, the qualitative analysis is beginning to decide what things mean-is noting regularities, patterns, explanations, possible configuration, casual flows and prepositions. verification may be as brief as a fleeting second thought crossing the analyst’s mind during the analysis of grammatical and textual equivalence used in the translation of paolini‘s novel of “inheritance” into indonesian 104 writing, with a short excursion back to the field notes, or it may be thorough and elaborate, with lengthy argumentation and review among colleagues to develop “inter-subjective consensus” or with extensive efforts to replicate a finding in another data set. the meanings emerging from the data have to be tested for the plausibility, their sturdiness, their “confirmatibility”-that is, their validity. d. data coding the writer marks the data by codes to make the analysis of each utterance easier. the data coding in this research is as follows: table 3.1 list of codes abbreviation meaning sl source language tl target language st source text tt target text ch. chapter p. page hal. halaman discussion & research finding after obtaining the data, the researcher found that poppy uses all of the kinds of grammatical and textual (cohesion). for the badi’atul azmina 105 grammatical equivalence, they are number, gender, person, tense/ aspect and voice. likewise, for the textual equivalence (cohesion), they are reference, substitution and ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. here is the discussion based on the data collection: table 7. 1 result of grammatical equivalence analysis grammatical equivalence number gender person tense/ aspect voice the most dominant number of grammatical category is translating plural into plural form. it is called grammatical ly equivalence. the most dominant gender of grammatic al category is translating masculine into neutral. it is called grammatic ally nonequivalenc e the most dominant person of grammatic al category is translating the data grammatic ally nonequivalenc e the most dominant tense/aspec t of grammatic al category is translating the data grammatic ally nonequivalenc e the most dominant voice of grammatical category is translating passive into passive form. it is called grammatical ly equivalence . the analysis of grammatical and textual equivalence used in the translation of paolini‘s novel of “inheritance” into indonesian 106 total: 13 out of 25 data findings total: 8 out of 27 data findings total: 13 out of 38 data findings total: 9 out of 13 data findings total: 4 out of 12 data findings as the data above, researcher discovers that there are 25 data of number and 13 of them are plural into plural form. for gender, there are 27 data and 8 of them are masculine into masculine form. then, the researcher found 38 data of person and 13 of them are grammatically non-equivalence. later, there are 12 data of tense/aspect and 9 of them are grammatically non-equivalence. the last, it is found 12 data of voice and 6 of them are passive into passive form. table 7. 2 result of textual equivalence analysis textual equivalence reference substituion and ellipsis conjunction lexical cohesion the most dominant reference of textual (cohesion) category is personal the most dominant substitution and ellipsis of textual (cohesion) category is the most dominant conjunction of textual (cohesion) category is translating the the most dominant lexical cohesion of textual (cohesion) category is badi’atul azmina 107 reference. substitution. data textually equivalence. reiteration. total: 16 out of 33 data findings total: 6 out of 9 data findings total: 25 out of 35 data findings total: 10 out of 17 data findings considering the data above, researcher discovers that there are 33 data of reference and 16 of them are personal reference. for substitution and ellipsis, there are 9 data and 6 of them are substitution. next, there are 35 data of conjunction and 25 of them are textually equivalence. the last, there are 17 data of lexical cohesion and 10 of them are reiteration. then, the researcher found that the most dominant equivalence used by poppy d. chusfani is grammatical equivalence person. it shows 38 data. those data presented are representative from grammatical and textual equivalence’s data in the novel. the researcher does not involve all of it, because it will be more excessive. so, she only takes the representative part of the translated sentence to be presented. conclusions the study shows that in translating the novel, poppy d. chusfani uses all the kinds of grammatical and textual equivalence. for grammatical equivalence, they are number, gender, person, tense/aspect and voice. for textual equivalence, they are reference, substitution and ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. then, the the analysis of grammatical and textual equivalence used in the translation of paolini‘s novel of “inheritance” into indonesian 108 researcher concludes that the most dominant equivalence used by poppy d. chusfani is grammatical equivalence i.e. person. most of the data are grammatically equivalence. all of those data presented are representative for all of the data in the novel, hence the researcher only took the sample of the sentences‘part contain the grammatical and textual equivalence. badi’atul azmina 109 references baker, mona. 1992. in other words: a coursebook on translation. new york: routledge. bell, roger t. 1991. translation and translating: theory and practice. england: longman. bogdan, r. and s. taylor. 1972. introduction to research methods. new york: wiley. bookbrowse. 2012. christopher paolini: biography and interview. retrievedjune 7, 2015 from https://www.bookbrowse.com/biographies/index.cfm?author_nu mber=934 budianto, langgeng & fardhani, aan e. 2010.a practical guide for translation skill. malang: uin-maliki press. catford, j. c. 1965.a linguistic theory of translation, london: oxford university press. chusfani, poppy d. 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1. england: multilingual matters ltd. nida, eugene a. & taber, charles r. 1982.the theory and practice of translation. nedherlands: e.j. brill. panou, despoina. equivalence in translation theories: a critical evaluation in theory and practice in language studies, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 1-6. january 2013. finland: academy publisher. paolini, christopher. 2011. inheritance (epub file). usa: random house inc. ________________. 2012. famousauthors.org. retrieved june 7, 2015 from http://www.famousauthors.org/christopher-paolini ________________. 2013. inheritance. jakarta: pt. gramedia pustaka utama. ________________. 2014. christopher paolini biography.retrieved june 7, 2015 from http://www.paolini.net/biographies/christopher-paolini/ ________________. 2015. christopher: my experience with homeschooling.retrieved june 7, 2015 from http://www.paolini.net/2015/05/29/christopher-my-experiencewith-homeschooling/ the analysis of grammatical and textual equivalence used in the translation of paolini‘s novel of “inheritance” into indonesian 112 quirk et al. 1972.a grammar of contemporary english. london: longman group ltd. ramunė, kasperavičienė. 2002. contrastive analysis of the grammatical category number in nouns in the english and lithuanian languages in studies about languages, no. 2 may 2002. lithuania. risdianto, faizal. 2014. a handbook of english literature. yogyakarta: javakarsa media. ruhansah, vina inayati. 2013. an analysis of students’ ability in translating grammatical equivalence (a descriptive study of the sixth semester english department students of state institute for islamic studies (stain) salatiga in the academic year of 2012/2013). salatiga: iain salatiga. ruslan, rosadi. 2004. metodepenelitian public relation dankomunikasi. jakarta: raja gravindopersada. schmoop. 2003. eragon themes.retrieved 21.29, june 7, 2015. sinclair, j. ed. (1995) collins cobuild english grammar. glasgow: harper collins manufacturing. sudartini, siti. ______. the question of grammatical equivalence in translation. yogyakarta: yogyakarta state university. sumanto.1995. metodology sosial dan pendidikan.yogyakarta: andi offset. trost, dalice. 2012. business writing tip #23 – be careful with your choice of pronouns. retrieved august 05, 2015 from http://dalicetrost.com/writing-tip-23-684 widiyantari, yunita. 2010. the strategy to translate metaphor. register.vol. 5, no. 1, p. 57-59. writersservices. 2010. success story: christopher paolini. retrieved june 7, 2015 from http://www.writersservices.com/magazine/success-storychristopher-paolini yinhua, xiang. equivalence in translation: features and necessity in international journal of humanities and social science, vol 1 no. 10; august 2011. china. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 204 javanese phrase construction in classical books translation moh. masrukhi faculty of cultural sciences, gadjah mada university, yogyakarta nusantara street no.1 bulaksumur, yogyakarta indonesia 55281 moh_masruhi@yahoo.com abstract when the system or structure of language is used and influenced by other languages, it is called interference, and it may ruin the concept of structures. this research is about arabic phrase construction that influenced javanese phrase construction in classical books translation (tkk). this involvement appears when the concept of arabic‘s construction is translated literally into javanese. the research was carried out by applying theories of interference and translation. it‘s analysis approach with contrastive analysis which is allegedly enabled errors to be predicted from a comparison between arabic‘s and javanese‘s phrase construction. the data were found and collected from several classical books in arabic language (kkba) translated by different writers. the results show that javanese phrase construction (as the target language), particularly, with noun phrases, with adjectival phrases, with numeral phrases, and with prepositional phrases was influenced by arabic‘s murakkab or arabic phrase construction (as the source language). arabic has its own concept of phrase construction. the phrase construction cannot be translated into javanese directly through word-for-word translation or literal translation. thus, javanese in tkk became inconvenient and ungrammatical. arabic phrase construction is flipped around (with noun phrases and adjectival phrases) and prepositions are used and translated improperly or in the wrong position (with prepositional phrases). this research has many implications for further use, such as: for the identification and description of the deviation of javanese phrase construction which has been affected by direct translation from the arabic language, and furthermore, to increase the knowledge of those who are learning by increasing the realization and awareness in writing and translating (especially from arabic to javanese) about the fact that arabic and javanese have their own regulations or patterns which are different then the other language. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 205 keywords: influence, literal translation, and phrase construction or murakkab abstrak ketika sebuah sistem atau struktur bahasa yang digunakan dipengaruhi oleh bahasa lain, maka hal ini disebut interferens atau gangguan bahasa, yang kemungkinan dapat pula merusak konsep struktur bahasa yang asli. dalam penelitian ini, penulis meneliti tentang pengaruh susunan frase bahasa arab terhadap susunan frase dalam bahasa jawa dalam buku-buku terjemah kitab kuning (tkk). pengaruh tersebut nampak ketika konsep susunan bahasa arab diterjemahkan secara harfiah kedalam bahasa jawa. penelitian ini disusun dengan menerapkan teori interferens (gangguan bahasa) dan teori penerjemahan. melalui pendekatan analisis dengan analisis perbandingan antara bahasa arab dan bahasa jawa, diharapkan penelitian ini dapat memprediksi kesalahan-kesalahan dalam penyusunan kata-kata yang digunakan. data-data penelitian didapatkan penulis dari beberapa beberapa kitab kuning berbahasa arab (kkba) yang ditrjemahkan oleh beberapa penulis. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa susunan kebahasaan bahasa jawa (sebagai bahasa target) terutama pada frase kata benda, frase kata sifat, dan frase angka serta frase preposisi telah dipengaruhi oleh susunan frase bahasa arab (sebagai bahasa sumber) atau yang biasa disebut murakkab. padahal bahasa arab mempunyai konsep susunan bahasa sendiri yang berbeda dengan bahasa lain termasuk bahasa jawa. oleh karena itu, susunan kata-kata dalam bahasa arab tidak dapat diterjemahkan secara langsung kata demi kata atau yang sering disebut dengan istilah terjemah harfiah. itulah yang menjadi penyebab mengapa pada tkk yang sudah diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa jawa, bahasanya menjadi tidak terstruktur sesuai tata bahasa jawa pada umumnya. dalam penerjemahan kitab-kitab tersebut, susunan bahasa arab banyak yang terbalik-balik (jika disesuaikan dengan susunan frase kata benda dan frase kata sifat) dan preposisi atau kata depan dan awalan yang digunakan pun diterjemahkan secara tidak tepat atau pada posisi yang salah (sesuai kaidah pembentukan frase preposisi). oleh karena itu, penelitian ini mempunyai banyak kegunaan, seperti halnya dalam mengidentifikasi dan mendeskripsikan penyimpangan susunan bahasa jawa yang dipengaruhi oleh penerjemahan secara langsung dari bahasa arab, dan untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan orang-orang yang sedang mempelajari hal ini agar dapat meningkatkan kesadaran dan kewaspadaan mereka dalam menulis dan menerjemahkan (terutama dari bahasa arab ke bahasa jawa) karena pada kenyataannya masing-masing antara bahasa arab dan bahasa register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 206 jawa mempunyai aturan dan pola-pola kebahasaan tersendiri yang berbeda dari bahasa-bahasa yang lain. kata kunci: pengaruh, terjemah literal, dan konstruksi frase atau murakkab introduction ―pesantren‖ (islamic boarding schools) regarded as having a noble or ‗great tradition‟, even though still in traditional way, have been participating or involving in educating the nation through education in islamic boarding schools since a long time ago until at present in indonesia. they are generally located in the village area or far from the city. one of the objectives of that educational institution is to transmit the teaching of islam. the transmission of religious teachings is generally done in traditional way and based on classic books (al-kutubulmu‟tabarah) written in arabic (kkba), such as nachwu, sharaf (linguistics), hadith, fiqh, ushul fiqh, tafsir (the knowledge of syari‘ah), tauchid (sufism), and so forth. along with the fast growth of the religion of islam in this country, many people began to study arabic (ba) and also the books that were written in ba. therefore in later centuries, ba becomes an important device for the writing of religious books by the indonesian clerics. the results of their works were written in ba, malay language (bm), and even some people use javanese language (bj). the large number of this kkba was followed by the effort of translating it into bm or bj. van ronkel (1896) found a variety of malay and javanese manuscript as the translation of between lines translation, such as talkhis al-minhaj (the excerpt of minhâjul-`abidin (written by al-ghazali), at-tamchid fi bayânit-fi tauchid by abu al-kasyi assalimi which are very popular and widely read in india (the book became a register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 207 collection of indian libraries.) another javanese islamic book is for instance syarch fid-daqâ'iq (the book which elaborate cosmology and eschatology daqâ'iqul-akhbar) (van bruinessen, 1999:27-28). the translation of kkba into bj was intended to spread the teachings of islam to the public especially for those who did not understand ba. however, as a result of that translation of kkba emerged interference or influence which can not be denied, namely the symptoms of arabic‘s syntactic influence on those translations (van ronkel, in baroroh-baried, 1977:6-7). that influence was caused by the translation of kkba which was done literally and faithfully applying grammatical and the form of ba. according to researcher‘s observation, the influence of ba which occurred on bj in the translation of classical books can be seen on their phrase construction. the bj phrase in this tkk is considered to be influenced greatly since the translation is still 'faithfully' following the murakkab or the 'construction' of ba (mba). the constructions of the phrases are (i) the construction of nominal phrase, (ii) the construction of adjectival phrase, (iii) the construction of numeral phrases, and (iv) the construction of prepositional phrases. on the other hand, the construction of the verbal phrases is not available in ba since basically every verb of ba has been attached the 'pronouns' and' its ‗tenses‘ so that the construction can not be said as a phrase, but clausal construction. interference, according to poedjosoedarmo (1977), happens in all linguistic aspects, including the aspects of phonological, morphological, syntactical, lexical, and even the use of speech levels. in addition, according to suwito (1983) interference also occurs in semantics. from the above description, it is known that in fact the problems related with interference are so broad or unlimited. therefore, in this research register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 208 the discussion will be limited to grammatical interference, especially the interference which occurs at the level of phrases. in accordance with the focus of research above, theory that will be used as the basis of this research is grounded theory related to the phrase and its structure, the theory of inference and the theory of translation. the theories of phrases had been argued by verhaar (2001), chaer (1994), ramlan (2001), and asmah (1980). from their opinions, it can be concluded that phrase is a grammatical unit consisting of two or more words, but not exceed the limits of functions and can take part in one of the syntactical function in sentence. the theory of interference, among others, as proposed by weinreich (1970:1) can be noted as two or more languages will be said to be in contact if they are used alternately by the same persons. the practice of alternately using two languages is called bilingualism, whereas the doer is called bilingual. at this point emeneau (1980:38) calls it as "native-like control of two languages" or the equally-good-mastery of two languages. however, in reality, the equal mastery (equivalent competence or balanced bilinguality) of two languages can not be regarded that someone is capable of using both languages at once in line with the function and its domain, because each individual has their own capabilities (hamers, 1989:8). thus, two languages which is used interchangeably by bilingual are likely to cause the influence or interference one another. the coverage of the problem of interference ranges from how someone can keep those languages remain separate, how he can mix up and understand the influence of one language on the use of other languages. the definition of translation is the shift of a set of information or messages from the first language or source language into a second language or target language. benjamin jowett (in suhendra, 1994:7) says: all register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 209 translation is compromise: the effort to be the literal and the effort to be idiomatic. every translation result is the combination of transferring writing and getting the equivalent in another language. nida and taber (1969) consider such translation as the dynamic equivalent translation. they say that: "dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language." another opinion is also expressed by kridalaksana (1985, 1993:162) who said that translation is the transfer of a mandate from source language into target language which focus on the peculiarities inherently lies on the target language. this means that the first and the main problem in the translation effort is how the translator can find an equivalent translation of words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and the elements of source language in the target language. if that so, it can be found the result of good translation which is informative and it will not cause any improper influence on the target language. in the practice of translation according to nababan (1999), there are some types of translation. some of them are: word-for-word translation, free translation, literal translation, dynamic translation, faithful translation, and so forth. according to newmark (1981) (in nababan, 1999:40) the main function of translation is a tool to deliver ideas or feelings to others. therefore, the translation should not only have the form and meaning, but also has function. it is quite different to the tradition of translation in pesantren (islamic boarding school) which is generally done by combining literal translation and the faithful translation as stated by machali (2000:51), when the translator register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 210 tried to reproduce the contextual meaning of the source language, but still keeping its purpose, goal and the grammatical construction. however, the results of the translation sometimes are still considered inconvenient and ungrammatical and therefore, they are difficult to understand. therefore, this type of translation is considered can not provide the right and appropriate information. for example the following sentence in ba. (1) maka andadeake allah marang wong iku saking saben saben ja'alal-lahu lahu min kulli v n pre+ pr pre pre karupekan ing panggonane metu saking karupekan (i: 252) dayyiqin makhraja n kt ―allah (god) will surely give a way out of any difficulties (faced) by the person ― the above sentence translation is difficult to understand for the readers because the translator used the faithful literal translation. it means that, when the translator tries to translate the above sentence he shifted a train of words within the text into bj and did not give the content or the deep structure of the text. the result is just the unclear or obscure sentence meaning. the readers who do not understand ba are impossible to check the original texts for various reasons, like they do not understand the grammar of arabic or they do not know the meaning of its words. as the effect, the reader will find it difficult to understand the sentence: maka andadeake allah marang wong iku saben-saben karupekan ing panggonan metu saking karupekan 'creating allah (god) to that person from every trouble in a place to go out from trouble' by translating like that the meaning of the above sentence is on the contrary, it means ―allah makes difficulties for someone who will come out of his difficulty or problem'. in fact, the mandate or information of the text in register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 211 ba is not the same with the writer‘s aimed mandate, that is allah will surely provide a solution to every difficulty (faced by the servant of allah)'. the translation which is considered natural or reasonable is the dynamic translation or communicative translation which can be defined an effort of delivering the mandate contained in the source language by the use of commonly used expression. to achieve such type of translation there are three can be done: (1) an understanding of ideas in the source language, (2) finding equality or similarity of ideas that fit in the target language, and (3) producing versions in accordance with the norms or the rules that exist in target language. therefore, the ba sentence above (1) above if it makes use or utilize the dynamic and communicative translation will produce translations of bi as follows. (1a). maka allah bakal maringi dalan (metu) marang karupekane wong iku 'then allah will give a way (out) or solution of any difficulties underwent or experienced by the servants of allah‘ research methods the data research was obtained from the various title and the author of kkba which have been translated into bj, they are: 1. the translated book of durratu an-nâsihîn (the writing of usman ibn hasan ibn ahmad ash-shakir and translated in bj by kh asrori). the translated book contains 289 pages was printed by the raja murah publishers, pekalongan, in the year of 1400 hijriyyah (islamic calendar) or 1979. in this book describes about the 11 th chapters about virtues in islam, such as the excellence of the month of ramadan, the virtue of fasting, the virtue of studying religion, and so forth. in this tkk data analysis then it is given a code of (i). register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 212 2. the translated book of bulûghu al-marâm min adillati al-ahkam (written by ibn hajar al-`asqalani and translated by kh. ahmad subki masyhudi). the book containing 545 pages was printed by the raja murah publishers, without mentioning the year of publication. the contents of this book are the traditions is associated with the problems of fiqh (islamic law), such as the law of purification (iistinja‘), the law of fasting, the law of zakat (law of charity), and so forth. in this tkk data analysis then it is given a code of (ii). 3. the translated book the exegesis of yaa sin (written by ash-sheikh hamami and translated into bj by kh. misbachul mustafa). the translated book contains 336 pages was printed by the al-hidayah publishers, surabaya, without mentioning the year of publication. this book explaining the various excellence and messages within surah yaa sin (the 36 th chapter of al-qur‘an). in this tkk data analysis then it is given a code of (iii). 4. the translated book of duraru al-bayan (the translated book of syu `abul iman written by ash-sheikh zainuddin bin ali bin ahmad al-malibary (872 m). that book of syu`abul-iman originally written in a form of the poetry verses then translated and explained (syarah) into the bj by kh bisyri mustafa. the book containing 70 pages of translation was printed by the menara kudus printing, the 1 st print in 1967. the book contains about issues related to faith or tauchid (islamic theology). this tkk data analysis was further given a code of (iv). all of the above books consist of matan (contents) with ba which has given ―makna gandhul‖ (word-for-word translation attached to each word on the text) and syarah or explanation with bj. the data taken from these kkba were in a form of speeches that contains a phrasal forms, i.e. the nominal phrase, adjectival phrase, numeral phrase, and prepositional phrases. the obtained data was observed and selected of the speech which reflects the use of language that is considered register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 213 non-standard. furthermore, the collected data inventoried and recorded in the data card. after data have been collected, it is conducted the data selection and classification. the selection of data is done to select the data that is considered to represent the intended forms. classification of data is done to choose the form that has similar elements. furthermore, steps to determine why a particular form (in bj construction in tkk) is considered non-standard and how the standard form should be performed. therefore, since this study involves two different language structures, the method of data analysis that will be used is the contrastive method. dealing with the name of this method sudaryanto (1993) it is called the equivalent translational method and distributional method. contrastive method is an approach that assumes that the first language will affect the use of the second language or vice versa. the equivalent translational method is a method which is used to determine the degree of equivalencies of the research object by the used of standardizing device that has been determined. while the distributional method is a method to analyze what are the elements which had formed the phrases, how do they are distributed, and how do the relations between these elements. to describe the equivalent method and the distributional method for each of them there are two techniques, namely the basic techniques and advanced techniques. the basic techniques on the equivalent method are technique of classifying the determiner‘s elements. after that, it is used the continuation technique, that is comparing and describing the differences construction of ba and bj phrases synchronically. the basic techniques of distributional method it called technique the technique of direct distribution of the element. the preliminary work of this technique of analysis is to identify and divide the elements that make up a phrase. after that, the continuation technique is register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 214 used, that is the deletion technique, the subtitution technique, and permutation technique (sudaryanto, 1993:31-39). the results and discussion from the observation it can be found that the influence of mba in the construction of fbj in tkk occurred in the construction of the following phrases. nominal phrase nominal phrase of javanese language (fnbj) is formed from the noun as a core element and followed by other elements as modificators or attributes. however, in tkk, the construction of fnbj is not like that, but on the contrary, the core is located behind its modificators. thus, the construction is like the construction of an mba. the reversal or permutation of the constituent place or the filler elements of fnbj occurred in the following construction. deictic nominal phrase the deictic fn (fnd) is a phrase which its constituents consist of a noun as the core, followed by demonstrative pronouns (prd) as a modificator. for example: (2) calon lurah iki 'the candidate of the head of this village' meanwhile, like the above ba construction its sequence or order is demonstrative pronouns (prd) or ism-isyarah (isi) and followed by ism (n). for example: (3) hâdzal-baitul wasi `u prd n a iki omah (sing) amba 'this wide or vast house' register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 215 from the above two examples it can be compared that they have a different construction. on the example (2) its core constituents occupied by the noun of calon lurah followed by the prd ―iki‖ as its modificator ̧ while on the example (3) its core constituencies would be preceded by the isi hadza 'iki / iku' (modificator), followed by a noun +a ―al-baitul-wasi`u‖ 'omah amba' ( the core). thus, the construction pattern of the deictic nominal phrases of the bj construction is n+prd, while in ba is prd+n. in the data of tkk data it can be found which used the form of prd+n. for instance: (4) dadi tambahan rong dirham ingdalem iki sorah ora jeneng riba (i:176) waz-ziyâdatu aidhan fî hâdzihish-shûrati laisat bi riban n ad pre prd n neg pre n ―the addition of two dirhams (like that) is not a form of riba‖ (5)..... lan aja janabat adus wong iku mahu ing dalem banyu (ii: 14) fidzalikal ma‘i pre prd n '... and don‘t do janabat shower using that water' the construction of ―iki sorah‖ and ―iku banyu‖ on the above instances clearly a direct translation of the ba construction ―hâdzihishshûrati‖ and ―dzâlikal-mâ'i‖. actually such construction can be interpreted naturally and in accordance with the rules of the construction in fnd bj, that is ―sorah iki‖ this depiction or illustration' and ―banyu iku‖ 'this water'. nominal quantitative phrase the quantitative of fn (fnk) is the nominal phrase which its modificatiors stating the quantity of its noun as its core of the construction. for instance: register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 216 (6) kembang kanthil saler 'a kantil‘s flower' the modificators on fnk can be the numeralia stating the uncontable number, like ―akeh‖, the number of one quantity, like ―sakampung‖ means ―one village‖, the value of ordering (ordinal value) , such as ―pasa kasepuluh‖ the 10 th fasting day; the noun classifier words, such as ―gedhang satundhun‖ ―bunch of bananas‖. however, the data which is found in the tkk construction of fnkbj is precisely inverted or permutated in its arrangement. the following examples are the construction offnk bj which its translation refers to the mba. (7) ... mangka anjupuka sira ing papat saking manuk (i: 103) ... fa khudz arba `atan minath thuyûr v+ pr num pre n 'so please, take four birds' (8) kula lajeng nyiduk sak gelas saking toyanipun telaga (i: 142) akhadztu ka'san minhu v+pr n+num pre+pr 'then i took a glass of the lake‘s water‘ (9) ... nuli anjupuk rong gelintir saking lempung (iii: 48) ... fa akhadza bundûqataini minath-thin. v+pr n+num pre n 'then (he) took two lumps of clay' the construction of the phrase of papat saking manuk, sak gelas saking toyanipun telaga, and rong gelintir saking lempung can not be found in bj. such phrase construction is not in accordance with the rules of bj. the thing that can be found in the construction of bj is the nominal construction which the noun core is followed by numeralia as its modificators such as manuk papat, toya telaga sagelas, and lempung rong gelintir. possessive nominal phrases the possessive nominal phrases (fnp) are the phrase construction in which the core element serves as 'the possessed' and the modificator‘s register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 217 element as the 'the possessor or the owner'. in the construction of fnp bj's the core relation and its modificators stated by the use of –e, ne, -ing, or – ipun which are attached to the core of phrase construction, such as: (10) jarane muhammad ' the horse (owned by) muhammad' in the ba, such construction is called murakkab idhâfiy (mi), that is the construction in which the two filler elements contains “charf jar‖ (‗min‟ means 'from' or „li ‗ means 'the property or possession') which are hidden on the construction . basically, the positions of the elements of of this mi are the same to fnpbj (the possessed and the possessor or the owners). consider the following example and translation‘s construction. (11) chishânu muhammadin jarane muhammad 'horse (owned by) muhammad' however, the data found in ttk, the construction of fnp like this was enormous in number have been translated similar to the original text and they are not like as mentioned above so that it becomes the unusual or weird fnp construction. for instance: (12) kubur punika .... utawi dados luwangan saking neraka (i: 119) aw chufratan min chufarin nairani n pre n n+num ―the cemetery .... or become a the hole of hell ― (13) kutha kang kebak saking anak turun adam (iii: 110) madînatan mamlû'atan min bani adama n a prep n n 'the town is full of the descent or generation of adam‘ (14) tegese ngreksa bekakas keduwe lanang utawa wadon (iv: 29) wachfazha farjaka v +pr n+ pr 'it means keeping his genitalia‘ register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 218 from the examples above it can be observed that the construction of the phrase luwangan saking neraka is the literal translation of chufarin nairâni '(12), anak turun adam (13), and bekakas keduwe lanang utawa wadon from farjaka (14). in essence, the phrase construction should be translated the same as fnp bj construction, namely luwangane neraka, anak turune nabi adam, and bekakase wong lanang utawa wadon ‗the genitals of men or women'. adjectival phrases adjectival phrases (fa) is a phrase construction which consists of adjectival phrases as the core and followed by other elements as modificators. the characteristics of adjectives generally can be seen if that word can accompany nouns, and it can be attached to javanese adverbs like rada, luwih, banget, etc. the presence of these adverbs complements form the construction like rada putih, luwih ayu, manis banget, ora ayu etc. however, the above definition is quite different from the adjectival construction in ba. in ba, the adjektival construction is a construction which is composed of the maushuf 'the characterized' as the core (in a form of a noun) and followed by shifat 'the things which is describe or elaborate' as a modifier (adjective form). the filler element of washfiy murakkab may consist of nouns + adjectives, adjectives, adjective + adverbs, or nouns + nominal phrase. for example: (15) sayyâratun jadîdatun n a the new car (16) charâratun syadîdatun a ad hot very ―very hot‖ register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 219 it should be elaborated that in the adverbs of ba it can not be found the synonym of ‗banget‘ which means ‗very‘ (superlative form) . however, to produce a meaning which is equivalent it can be obtained through the formation of shighah mubâlaghah (sm), that is ism fa‘il ‗the doer as noun ' which is formed by the pattern of fa` il, such as `azhim, syadîd, and so forth. in bj, the word is translated as an example of (16). in addition, murakkab washfiy as in example of (16) can be changed on reverse order that is the emphasis on the element of its modificator (topicalization) which is placed before the core of the phrase. such topicalization can be formed with murakkab idhafi (mi) or a possessive phrase. however, the translation into bj should be kept like the adjectival phrase of (example 15) because if it is translated as the usual or common translation of mi it becomes the unacceptable phrase construction. for example: 17. syadîdatul-harârati ad a very hot in tkk the founded data the translation is as common as the translation of how to translate mi exactly similar like the above example. for instance: (18) ... jalaran bangete panas iku saking umube jahanam (ii: 131) ... fa'inna syiddatal-charri min faichi jahannam ad a pre n n '... that intense heat is caused by the outburst of hell‘ (19) daging iku padha meretheli saking bangete panase banyu (iii: 290) waqa `at min syiddati -charârati dzâlikal-mâ'i register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 220 v+ pr pre ad a prd n 'the flesh was falling due to the intense heat of water' the phrase of bangete panas in the example of (18) and (19) above is clearly the result of the direct translation of the construction of syiddatalcharri which consists of syiddatun and chârrun for expressing the sense of 'ownership', as an example (16), namely the existence of additional -e or ne on the element 'the posessed', as an example (11). numeral phrase numeral phrases (fnum) or in ba called `murakkab „adadiy basically has the same definition, namely the phrase construction which consists of numeralia as the first constituent which is called ―adad‖ or 'the counter' and the other one in a form of noun which is called “ma‟dud‖ which means ―the counted‖ or ―the calculated'. the interference of numeral phrase construction in tkk is assumed to occur because of the habit of translating the typical bj on pesantren (islamic boarding school) on plural nouns, i.e. pira-pira which means 'some or several'. for example: (20) / tumla'u / kang di kebaki apa kutha/ min ni`amil-lahi/saking pira-pira nikmati allah/ (i: 31) kutha kang dikebaki saking pira-pira nikmate allah 'a town which full of various grace of allah' the construction of pira-pira nikmat ―beberapa nikmat‖ is the translation result of plural noun of ba ni‟amun from ni'matun. pira-pira is the main re-shaped or re-constructed uncountable which is the form variation of the form pirang-pirang, but each of them has different meanings. the register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 221 difference of meaning of those two numeralia can be seen in the following phrase. (21) bojone pirang-pirang 'he has so many wife' (22) dhuwit pira-pira entek 'no matter how much money he has it always runs out' (23) * pira-pira dhuwit if we consider the above examples, it can be proved that pira-pira has different meaning compared to pirang-pirang. while the form of pira-pira if its construction is modified or changed it become unacceptable one (example of 23). similarly, the phrase construction of pira-pira nikmat, if the intended meaning is ‗some or several' is considered as an unacceptable construction. in bj, in expressing the uncountable amount which have the meaning of 'some or meaning' is sawetara (sudaryanto, 1991:106, wedhawati et al., 2001:279). in tkk the form of such translation can be found as follows: (24)... siji masjid saking pira-pira masjide allah (i: 32) ... fi masjidin min masjidil-lahi pre n.t pre n.j n '... one of the mosques of allah' (25) para ulama‘ iku anduweni pira-pira drajat kang ngungkuli.......... (i: 66) lil-`ulamâ'i darajâtun fauqa pre n. j n. j 'those clerics/islamic sholars have the degree above the believers' if it is observed of the above example, it can be seen that the phrase of pira-pira masjide allah and pira-pira drajat is actually a numeral phrase. however, the translation was influenced by the habitual ways of translating the plural noun of ba into bj of the typical pesantren, that is by adding the word pira-pira over the noun which ―can be counted'. according to the rules of acceptable shape of the numeral phrase bj is: register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 222 (24a) masjid-masjide allah 'some or several of the mosques of allah' (25a) sawetara drajat 'few degrees or position' prepositional phrase prepositional phrase (fp) is a prepositional phrase which its constituents has the stringing up or c combining function and the other constituents following them serves as the axis or centre, such as saka ngajogjakarta which 'from jogjakarta'. however, the finding data tkk‘s construction has the prepositional phrases which imitate dan make the direct translation from the original text so it is very often the form of the translation does not fit or match to the context, it is not in the right place, and even more, there are the excessive use of words. for example: (27) kanjeng nabi iku siram saking patang perkara (ii: 92) 4x kana rasulullah yaghtasilu min „arba‟in” v n v pre num 'the messenger of allah takes a bath or shower because of four matters' (28) ... andadekna sira ing atase saben-saben gunung saking manuk papat ing sak perangan (i:102) “tsummaj `al ` ala kulli jabalin minhunna juz‟an v +pr pre pre n pre+ pr n (num) 'then put the parts (of those birds) in each mountain in its place. if we observe it partially the phrase of saking patang perkara and saking manuk papat from the above example, it is true that it is the fp (prepositional phrase) construction, but if the fp is put as the part of the register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 223 function of the sentence it becomes unacceptable. that unacceptance is caused by the existence of prepositions that is not in line and gives influence to the contextual meaning of the phrase. to achieve the accordance over the context, the used preposition should be replaced in the form of conjunctions like kerana (example of 27). the example phrase of (28) saking manuk papat ing sak perangan is the result of a confusing translation. it happened when the translator only shifted or transferred the original text into bj. the real idea contained in the source language is in fact that allah (god) commanded the people to cut up those four birds. then each piece was placed in four directions of (the mountain). thus, the use of preposition in the phrase of saking in that phrase is not precise or accurate. the true form should be the noun of perangane should become the core or main phrase. in the dynamic translation, a translator is not necessarily to be faithful to the source language texts so that the result of the sentence would be easily to understand and comprehend by the reader. the above sentence should be translated as follows. (27a) kanjeng nabi iku siram kerana patang perkara 'the prophet is commanded to take shower because of four matters' (28a) ing-saben saben gunung selehana perangane manuk papat mahu or perangane manuk papat mahu selehna ing saben-saben gunung 'put the parts of those four dead bird in every direction of the mountain' in the preposition of ba the word min can be used to express various meanings, as in the use in bj, among others bayaniah 'the explanation' or 'made of /made of the material', ibtida‟iyah ' the beginning' (of place or time), register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 224 zharfiyah 'place', sababiyah / ta `lil ' causation or purpose' and so on (alghalayayniy, 1986, iii: 173-175, al-hasyimi, 1345:277-278). the bj preposition which in its use also gets the influence of ba is the preposition of `an. the preposition of `an usually translated into saking, although such preposition can be used to show the other meaning, such as amarga and ngenani. however, the tkk preposition it is only translated saking therefore the construction form is uncommon in bj. for instance: (29) kanjeng nabi iku ditakoni saking tentang aling-alinge salat (ii: 180) su'ila rasulul-lahi „an sutratilmushalli v n prep n n 'the prophet was asked about the borderline of shalat (prayer)' on above example actually the case of that phrase construction it should be translated as ngenani or bab aling-alinge salat ―it is about the borderline of salat (prayer)'. the other use of preposition in bj which is influenced by the use of the particle of ba is ing dalem which means ―di dalam‖. that preposition is the typical translation of pesantren in translating fi in bj. because of that the word fi is always translated as ing dalem, although for the purpose of translating ―ing to be only said as ―in‖y, then on that arranged constituents meaning becomes unclear in meanings. for instance: (30) ing dalem tentang sifat hajine kanjeng nabi (ii: 46) fi shifati hajjin-nabiy saw prep n n n 'it is about the nature of the pilgrimage of the prophet saw' the use of the preposition ing dalem in above sentence is not appropriate because the prepositions of ing dalem usually used to express the meaning of ‗place‘. meanwhile, tentang is not the preposition of bj. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 225 therefore, the unfit or unmatch elements should be deleted (ing dalem) or replaced (tentang) with the correct preposition, namely ngenani, ngingingi or bab for the misuse of tentang. thus, it is not all the existing particles in the text should be translated, particularly if the translation in the target language becomes the unacceptably and uncommonly used construction. conclusions and suggestions from the result of the above data analysis, it can be seen that the construction of fbj in tkk have been greatly influenced or interfered by the construction of mba so that the translation result of fbj construction becomes uncommon or unusual. the peculiarity of the use of that construction is generally caused by the frequent use of the mba construction, particularly the nominal phrases and the prepositional phrases. a translator is very often just seeking for and presenting the equivalent of the words (they do not present the content within the phrase) into bj, while its construction is still faithful or in line with the construction of mba. from the above elaboration, it can be concluded that the translator of tkk can be described as follows. 1. the translators have been affected by the habit of translating kkba at the pesantren (islamic boarding school). 2. the translators tend to use the methods of literal translation rather than the method of dynamic translation or the natural, flexible and communicative. 3. translators give more emphasis or faithful to the form or the grammar of source language rather than the grammar of target language. 4. the competence of the translator towards the grammar of bj or the other linguistic problems is weak, so the result of the translation is very often register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 226 look inflexible, difficult to understand, and deviant from the grammar of bj. from the above explanation, then there are some questions arise. one of them is the question whether the interpreter is greatly influenced by the previous translator or they do not understand or they never fully study the grammar of bj through formal education, such as schools. if this is the case, presumably it can be understood that there is no balance between level of mastery of grammar b1 (javanese language) and their mastery of grammar b2 (arabic). there are some suggestions as the consideration for further improvement as follows. 1. there should be a training and workshop for translators, especially the arab-java translator by the department concerned with this group. 2. the translator should carefully accurately the best he can do in shifting or transferring the author‘s mandate or meaning from source language to target language in the hope that the result of his translation can be easily understood and comprehended by the public. 3. it is no need for the translator to be faithful to use the language construction of the source language if in the target language has its own language construction. 4. the translator can choose the appropriate translation method, such as the dynamic translation methods so that the author‘s mandate or meaning can be translated naturally to the target language. all the rare or foreign entities or less natural as far as possible can be avoided. furthermore, for the researchers who have an interested in the field of language research (especially the interference of ba in bj or bi) there is a widely open opportunity to investigate this problem since the research materials in the form of manuscripts, both in bj and the malay language is register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 227 still abundant which has not been investigated and studied. for this purpose, it should be conducted the more complete research which cover other level areas for the opportunity for other researchers. references arifin, syamsul dkk. 1983. struktur frase bahasa jawa. yogyakarta: proyek penelitian bahasa dan sastra indonesiadan daerah daerah istimewa yogyakarta. asrari, kh. 1979. tarjamah durarun-nâshichin. jilid i. pekalongan: percetakan raja murah. chaer, abdul. 1994. linguistik umum. jakarta: rineka cipta. cook s.j, walter a. 1969. introduction to tagmemic analysis. london: holt rine hart & winston. dhofier, zamakhsyari. 1982. tradisi pesantren: studi tentang pandangan hidup kyai: jakarta: lp3es. emeneau, b. murray. 1980. language and linguistic area. calofornia: stanford university press. al-ghalayayniy, mustafa. 1986. jami‟ud-durusi al‟arabiyah. jilid i, ii, iii. cetakan ke-18. beirut: al-maktabah al-‗ashriyah. hamers, josiane and michel h.a. blanc. 1989. bilinguality and bilingualism. cambridge: cambridge university press. hasyim, ahmad, dkk. 1989. mudzakkirât fin-nachwi wash-sharf. cetakan ke3. 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interferensi gramtikal bahasa jawa dalam pemakaian bahasa indonesia murid sekolah dasar. yogyakarta: proyek penelitian bahasa dan sastra indonesia dan daerah daerah istimewa yogyakarta. ………………... 1982. javanese influence on indonesia. material in language of indonesia, no. 7. canberra: anu printing service. rahardjo, dawam m. 1985. pergulatan dunia pesantren:membangun dari bawah. jakarta: p3m. ramlan, m. 1980. kata depan atau preposisi dalam bahasa indonesia. yogyakarta: up karyono. ……………..2001. ilmu bahasa indonesia: sintaksis.yogyakarta: cv karyono. rusyana, yus. 1975. interferensi morfologi pada penggunaan bahasa indonesia oleh anak-anak yang berbahasa pertama bahasa sunda murid sekolah dasar propinsi jawa barat. disertasi, universitas indonesia, jakarta. sudaryanto (penyunting) .1991. tata bahasa baku bahasa jawa. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. ---------------1993. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. pengantar penelitian wahana kebudayaan secara linguistis. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. suwito. 1983. pengantar awal sosiolinguistik teori dan problema. solo: henary offset. thatcher, g.w. 1958. arabic grammar of the written language. edisi ke-5 (direvisi oleh hm nahmad). london: percy lund, humphries & co ltd. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 229 van bruinessen, martin. 1999. kitab kuning, pesantren dan tarekat. bandung: mizan. van ronkel, s. 1977. mengenai pengaruh tatakalimat arab terhadap tatakalimat melayu. jakarta: bhratara. verhaar, jwm. 1980. teori linguistik dan bahasa indonesia. yogyakarta: yayasan kanisius. -------------------. 2001. asas-asas linguistik umum.yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. wedhawati, wiwin erni siti nurlina, edi setiyanto. 2001. tata bahasa jawa mutakhir. jakarta: pusat bahasa departemen pendidikan nasional. weinreich, uriel. 1970. languages in contact. findings and problems. cetakan ke-7. paris: mouton. yunus, mahmud. t.t. terjemah al-qur‟an al-karim. singapore: alharamain pte. ltd. yusuf, suhendra. 1994. teori terjemah. pengantar ke arah pendekatan linguistik dan sosiolinguistik. bandung: cv mandar maju. 165 alternative techniques for teaching writing sihindun arumi english department of veteran bangun nusantara university of sukoharjo jl. letjend. humardani no. 1 jombor, sukoharjo arumisihindun@yahoo.com abstract writing as one of language skill is often considered very difficult. it is due to the fact that writing needs to produce and organize ideas using appropriate vocabulary, language use, paragraph organization, and mechanism. it also needs to turn the ideas into a readable text and for foreign language learners; they should also transfer ideas from their native language into target language (foreign language). it raises any problems for them to create a good text. moreover, the situation in the class does not always support them in which the techniques of the teacher in teaching writing are boring and monotonous; it do not give enough attention to help students explore their writing skills. so that they attend the writing class only for procedural formality.thus, it is considered important to elaborate various techniques to build nice classroom atmosphere as well as to improve students’ writing skills. key words: alternative, technique, writing. alternative techniques for teaching writing 166 abstrak menulis sebagai salah satu keterampilan bahasa sering dianggap sangat sulit. hal ini disebabkan oleh fakta bahwa menulismemerlukan penciptaan dan pengaturan ide-ide menggunakan kosa kata, penggunaan bahasa, pengaturan paragraf, dan mekanisme yang sesuai.hal ini juga memerlukan untuk mengubah ide-ide kedalam teks yang enak di baca dan bagi pembelajarbahasa asing, mereka juga harus mentransfer ide-ide dari bahasa asli mereka ke dalam bahasa sasaran (bahasa asing).hal ini menimbulkan masalah bagi mereka untuk menciptakan teks yang baik. selain itu, situasi di kelas tidak selalu mendukung mereka ketika teknik guru dalam pengajaran menulis membosankan dan monoton, tidak memberikan perhatian yang cukup untuk membantu siswa mengeksplorasi kemampuan menulis mereka. sehingga mereka menghadiri kelas menulis hanya untuk formalitas prosedural. dengan demikian, penting untuk dipertimbangkan untuk memaparkan berbagai teknik untuk membangun suasana kelas yang baik serta meningkatkan kemampuan menulis siswa. kata kunci: alternatif, teknik, menulis introduction language as a means of communication involves four skills, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. as one of the skills, writing takes important role in language learning. it is needed to learn by people for their occupational or academic purpose. for example, for business, people need to write business letters, like order, complaint, request letters, etc.; for seeking job, they need to make application letters; for carrying out events, they need to write proposals, etc. while for students, for their academic purposes, need to learn writing for preparing final academic assignment, namely thesis writing. thus, writing is a crucial need for people for their own purposes. sihindun arumi 167 however, among the four skills, writing is generally considered more difficult for most people. it may be due to the fact that writing as a kind of active or productive skill needs to produce and organize ideas using appropriate of vocabulary, sentences and paragraph organization. it also needs to turn the ideas into a readable text (richard & renandya, 2002). especially for most foreign language learners, they should also transfer ideas from their native language into target language (foreign language). they may be the reasons that raise a phenomenon that writing activity appears as a not-live activity. the students are not motivated to attend the writing activity. it seems that they join the writing class only for an attendance requirement. they only come, sit and listen to the teacher’s explanation, and do the exercises without doing any progress activity. they feel that writing is a big problem. they get difficulty in generating ideas, in addition, the teacher style in teaching writing is assumed boring and conventional. they just explain the material, give exercises, and finish the meeting continued by correcting the piles of students’ assignments. thus, it is considered important to elaborate various techniques or strategies in writing activity to encourage students’ enthusiasm and activeness. it is also to help teachers manage a joyful classroom activities and atmosphere to support students’ writing activities. concept of writing writing is such a productive skill that means it produces a sequence of sentences arranged in a particular order and linked together in certain ways (harmer, 1983). the sequence maybe short, two, or three alternative techniques for teaching writing 168 sentences, or more sentences put in order and linked together forming a coherent whole called as text (byrne, 1997). it can be also said as an act of forming graphic symbols, or making marks on flat surface. graphic symbols are the combinations of letters which related to the sounds the people make when they speak. these symbols have to be arranged, according to certain conventions to form words, and words have to be arranged to form sentence (byrne, 1997). the activity of arranging sentences belongs to a cognitive activity. as an extremely complex cognitive activity, writing requires to demonstrate control of a number of variables (bell and burnaby, 1984 in nunan (1999). above of all, writing is a way of communicating a message to a reader for a purpose (troyka, 1987). writing activity is carried out in various ways. the ways can represent what approach that is used. in general, writing process can be categorized into two approaches, namely products approach and process approach. product approach focuses on the end result of the learning process. it expects the learners to be able to do as a fluent and competence user of the language (brown, 2000). on the other hand, process approach emphasizes on the various classroom activities which are believed to promote the development of skilled language use (nunan, 1999). product approach product approach is considered as a traditional way of teaching writing. it pushes the product or result. in this application, the learners are given only very little attention to help them develop their ideas in writing process. then, dull, dry, and boring situation colors the writing sihindun arumi 169 activity (leki, 1996). the teacher usually provides a model and encourages the students to imitate it to produce similar product. the procedures include imitating, copying, and transferring models provided by the teacher and emphasizing the error free final product (nunan, 1999). then, catching grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors is the main purpose of writing activity in this approach (leki, 1996). most of the students’ activity tends to be guided writing in which they mostly do grammar exercise. the writing products are considered goof if they are free of or have only few errors. then the students write very carefully in the foreign language to hinder the errors. writing activity using product approach is began by having students use notes to write complete sentences, following a given model, then it is continued by reading a model of text and having students produce similar text (long and richards, 1990). the purpose of the activity is a final product of writing and what it should look like. the traditional criteria for good writing based on product approach is meeting certain standards of prescribed english rhetorical style, reflecting accurate grammar, and be organized in conformity with what the audience would consider to be conventional (brown, 2000). then, the main focus is given to model composition that students imitate and how well their final product to meet the criteria of good writing involving content, organization, vocabulary, grammar use, and mechanic like spelling and punctuation. this approach seems not too satisfying until it leads to the second approach. alternative techniques for teaching writing 170 process approach process approach proposes more effective classroom activities to help students develop their ability to convey meaning and content that they want to express in their text. this approach argues that the process model can help students to discover what they want to write as that more successfully for this approach is considered as writer centered (walsh, 2004). this approach does not press students to do grammar exercises but rather explores strategies to help students elaborate their ideas. students will be encouraged to write what they want to communicate. however, between product and process should be treated in a balance way. final product is important but the writing process should be more exploratory, less punitive, less demoralizing, and the students are less alone (leki, 1996).the product should be the result of writing process of prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing (brown, 2000). prewriting as the firt stage is gathering ideas. it is continued by the second step, drafting that is writing a rough draft outline. the next is revising to modify the draft based on the feedback after reading the draft again and sharing with others to get comments. the last is editing that is correcting mechanical errors like spelling or punctuation. classroom activity in process approach can be carried out in six steps (fauziati, 2010). the first, writing process should focus on the instruction. it means that the students can initiate into the process and the teacher should prepare to intervene in the students’ writing processes with suggestions and correction to help them overcome difficulties encountered in each of the stages. second, the assigned writing tasks should encourage students to write a variety of modes besides expository sihindun arumi 171 writing. third, conferencing is an important part of classroom activities between teacher and students as well among students to provide students with immediate meaningful responses to their writing. fourth, the main role of teacher is as a facilitator, in which he should not focus just on errors in the product, but is free to respond to a number of facets of students’ writing. fifth, students should be able to work and help each other. the last, it should be able to encourage a bond to tie all members of the class into one community whose each member feels responsible for each other’s growth. then, the writing process needs any techniques or strategies to encourage students to develop themselves in writing activities. alternative techniques for teaching writing as a process of progress – oriented, writing requires the writers to follow the stages of writing process to result in good products. good writing can be seen from the completeness, unity, and coherences. thus, a good writing should consider the content, organization, language use or grammar, vocabulary, andmechanic like capitalization, punctuation, spelling,, etc. however, it needs process to achieve a good result. it can be realized by exploring various ways or strategies or techniques. guided questions it is a kind of techniques in which students write after given any questions about the topic (silberman, 2006). it belongs to a simple technique because students are still guided by the teacher with questions. it purposes to give students any description about the topic, especially for abstract one. it also gives any background knowledge and vocabularies alternative techniques for teaching writing 172 relating to the topic. then, it is hoped to be able to help students explore the topic in their writing activity. there are any steps to do the guided questions technique. the first, teacher determines the topic. then he prepares a number of questions to open the mind and knowledge of the students. the questions are considered to have several possible answers. next, teacher gives students a few moments to consider their responses. it can be done either individually or in pairs or groups. afterward, the teacher may combine the responses of the entire class and record their ideas. if possible, he can choose students’ responses into a separate list relating to the categories or the different concepts that teacher tries to teach. next, teacher presents the main learning points which he wants to teach by asking students to describe how their responses fit with these points. the ideas can be recorded to add the learning points of the material. from the activity, the students can start writing process. for example, if you want to teach descriptive text, firstly you can explain about descriptive text and give a model. then you determine a topic to write, as example is ‘favorite teacher”. you can explore any questions about the students’ favorite teacher, like ‘who is your favorite teacher?’, ‘what is his/ her name?’, ‘why do students like her/ him?’, ‘where does she/ he live?’, etc. each question will be answered orally and then written by the students on their papers. the variations of this technique can be done in pairs or groups. it can be also done individually in the form of written questions answered by the students themselves. teacher can manage variations of this technique to allow students explore their writing skill. sihindun arumi 173 this technique has an advantage to provide students with background knowledge, description, and vocabulary about the topic to start writing activity since in the beginning, many of them have no ideas or get blank in their mind when they should have writing activity. however, this technique requires to arrange the questions consecutively based on sequential ideas. connected sentences connected sentences are a technique that involves all the members of the class in writing activity. it is begun by determining the topic followed by building background knowledge including description, vocabularies, and language use. then, the teacher asks the first student to write a sentence based on the topic on the white board. it should be continued by other students until all students in the class have written one sentence of each. after that, the teacher discusses the students’ sentences. it can be modified by working in groups of 4 or 5 students and do the same step of connected sentences. after finish, the groups exchange their works of writing and each group should edit other groups’ work. next, each group presents the result of editing of other groups’ works and teacher manage the activity by giving comments, suggestions, or advices. in this case, students cannot only write but also edit friends’ works. this technique has an advantage to let all students participate in writing activity. however, it may be quite difficult to cover all students’ sentences since they make sentences based on their experiences and knowledge. so, little not-synchronized sentences may occur. alternative techniques for teaching writing 174 index card match index card match is a kind of technique matching cards to find the pairs of the cards. it is an active and fun way to recall the material that is given (silberman, 2006). it will help students actively participate in writing process. it will also help the class atmosphere cheerful and pleasant, and sometimes a bit noisy. the characteristic of index card match using cards. the cards are divided into two parts, questions and answers. it is done in pairs. the activities of this technique are started by providing cards as many as the number of the students in the class. then, on separate cards, write down questions about anything taught in the class. create enough cards for questions to equal one half of the number of students. try to choose questions that have brief, focused answer. on other separate cards, write the answers of the questions. next, mix the two sets of cards and shuffle them several times so that they are well-mixed. after that, share one card to each student. ask the students getting question cards to sit down and write their answers of the question on their cards, while students getting answer cards stand up in front of the class. the students are given certain time to finish their writing answers. then instruct students getting questions to state their answers and students getting answers to open their cards. have them to find their match. after they find their match, suggest them so have seats together but tell them not to reveal what is contained on their cards to other friends. when everyone is seated, have each pair of cards then read out question and answer in class. the next activity is listing all points or ideas presented in questions and answers and students may start the writing activity. sihindun arumi 175 quiz team technique quiz team technique is a technique for writing activity by giving quiz or questions to the students working in groups. after the teacher delivers the material, the students are divided into, for example, three big groups. they all should learn the rule of the quiz. all group should also prepare any questions about the material taught by the teacher that will be asked to other groups. the first group will have the initial turn to give questions to the second group. if the second group cannot answer, it will be delivered to the third group. if the first session of quiz finishes, then second group takes the turn to be the questioner continued by the third group. the same questions should not be asked repeatedly to other groups. each group should make notes about the questions addressed to it, completed with the correct answers from other group. after all groups finish giving quiz, teacher helps draw conclusion and have students start writing activity based on the notes they make. this technique may help students focus on the topic discussed for they shoul make any questions that will be given to other groups. this led to their seriousness. it may also help students develop their creativity. however, it needs enough time to conduct this technique. it also requires strict control in conditioning the class when the quiz is conducted. besides, it needs to spread the smart students fairly to the groups because this technique requires quick responses to the quiz. think – pair – share think pair share is a kind of technique to have activities of thinking about a problem then working in pair or group to solve the alternative techniques for teaching writing 176 problem, and sharing the works in the class. this technique can help students work individually as well as in group. it also train student’s process information, communicates, and develops stronger thinking skill. this technique can be applied when the teacher presents a topic or problem after delivering his material. the teacher gives the students time for thinking about the topic or problem individually. then students are asked to make pairs. they are allowed to discuss their opinion or ideas about the topic or problem with their partners. then they write the result of their discussion. after that, they share the result of their discussion that they have written in the class. next, teacher and students discuss it together. this technique permits students to learn from other students by discussing a topic after thinking individually. it also helps students build their self-confidence when sharing and expressing their opinion. however, it needs a good management of time in applying this technique. conclusion writing is a kind of active or productive skill so that it needs to produce a series of sentences to form a good text. to produce a readable text, it needs not only an interesting content but also various vocabularies, grammatical language use as well as paragraph organization and mechanism, like spelling and punctuation. however, techniques in writing activity are also very important that they should be able to encourage students in writing activity. the techniques should give chance and attention to the students in writing activity in order that they sihindun arumi 177 can explore and improve their writing competence. thus various techniques or strategies should be tried to apply in writing activity, either for individual or group works. alternative techniques for teaching writing 178 references brown, h. d. 2000. principles of language learning and teaching. new york: longman. brown, h. douglas. 2000. teaching by principle: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. new: prentice hall regents. bryne, donn. 1997. teaching writing skills. london: harlow, essex: longman fauziati, endang. 2010. teaching english as foreign language (tefl). surakarta: muhammadiyah university press. harmer, jeremy. 1983. the practice of english language teaching. london: longman. leki, ilona. 1996. “teaching second language writing: “where we seem to be” in kral, thomas (ed) 1996. teacher development: making the right moves. long, michael h. & jack c. richard. (eds). 1987. methodology in tesol. new york: new bury house.. nunan, d. 1999. second language teaching and learning. boston: heinle & heinle. silberman, melvin. 2006.101 ways to make training active. second edition. united stated of america: pfeiffer. microsoft word 07_register 2020 no 2 annisa register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020), pp. 351-370 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i2.351-370 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn : 2503-040x 351 creating full english atmosphere in teaching english to young learners: teachers’ perspectives annisa astrid,1 amalia hasanah,2* syafryadin syafryadin3 1,2universitas islam negeri raden fatah, palembang – indonesia, 3postgraduate program of english education, universitas bengkulu, bengkulu – indonesia *corresponding author email: amaliahasanah_uin@radenfatah.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v13i2.351-370 submission track: received: 08-09-2020 final revision: 14-11-2020 available online: 01-12-2020 copyright © 2020 annisa astrid, amalia hasanah, syafryadin syafryadin this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract this research has two objectives; 1) to explore teachers’ belief about the use of full english during learning activities, and 2) to determine the factors that affected the use of full english in teaching english to teach english to young learners. embedded mixed method was used in this study. the quantitative data were collected by distributing 1 set of closed-response questionnaire item to 38 teachers of english who teach english at elementary schools in palembang, the capital city of south sumatera province, indonesia. meanwhile, the qualitative data were collected from one-to-one in-depth interviews with 15 teachers of english who were willing to be interviewed. students’ responses to each questionnaire item were analyzed using descriptive statistics analysis by spss program. meanwhile, the qualitative data retrieved from the interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis. the use of full english for teaching young learners by employing mixed method research has become the novelty of the research. it was revealed from the study that first, teachers shared positive beliefs about the use of full english while teaching english in the class. second, there are five factors that affected the use of full english during learning activities; 1) the english proficiency of the teachers; 2) school policy; 3) the homogeneous level of students’ language performance 4) teacher’s classroom management skills and 5) students’ attitude toward english. keywords: full english; teachers’ perspective; teaching english to young learners annisa astrid, amalia hasanah, syafryadin syafryadin register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 352 introduction since english is an international language used as the tool to communicate among people in the world, it has become the compulsory subject that must be taught for students at junior and senior high schools in indonesia. meanwhile, the indonesian government does not require english to be taught at elementary schools; it depends on the school policy since the government gives the authority to the decision makers at elementary schools to decide to have english as the required subject to teach as the local content of their school curriculum. however, the minister of education and culture, nadiem makarim, has signaled that english will be the required subject to teach to all students of elementary schools in indonesia. in terms of language theories, as a second language, english should be taught starting at a young age. from the age of 8 till their critical age (12 years old), it is the most appropriate time to introduce children to learn second or foreign language. even with that, it is believed that children will acquire a new language better than those who learn the language in the age of puberty (hu, 2016). in order to maximize the input of the language, the teacher must be optimal to expose the english language to the students in order to maximize the input of the language, the teacher must be optimal to expose the english language to the students (syafryadin, 2020; martina, syafryadin, saputra & rakhmanina, 2020). since the principle of language acquisition stated that “acquiring a language is ‘picking it up,’ i.e., developing ability in language by using it in natural, communicative situations” (mani, 2016) communicative language teaching (clt) communicative language teaching (clt) is not a new thing in second language acquisition (sla). clt can be seen as one of the best teaching approaches as it has a clearly characterized set of classroom activities (renukadevi, 2016). according to richards and rodgers (2014), the five features of clt are: 1) interaction in the target language is emphasized through oral communication, 2) learning situations are converted from authentic texts, 3) learners are given chances to focus more on the learning process, 4) learners’ own personal experiences become crucial elements to classroom creating full english atmosphere in teaching english to young learners …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 353 learning, and 5) classroom language learning is linked with language activities outside the classroom. therefore, the main focus of clt is the use of the proper target language in communication by focusing on learners’ personal experiences and the use of the language outside the classroom. in some situations, the use of l1 in teaching the target language, in this case english, cannot be avoided, especially in the case where english serves as a foreign language. studies on the use of l1 in the teaching of english as a foreign language have been around for almost 30 years (madrinan, 2014; levine, 2014; aktekin & uysal, 2015; du, 2016; hasrina, aziz, & fitriani, 2018; mayo, 2019). from the studies, there are some benefits of utilizing sufficient l1 in english teaching: first, students can learn new vocabulary. second, contrastive analysis could happen. next, teachers can correct and clarify mistakes and errors made by the students. then, students can have a lower anxiety level. last, students can develop autonomy when they do the tasks. a study conducted by donoso (2020) also showed that teachers used l1 in l2 classroom in order they could preserve the relationship with their students. prohibiting the use of mother tongue in efl class is unrealistic even could violate human right (galali & cinkara, 2017). however, there are also disadvantages of the use of l1 in english teaching as suggested by bozorgian and fallahpour (2015) and yildiz and yeşilyurt (2016). their studies mentioned that one disadvantage of the use of l1 in english learning is that students cannot get enough exposure to the target language. as a consequence of insufficient exposure, students’ fluency will be weakened (yadav, 2014; lew, 2016; brevik & rindal, 2020). this situation can happen especially if there is excessive exposure of l1 in english learning as suggested by pablo, lengeling, zenil, crawford, and goodwin’s (2011) study which mentioned that students would exclusively use l1 and they would not have the chance to practice english if l1 was allowed in english teaching. considering the benefit and disadvantages of the use of l1 in english teaching, it can be concluded that teachers can sufficiently use l1 in teaching the l2. besides the issue of the use of l1 in english teaching using clt, another issue, which has become important to notice, is the role of the teacher. the teacher plays an important role in clt, who serves as a facilitator for the annisa astrid, amalia hasanah, syafryadin syafryadin register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 354 students (brown, 2015). brown (2015) added that their task is to give the chance for the students to be able to participate in the process of collaborative and cooperative learning. in some cases, teachers sometimes face difficulties in applying the clt in the classroom. as mentioned by kelch (2011), the causes of the problems are due to the insufficiency of training or lack of favorable circumstances to practice the clt techniques, fewer skills and/or less selfconfidence in their own english abilities, and less time in their work programme to create communicative activities. those statements are supported by al-wassabi (2016) who mentioned that if the teacher failed to support students in their attempts to talk using the language they learn, this would eventually postpone present and future opportunities to speak the language. shamsipour and allami (2012) also added that teachers should be able to control their use of language because it would be as important as their ability to choose suitable teaching method they used to teach the students. thus, it is the teacher’s decision to use full english on their teaching. students also play a significant part in the teaching and learning process as it is a mutual process between the students and the teacher. one of the most important issues associated with students is their perception. student perceptions have been frequently identified with two objectives in the literature: perceptions of themselves, and perceptions of the learning condition (wesely, 2012). how students understand and make sense of themselves and their own learning is perceived as perceptions of themselves (waddington, 2019; resmini, 2019). learner perceptions of the learning condition are comprised of how students undergo and comprehend aspects of the classroom, like teacher behaviors (demiroz & yeşilyurt, 2015). students observe their teacher behaviors. they will know whether their teacher is confidence or not. moreover, some problems might arise from students. kelch (2011) mentioned that students might, in some circumstances, possess low english proficiency which make them unable to easily engage in communicative activities, and might also demonstrate little or even no motivation to learn english as a means of authentic communication, and might oppose to participate in classroom activities required by clt. creating full english atmosphere in teaching english to young learners …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 355 therefore, optimizing the use of english in the class then becomes the important issue in foreign language teaching, especially in the case of clt involved. the same case also happened in palembang. there were pros and cons related to the use of l1 in english classroom. these pros and cons made us interested in conducting this research which aimed at exploring teachers’ belief in using full english while teaching english to young learners and finding out the factors that influence the use of full english in efl young learners’ classes in palembang. consequently, the use of full english for teaching young learners by employing mixed method research becomes the novelty of the research. research method the method used in this study was mixed method data collection. this method was utilized with two kinds of data collections; quantitative and qualitative were required to answer the research questions proposed in this study (creswell, 2014; kumar, 2015; fraenkel & wallen, 2012). meanwhile, the design of mixed method used in this study was embedded design. the design was chosen since this study needed secondary data to answer the secondary research question to support the primary data (creswell, 2014; clark & ivankova, 2016). in this research the primary data were collected through cross-sectional survey design. this type of survey was selected because the aim of the study is to assess current data about teachers’ beliefs on the use of full english in the class during the activities of teaching english to young learners (creswell, 2014; fraenkel & wallen, 2012; kumar, 2015). meanwhile, the secondary data were obtained through one-to-one in-depth interviews with teachers who taught english to elementary students in palembang in order to explore their perceptions about the factors that influenced the use of full english in young learners’ class. research site and participants this research was conducted in palembang, the capital city of south sumatra province in indonesia. the target participants of our study were teachers of english of elementary schools in palembang. we used convenient annisa astrid, amalia hasanah, syafryadin syafryadin register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 356 research sampling since not all elementary schools decide to require english to be taught to students. thus, we only chose the elementary english teachers who are available (fraenkel & wallen, 2012; creswell, 2014; panneerselvam, 2014). we have conducted a demographic survey to collect information about those english language teachers. based on the survey, there were 21 elementary schools which possessed the policy to establish english as one of required subjects to be taught to the students. most of the schools are private schools, which require even all teachers to use english as medium of instruction for all subjects. from those 21 elementary schools there were 38 teachers of english available and willing to be the participants of the survey. all of the teachers were considered young in the range of age around 21 to 44 years old. all of the teachers have acquired a bachelor degree in english education and had training related to teaching english to young learners. after conducting the survey, there were 15 teachers who were willing to be interviewed in order to explore their perception on the factors influence the use of full english in the classroom. as the ethic of the research, the names are shortened to initials. data collections two kinds of data were needed to answer each research problem. in order to find out teachers’ beliefs on the use of full english in teaching english to young learner, the quantitative data were collected by distributing the questionnaire via email to the teachers. the questionnaire consisted of 15 closed responded items with likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (not sure), 4 (agree) and 5 (strongly agree) related to teachers’ beliefs on the use of full english in teaching english to young learners. the teachers were asked to respond to each item of the questionnaire by choosing one scale among 5 scales provided. the list of closed response questionnaire items are displayed in table 1. meanwhile in order to collect teachers’ perceptions toward the factor that influences the use of full english in the class, the qualitative data were collected by having one-to-one in-depth interviews with the teachers of english who teach at elementary schools in palembang. creating full english atmosphere in teaching english to young learners …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 357 table 1. list of closed-response questionnaire items item statement item 1 using full english in the class is important to implement for teaching english to young learners item 2 i use full english in teaching my students at elementary school item 3 it is not necessary to switch to indonesian while teaching in my class item 4 i feel uncomfortable to speak english all the time in my class item 5 i condition my students to speak in english in the class item 6 it is necessary to establish rules to always speak english in the class item 7 switching to indonesian could reduce the input of english language as the form of language exposure in the class item 8 students’ english mastery will be decreasing if the teacher mixes the use of english and indonesian while teaching english in the class item 9 it is unnecessary to enforce full english for teaching english to young learners item 10 using full english in my class makes me frustrated item 11 i let my students to speak indonesian anytime they want in my english class item 12 i set limits for my students to speak in indonesian while learning english in the class item 13 i always try to make all my students understand what i am instructing without having to switch to indonesian item 14 my students are more comfortable when i mix indonesian and english when explaining the material item 15 switching to indonesian can bridge the communication between me and the students data analysis the quantitative data retrieved from the questionnaire were analyzed using descriptive statistics to see the mean score of the teachers’ responses toward each questionnaire item. descriptive statistics analysis was performed using spss. the mean score of the range of likert scale was then classified based on the classification proposed by joshi, kale, and chandel (2015). the classification is listed in table 2. meanwhile the qualitative data were analyzed by using thematic analysis proposed by creswell (2012). annisa astrid, amalia hasanah, syafryadin syafryadin register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 358 table 2. range of scale respons range of scale strongly disagree > 1 to 1,8 disagree > 1,8 to 2,6 undecided > 2,6 to 3,4 agree > 3,4 to 4,2 strongly agree > 4,2 to 5 finding and discussion in this result section, we described the results of data analysis conducted to answer each research problem we proposed in this study. the description of the finding for each research question is as follows: teachers’ belief toward the use of full english in teaching english for young learners descriptive statistics analysis was conducted to find out the frequency of the scale for each item and mean score of the likert scales and the mean score was converted into the scale based on categories proposed by joshi, kale, chandel (2015) for each item of the questionnaire responded by the teachers. the result of the analysis is listed in table 3 and table 4. table 3. the results of descriptive statistics analysis n mean scale std. deviation item1 38 4,0526 agree 1,01202 item2 38 3,2632 undecided ,89092 item3 38 3,5526 agree 1,13179 item4 38 2,4211 disagree 1,40716 item5 38 3,6579 agree 1,04691 item6 38 4,2105 strongly agree 1,06943 item7 38 3,5526 agree 1,10765 item8 38 3,2368 undecided 1,02494 item9 38 2,6316 disagree 1,30324 item10 38 1,5526 strongly disagree ,95003 item11 38 2,0789 disagree 1,07506 item12 38 3,6842 agree 1,06809 item13 38 3,8158 agree 1,08691 item14 38 3,7632 agree 1,17253 item15 38 3,7368 agree 1,05739 valid n (listwise) 38 creating full english atmosphere in teaching english to young learners …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 359 table 4. the result of frequency of the scale for each item item frequency (percentage) strongly disagree disagree undecided agree strongly agree 1 2,6 2,6 23,7 28,9 42,1 2 0 21,1 39,5 31,6 7,9 3 7,9 5,3 31,6 34,2 21,1 4 36,8 26,3 0 31,6 5,3 5 0 18,4 21,1 36,8 23,7 6 5,3 0 15,8 26,3 52,6 7 0 18,4 36,8 15,8 28,9 8 5,3 13,2 47,4 21,1 13,2 9 28,9 13,2 31,6 18,4 7,9 10 65,8 21,1 7,9 2,6 2,6 11 36,8 31,6 21,1 7,9 2,6 12 2,6 13,2 21,1 39,5 23,7 13 5,3 5,3 21,1 39,5 28,9 14 7,9 5,3 18,4 39,5 28,9 15 5,3 2,6 31,6 34,2 26,3 from the data listed in table 4, it can be inferred that teachers of english who teach young learner students have positive perceptions about the use of full english in teaching english to young learners. it was proved that first, the teachers agreed that using full english in the class is important to implement for teaching english to young learners. second, the teachers agreed that it is not necessary to switch to indonesian while teaching. third, they felt comfortable to speak english all the time in their class. fourth, they conditioned their students to speak in english in the class. fifth, the teachers had the same opinion that it is necessary to establish rules to always speak english in the class. sixth, the teachers had the same belief that switching to indonesian could reduce the input of english language as the form of language exposure in the class. seventh, the teachers argued that it is necessary to enforce full english for teaching english to young learners. eighth, the teachers strongly agreed that using full english in the class while teaching do not make them frustrated. ninth, they disagreed to let their students to speak indonesian anytime they want in the class. tenth, they agreed to set limits to their students to speak in indonesian while learning english in the class. eleventh, the teachers agreed to always try to make all students understand what they were instructing without having to switch to indonesian. annisa astrid, amalia hasanah, syafryadin syafryadin register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 360 even though most of the teachers shared the same opinion that they had a positive attitude toward the use of full english in teaching english to young learners, some of them felt unsure that they have spoken english all the time while teaching. however, from the data listed in table 4, some other teachers (39.5 %) agreed that they have used english all the time during learning activities. from table 4, it was revealed that most teachers (78,4%) still believed that their students would not feel comfortable if they needed to speak english all the time, but there were some teachers disagreed (13,2 %). finally, some teachers believed that switching the language into indonesian still needed to bridge the communication between the teachers and the students. the factors that influence the use of full english in teaching english to young learners based on the results of thematic analysis from the results of the interviews with teachers of english, we have got 5 themes related to the factors that influence the use of full english in teaching english to their elementary school students. the themes are described as follows: the english proficiency of the teachers based on the interviews conducted with the teachers, it was revealed that most of teachers argued that one of the factors that influence the use of full english in the class depends on the level of teachers’ english proficiency. teacher functions as the model especially in speaking. in modelling how to speak well to students automatically the teacher must have good mastery in english language. one of the teachers name r mentioned: a good teacher must be a good example for their students in the class. they absolutely have to able to communicate english well to give much and good english language input to their students (personal communication, 2020). besides, most of the teachers shared similar comments that having good ability in communicating in english language will urge the teachers to try to keep speaking in english during the process of teaching in learning activities. from the interview to the teachers, we got the information that the teachers frequently felt desperate in speaking english all the time in the class. one of the teachers named uw clarified: creating full english atmosphere in teaching english to young learners …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 361 i frequently switched the language to indonesian since i felt desperate in finding the way to communicate to my students especially when the students could not get the message that the teacher intended to deliver to them (personal communication, 2020). the other teacher named tf said: by not being fluent, the teachers could feel desperate to speak english. the desperate feeling emerged because the teachers were not fluent enough to speak english. the teachers mostly think first what they have to utter to their students in english. this condition could make the teachers feel frustrated if they are required to speak english all the time to their students (personal communication, 2020). another teacher named ss said: by having good ability in english, the teacher must have tried their best to speak english all the time and condition their students to do the same thing as well (personal communication, 2020). it can be inferred that being fluent affected the use of full english in the class. by having good mastery in communicating in english, the teachers can always give so much language exposure to the students, which is expected to become good language input and output as well. besides, a good capability in communicating in english makes the teacher easily try to find out strategy to get their students understand all of the things that the teachers intend to say. school policy another factor that could affect the use of full english in the class gained from the interviews with the teachers was school policy. some teachers commented that the proportion of english language to be used in the class would not be effective if it is only the personal decision of the teacher. support from the school is a must. the most important support is from the headmaster of the school as the decision maker that becomes school policy. one of the teachers named dw argued: the school must commit to the rules about how english should be used in the class. whether english must be used fully during the process of teaching and learning activities or perhaps there could be possibility to switch the language. the rules must be legalized by the headmaster after discussion with the teachers (personal communication, 2020). annisa astrid, amalia hasanah, syafryadin syafryadin register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 362 besides, the policy is also needed to maximize the use of english language at school. some teachers shared similar opinions that the use of english cannot be maximal if it is required only in the class. some teachers agreed that the school environment should support the students to use english at school. it can be established through policy. one of the teachers named mk said: the students basically are willing to speak english if the language exposure is enough. besides in the class, there should be rules that english must be used outside the class. for example in the library or even when they have casual conversation among them outside the class (personal communication, 2020). another teacher named zk clarified: the rules must be clear that english must be used inside or outside the class. the rules must be established among the teachers, thus the decision to use full english is not based on personal decision (personal communication, 2020). in conclusion, the use of full english is affected by the definite rules as the policy of the school. if the rules are established, there will be no permissive action to switch the english language into indonesian in the learning processes. either the teachers or the students will seriously regards the rules that make them aware about the obligation for always using english. finally, to make the students to be exposed more to english and to make them more fluent to use english. the use of english should be habituated not only as requirement in the class but also outside the class. the homogeneous level of students’ language performance we got the information from the interview that most of the teachers shared the same opinion that that the homogeneous level of students’ language performance also affected the use of full english in teaching english to young learners. by having the same level of performance of the students in one class, it will be easier for the teacher to determine the language material and to select appropriate diction while teaching in the class. one of the teachers named uf clarified: the weaknesses of the school system in indonesia is that we do not determine the same level of proficiency of the students we teach in our class. somehow with the heterogeneous level of our students’ proficiency creating full english atmosphere in teaching english to young learners …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 363 made us quite confused on deciding what materials for teaching which suit to our students. besides, we also a bit confuse on choosing the appropriate level of diction we need to use to give instruction to our students (personal communication, 2020). meanwhile the other teachers shared similar opinion related to this matter. teacher’s classroom management skills another factor which influenced the use of full english while teaching english to young learners is teacher’s classroom management skills. it was revealed that some teachers do not motivate their students to speak english in the class. they just let their students use indonesian anytime they want. one of the teachers named str confirmed, some teachers sometimes do not know how to motivate the students well to encourage them to always to speak english in the class. this condition make those teachers just to let their students to speak in indonesian anytime they want (personal communication, 2020). some other teachers added that they had difficulties deciding an effective strategy that could prompt the students to speak english fully during the learning process. one of the teachers named m said the teachers had lack of skills to manage the class especially in maintaining the activities that support the habituation of using english all the time in the class (personal communication, 2020). finally, teachers mostly felt it was complicated to make the students understand about the material explained in full english instruction. most of them were not really patient and took a shortcut, which is switching the language into indonesian when they found their students still could not get what they tried to say. one of the teachers named e clarified, there were moments that made me desperate, when i have tried hard to explain everything in english but my students could not catch me, thus i mostly switch my code into indonesian to make them understand (personal communication, 2020). thus, besides the important thing to be considered, it is not only the proficiency of the teachers that allow them to speak english all the time while teaching but also the skills to manage to students to maximize them to speak english during learning activities. annisa astrid, amalia hasanah, syafryadin syafryadin register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 364 students’ attitude toward english from the results of the interview, it was revealed that students’ attitude toward english influence the use of full english in the class. most of the teachers admit that they are ready if they are required to maximize the input of english language to the students by encouraging them to speak english and by always delivering the materials using full english. however, the teachers clarified that they frequently found that some students were reluctant to speak english. they kept using their mother tongue. one of the teachers name dk said i have tried to optimize myself to use english in my class, i also have tried hard but i frequently found that there were students that seemed uninterested to follow the lesson. i just wondered if they felt uncomfortable if i used english all the time during learning activities (personal communication, 2020). discussion from the results of the questionnaire, it could be seen that most of teachers shared the same opinion on the use of full english on the teaching and learning activities. it could also be viewed that they also had the similar belief that using full english is a must in school so that students could use and understand english well. they also had an equal perspective that speaking the mother-tongue language, indonesian in this case, could decrease the input of english received by the students. they also shared corresponding view that most of them felt comfortable in speaking english by conditioning the students to speak english all the time in the class, establishing rules to always speak english in teaching and learning time, and making the students understand the instruction without having to switch to indonesian. they also mentioned that using english in the class while teaching did not make them feel frustrated. however, the results of the interviews stated contrary impressions. from the very first category of english proficiency of the teachers, where the teachers shared their concern of not being able to speak english all the time in the class due to their lack of confidence in speaking ‘good’ english. they also stated that they felt desperate to speak english all the time in the class because they were afraid the students would not understand them. thus, the condition made them switch to indonesian whenever they felt the need to. their concern then creating full english atmosphere in teaching english to young learners …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 365 continued in school policy where they insisted that the proportion of english used in the class must be supported by school policy which rules to maximize the use of english also outside the class. then, they complained about the heterogeneity level of students’ language performance, which was one of the problems faced by the teachers in using full english in the class. next, the teachers also mentioned about their classroom management skills, which became the obstacle in their teaching. they brought this problem up by stating that they had no motivation to encourage student to speak english in the class due to the difficulty in deciding effective strategy that could maximize the students’ ability to use full english during learning process and the inability to make students understand the instruction given fully in english. finally, the teachers told about students’ attitudes toward english as a barrier in allowing them to use full english in the classroom. they said that the students were reluctant to speak english and they kept coming back to indonesian during the learning process. this condition led the students to feel uninterested to continue with the lesson. from the results of the interview, we could see that the teachers pushed themselves to create a perfect situation reflected on clt. they tried really hard to speak english all the time in the class even though they knew that the students’ low english ability was a hurdle in their communication in class. they also raise the problem of class management and students’ attitudes toward english, which became a barrier in creating the ideal class situation. the problems they faced were the same as revealed by kelch (2011). if this situation worsens, it will create more issues for the teachers and the students alike. this situation will make the teachers’ job harder. therefore, the teachers should be able to cope with the situations. they should allow enough use of l1 in the class interaction so that they can maintain their relationship with their students as recommended by donoso (2020). some recommendations were given to the teachers. to enhance their speaking ability, teachers have to spare time to practice their english outside the school. they can do that by engaging in professional training. they could try to do various teaching skills and methods in order to make the students interested in the lesson. they can incorporate some games and songs in their annisa astrid, amalia hasanah, syafryadin syafryadin register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 366 lessons. as suggested by brown (2015) that the role of teacher is as facilitator. thus, they should be able to facilitate students to speak more. otherwise, they would delay students’ progress in speaking english as stated by al-wassabi (2016). besides, students learn from through their own personal experience (richards & rodgers, 2014). therefore, teachers should leave the students with good memories of learning english. conclusion based on the results of data analysis, it can be concluded that first, teachers shared positive beliefs about the use of full english while teaching english students at elementary schools. second, there are five factors that affected the use of full english during learning activities; 1) the english proficiency of the teachers; 2) school policy; 3) the homogeneous level of students’ language performance and 4) teacher’s classroom management skills and 5) students’ attitude toward english. other researchers interested on this matter 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(2020). effective english teaching for young learners classrooms. yavana bhasha: journal of english language education. 3(2), 79-88. al-wassabi, s. (2016). sla classroom research and efl teaching practices of oral skills. theory and practice in language studies, 6(11), 2061-2067. waddington, j. (2019). developing primary school students’ foreign language learner self-concept. system, 82 (1). 39-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.system.2019.02.012 wesely, p.m. (2012). learner attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs in language learning. foreign language annals, 45(s1), s98-s117. https://doi.org/ 10.111/j.1944-9720.2012.01181.x creating full english atmosphere in teaching english to young learners …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 369 yadav, m.k. (2014). role of mother tongue in second language learning. international journal of research (ijr), 1(11), 572-582. yildiz, m., & yeşilyurt, s. (2016). use or avoid? the perceptions of prospective english teachers in turkey about l1 use in english classes. english language teaching, 10(1), 84-96. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v10n1p84 annisa astrid, amalia hasanah, syafryadin syafryadin register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 370 this page intentionally left blank. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 1 journal writing and diary journal writing: effects on students’ writing proficiency and student and teacher attitudes *aynur yürekli1, anita afacan2 school of foreign languages1,2 i̇zmir university of economics, school of foreign languages address: fevzi çakmak, sakarya cd. no:156, 35330 balçova/i̇zmir, turkey phone: +90 232 279 25 25 e-mail: aynur.yurekli@ieu.edu.tr1, anita.afacan@ieu.edu.tr2 *corresponding author doi: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i1.1-48 submission track: received: 31-03-2020 final revision: 23-05-2020 available online: 01-06-2020 abstract in today’s world, writing is no longer a natural activity, especially for the younger generation. they look upon this activity as too complex, overwhelming and sometimes irrelevant. these attitudes are amplified when having to write in a second language. in efl tertiary education, the expectations of academic achievement have become far greater than actual student capabilities. this study examined the possibility of using journal writing, both with and without an audience, as a way to address this issue. it is believed that by engaging mailto:aynur.yurekli@ieu.edu.tr1 aynur yürekli, anita afacan 2 students in the act of writing without the burden of an academic topic, it will indirectly impact students’ academic performance. seventy-six undergraduate students in three groups (one control and two experimental) were involved. data was collected in the form of pre-test and post-test writing, student focus group meetings and an interview with the instructor. from the study, it was found that dialogue journal writing with an audience contributed to an increase in the proficiency level of students, especially in terms of their organizational skills. in addition, students who undertook journal writing expressed gains in self-confidence, and were aware of the role of journal writing in this. finally, journal writing was found to offer insight to the instructor with regard to what is happening under the surface of a class, and thus better address students’ needs. keywords: efl, academic writing, writing proficiency, journal writing introduction along with the advancements in technology, the basic skills involved in academic and daily communication have changed drastically. especially, when it comes to the skill of writing, the younger generation employs various new means of communication. they use signs, abbreviations, symbols, which are quicker and less ambiguous in expressing themselves. for example, rather than writing “i like this photo”, they press a heart button, which transfers the message effortlessly in less than a second. therefore, we are dealing with a generation that does not write as a part of everyday communication because they see little value in it, and as a skill, it has started losing its authenticity. yet, at college, students are reminded about “writing” sentences, paragraphs and essays, which seems to be one of the rare contexts where students are expected not only to write, but to write academically. the literature on skills development suggests that writing is the hardest skill in register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 3 which to acquire competency because it is the least practiced (hamp and heasly, 2006: 2). if we look at all four skills, we can easily claim that speaking and listening are encountered on a regular basis, both in everyday communication and academic environments as part of classroom interaction. the skill of reading is key to many sources and is practiced quite often, including internet searches (requiring constant skimming and scanning), class assignments, and leisure reading. yet, for the vast majority, writing, especially of extended texts, is limited to course work. as one efl teacher expresses it, getting students to write is a challenge because students are rarely encouraged or asked to write anything of any length in their lives. as seaboyer and barnett (2018) put it, there is a ‘disability’ among university students regarding writing, and the desire and motivation has perished. when we consider the efl setting, the situation gets more complicated because students are expected not only to write academically, but also to do so in another language (rafida, 2017). as breeze (2012) foregrounds, “the novel cognitive demands of university work are exacerbated by linguistic difficulties, so that the task of writing a paper or an exam answer is doubly complicated (p.9).” efl students at the tertiary level have two main challenges: a) regain or re-train their existing writing skills, and b) adapt these to the academic writing genre in english, a language in which they are usually not quite competent. therefore, the writing curriculum needs to address both needs so that students are confident in the skill of writing and also able to transfer this confidence into the academic writing context. thus, the main motivation underlying this aynur yürekli, anita afacan 4 study is to offer writing instructors an insight on how to help students practice writing communicatively by creating a positive attitude towards writing through journals and dialogue journals. the advantages of journal writing are numerous, yet whether journal entries should receive feedback from the teacher or kept personal is inconclusive. this study aims to shed light on which of the two impact students’ academic writing proficiency more, and which affects their attitude more positively towards writing. challenges of writing in efl to understand specifically what is required from students, we need to look at rubrics used to grade students’ writing, especially essays. a glance at eap essay writing criteria reveals a variety of rubrics available, and the majority have four common components, even though they may be labelled differently (hawkey and barker, 2004). one is task achievement or content, which generally refers to the extent of content coverage, and how it relates to the task specifications. in task achievement, students are basically expected to generate ideas and information needed to respond to the task. another component refers to how well students use language, labelled variously as accuracy, language use, or lexical/syntactic resources. the third component relates to how well students organize their ideas, usually referred to as ‘organization’ or ‘coherence & cohesion’. finally, there is writing fluency, which refers to the amount produced, and its meaningfulness and relevance considering the given time limitations. the components in the scoring rubrics are also an indication of what is expected of students’ writings. to sum up the expectations, students in an efl register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 5 setting are generally required to be fluent and accurate writers, capable of generating content, organizing it in accordance with academic conventions, and demonstrating these skills in their second or additional language, english. when considering typical writing practice and instruction, it is not unusual to find that minimal attention is devoted to empowering students with writing fluency. it is assumed that writing is learned by practicing, so students are directly exposed to the writing task or assignment. the usual pattern is as follows: initiating the topic, which covers the purpose, guidelines and task specifications about the writing; selection of a topic; supervision and feedback; and finally, evaluation and assessment (kruse, 2013). as a result, it is assumed, often wrongly, that students are motivated, and the only action needed is to help them structure content in compliance with academic conventions. the fact that writing is rarely practiced and considered redundant in terms of everyday use is frequently overlooked. moreover, writing in a foreign language has a complicated and multifaceted nature, and there are different orientation towards writing that shape classroom methodologies. hyland (2016) refers to six different paradigms; namely writing as expressive activity, cognitive activity, completed activity, situated activity, social activity and ideology. as applied in academic settings at university level, the product is given priority over all other perspectives; i.e., writing is seen as a completed activity. isolating this communicative skill to the product only, also misleads writing teachers who eventually limit their feedback on linguistic features of the written text, with little value on writing as an expressive activity (hubert and bonzo, 2019). aynur yürekli, anita afacan 6 however, writing is recursive, and the text is only the final product of the complex composing process. this is one major reason for the rise of process writing. process writing as opposed to product-oriented approaches to writing, process writing foregrounds the stages that lead to a quality written text (mirhosseini, 2009). one of these stages is the generation of ideas and creation of content, which is one of the cognitive processes involved in the composing process (flower and hayes, 1981). for this stage to be successful and worthwhile, the writer must engage in real purposeful communication and experiment with the language as much as possible. whereas this stage is almost automatic for those who are writing in their first language, it poses great difficulties for writers in efl (weigle, 2005). an additional hindrance at this stage is the anxiety and apprehension that foreign language writers experience (lee, 2005). as such, teachers do not only try to equip students with the necessary academic writing skills but also seek ways to address and lower these factors. by referring to students, johns (1995) also acknowledges that trying to create authors even though they are not ready as second language writers ignores the reality of the situation. thus, first developing students as confident writers and lessening their apprehension should be the priority. journal writing, in this respect, offers students the opportunity to practice the skill of writing in a less-threatening writing task and gives them a chance to generate ideas with a real communicative purpose. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 7 this study aims to examine and re-evaluate the prewriting stage of the writing process: helping students to set a positive mindset by inculcating the habit of ‘writing-only’, without the burden and stress of academic expectations. in other words, it aims at increasing students’ confidence and fluency by engaging them in the skill of writing, separately from formal class work. unlike the common practice of approaching writing as an activity that offers teachers language production to focus on surface language use (hubert and bonzo, 2019), it is believed that at the initial stages, focusing students on content and meaning only will have an indirect impact on the writing proficiency of students in an eap setting. journal writing within this context, journal writing has been the focus of many studies, hypothesizing that it would help improve writing proficiency in the efl environment (lagan, 2000; tin, 2004; tuan, 2010; alexander, 2001). being non-judgmental, journal writing is invaluable; it offers students the chance to experience writing as an expressive rather than completed activity without being judged on their mistakes, organization, content, or linguistic capabilities. as such, it is seen as a very powerful and facilitating way to improve general writing skills. furthermore, journal writing promotes content creation and organization while writing. if the activity is prolonged, it leads to more disciplined thinking and greater accuracy (tuan, 2010). it also serves the communicative function involved in written language use. there are two different approaches to student journal writing (jw); one with no external audience: i.e. journal writing. journal writing can be defined aynur yürekli, anita afacan 8 as a daily written record of a writer regarding their feelings, thoughts, and anything they deem important without the fear of being evaluated, graded or corrected (barjesteh, vaseghi, & gholami, 2011). the second one requires students to interact with the teacher through their journal entries: i.e. dialogue journal writing (djw). dialogue journal writing is seen as "an informal written conversation between the students and the teacher" (larrotta, 2008, p. 21). staton (1991) stresses three major elements of dialogue journal writing, which are written communication, dialogic conversation, and responsive relationship (staton, 1991, p. xvii). both journal types have frequently been the focus of research as alternative ways to facilitate students’ writing performance, engagement in the writing task, student motivation and reduction of students’ writing apprehension (holmes, 1994; liao and wong, 2010; abdolmanafi rokni & seifi, 2013, peng, 2007). when considered from a theoretical perspective, especially dialogue journal writing, functions as a social and cognitive activity, which is in line with halliday and hassan (1989) who describe learning as a social process; and swain (1995), who suggests comprehensible output as one of the major factors involved in learning. journal writing offers students the chance to socially interact with their teacher through the medium of writing and turn this interaction into comprehensible output practice. finally, the affective filter hypothesis put forward by krashen (1982) makes journal writing worthwhile as it helps students to freely write without the pressure of mistakes, grades, or judgements. the literature suggests that both journal writing and dialogue journal writing have a positive impact on not only writing proficiency, but also the register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 9 affective factors involved, such as anxiety, lack of self-confidence and apprehension (lestari, 2018, peng, 2007). in addition to its positive impact on the quality of writing, journal writing also strengthens the bonds between the instructor and the students. it serves as an informal communication tool where students find the opportunity to share their experiences, fears, happiness, or other emotions. furthermore, it also serves as a tool for teachers to understand their students beyond the surface level as individuals and helps them to establish a stronger relationship (kose, 2005). mukti (2016) studied the effectiveness of dialogue journal writing on writing narrative texts with indonesian students and found that students’ writings were positively affected. he also added that students responded positively to the journal writing activity. likewise, lestari (2018) found that indonesian learners benefitted from journal writing positively in the sense that their attitudes became positive, and there was improvement in students’ descriptive written products. dabbagh (2017) investigated the effect of dialogue journal writing on the writing proficiency of iranian efl learners and found that the experimental group did much better on content, organization and vocabulary. david, azman and ming (2018) focused on the effect of journal writing on lowering malaysian students’ writing anxiety and concluded that it had a positive effect. (madkour (2016) looked at digital dialogue journal writing with university students in saudi arabia to see its effects on writing and found that there was significant improvement in style and vocabulary choice. noyan and kocaoğlu (2019) conducted a study with turkish university students to compare the effect of journal writing via whatsapp to pen and aynur yürekli, anita afacan 10 paper journal writing. they concluded that both practices impacted the writing proficiency of the students positively. the benefits of journal writing are numerous, yet in an efl setting, these benefits are much more concrete. learners of english conducting their university studies in a language other than their own not only have to develop confidence in writing, but also need to be able to produce text in an academic setting. as altinmakas and bayyurt (2019) and bacha (2010) point out, students in efl settings struggle with weak academic writing skills on top of linguistic deficiencies and low motivation. therefore, helping students to develop their writing skills, gain confidence and adopt a positive attitude potentially has a direct impact on their achievement. along with all its benefits, journal writing poses some problems, too. one of the drawbacks of integrating journal writing into the writing curriculum is getting students to write regularly. especially, if journal writing is done on a voluntary basis, students tend to withdraw from the task in the long run. consequently, it is important to find alternative incentives other than grading to make students continue writing entries. in addition to withdrawal, hapsari, santosa and asib (2018) point out students’ problems finding ideas to write about in a given time, which can affect the effectiveness of journal writing. finally, the burden that it creates on the teacher is a handicap, especially in crowded classrooms. if the teacher is giving feedback to students’ entries: i.e. dialogue journal writing, it might impact the willingness of the teacher negatively (hapsari, santosa and asib, 2018). finally, journal entries run the risk of being too personal. in such cases, the teacher might find it difficult to write comments, or students might react to the feedback received (rana, 2018). register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 11 studies in the area of journal writing mainly center around its effect on students’ writing proficiency, student attitudes, motivation or self-confidence. not many studies consider the potential effect it might have on the teacher who is implementing journal writing or dialogue journal writing in their classes, yet it is a mutual activity in which students write and teachers act as the audience and give feedback. in this present research, this aspect has been taken into consideration and teacher attitude has been integrated as one of the variables. this study investigates the effects of two types of free-writing activities: a) journal writing and b) dialogue journal writing on turkish students’ writing proficiency, and attitudes towards academic writing. it further explores the effects of dialogue journal writing on the student-teacher relationship. the following research questions form the basis of the study: do journal writing and dialogue journal writing impact students’ writing proficiency? do journal writing and dialogue journal writing impact students’ attitudes towards academic writing? does dialogue journal writing impact the teacher’s attitudes towards students’ behavior and engagement? the first research question has a quantitative orientation whereas the last two focus on qualitative data eliciting the affective factors involved in the process, both for the students and the teacher. reseach method an experimental design was followed to shed light on the answers of the research questions guiding the study. experimental methods aim at discovering the effect of one variable on another to test the effectiveness of the aynur yürekli, anita afacan 12 intervention technique (hyland, 2016). here, the effectiveness of journal writing and dialogue journal writing on students’ writing proficiency and attitudes is tested. participants of study the study was conducted at an english-medium foundation university in izmir, turkey. the participants were 76 undergraduate students enrolled at different departments taking eng 101, an english for academic purposes (eap) freshman english course. the research was conducted as part of the program and carried out in the normal teaching setting. freshmen students were purposely chosen, as these were students beginning to learn academic writing. the 76 students were enrolled in three different sections of the same course. students were expected to be at similar proficiency levels (b2), after passing the english proficiency test at the beginning of the academic year. furthermore, the groups’ pre-test results also indicated comparable writing proficiency levels. as such, each section was randomly assigned as control, experimental-a (djw) and experimental-b (jw) groups. control group: the control group consisted of 26 students ranging in age from 17 to 22. there were 13 female and 13 male students. fourteen students were enrolled at the faculty of engineering, 6 at the faculty of business, 3 at law faculty and 3 at the faculty of arts and sciences. experimental group a (djw): the second group consisted of 24 students ranging in age from 18 to 23. there were 8 female and 16 male register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 13 students. thirteen students were from the faculty of engineering, 4 from the faculty of communication, 4 from business, and 1 each from fine arts, culinary arts and arts and sciences. as the journal entries in this group were collected by the teacher, students’ consent to use them for the study was taken at the end of the research. experimental group b (jw): the last group consisted of 26 students ranging in age from 18 to 28. twelve of the students were female and 14 were male. seven were studying at the faculty of engineering, 6 at fine arts, 6 at business, 5 at the faculty of law, and 1 each at communication, and arts and sciences. table 1 shows the details of the groups. table 1 participant demographics control group exp. group-a exp. group-b n % n % n % female 13 50 8 33.33 12 46.15 male 13 50 16 66.66 14 53.84 faculties engineering 14 53.84 13 54.16 7 26.92 science and literature 3 11.53 1 4.16 1 3.84 business 6 23.07 4 16.66 6 23.07 communication 4 16.66 1 3.84 fine arts 1 4.16 6 23.07 culinary arts 1 4.16 law 3 11.53 5 19.23 total 26 24 26 eap context of the study the eng 101 course, academic skills in english i, is a 14-week compulsory course for first year students at an english medium university in aynur yürekli, anita afacan 14 turkey. as all students come with a b2 level of general english, the aim of this course is to further develop students’ english background with the more academic style required in their faculty courses. by the end of the course, students are expected to be better equipped to function in their english medium department courses, and better meet the demands in terms of academic skills in english. at izmir university of economics, the course text is an in-house published course book, anchor 1, comprising of four units based on different general academic topics designed to appeal to a wide variety of academic interests. each unit contains texts related to the theme of the unit in the form of lectures, videos, and academic research papers. students are required to study the material and produce an output task in the form of a written response to an issue related to the content. they are required to support their own ideas with evidence presented in the input sections of the book. data collection instruments the data was obtained in the form of a) pre-test and post-test, b) focusgroup interviews with volunteer students, and c) interview with the teacher. below is a detailed description of the sources of data: pre-tests and post-tests students were given a writing task in week 5 (after add-drop), which aimed at serving as the pre-test of the study. the pre-test required students to do the following: ‘using information from your course book, together with your own ideas, write an answer of approximately 250 words to the following question: are colors important in our lives? why/why not?’ register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 15 as the topic ‘colors and their importance in our lives’ was covered during the lesson and input was provided on different aspects of colors and their effects, students had already had the opportunity to form an opinion, thus content was quite familiar. the second task, which served as the post-test, was given in the 10th week when the third unit was completed, after input on the topic of production planning and setting up businesses in the form of lectures, research, and videos. the second writing task necessitated students to: ‘using information from your course book, together with your own ideas, write an answer of approximately 250 words to the following statement: explain the most important factors involved in the development of either a traditional or a virtual company.’ preand post-test writings were graded using the in-house writing rubric, in use for several years. students were introduced to the rubric at the beginning of the course and were familiar with its requirements. the highest possible score was 30 points, and consisted of the following areas and weighting, as shown in table 2. table 2 institutional grading rubric organization content fluency accuracy total 8 points 10 points 8 points 4 points 30 points 26.7 % 33.3 % 26.7 % 13.3 % 100 % aynur yürekli, anita afacan 16 organization refers mainly to the academic conventions that need to be followed, like writing topic sentences, building the body and concluding the text. content evaluation is based on the quality of the written response given to the question, i.e. evidence and support provided to back up the topic. fluency reflects the coherence and cohesion within the text; finally, accuracy refers to the variety and accurate use of lexis and structure. focus group meetings to examine the participants’ reactions, at the end of the term, the researcher conducted semi-structured focus-group meetings with eight volunteers from each group. the purpose of the focus group meetings with the students was to understand whether journal writing or dialogic journal writing had an impact on their attitudes towards academic writing in general. the meetings were guided by the following themes: a) attitude towards writing, b) course impact on students writing, c) specific areas of improvement; i.e. content generation, accuracy, writing fluency and organization, d) useful class activities, and e) change in attitudes towards writing. in addition to these five themes, students were asked to write down one adjective they would use to describe the activity of academic writing. the 45minute focus group meetings were recorded and transcribed for analysis. teacher interview at the end of the semester, an unstructured interview was held with the teacher to understand her perspectives on journal writing and dialogue journal writing. the aim was to elicit the teacher’s attitude towards the experience, and register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 17 whether it affected her teaching, or approach to students. the interview lasted about an hour and the responses recorded in note form, were subjected to an explorative thematic analysis. the analysis was done by two independent raters, and coding of utterances was based on emerging themes. experimental set up the study was done with three groups of students, randomly assigned as control, experimental-a and experimental-b. the following section describes the experimental set-up for the three groups. control group twenty-six students enrolled in this group followed the 14-week program and carried out the writing assignments required as part of the course. there was no mention or encouragement of any form of journal writing. as such, this group received no special or different instruction, and simply followed the eap programme. experimental groups in this study, there were two experimental groups. in one, the teacher collected and reviewed the journal entries, thus teacher presence was a potential audience; in the other, journal entries were not submitted to the teacher. the aim was to determine whether the teacher, as the audience, had any effect on the students. hamp-lyons and haesley (2006) suggest that writing intended for the eyes of another, especially the teacher, creates learner aynur yürekli, anita afacan 18 discomfort and anxiety. the involvement of experimental group-a and experimental group-b was expected to shed light on this issue. experimental group adialogue journal writing twenty-four students enrolled in this group followed the 14-week program, including the writing assignments required. as the first week of class involved introductions and familiarization with the course, the implementation of journal writing was delayed until after the 3rd week. at the beginning week 4, students were given a notebook to record their journal writings. it was explained that, as writing is no longer an activity that people (especially students) perform, to reverse this trend, each week they would be asked to write a five-minute free-writing entry in the notebook. they were told to focus on their thoughts, rather than accurate language. to prevent students from struggling to come up with ideas, no word limits were given regarding the length of the entries. it was also stated that their books would be collected at the end of each week purely to prevent the books from getting lost or forgotten, and that writing would not be graded. there were no limits as to the length of their entries. over the course of the term, students participated in 11 five-minute writing sessions at the end of the class. students were given responses to their entries only concerning the actual content, and not grammatical accuracy. of the 24 students, 18 wrote on a regular basis, completing all 11 entries. the remaining six wrote between 6 and 8. by the end of the term, a dialogue had emerged between the individual students and the teacher, who responded with comments such as : ‘hope this week is better.’, ‘i’m glad you had a better register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 19 week.’, ‘i hope you’ve started your spanish course by now.’ ‘happy birthday’ ‘how was your party?’. there were also plenty of longer comments such as ‘it sounds like you have got your motivation back. this is wonderful. maybe it’s the power of pop music. i hope you keep this energy up to get you through the term and final exams.’ (see appendix 1 for sample journal entries with feedback). experimental group b journal writing twenty-six students enrolled in this group followed the 14-week program including the writing assignments required. as with experimental group a, the journal writing could not be started until the end of the third week of the term. unlike experimental group-a, in this group, students were not supplied with a notebook but were asked to use paper to free write for 5 minutes. as with the previous group, a rationale was supplied; students were told to record their thoughts without focusing on language accuracy. no instruction was given to submit papers to the teacher. after finishing, they could leave with their papers. students were free to keep or dispose of them. no word-limit was set about journal entry length. in total, 11 five-minute writing sessions were undertaken. of 26 students, only 5 completed all 11 entries. two students wrote very few entries, and the rest wrote about 6 to 8. after two such writing sessions, one student questioned why the instructor was not reading the papers, and therefore, students were given the option to submit their entries. the few students who did so received feedback only concerning the content; language errors were not mentioned. aynur yürekli, anita afacan 20 results & discussion writing proficiency the first research question guiding this study was related to the effect of journal writing and dialogue journal writing on students’ writing proficiency. to be able to answer this question, paired samples test was done for the preand post-test scores of all three groups. table 3 shows the preand post-test results for the control group. the paired samples test shows that there is no meaningful difference between the preand post-test results of the control group (0.367 >0.05). the average writing score for the pre-test in this group was 80.05 and post-test average was 84.00. despite an increase, it reflects no statistical significance. it can be concluded that the control group students benefitted from the instruction and made a moderate improvement. table 3 paired samples test-control group paired differences t df sig. (2tailed) mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pair 1 writing1 writing2 -3.950 19.127 4.277 -12.902 5.002 -.924 19 .367 register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 21 the results of the paired samples test for the first experimental group are demonstrated in table 4. table 4 paired samples test-experimental-a paired differences t df sig. (2tailed) mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pair 1 writing1 writing2 -8.500 11.814 2.411 -13.489 -3.511 -3.525 23 .002 the test analysis shows that there is a significant difference between students’ preand post-test scores (0.002 >0.05). the average writing score for the pre-test in this group was 73.63 and post-test average was 82.13. it can be claimed that dialogue journal writing and subsequent teacher feedback on the content of the journal entries had positively affected students’ writings. to understand which component of writing caused the main difference, t-test was carried out. table 5 shows the results of the t-test. aynur yürekli, anita afacan 22 table 5 t-test results of experimental-a pre-test (n=24) post-test (n=24) writing m sd m sd m difference t p org 17.779 5.267 21.250 5.193 3.471 2.299 0.026 content 24.579 6.852 27.638 4.949 3.058 1.773 0.083 fluency 19.858 4.548 20.979 3.990 1.121 0.908 0.369 accurac y 11.504 3.389 12.200 2.316 0.696 0.830 0.411 the results indicate a significant effect of ‘organization’ on the overall increase (0.026>0.05). even though there was an improvement in the post-test in all four rubric areas: i.e. organization, content, fluency and accuracy, the major development was reflected in organization. as for the second experimental group engaged in journal writing, the paired sample test results (table 6) show no significant difference between pre and post-test scores. table 6 paired samples test-experimental-b paired differences t df sig. (2tailed) mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pair 1 writing1 writing2 .091 12.943 2.759 -5.648 5.829 .033 21 .974 register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 23 the pre-test score average of the second experimental group was 82.45. the post-test scores, on the other hand, had an average of 82.36, showing neither an improvement, nor a statistical significance between experimental-b group averages. based on the results of the pre-tests and post-tests, it can be said that djw made the greatest impact on students’ academic writing skills. the students in the control group benefitted from the instruction, yet the improvement represented no meaningful difference between their preand post-tests. the results of the experimental group, which received treatment in journal writing (experimental group-b) exhibited a disappointing result in the sense that they made no improvement in their writing proficiency scores. this may partly be explained by the variable attendance in lessons, as this group had the highest absenteeism of the three. also, few of the students were involved in the writing of journal entries, knowing that they would not be collected, or read. as highlighted by asadifard and koosha (2013) and ceylan (2019), students do not prefer to write if they do not see a reason or communicative value. thus, the lack of an audience, in this case the teacher, made a difference to students’ perceptions of the journal writing activity. knowing their entries would neither be collected nor graded, many students withdrew from the activity. the djw group, with the highest gain in post-test scores, was further analyzed based on the writing components effective in scoring. the literature on the effects of journal writing suggests that students benefit from this experience more in terms of writing fluency (holmes and moulton, 1997; aynur yürekli, anita afacan 24 peyton, 2000), but the results of this study only partially support this finding. students’ post-test writing scores show that djw helped them in all four areas, yet ‘organization’ improved most, supporting the view that the more students write, the more practice they get in organizing their ideas while writing (lagan, 2000). an additional reason for the improvement in students’ writing scores can be attributed to their self-confidence in writing, which is expected to have developed during the journal writing experience. as gruwell (2007) also emphasizes, journal writing does not only improve writing skills but also the attitudes of learners towards writing. students’ attitudes towards academic writing to understand whether factors other than journal writing may have had an effect on student writing, members from all three groups were included in the focus group analysis. thus, a total of three focus group meetings were held. below is the collection of student responses with samples from their utterances. control group eight students participated in the focus group meeting, which lasted 45 minutes. for the control group, the participants are referred to as cst-1, cst2…cst-8 (c=control group, st=student). the first question directed to students was whether they liked writing in english. cst-3, cst-5 and cst-6 indicated that they do not, considering it as a boring activity. for example, cst5 openly said “i don’t like it. it’s quite boring”. cst-1, cst-4 and cst-8 said they liked it, cst-2 said she loved writing, claiming “i love it – learn new vocabulary, develop”. the remaining student had no clear idea about his attitude. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 25 when asked about the efficiency of this course, and whether it helped them develop their writing skills, cst-1, cst-2, cst-4, cst-7 and cst-8 said it helped them, especially in terms of the writing quizzes in their department courses. cst-7 said “my quiz grades got better towards the end”. cst-3 mentioned that she learned how to cite and use sources claiming “i used to copy-paste, now i know how to acknowledge studies”. cst-5 wanted writing to be a more casual activity, with less formal vocabulary and complained that “there are too many rules”. cst-6 mentioned that the course was focusing on paragraph writing and not essays, implying that the writings required were shorter than expected. ‘which activities would you have liked to have done more of in the class?’ was another focus group question. the majority said that they liked the discussion parts the most, which prepared them for the writing in terms of content. cst-2 and cst-8 specifically highlighted this by saying that “debates and discussions teach a lot of things”. none of the students suggested any additional writing activities in this regard. the last question was about possible changes in students’ attitudes towards writing. only cst-4 reported a change from hating writing to liking it, which is indicated in his response “i hated it – now i love it”. cst-5 said “it didn’t change – i don’t like writing…but i know it has improved” suggesting that his attitude had not changed, but he feels he improved. the rest of the group mentioned no change in attitudes, whether these were positive or negative. the adjectives that students were asked to describe writing were as follows: adore, boring x 5, strategic, and it’s fun without coercion. aynur yürekli, anita afacan 26 as a conclusion, it can be stated that control group students benefitted from the course, which is also evident from their score gains between preand post-tests. yet, their attitude towards writing as a skill seems to be more at a mechanical level. the majority of students in the focus group consider writing as a boring skill, indicating low motivation, and a generally negative attitude towards writing. literature on writing also suggests that it is not a very popular skill and needs to be made more appealing to students. asadifard and koosha (2013) make reference to iranian students’ writing reluctance in the efl setting, and ceylan (2019), in her study with turkish efl students, refers to many factors such as lack of value and limited writing activities, stress or topic familiarity that hinder self-confidence and success in writing. experimental group-a (djw) for experimental group-a, the participants are referred to as ea-st-1, ea-st-2…ea-st-8 (ea= experimental group-a, st=student). the first question elicited students’ attitudes towards writing and whether they liked it. six positive responses clearly indicated a like for writing. ea-st-6 justified his negative response as “mother tongue is turkish…it is difficult to translate. i like reading comic books so not used to formal writing”. ea-st-3 also expressed a negative opinion claiming that it was ‘frustrating’ to write in english. regarding the effect of this course, all students agreed that their writing skills had developed as a result. ea-st-2 commented ‘yes – a fresh start – bring my english back’, whereas ea-st-7 said that he found the chance to “revise and practice previous learning”. ea-st-5 thought the most effective register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 27 part was the assessed writing tasks. ea-st-1 commented ‘i didn’t write anything until this time – now i can write what i want’. as to which activities were considered helpful, almost all made reference to the dialogue journal writing activity. ea-st-1 referred to the journal writing: ‘yes absolutely, mostly the free writings we did at the end of the lesson helped me most’. ea-st-4 said ‘i didn’t find it forced. write what we want’. ea-st-2 foregrounded sharing her feelings and ideas: ‘i shared my feelings with the teacher’. two students acknowledged that dialogue journal writing was beneficial for learning and practicing new vocabulary, and getting advice on content. journal writing was also considered useful for remembering the rules of the english language; east-1 said that she is ‘confident with everyday language, not with academic language’, so it is easier to write the journal entry. as for the components of writing, ea-st-4 and ea-st-5 said that dialogue journal writing made it easier for them to generate content by highlighting “it is easier to think of ideas quickly”, ea-st-7 believed that it helped him use the language more accurately, and ea-st-1, ea-st-2 and east-8 said that it helped them organize ideas better and become more fluent by claiming “it did help on language use and writing fluency”. regarding students’ preferences of activities that should have been done more often, ea-st-2 mentioned that he was content with the current situation. ea-st-1 and ea-st-5 mentioned vocabulary study as an area by focusing on “finding the words adverb, adjective versions”. ea-st-3 suggested more games and fun activities, and ea-st-6, more discussions during the lessons. aynur yürekli, anita afacan 28 one of the focus group questions aimed at eliciting the change in students’ attitudes towards writing. ea-st-1, ea-st-5, ea-st-7 and ea-st-8 said there was no change in their positive attitude. ea-st-2 said that it changed completely, as he put it: ‘at first, i only used to write. now i’m starting to think what i write, how i write’. ea-st-4 described a change from a negative to positive attitude as she started feeling ‘more confident in academic english’. ea-st-6 said that she used to dislike writing, but now was ‘slightly’ more positive. when students were asked to write an adjective or phrase to describe the skill of writing, the following emerged: happy, amazing, fresh start, bring english back to life, weary, entertaining, thoughtful, and boring. overall, the djw group found journal writing quite effective in many respects. especially, they appreciated that, as journal writing was not a course requirement, they had the freedom to reveal their feelings, emotions, opinions to their teacher, and considered it as a useful tool to practice vocabulary. the freedom of topic choice in journal writing was also foregrounded by mukti (2016) as one of the factors that makes dialogue journal writing worthwhile for students. thus, as highlighted in literature, dialogue journal writing has positive effects on students’ writing proficiency, and on overcoming apprehension (alexander, 2001). furthermore, the comments from the teacher helped create an authentic purpose for writing. as students of this era rarely use extended writing in their everyday communication, this is considered to be a valuable outcome of dialogue journal writing in terms of student motivation, expressed with positive phrases such as fresh start, and bringing english back to life. finally, the combination of increased motivation, the strengthened bond register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 29 with their teacher and the freedom of topic choice impacted their writing proficiency (mukti, 2016). experimental group-b (jw) for experimental group-b, the participants are referred to as eb-st-1, eb-st-2…eb-st-8 (eb= experimental group-b, st=student).the question on whether or not students enjoyed writing in english yielded positive results. six said that they liked writing, eb-st-1 and eb-st-7 did not. eb-st-7 justified his opinion, saying ‘i believe that when you write, you need to use more information about language than you use while speaking’. all students gave positive responses about the effectiveness of the course and the impact it had on their writing skills. especially eb-st-3 talked at length about the effectiveness, concluding ‘i am happy that i get this course and even though i didn’t work much out of the classroom, i participate in all activities and they improved my language abilities’. eb-st-6 mentioned organization as one of the areas he developed most, stating that ‘i used to just write it right away, but now the planning techniques that we learned helps me a lot’. another student highlighted the importance of reading and taking notes during the lesson as factors for improvement in her writing. as to which activity they found most useful, almost all mentioned journal writing at the end of the lesson. for ea-st-2, it helped develop vocabulary, and she even mentioned that it benefited her speaking as well as writing, because, as she put it, ‘you speak in your mind and write it down. improves speaking skills daily life communication with other people’. eb-st8 discussed the psychological effect of journal writing in this codeswitched aynur yürekli, anita afacan 30 comment: ‘end of lesson writing – ‘faydalı – something you can’t say in class – kağıda dökebilirsin’ (eng: end of lesson writing is beneficial. something you cannot say in class, but you can put on paper). when asked their opinion on which component of writing they developed the most, all eight students highlighted organization of ideas, coherence, and flow of writing. eb-st-2 and eb-st-4 reported that the journal writings had a positive impact on writing fluency. for the question about activities they would like more of, eb-st-7 suggested anything other than writing. eb-st-3, eb-st-5 and eb-st-8 indicated the end of lesson journal writing: ‘the end of week writings was my favorite activity since we wrote about daily things and what we wanted to talk about other than just book topics’. eb-st-1 mentioned more speaking activities in the course. regarding students’ attitudes towards writing, six students reported no change in their positive opinions, whereas eb-st-1 expressed no change in his negative opinion. eb-st-7 admitted that he is slightly more positive after the course. the adjectives students used to describe the writing activity were: interesting, beneficial, productive, improving, absurd, improvement, expression, and entertaining. the jw group expressed positive feelings about writing and the effectiveness of the course. the five-minute journal writing at the end of the lesson was identified as the most popular activity by the students. even though the entries had no audience, they felt comfortable about being able to write on a topic of their own interest, which gave them a genuine purpose. the positive attitude of the majority shows that journal writing had an indirect impact on motivation. although, for this group, the post-test scores reveal no register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 31 improvement in their writing proficiency, it certainly seems to have impacted their engagement and self-confidence. the fact that in both experimental groups, students responded positively to the journal writing activity stresses the expressive paradigm of the writing activity (hyland, 2016). when writing is treated as a communicative act rather than a completed product, students engage more and develop a more positive attitude towards academic writing. teacher’s perspective the final research question aimed at eliciting the teacher’s attitude towards the experience of implementing journal writing into her academic writing lesson. the analysis of the teacher interview generated interesting findings that can be summarized under the following headings: authentic written communication, understanding students, passive protest, change in student attitudes, and extra work. authentic communication the teacher highlighted that the most important gain of this experience, especially with the djw group, was the authentic communication between her and the majority of her students. she reported that the content of the journal entries usually centered around asking for advice (e.g. ‘how can i improve my vocabulary?’, ‘i have too much work to do…how can i do it?’), sharing good news (e.g. going to a job interview), sharing past experiences, goals and future plans, explaining their life outside of the classroom (e.g. parents coming to aynur yürekli, anita afacan 32 stay, how difficult life is on your own), sharing observations about life (e.g. how people take things for granted after living on their own for the first time and having no hot water…how getting the hot water made him so happy), explaining injustices in the world, explaining/recommending a film or music, discussing feelings about the class, talking about the workload of courses – sharing worries and areas of anxiety. she pointed out these were instances of genuine communication expressed in the medium of writing. the expressive and communicative nature of writing (hyland, 2016) affected both the students and the teacher positively. the fact that real communication was the key to the content of the journal entries, was also confirmed by the teacher. understanding students in relation to the content, the teacher highlighted many instances of better understanding of students as individuals. she did not engage students in journal writing in the control group, and did not read the journals written by experimental group-2; nevertheless, she noted that ‘even though i did not have a dialogue with these groups in the same way as the other group, i was more aware of what might be happening to them outside of the classroom because they were in the same faculties as my other group. i was also more tolerant towards them when it came to a lack of interest that sometimes happens in the classroom’. she added that she was better able to sympathize and had more background information to help her engage and connect with her students. she had not consciously focused on these issues before. register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 33 as lestari (2018) also pointed out, dialogue journals are a means for individualized feedback and, as such, help teachers gather more information about their students. the reflection of the teacher in this study clearly showed that knowing more about the students helped her understand them better. passive protest another interesting area that emerged from the interview was the fact that two students adopted a passive protest type of behavior regarding journal entries, particularly in experimental group-a, where these were being collected. one student refused to write his thoughts in english, but rather than doing nothing, used a variety of other forms, mediums or languages to communicate, such as drawing pictures to illustrate his feelings, recreating a dialogue from a famous children’s movie (the bee movie), writing out a children’s rhyme (what shall we do with the drunken sailor?), creating a picture from words studied in the class (creating a face using only reporting verbs), writing in morse code/computer code and writing in french and italian (see appendix 2 for sample entries). rather than reacting, the teacher accepted this as his way of communicating his thoughts. another student, when given the notebook for diary entries in experimental group-a, initially described it as childish, like in primary school, but became engaged in writing as the course progressed. some studies confirm that not all students have a positive approach to journal writing, which may result from lack of time, motivation, or dislike (hapsari, santosa and asib, 2018). here, too, a few students initially resisted or found alternative ways to approach task. as the key is to use writing as a aynur yürekli, anita afacan 34 way for communicating, the teacher gave students the freedom to choose the medium they felt most comfortable with. change in student attitudes the teacher said that she could clearly notice a change in students’ attitude towards writing in the experimental groups, in particular, in the dialogue journal writing group. she quotes one student who, initially had a negative attitude, but once engaged in journal writing, asked ‘teacher, if you have time, can i write a bit more?’ and she then wrote for 15 minutes, staying after class was over. the teacher emphasized that most students were less intrinsically motivated to write the academic tasks required in the course, yet more willing to do the much less constrained journal writing. she said that this did not disturb her, as she believed they were gaining confidence in terms of writing, which they could eventually transfer to academic writing. a positive attitude was one of the outcomes of the focus group meetings with the students, too. the response of the teacher verified this. besides the positive effect of journal writing on writing proficiency of students, the literature supports the affective nature of journal writing as well (lestari, 2018; gruwell, 20017; mukti, 2016; debbagh, 2017). one of the most valuable effects of this study was the change of student attitudes towards writing, which was also quite overt and noticeable for the teacher. extra work despite all the benefits, the teacher also mentioned that it was a timeconsuming task, especially in larger classes. as the students wrote every week, register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 35 she tried to finish her responses to all entries within the week, so students could see them before the new entry. however, her final assessment of the experience of journal writing, and the burden it presented, was that it had been worthwhile: ‘reading the notebooks and writing comments did take some time, but i always looked forward to reading the entries and never ever viewed it as a burden. the time spent reading and replying was time well spent and felt like i was contributing something to the class, students and myself in the process. it helped me change the way of approaching some issues in the classroom and gave me a deeper understanding of what students need and want from an instructor.’ among the few drawbacks of journal writing, increased workload on the side of the teacher is the most prominent one (hapsari, santosa and asib, 2018; rana, 2018). it goes without saying that more work is involved in reading journal entries and giving individualized feedback on the various topics students may want to write about. yet, the gains far outweigh the burdens for the teacher in this study. however, it should be kept in mind that the class sizes of the groups in this study ranged between 24-26. it could have been less manageable with larger groups. therefore, class size seems to be a determinant factor when applying dialogue journal writing in the efl classroom. conclusion there have been a variety of attempts to facilitate the improvement of writing skills, especially targeted towards improving writing fluency, particularly in efl settings. as mentioned earlier, extended writing is not a skill in daily use, yet students at english medium universities are expected to perform writing tasks in english quite frequently in academic settings. journal aynur yürekli, anita afacan 36 writing and dialogue journal writing were introduced as alternative approaches to writing designed to lessen the writing apprehension of students, to engage them in authentic written communication, and to get them into the habit of writing freely. especially dialogue journal writing promotes students’ writing development on various grounds. it serves as a tool for students to practice the language intensively in a non-threatening environment by lowering affective factors involved in language production. furthermore, it gives students the chance to produce comprehensible output using their existing knowledge. finally, dialogue journal writing enhances real communication between the teacher and the students, highlighting the expressive function of writing. the results of this study refer to a two-fold gain. first, students were able to practice and develop their writing skills by engaging in authentic writing within a more flexible environment in terms of topic choice and teacher feedback, which was limited to content only. even though the writings that students produced for the journals were non-academic in nature, there is evidence that creating such opportunities will eventually result in an indirect impact on their academic writing, as students develop confidence and fluency. as part of the writing process, students are expected to generate content, ideally with little apprehension or anxiety. the journal writing experience lays the ground for students to practice this in a non-threatening setting. the second outcome of this study is related to the teacher engaged in this journal writing experience and her professional growth. despite the extra burden, and the reluctance of some of the students, journal writing offers gains, register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 37 including invaluable insights to the teacher on the students as individuals. once connected to them through authentic communication, seeing the change in approaches and attitudes to the teacher, based on more personal understandings, the gains outweigh any extra burden. in some way, the engagement in student entries has extended the teacher’s contact time with her students, which is considered important for student growth as well. this study focused specifically on the affective sides of writing and whether lowering these and creating a bond with the teacher would indirectly affect students writing proficiency. no analysis was done to examine the direct effect of journal writing on students’ academic writing fluency. further research is needed to uncover the specific areas of writing proficiency that are impacted the most by journal writing. references abdolmanafi rokni, s. j., & seifi, a. 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(1995). three functions of output in second language learning. in g. cook & b. seidhofer (eds.), principle and practice in applied linguistics (125-144). oxford: oxford university press. http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/digests/dialogue_journals.html register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 43 tin, t.b. (2004). creative writing in efl/esl classrooms. universiti putra malaysia press. tuan, l. t. (2010). enhancing efl learners’ writing skill via journal writing. english language teaching, 3(3), 81-88. weigle, s. c. (2005). second language writing expertise. in johnson, k. (ed.), expertise in second language learning and teaching (pp. 128-149). new york, ny: palgrave macmillan. aynur yürekli, anita afacan 44 appendix-1 samples of student diaries and teacher feedback register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 45 aynur yürekli, anita afacan 46 register journal vol. 13, no. 1, (2020), pp.1-48 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 47 appendix-2 samples of extra-ordinary student entries aynur yürekli, anita afacan 48 microsoft word 08_register 2020 no 2 famala register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020), pp. 371-388 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i2.371-388 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn : 2503-040x 371 investigating lexical diversity of children’s oral narratives: a case study of l1 speaking famala eka sanhadi rahayu,1 aries utomo,2* ririn setyowati3 1,2,3 department of english literature, faculty of cultural sciences, universitas mulawarman, samarinda – indonesia *corresponding author email: aries.utomo91@fib.unmul.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v13i2.371-388 submission track: received: 26-08-2020 final revision: 14-11-2020 available online: 01-12-2020 copyright © 2020 famala eka sanhadi rahayu, aries utomo, ririn setyowati this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract lexical diversity is one of the language tools used to measure varied words or vocabulary produced by learners both spoken and written. this research aims to investigate lexical diversity of children narratives produced by children orally. the research design of this research is a case study supported by quantitative data. meanwhile, the subjects of this research are seven children around 6-9 years old. regarding data collection, the researchers employed a narrative storytelling based on a picture drawn by the subjects. analysing data, ttr (type-token -ratio) was used to measure the lexical diversity gained from the subjects by supporting relevant theories to explain the phenomena. based on the findings, it is has been found that (1) older children have higher lexical diversity than the younger ones, (2) younger children produced higher lexical frequency (word tokens) than the older ones, and (3) individual variations showed anomalies of the result in which older children were expected to have higher lexical frequency but the result showed the reverse english. keywords: lexical diversity; children; oral narratives; case study famala eka sanhadi rahayu, aries utomo, ririn setyowati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 372 introduction language acquisition is one of topics discussed in psycholinguistics along with language production and language comprehension (maftoon & shakouri, 2012). in linguistics studies, researchers have shown more interests in second language acquisition, which placed the first language acquisition aside. however, first language acquisition still correlates with how second language acquisition is elaborated. examining first language acquisition with other theories from psycholinguistics, for instance, language productivity is still uncommon, but interesting. therefore, the current study has given rise to the explanation about children’s language production in their first language. the study of children’s language acquisition is a field of study, which has already been interesting for linguists over a hundred years. the second characteristic of child language is that it has accumulated a great amount of information about children’s linguistic behaviour over years. for instance, children’s language studies have provided a multitude of data, such as their first words, the kinds of words children utter, and the kinds of errors they make. it shows facts about what actually happens in children’s language (ingram, 1989). the field of child language acquisition is one that has gone through several changes over the years in both methods and theoretical orientation used. in advance, the theory of acquisition has two distinct components; they are competence factors and performance factors. according to chomsky (as cited in ridge, 2013), competence consists of the mental representations of linguistic rules that constitute the speaker-hearer’s internal grammar. performance consists of the use of this grammar in the comprehension and production of language. competence factors deal with principles related to the construction of the grammar or in another word. it focuses on the nature of the child’s rule system. on the other hand, performance factors focus on the psychological processes the child uses in learning the language. therefore, performance factors dig deeper into the child’s comprehension and production of language (ingram, 1989) in competence factors, there are two possible principles that have been proposed, one dealing with acquisition of morphology and the other is the investigating lexical diversity of children’s oral narratives …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 373 acquisition of syntax. being gained an example of english language context, in which native english children have a tendency to overgeneralize the morphological inflectional suffixes in english to irregular forms, saying things like ‘mans’ and ‘breaked’. dresher (1981) has proposed a principle to account for these overgeneralizations as part of a detailed analysis of the learnability of old english morphology. he also explains that consistency against the highly valued rules must be adopted by a learner consistently and is called as generalization principle (dresher, 1981). relating to this research, it aims to measure children’s ability to produce words whether consistently or not. in another point, generalization principle is not sufficient to account for the acquisition of morphological endings. to account for this, another principle is needed which is elsewhere. ingram (1989) has called the lexical principle, which is the principle that learns individual paradigmatic alternations as separate lexical items. this principle claims the child acquires paradigmatic variants like ‘book, books’, ‘cow, cows’ as separate words and later realizes that those words are same words with different morpheme ‘-s’. having these two theories are not enough to explain the condition under which the one yields to the other, therefore it is rational to take the principle into account. the child could conclude that there are two forms of the plural for ‘foot’, these being ‘foots’ and ‘feet’. wexler and culicover (1980) who have led the research into principles of language acquisition, propose the uniqueness principle to make this last step. the principle, in its most general form, will tell the child to select only one of the above forms, the one that is used in the child’s linguistic environment. as with the other principles, we will leave its exact formulation open. these three principles are: the lexical principle, the generalization principle, and the uniqueness principle. those are kinds of three principles that will be part of the theory of acquisition that attempts to explain morphological acquisition. it is not surprising to realize that children can vary greatly in their language use. this individual variation among children is a feature that is emphasized by some and minimized by others. ingram (1989) proposed three sources for variation between children, which are performance variation, environmental variation, and linguistic variation. performance variation famala eka sanhadi rahayu, aries utomo, ririn setyowati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 374 determines individual capacities of abilities of the child that lead to preferences for particular linguistic subsystems. on the other hand, it relates to environmental effects, which determine the richness of lexicon acquired by the children. the last is linguistic variation, which is due to the range of structural possibilities allowed by universal grammar. children have different ways to learn their first and second language acquisition including the development of their lexical ability. they may be given the same things to say, but they have a different interpretation in saying it, by using different vocabularies. it can be caused by the influence of social condition around them. the knowledge acquired is largely of an unconscious sort (gass & selinker, 2008). in acquiring a language, a learner learns the language through many ways. in countries such as england and france, many children are socialized in a variety of the standard language, and it seems clear what their first language is. but the majority of the world population is multilingual, and for many people there is no a clear-cut to constitutes their first, second or third language (de bot, 2004). in addition, krashen & terrell (1983) define that ‘acquisition’ as the product of a ‘subconscious’ process is very similar to the one children use in learning their first language, and learning as the product of formal teaching, which results in ‘conscious’ knowledge about the language, but the distinction cannot be as simple as that. in another definition, language acquisition is also studied for second language and also known as second language acquisition. siegel (2010) defines second language acquisition as the study of second language acquisition (often abbreviated as sla), which examines how people who already speak a first language (l1) subsequently acquire a second or additional language (l2). saville-troike (2012) argues that second language acquisition (sla) refers to both the study of individual and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and the process of learning that language. in the development of acquiring a language, lexical complexity is known as how someone chooses words in orally or written language. lu (2012) explains that lexical complexity (lc) talks about the writer’s ability to communicate effectively in written form. lc is presented in second language acquisition investigating lexical diversity of children’s oral narratives …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 375 having three kinds of it, namely: (1) lexical density, (2) diversity/variability, and (3) sophistication/rareness. lexical diversity variables have been applied to many areas of linguistic investigation. these include first and second language classrooms (foster & tavakoli, 2009), assessment of writing in second language ability (akbari, 2017; arya et al., 2011; gonzález, 2017; gregori-signes & clavel-arroitia, 2015; juanggo, 2018; kalantari & gholami, 2017; koizumi & in’nami, 2012), assessment of speaking and writing (yu, 2010), and language impairment (silverman & ratner, 2002; stokes & fletcher, 2000; watkins et al., 1995). according to malvern et al. (2004), lexical variation means the same as lexical diversity and the range of vocabulary and avoidance of repetition and is measured by comparing the number of different words with the total number of words written, traditionally using the type–token ratio (ttr). in this article, lexical diversity is chosen and investigated by the researchers. lexical diversity/variation (lv) is a measure to assess how varied words or vocabulary are produced by learners in a text. in other words, in the production of language, the speaker or the writer has to use a large number of different words with no or little repetition in their utterances and writings to count as highly lexically diverse (juanggo, 2018). lexical diversity is viewed as referring to the range of vocabulary in a piece of writing and includes only the breadth of vocabulary knowledge (malvern et al., 2004). wang & wang (2014) also add that quantifying the level of lexical diversity involves identifying how often words are used in a text. based on the explanations above, it can be concluded that lexical diversity is a vocabulary mastery having by someone, which is expressed in the form of writing. besides that, it draws how often words are used by someone in a text. in measuring the lexical diversity, the ttr (typetoken ratio) is commonly used in various investigations. to know the variation of different words, it was employed in the case of type and the total number of words in a text as tokens. recent studies have shown a big interest in investigating the lexical diversity in l2 context (arya et al., 2011; carlisle & fleming, 2003; gregorisignes & clavel-arroitia, 2015) and efl context (juanggo, 2018) but none of them has studied lexical diversity in l1 context. most of the previous research famala eka sanhadi rahayu, aries utomo, ririn setyowati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 376 gain data from written text (akbari, 2017; arya et al., 2011; gonzález, 2017; gregori-signes & clavel-arroitia, 2015; juanggo, 2018; kalantari & gholami, 2017; koizumi & in’nami, 2012), the students’ understanding on reading (carlisle & fleming, 2003), and children’s speaking impairment (silverman & ratner, 2002; stokes & fletcher, 2000; watkins et al., 1995). therefore, this study attempts to see the lexical complexity from different point of view that is from oral presentation through the narrative story. not only do context and source of data differ between the present study and the previous study. the present researchers then realized that l1 lexical diversity is also important to depict the children’s language acquisition, which can be a factor influencing how they acquire their l2. therefore, this research takes place in l1 context. this article is focused on (1) the lexical diversity at the critical period children (6-9 years old) and (2) how the children produce lexical diversity using ttr measurement through their oral language in telling pictures, which was drawn by themselves. research method the research design used was a case study supported by quantitative data. yin (2012) explains that case study is used in many situations to contribute to knowledge of individual, group, organizational, social, political, and related phenomena. the interviewed-based qualitative approach and corpus study approach are employed to find the children’s lexical diversity gained from narrative story they made. the interview-based approach are used to gain data (lexicon produced by the children), which were transcribed in to written text and considered as corpus data of this study. the subjects of this research were 7 children aged from 6-9-year-old who consider passing the golden age (until 5 years old) and are still in critical period (3-9 years old). those subjects were chosen regardless of their social background and education, which can be the factors affecting their lexical diversity. so, the researchers randomly took seven children to avoid bias in looking for particular answers. analyzing the data, the oral narratives were conducted twice, in which the children were requested to draw a picture and tell the story about their pictures in the first presentation. in the second chance, investigating lexical diversity of children’s oral narratives …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 377 the children were asked to tell the story based on a sequence of pictures to reveal their lexical diversity. the oral narratives were recorded and transcribed to help the researchers analyze the data. the researchers also considered taking the longest oral narrative from the two data obtained. to calculate the lexical diversity, the researcher employed ttr (types-token-ratio), which could depict how varied the children’s words are. ttr describes the ratio between the number of different words (types) and the total number of words (tokens) (malvern, d., richards, b., chipere, n. & puran, 2004). for instance, there are 14 tokens but 12 types in the following sentence: i mary goes to edinburg next week, and she intends going to washington next month. the two occurrences of to and next each belong to the same type. the type-token-ratio is calculated and reported as a percentage using the following formula: ttr however, a significant weakness of the ttr method when it is used to compare texts is the sensitivity of the measure to variability in text length (nation & webb, 2011). as a text gets longer, there are fewer chances for new types to appear, because a high proportion of the frequent types have already appeared. however, ttr is still used for comparing text production (johansson, 2009). in this study, the researchers assume that text production will not be too long since the participants are children; therefore, the use of ttr in this study is acceptable. findings & discussion lexical diversity is a vocabulary variation produced by the participants, which is measured by dividing the number of word type by the word tokens. the word token itself is also called lexical frequency, which depicts how many words are produced in a text both spoken or written. according to the definition, there are two main findings in this result of study: 1) the older children have higher lexical diversity than the younger ones, and 2) the younger ones produce higher lexical frequency in this study reflected by the number of tokens produced by the participants, than the younger ones. famala eka sanhadi rahayu, aries utomo, ririn setyowati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 378 based on the findings, the researchers identify and classify data found on table 1. as previously mentioned, lexical diversity depicts how varied words or vocabulary are produced by the children. in other words, in the production of language, the children have to use a large number of different words with no or little repetition in their utterance and writing to count as highly lexically diverse (juanggo, 2018). according to table 1, lexical diversity is degraded from the older children to the younger children, which means older children have a higher lexical diversity than the younger ones. however, an anomaly happens with p4, who shows her lexical diversity as the lowest among them. lexical diversity, as mentioned previously, strongly correlates with the number of word types and tokens which the participants produce. it means the participants who produce more word tokens (as in p6 and p7) but have same number of word types were naturally low in lexical diversity. it can be seen from the table which shows that they produce more than one hundred words which three times or more higher than what other older participants produce. a similar number of word types for all participants have different in producing word tokens that lead to this result to take lexical frequency or word tokens into accounts. table 1. data of lexical diversity gained from participants no. subjects age lexical diversity 1 p1 (female) 9 years old 0,62771 2 p2 (female) 9 years old 0,82674 3 p3 (male) 9 years old 0,79487 4 p4 (female) 9 years old 0,35 5 p5 (female) 8 years old 0,584415 6 p6 (female) 7 years old 0,54845 7 p7 (male) 6 years old 0,36322 table 2. lexical frequency no. subjects age token 1 p1 (female) 9 years old 58 2 p2 (female) 9 years old 80 3 p3 (male) 9 years old 39 4 p4 (female) 9 years old 55 5 p5 (female) 8 years old 69 6 p6 (female) 7 years old 301 7 p7 (male) 6 years old 223 investigating lexical diversity of children’s oral narratives …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 379 lexical frequency or word token is the number of word occurences in the participants’ narrative texts regardless of their types. it means that lexical frequency counts a repetitive occurence into different count. this study reports that younger children (p6 and p7) produce higher lexical frequency than the older ones. the table above shows that p6 produce 301 word tokens and p7 produce 223 word tokens. meanwhile, p1-p5 produce 39-80 word tokens in which the value is three times less than what p6 and p7 produce. in addition, p3, who is included in older children (9 years old), showed the fewest word tokens among the participants by producing 39 word tokens in his narrative. this result is different with the researchers’s pre-assumption that older children produce higher lexical frequency than the younger ones. the gap between the researchers’ pre-assumption and the result of the study can be explained by the existence of individual variation influencing the children in acquiring their first language. in spite of generalization principle and lexical principle, there is a uniqueness principle, which needs to be taken into account, which explains the individual variation that may cause the exceptional result of the study (ingram, 1989). individual variation covers three variations: performance variation, environmental variation and linguistic variation. children are varied in terms of their performance. each child has his or her own tendency to be a talkative or not. children who are genetically talkative naturally talk more and produce more lexical frequency than those who are not, while environmental variation, on the other hand, relates to environmental effects, which determine the richness of lexicon acquired by the children. environmental variation closely deals with the information inputs that the children get from their surrounding. this variation is strongly affected by the children’s hobby, family preference, and children social life. children who like reading, watching tv, are talking with others are more active linguistically. it means that they are likely to produce more words than the average children. this aspect will surely affect their lexical frequency although it sometimes does not go in line with the lexical diversity. it is due to lexical frequency matters on how many words are produced regardless of the types, so it can be possible that children produce repeated words. the last is linguistic variation, which is related to the linguistic system embedded in the participants. the individual famala eka sanhadi rahayu, aries utomo, ririn setyowati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 380 variations are the best theory to explain the phenomena depicted in the result of the study. therefore, the researchers present the finding by highlighting each participant’s individual variation as in the following paragraph. p1 is a 9-year-old girl and a fourth grade student in one state elementary school located in north samarinda. her hobby is drawing flowers. all words that she produced are influenced by flowers. while the researcher took the data, the participant showed her interests in telling a story related to flowers and most of the words are visually mentioned in the picture. she could make a difference by several word colours related to the flowers drawn by her, such as: merah, kuning, hijau, putih, and kuning including her reasons to choose those colours. p2 is a 9-year-old girl and a fourth grade student in one private islamic elementary school located in north samarinda. her hobby is travelling. all the words she produced are influenced by the hobby. while the researcher took the data, the participant showed her interests in telling a story related to travelling in a village where many children play with her. most of the words are visually mentioned in the picture, but there are no any special words found from p2. she just employed usual words, which are produced in her age generally. p3 is a nine-year-old boy who has his own imagination. he spends his day alone at home when his mother goes to work and never has enough time to interact with his parents or friends. it made him feel a bit shy when someone (the researcher) asked him to draw a picture and describe its story. he is actually a big fan of ultraman movie, which is expected to appear in his story but unfortunately he did not say anything about it. it was because he thought it was formal-interview, which required him to act unnaturally. in the first attempt, he mentioned an unusual word such as handphone to be associated with the scenery that he drew. in his drawing, he told about his family with his own activity which means that it might be a thing they did regularly like ayah merokok and mama memegang hp. instead of talking about something he liked such as ultraman or other boyish figures, he prefered to talk about his daily life. in the second occasion, he told about ultraman and felt interested in telling the story but as soon as the researcher started the recording he ended his story. his social withdrawal deterred his show inevitably. investigating lexical diversity of children’s oral narratives …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 381 p4 is a 9-year-old girl and a fourth grade student in one state elementary school located in north samarinda. her hobby is drawing mountains. all the words she produced are influenced by the mountains. while the researcher took the data, the participant showed her interest in telling a story relating to the mountains and most of the words are visually mentioned in the picture. there are several special words used by her, such as: petak. it indicates that she understands the word. p5 is an 8-year-old girl in the third grade of elementary school in samarinda. she has a picture about a house. her concept of a house is that it has a fence, tree, grass around it, but in a short explanation. she has explained that she could only explain briefly because she drew a small picture. p6 is a 7-year-old girl and she is now in second grade of elementary school in samarinda. she is an expressive girl who likes singing, dancing, and telling stories. she drew and told about a zoo with some animals stated in her drawing namely a giraffe and a tiger. there was an animal that she did not draw in her picture but she told about it, it is an elephant. she said that the elephant is a wild and dangerous animal like the tiger. from her story about elephants, it shows that this girl is imaginative because she could tell something that did not exist in her picture because this animal has a similarity with the tiger that she explained. the similarities between the tiger and the elephant are wild and dangerous especially for the people around them. therefore, that is the reason why she drew some fences to protect people from those wild animals. during the story, p6 often involved the researcher to build communication by uttering the interrogative statement ‘terus kita lanjutkan dengan binatang-binatang yang lain, mau ndak?’. some interesting words that she produced were zoo, buas, pagar and hati-hati. she understood well about those correlated words by assuming that by playing at the zoo, we must be careful and always take care of ourselves because there are some wild animals in that place. p7 is a six-year-old boy who just finished kindergarten. his hobby is watching disney junior channel all day long so all the words he produced are influenced by the movie he watched. he often watched almost all cartoons showing in the channel even if the shows are repetitive. therefore, he almost remembered all the plots and even the dialogue, which influenced his daily famala eka sanhadi rahayu, aries utomo, ririn setyowati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 382 vocabulary. it also happens in the time when the researcher took the data. he first drew a laptop and showing that the laptop is loading by drawing a loading icon in the laptop. instead of drawing a full-paper drawing, he drew a series of pictures and telling the series of story according to the picture. in the first attempt, he mentioned laptop and loading and telling a story about an invention but he struggled to describe it. in another attempt, he told a story without drawing it because he was not into drawing. when the researcher collected the data, the participant showed his interest in a fiction story so most of the words are usually mentioned in a fiction story. the phrases like tongkat kegelapan, tongkat cahaya, dahsyat are mentioned in the data. he interestingly told the story but often repeated his words since he showed symptoms of mild stuttering. however, his word production was inevitably amazing. discussion according to the findings above, the researchers found that older children tend to have higher lexical diversity than the younger ones except for the participant number 4, who produced the lowest lexical diversity among them. however, the younger children (p6 and p7) produced more word tokens than the older children. they showed about four to eight times more word tokens than the older children, which gives a reason why their lexical diversity is half as low as the older ones’. in a fewer words story, the children will have a bigger chance to avoid repetitive words since they only speak about two or three sentences. on the other hand, the children with more words in their story will find that repetitive words are inevitable. they produced more than twenty sentences so the chances to repeat the words are higher. gregori-signes & clavel-arroitia (2015) explain that a high type/token ratio indicates how well a learner expresses himself with his own vocabulary and not the types of words. in this research, the researchers explain the phenomena created by the gap between the researchers’ pre-assumption and the result of the study by using uniqueness principles, so called individual variations (ingram, 1989). three variations are covered in individual variations: performance variations, environmental variations, and linguistic variations are explained as factors that determine the number of lexical diversity and lexical frequency in the investigating lexical diversity of children’s oral narratives …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 383 participants’ oral narratives. however, the researchers only investigate the explanation of individual variation based on performance and environmental variations since to investigate linguistic variation, a complex and advance treatment needs to be done to find out the linguistic system used in each participant. in terms of performance variations, some children who are silent and others, talkative. in this study, p6 and p7 are two examples of talkative children; they could produce more words. on the other hand, p4 is a silent child, which is confirmed by her mother, who said the daughter does not talk much. she may have many things she wants to say about her drawing but it turns out it is kept inside as what silent children do. on the other hand, environmental variations also influence the children’s lexical diversity and frequency. environmental variations cover several aspects such as the children’s hobby, family condition, and children’s social life. take p6 and p7 as instances, both of the children have many relatives who talk with them a lot, which influences their vocabulary input. besides, those who always talk with them are adults. adults usually have difficult words for some children to understand but if they eventually understand it, it surely enriches their vocabulary. watching movies is also a vocabulary source especially for p7, who watched a translated english movie, which provides sophisticated words for the children. the different thing happens for p3, who always at home if he does not go to school. living with his working parents and no other relatives make his chance to meet people is only at school so he does not have more input to acquire more words like what experience by p6 and p7. it reflects the realization that some words may be useful to some learners even if they are not generally frequent in the language, depending on the specific needs that learners may have. beside individual variations, the researchers found that the situation when administering the study has influenced the result of the study. it is an unfamiliar situation, which has mentioned that in case of p3, he felt uncomfortable when the researcher asked him to draw a picture and to tell the story. he presented himself like he is at school so what he did is more formal than what the researcher expected. a similar situation happened with other children, but for famala eka sanhadi rahayu, aries utomo, ririn setyowati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 384 p6 and p7 who are accustomed to talking with adults do not find any difficulties talking with the researchers and did what the researchers asked to do. the researchers indicate that the participants gained problems in speaking. boonkit (2010) explains through principles of speaking, namely: to give learners practice both fluency and accuracy, and provide opportunities for them to talk using group work or pair work in order to motivate their speaking. conclusion from the findings and discussion, the researchers have come to the conclusion that can be stated by the researchers related to lexical diversity of children oral narratives, which goes as follows: older children tend to have higher lexical diversity than the younger ones do. however, there is a case where a participant showed lower lexical diversity than the younger children did. younger participants in this study showed higher lexical frequency than the older participants did. however, this phenomenon is closely related to individual variations that distinguish each participant, which cannot be generalized. some students are silent and others are talkative. environmental variation is also a matter in word production since what they have in daily life will influence them much. an unfamiliar situation also becomes a factor affecting children when they produce words.[rgt] references akbari, n. 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(2010). lexical diversity in writing and speaking task performances. applied linguistics, 31(2), 236–259. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp024 famala eka sanhadi rahayu, aries utomo, ririn setyowati register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 388 this page intentionally left blank. 221 cross cultural conflicts in not without my daughter setyoningsih state institute for islamic studies (stain) kudus jl. conge ngembalrejo po box 51 kudus, central java, indonesia ning_kds@yahoo.com abstract this study aims to identify and analyze the cultural conflicts between the main characters in the novel not without my daughter (nw). the analysis was carried out through the following process. the first procedure related to problems of classification i.e. cross cultural conflicts. the next phase of data analysis related to the colletion data of cross cultural conflicts in nw. the last phase is presentation the result of the analysis that had been conducted in this research. having analyzed the data, the researcher concludes that cultural conflicts occured in nw because of stereotype, prejudice, and ethnocentrism. cultural conflicts can be prevented if we increase our awareness of our own attitudes and learn to be sensitive to cross-cultural differences. however, if we develop intercultural sensitivity, it does not mean that we need to lose our cultural identities-but rather that we recognize cultural influences within ourselves and within others. keywords : culture, cross-cultural conflict, culture understanding abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi dan menganalisis konflik budaya antara karakter utama dalam novel not without my daughter (nw). analisis ini dilakukan melalui proses berikut. prosedur pertama terkait dengan masalah klasifikasi yaitu konflik lintas budaya. tahap berikutnya dari analisis data terkait dengan pengumpulan data tentang konflik lintas budaya pada nw. tahap terakhir adalah penyajian hasil analisis yang telah dilakukan dalam penelitian ini. setelah menganalisis data, peneliti menyimpulkan bahwa konflik budaya terjadi di nw karena stereotip, prasangka, dan etnosentrisme. konflik budaya dapat dicegah jika kita meningkatkan kesadaran terhadap sikap kita sendiri dan belajar untuk peka terhadap perbedaan budaya. namun, jika kita mengembangkan sensitivitas interkultural, itu tidak berarti bahwa kita harus kehilangan identitas tapi lebih karena budaya kita menyadari pengaruh budaya dalam diri kita sendiri dan pada orang lain. mailto:ning_kds@yahoo.com 222 kata kunci : budaya , konflik lintas budaya , pemahaman budaya introduction learning language is considered as learning its culture since language is part of our culture (nasr 1985:1). in damen‘s opinion (1987:211-213), as people learn a target language, their learning activity includes learning the culture of the native speaker. moreover, he assumes that culture learning and; language learning are inextricably linked so there can be no question as to whether culture should be taught or not. hence, we may conclude that learning a new culture is an essential part of learning a new language. leveridge (2008) stated that teachers must instruct their students on the cultural background of language usage. if one teaches language without teaching about the culture in which it operates, the students are learning empty or meaningless symbols or they may attach the incorrect meaning to what is being taught. the students, she added, when using the learnt language, may use the language inappropriately or within the wrong cultural context, thus defeating the purpose of learning a language. because language is so closely entwined with culture, language teachers entering a different culture must respect their cultural values. as englebert (2004) describes: ―…to teach a foreign language is also to teach a foreign culture, and it is important to be sensitive to the fact that our students, our colleges, our administrators, and, if we live abroad, our neighbours, do not share all of our cultural paradigms.‖ the implications of language being completely entwined in culture, in regards for language teaching and language policy are far reaching. language teachers must instruct their students on the cultural background of language 223 usage, choose culturally appropriate teaching styles, and explore culturally based linguistic differences to promote understanding instead of misconceptions or prejudices. language policy must be used to create awareness and understandings of cultural differences, and written to incorporate the cultural values of those being taught. (leveridge, 2008) recent studies focus on the seamless relationship between l2 teaching and target culture teaching, especially over the last decade with the writings of scholars such as byram (1989; 1994a; 1994b; 1997a; 1997b) and kramsch (1988; 1993; 1996; 2001). people involved in language teaching have again begun to understand the intertwined relation between culture and language (pulverness, 2003). it has been emphasized that without the study of culture, teaching l2 is inaccurate and incomplete. for l2 students, language study seems senseless if they know nothing about the people who speak the target language or the country in which the target language is spoken. acquiring a new language means a lot more than the manipulation of syntax and lexicon. bada stated (2000: 101), ―the need for cultural literacy in elt arises mainly from the fact that most language learners, not exposed to cultural elements of the society in question, seem to encounter significant hardship in communicating meaning to native speakers.‖ in addition, nowadays the l2 culture is presented as an interdisciplinary core in many l2 curricula designs and textbooks (sysoyev & donelson, 2002). according to stewart (1972:7), cross-cultural problems occur as there are differences between patterns of thinking, assumptions and values in different cultures. the problems often result in misunderstanding and lead to ineffectual activity in face-to-face communication. by having different cultural background, people sometimes can be in conflict with other people. the conflict happens because there is strong contradiction of norms that belong to 224 each culture. as a result of strong influence of their culture, people often have ethnocentric, stereotype, prejudice and racist attitudes toward people whose culture is different from theirs. considering the above explanation, this paper identifies and analyzes cross cultural conflicts caused by misinterpretation, stereotype, prejudice and ethnocentrism found in a novel not without my daughter. the nature of conflict according to avruch, conflict is a feature of all human societies, and potentially an aspect of all social relationships. however, ideas about the root causes of conflict differ widely, and how one conceives of conflict determines to a large degree the sorts of methods we ultimately design to manage or resolve it. he added that the first orientation to conflict (and the world) is sometimes called ―realism‖. this conception of conflict roots it in the material world, as competition between individuals or groups over incompatible goals or scarce resources, or over the sources of power needed to reach those goals or control these resources, including the denial of control to others. the second one is ―constructivism‖, a different conception which locates the basic causes of conflict not so much in material scarcity as in divergent perceptions or beliefs about the nature of the situation, the other party, or oneself. but these terms, and the dichotomous way of thinking they enjoin, in actuality mask a great deal of social and behavioral complexity, both about the nature of conflict and about the possibilities for managing or resolving it. literature indicates the multi-faceted nature of conflict. mayer (2000:3) states that conflict may be seen as a feeling or as inconsistent worldviews. augsburger (1992:25) indicated that ―conflict is universal, cultural and 225 individual.‖ some authors indicated that cultural differences and misunderstandings create a major source of conflict (hermann, et al, 1997:207). source of conflict the sources of conflict play a critical role in determining appropiate ways to manage conflict. based on the research conducted by joan c doerr (2004) in her dissertation, participants of her research referred to six dimensions of conflict and one of them is the communication process. in line with that, mayer (2000:16) stated: ‖culture affects conflict because it is embedded in individuals‘ communication styles, history, way of dealing with emotions, values, and structures. communication is a complicated process which is affected by different cultural backgrounds. communication takes places anytime a person receives information and assigns meaning to the words or behaviour (bergeron, 2000:38). that behaviour may be conscious or unconscious and it may be intentional or unintentional. communication is a complex process, which is used to create understanding between people (rutter, 1996:24). as hesselgrave (1991:46) remarked:.....effective communication is not easily achieved and miscommunication is not easy to avoid.‖ the process becomes even more difficult when the source and the participant originate from different cultures. the degree of difficulty is due to dissimilarity between the two original cultures (myers, et al, 2001:98). the greater the variation between cultural backgrounds, the more obstacles there are to communication. 226 culture levine and baxter (1987) state that culture has been described as the system of knowledge, beliefs, and behaviour shared by a group of people. moreover, people use cultural knowledge and beliefs to understand their world (what exists), their own experience (what happens to them) and to guide their own actions and behaviour (what they do). therefore, when people share a culture, this means that they also have a shared language and communication style as well as shared customs, beliefs, attitudes and values. this shared knowledge is learned and is passed on from generation to generation. in addition, culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behaviour acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts (brislin 1981:5). culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (sherman 1980:77). in short, culture is the system of knowledge, belief, and behaviour, which are shared by and transmitted among members of a society. in conclusion, then, culture can be defined in terms of the continually changing patterns of learned behaviour, which are shared by and transmitted among members of a society. culture and language damen (1987:120-124) views that language and culture have strong connection in which language serves to facilitate classification and order. language reflects cultural emphases and language is related to the worldviews of the speaker. moreover, he explains that language learning implies and 227 embraces culture learning. indeed, success in learning a second or even third language is partially related to the acquisition of the cultural baggage that is carried along with any linguistic system. in line with this, frederick (1989:89) quoting lado and rivers, states that learning a language should not be separated from learning the pattern and values of the culture of which it is a part. in addition, leveridge (2008) states the relationship between language and culture is deeply rooted. language is used to maintain and convey culture and cultural ties. different ideas stem from differing language use within one‘s culture and the whole intertwining of these relationships start at one‘s birth. the dialectical connection between language and culture has always been a concern of l2 teachers and educators. whether culture of the target language is to be incorporated into l2 teaching has been a subject of rapid change throughout language teaching history. in the course of time, the pendulum of elt practitioners‘ opinion has swung against or for teaching culture in context of language teaching. for example, during the first decades of the 20th century researchers discussed the importance and possibilities of including cultural components into l2 curriculum (sysoyev & donelson, 2002). kitao (1991) giving reference to several authors lists some of the benefits of teaching culture as follows: first, studying culture gives students a reason to study the target language as well as rendering the study of l2 meaningful (stainer, 1971). second, studying culture makes studying foreign language real. from the perspective of learners, one of the major problems in language teaching is to conceive of the native speakers of target language as real person. although grammar books gives so called genuine examples from real life, without background knowledge those real situations may be considered fictive by the learners. (genc & bada, 2005). in addition 228 providing access into cultural aspect of language, learning culture would help learners relate the abstract sounds and forms of a language to real people and places (chastain, 1971). third, studying culture increases studying students‘ interest. the affect of motivation in the study of l2 has been proved by experts like gardner and lambert (1959, 1965, 1972). in achieving high motivation, culture classes does have a great role because learners like culturally based activities such as singing, dancing, role playing, doing research on countries and peoples, etc. fourth, studying culture motivates students to study foreign languages. the study of culture increases learners‘ not only curiosity about and interest in target countries but also their motivation. for example, when some professors introduced the cultures of the l2s they taught, the learners‘ interests in those classes increased a lot and the classes based on culture became to be preferred more highly than traditional classes. (genc & bada, 2005). fifth, studying culture is useful not only for understanding people of other cultures but to help students understand themselves and their own culture. in an age of post-modernism, in an age of tolerance towards different ideologies, religions, sub-cultures, we need to understand not only the other culture but also our own culture. most people espouse ethnocentric views due to being culture bound, which leads to major problems when they confront a different culture. being culture bound, they just try to reject or ignore the new culture. as if it is possible to make a hierarchy of cultures they begin to talk about the supremacy of their culture. this is because they have difficulty understanding or accepting people with points of view based on other views of the world. (genc & bada, 2005). besides these benefits, studying culture gives learners a liking for the native speakers of the target language. studying culture also plays a useful role in general education; studying culture, we could also learn about the geography, history, etc. of the target culture (cooke, 1970). mckay (2003), furthermore, contends that culture influences language teaching in two ways: linguistic and pedagogical. linguistically, it affects the semantic, pragmatic, and discourse levels of the language. pedagogically, it influences the choice of the language materials because cultural content of the language materials and the cultural basis of the teaching methodology are to be taken into consideration while deciding upon the language materials. for 229 example, while some textbooks provide examples from the target culture, some others use source culture materials. cultural conflict according avruch , by definition, conflict occurring between individuals or social groups that are separated by cultural boundaries can be considered ―cross-cultural conflict.‖ but individuals, even in the same society, are potentially members of many different groups, organized in different ways by different criteria: for example, by kinship into families or clans; by language, religion, ethnicity, or nationality; by socioeconomic characteristics into social classes; by geographical region into political interest groups; and by education, occupation, or institutional memberships into professions, trade unions, organizations, industries, bureaucracies, political parties, or militaries. avruch added that the more complex and differentiated the society the more numerous are potential groupings. each of these groups is a potential ―container‖ for culture, and thus any complex society is likely to be made up various ―subcultures,‖ that is of individuals who, by virtue of overlapping and multiple group memberships, are themselves ―multicultural.‖ this means that conflict across cultural boundaries may occur simultaneously at many different levels, not just at the higher levels of social grouping. second language learning is characterized by miscommunication, failure to communicate clearly, however, is not merely a linguistic problem; linguistic ―conflict‖ has the potential to turn into cross-cultural conflicts. (mcallister 1995:13). miscommunication can happen in intercultural communication. intercultural communication is communication between members of different cultures. this definition is simple, but the process is complex. intercultural communication involves differing perceptions, attitudes, and interpretations. we know that even two people from the same culture can 230 have communication problems. people can unintentionally hurt each other by something they say or do. isn't it logical, then, that communication problems can be compounded among people who do not have the benefit of shared experiences (i. e., language and culture)? in short, intracultural communication is communication between two persons or groups not sharing similar cultural pattern. it is common that even two people in the same culture can have cultural conflicts that we called intracultural communication. cultural conflict is a conflict that occurs as a friction of different cultures. in addition, cultural conflicts occur as a result of misinterpretation, etnocentrism, stereotype and prejudice. misinterpretation misinterpretation happens between people from different cultures. communication between members of different cultures can arouse misunderstanding which causes misinterpretation. this problem happens because people interpret something according to their own culture and it is possible for members of different cultures to have different interpretation on the same thing. he should not assume that if someone says or does, the listeners always interpret one‘s message according to their cultural meaning. stereotype the identification of stereotypes is an important key to cross-cultural communication. stereotypes are standardized and oversimplified descriptions applied to groups or people; teenagers are irresponsible, jews are greedy. occasionally they are classified based on limited experience, as when a person knows one armenian and decides that all armenians are just like the one he or she knows. stereotype is sometimes distorted description of group of people whether negative or positive which prevents us from viewing people as 231 individual with distinct and unique characteristic. often stereotypes are based on indirect experience contradictory information or no information at all. blacks were once stereotyped simultaneously good-natured people and savages. stereotypes are imbedded in cultures. old folktales create and keep stereotypes alive (stewart, 1981:202) people who are limited in personal experiences become easy to have their own interpretations that make stereotype or overgeneralization. stereotype is to decide that something is common to all members of culture. people who have stereotype about a group of people fail to understand the variety that exists in the culture. they ascribe to the whole what is observed merely of a part. (mcallister 1995:16) stereotypical beliefs prevent us from seeing people as individuals with unique characteristics. negative stereotypes lead to prejudice: suspicion, intolerance, or hatred of other cultural groups. one of the best way to avoid problem of stereotyping and unintentional slights is to make an aeffort at approaching all people as human beings (arai, et al, 2001:447; hiebert, 1985:98; samovar, et al, 1981:87). this mental choice helps one to be more aware of the similarities among people, irregardless of race of skin colour. it also helps to build a positive attitude toward people of other cultures. prejudice prejudice is the negative prejudgement of entire group usually a racial or ethnic groups they have ever seen-chinese children learned about the aggressive, ―big nosed‖ ―round eyes‖ before the diplomatic thaw between east and west in the 1970s and many americans knew that vietnamese were sneaky, cunning, untrustworthy, and dirty. 232 prejudiced attitudes may also grow from direct interaction between members of different groups. if all the interaction is between one group in a superior position and another group in an inferior position, then it is sure to become stereotyped. it makes prejudice stronger, and a vicious circle is begun (stewart, 1981:203). prejudice is a judgment that a particular ethnic group is inherently inferior to others. if anyone who judges another culture and not his/her own, he/she is guilty of racial prejudice (mcallister 1995:17) brislin (1981:41-42) states that prejudice refers to a person‘s emotional reactions and, thus, represents the affective component. moreover, he says that usually people react negatively to others on an emotional basis, with an absence of direct contact or factual material about the others. furthermore, brislin (1981:69) comments that prejudice can be expressed in a variety of forms, from vicious racism, to deeply felt disapproval of behaviours of other group. prejudice is commonly viewed as hostile, rigid, and overt which could be changed if people would come into contact and learn more about each other. it is very necessary to have an understanding to reduce prejudice. ethnocentrism the emotional response which people often have when first faced with another culture is known as ethnocentrism. difficulties in intercultural communication arise when there is little or no awareness of divergent cultural values and beliefs. in cross-cultural interaction, speakers sometimes assume that what they believe is right, because they have grown up thinking their way is the best. this ethnocentric assumption can result in negative judgments about other cultures. another manifestation of ethnocentric attitudes is that people become critical of individuals from different cultures. (doerr, 2004) 233 according to mcallister (1995:14), ethnocentrism is believing that ‗culturally different‘ means bad or wrong. as being different means bad or wrong, then an ethnocentric person thinks that anyone who is different from him/her is either bad or wrong. this problem begins with the perception of members of a certain culture that ‗their own culture is the best and other cultures are the worst‘. this bad attitude involves treatment toward another culture‘s belief, actions, speech attitude and perceptions. ethnocentrism blinds us so that we cannot see the good in others. thus, as cultural identity, ethnocentrism represents the bright side of ethnocentrism, but when such cultural bias is used to support negative evaluation of the new and strange culture, it is the dark side of ethnocentrism. in the following example, rosamine and merita demonstrate that they cannot understand each other's points of view. rosamine and merita are talking to each other about relationships between children and parents. in rosamine‘s culture children live with their parents until marriage because dependence on parents is considered positive. in merita's culture children leave home when they are eighteen because independence and self-reliance are considered positive. rosamine: ―i think it‘s terrible that in your country children leave their parents when they‘re so young. something that shocks me even more is that many parents want their children to leave home. i can‘t understand why children and parents don‘t like each other in your country.‖ merita: ― in your country parents don‘t allow their children to become independent. parents keep their children protected until the children get married. how are young people in your country supposed to learn about life that way?‖ both women are insensitive to each other's values concerning family life. they have been raised and conditioned according to cultural norms. therefore, each bas a different view of what is right. 234 there are two dimensions which assist a person in overcoming this propensity toward ethnocentrism (haris & kumra, 2000: 610): (1) an increased awareness of one‘s culture and (2) an awareness of the differences in work values and cultural values of other cultures. lingenfelter and mayers (2001:23) add one further step to successful cross-cultural interaction, which is the desire to become a ‗learner‘ in the new culture. becoming a ‗learner‘ implies the concept of discovery, as new ideas are shared and explored. it also requires people to be open and teachable in the face of new ideas. negotiation of cross-cultural conflict people will never understand someone from another culture without understanding what she or he assumes about the world and worlds. in other words, we can say that people need to know cross-cultural understanding. one of the main reasons cultures are so different is that they have different values. this is because, human nature usually interprets ‗different‘ as ‗bad‘ or ‗wrong‘. a fundamental principle of cross cultural understanding is that only someone who is culturally literate in his/her own culture can truly understand why she/he believes and behaves as she/he does. we can say that by looking into the heart of our own culture, we will be much prepared to understand other cultures. actually, most people do not know their own core values. people who are ignorant of their values, beliefs and assumptions are culturally illiterate. they cannot ‗read and write‘ their values. most of us are too close to our own cultures to be able to see its details, to notice anything usual, to identify what lies behind the surface. within our own cultures, everything seems perfectly normal; we are like someone who is standing with his face pressed light up against a mirror, we cannot see very much about ourselves from that position. in order to become culturally literate, 235 we have to step back away from the mirror in order to see things about ourselves. and when we understand ourselves and our own culture we can understand people from other cultures. from the definition above, we can see that misinterpretation, ethnocentrism, stereotypes and prejudices have negative meaning. the attitudes can cause the appearance of conflict with other culture. actually, we can reduce and eliminate negative stereotypes, ethnocentrism, prejudice by increasing awareness of our own attitudes to cross-cultural differences or ethnic and racial diversities as well as establishing personal or direct relationships with individuals from different religions, races or cultures. research methodology novel as one kind of literary text is interesting to be analysed since novel is a fictitious prose narrative of considerable length in which characters and actions representative of real life are portrayed in a plot of more or less complexity (rees 1973:106). that is why people seem to be interested in reading novels rather than poetry or play. collie and slater (1987:4) explain, the ‗world‘ of a novel offers a full and vivid context since it is a created one. a reader can find an author‘s thoughts, feelings, customs, possessions, belief, fear, and joy, and how they speak which are reflected through the characters. they added that this vivid imagined world could quickly give the foreign reader a feel for the codes and preoccupations that structure a real society. furthermore, koesnosoebroto (1988:20) says that the novel, more than any other genre, can give form to a set of attitudes regarding society, history and the general culture of which the novel is a part. in short, it is possible for students to learn a nation‘s culture through a novel. 236 the object of the study is a novel not without my daughter (nw for short) by william hoffer and betty mahmoody. nw is a ‗non-fiction novel‘ in which the author presents actual people and events in story form (koesnosoebroto 1988:26). the researcher has chosen this novel because it reflects the social condition and the culture of people, which comes into contact with another culture. by reading this novel, the readers can learn cross-cultural conflict revealed in the novel so it will increase their cultural awareness. the novel talks about an american woman who was trapped in iran society, which has different culture from hers. the story is based on the true story of betty mahmoody, an american woman who was trapped in iran society with her daughter. it happened in 1984-1986. it started on 3 rd august 1984 when moody, betty and their daughter went to tehran, iran. they planned to stay there for two weeks to see moody‘s family. at first, his family welcomed them happily. however, they changed their attitude slowly since they were upset why moody took an american woman as a wife. at that time, iran was embroiled in a bitter war with iraq. they assumed that america supported iraq. that was the reason why they hated american. cultural conflicts often occurred when betty was staying there as she had different culture from that of iranian such as belief, custom, and value. after experiencing difficult times, she and her daughter, mahtob finally arrived safely home in michigan on 7 th february 1986, for an ecstatic but bittersweet reunion with their family. she was helped by william hoffer and his wife, marilyn, in writing her story. hoffer is the co-author of midnight express, another story of an american held captive in the middle east. this material is chosen because it contains cultural conflicts between the main character, i.e. moody, an iranian and her american wife, betty mahmoody. the research is a qualitative descriptive research. the primary data were cross cultural conflicts caused by ethnocentrism, stereotype and prejudice obtained 237 from the novel nw through frequent reading and analysis. this study employed the researcher as the instrument to find adequate and profound data and analyze them. the procedures that had been used in this research were (1) provision of data; (2) classification and data analysis; (3) presentation of data analysis. the first procedure related to problems of classification i.e. cross cultural conflicts. the phase of data analysis related to the collection data of cross cultural conflicts in nw. they were classified into misinterpretation, ethnocentrism, stereotype and prejudice. the last phase is presentation the result of the analysis that had been conducted in this research. discussion characters two kinds of characters that are discussed are major and minor characters. main characters are the most important characters in a story. minor characters are characters of less important than those of the main (koesnosoebroto 1988:67) main characters there are two main characters: betty mahmoody and sayyed bozorg mahmoody or moody. betty was optimistic in facing difficulty. she always tried to find chances or way out of her problems. she was also a brave and desperate woman. when a chance to run away came, she determined to make a desperate run for freedom. she was honest too. unless she liked something, she would say it directly although some people would get angry to her. moreover, she was a good and loving mother. moody was illustrious lineage in his homeland, iran. he was a brilliant man who could master any subject. he was a physician trained in america. 238 culturally he was a mixture of east and west as he had lived in the united states for two decades. he was already beginning to bald and not particularly handsome, but his strong stocky build was appealing. he had paradoxical personality as he was a loving husband and father but he was also shorttempered and belligerent. sometimes he was kind. on other occasion, he turned into an evil man. minor characters five minor characters in the novel are sara mahmoody ghodsi or ameh bozorg, helen balassanian, hamid, judy, and amahl. ameh bozorg was moody‘s sister. she was a large-boned, broad-shouldered woman quite a bit older than moody who was forty-seven years old. she had greenish brown eyes. she married sayyed salam ghodzi or baba hajji and had six sons and three daughters. helen worked in the swiss embassy in tehran. she was austere but friendly. she was tall and thin. she was about forties. she was also helpful. hamid was a menswear-shop owner. he was tall and dark-haired. he was an ex-officer in the shah‘s army. he was also trying to find a way out for himself and his family. he helped betty by letting her use his phone. judy was a young and blond-haired american woman. her iranian-born husband was a contractor in new york city. she introduced betty to rasheed, someone who knew people who could take people out of iran through turkey. amahl was a short, thin man. he hoped someday he could get himself and his family out of iran, but the circumstances of his life were extraordinary intricate. by day he was a successful businessman, outwardly supportive of the ayatollah‘s government. by night his life was a web of intrigue. setting 239 setting in the story was divided into place and time where and when the story occurred. the places were in america, iran and turkey. the time in which the story occurred was from 1974 to 1986. mood or atmosphere the atmosphere of nw was the iranian culture. it concerned with the way of dressing and the celebration. in dressing iranian women were required to keep their arms, legs and foreheads covered. they were wrapped almost completely in chadors. a chador was a large half-moon-shaped cloth entwined around the shoulders, foreheads and chin to reveal only eyes, nose and mouth. they wore montoes, which were large coats that reach down nearly to ankles and rosaries, long and heavy scarves when they went outside. however, if there were guests came, they still had to wear the chadors. meanwhile for celebration, there were some mentioned in the story. the first was the muslim sabbath. on that day, friday, families gathered in the home of the eldest relative to spend extra time in prayer. the second celebration was war week. it was an annual celebration of the glories of islamic combat, occasioned by the ongoing war with iraq and, by extension with america, since iraq was simply a puppet of the united states. there was a demonstration of ominous roar of jet aircraft that flew low. bright flashes of antiaircraft fire lit up the sky, followed by sharp, booming airborne explosions. the third one was no-ruz daythe persian new year. it was a two-week holiday during which all the women scrub their houses clean in preparation door rounds of celebration. families whiled away their time at dinner parties, teas, and receptions in the homes of relatives. it was on 21 st march. 240 plot incentive moment the story began when betty mahmoody went to iran with moody, her iranianborn husband and her daughter, mahtob to visit her husband‘s family. he swore that they would stay in tehran for only two weeks. however, he lied and said they would stay in tehran forever. although she did not agree the idea, he was adamant. complication moody asked her to go to see her dad alone, without her daughter as her dad was sick. she was surprised with his change at first, but then she knew the mad reasoning behind his sudden decision to let her return to america. he wanted her to sell everything they owned in america and he would not allow her coming back before she brought the money. he held mahtob as a hostage. climax moody imprisoned her for three days until she got onto the airplane so that she could not make a contact with amahl, someone who could help her getting out of iran. finally, she had a chance when an ambulance came to pick moody up. she decided to do something to get out of moody‘s house and run her plan. finally, she succeeded and then made a difficult journey to turkey. resolution the resolution started when betty arrived at the border between iran and turkey. although they were still far from free, at least, they were out of iran. however, it was not the end of the story. it was just the beginning of the resolution. the next story was how they journeyed to ankara, turkey, where they could fly safely to america. 241 theme themes that can be formulated from the novel are: (1) a mother who loves her daughter so much that she dares to face any danger for her daughter‘s sake and (2) there must be a way out of any problems as long as you try hard. point of view this story uses the first point of view as the author tells the story in the first person. she appears as one of the main characters. therefore, she occupies the position of ―i‖. analysis of cultural conflicts in nw which were caused by ethnocentrism, stereotype and prejudice ethnocentrism after being stayed in ameh bozorg‘s house for a couple of months, betty and moody moved to reza‘s house. reza was the fifth son of ameh bozorg. she admitted that his house was cleaner than ameh bozorg‘s, but she thought that it was still filthy in many respects essey was a far better housekeeper than ameh bozorg, but the house was still filthy by american standard. (p.456) she judged hygiene based on american not iranian standard. she considered ameh bozorg as a bad housekeeper. she knew little about the basic hygiene. on the contrary, she was a paragon of cleanliness to iranian people. ―even ameh bozorg was a paragon of wisdom and cleanliness next to the people on the street of tehran. (p.431) it can be said that betty considered american standard of hygiene was higher than iranian. in this case, betty included ethnocentric people who tended to see her own group, country, culture as something that was the best. 242 stereotype one evening after having dinner in one of moody‘s cousins‘ house, betty was involved in a conversation with them. they talked about how women were oppressed in iran which was not true according to iranian. ―well, the son said, ―i‘m sure before you came you heard a lot of things about how women are oppressed in iran. now that you have been here, you understand that those are all lies?‖ (p.434) by reading the quotation above, we can see that americans considered that women were oppressed in iran. ―that‘s not what i see at all,‖ i said (p.434) betty as an american still considered that this was true. even when she and moody were back in home, they still argued about it. ―you should agree with him.‖ ―but it‘s not true.‖ ―well, it‘s true,‖ he said. (p.434) she believed that men oppressed women in iran. however, moody, as an iranian thought in the opposite way. so, in conclusion, american had an opinion about the stereotype of iranian men that they oppressed women. there is another example of stereotype of iranian people according to betty. she regarded that iranian people hated american, although they venerated american education. the example of this was moody who had studied in america to be a physician. ―what was an american woman doing flying into a country that had the most openly hostile attitude toward americans of any nation in the world? (p:417) 243 however, not all of them hated american. some of them like americans such as chamsey and zaree who were neighbors‘ of moody‘s family in shustar, even considered themselves as american. both women considered themselves american (p:522) there were also some people who wanted to go out of iran to america. they preferred living in america to iran. they were hamid who was an ex-officer in the shah‘s army and was a menswear-shop owner and amahl. actually, iranian people were divided into two groups. the first group was very fanatic to the ayatollah khomeini‘s shiite sect of islam such as ameh bozorg, baba hajji, reza, mammal. the other one seemed a bit more westernized. the other one seemed a bit more westernized. they were more likely to speak english such as chamsey, zaree, hamid, and amahl. prejudice prejudice is a judgment that a particular ethnic group is inherently inferior to others. in nw, we can also find betty‘s prejudice toward iran country which can be seen in the citation below, ―surely, i thought, in time moody would be sickened by the filth around him. he would realize that his professional future was in america, not in a backward nation that had yet to learn the basic of hygiene and social justice (p:444) here, betty considered that iran was a filthy country because iranian did not know the basics of hygiene. she thought that moody, his husband was not proper staying in iran since a doctor, he must know the value of hygiene. she also regarded iran as a backward nation that indirectly means that she was of the opinion that iran was inferior to her country. in short, betty has negative judgment toward iran country. 244 conclusions cultural conflicts occurred because of friction of different cultures between betty‘s culture, in this case america, and iran culture. the cultural aspects causing conflicts found in nw were misinterpretation, prejudice, stereotype and ethnocentrism. it is necessary for english learners to know about the english culture so that they may have a better cross culturally understanding. further they will be more tolerant and wiser in order to reduce cultural conflicts that may occur in intercultural communication. cultural conflicts can be prevented if we increase our awareness of our own attitudes and learn to be sensitive to cross-cultural differences. however, if we develop intercultural sensitivity, it does not mean that we need to lose our cultural identities-but rather that we recognize cultural influences within ourselves and within others. by understanding other cultures well, we could respect other cultures and reduce cultural conflicts that might occur in intercultural communication. references arai, m. wanca-thibault, m & shockley-zalabak, p. 2001. communication theory and training approaches for multiculturally diverse organisations: have academics and practitioners missed the connections? public personnel management, 30 (4): 445-457 augsburger, d.w. 1992. conflict mediation across culture: pathways and patterns. kentucky: westminster/john knox press. avruch, kevin. cross-cultural conflict (http://www.eolss.net/samplechapters/c14/e1-40-01-01.pdf) brislin, richard. 1981. cross cultural encounter. face to face interaction. new york: pergamon press. collie, joanne and stephen slater. 1992. literature in the language classroom: a resource book of ideas and activities. cambridge: cambridge university press. http://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c14/e1-40-01-01.pdf http://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c14/e1-40-01-01.pdf 245 damen, louise. 1987. culture learning: the fifth dimension in the language classroom. reading, mass: addison-wesley publishing company. doerr, joan. c. 2004. dealing with cross-cultural conflict in a multicultural organization.: an education management perspective. http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/1000/dissertation.pdf?seq uence=1 englebert (2004) character or culture? an efl journal, 24(2), 37-41. hantrais l (1989) the undergraduate‘s guide to studying languages. london: centre for information on language teaching and research. frederick, juliana tirajoh. 1988. english poetry: an introduction to indonesia students. jakarta: depdikbud. genc, bilal & erdogan bada. 2005. culture in language learning and teaching. 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e-issn: 2503-040x 139 masculinity and femininity in yuriko koike's speech style parwati hadi noorsanti1* 1 department of japanese studies, faculty of humanities, universitas airlangga, surabaya 60286, indonesia *) corresponding author email: n.awan@psau.edu.sa doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i1.139-156 submission track: received: 28-03-2021 final revision: 28-05-2021 available online: 08-06-2021 copyright © 2021 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract this study aims at describing yuriko koike’s speech style in conducting verbal interaction in public in relation to her profession as a politician and the governor of tokyo. in relation to gender stereotypes, women have a feminine speech style while men have masculine speech style. the activities as a woman politician and leader will indeed affect yuriko koike’s language use in public communication, whether she fully incorporates a feminine style or also employs a masculine style. the data of this study is yuriko koike’s utterances in verbal interaction taken from youtube, comprising informal talk show, formal talk show, and press conference. the data are analyzed with the theories of gender and language, as well as speech style, proposed by holmes and stubbe (2003) and talbot (2003). from the data obtained, it can be deduced that yuriko koike’s speech style is androgynous, which combines the masculine and feminine speech styles. her speech style, therefore, does not reflect the stereotypical style of the traditional japanese women, which is polite, soft, unassertive, and indirect. instead, yuriko koike is the depiction of the deconstruction of japanese women’s communication today, by which she shows herself as a respected leader to her political opponents. koike generally has a communication style of a leader, that is public, report, lecturing, referentially oriented, problem-solving, dominating, and task/outcome-oriented. specifically, her masculine speech style includes direct, competitive, independent-autonomy, and dominant, while her feminine styles were affectively oriented-sympathy, rapport, intimacy-connection, collaborative, and supportive feedback. keywords: speech style; feminine; masculine; yuriko koike p. h. noorsanti register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 140 introduction japan is one of the countries with low engagement of women in politics. reported from the news source japan times on january 3, 2018, entitled “diet bill set to address low number of women in japanese politics”, at the end of 2017, there was only 10,1% of women to be diet (japanese parliament) members at the national level. this indicates that women have not had an equal position as that of men in the political world. moreover, japan was ranked 121th (with the top ten countries are iceland, norway, finland, sweden, nicaragua, new zealand, ireland, spain, rwanda, and germany) out of 153 countries on the 2020 global gender gap index of the world economic forum. the gap is the worst rank among developed countries and the score is bad in showing women’s economic participation and empowerment in politics (park & kim, 2021). several factors affecting the low number of japanese women in politics are the culture of the japanese community, which considers women as weak and marginal, the women’s characters, family support, and household chores that cannot be abandoned (osako, 1978; nakano, 2013; iwao, 1993). besides, there are also factors from the japanese political parties and system, such as the regulations in the parties and the electoral system, which does not support the improvement of female politicians (kage, 2019; dalton, 2015). masculine traits are also considered to be more central in politics than feminine traits, particularly in the executive and national levels (huddy & terkildsen, 1993), along with the cynicism of the community toward women politicians (jinah & lee, 2016). with the various obstacles that hinder japanese women in politics, women should create some strategies to survive in the political world. one of the strategies is utilizing their communication skills. communication skills are crucial for politicians since they need a tool to convey their thoughts, arguments, and opinions to public. moreover, the communication tool is language, which is one of the tools for politicians to gain sympathy and support from the community. for politicians, having oral communication skills is the main requirement to attract the audience in campaigning (cangara, 2018). political language usually utilizes certain linguistic features to persuade the community, such as repetition as affirmation, specific terms or jargons, passive sentence masculinity and femininity in yuriko koike's …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 141 structure, and metaphor or euphemism as meaning substitution (mooney & evans, 2019). several studies have been conducted on political language use, and azuma’s (2011) is an example. azuma (2011) investigated the political language use of the politicians of the democratic party of japan (djp) and the liberal democratic party (ldp). the results of the study are the democratic party of japan tends to employ the involvement approach with the solidarity frame in its political communication while, on the contrary, the liberal democratic party of japan tends to prioritize the power frame (azuma, 2011). with the scarcity of female politicians in japan, yuriko koike brings new expectations on the increasing number of women politicians and women working in the public environment. yuriko koike is the incumbent governor of tokyo who won the second term at the 2020 tokyo gubernatorial election. the political positions she occupied were the minister of the environment in the period of prime minister junichirō koizumi and the first woman to be the minister of defense in the period of prime minister shinzo abe. however, she resigned after serving for only 54 days because of leaked aegis confidential information. before involving herself in the political world in the 1990s, koike was an arabic translator, journalist, and news anchor in 1979 (hidayati, 2020). her achievements include the female broadcaster of japan in 1990 and the world's 100 most powerful women 2020 presented by forbes magazine. these achievements were presented to her due to her outstanding ability in responding to the covid-19 spread in tokyo, besides being a supportive leader to the smes. snow (2017), a professor of the university of california, argued that koike’s triumph in becoming a reliable politician is because of her success in merging courage in politics, robust communication style, and expertise in public relations and media. koike’s slogan ‘citizen first’ gains sympathy from the community. men and women are different psychologically, hence the distinguished communication styles between them. the distinction in communication style thus generates dissimilar leadership styles between men and women (merchant, 2012). japanese women, meanwhile, have their stereotype in communication, including softer, more polite, more unassertive, more empathic, more cooperative, standard, and more prescriptive grammar and utterance than men’s. from a linguistic perspective, japanese women’s p. h. noorsanti register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 142 language (joseigo) also has its specific features, particularly in the standard japanese language, such as honorifics, self-reference, greetings, sentenceending particles, indirect speech act, interjection and exclamatory expressions, and tone levels (okamoto & shibamoto, 2004; okamoto, 2004). according to history, the rationale of distinction between japanese women and men’s languages is due to the disparity in social positions (inoue, 2016). in the community, women are considered to have a lower position than that of men. in consequence, women who want to be regarded with the high position will acquire the polite language since—as housewives whose main role is maintaining wa (peace) —women must employ the more polite utterance (abe, 1995). however, along with the times, language use based on gender or the gender stereotypes in the language is not visible. this is depicted in tanaka’s (2004) study, which focused on the difference in communication between japanese men and women in the interview. the results indicated that all male and female participants demonstrated a very cooperative communication style. this style is more pronounced if there is no conflict generated from the status, age, or gender distinction. therefore, it can be deduced that there is no “stereotypical” communication style such as “feminine” (onnarashii) or “masculine” (otokorashii) in the language use. besides, tanaka also suggested that gender difference in the japanese language is less noticeable in the formal situation. the study on female japanese politicians was conducted by meyner (2013), which focused on language use among female japanese politician, in which the politicians’ communication did not explicitly contain women’s language use (joseigo) in their political communication. another study was conducted by jinah and kwangho (2016), which investigated voter perceptions on the characters and competence of female japanese politicians through online survey. the findings demonstrated that male politicians were considered more competent in governance issues, such as national security, trade, foreign affairs, economic policy, and political reformation, while female politicians were seen to be more capable in the welfare issue. this indicates that the respondents were still cynical about women politicians who were considered to be merely able to do the work in certain fields. this study focuses on the language use of a female japanese politician, namely yuriko koike, from a gender perspective. therefore, this study aims at masculinity and femininity in yuriko koike's …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 143 describing yuriko koike’s speech style in her political communication. the speech style in questions is whether koike only employs feminine style in her verbal interaction or also incorporates masculine style. the results of the present study are expected to provide an illustration of japanese political condition from communication and gender perspectives. speech style the studies of gender and language are traditionally believed to be the reflection of the community’s beliefs and values concerning men and women. men and women’s languages are considered to be a part of a similar discourse process in the social construction of gender (weatherall, 2002). principally, language and gender issues can be seen from three aspects, namely deficit, meaning that women are in the subordinate position of the community so that they tend to use hedges and other linguistic features; difference, meaning that men and women have distinct life experiences so that they speak from the different cultural perspectives; and domination, meaning that interruption and taking a turn to speak are conducted more often by men than by women (van dijk, 1997). there are various opinions regarding the contrast in the way men and women communicate. it is said that men use their remarks to get attention and to maintain their positions and statuses in the social hierarchy, while women employ their expressions to create rapport, to maintain their relationships, and to portray solidarity (weatherall, 2002). besides, eckert and ginet (2003) claimed that men’s utterances are competitive and individualistic, while women’s expressions are cooperative and other-oriented. eckert and ginet (2003) also cited holmes (1995), who described gender distribution from several types of speech act. here, holmes (1995) argued that women are linguistically more polite than men, women praise more than men, and women apologize more often than men. in short, women conduct positive (compliment) and negative (apology) politeness more often than men do. a conversation has the objective to express the speaker’s intention toward others. the extent to which a person’s meaning is properly understood depends on the extent of the conversation strategy, and hence the use of linguistic devices. furthermore, the similarity of such devices allows the p. h. noorsanti register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 144 construction of shared meanings to create a satisfying sense of harmony that often accompanies conversations between people of identical social, ethnic, geographic, or class backgrounds (tannen, 2005). in speech events, strategies undertaken by women are different from those by men. for instance, english women tend to emphasize more cooperative and supportive strategies than men do in speaking. table 1 comprises the communication styles between men and women as proposed by holmes and stubbe (2003). they used the words “feminine” and “masculine” to signify “women” and “men”. in addition to holmes and stubbe, talbot (2003) also proposed the binary opposition to describe the distinctive characteristics of men and women in the conversational style, as presented in table 2. table 1 the masculine and feminine communication styles feminine masculine indirect direct conciliatory confrontational facilitative competitive collaborative autonomous minor contribution (public) dominating (in public), talking time supportive feedback aggressive interruption person/process-oriented task/outcome-oriented affectively oriented referentially oriented table 2 the binary opposition of men and women’s communication style women men sympathy problem-solving rapport report listening lecturing private public connection status supportive oppositional intimacy independence masculinity and femininity in yuriko koike's …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 145 research method this study was qualitative research with the utterances stated by yuriko koike in verbal interaction activities as the data. the data sources were youtube videos taken from several channels as follows: 1. data source 1 was a video from cafesta program entitled “(cafesta) 自民党女性局スマイル ウーマン. (jiminto joseikyoku—smile women)”. cafesta is a talk show on various themes such as politics, government policies, or the situation of jiminto (liberal democratic) party. 2. data source 2 was a video from fccj channel (日本外国特派員協会会見映像オフィシャルサイト) entitled “the foreign correspondent’s club of japan 日本外国特派員協会 (にほんがいこくとくはいんきょうかい) yuriko koike: the state of the governor’s administration and what lies ahead”. this channel airs press conferences for politicians, statesmen, athletes, or public figures. in the press conference, interpreters were provided since the journalists came from various countries. 3. data source 3 was a video from the atlantic channel entitled “talking tokyo/citylab paris.” this program was hosted by caroline kennedy and the interviewee was yuriko koike. the atlantic is a youtube channel that presents the world’s popular experts and leaders in talk shows and directly engages the audience online. the data sources of interview and talk show are the real illustration of verbal interaction. in verbal interaction, there are situations where a person can utter some expressions that denote their speech style to be feminine or masculine. technique of data collection and data analysis the data collection was conducted using the observation method, namely uninvolved conversation observation and note-taking techniques. the uninvolved conversation observation technique was conducted since the author was not engaged in the interaction or dialogue, and the author merely observed the dialogue as a data source instead (mahsun, 2007). the data were obtained through the following procedures: 1) downloading the talk show videos from p. h. noorsanti register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 146 youtube; 2) observing the videos carefully; 3) transcribing the content of the interview by noting the utterances; 4) translating japanese utterances into indonesian; 5) marking or noting the parts of the utterances to be the data, that is the ones with backchannel, interruption, overlap, tag question, joke, and others estimated to have masculine or feminine speech style; 6) classifying the data based on the linguistic phenomena; and 7) tabulating the data by qualitatively calculating the number of linguistic phenomena from each data source. after the data were obtained, the next step was analyzing the linguistic phenomena employing the theories of language and gender by holmes & stubbe (2003) and talbot (2003), as well as the theory of japanese women’s language variety. theories from holmes & stubbe (2003) and talbot (2003) were employed as the foundation to categorize the utterance based on masculine or feminine style. the data classification results, thereafter, were analyzed by correlating the background or situation in the topic of the talk shows, the background of the woman figure, characteristics of the community, and, ultimately, a conclusion was then drawn from the analysis results. results and discussion this section presents the discussion of yuriko koike’s speech style seen from verbal communication in interviews aired to public. there are three data sources in this study, which were all obtained from youtube. table 3 is the data tabulation result based on the linguistic phenomena in yuriko koike’s verbal utterances. table 3 the data tabulation of yuriko koike’s communication style linguistic phenomena data sources 1 2 3 backchannel 21 0 4 overlapping 14 0 0 addressing 5 0 1 joking 4 0 2 impressing 5 1 3 interruption 2 1 1 tag question 2 0 0 masculinity and femininity in yuriko koike's …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 147 in table 3, data source 1, 2, and 3 represent the data sources mentioned in the research methods. data source 1 was a semi-formal talk show since the interviewer was a person who was in the same activity environment as koike. then, data source 2 was a press conference attended by journalists from various countries, while, similar to data source 2, data source 3 was attended by numerous journalists from other countries with caroline kennedy as the interviewer. it can be observed from the table that the linguistic phenomena that appeared in source data 1 are far more frequent than other sources. it occurs since data source 1 was a semi-formal, casual conversation even though the topic raised was politics. among these three sources, data source 2 is the most formal conversation since it was a press conference. meanwhile, data source 3 was a formal talk show; there was a distance between koike and kennedy since the interviewer did not understand japanese so that kennedy needed a little more time to listen to the interpretation from the machine translation on her ears. the different natures or genres of these data sources make the frequency of linguistic phenomena appear differently as well. an interview is different from a natural conversation since the former is controlled by the interviewer with the emphasis on the interviewee. thus, there is an intervention from the interviewer in that the interviewee should respond following the questions asked by the interviewer (abell & greg, 2008; thomson, 2000). table 4 yuriko koike’s masculine and feminine speech styles masculine feminine speech style language phenomena speech style language phenomena direct imperative form affectively oriented sympathy impressing competitive interruption rapport addressing, asking, joking, impressing, involving independent autonomy assertive form intimacy-connection addressing, asking, joking, impressing, involving dominant interruption, overlap collaborative backchannel, tag question, overlap supportive feedback backchannel (aizuchi) p. h. noorsanti register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 148 the data analysis was not only based on the linguistic phenomena as presented in table 3. it also illustrated other phenomena, which can depict masculine and feminine characteristics, such as humor, impressions (compliment and gratitude), as well as imperative and assertive utterances. the results are displayed in table 4. masculine speech style there are several types of masculine communication style yuriko koike had, namely direct, competitive, independent-autonomy, and dominant. these styles are depicted in the following dialogues. (data 1) caroline kennedy: so first of all, one of the themes of citylab is innovation, innovative leadership and you have once been a leader in innovation, compounding cool biz and …. yuriko koike: oh yes cool biz, but maybe of them, maybe of you (the audience) have no idea about cool biz, would you please explain to them? (data source 3 (04:58)). in high confidence, koike interrupted kennedy’s utterance and asked her to directly describe what cool biz was. the imperative statement utilized to ask directly indicated that koike had a direct communication style and did not employ any symbolization when asking someone to do something. meanwhile, direct communication is not the stereotypical style of japanese women (okamoto & shibamoto, 2004; okamoto, 2004). instead, koike employed direct speech to reflect that there are several characteristics of traditional japanese women’s communication (one of which is indirect speech) that are disadvantageous if used in political communication. in the three interviews, koike interrupted several times. in data 1, koike interrupted kennedy and even asked kennedy to directly explain cool biz to the audience, while cool biz is an energy-saving program carried out in japan. also, in the press conference, when the interpreter explained in english regarding her previous answer, koike directly interrupted by saying, “may i ahead?” while adding information regarding the answer. besides interruption, koike also often did overlap particularly in data source 1, in which the interview was casual and the host, michiko ueno, was her colleague, who served as the head of women’s affair bureau. since they were so close to each other, the overlap occurred most often in this interview. masculinity and femininity in yuriko koike's …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 149 several interruptions and overlaps that koike undertook demonstrated domination (dominant) and competition (competitive). according to eckert and ginet (2003), the critical thing of overlap and interruption in a conversation is that they become an individual’s tool to show their domination focusing more on the authority. nevertheless, overlap can also be a conversation strategy by becoming something that annoys others by flaunting dominance. meanwhile, according to tanaka (2004), interruption can be seen from another perspective in that the interruption related to authority and domination is employed differently. in most cases, interruption depicts interest in the interaction, which, in japanese culture, is not always a “violation.” koike is fluent in english, yet in the press conference attended by journalists from various media all over the world, she employed japanese instead. she did this since many japanese journalists came to see her speak in japanese (data 2 and 9). on another occasion, koike flatly refused to answer the question about her personal matters (data 3). this indicates that she had a sense of independence from others (independent-autonomy). (data 2) yuriko koike: let me answer your question in japanese, please allow me to do so. (data source 2 (27:30)) (data 3) yuriko koike: ありがとうございます。毎日統制のこと 忙しくて。自分自身のこと考える暇がございません。thank you very much for your question. (thank you. since i am busy working every day, i don’t have much time to think about my personal matters.) (data source 2 (51:02)) other types of masculine communication style in table 3 are public, report, lecturing, referentially oriented, problem-solving, dominating, and task/outcome-oriented. in general, these characteristics can be certainly present in the dictions of politicians or leaders speaking in public. since the context of the interviews in the data sources was public, namely press conference and talk show, the topics being raised were also general (public, problem-solving, task/outcome-oriented). additionally, as a leader, koike answered the questions as expected: based on references or data, in that she frequently mentioned more numbers than merely using adjectives such as “too low”, “many”, “excessive”, “too little”, and so on. she also explained the data p. h. noorsanti register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 150 systematically so that people would understand her well. therefore, this indicates the styles of referentially oriented, report, and lecturing. feminine speech style in data source 1 (cafesta talk show), koike gave many compliments like oishii (“delicious”) and gratitude when being offered drinks and japanese traditional snacks (inogo). koike also frequently delivered her gratitude in answering questions in data source 2 and 3. gratitude and compliment are the expressions used to show that koike appreciated others, which is in accordance with affectively oriented sympathy of feminine communication style. (data 4) yuriko koike: 上野さんとはね、もう前のね３年まえの参院選挙でねえ… (also, with ms. ueno, three years ago in the house of councilor election…) (data source 1 (02:23)) (data 5) yuriko koike: これどうやって捕まえるの？ (how to catch this?) (data source 1 (5:30)) (data 6) yuriko koike: なによりもやっぱりあの世界中で一番おいしいお寿司が食 べらえるの東京ではないかと思っています、あのシンガポールからも ぜひ多くな皆さん東京に‘いら去っていただきたいと思います。 (the most important thing, in my opinion, is that tokyo is the place where you can enjoy the most delightful sushi in the world. i want many people from singapore to come to tokyo.) (data source 2 (31:20)) (data 7) yuriko koike: あの、まず２０２４にパリーでのお開催 かいさい が実所が決ま ったということで、ええパリーの皆さんフランス皆さんにはおめでと ございますと申し上げたいと思います。 (first of all, i would like to express my gratitude toward all of you, france, because the actual program is decided to be held in paris in 2024.) (data source 2 (33:45)) data 4 is an example of addressing uttered by koike. in the cafesta talk show, koike mentioned the host’s name several times in her answers. meanwhile, in data 6 and 7, koike involved the interviewers by inviting the people from singapore to come to enjoy delicious sushi in tokyo when being asked by a singaporean journalist regarding the policy of the tsukiji fish market masculinity and femininity in yuriko koike's …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 151 in tokyo. also, in data 7, koike congratulated french citizens when being asked by a french journalist about olympiad since the 2024 olympiad will be held in paris, france. data 6 and 7 indicate that koike attempted to involve the interlocutors deeper into the topic discussed in her answers. next, data 5 illustrates koike’s appreciation toward others by showing her attention to the topic discussed. data 5 demonstrates high involvement in the interview, which is in line with tannen’s (1994) statement that asking questions shows high involvement in the conversation. data 4, 6, and 7 also indicate high involvement since koike attempted to engage the interviewers in her answers. these data signal rapport-intimacy-connection of feminine communication style since koike attempted to maintain her relations with the interlocutors and to become more familiar with them. moreover, backchannel occurs most frequently in data source 1 since this source contained casual conversation, which allows backchannel to happen. backchannel is similar to aizuchi in japanese, which is a response given to the interlocutor. in the source, the backchannels done by koike were mostly hai (“yes”), sou desu ka (“is that so”), and naruhodo (“i see”). another response in the interview was nod, as also found in data source 2 and 3. backchannel is the most important thing in conversation. eckert and ginet (2003) stated that it is crucial to respond when someone speaks, for instance, by nodding or giving responses or backchannel such as “yes,” “really?” and so on. backchannel in women’s utterance is used to show concern, while in men’s utterance, it is used to show agreement. then, from the perspective of women's communication style, overlap can be said to be a strategy that supports others’ contribution to increasing the conversation quality instead of violating the right to speak (tannen, 1994; eckert & ginet, 2003). overlap mostly appears in data source 1 since the source is a talk show. the host of the talk show, michiko ueno, was quite close to koike since they were co-workers. therefore, overlap occurred more frequently along with their laughter. this is in line with tannen’s (1994) argument that overlap mostly occurs in casual conversations. koike only did tag questions twice to the host. tag questions have various functions, such as showing uncertainty and asking for confirmation (epistemic modal function). it can also mean facilitative, softening, or challenging. the use p. h. noorsanti register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 152 of tag questions reflects the speaker’s attitude toward the content of the main clause and asks the interlocutor to also assist in assessing the content. a higher proportion of tag questions is uttered by women to be facilitative or mitigating (eckert & ginet, 2003). backchannel, overlap, and tag questions are classified as collaborative and supportive feedback in feminine communication style. (data 8) yuriko koike: are we economizing? (data source 3 (17:22)) (data 9) yuriko koike: because of the japanese media, people would like to listen to my word in japanese, so i switch my channel to… arabic? no… to japanese. (data source 3 (04:03)) data 8 and 9 are examples of joking or humor koike conveyed. from the three data sources, koike did a lot of humor or joking, which is mostly found in data sources 1. in the more official event, that is the talk show with caroline kennedy, koike did humorous utterances twice (data 8 dan data 9). data 8 occurred when the lights on the talk show were suddenly turned off and immediately turned on again, when at the same time, koike was answering a question from an indian journalist regarding the economy and ecology in japan. she spontaneously said, “are we economizing?” and being replied with laughter from the audience. tannen (1994) argued that humor can be seen from intonation, speed, voice quality, and non-verbal signal, by which the speaker can frame their utterances as “not meant the literal way.” sometimes humor can be utilized as sarcasm (not to be funny and to create hostility) and irony (which may cause smiles or laughter), yet its main objective is to entertain. according to yoshida (2001), humor is one of the vehicles of power for female leaders. women manifest who they are, what they feel, what they aim to achieve, and how to prepare themselves. through humor, one symbolically attacks the existing order without actually ruining it. thus, through humor, koike attempted to make a more intimate relationship with herself, the host, and the audience. koike also strategized her utterances to make the communication more intimate and fluid, even though the audience is the people who rarely interact with her. accordingly, using humor can be included in the feminine communication style of rapportintimacy-connection. masculinity and femininity in yuriko koike's …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 153 conclusion japanese women are characterized by being polite, soft, unassertive, empathic, cooperative, indirect, and low-voiced in communication (okamoto & shibamoto, 2004; okamoto, 2004). meanwhile, unlike the stereotypical japanese women, yuriko koike is straight to the point, assertive, clear-voiced, and confident in speaking. even so, she also has a speech style like other japanese women with characteristics, such as being cooperative, sympathetic, polite, and maintaining harmony in communication. therefore, it can be said that yuriko koike’s communication style combines the masculine and feminine communication styles (androgynous). koike’s communication style indicates that she is an effective communicator, which is in accordance with berko (2010), who states that the most effective communication style is androgynous, combining the quality of masculine and feminine communication styles. communicators who opt for this style will most likely succeed effectively in certain situations since they can be flexible and adapt to any condition.[rgt] references abe, h. 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(2001) joking, gender, power, and professionalism among japanese inn workers. ethnology 40(4), 361-369. “ yuriko koike: the state of the governor’s administration and what lies ahead”. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7gw0wqdrzw&t=3787s microsoft word 01_register 2021 no. 1 karim register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021), pp. 1-24 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.1-24 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 1 bridging the gaps between teacher educators and student teachers’ perceptions about the attributes of effective teacher educators sayit abdul karim universitas teknologi yogyakarta, jl. siliwangi jl. ring road utara, jombor lor, sendangadi, kec. mlati, kabupaten sleman, daerah istimewa yogyakarta 55285, indonesia email: sayit.a.k@uty.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i1.1-24 submission track: received: 07-01-2021 final revision: 28-04-2021 available online: 01-05-2021 copyright © 2021 author this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract the present study attempts to investigate effective efl teacher educators from the perspectives of student teachers and teacher educators. a survey design was employed to examine student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of the attributes of effective efl teacher educators. furthermore, an adapted questionnaire was administered online to 408 participants (334 student teachers, and 74 teacher educators) to obtain data about effective efl teacher educators using four categories of attributes of effective teacher educators, namely subject matter knowledge (smk), pedagogical knowledge (pk), organization and communication skills (ocs), and socio-affective skills (sas). descriptive statistical analyses were conducted for the measurement of central tendency. the findings revealed the student teachers and teacher educators have different perceptions of how they perceived effective efl teacher educators. there was a significant statistical difference between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of the three categories of attributes, namely smk, pk, and ocs. meanwhile, there was no significant statistical difference between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of sas. the results of the present study may serve several pedagogical implications in the program of teacher education context. keywords: efl student teachers, teacher educators, effective teacher, perceptions s. a. karim register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 2 introduction the teacher educators' roles and responsibilities in tertiary education are very important due to their position as a role model for student teachers (goodwin & kosnik, 2013:334). in the university context, teacher educator is one of the key components in obtaining effective learning and teaching (al-issa, 2017). effective teaching and learning can be achieved if teacher educators understand the attributes of effective teachers. besides, teacher educators should know what student teachers expect from them to facilitate their learning needs and achieve the goals of foreign language teaching (said, 2017). according to alimorad and tajgozari (2016:1), acknowledging the perceptions of the effectiveness of language teaching practices is an important effort because more satisfactory learning outcomes will be achieved. to keep obtaining effective learning and teaching atmosphere, we need to ignite a large number of effective efl teacher educators who provide a good atmosphere (arikan, taser, & suzer, 2008:43). in university settings, chen, (2012: 213) found out that an efl teacher educator is one of the main elements that may influence students’ achievement. the discrepancies between efl teacher educators’ and student teachers’ perceptions of effective efl teacher educators can adversely affect student teachers’ ultimate achievement, learning attitudes, motivations, and learning outcomes (zamani & ahangari, 2016:69). meanwhile, alimorad and tajgojari (2016:1) found out that the mismatches of their perceptions can cause problems in the teaching and learning process, and may cause students' dissatisfaction with their learning outcome. without such comprehensive knowledge, teachers will harm the students’ long-term development and professional learning (yuan & hu, 2018:2). the government of indonesian has very much concerned about the teachers' and lecturers' quality and competence standard by establishing what so-called badan standar nasional pendidikan (bsnp) or the board for the national standard of education. it is aimed at improving the quality and helping teachers require competencies, apart from bsnp, the indonesian government also concerns with the development and improvement of education quality from the secondary to the university levels by establishing the national bridging the gaps between teacher educators …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 3 qualification framework or known as kerangka kualifikasi nasional indonesia (kkni). as a whole, one of the kkni implementation strategies is to be a guideline and reference for the development and improvement of education quality from the secondary to the university levels (anugerahwati, 2009). further research is needed to find out the perceptions of effective efl teacher educators from both perspectives of student teachers and efl teacher educators using the concept of characteristics of effective efl teachers which are suggested by park & lee (2006) and wichadee (2010). the reason why i use their concept of characteristics of effective efl teacher educators because their concepts meet the nature of the topic under investigation and cover the ideal characteristics of effective efl teacher educators as required by the bsnp concerning the teachers' and lecturers' quality and competence standard. besides, it is in line with the uugd, concerning teachers' competences: pedagogical knowledge (pk), organization and communication skills (ocs), socio-affective skills (sas), and english proficiency (ep). to this end, it is significant to investigate how efl teacher educators and student teachers perceive the characteristics of effective efl teacher educators. without such comprehensive knowledge, teacher educators bring a negative impact to the development of their students (yuan & hu: 2018:2). therefore, the present study attempts to answer the research questions: what are the differences between student teachers’ and efl teacher educators’ perceptions about the characteristics of effective teacher educators in terms of subject matter knowledge (smk), pedagogical knowledge (pk), organization and communication skills (ocs), and socio-affective skills (sas)? literature review it is natural for the efl teacher educators to possess certain attributes of an effective teacher educator (dincer, goksu, takkac, & yazici, 2013:2). literature review shows that there are various perspectives of effective efl teacher educators’ attributes purposed by several of experts. for instance, clark and walsh (2002) found out the general attributes that describe effective teacher educators' quality: have strong discipline content knowledge, pedagogical skills, personal knowledge; a strong relationship with the students, and possess great knowledge of what they are teaching. s. a. karim register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 4 another perspective of the attributes is proposed by cheung (2006:435436) who states that a highly effective teacher educator is someone who does as follows: allocates more time to preparation and delivery, responds to students’ needs, tolerant to students’ mistakes, provide their time with students who have problems, and tries to assist their students’ learning. meanwhile, thompson, greer, and greer (2004) propose some common attributes, namely: show a positive outlook, humor, care, fairness, creativity, use a personal touch, maintain high expectations, compassion, being prepared, being forgiving, and have a sense of belonging for students. in connection with the concept of characteristics of effective efl teacher educators, park and lee (2006) point out that there are three attribute categories, namely subject matter knowledge or known as ep, pk, and sas which demonstrate the dimensions of knowledge. the attributes of effective teacher educators which are proposed by park and lee (2006) are in line with the indonesian norm as stated in the bsnp through the national ministry of education regulation (peraturan menteri pendidikan nasional) no.16 the year 2007. it formulates the standards to be used to evaluate teachers' academic qualifications and competencies. meanwhile, wichadee (2010) extends park’s and lee’s (2006) concept of effective efl teacher educators based on her literature review by adding one attribute category namely organization and communication skills. it is the knowledge of efl teacher educators to prepare the lesson well, to make the course interesting, to use easy language to assist students in understanding learning materials, maintain a good classroom atmosphere, and provide chances to use english through meaningful activities and tasks. several studies have been conducted on efl student teachers’ perceptions of effective efl teacher educators. for instance, arikan, taser, and suzer (2008) carried out a study to explored turkish efl learners' perceptions of effective efl teacher educators. the findings reveal that an effective teacher is an enthusiastic, friendly, creative, and humorous person. wichadee (2010) conducted a study to investigate the characteristics of effective english language teachers from different groups of students; using four categories of attributes namely smk, pk, ocs, and sas. the results showed bridging the gaps between teacher educators …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 5 that the students placed the ocs as important on overall attributes at a high level with the highest ranking. however, in wichadee's study (2010), an effective english language teacher was seen from student-centered perception only, therefore she suggests for future researchers to include both students and teachers. meanwhile, kourieos and evripidou (2013) carried out a study on students' perceptions of effective efl teacher educators in tertiary settings under three separate thematic areas; they are, smk, personal and interpersonal characteristics, and approach to language teaching. the findings revealed that an effective efl teacher educator is someone who considers students' differences and abilities. interests, and language anxiety. in the indonesian context, a study into students' perceptions of effective efl teacher educators was conducted by mudra (2018). he researched effective lecturers’ attributes as perceived by efl learners in a public institution in kerinci. the study is aimed at uncovering the attributes of effective english lecturers and to examine the difference between females' and males' perceptions of effective efl lecturers. the findings revealed that males and females efl learners have no significant different perceptions. apart from the study of effective efl teacher educators from the students' perspective, other studies investigated the effective efl teachers from the perspective of efl teachers, for instance, bell (2005), who conducted a study on behaviors and attitudes of effective efl teacher educators. the study was aimed at finding out the perceptions of non-english teachers regarding the qualities of effective second language acquisition (sla) teachers. the results showed that the standard for language learning and small group work was a strong majority agreement. another study was conducted by khojastehmehr and takrimi (2009). they conducted a study to find out what efl teacher educators' view as necessary effective efl teacher educators’ attributes and to figure out efl teacher educators' effectiveness factors. the findings showed that efl teacher educators tend to show a multidimensional construct into four factors: skills of communication, personal characteristics, instructional strategies, and knowledge. the results indicate that instructional strategies were viewed as more critical for efl teacher educators' effectiveness than other attributes. s. a. karim register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 6 studies regarding effective efl teacher educators from both efl teachers' and students' points of view were conducted by several researchers, for instance, park and lee (2006) carried out a study to find out the characteristics of effective english teachers utilizing three attribute categories namely smk, pk, and sas. the findings reveal that teachers perceived significantly different characteristics of efl teachers than the students in all three categories. moreover, teachers placed english proficiency as the highest important characteristics, while students placed pk as the highest. afshar and doosti (2014) examined the attributes of effective iranian efl teachers from the perspectives of students and teachers. the findings showed that there was no significant difference in both efl teachers' and students' perceptions of effective efl teachers. they recommended that the future researcher replicate their study by including classroom observation, semistructured interview, and survey questionnaire to explore more about their perceptions there have been numerous studies into attributes of the effective teacher from the perspectives of student teachers and teacher educators. there were different perceptions of teacher educators and student teachers on the attributes. despite the plethora of studies about effective teacher educators, a quantitative study related to student teachers' and teacher educators' perception regarding the effective efl teacher educators at the university level are still limited in numbers. thus, the present study is conducted to fill the gaps in the methodological and variables that were not addressed by the aforementioned previous research. besides, it is important to shed light on the issue of effective teacher educators in the indonesian context, especially at the tertiary level. research method a survey design was applied to find out the perceptions of student teachers and teacher educators on effective efl teacher educators using google form. for the present study, i adapted the research instrument which was developed by park and lee (2006), and wichadee (2010). these concepts cover four attributes of effective efl teachers including smk, pk, ocs, and sas. this bridging the gaps between teacher educators …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 7 research was conducted at the english education study program (program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris-pb-ing), both state and private universities in indonesia which are categorized into a and b accreditation levels. the convenience sampling technique was applied to select the participants who meet the criteria of the present study. there were 408 participants in total from different universities within indonesia who participated in the present study (334 st and 74 te). the accessible population was those available in the process of data gathering throughout indonesia, such as in, east java, central java, west java, bali, west nusa tenggara, and east nusa tenggara. a four-point likert type scale is applied to gather the ordinal data from the participants’ responses that were obtained through an online questionnaire. findings and discussion the student teachers’ and teacher educators’ perceptions of the subject-matter knowledge the details of the differences between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of the smk can be seen in table 1. table 1 shows the teacher educators' mean score on the first indicator of subject matter knowledge is 3.73 which is higher than student teachers' perceptions on the same indicator which is 3.47. it means that teacher educators have higher perceptions pertaining that effective teacher educators should master the four language skills. regarding indicator 2, teacher educators also have a higher means score (3.46) than student-teacher (3.24). it means that the student teachers have lower perceptions regarding that effective teacher educators should master the language components, e.g. vocabulary and pronunciation and grammar. moreover, in indicator 3, teacher educators have a higher mean score (3.84) than student teachers (3.53). it means that teacher educators have higher perceptions that effective teacher educators should have the cultural awareness of the target language. s. a. karim register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 8 table 1 the differences between student teachers’ and teacher educators’ perceptions of the subjectmatter knowledge no statements student teacher teacher educator mean mean per indicator mean mean per indicator 1.1. teacher educators master the four language skills: 3.47 3.73 3 be able to read english well 3.55 3.76 5 be able to write english well 3.39 3.71 9 be able to speak english well 3.48 3.73 1.2. teacher educators master the language components (e.g. vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar: 3.29 3.46 4 have a high level of proficiency with english vocabulary 3.16 3.27 7 have good knowledge of english grammar 3.24 3.57 10 be able to pronounce english words correctly 3.45 3.55 1.3. teacher educators have the cultural awareness to target language: 3.53 3.84 1 have cultural awareness of target language 3.53 3.84 the student teachers’ and teacher educators’ perceptions of the pedagogical knowledge the details of the differences between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of pk can be seen in table 2. table 2 shows the teacher educators' mean score (3.46) on the first indicator of pedagogical knowledge is higher than student teachers' perceptions on the same indicator (3.21). it means that teacher educators have higher perceptions regarding that effective teacher educators should master the instructional process. concerning bridging the gaps between teacher educators …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 9 indicator 2, teacher educators also have a higher means score (3.56) than student-teacher (3.43). it means that the teacher educators have higher perceptions regarding that effective teacher educators should possess the classroom management (e.g. interactive learning styles). furthermore, in indicator 3, teacher educators have a higher mean score (3.45) than student teachers (3.39). it means that teacher educators have higher perceptions that effective teacher educators must be able to use audio-visual aids when teaching. although student teachers' and teacher educators 'perceptions are different in the three indicators of pedagogical knowledge, they agree that effective efl teacher educators should possess classroom management as the first rank of effective efl teacher educators. however, student teachers nominated the ability to use audio-visual aids when teaching is in the second, and master the instructional process is in the third rank. meanwhile, teacher educators put master the instructional process in the second and have the ability to use audiovisual aids when teaching is in the third rank of effective efl teacher educators. table 2 the differences between student teachers’ and teacher educators’ perceptions on the pedagogical knowledge no statements student teacher teacher educator mean mean per indicator mean mean per indicator 2.1. teacher educators master the instructional process (e.g. planning, teaching, and assessing) 3.21 3.46 14 teach english tailored to students’ english proficiency levels 3.17 3.47 15 teach english by using english as a medium of instruction 3.19 3.42 16 assess what students have learned rationally 3.25 3.47 2.2. teacher educators possess classroom management 3.43 3.56 17 teach english incorporating students’ various learning styles (e.g. interactive learning style) 3.34 3.47 19 provide interesting activities for students in learning english 3.53 3.65 s. a. karim register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 10 2.3. teacher educators have the ability to use ict in teaching 3.39 3.45 20 be able to use audio-visual aids when teaching 3.39 3.45 the student teachers’ and teacher educators’ perceptions of the organization and communication skills the details of the differences between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of ocs can be seen in table 3. table 3 the differences between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of the organization and communication skills no statements student teacher teacher educator mean mean per indicator mean mean per indicator 3.1. teacher educators possess the ability to organize the instruction effectively 3.45 3.62 21 guide and train students towards independent learning 3.26 3.58 23 make courses interesting to attract students’ attention 3.58 3.62 24 provide opportunities to use english through meaningful tasks and activities 3.45 3.64 25 emphasize the most important points of the materials 3.38 3.53 27 prepare appropriate materials 3.55 3.73 3.2. teacher educators must be able to communicate effectively with student teachers 3.57 3.69 22 use easy language to help the student understand the lesson 3.58 3.62 28 have good communication skills 3.57 3.79 30 maintain a good classroom atmosphere 3.57 3.67 table 3 shows the mean score of teacher educators in the first indicator of organization and communication skill is 3.62 which is higher than student teachers' perceptions on the same indicator which is 3.45. it means that teacher bridging the gaps between teacher educators …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 11 educators have higher perceptions pertaining that effective teacher educators should possess the ability to organize the instruction effectively. meanwhile, in indicator 2, teacher educators also have a higher means score (3.69) than student-teacher (3.57). it means that the teacher educators have higher perceptions regarding that effective teacher educators should be able to communicate effectively with student teachers. the student teachers’ and teacher educators’ perceptions of socioaffective skills the differences between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of ocs can be seen in table 4. table 4 the differences between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of the socio-affective skills no statements student teacher teacher educator mean mean per indicator mean mean per indicator 4.1. teacher educators must be able to perform a good attitude in interacting with student teachers 3.49 3.45 35 be friendly to students 3.64 3.61 36 have a good sense of humor 3.34 3.29 4.2. teacher educators must be able to fully motivate, encourage, and reduce students’ anxiety 3.49 3.34 39 have an interest in students (e.g. remembering students' names) and students' english learning 3.49 3.34 table 4 shows the teacher educators' mean score on the first indicator of socio-affective skills is 3.45 which is lower than student teachers' perceptions on the same indicator which is 3.49. it means that student teachers have higher perceptions pertain that effective teacher educators must be able to perform a good attitude in interacting with student teachers. meanwhile, in indicator 2, student-teacher also has a higher means score (3.49) than teacher educators s. a. karim register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 12 (3.34). it means that student teachers also have higher perceptions that effective teacher educators must be able to fully communicate, encourage, and reduce anxiety. the student teachers’ and teacher educators’ perceptions of the whole attributes the details of the differences between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of the whole attributes can be seen in table 5. table 5 the differences between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of the whole attributes no. statements student teacher teacher educator t mean per indicator avrg . mean per indicator avrg . 1. subject matter knowledge 3.39 3.63 -2.948 p=0.003 1.1. teacher educators master the four language skills: 3.47 3.73 1.2. teacher educators master the language components (e.g. vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar: 3.29 3.46 1.3. teacher educators have the cultural awareness to target language: 3.53 3.84 2. pedagogical knowledge 3.31 3.49 -2.723 p=0.006 2.1. teacher educators master the instructional process (e.g. planning, teaching, and assessing) 3.21 3.46 2.2. teacher educators possess classroom management 3.43 3.56 2.3. teacher educators have the ability to use ict in teaching 3.39 3.45 3. organization and communication skills 3.49 3.65 -2.235 bridging the gaps between teacher educators …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 13 3.1. teacher educators possess the ability to organize the instruction effectively 3.45 3.62 p=0.025 3.2. teacher educators must be able to communicate effectively with student teachers 3.57 3.69 4. socio-affective skills 3.49 3.41 -1.455 p=0.146 4.1. teacher educators must be able to perform a good attitude in interacting with student teachers 3.49 3.45 4.2. teacher educators must be able to fully motivate, encourage, and reduce students’ anxiety 3.49 3.34 table 5 shows the significant statistical differences found between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of the first three categories of attributes. for instance, in attribute 1 (subject matter knowledge), the t-value is -2.948 and the p=0.03; in attribute 2 (pedagogical knowledge), the t-value is 2.723, and the p=0.006; and in attribute 3 (organization and communication skills), the t-value is -2.235 and the p=0.025. meanwhile, the analysis on the difference in attribute 4 (socio-affective skills), yield no statistical difference between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions since the t-value is -1.455 and the p=0.146. discussion the perceptions of the subject matter knowledge the data findings of the present study revealed that teacher educators have higher perceptions in each mean score of items and in each mean score per indicator on the subject matter knowledge than student teachers have. it can be known from the statistical computation in each indicator of teacher educators’ and student teachers' perceptions of the subject matter knowledge, as has been shown in table 1. it means that there is a significant difference s. a. karim register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 14 between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of the aforementioned attribute. furthermore, if we look at the details of differences as has been shown in table 1, we can figure out that differences are including mean score per item and mean score per indicator. in fact, student teachers' mean score both per item and per indicators are lower than teacher educators' means score. although teacher educators have higher perceptions in each item and on the whole indicators, in indicator 1 (teacher educators should master four language skills) of subject matter knowledge the finding showed that teacher educators and student teachers perceived the same perceptions that mastering reading skill as the most important skill than speaking and writing skills. this finding may imply that student teachers and teacher educators attach great importance to the reading skill for efl teacher educators. the result of the present study supports the finding of the previous study performed by celik, arikan & carner (2013) that the most important quality of a language teacher is teaching reading, speaking, and writing. thus, it is very important for teacher educators to master subject matter knowledge because they must be able to explain the subject or materials to be delivered in the classroom. however, the result of the present study does not support the previous finding of yageioglu's (2016) that students perceived an effective english language teacher as someone who can teach speaking as the most necessary qualities of an effective english language teacher than teaching pronunciation, grammar, reading, and listening. unlike indicator 1, in indicator 2 (teacher educators should master the language components) of subject matter knowledge, teacher educators perceived that efl teacher educators should have good english grammar knowledge as the most important attribute, then being able to pronounce words correctly, and then have a high level of proficiency with english vocabulary. meanwhile, student teachers perceived the most important attribute of effective efl teacher educators as being able to pronounce english words correctly, then have good knowledge of english grammar, and then have a high level of english vocabulary proficiency. in indicator 3 (teacher educators should have the cultural awareness to target language) of smk, the finding shows that both student teachers and teacher bridging the gaps between teacher educators …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 15 educators perceived the similar perception that effective efl teacher educators should have the cultural awareness of the target language. although student teachers and teacher educators have different perceptions in each mean score in every item and indicator, they agree that teacher educators should have the cultural awareness of the target language as the first thing to have, then master the four language skills as the second, and then master the language components as the third priority to become effective efl teacher educators. mastery of the smk is important for efl teacher educators to be able to teach effectively. subject matter knowledge in this study includes knowledge of the english language and language components. since english is the subject matter of foreign language teaching, language proficiency and communicative ability in english is a necessary pre-requisite for a language teacher (richards, 1997). apart from the teachers' capability, mastery of subject matter knowledge has a close relationship with the teacher educators' professionalism (amin, 2013: 72). the perceptions of the pedagogical knowledge the results of quantitative data in the present study show that teacher educators have higher perceptions in each mean score of items and in each mean score per indicator of pedagogical knowledge than student teachers have. it can be known from the statistical computation in each indicator of teacher educators’ and student teachers' perceptions of pedagogical knowledge, as has been shown in table 2. it means that there is a significant difference between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of the aforementioned attribute. furthermore, if we look at the findings as has been shown in table 2, we can figure out those differences of student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions are in the mean score per item and in the mean score per indicator. in indicator 1 (teacher educators should master instructional process, e.g. planning, teaching, and assessing) of pedagogical knowledge, the finding showed that teach english tailored to students' proficiency levels, and assess students have learned were considered by teacher educators as the most important attributes of effective teacher educators. on the contrary, assess what students have learned rationally has been ranked by student teachers as s. a. karim register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 16 the most important characteristic than teach english by using english as a medium of instruction, and teach english tailored to students’ english proficiency levels. based on the finding in indicator 2 (teacher educators possess the classroom management) of pedagogical knowledge, it was revealed that both student teachers and teacher educators shared the same perception that provides interesting activities for students in learning english is the essential characteristic of effective teacher educators than teach english incorporating students' various learning styles (e.g. interactive learning style). furthermore, in indicator 3 (teacher educators have the ability to use ict in teaching) of pedagogical knowledge, it was revealed that being able to use audio-visual aids when teaching is viewed as an important characteristic by both student teachers and teacher educators. in fact, nowadays, students like to make use of technology platforms in their learning activities, such as youtube, and videos because those platforms may enhance their learning abilities and outcomes. as was found in kulaib’s study (2016: 71), using technologies may arouse student’s interest in learning and drive students’ attention inside the classroom. although student teachers and teacher educators have different perceptions in each mean score in every item and indicator of pedagogical knowledge, they shared the same perception that teacher educators should possess classroom management skills as the most important attribute of effective efl teacher educators. besides, teacher educators perceived that master the instructional process (e.g. planning and teaching) as the second rank, and have the ability to use ict in teaching as the third rank to become effective teacher educators. meanwhile, student teachers perceived have the ability to use ict in teaching as the second rank and master the instructional process (e.g. planning and teaching) as the third rank that should be possessed by effective teacher educators. the perceptions of the organization and communication skills the results of quantitative data in the present study show that teacher educators have higher perceptions in each mean score of items and in each bridging the gaps between teacher educators …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 17 mean score per indicator of organization and communication skills than student teachers have. it can be known from the statistical computation in each indicator of teacher educators’ and student teachers' perceptions of the organization and communication skills, as has been shown in table 3. it means that there is a significant difference between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of the aforementioned attribute. the details of differences can be figured out from the mean scores as has been shown in table 3 in the previous chapter. in fact, in indicator 1 (teacher educators possess the ability to organize the instruction effectively) of organization and communication skills, teacher educators highlighted to prepare appropriate materials as the most necessary attribute of effective efl teacher educators. moreover, provide opportunities to use english trough meaningful task and activities is the second priority, then make courses interesting to attract students' attention is the third, and then guide and train students towards independent learning is in the fourth rank, after that emphasize the most important points of the materials is in the last priority. similar findings were found in kolo’s (2006: 114), in which the use of suitable materials with the existing context, whether the materials required further adaptation from the teacher, and whether supplementary materials are needed. besides, learning materials should be interesting and not monotonous, not too short and not too long. the result of the present study and kolo's study confirms that teacher educators must select and develop appropriate learning materials in a good proportion of content and skills, deliver it in interesting ways, and to provide a variety of learning tasks or activities which allow students to get involve and engage in learning activities. unlike teacher educators, student teachers, in indicator 1, perceived make courses interesting to attract students' attention is the most necessary characteristic of effective efl teacher educators. besides, prepare appropriate materials is the second important characteristic, then provide opportunities to use english trough meaningful task and activities is the third priority, and then emphasize the most important points of the materials is in the fourth rank, and the last one priority is guide and train students towards independent learning. s. a. karim register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 18 in indicator 2 (teacher educators must be able to communicate effectively with students) of organization and communication skills, teacher educators perceived have good communication skills is the most important characteristic of effective efl teacher educators. furthermore, maintain a good classroom atmosphere is considered as the second important characteristic while using easy language to help the student comprehend the lesson is considered as the third priority. meanwhile, student teachers perceived the use of easy language to help the student comprehend the lesson as the most important characteristic of effective teacher educators. in addition, student teachers rated have good communication skills and maintain a good classroom atmosphere with the same degree of importance of effective efl teacher educators. the findings showed that although student teachers and teacher educators have different perceptions in each mean score in every item and in every indicator of organization and communication skills, they shared the same perception that teacher educators must be able to communicate effectively with student teachers as the most necessary attribute of effective efl teacher educators, and teacher educators must be able to communicate effectively with student teachers as the second priority to become effective efl teacher educators. the perceptions of the socio-affective skills unlike the three attributes (smk, pk, and ocs), the quantitative data finding of the present study revealed that student teachers have higher perceptions in each mean score of the item and in each mean score and each mean score per indicator on the category of the attribute in socio-affective skills than teacher educators have, as has been shown in table 4. although student teachers have higher perceptions in each mean score of the item and each mean score per indicator, the result of inferential statistic analysis showed that there is no statistically significant difference between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of socio-affective skills. the present finding implies that teacher educators at present are aware of the importance of personal qualities of efl teacher educators. in fact, in indicator 1 (teacher educators must be able to perform a good attitude in interacting with student teachers) of socio-affective skills, both bridging the gaps between teacher educators …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 19 student teachers and teacher educators shared the same perception that being friendly to students is the most important attribute of effective efl teacher educators. it is in line with berline's study (2000), mulock (2003) that developing a good relationship with students leads to teachers' effectiveness and good quality of teachers. a similar finding was found in yageioglu's study (2016: 87) that being friendly is found to be a necessary quality of an effective english language teacher. concerning the present finding, several studies showed similar results that show the importance of being friendly, for instance; arikan, taser & suzer, 2008; shishavan, & sadegi, 2009; and celik, arkan & caner, 2013. in addition to this characteristic, both student teachers and teacher educators shared the same perception that has a great sense of humour is considered as the second rank to be possessed by efl teacher educators. a similar finding can be observed in puspita's study (2013: 73) that students intend to have teachers who always smile and fun to be with them. when a teacher has the skill to approach students in difficult situations in the classroom with the use of humour, it can create an interesting atmosphere in the classroom. this finding also matches with mcdermott and rothenberg' statement (2000) that students enjoy teachers with a good sense of humor and fun learning. meanwhile, in indicator 2 (teacher educators must be able to fully motivate, encourage, and reduce students' anxiety) of socio-affective skills, both student teachers and teacher educators also have the same perception that has an interest in students (e.g. remembering students' names), and students' english learning as the most important attributes of effective efl teacher educators. similar findings were obtained in the study conducted by park and lee (2006). they stated that professional qualities and classroom behaviours that should be possessed by efl teachers include reduce students' anxiety and know students' names. the finding of the present study revealed that being friendly to students, possesses a great sense of humour, and has an interest in students and their learning are considered important by both student teachers and teacher educators. it is evidence that socio-affective skills are highly rated as an s. a. karim register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 20 important characteristic of effective efl teachers educators. the finding of the present study indicates that teacher educators nowadays, tend to have a warm and friendly relationship with their students, and always build a good rapport with student teachers to gain the effectiveness of the learning and teaching process. the perceptions of the whole categories of attributes based on the findings of the quantitative data analysis from student teachers' and teacher educators' questionnaires on the whole category of attributes they have different perceptions of effective efl teacher educators. the result of statistic analysis revealed that teacher educators have a higher mean score on the whole category of attributes than the student teachers have, as has been shown in table 5. moreover, as stated previously, there is a significant statistical difference between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of the three categories of attributes, namely smk, pk, and ocs. however, as has been shown by table 5, there is no significant statistical difference between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of socio-affective skills despite the fact that student teachers' mean score in each item and each indicator is higher than the teacher educators' mean score. a similar finding can be found in the related study conducted by puspita (2013: 66) that there were no significant differences between the two groups on interpersonal skill (e.g. help students in learning, and praise students' ability and opinion) which is closely related to the term sas in the present study. thus, they both perceived the attributes as the necessary attributes of becoming effective efl teacher educators. conclusion the student teachers and teacher educators have different perceptions of how they perceived effective efl teacher educators. they are different in the three categories of attributes namely smk, pk, and ocs. however, no significant statistical difference was found between student teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions of socio-affective skills. the differences might be caused bridging the gaps between teacher educators …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 21 by several factors, such as students' learning needs, expectations, and learning orientation. besides, they have a different point of views about the role of teacher educators inside and outside of the classroom, teacher educators' teaching performances in the classroom, as well as their educational background and empirical experiences among them. suggestions it necessary for efl teacher educators to pay attention not only to the aspects of mastery of the subject (what to teach) and pedagogical knowledge (how to teach), but also to observe socio-affective skills, including personal qualities, and organization and communication skills. meanwhile, to student teachers, it is suggested that they observe and comprehend the attributes of effective teachers from the teacher educators' point of view. to the curriculum developers, it is strongly suggested and recommended that will take into account the results of the study by considering the category of attributes of effective efl teacher be integrated into a certain course like microteaching, peer teaching, instructional design, teaching and learning strategies, and syllabus design. moreover, the study program coordinators at the english education program may also conduct teacher educators' evaluations from the perspectives of student teachers by inserting those attributes as one of the assessment criteria. besides, those attributes may also be applied to one of the assessment criteria in the student teachers' field teaching practice final score form. thus, a great combination of performance and competence which is highlighted in the four categories of attributes of effective teachers may be established for student teachers before graduating from the teacher education program. finally, to the prospective researchers to conduct, for instance, an in-depth study into the differences between male and female student teachers, between high and low proficiency students about effective teacher educators. another investigation might be conducted qualitatively to find out effective language teachers from the perspectives of student teachers whose family from the teaching profession and non-teacher professional background. future researchers can compare and contrast their perceptions to get comprehensive information about what makes a teacher educator effective. s. a. karim register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 22 pedagogical implications the implication of the present study that teacher educators will understand how to approach the students in a great way, what teaching methods suit them, how to organize the classroom (classroom management), and provide types of activities during the teaching and learning process. moreover, the present findings may serve as starting points to teacher education providers, curriculum developers, student teachers, and the related authorities to take any necessary actions and implement prominent strategies in the initial teacher education program in indonesia, especially in the university context. acknowledgements the author would like to thank the participants both teacher educators and student teachers for their availability and willingness to involve in the data gathering process.[rgt] references afshar, h.s., & doosti, m. 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(2016). characteristics of an effective english language teacher (eelt) as perceived by learners of english. international journal of foreign language teaching & research, 4, (14), 70-88. microsoft word 02_register pragmatic (afiliasi bhs inggris) register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021), pp. 185-202 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i2.185-202 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 185 a pragmatic analysis on vague language used in disaster news articles on thejakartapost.com jaufillaili jaufillaili,1* riska nurmalita,2 endang herawan3 1, 2 english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas swadaya gunung djati, cirebon, indonesia, 3 economics education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas swadaya gunung djati, cirebon, indonesia *) corresponding author email: fillihidayat@gmail.com doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i2.185-202 submission track: received: 28-05-2021 final revision: 01-12-2021 available online: 05-12-2021 copyright © 2021 author(s) this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract this paper presents the findings analysis of categories and functions on vague language used in disaster news articles on thejakartapost.com based on the theory of channell (1994). in the journalism context, especially in disaster news articles, the information often contains vague language that has imprecise statements since it is harmful. therefore, to avoid wrong statements, the reporters often use vague language in presenting information accurately. the study employed a qualitative descriptive method. a number of 24 news articles formed the data. a total of 12 news articles of natural disasters and 12 news articles of human-caused disasters were used. the period was from april 2018 to march 2019. the findings of this study showed that there were three categories of vague language, namely vague additives to numbers that were realized by approximators and adjectives. the others were vagueness of choice of vague words that were realized by nouns, and vagueness by scalar implicatures that were realized by quantifiers, numbers, and exaggerations. in addition, they also have functions of vague language. first is giving the right amount of information; it is used since the reporters just shared the right number of information although the exact number was not available. second, filling in lexical gaps of uncertainty; it is used since the reporters wanted to cover the imprecise information with another word, and generalized word that was difficult to identify. last but not least, self-protection. it is used since the reporters wanted to protect and hedge their statements from imprecise information. keywords: vague language; categories; news articles; disasters; implicature j. jaufillaili, r. nurmalita, e. herawan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 186 introduction in daily life, especially in the social context, humans need to communicate with each other. they use language as media to interact in society. by understanding the language and its meaning, people connect to each other (handayani, 2015). in the process of communication in society, news articles are regarded as media for interaction. it means that reporters are the speakers, while the readers are the hearers. with rapid technology, people can also find out news articles from online news. according to newman et al. (2017), online news constitutes the biggest source of information today, while printed newspapers have seen a significant drop in readership in the past decade. languages in journalism context are supposed to be both formal and concise. the news articles should be delivered directly to the facts of social phenomenon to the readers. however, in some cases, it does not show the exact meaning because of the situation. sometimes, reporters are unable to get all the facts immediately for one or another reason (khalil, 2017), but they should report it quickly and with trust. therefore, to protect them from making wrong statements, they often use vague language. vague language is defined as words or phrases ''which deliberately refer to people and things in a non-specific, imprecise way'' carter & mccarthy (2006) as cited in cutting (2007). in disaster context, most information is about the number of events that do without strict accuracy, such as the imprecise number of people who have died or number of buildings destroyed. in this context, the reporters often use vague language since the specific information is not available immediately or it is not being reported. therefore, the writer is motivated to analyse vague language in popular english newspaper online in indonesia, it is called by thejakartapost.com with the topic disasters, and it can be natural disaster or human-caused disaster. the research conducted by pan (2012), entitled “an analysis of vagueness in english news from grice's cooperative principles,” focuses on analysing certain samples selected from some english newspapers. the researcher used a qualitative descriptive method in analysing the data. she applied grice's cooperative principle in analysing several samples selected from some english newspapers to show that vague language can effectively stand out the accuracy a pragmatic analysis on vague language used in disaster news articles …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 187 of the english newspaper. the writer also used three types of vague language; there were hedges, vague words, and vague implicature. the findings from this research were vague language in news usually violated the maxim of quality, quantity, manner, and relevance due to different situations, and the use of vague language promote the expressive effects of the news item and give readers a lot of things to think and meditate. the other research study by from khalil (2017), entitled ’’a pragmatic analysis of vague language in the news articles on the iraqi security crisis, investigates and pragmatically analyses the vague language in news articles on the iraqi security crisis in the period after april 2014 when isis conquered important iraqi cities. theory of grice's cooperative principle was used to uncover the purposes vague language serves and its effects on news articles. the researcher used a qualitative descriptive method in analysing the data. all the data were eight articles downloaded from different broadcasting corporations on internet resources. the researcher also used three types of vague language based on channell's theory. the most frequently used type of vague language in the research was hedging, and often flouted the maxim of quantity and manner. this research also had logical purposes that have had positive effects on the communicative aspect of the text. therefore, in the result, the writer said that from the pragmatic perspective, there seems to be a contradiction between vague language and grice's cooperative principle. the gap of my research compared to those previous ones are the object of the research and the theory used to analyse the data. the first previous researcher used random articles, and the second previous researcher used articles on iraqi security crisis. both previous researchers applied grice’s cooperative principle to analyse the data, while i use sabet & zhang’s vague language theory to analyse the data. the novelty of my research can be seen from the findings that there are only three functions of vague language in natural disaster articles. the writer hopes that the finding of this research could contribute theoretically about the functions of vague language, especially in natural disaster articles to the pragmatic study. j. jaufillaili, r. nurmalita, e. herawan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 188 literature review vague language vague language is defined as words or phrases ''which deliberately refer to people and things in a non-specific, imprecise way'' carter & mccarthy (2006) as cited in cutting (2007). from carter & mccarthy's point of view, vague language is confined to the lexical level as they regard vague language as imprecise words or phrases. according to channell (1994) as cited in bajri (2016), the expression or word is vague if (a) it can be contrasted with another word or expression that appears to render the same propositions; (b) it is purposely and unabashedly vague; and (c) its meaning arises from the intrinsic uncertainty. channell argues that vagueness occurs under one of the circumstances in which an expression purposely and unabashedly is made vague. van deemter (2010) as cited in zhang (2011) states that vagueness is all about the meaning and function of language. jaufillaili et al. (2017) state that vague language is described as something that is implied without being clearly stated. both participants know the message of the conversation though it is hidden or is not being clearly stated. from the explanations of vague language above, it has not been clearly defined yet. many experts have defined what vague language is in their point of view. in news article, reporters should report articles immediately, but they just have a short time. in this case, they do not know the specific information. thus to avoid non-specific and imprecise information, they often use vague language to present information accurately. vague language, therefore, in the writer's point of view for this research is a word or a phrase that shows an imprecise number of things, people, or other information with various functions contextually. channell (1994) distinguishes three types of vague language, namely (1) vague additives to numbers, (2) vagueness by choice of vague words, and (3) vagueness by scalar implicature. vague additives to numbers are a word or phrase added to a precise figure to signal a vague reading such as “approximators.” approximators are used to refer vaguely to amounts, times, dates, and refer vaguely to factual information, in case: (around, about, nearly, round, and approximately). besides approximators, vague additives to numbers a pragmatic analysis on vague language used in disaster news articles …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 189 are also realized by adjectives as stated by wahyuningsih (2014), such as more than or less than. vagueness by choice of vague word can be defined as vague noun or reference used to refer to entities, in case: (noun: things, something, anything, what is name). the last category is vagueness by scalar implicature; it can be defined as an exact number or plural numbers name to have a vague meaning or round number used without strict accuracy, such as “quantifiers.” in case: (most, many, some, few, little, often sometimes, occasionally, seldom). a scalar implicature also can be defined as an additional meaning of the negative of any value higher on the scale than the one uttered (yule, 1996, p.134), such as exaggeration. therefore, vagueness by scalar implicature can be observed by exact or plural number by numbers (50 to 70, 85 or 90), quantifiers (many, some), or exaggerations (thousands of, hundreds of). some of the functions above use in spoken context and sometimes in informal situation such as creating informality and atmosphere, deliberately withholding information, using language persuasively, dealing with displacement, and providing power and politeness. they are often found in spoken context such as in daily conversation. in addition, the function of covering lack of specific information, it seems suitable to the functions in news articles area but if it is seen deeply, it will focus more on spoken context. it is used if someone does not know the specific information, then they want to convey it to others. they will cover the lack of information spontaneously as in conversation. thus, this function is not appropriate in news articles, especially in disaster areas, since it does not do spontaneously in writing news articles. the writer in this research uses three functions of vague language, there are: (1) giving the right amount of information. no need to be precise, just right information, and (2) filling in lexical gaps of uncertainty (channell, 1994). it is used for covering notions which are difficult to identify or attempts at generalisations (urbanova, 1999). therefore, in news article, it can be used for filling in lexical gaps of uncertainty (various things like that, something of that short, etc.). the use of self-protection has two function: to protect self against being proven wrong later, channell (1994) and hedging the statements wahyuningsih (2014). j. jaufillaili, r. nurmalita, e. herawan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 190 disaster disaster is a situation where the damaged consequences of natural or human-caused forces make a certain region or society fulfil the request for their health care (american college of emergency physicians, 2012 as cited in ozturk tasci & oguz unver, 2017). according to bakema et al. (2018), disaster can roughly be divided into two groups. first is a study on natural disasters and human-caused disasters. based on the definitions above, disasters are generally found to arise from two sources: 1) natural disasters, it is the process of natural disaster is natural phenomenon or caused by naturally. for instances, earthquakes, lightning strikes, and volcanic eruptions, 2) human-caused disasters, which are caused by humans in relation to various activities of people. it does not have a cause and effect relationship with nature, and they occur due directly to human influence, (pinar & adnan, 2017). for instances forest firecaused by humans, any kind of accidents and wars are considered to be humancaused disasters. people do not always or even usually say what they mean. speakers frequently mean much more than their words convey. for example, one might say: it’s hot in here! , but what they mean is: please open the window! or is it alright if i open the window? or you’re wasting electricity! people can mean something quite different from what their words say, or even just the opposite. for instance, to someone who has borrowed my car for the weekend and returned it with no petrol in the tank, i might say: it was nice of you to fill the car up! alternatively, what a shame you couldn’t find the petrol tank! (thomas, 1995, p.1). in line with the explanation above, thomas (1995, p.1) says that there are several interesting questions arise from these observations: if speakers regularly mean something other than what they say, how is it that people manage (as on the whole they do) to understand one another? if a single group of words such as it’s hot in here! could mean so many different things at different times, how do we work out what it really means on one specific occasion? moreover, why don’t people just say what they mean? these, and many other issues, are addressed within the area of linguistics known as a pragmatic analysis on vague language used in disaster news articles …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 191 pragmatics. wray et al. (1998, p.115) say that pragmatics deals with the hidden messages. when we read an article, pragmatics also play an important role. readers will have various perceptions by reading the article. therefore, context is an essential thing in writing an article. authors often put hidden meanings in articles to be conveyed by the readers even sometimes without being clearly stated. based on the above reasons, this study pragmatically analyses categories and functions on vague language used in disaster news articles on thejakartapost.com. therefore, the following questions are discussed in this article: (1) what categories of vague language are used in disaster news articles on thejakartapost.com and (2) what are the functions of vague language used in disaster news articles on thejakartapost.com? research methods to achieve the purpose of this study, the writer conducted a qualitative approach. cresswell (2009, p.4) defines a qualitative approach as: a means for exploring and understanding the meaning ascribe to social or human problems. the process of research involves emerging questions and procedures; collecting data in the participants’ setting; analysing the data inductively, building from particular to general themes; and making interpretations of the meaning of data. the final written report has a flexible writing structure. since this study was a literature review, the writer used descriptive qualitative research. the goal of qualitative descriptive studies is a comprehensive summarization of specific events those in everyday terms lambert and lambert (2012). the writer used selected disaster news articles with the period between april 2018 and march 2019. it can be natural disasters or human-caused disasters. the writer obtained the data from one of the most popular online newspapers in indonesia—thejakartapost.com. each month, the writer took one sample of natural disaster, and one sample of human-caused disaster. the reason of limitation of this period because there were many disaster incidents, such as tsunamis, earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, bombs, plane j. jaufillaili, r. nurmalita, e. herawan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 192 crashes, train or car accidents, explosions, etc. the writer also wanted to know how often the reporters used vague language in their articles in a one-year period. there were several steps that the writer used to collect the data: (1) searching and collecting process, (2) selecting process, (3) downloading process. the writer searched and collected news articles about the topic ’disaster’ on thejakartapost.com. the writer also observed the articles one by one whether there were categories of vague language or not. the period was between april 2018 and march 2019. the next process was selecting process. the writer chose one disaster news, and one human-caused disaster news in each month on thejakartapost.com as the writer's data. after the process of selecting news articles, the writer downloaded the articles on thejakartapost.com website. the writer downloaded the selected news articles from the website http://www.thejakartapost.com/news. according to miles et al. (2014), there were three steps of data analysis, namely: 1) data condensation, 2) data display, and 3) drawing conclusion. after collected the data, the first step was data condensation the writer read and understood carefully the selected news articles. the next step was finding categories of vague language based on channell’s theory. in the analysis process, the writer collected sentences that contained vague language into table in each source. subsequently, the writer put numbers of data and codes of data in each sentence. then, the writer continued to write the categories of vague language in each sentence. therefore, it could answer the first formulation of the problem “what categories of vague language are used in disaster news articles on thejakartapost.com?” the second step was explaining the functions of vague language in each sentence that contained vague language. therefore, it could be answered the second formulation of the problem ’’what are the functions of vague language used in disaster news articles on thejakartapost.com?’’ the writer wrote all categories and functions in column of tables. the next step was data display. after the writer analysed each sentence that contains vague language, the next step was writing the analysis of data. the writer wrote the representative data in a form of explanation of words descriptively. as a a pragmatic analysis on vague language used in disaster news articles …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 193 result of this research, the writer made conclusions about categories and functions of vague language used in disaster news articles on thejakartapost.com with clearly and descriptively. results and discussion in the following, the data analysis was done using vague language theory based on channell (1994) theory. the writer found 177 categories of vague languages that contained vague language from 24 news articles on thejakartapost.com. three types of vague language were found, namely vague additives to numbers that were realized by approximators and adjectives. the others were vagueness of choice of vague words that were realized by nouns, and vagueness by scalar implicatures that were realized by quantifiers, numbers, and exaggerations. in addition, they also have functions of vague language. first, giving the right amount of information; it used for giving the right amount of incident although it was not precise to the fact. second, filling in lexical gaps of uncertainty; it used for covering aim which is difficult to identify or often used for generalizing. last, self-protection; it often used to protect the statement that was unclear and to hedge the statement since for avoiding wrong information. there are some examples of data analysis: vague additives to numbers approximations sentence: at least four people were killed and another was missing in fiji after cyclone josie caused severe flooding in the south pacific island nation, local media reported. the sentence contained a vague expression ‘at least.’ the vague of ‘at least’ could be categorized as vague additives to numbers since vague additives to numbers can be approximation such as ‘at least.’ the vague approximation ‘at least’ above referred to an uncertain number of people who were killed in fiji after cyclone josie. this case showed that it was a minimum number of people who killed in fiji after cyclone josie. the reporters just wrote a minimal number of ''at least 4'' because of terrible situation, they could not get the exact number of all people who had been killed., but in fact, there were more than j. jaufillaili, r. nurmalita, e. herawan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 194 four people. therefore, to avoid the wrong information, the reporter chose to use a minimum number ’’at least 4’’ to present the information accurately. the vague additives to numbers of approximation ’’at least’’ above could function as self-protection. it was hedging the statement of the people who killed in fiji after cyclone josie. in fact, there were not only four people, but also there were more than four people who had been killed. the reporters knew there were more than four people, but they did not know how many they were exactly. in this case, they did not know the exact number, but they should give information accurately. they used ‘at least’ as a minimal number of people who had been killed to protect his statement. therefore, it used to protect the reporter’s statement from making mistake if the number of people were not precise to the fact. adjectives sentence: a deadly virus carried by fruit bats has killed at least five people in southern india, and more than 90 people are in quarantine, a top health official said tuesday. the sentence contained a vague adjective ’’more than.’’ the adjective ’’more than’’ could be categorized as vague additives to numbers because it referred to numbers that had a vague meaning such as ’’more than 90’’ above. in this case, the reporters did not know the specific number of people who were in quarantine because nipah virus. in this news article, they reported only with the number 90. in fact, there were more than 90. it could be 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96 …, etc. vague additives to numbers ''more than'' above could function as giving the right amount of information. the reporters supplied the number of people who were in quarantine because nipah virus. it showed that it was an uncertain number. the people not only 90, but also there were still many people who were in quarantine. in this article, the reporters did not get the specific numbers in detail. thus, they just gave the right numbers of information with ''more than 90.'' they thought they just needed to share the right numbers of information to the readers, although that information did not need to be precise numbers. a pragmatic analysis on vague language used in disaster news articles …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 195 vagueness by choice of vague word noun sentence: "my family are safe but my house has been destroyed - everything's gone," said sunaria. the sentence contained a vague expression “everything.” the word “everything’’ here indicated to noun. it could be categorized as vagueness by choice of vague word that deliberately referred to unclear or non-specific reference such as “everything.’’ in this context, the interviewee, sun aria used "everything'' to explain things that had gone. it was unclear because "everything'' here referred to all his house equipment. in this case, he wanted to tell that all equipment of his house that had gone because tsunami attack, but he did not know what kind of things or equipment there. he could not mention one by one things or equipment that had gone, because there were so many things or equipment in his house. therefore, he used vagueness by choice of vague word "everything" to avoid wrong information to the reporter. therefore, the reporters just gave information to the reader based on the interviewee's information. vagueness by choice of vague word "everything" above could function as filling in lexical gaps of uncertainty. in this case, the reporters just showed all information from the interviewee to the reader about everything that had gone. it showed that the interviewee and the reporters did not know all information of everything that had gone because tsunami attacks. therefore, vague "everything" above replaced or filled gap of the equipment or things of his house that not exactly known by the interviewee because of terrible situation such as tsunami attack. therefore, the use of ''everything'' here is also because the interviewee and the reporter wanted to generalize all things which had gone with ''everything''. therefore, it was suitable with the function of filling in lexical gaps of uncertainty. j. jaufillaili, r. nurmalita, e. herawan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 196 vagueness by scalar implicature quantifiers sentence: some villagers perished when the powerful tsunami struck on saturday night, sweeping over popular beaches of southern sumatra and the western tip of java and inundating tourist hotels and coastal settlements. the sentence contained a vague expression ''some.'' ''some'' in the sentence above referred to a quantifier; therefore, it can be categorized as vagueness by scalar implicature. it could be a plural number of people or things that had vague meaning, such as ''some'' above. in the sentence above, a quantifier, ''some'' referred to plural number of villagers who perished when the powerful tsunami struck. the reporters used some villagers because they did not know the exact number of villagers who perished when the powerful tsunami struck. they just knew that there were still many villagers who perished, but they were not sure how many villagers there were. therefore, they chose to use vague expression ''some'' to avoid wrong information. the vague quantifier ’’some’’ above could function as giving the right amount of information. since this was a disaster news article, it often presented large numbers of incident. the reporters were difficult to get precise numbers. in the case above, they did not know the exact number of villagers who perished. however, they should give the right information about the number of villagers who perished when the powerful tsunami struck. therefore, they just gave the right information, and did not need to be precise. the use of vague quantifier ''some'' was the best choice to give the right information about number of villagers. however, with the use of vague language of quantifiers, such as ''some'' above, readers can imply the meaning that some villagers referred more than one or many villagers. the reporters chose to use vague expression ''some'' to give accurate information to the readers rather than just presuming the numbers. numbers sentence: there were conflicting reports on the number of dead in the alleged gas attack, with the white helmets reporting between 40 and 70 killed. the sentence contained a vague expression ’’40 and 70’.’ thus, it referred to categories of vague language of vagueness by scalar implicature that was a pragmatic analysis on vague language used in disaster news articles …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 197 realized by number. it had plural numbers, which had a vague meaning. in the sentence above, it showed the exact and plural numbers of ''40 and 70'', but in fact, it was not precise. the precise number of people who died in the alleged gas attack above were not 40 or 70, but between 40 and 70. the reporters used '40 and 70', because they did not know the number of people who died accurately. they just knew there were at least 40 and less than 70 people who died because of the alleged gas attacks. therefore, this vague language was suitable with categories of vagueness by scalar implicature. the numbers ’’40 and 70’’ had a vague meaning realized it. in the case above, vagueness by scalar implicature ’’40 and 70’’ functions as self-protection. the reporters did not know how many people who died in the gas attack specifically. they just knew the victims were between ’40 and 70. therefore, to avoid the wrong statement, they preferred to choose vagueness by scalar implicature ’’40 and 70’’ to protect their statement. in this vague expression, the reporters tried to protect their statement with hedging the number of people who died. they bounded the numbers were at least 40 and less than 70 people who died because of the gas attack. in fact, it can be 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48 49 50…..70. exaggerations sentence: anticipating a regime attack, thousands of people have fled the isheld zone in the past two days heading toward the israeli-occupied golan heights. the sentence contained a vague expression ''thousands of'' because it referred to unspecific numbers of people. it could be categorized as vagueness by scalar implicature that was realized by exaggeration. it showed an unclear number of people who had fled the is-held zone. the vague ''thousands of'' implied to exaggerate the number of people since it could be additional meaning which had a value higher numbers such as in the case above. in fact, what was reported was not precise. therefore, the number of people who had fled could be more than thousands of people. the vague expression ''thousands of'' gave the right amount of information. the reporters just shared the right number information about people who had fled the is-held zone, although they did not give the imprecise numbers. in this case, there were so many people and it could not be counted. j. jaufillaili, r. nurmalita, e. herawan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 198 thus, to avoid the wrong numbers, the reporters chose to use vague expression ''thousands of'' to share the accurate information to the readers. conclusion based on the data analysis, there were 177 categories of vague language that the writer found from 24 articles on thejakartapost.com. there were three categories of vague language, namely vague additives to numbers, vagueness by choice of vague word, and vagueness by scalar implicature. first, the writer found two categories of vague additives to numbers, namely approximations, and adjectives. second, the writer just found one category of vagueness by choice of vague word, namely nouns. last, the writer found three categories of vagueness by scalar implicature, namely quantifiers, exaggerations, and numbers. moreover, the writer also found three functions of vague language that were often used in thejakartapost.com, namely giving the right amount of information, filling in lexical gaps of uncertainty, and self-protection. first, the function of giving the right amount of information; it used since the reporters just shared the right number of information although the exact number was not available. second, filling in lexical gaps of uncertainty; it used since the reporters wanted to cover the imprecise information with another word, and generalized word that was difficult to identify. last, self-protection; it is used since the reporters wanted to protect, and hedge their statements from imprecise information. since this news website should supply the news eventually 24 hours a day, the use of vague language would be the best choice in presenting information accurately, if the accurate information was not available.[rgt] references bajri, i. a. 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(2018, august 20). multiple quakes rock indonesia's lombok island, 10 dead. the jakarta post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2018/08/20/multiple-quakesrock-indonesias-lombok-island-two-dead.html. news desk, agence france-presse. (2018, august 31). conflicts may have killed 5 million children in africa: study. the jakarta post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2018/08/31/conflicts-may-havekilled-5-million--children-in-africa-study.html. news desk, agence france-presse. (2018, september 20). 3 dead, 10 homes buried in philippine monsoon landslide. the jakarta post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2018/09/20/3-dead-10-homesburied-in-philippine-monsoon-landslide.html. news desk, agence france-presse. (2018, october 26). jordan flood death toll rises to 20, most of them school pupils. the jakarta post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2018/10/26/jordan-flood-deathtoll-rises-to-20-most-of-them-school-pupils.html. news desk, agence france-presse. (2018, november 12). us fighter jet crashes off japan's okinawa. the jakarta post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2018/11/12/us-fighter-jetcrashes-off-japans-okinawa.html. news desk, agence france-presse. (2018, december 24). thousands evacuated after 'loud crack' in sydney tower. the jakarta post. j. jaufillaili, r. nurmalita, e. herawan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 202 https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2018/12/24/thousandsevacuated-after-loud-crack-in-sydney-tower.html. news desk, the jakarta post. (2019, january 22). tornado destroys kiosks, topples poles in bekasi. the jakarta post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/01/22/tornado-destroyskiosks-topples-poles-in-bekasi.html. news desk, agence france-presse. (2019, january 8). one dead in oil tanker blaze off hong kong. the jakarta post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/01/08/one-dead-in-oiltanker-blaze-off-hong-kong.html. news desk, agence france-presse. (2019, february 8). hundreds of thousands' of cattle feared dead after australia floods. the jakarta post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/02/08/hundreds-ofthousands-of-cattle-feared-dead-after-australia-floods.html. news desk, the jakarta post. (2019, march 11). fishing vessel catches fire in muara angke. the jakarta post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/03/11/fishing-vesselcatches-fire-in-muara angke.html. nugraha, p & kharishar, k. (2019, march 17). malaysian tourist among killed in earthquake-triggered landslide on lombok. the jakarta post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/03/17/tourists-killedinjured-by-earthquake-triggered-landslide-on-lombok.html. pearl, h. (2018, december 24). 'everything's gone: indonesian villagers recount tsunami horror. the jakarta post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2018/12/24/everythings-goneindonesian-villagers-recount-tsunami-horror.html. rahman, r. (2018, october 29). dozens gather in lion air crash crisis center to report on family members. the jakarta post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2018/10/29/dozens-gather-inlion-air-crash-crisis-center-to-report-on-family-members.html. sufa, t. (2018, september 12). house fire kills three children in bogor. the jakarta post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2018/09/12/housefire-kills-three-children-in-bogor.html. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 89 interference: its role in the target language mastery to indonesian learners win listyaningrum arifin universitas negeri yogyakarta nurarifin_my@yahoo.com abstract interference form one language to target language is something that cannot be denied. this paper discusses about the notion of interference, interference and second or foreign language learning, interference and communication, interference and indonesian learners and its process. in the interference, there are negative transfer that which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target language and positive transfer that makes the learning easier. furthermore, during the language communication, native language can influence target language and the like. thus, interference in communication can be: (1) influence of language contact experienced by bilingual or multilingual person; (2) language infiltration that influence the system to both target and native language, causing negative effect; (3) personal utterances in a narrow space as a parole effect (speech). in addition, interference to indonesian learners can be in the area of phonology, morphology, sentence, and semantics. keywords: interference, second or foreign language learning, indonesian learner abstrak tulisan ini bertujuan untuk menunjukan bagaimana percampuran bahasa petama seseorang, dalam hal ini lokal dan bahasa indonesia, pengaruh penguasaan bahasa asing terhadap pelajar bahasa indonesia. mempengaruhi antar bahasa yang nampak dalam penggunaan kata-kata atau frase-frase bahasa lain menyatu dengan bahasa asli adalah hal yang normal. percampuran bahasa disebabkan oleh penggunaan peraturan berbicara dari satu bahasa ketika berbicara yang lainnya. percampuran bahasa adalah suatu masalah norma bahasa dalam percakapan sebagai akibat dari hubungan bahasa yang dilakukan oleh orang yang berdwibahasa atau banyak bahasa. penggunaaan beberapa kata dan frasa yang tidak biasa, memerlukan sinonim, penggunaan bahasa asing yang bergengsi dan ketidakloyalan penutur bahasa mailto:nurarifin_my@yahoo.com register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 90 dengan dwi/multi bahasa tampak krusial yang disebabkan oleh percampuran bahasa. ini mungkin didasari oleh fakta-fakta bahwa percampuran bahasa terdapat dalam fonologi, tata bahasa, penggabungan kata, rangkaian kata dan kalimat, percampuran bahasa memang langkah paling awal untuk penggabungan walaupun hal itu seperti proses penyambutan penggunaan bahasa ibu atau bahasa lain dalam penggunaan bahasa target. penggabungan selalu diukur oleh kamus. jika kata yang dihasilkan dari proses pencampuran bahasa tidak akan seperti fenomena percampuran bahasa tetapi penggabungan seolah-olah kata tersebut tertulis di kamus melalui sebuah proses peminjaman/borrowing dan semacamnya. kata kunci: percampuran bahasa, penggabungan, pelajar bahasa indonesia, komunikasi dan penguasaan bahasa kedua dan asing introduction language is always developed and changed. these phenomena occur when there are changes in social, economics, and cultures. fast language development mostly happens on fields of science and technology. influencing process between languages cannot be ignored as the language development is directly influenced by certain fields as economics, politics, cultures, sciences, and etc. thus, language as part of integrative culture cannot be separated from factors that contribute to a change. influencing between languages that appears in the using of words or phrases of other language internalized in native language is normal feature. weinrich (in chaer dan agustina 1995:159) stated that language contact is an event of using two languages interchangeably done by a speaker. later, transmission or language element transfer from one language to another language covers all levels. consequently, borrowing and influencing to language elements from one language to another language cannot be ignored. suwito (1985:39-40) stated that if two or more languages were used interchangeably by a speaker, language contact would appear. surprisingly, interference will appear both in register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 91 oral and written form. krashen (1981) stated that interference is a negative transfer that consists of errors. the errors are not traceable to the structure of l1 and commonly practiced by l2 learners. the l1 role in l2 proficiency is as a substitute utterance initiator. taken into consideration, bilingualism or even multilingualism background normally will cause interference and integration. in reality this is not the case. second language learners appear to accumulate structural entities of the target language but demonstrate difficulty in organising this knowledge into appropriate, coherent structures (bhela, 1999). if the structures of the two languages are distinctly different, then one could expect a relatively high frequency of errors to occur in l2, thus indicating an interference of l1 on l2 (dechert, 1983 and ellis, 1997). the second language learning environment encompasses everything the language learner hears and sees in the new language. regardless of the learning environment, the learner‟s goal is mastery of the target language. the learner begins the task of learning a second language from point zero (or close to it) and, through the steady accumulation of the mastered entities of the target language, eventually amasses them in quantities sufficient to constitute a particular level of proficiency (dulay, burt & krashen, 1982 and ellis, 1984). this characterisation of language learning entails the successful mastery of steadily accumulating structural entities and organising this knowledge into coherent structures which lead to effective communication in the target language (rutherford, 1987). alwasilah (1985:131) defined interference based on hartman and stonk formulae that interference is an error caused by a tendency of using certain language utterances to another language that cover pronunciation, structure, and vocabularies. meanwhile, jendra (1991:109) proposed many register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 92 language aspects that contribute interference i.e. phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, and semantics (in suwito,1985:55). dulay, et al (1982) define interference as the automatic transfer, due to habit, of the surface structure of the first language onto the surface of the target language. lott (1983: 256) defines interference as 'errors in the learner‟s use of the foreign language that can be traced back to the mother tongue'. to nababan (1984), interference takes place when usual utterances of mother language or dialect of certain language appear while a person is using other language. in line with nababan, chaer and agustina (1995: 168) stated that interference is norm declination of one or more languages. discussion the notion of interference extensive research has already been done in the area of native language interference on the target language. dulay et al (1982) define interference as the automatic transfer, due to habit, of the surface structure of the first language onto the surface of the target language. lott (1983: 256) defines interference as 'errors in the learner‟s use of the foreign language that can be traced back to the mother tongue'. to get a clear picture of interference, the followings are foundation definition of interference according to sociolinguists. chaer (1998:159) clarified that interference term was firstly introduced by weinrich to state a systemized change of certain language as a condition after the mentioned language interacted to elements of other language done by bilingual person. interference refers to entering elements of certain language outside the understanding of other language e.g. put clause or phrases of indonesia while a person is speaking deliberately in english. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 93 hayi (1985:8) referred to valdman (1966) that interference is a burden experienced by non-native speaker of certain language who studied second or foreign language. thus, transferring or moving negative elements of native language into the target language that after all distracted the second or foreign language mastery. another opinion promoted by alwasilah (1985:131), he stated interference, as previously introduced by hartman and stonk as slipped system caused by the usual using of other language utterances cover pronunciation, structure and word themselves when a person is trying to master languages outside his native. suhendra yusuf (1994:67) stated that the major factor caused interference is the distinction of sources between languages in the structure and words formation. take for an example, indonesian learner of english cannot find any inflectional word in indonesia while there are inflectional words in english (both english and indonesian have derivational words/affixes). thus, the learner will find difficulty in translating such inflectional affixes found in the sentences. 16 tenses of english will be very difficult to be translated if modifier of time was stated. to add, jendra (1995:187) stated that interference is deliberated infiltration of native to second or foreign language. bilingualism that usually applied phonetic system of native language to another language will affect the target language. thus, interference is a big change that is very dominant in the language development. english and arabic which are famous with their vocabularies (after words are completed with affixes), interference cannot be separated from their development. interference form one language to target language is something that cannot be denied. hence, interference cannot also be put away from the speaker attitude and aptitude. bawa (1981: 8) proposed three main characteristics of language attitude and aptitude; they are (1) language loyalty, loyalty to certain language, (2) language pride, a register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 94 pride to certain language, and (3) awareness of the norm, awareness to language norms. incomplete understanding of a language learner causes negative effect toward the existence of his own language. thus, bawa pointed it as the causing factor of interference. viewing purity of language, interference in all levels (phonology, morphology, and syntax) is a destructive illness for language that must be put away (chaer and agustina, 1998: 165). interference and its role to second or foreign language competence the notion of interference according to richard, platt, and platt (1992) is a negative type (negative transfer) of language transfer. it is the use of a native-language pattern or role which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target language. for example, a french learner of english may produce the incorrect sentence „i am here since monday‟ instead of „i have been here since monday‟ because of the transfer of french pattern that doesn‟t differentiate tenses patterns between present tense and present perfect tense. thus, the modifier of time to judge which tenses to be used does not exist. on the other hand, another language transfer is positive transfer that makes the learning easier, and may occur when both native language and the target language have similar form. take foe an example, both english and french have the word „table‟ which meaning is similar (to put books, to write down on it, etc.). interference is caused by the use of rules of speaking from one language when speaking another. english always greets “how are you?” while malay uses “have you eaten yet?” to greet. evidence was shown by krashen (1981) that was also compiled findings of other scholars. the research findings are: first, first language influence appears to be strongest in register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 95 complex word order and in word for word translation. kellerman ( 1978) in krashen (1981) stated the existence of interference. the acquirers must perceive a similarity between items in the first and second or foreign language. items that appear to be language specific (e.g. idioms) will be less prone to transfer. acquirers often fall back on the first language when they have not acquired aspects of the target language. second, first language influence is weaker in bond morphology. inflectional morphology belongs to the category of structure that performers generally do not transfer in second or foreign language performance. inflectional morphology as bond morphology such as suffixes of –s, -ed, -ing; suffixes –er than, -est in degree of comparison; possessive; etc. and, indonesian learners of english will not put similar inflectional to english as indonesia learners only understand derivation. third, first language influence seems to be stronger in „acquisition poor‟ environments. interference occurs when natural appropriate intake is scarce and where translation exercises are frequent. e.g. sign of first language influence in immersion bilingual programs in schools in indonesia where input is often primarily from teacher and not from peers. later, he drew a conclusion that first language interference may therefore be an indication of low acquisition. however, in the long run, it is much more useful when language is used for the purpose of communication. there are many factors that contribute interference (weinrich, 1970:64-65): first, speaker bilingualism background. bilingualism is the major factor of interference as the speaker is influenced by both of the source and the target language. indonesias student who is javanese and is studying good bahasa tends to put his javanese language into indonesia. look the example, „andi, apakah kamu bisa mengerjakan soal matematika ini? tanya guru, then andi answered, „tidak bisa bu guru, lha wong itu angel‟. the register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 96 impression of „lha wong‟ is usual in javanese cultural insight. the word „angel‟ means difficult in bahasa, the student should reply his teacher with “tidak bisa bu guru, soalnya sulit‟. regarding this condition, the student is a second grade of elementary school. second, disloyalty to target language. disloyalty to target language will cause negative attitude. this will lead to disobedience to target language structure and further force the bilingualist to put uncontrolled structure of his first language elements to output in practicing words utterances both oral and written. students whose language background of tl is limited tend to put words in sentences or oral in structure and sense of first language. third, the limited vocabularies of tl mastered by a learner. vocabularies of certain language mostly are about words of surroundings connected to life. thus, a learner who is willing to master another language will meet new words differ from his native words. in order to be able to speak as natives of tl, vocabularies take a big role. the more vocabularies someone has, the better he masters tl. foreign language learner will try to put deliberately his native word to state some points when he cannot find the best words of tl. interference as the effect of new words entries is normally done by another language learner. a learner‟s new word entries from tl as the effect of interference will be easily internalized and integrated as those new words are received after the learner made mistake in delivering words of tl. fourth, needs of synonym. synonym in language usage plays an important role as word chosen variation in order not to repeat similar word during the communication process (redundancy). implementing synonym in a language contact will contribute to interference in the form of adoption and borrowing of new words from sl to tl. thus, need of synonym for certain word from sl to tl is seemingly aimed to intensify meaning. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 97 fifth, prestige and style. applying unfamiliar words (foreign words) during a communication practice which dominant words are languages of both speaker and receiver is something else. those unfamiliar words usage is aimed to get a pride. interference will appear as there are certain words even though the receiver probably cannot catch the real idea of the speech. the usual unfamiliar words usage will become a style of the user. unfortunately, the user sometimes does not understand the real meaning whether the meaning is denotative or connotative. the common feature is that many language users put derivational affix –ization in every word. to note, affix – ization is an adopting and borrowing process from english to state nouns. interference in communication rajend meshtire (2008) in spolsky and hult (2008) stated that the main focus in sociolinguistics falls on language use within a speech community. sociolinguistics is generally characterized by close attention to the actual speech of representative sections of a community, rather than to somewhat static and idealized patterns one finds in formal writing. thus, it adopts a non-prescriptive approach to its subject matter, avoiding subjective judgments about whether some aspects of language are better than another. in a multilingual culture where several languages coexist in a society, sociolinguistics notes that these languages frequently influence each other. as a discipline that digs the study of linguistic variation, sociolinguistics focuses on the form of speakers‟ utterances rather than the content of communication itself. as being stated earlier, interference is a problem of language norm in speech as an effect of language contact done by bilingual or multilingual person. beside language contact as weinrich statement (in sukardi, 1999:4) the causing factors of interference are the limited words of certain language register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 98 in facing global development. the unusual using of some words or phrases,, need of synonym, prestigious foreign language usage, and disloyalty of a speaker with bilingual or multilingual are seemingly crucial cause of interference. jendra (1991:105) pointed out that there are three main elements in interference i.e. donor language that infiltrated its elements and systems to another language, recipient language as language that receive other language elements and systems, and imported words from one language to another language. during the language communication, native language can influence target language and the like. thus, interference in communication: (1) influence of language contact experienced by bilingual or multilingual person; (2) language infiltration that influence the system to both target and native language, causing negative effect; (3) personal utterances in a narrow space as a parole effect (speech). yusuf (1994:71) divided interference events into four types, i.e.: first, phonic interference. this occurs when a language user uses certain vocals or sounds (as dialects or accents) of his native in producing words of tl. an english learner from sumbawa will be very difficult is sounding „v‟ as being indicated in involvement, he will pronounce the word “inpolpement” unintentionally. second,grammatical interference. this feature takes place when an indonesian english learner identifies morpheme or structure of his native into tl. most of indonesian will put indonesian style of language when they make sentences. the sense is clearly appeared. third, lexical interference. this kind of interference takes place in varied forms, e.g. words and phrases and fourth, semantic interference. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 99 interference to indonesian learners of second or foreign language as indonesian english learner, i think that this is very important to view what most common problem is faced in mastering second or foreign language. here are some detail information. interference in phonology the example is a javanese who is mentioning some places which words are initiated with letters /b/, /d/, /g/, and /j/, as bandung, deli, gombong, and jambi. he unintentionally will pronounce /mbandung/, /ndeli/,/njambi/, and /nggombong/ (chaer and agustina, 2004). surprisingly, i myself feel funny when someone who is also a javanese asks me my origin and my answer is „i am from njaweng‟ (while the correct is „i am from jaweng‟). interference in morphology morphological interference is regarded by many linguists as the most frequent one. it occurs in the word formation by absorbing other derivational affixes. we often hear indonesian words kepukul, ketabrak, kebesaran, kekecilan, kemahalan, sungguhan, bubaran, duaan, etc., however the correct word formation should be terpukul, tertabrak, terlalu besar, terlalu kecil, terlalu mahal, kesungguhan, berpisah (bubar), and berdua (chaer and agustina, 2004). the previous data is clearly word formation process of morphological interference from root words that are added with certain affixes from indigenous language or other language (fl). interference in sentence this interference is a rare phenomenon. in fact, interference in sentence should be ignored as sentence pattern is a main character of certain language. pay attention to these two sentences, “rumahnya ayahnya ali yang besar sendiri di kampung itu”, and “makanan itu telah dimakan oleh saya”. the sentence form is indirectly influenced by native language understanding register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 100 of someone that causes grammatical interference as there are the best sentence formation for those sentences, i.e.: “rumah ayah ali yang paling besar di kampung ini”, and “makanan itu telah saya makan” (chaer and agustina, 2004). the language learner is trying to simplify the context by mixing sentence pattern between native language and target language. semantic interference according to recipient language, semantic interference is occurs when the recipient language absorbs cultural insight of words as the origins from another language. this process is known as expansive. e.g. indonesian takes words from greece-latin as demokrasi, politik, revolusi, and many more (chaer and agustina, 2004). surprisingly, this borrowing process is natural and normal. english also takes many stems from other languages such as latin for morpheme geo-, bio-, ology, -ghraphy, etc. the first process is through interference and then goes to integration by passing borrowing process. integration process in bahasa indonesia integration is viewed to be a distractor in bahasa indonesia. chaer (1994 : 67) stated that integration is element of foreign language in which considered, treated, and used as a part of receptive language. integration usually needs a long process as it must be suited to bahasa indonesia in terms of the pronunciation, the spelling, and even the grammatical/syntactical feature. as a multicultural background country, indonesia is enriched by its multilanguages feature of its people. indonesia‟s inhabitants live in five big islands accross the country, they are sumatera, kalimantan, jawa, sulawesi, and papua. surprisingly, each big island is also divided into small islands. each group of people has particular spoken language which is called register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 101 indigenous languages as javanese (mostly spoken in java island), sundanese (spoken in west javanese), balinese (balinese language), sasak (lombok or west nusa tenggara), palopo (south sulawesi), and hundreds of other languages. thus, bahasa indonesia appeared to be national language to accommodate hundreds of local languages spoken and loved by the people. bahasa indonesia is usually used in formal occassion while local languages are used mostly in daily conversation. automatically, local languages influence the using of bahasa indonesia in integration process. for example, the word “kurang” is originally derived from javanese and malay language. there are many others examples of local words internalized as bahasa indonesia (most are found in the dictionary of bahasa indonesia). life is changing, thus it insists the global inhabitants change also not only the attitude but also the language using. internationally, english is mostly spoken. thus, english also influences bahasa indonesia as the impact of modernization through the process of integration. unfortunately, people tend to use integrated language as it is comfortable to use. this is in accordance to the assumption of the need of prestige and style. it , then, contributes to the misusing of proper and correct of bahasa indonesia. interference versus integration interference differs from integration whereas integration puts other language elements in native language and further is regarded as part of the native language after treated to be in line systematically with the native pattern and structure (jendra 1991:115). suwito (1983:54), added that interference is speech parole only experienced by bilingual person and is rewarded as a language mistake. interference is the biggest, the most important, and the most dominant problem in language change that needs a depth attention (hockett in suwito, 1983:54). this may be based on the facts register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 102 that interference may appear in phonology, grammatical, word formation, word and sentence sequence, etc. integration is the using of another language elements systematically and seen as part of the speaker language done unconsciously (kridalaksana: 1993:84). one form of integration is borrowing, adopting words from other language internalized into the native language. some linguists stated that integration is very hard to be distinguished from interference. chaer and agustina (2004) referred to mackey, that integration is obviously the product of interference. weinrich (1970:11) noted that a frequent using of certain words through interference will be accepted as part of language system of another language. thus, integration happens. in other word, interference focuses on the process of administering words and integration is acquired and admitted words from another language. integration is always measured by a dictionary. if words produced from interference process will be no longer as interference phenomenon but integration as if the words are written in dictionary. again, words are beneficial to make deal. integration should also be internalized the words in line with the grammatical structure of the natives. the process how a word is formed is not simple. surprisingly, the integration process will be fast if only both languages have similarities. there are three timing considerations should be taken into account, (1) the difference and the similarity of the system language between the two languages. do you find the answer?, (2) whether the language elements are needed or a compliment, and (3) language attitudes of a foreign language? instead of the difference between interference and integration, they are alike. they present as language effect after language contact is done. both interference and integration occur in four language elements, i.e. phonology, grammatical structure, morphology, and semantics. on the other register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 103 hand, interference must be distinguished from code switching and code mixing. code switching to chaer and agustina (2004) is done due to several conditions and conducted intentionally. meanwhile, code mixing is mixing elements of two different languages interchangeably is a consistent manner. interference as one of topics studied in sociolinguistics is aimed to know the ability of a speaker with two or more languages. generally, interference takes place in the using of second or foreign language where the native language distracts the tl. conclusion interference is obviously known as an incomplete process of profi ciency of target language. the most common feature needed to be highly understood that target language mastery relates to developmental stage of a dynamic process. there are many factors that contribute to the tl mastery. the input for tl received by the learners should be in a correct manner. the learners‟ readiness to achieve foreign language, and best instruction to guide the pupils are also crucial factors that influence the learners‟ competence. if the factors do not work, problem of fl performance will appear. to conclude, i will take ellis definition on interference. ellis (1997: 51) refers to interference as „transfer‟, which he says is 'the influence that the learner‟s l1 exerts over the acquisition of an l2'. he argues that transfer is governed by learners‟ perceptions about what is transferable and by their stage of development in l2 learning. he says that errors reflect gaps in the learner‟s knowledge; they occur because the learner does not know what is correct. mistakes reflect occasional lapses in performance; they occur because, in a particular instance, the learner is unable to perform what he or she knows. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 104 regarding experts perspectives on interference, i try to quote puspa ruriana et.al. conclusion (-) on interference that: (1) language contact causes interference for bilingual person, (2) interference is an insert system consciously from l1 to l2 (even from l2 to l1) that may cause negative impact for tl proficiency, and (3) interference is a personal speech which is narrow as a feature of parole (speech). on the other hand, integration is an advanced process of interference. words of interference are no longer strange as the words are received, widely used, and even borrowed and then practiced and legalized as parts of a language. despite the difference between interference and integration, both of them have similar face in which they appear as a certain feature of language contact. to sum, they can obviously occur in phonology, grammatical feature, morphology, and semantics. newmark (1966) suggested that the cure for interference is simply the cure of ignorance:learning. interference can be limited or eliminated by natural intake and language use for the purpose of communication. again, the natural-like acquistion of l2 proficiency will be highly achieved by learning. references alwasilah, a chaedar. 1985. sosiologi bahasa. bandung: angkasa bawa, i wayan. 1981. pemakaian bahasa indonesia yang baik dan benar. denpasar: jurusan bahasa dan sastra indonesia fakultas sastra universitas udayana. bhela, baljit. 1999. native language interference in learning a second language: exploratory case studies of native language interference with target language usage. international education journal vol 1, no 1, 1999 register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 105 chaer, abdul & leonie agustina. 2004. sosiolingistik: perkenalan awal. jakarta: rineka cipta chaer, abdul. 1994. linguistik umum. jakarta; rineka cipta. dechert, h.w. 1983. „how a story is done in a second language‟ in c. faerch and g. kasper.eds. strategies in interlanguage communication. london: longman. dulay, h., burt, m. & krashen, s. 1982. language two. new york: oxford university press ellis, r. 1997. second language acquisition. oxford: oxford university press hartmann, r.r.k & f.c. stonk. 1972. dictionary of language and linguistics. london: applied science publisher, ltd. hayi, abdul et. al. 1985. interferensi gramatika bahasa indonesia dalam bahasa jawa. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. hockett, charles f. 1958. a course in modern linguistics. new york: macmillan publishing co inc. jendra. i wayan. 1991. dasar-dasar sosiolinguistik. denpasar: ikayana. kridalaksana, harimurti.1998. introduction to word formation and word classes. jakarta: universitas indonesia. krashen, stephen d. 1981. second language acquistion and second language learning. pergamon press inc. lott, d.1983. analysing and counteracting interference errors. elt journal, vol.37/3, pp 256261. mackey, w.p. 1970. the description of bilingualism. publisher: nababan, p.w.j. 1984. sosiolinguistik. jakarta: gramedia newmark, l. 1966. “how not to interfere with language learning”. language learning: the individual and the process. international journal of american linguistics 40: 77-78. ruriana, puspa et.al. .interferensi dan integrasi. jakarta: pusat bahasa alazhar. rajend meshtire. 2008. sociolinguistics and sociology of language. in spolsky, bernard and francis m. hult. 2008. the handbook of educational linguistics. singapore: blackwell publishing. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 106 richard, jack c. john platt and heidi platt. 1992. longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. england: longman. rutherford, w.e. 1987. second language grammar: learning and teaching, london: longman. suwito. 1983. sosiolinguistk: teori dan problema. surakarta: kenary offset. wardraugh, r. 1972. introduction to linguistics. new york: mcgraw hill books company. weinrich, uriel. 1968. language in contact. mouton: the hauge-paris microsoft word 04_register voices register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021), pp. 225-242 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i2.225-242 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 225 voices of indonesian efl learners on synchronous learning amidst covid-19 pandemic maman asrobi,1* siti ayu surayya,2 ari prasetyaningrum3 study program of english langauge education, faculty of language, arts, humanities, universitas hamzanwadi, lombok timur 83611, indonesia *) corresponding author email: mmnasrobi@gmail.com doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i2.225-242 submission track: received: 17-09-2021 final revision: 01-12-2021 available online: 05-12-2021 copyright © 2021 author(s) this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract to ensure that the learning process during the covid-19 pandemic runs smoothly, all universities in indonesia have implemented online learning. however, based on the observations made, online learning, especially when carried out synchronously, appears to still be not as optimal as offline learning. this study aims to find out the voices of indonesian efl learners on synchronous learning during the covid-19 pandemic. designed as descriptive qualitative, this study examined 50 students who voluntarily participated as the sampled group. in collecting the data, the researchers used a self-written reflection and questionnaire with four scales that were distributed using google form to the participants. the questionnaire was related to respectful attitude, benefits, and obstacles of synchronous learning. all collected data was then analyzed using the sequential explanatory processes. the result of data analysis revealed that indonesia efl learners still showed a good respectful attitude during the synchronous learning process, although they agreed that learning synchronously faces a few obstacles, such as unsupported devices and unfavorable learning environments. in addition, they also feel that the teaching and learning process synchronously during the covid-19 pandemic provided them with several benefits, especially those related to safety, efficiency, and effectiveness. keywords: efl learners; synchronous learning; covid-19 pandemic m. asrobi, s. a. surayya, a. prasetyaningrum register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 226 introduction since the first case of coronavirus virus 2019 (covid-19) was announced by president of indonesia joko widodo in early march 2020, indonesia has faced an unprecedented pandemic era. many sectors of life are paralyzed, including the education sector. here, enforcement of physical distancing makes things difficult for students during teaching and learning activities. restrictions on physical gatherings, both at school, on campus, and in other places are felt to have become obstacles in the learning process (bhamani et al., 2020; williamson et al., 2020). here, the government is obliged to find solutions for the continuity of education so that the learning process does not cease. during the covid-19 pandemic, the health and safety of students, teachers, and education personnel are of utmost importance. therefore, to suppress the spread of covid-19, teaching and learning activities no longer take place face-to-face in schools, but through distance learning. during this pandemic, an online system of learning is conducted as an alternative way; therefore, all educational levels adopted various kinds of teaching-learning methods, one of which is e-learning. e-learning plays a crucial role during this covid-19 pandemic. e-learning systems can assist learning providers to manage, plan, deliver and track the learning and teaching process. it aims to help instructors, schools, and universities facilitate student learning during periods of universities and school outbreaks. in addition, most of these systems are free, which can help ensure continuous learning during this coronavirus pandemic. however, the provision and usage of online learning materials in an elearning system is becoming the fundamental challenge for many universities during the covid-19 pandemic. the e-learning system is an important source of information, given its ubiquity, low cost, ease of use, and interactive character (almaiah et al., 2020; lu et al., 2019; panigrahi et al., 2018). al-khalifa (2010) and dalsgaard (2006) mentioned that one approach to e-learning is the use of the learning management system (lms). thus, e-learning refers to offering, organizing and managing e-learning activities within a system, such as student enrolment, exams, assignments, course descriptions, lesson plans, messages, syllabus, and basic course materials (dalsgaard, 2006; obiakor et al., 2021). the evoices of indonesian efl learners on synchronous learning …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 227 learning system has several fantastic features that would be valuable for use during this coronavirus pandemic. using this system at this time might well be more practical; for example, through an e-learning system, students may text or engage in some learning activity with teachers on a computer or a mobile device from their home. in addition, students can easily get learning content in their mobile devices because they can be connected to mobile networks or local wireless networks. converting from traditional learning will enable learner’s access to e-learning anytime and present several benefits, such as increase of effectiveness and efficiency of learning services through improved connectivity with teachers and better access to learning materials (almaiah et al., 2020; mikre, 2011). during online learning, synchronous and asynchronous methods are two main approaches to teaching available in distance education. synchronous types are recorded on a live e-learning system that requires lecturers and students at the same time to be at the computer, although in different places (aldrich, 2009; mikre, 2011; welsh et al., 2003). meanwhile, asynchronous elearning goes on an e-learning system where learning material is readily available and accessed from anywhere and anytime (negash & wilcox, 2008; welsh et al., 2003). synchronous learning is regular face-to-face learning online or in real-time (online) networks (chen et al., 2005; hrastinski, 2008; ng, 2007). synchronous learning, on the other hand, refers to learning/teaching that takes place simultaneously via an electronic mode. synchronous voice or text chat rooms provide an opportunity for teacher-student and student-student interaction. apart from chat, video-conferencing facilitates face-to-face communication (hampel, 2006; martin et al., 2012). web conferences through surveys, polls, and question-answer sessions can be more interactive than video conferencing. however, based on the results of the researchers’ survey on online learning, especially that carried out synchronously, it has not been fully optimal because of some obstacles; for instance: (1) the location of the house is not covered by the internet network, including minimal student internet quotas, (2) the learning media used by the teachers is dominantly monotonous and makes the students feel bored or bored. then, (3) the dominant learning is not yet interactive, (4) the m. asrobi, s. a. surayya, a. prasetyaningrum register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 228 character or behavior of the students is difficult to monitor, (5) the learning tends to be online assignments, (6) the assignments given by the students pile up. another obstacle, (7) the absorption of subject matter is very minimal. as an attempt to close the observable research gaps, the present study examines how indonesian efl learners see the synchronous learning activities during the covid-19 pandemic. to ensure the objectives, this study is guided under three research questions: (1) how is indonesian efl students’ respectful attitude during synchronous learning? (2) what are the benefits for indonesian efl students provided by synchronous learning? and (3) what are the obstacles encountered by indonesian efl students in synchronous learning? research method the present study employs a qualitative research method to explore the research problem. qualitative research is the appropriate method dominantly used for this study. the method concerns the comprehensive elaboration of the nature of the phenomenon. according to denzin and lincoln (2005), qualitative research uses a scientific background and involves various methods such as interviews, observations, and documents. qualitative research is an approach to exploring and understanding the meaning of individuals or groups related to social problems, which is used to interpret, study, or gain a deeper understanding of certain aspects of beliefs, attitudes, or human behavior (creswell et al., 2007) participants there were 50 participants of hamzanwadi university from three different semesters (second, fourth, and sixth) in the english department who voluntarily participated in this study. those participants were taken through a purposive sampling technique (balcázar et al., 2001; gonçalves et al., 2012; tobita, 1996). the participating students were available at the time this study was conducted and fitted the criteria of the research, such as being students of an english department and having experience in online learning activities. instruments and data collection because the data collection process was still in the period of the covid-19 pandemic, the main instrument used was a questionnaire (kim, 2020; könig et voices of indonesian efl learners on synchronous learning …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 229 al., 2020; nambiar, 2020). the questionnaire comprises 30 statements related to synchronous learning activities, especially attitudes, benefits, and obstacles. before collecting the data, first, the researchers constructed a questionnaire related to (1) respectful attitude, (2) the obstacles, and (3) the benefits of synchronous learning during the pandemic covid-19. the questionnaire had four scales (boateng et al., 2018; suárez álvarez et al., 2018; taghrir et al., 2020). first, to see efl learners’ respectful attitude on synchronous learning, the researchers used a scale (never, seldom, often, always), while the researchers used a scale (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree) to see the obstacles and benefits on synchronous learning. the questionnaire was also equipped with a comment space at the end of each item so the participants can write their reasons or feeling related to those three primary concerns of this study. participants were given the instrument between april and june 2021, when the covid-19 pandemic forced teaching and learning process to be conducted online. the instrument was disseminated on the internet via a google form, with a link being shared via whatsapp, indonesia's common frequently used messenger application. data analysis procedures in analyzing the data, the researchers took advantage of the features in the google form where the data collected through the questionnaire could be analyzed automatically using google form. the results of the analysis by google form are displayed and completed with a chart containing the number and percentage of each item. here, the researchers only interpreted the results of the data analysis displayed by google form. the data from self-written reflection, on the other hand, was examined using sequential explanatory processes (ivankova & creswell, 2009). the data from a self-written reflection was first processed before being analyzed. second, the data was categorized based on key themes that were expressed in the research questions, such as respectful attitude, benefit, and obstacles. third, the researcher coded, reviewed, analyzed, and integrated the emergent themes, which led to the final data analysis results, which were then used as a m. asrobi, s. a. surayya, a. prasetyaningrum register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 230 foundation for generating conclusions. to establish the validity and reliability of the study, the author asked two english language lecturers to do individual assessments. results and discussion based on the questionnaires administered to the participants, every participant had an interesting perception towards synchronous learning during covid-19. there are 8 participants (16%) and 6 participants (12%) who said never and seldom showed a respectful attitude during synchronous learning. meanwhile, 13 (26%) and 23 (46%) participants said often and always showed a respectful attitude during synchronous learning. it can be concluded that most of the participants 36 (72%) showed a respectful attitude during synchronous learning. figure 1 presents the summary of the participants’ response. figure 1 participants’ response on a respectful attitude in terms of the benefits of synchronous learning activities, 9 (18%) and 12 (24%), respectively, strongly disagree and disagree that synchronous learning activities are advantageous to them. despite this, 23 participants (46%) and 6 participants (12%) agree and strongly believe that learning through synchronous activities is useful to them. according to the data, 29 participants voices of indonesian efl learners on synchronous learning …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 231 (58%) believe that synchronous learning activities will help them cope during the covid-19 epidemic. figure 2 depicts a summary of the participants' responses. figure 2 participants’ response to the benefit figure 3 participants’ responses on the obstacles m. asrobi, s. a. surayya, a. prasetyaningrum register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 232 related to the obstacles encountered by the participants during synchronous learning activities, there are 5 participants (10%) and 13 participants (26%) who strongly disagree that synchronous learning brings obstacles. yet, there are 26 participants (52%) and 6 participants (12%) who found some obstacles during synchronous learning. based on the data, it can be concluded that 32 participants (64%) still encountered many obstacles in synchronous learning activities. figure 3 presents the summary of the participants’ responses. in addition, to figure out more detail related to the students’ responses on synchronous learning based on their semester level, figure 4 shows student responses based on their semester to synchronous learning. figure 4 participants’ responses based on semester level figure 4 depicts the participants' respectful attitudes during the synchronous learning process based on their semester level. out of 15 participants in semester 2, all of them (100%) demonstrate their respectful attitude during the learning process. meanwhile, six (40%) of the 15 participants in semester 4 did not demonstrate a respectful attitude during the teaching and learning activities synchronously. yet, the remaining nine voices of indonesian efl learners on synchronous learning …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 233 participants (60%) maintained their respectful attitude. similarly, of the 20 respondents in semester 6, eight (40%) did not demonstrate a respectful attitude, while 12 (60%) did. in addition, based on the data in figure 4, the benefits of synchronous learning were more felt by participants in semester six when it came to the benefits acquired through synchronous learning activities. the benefits of the synchronous learning process were felt by 15 of the 20 respondents (75%). participants in semesters two and four, on the other hand, did not show a significant difference between those who benefited from synchronous learning and those who did not. this can be shown in the fact that both semester two and semester four participants have the same percentage, namely 8 participants (53.33%) do not experience the benefits, while 7 participants (46.67%) do. while related to the obstacles encountered by the participants, figure 4 shows that all participants in all levels of the semester mostly agree that teaching and learning activities through synchronous learning give them some obstacles. in this case, the difficulties encountered during synchronous learning were more significant for semester two participants. 13 (86.67%) of the 15 participants in semester two encountered numerous challenges during synchronous learning. meanwhile, only 2 (13.33%) had no problems with the synchronous learning process. participants in semester four felt the same way, with 8 (53.33%) of 15 participants reporting difficulties during the learning process, while 7 (46.67%) did not encounter any significant challenges during the learning process. in line with the percentage of semester four participants, the percentage of semester six students is also not particularly high in relation to the difficulties encountered during the synchronous learning process. of the 20 participants, 11 (55%) experienced difficulties, while 9 (45%) believed that synchronous learning did not present significant difficulties. discussion the objectives of this study are to find out indonesian efl learners’ views on synchronous learning activities during the covid-19 pandemic. this study focuses on efl learners’ respectful attitudes, benefits, and obstacles during m. asrobi, s. a. surayya, a. prasetyaningrum register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 234 synchronous learning activities. based on the results above, although the participants find many obstacles, they still showed their respectful attitudes during teaching and learning activities. most of the students still have a respecful attitude because hamzanwadi university has the slogan "competitive and religious." despite the slogan, hamzanwadi university internalizes respect and responsibility in forming students with character. it is a systematic effort in instilling role models whose orientation is to instill values in life, both in the form of ethics, aesthetics, culture, and religion, which in turn are in a person who can exercise self-control and becomes a complete person and has good character. the “religious” slogan drives the students to always show their respect and responsibility, even though they feel discomfort with what they do. here, nawali (2018) states that the values of respect and responsibility are part of religious spirituality and are highly emphasized in islam. in addition, lickona (2009) in his book regarding respect and responsibility strengthens the findings. he mentions about respect and responsibility that become the main part of character education and are built based on moral tendencies that become the benchmark of human behavior, where respect means showing good behavior towards self, others, and the environment. being responsible, on the other hand, is responding and respecting every burden entrusted. the participants’ respectful attitude is also influenced by the attitude of the lecturer, where the lecturer always gives the best and motivates students to always be polite. the lecturers are also always serious in the online learning process as when they learn offline. here, furaida (2012) through her study confirmed the finding of this study that there was a significant relationship between the lecturer's personality, motivation, and student interest in learning. in this case, student learning achievement is mostly determined by the personality of the lecturer with a coefficient of determination of 16%, motivation 12.4%, interest in learning 0.81%, and the rest is determined by other factors. other researchers also agreed that students' attitudes in the learning process are heavily influenced by the attitudes of lecturers (haider & jalal, 2018; hidayati et al., 2020; lumbantobing, 2020). that is, if the lecturer is polite, responsible, and professional, the students will also show the same thing. conversely, if the lecturer carrying out his responsibilities and obligations unprofessionally, it will reduce student respect. voices of indonesian efl learners on synchronous learning …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 235 this then led to some students behaving disrespectfully when synchronous learning took place. this is based on the lecturers’ badly scheduled classes. online learning that has the principle of anywhere and anytime makes the lecturers sometimes conduct the lecturing at times that are not ideal for students, which discourages the students from activating the camera and actively participating during the learning process. this is also reinforced in research studies by ahidin, (2020), febrilia et al (2021), and kartika (2020) where lecturers who often change class schedules make students on standby in a place conducive to conducting online lecturing, so they do not miss the material. this makes students feel frustrated and not respectful to the teaching and learning activities. in fact, i prefer to learn online. lecturers, on the other hand, occasionally rearrange their schedules and hold lectures on the spur of the moment. as a result of my lack of preparation, i was unable to fully participate in the session. so, in order not to be suspected by the lecturers, i usually don't turn on the camera and audio when learning takes place. (p2) in my opinion, lecturers who arbitrarily change class schedules and order lectures are suddenly very disturbing. in addition, assignments given without clear instructions also make online learning less interesting. (p31) it is undeniable that direct learning in the classroom is certainly much better than online learning. however, as stated before, during this covid-19 pandemic, everyone's health and safety are of utmost importance; so physical distancing must be done, including the teaching and learning process. based on the data shown in figure 2, most indonesian efl learners agree that synchronous learning provides them with some benefits. this is because synchronous learning is practical and flexible. throughout synchronous learning, interactions between teachers and students will be more practical because they do not have to travel to meet. the teaching and learning process can take place anywhere as long as it is conducive to learning and can help focus. abidah et al. (2020) and beyth-marom et al. (2005) confirm the findings that learning occurs in a flexible manner in virtual classrooms. that is, once connected to the internet network, the learning process can be done anywhere and at any time. because of the flexibility available at this time, virtual classes are very popular among both students and teachers. m. asrobi, s. a. surayya, a. prasetyaningrum register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 236 in addition, there is no classroom as a place for formal learning. there is no need for extras, such as the need to dress up neatly or appear formally, which shows more flexibility. here, synchronous learning can reduce the spread of covid-19 and provide effective learning solutions. (chen et al., 2005; park & bonk, 2007) online learning, in my opinion, is really advantageous to me. for starters, you can save money on boarding fees. furthermore, online lectures require no preparation such as showering or dressing neatly; only appear neat and dress modestly, and lectures can be completed in bed. (p11) become a student as well as an employee, online learning really helps me to carry out my duties both as a student and as an employee. so i can attend lectures on the sidelines of my activities without having to travel to go to campus. (p44) in dealing with obstacles to synchronous learning, the participants from all levels of the semester still face some obstacles, as shown in figure 4. what the students feel is that the device used for synchronous learning does not support it well. taking part in synchronous learning, students must have devices such as computers, laptops, or smartphones that have good specifications and have a rather large screen for them to see the material clearly, and there are still many students who have fewer sopportive devices, such as smartphone screens, which are too small or not optimal in displaying pictures or materials during the learning process. and yet, the students also feel disturbed by noise when studying at home. to be able to focus, offline and online learning methods are certainly very different, where offline learning focuses only on the classroom where all focus on the same topic, while online learning has many things that make students unfocused. for instance, the attitude of neighbors, the sound of the vehicle if the student's house being near the road and others so, and also many students don't wear or have headphones. when using a cellphone to learn online, you may be interrupted by an incoming call. because the screen on my cellphone isn't very huge, i can't view the lecturer's powerpoint presentation very well. (p23) voices of indonesian efl learners on synchronous learning …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 237 in fact, i prefer to learn online. lecturers, on the other hand, occasionally rearrange their schedules and hold lectures on the spur of the moment. as a result of my lack of preparation, i was unable to fully participate in the session. (p16) i think online learning is not effective because online learning needs good and stabil network. beside, my house is close to the busy road, the noise of passing vehicles often makes the lecturer's explanation not clear. (p2) basically, learning online or offline is not too significantly different for me. however, it is difficult to condition the surrounding environment so that the learning atmosphere at home is conducive. this makes learning unfocused and difficult to catch the lecturer's explanation. (p38) conclusion the current study examined the voices of indonesian efl learners in relation to how they behave during synchronous learning, what benefits they feel, and the obstacles they encountered during synchronous learning during the covid-19 pandemic. this current study revealed some interesting results. first, the efl learners still show their respectful attitude, although synchronous learning activities give them unfavorable learning situations. second, the practical and flexible synchronous learning make most of the participants feel that synchronous learning provides benefits for them during the covid-19 pandemic. third, most of the participants still encountered obstacles during synchronous learning activities—those related to device use, not conducive situations, and unstable networks. in addition, the present study should be evaluated on the level of its limitations. first, the instruments used in this study are limited; only questionnaires and self-written reflections were used. therefore, future studies in a similar area should be conducted with a focus on a variety of data instruments (e.g. observation, interview, and survey) in order to tease out more detailed data to substantiate the results of this study. second, to enrich the data and avoid subjective opinions, future studies are encouraged to consider additional data sources, such as observation, field notes, and focus group discussions to elicit the most reliable data and accurately portray the nuances of the present inquiry. m. asrobi, s. a. surayya, a. prasetyaningrum register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 238 acknowledgments we would like to thank universitas hamzanwadi for the support given to our work. we also would like to thank department of english language education, faculty of language, arts, humanities. the last but not least, we also thank the participants for their time and willingness for the data collection.[rgt] references abidah, a., hidaayatullaah, h. n., simamora, r. m., fehabutar, d., & mutakinati, l. 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(2020). pandemic politics, pedagogies and practices: digital technologies and distance education during the coronavirus emergency. taylor & francis. m. asrobi, s. a. surayya, a. prasetyaningrum register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 242 this page has been intentionally left blank. microsoft word 04_register 2020 no 2 arifah register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020), pp. 293-314 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i2.293-314 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn : 2503-040x 293 promoting personal learning environment (ple) for emerging academic writing for publication for higher education students nur arifah drajati,1* a'thi fauzani wisudawati,2 anis handayani3 1,2,3 universitas sebelas maret, surakarta indonesia *corresponding author email: nurarifah_drajati@staff.uns.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v13i2.293-314 submission track: received: 30-05-2020 final revision: 13-10-2020 available online: 01-12-2020 copyright © 2020 nur arifah drajati, a'thi fauzani wisudawati, anis handayani this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract academic writing for publication in higher education is cognitively and linguistically complex. university students grapple with academic writing for publication because of academic genre/convention, linguistic competence, and academic literacy among others. for those reasons, a learning environment does matter. the personal learning environment (ple) is a learner-controlled environment for language learning. to examine this issue, a qualitative study with an action research design was conducted with 28 graduate students as participants by conducting three points: (1) ways of encouraging students to write academic writing for publication through the personal learning environment as a learning platform; (2) implementing ples in the academic writing for publication course: content knowledge consideration; and (3) implementing ples in the academic writing for publication course: pedagogical consideration. in general, the findings indicated that promoting ple gives more space for the students to develop their potential and ability on academic writing matters in the context of higher education as they have plenty of time, space and sources. this study implies that the educational organization needs to consider this issue. keywords: academic writing for publication; learning autonomy; personal learning environment nur arifah drajati, a'thi fauzani wisudawati, anis handayani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 294 introduction the emergence of tools and resources significantly supports the holistic process of the personal learning environment (attwell, 2007; attwell & costa, 2009; bimrose & brown, 2008; dabbagh & kitsantas, 2012; lebbenicnik, pitt, & starcic, 2015; harmelen, 2008; reinders, 2014). the idea of ple always collaborates with tools as learning support (attwell & hughes, 2010). ples combine tools and resources that help learners take control into their languagelearning process. both tools and resources are usually chosen and managed by learners themselves and can be quickly taken and used from a computer or a smartphone (reinders, 2014), although another statement by dabbagh & kitsantas (2012) suggests that ple can still work as well without the aid of technology. however, most experts view that technology is very significant in the learning environment. driven by economic globalization, higher education institutions have been adopting a publish-or-perish system. it is undeniable that both individuals and universities gain reputation and research funds (hyland, 2016). it is also believed that writing for publication is rewarding through citations, which is for measuring the productivity of the students and lecturers, in the university (wells & soderlund, 2018). in recent years, academic writing for higher education students means writing for publication. it is a must for master and doctorate students to produce academic writing for publication. this phenomenon also dominates students across the world with 1.5 million peerreviewed articles each year (bjork, roos, & lauri, 2009). writing for publication gives a load for higher education students both cognitively and linguistically (zhang & hyland, 2018). students should grapple with difficulties in academic genre/convention, linguistic competence, and academic literacy, thus it leads the students in the ‘shocked’ situation (wang & kai-hui, 2018). the undergraduate students in the uk make efforts in classifying, choosing and employing academic reading to their writing tasks (elliot & squire, 2017). not only in europe, but also in indonesia, the students have a lack of knowledge and critical thinking skills in writing an argumentative essay (niamika & widiati, 2017; widyastuti, 2018). students get difficulties in promoting personal learning environment (ple) …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 295 differentiating the claims, finding evidence, utilizing warrant and acknowledgment in writing their argumentative essay (pirttimaa, takala & ladonlahti, 2015). an array of research studies on academic writing for publication for higher education has been undertaken to examine various features, such as writing and publication (kutieva & mauranen, 2014; nygaard, 2017; salager-meyer, 2014; yayli & canarajah, 2018). efforts in supporting students for writing for publication can take the form of selecting related topics of research, reading articles in past issues of the reputable journals, and looking for assistance from supervisors (cheung, 2010). moreover, there is a writing transition from high school to university demands (foster & russell, 2017). students need support in writing activities as part of language learning from their environments, such as motivation from inside and outside the classroom (peng & woodrow, 2010). however, very few studies have been conducted to investigate and promote a personal learning environment in assisting students because it is considered to be a new concept in education (liew & kang, 2012). thus, the present study attempted to fill this gap. anchored in the ple theory, this study attempted to promote the personal learning environment to emerging academic writing for publication as part of the indonesian higher education policy. personal learning environment (ple) the term personal learning environment is initially built up from constructivism theory, which is believed to be the underlying principle that a learner can develop his/her learning from his/her experiences (attwell & hughes, 2010; renon, 2012). vygotsky’s constructivism also influences attwell’s perspective (2007) that ‘personal learning environments' is related to technology development. in line with boyle (1997), there are some learningbased constructivist theories connected with the digital learning environment. as the concept of constructivist theory explains, people are able to understand knowledge by getting the experience on their own. boyle (1997) illustrated that these circumstances enable students to increase their knowledge through the construction process by taking control to find sources, and resulting in the enhancement of personal awareness. nur arifah drajati, a'thi fauzani wisudawati, anis handayani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 296 ple may be categorized as technology, involving tools and services in order to provide personal and community-based learning in multiple contexts and resources then fostering autonomy and control of the learners. personal learning environments facilitate both theoretically and technologically to integrate personal learning and to work (attwell & costa, 2009). attwell (2007) believes that ple is not a software application. instead, it belongs to a new methodology that implements technology in the learning process. ple is determined as a new concept in the digital learning environment that is supported by social media and considered to be an appropriate platform for student learning (dabbagh & kitsantas, 2012). moreover, ple takes into consideration that the process of learning will never run in single learning commitment. in other words, the process must be linked with other circumstances and context (attwell, 2007). reinders (2014) emphasizes that the function of ple for teachers is to encourage the learner development and manage lifelong learning. according to constructivism, the quality of learning will be a more meaningful connection with social communication and active collaboration (palincsar, 1998). this theory views that the learning environment is encouraged by the teacher's role as a facilitator and motivator for the students rather than a knowledge provider. the ple permits the student to expend learning assets, as well as to create them. taking in this manner develops from being an exchange of substance and learning to the generation of substance and information (marianos, ungur, & manouselis, 2011). ples are winding up being used more broadly by teachers who are reacting to the e-learning requirements of their students (harwood, 2014). as facilitators of learning, educators could help ple students act naturally and pick up the related metacognitive abilities like arranging, sorting out, selfobserving, self-instructing, and self-assessing (zimmerman, 2000). for instance, as a significant aspect of a metacognitive system, a facilitator could enable students to build up an electronic portfolio. indeed, the utilization of electronic portfolios has been utilized and upheld as a great way to deal with enabling understudies to manufacture their profile by their expert desires. an electronic portfolio advances the trading of thoughts and input between the maker of the promoting personal learning environment (ple) …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 297 portfolio and the individuals who see and interface with it (lorenzo & ittelson, 2005). correspondingly, a facilitator could urge students to compose an electronic intelligent diary or blog as a learning space. williams and jacob (2005) utilized this approach in one of their business courses, and their quantitative and subjective examination of the gathered information demonstrated that students agreed to the procedures of the utilization of sites to enhance instruction and learning (williams & jacob, 2005). blogging as a ple medium for university students a blog for most higher education students is not a strange framework anymore for this recent decade. high school students are familiar with blogging for sharing their stories to keep people updated about their news. when they are in university, they may try to share journal articles they read with other readers outside of the classroom. blogging is trouble-free, easy to use and a free software program that everyone can use and share their ideas on (dennis, 2015). by conceptualizing the blog as a medium rather than a sort, it is conceivable to perceive how writers opt more for paper than online journals (boyd, 2006). it is not the traditions or substance writing that characterize web journals, but the system in which individuals can communicate. utilizing paper, individuals archive their lives. the same is right in the blog. utilizing paper, individuals take notes, while another is an online journal. in order to record a personal life through a blog, two types of blogs according to hodkinson (2006) and wei (2004) are allowed, namely personal journal and journal blog. these blogs are different in purpose. whie the personal journal type describes bloggers’ personal experiences and reflections, which is commonly used mostly by females and teenagers, the journal blog represents a forum in which the primary purpose is to communicate with others, share ideas and interests, and have sustainability relationships. blogging combines parts of reasoning composition with aspects of the presentation of composing – and it includes discussion too. blogs or personal weblogs give a chance for individuals to express themselves freely through nur arifah drajati, a'thi fauzani wisudawati, anis handayani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 298 online text and the content tends to be more associated with emotions and feelings than social concern sharing like hobbies or interests (trammell et al., 2006). blogging is viewed as a ‘performative writing' that hones the skill of writing rather than the appearance or the product (gregg, 2006). giddens (1994) stated that the blog is considered a narrative that creates identity about the personal experience of the author. however, ewins (2005) and gergen (2000) add that the blog indicates a narrative creation that can be presented through various means to reveal a distinct identity (‘multiphrenic' identity). also, blogging represents a conversation tool for the writer and the reader through a combination of a writing skill and writing presentation (larsen & hole, 2009). a personal blog is the most frequently used blog that represents one of the social media and platforms to express opinions, emotions, and show the writer's identity (liu, 2014). the study conducted by luo and hyland (2016) showed that english teachers have an essential role in helping chinese scientists to accomplish their work for international journals through a comprehensive process involving translating, editing, revising, coping with difficult english words until composing a scientific literature review. this means that although a scientist has high credibility in managing their learning environment, the presence of a teacher still has a particular consideration function as a facilitator rather than a knowledge distributor because they are needed when complicated things come in the form of an english term, not the writing process that they can cope with (reinders, 2014). zheng, yim & warschauer’s (2018) study revealed that a standout amongst the most generally talked about affordances of the utilization of internet-based life in composing guidance is the apprenticeship of a study into joint research and composing talk networks, which are common in the most expert and academic settings. wikis, blogs, and cloud-based composing stages, for example, google docs, are models of synergistic composition devices that enable various creators to make rundowns, conceptualize, and assemble comments on catalogs for scholarly research ventures. such tasks may help cultivate l2 understudies' subject-specific learning, and besides, widen their digital literacy abilities. promoting personal learning environment (ple) …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 299 the emergence of technology, which has a significant impact on teaching writing, is also shown in a study conducted by bloch (2018). blogging, chatting, emailing, wikis and fan fiction are considered the improvement of a moveable kind affected to enhance literacy mostly beyond the classroom. nevado (2016) revealed that the blog is designed in line with an essential aim of personal learning environments, which is that users become producers by creating and sharing and learners become producers and consumers of learning materials simultaneously. moreover, it takes into account the principles of ples, which are the ability to create, to share ideas, to join groups, and to publish content that will be available for other users who will use this material to increment their knowledge. another critical factor that the participants of the research project took into account in their interventions is that learning takes place in different contexts and a single learning provider will not provide situations and materials. many individuals will take part in this collaborative learning by adding information and giving their opinion about different topics, experiences, and ideas—in this case, constructing scientific writing. research method this research study was analyzed qualitatively using a narrative inquiry design proposed by barkhuizen, et al. (2014). narrative inquiry enables both storytelling and research together by using stories as research data or a tool for data analysis. twenty-eight students participated in this study. the participants were the first semester students of master program students in indonesia. the participants work individually on a personal learning environment task as learning outside of the classroom. this personal learning environment activity spanned for 16 weeks. the participating students agreed to additional tasks in academic writing for publication class. the first stage was planning a framework for developing a personal learning environment by reading journal articles and blogging. lecturers prepared resources that the students could visit and read the journal articles. the next preparation was introducing blogs as a framework for students to write summaries and discuss the content with the readers. the framework was based nur arifah drajati, a'thi fauzani wisudawati, anis handayani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 300 on the idea that students did the activities at the campus library, at the dormitory or home, or in other places that they enjoyed reading and blogging at. the second stage was conducting the study. the students did the implementation of reading article journals and blogging for 12 weeks. it is suggested that each week they read at least one journal article. the students created their blog address and wrote the content based on their activities on reading and blogging. they discussed the content with the readers who had a similar interest in reading. the third stage was the lecturer and students had reflected on the activities by having a discussion about the difficulties, challenges, and chances. this discussion would be beneficial both for a lecturer and a student in conducting the lesson and learning academic writing for publication. students gave a response to the questionnaire about the personal learning environment and were interviewed to obtain more data on the issue. the in-depth interviews were audio records that were subsequently transcribed. the blogs, the responses to the questionnaire, and the in-depth interviews were later used as the sources of data. all the participants' written assignments were manually coded. member and assignments checking, suggested by merriam (1998) were used to deal with the trustworthiness of the data because the data were exposed to all participants and the lecturer to give commentaries and review. finding and discussion this part presents three important points about how personal learning environment affects higher education students to work on their academic writing, including the way to encourage students to write academic writing through the personal learning environment as a learning platform, implementing ples in the academic writing course seen from content knowledge and pedagogical consideration. ways of encouraging students to write academic writing through the personal learning environment as a learning platform the students get challenges to learn academic writing for publication. they get problems not only related to academic writing literacy but also in promoting personal learning environment (ple) …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 301 reading journal articles as the necessary skills for writing for publication. most of all students tried hard to solve the problems. as a result, learning from the lecturer for 16 meetings does not suffice for them. it needs another way to cope with the problem by offering an efficient solution, a personal learning environment to work out in optimizing the students' learning by using educational technology—new usage of the technologies for learning such as instant messaging, file sharing, social networking, blogging, web searching help young people to learn new things (attwell, 2007). rowlands et al., (2008) stated that students are acquiring knowledge not only from reading books and journals, but also for using social media. using whatsapp as a message for discussion between the lecturer and friends, file sharing to other students, the use of youtube for understanding the expert’s talks, and vlog to get the sources, and also web searching is becoming the daily activities of the master degree students. this phenomenon gives power and particular interest to students for having creative ability, sharing ability, joining group ability, and publishing articles. these students’ abilities have the potential to bring together and result in interrelated aspects that combine university classroom and out class activities. the activities assist students in becoming autonomous learners. they tried to find ideas and solutions for fulfilling their own needs. central to the idea of personal learning environment, tasks were to help them to be autonomous learners (reinders, 2014). this was attained by using a social medium, in this case, blogging, as the platform to learn new things, read scholarly articles, upload their summary, and discuss with their friends and visitors of their blogs on which they worked further to write their summaries and feedback. the students are given the freedom to choose their material (scholarly articles) then write their summaries and upload to their blog every week. in the next stage, the students were assigned to provide feedback on their peers' writings. to help the students organize their feedback, the lecturer provided a guideline to ask questions or give responses. one blog was allocated to review or comment on another summary writing. while all students wrote their summary of the scholarly articles in the form of an argumentative essay, nur arifah drajati, a'thi fauzani wisudawati, anis handayani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 302 they wrote the feedback in a short discussion related to the topic. however, some of the students got feedback from professionals that give responses to the summaries. in this feedback task, a student got another response or comment from a blog visitor. from the interview with the student, he loved to receive the comments. he believed that he learned something new from the discussion with new people who visit his blogs and give a proper response to his summary. as a result, all students wrote a summary of the scholarly articles and got feedback from their friends beyond what their lecturer had demonstrated. based on the finding, the students learned academic writing in the classroom for 100 minutes each week. however, they learned academic writing outside the classroom for more than 100 minutes. seventeen students spent three hours (180 minutes), eight students spent 4 hours (240 minutes), and three students spent five or more hours (at least 300 minutes) to learn academic writing outside the classroom. most of them did the academic writing task at the dormitory with good internet access, and the rest did the task at the university library. time allocated for the students to do the academic writing was not enough—100 minutes; they needed more time to read scholarly articles and do the summary at least twice or quadruple the time needed in the classroom. personal learning environment through blogging can be a way for graduate students to foster and motivate students to learn academic writing (dh schunk, bj zimmerman, 2007). the academic writing for publication is a complex activity and needs more time to learn linguistically and cognitively. a total of 100 minutes a week for sixteen meetings is not enough for the students. moreover, most of the students did not have sufficient knowledge of academic writing for publication when they were in the bachelor year. most of the students read scholarly articles for the first time when they were in the master’s year. in academic writing class, students need to have critical reading activities (fairclough, 2014; hyland, 2014; mckay, 2016). they need to get the main ideas of the scholarly article they have to read to support their learning. then, they write a summary of the reading articles to enrich their knowledge of academic writing. that is academic writing becoming a problematic subject for postgraduate students in indonesia. promoting personal learning environment (ple) …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 303 covering the challenges of having good ability in an academic writing class, it needs the motivation to learn not only in the classroom but also outside the classroom. the finding showed that 24 students have intrinsic motivation to learn academic writing. they research what they need to know about journal websites, and professional websites and only four students depended on the academic writing lecturer. it showed that postgraduate students could have the right personal learning environment by choosing their places, sources, and time to do activities related to academic writing tasks (hyland, 2015; richards & rodgers, 2014; richards, 2015). implementing ples in the academic writing course: content knowledge consideration becoming a learner in the gen z era is complicated. some universities or colleges are sterile from the use of the internet due to such a belief that the internet gives a lousy effect on the young generation. since the 1950s, the openaccess has given fear to parents and teachers in how to cope with this dreadful technology (bonk, 2009; jeffrey & troman, 2004). slowly, time changed the way people thought, and young learners have realized that technologies are changing rapidly, instant message, file sharing, blogging, and social networking have essential roles in their life (attwell, 2007). nowadays, with technology facilities, we can create, share ideas, and join an academic group. in an academic writing class, master students cannot rely only on their lecturers: they need to explore other sources to read and enrich their knowledge of academic writing by finding downloadable open-access materials. based on the findings from 28 master students, 27 students found supporting materials and read e-books, 20 students read materials from professional websites, and 22 students found and read materials from google scholar. the other tools that students use are elt podcasts, video/ youtube channel, online newspapers, email, social media and also sharing documents. students comprised all the various tools and use in daily life for learning. each week the students read a scholarly article related to the research topic that they wanted to choose in the second semester. after reading, the students did a summary of 150 words to grasp the core of the article. on the subsequent day, the students also read the other student's work and give nur arifah drajati, a'thi fauzani wisudawati, anis handayani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 304 responses, comments, and questions. in this process, students learned new knowledge from the article that they read and also the other student’s summary. there is an interactive learning process from such a personal learning environment, which allows them to choose their reading materials and the chosen time and place that have possible result in developing the ability of academic writing, critical reading, and the use of technology by blogging. it is in line with attwell’s (2007) idea that the personal learning environment can organize these various areas and inter-relate learning from daily life with learning from the university. the following were responses from the students in doing blogging for academic writing for publication: this is the first time i do blogging. by having this activity, i would like to share my writing and get feedback from others to have meaningful learning. (jose) blogging gives a challenge for me and has self-feedback from the interactions and comments from others means it gives an appreciation of what i have done in academic writing. (rebecca) blogging is fun. i have been blogging since 2012. it started when i learned about ielts and mooc. now, i do blogging for academic writing. i feel blogging is reflecting what i have done this semester. (andrew) students’ journal summary blog: aligning digital storytelling to the tpack framework: a learning experience for pre-service teachers in a learning-by-designing project technology is becoming present in the lives of pre-service teachers. however, the pedagogical use of technology is not inherent to the acquisition of the tool itself. this article described research that explored the role that the tpack (technological pedagogical content knowledge) framework had on digital storytelling, a design-based learning opportunity for pre-service teachers taking a technology integration course. this study stressed the importance of viewing technology as a tool to enhance learning. the qualitative method was the adequate choice for the present case study because the perceptions and the constructed meanings of the participants were the focus of the investigative process. the participants in promoting personal learning environment (ple) …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 305 the study were composed of a purposive sample; they were 54 pre-service teachers and their instructors at a southeastern american university attending four sessions of its introduction to computers for teachers course during the spring semester of 2010. the primary resources for data collection were interviews with pre-service teachers and the instructor, observations of class activities, surveys, and artifacts analysis. the results indicated that there were gains in the technological pedagogical and content knowledge of the pre-service teachers involved in the research and that they acquired a holistic view of the process of teaching with technology, as a consequence of their participation in the designed digital storytelling project. the use of the tpack framework during the development of digital storytelling impacted positively the development of the projects created by prospective teachers, benefitting their college teacher education. visitor’s comment: june 24, 2018 at 4:06 am i saw that you post several times about digital storytelling, do you interest in that topic? june 24, 2018, at 4:38 am yes, i really do. i am doing my research about digital storytelling project, so yeah i try to find as much as references to enrich my understanding :) students’ journal summary blog: 13 juni 2018 tpack in elementary and high school teachers’ self-reported classroom practices with the interactive whiteboard (iwb) the use of interactive whiteboard (iwb) increased in teaching and learning in the classroom. the ways that the teachers incorporate the tool within their teaching practices remain poorly understood. this study examines elementary and high school teachers' self-reported practices with iwb. the conceptual framework centered on teachers' self-reported practices as well nur arifah drajati, a'thi fauzani wisudawati, anis handayani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 306 as technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack). the qualitative design employed in this study. the data collected from discussion groups of 30 teachers. overall, the results showed a predominance of technological pedagogical knowledge (tpk) and technological knowledge (tk) regardless of grade level, gender, or years of teaching experience. visitor’s comment: 23 juni 2018 22.33 since the result only shows that tpk and tk that increase, i think we need to do further research in correlation with how to increase other aspects of tpack, like pk, ck and others. moreover, we need to analyze the reason why on those two aspects that increase the fact that blogging was conducted for academic writing made the students fully aware of their ability to construct and share the result of their learning environment activities. this was likely because they were aware that a personal learning environment promoting blogging for academic writing was necessary for their own purposes for getting feedback from the audience and reflection of what they learned to have meaningful learning. most of the students even remarked that they made many changes because of their blogging activities to construct argument building and share the scholarly articles they read and write the summaries, which encouraged the students to do metacognitive activities, purposely to the content knowledge of their academic writing. implementing ples in the academic writing course: pedagogical consideration at the pedagogical level, implementing ples requires several matters— moving towards learner control, monitoring personal learning, assessing learning with ples, and encouraging out-of-class learning (reinders, 2007). these four considerations give an impact and role for teachers and students in balancing the activities both in the classroom and out of a classroom. promoting personal learning environment (ple) …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 307 the issue of moving towards learner control is thought provoking, and the most energizing aspect using ples with learners is how it gives a reflective outcome on learning and teaching practice. the first action of the teacher/lecturer in running ple is giving and explaining the rationale to the students so they grasp the aim of doing out-of-classroom activities and the aim of autonomy learning. personal learning environment actions in out-of-classroom facilitate students to support students’ academic writing in the classroom. it is found that 27 students out of 28 always find web-based resources in supporting their academic writing tasks. they tried to find scholarly journals and tips to write a paper from online publication web and professional websites. it showed that students have autonomy learning to solve their problems in academic writing. the students also asked the lecturer if they thought that they felt that they still had a problem that they could not find a satisfying answer from the website. they wrote in the paper and started to discuss with classmates and lecturers. the following are some students' questions related to academic writing for publication: how do we make a first impression on the abstract? can we submit the same article in more than one publisher at the same time? about references, what year of articles as resources for our manuscript? how to choose a good topic for a scholarly article? there are more than a hundred questions from the students related to academic writing for publication. it showed that the students were curious and wanted to explore more things related to academic writing for publication. as mentioned in the previous paragraph about there being no students who got knowledge about academic writing for publication and based on the data, only one student from 28 got knowledge and practice of argument building. this is a challenge for both students and the lecturer. so, it needs a rationale for students to understand and act in a personal learning environment through blogging in an academic writing class in facilitating and optimizing the students' potential in academic writing (alsamadani, 2017; rao & torres, 2016). nur arifah drajati, a'thi fauzani wisudawati, anis handayani register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 308 that is why the role of the teacher or lecturer in personal learning is essential, as the additional ways of learning, for extra practices and reflection (borg, 2015). when the students did the summary of the scholarly article and submitted it on their blog, the students needed feedback from the teacher or lecturer. a result of the interview was that most of the students would like to have feedback and comments on what they have done. the feedback on personal learning through blogging in academic writing may happen not only by giving comments on the students' blog but also with any discussion with them directly in the classroom or through chatting using social media. in short, promoting blogging as a personal learning activity gives chances for both teachers and students to have more topic discussions about academic writing. the personal learning environment supports academic writing for publication classroom activities. they are doing the above activities to give challenges for both teacher/lecturer in conducting ples for master students. it gives new roles for teachers to facilitate for different students via monitoring eportfolio through blogging, commenting on the learner's post, giving feedback on students' task on academic writing, and discussing on the problem that the students have in academic writing practice. the teachers' assessment is not only talking about a test score, but the more important thing is that teachers can cultivate the feeling of students' lifelong learning. as a motivator in ples, teachers or lecturers encourage students to engage in out-of-class-learning. they are introducing a collection of tools to learn and it directs students to engage in lifelong learning, including digital tools. let students practice based on their needs or teachers’ requirements to use the tools in doing the tasks. teachers need to empower the students to use the tools to cultivate the students’ potential in learning academic writing. searching sources on the web, having a critical reading of scholarly articles, summarizing and sharing onto the blog, and giving comments to other students' assignments give positive support and inspiration for the students in academic writing. conclusion promoting a personal learning environment for emerging academic writing for higher education students can lead to substantial changes in promoting personal learning environment (ple) …. register journal – vol 13, no 02 (2020) 309 learning academic writing for publication. there are some ways of encouraging students to write academic writing through the personal learning environment as a learning platform by searching the sources on the web, using blogging as media to keep and share the materials, and using social media for having a discussion both with teachers and other students. since they need to learn academic writing for publication, then the necessary foundation of argument building is needed. this will empower the students to have critical thinking and a foundation to build argumentation. learning in the classroom while being supported by out-of-class learning becomes a key to motivate and cultivate the students' potential to be a lifelong learner to prepare the students to face the future. the other pedagogical consideration in a personal learning environment is reflected by some changes in the teacher’s role. not only do teachers teach but they also have a deeper role as a source, motivator, cultivator, and partner in the students’ discussion. the students’ roles are learners and producers.[rgt] references alsamadani, h. a. 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(2000). attaining self-regulation: a social cognitive perspective. in m. boekaerts, p. r. pintrich, & m. zeidner (eds.), handbook of self-regulation (p. 13–39). academic press. microsoft word 08_register efl register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021), pp. 301-316 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i2.301-316 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 301 efl young learners’ problems encountered in the learning of english speaking: teachers’ perspectives nur syafira nikmah,1 choiril anwar2* 1, 2 universitas islam sultan agung, semarang, indonesia *) corresponding author email choirilanwar@unissula.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i2.301-316 submission track: received: 29-09-2021 final revision: 22-11-2021 available online: 01-12-2021 copyright © 2021 author(s) this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract teaching speaking to indonesian efl young learners is still problematic. it happens not only because english is not used in daily activities but also the government’s regulation to some extent does not support that. this qualitative study aims to describe the problems faced by efl students in the learning of english speaking with teachers’ perspectives. the samples of this research were three teachers from three different elementary schools in jepara, central java, indonesia. the data were collected using questionnaires, interviews, and classroom observations. the data were then analyzed by 1) memoing or transcribing the interview data, reading them to make notes and finding the most important information that might be useful for the study, 2) describing the data to find complete explanation of the context, setting, and interactions of participants, 3) classifying the data to break down the obtained result and put it into categories, and 4) interpreting the data to find the meanings of the data by connecting the findings with previous studies, personal experience, and expert advice to find the best result. the result showed that efl students’ problems in the learning of english speaking came from some factors. they are 1) native language, 2) age, 3) exposure, and 4) motivation, and 5) learners’ autonomy. keywords: speaking; indonesian efl students; young learners introduction there have been actually plenty of previous studies regarding the improvement of efl elementary students’ speaking skills. the relevant studies n. s. nikmah, c. anwar register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 302 were conducted by ramadhani (2017), widodo and dewi (2019), and abrar (2016). those studies mostly underlined the teachers’ issues in teaching speaking to young learners. the problems were most related to the classroom and time management, ability to give feedback, and teachers’ ability to diagnose difficulties faced by the learners. however, certain speaking learning issues focused on the students’ sides via their teachers’ perspectives have not been studied in detail. some schemata and facts become the other reasonable research backgrounds for choosing this topic. the improving era towards the industrial revolution 4.0 increasing rapidly requires adaptations to be relevant with future demands. to be able to survive in this modern life, it is obvious that human resources with a high level of knowledge and competence are needed. as stated by nofrion (2018), the ability to think critically, creatively, innovatively, and having qualified communication ability are the main skills that are needed to deal with the modern era. qualified communication ability becomes very important for the children in the next generation because in the future what they will face is the great development of the world. in conducting communication in the global era, competence in mastering the english language is essential (samosir et al., 2017). moreover, teaching english could be successful if the four language skills are integrated in an effective way (sadiku, 2015). as one of the skills in english learning, speaking is one of the productive skills, which need regular practice and habituation. it is really important because it is the main skill to communicate (nuraini, 2016). the teaching of foreign languages, particularly speaking, should be done from an early age (arif, 2017) considering that children in the younger age tend to have higher chances to develop their knowledge and skill. they have a clear brain that allows them to easily receive the language inputs from their teacher (nihat, 2010). in line with the statement, maili (2018) mentioned several international studies showing that children improve critical thinking skills, creativity, and flexibility of mind by learning foreign languages. primary school period is the right time to introduce english to children because it is the golden period for children's language development. there has not been a separation process on children’s right and left-brain functions, so efl young learners’ problems …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 303 they will easily accept language inputs. children easily receive foreign language exposure as well as their mother tongue, have more capability in learning another language, and have different stage of physical, psychological, social, emotional, conceptual, and cognitive development, as well as their development of literacy (ellis (2014). therefore, it will be very unfortunate if this period goes by untapped. unfortunately, in indonesia especially in the three elementary schools observed in jepara, teaching english speaking for students of young learners was still problematic. students could not speak in the english language even only in short simple conversations. students were shy to show up saying something to their teammates and teachers in english. the regulation of the 2013 curriculum claims that english is no longer the compulsory subject for elementary school. based on permendikbud no. 67 of 2013 concerning the basic framework and structure of the elementary school/ madrasah ibtidaiyah curriculum, english language is recently regarded as a local content subject at some private elementary schools and only as an extracurricular activity at state public schools. the changes from english as a compulsory subject to local content reduce the time for english lessons. the current ministry of education has also supported this policy. it is unable the teacher to teach english to young learners, especially the speaking skill because it needs a long learning process. for some elementary schools, holding english as their local content subject, it can be said that the learning process in teaching speaking for young learners still faces many failures. those failures can be perceived from the outputs or graduates. many students cannot speak well even for simple daily conversations. young learners need more time to listen to a foreign language and they also need more chances to practice some of the words and sentences in order to learn how to speak the language. nevertheless, teaching speaking for young learners is not as difficult as it seems (ramadhani, 2017). children absorb everything the teacher says and how the teacher says it. since they will repeat what they exactly hear, teachers should apply some rules in teaching. they should give continual and constant repetition, creating a relaxed and positive classroom atmosphere, using various teaching methods, and giving as many n. s. nikmah, c. anwar register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 304 chances as possible for the learners to practice pronouncing and speaking english either in the classroom or outside the classroom. thus, learners’ speaking and communication skills will be improved and they can express themselves and take part in the social and cultural rules. teaching speaking for young learners is completely different from teaching speaking for adults. it is really important for teachers to use various methods, techniques, and activities, which can involve students’ participation in class. according to pratama (2015), there are two methods that commonly used to teach english speaking to efl young learners namely audiolingual method (alm) and communicative language teaching—clt (nuraini, 2016; ohashi, 2015). various forms of drills (backward build-up drill, repetition drill, chain drill, single-slot and multiple-slot substitution drill, transformation drill) in alm can be applied (khetaguri & albay, 2016). in clt, the teacher acts as the facilitator in setting up communication activities. he/she is responsible for building situations, giving advice, and monitoring students’ performance. while the students are obviously the communicators, they cooperate and collaborate with their friends as well as being responsible for their own learning process (freeman & anderson, 2011). some techniques that are closely related to clt in improving speaking skill for young learners according to freeman and anderson are: picture strip story (novianda, 2017), role-play, show and tell (anwar, 2016), and language games (zhu, 2012). based on those previous studies, theories and facts above, the researchers have then found that there have not been many research studies underlining a lot on investigating indonesian efl elementary students’ problems in the learning of english speaking skill. those problems should be observed in order to find the best solutions. when the problems are resolved properly, teaching speaking process can be done successfully. therefore, the speaking skill of indonesian children can be improved for them to be ready to face the future world. as related to the background of the study, the objective of conducting this study then is to describe the problems encountered by teachers in teaching speaking to indonesian efl elementary school students. for teachers, the result of the study can help them to know the problems of teaching speaking for young learners. it also can help them to find the best efl young learners’ problems …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 305 solution for the problems in order to reach the success of learning. in addition to that, it is able to improve teachers’ creativity and to help them in deciding the appropriate method in teaching speaking to efl elementary school students. for students, this study can help them to get effective learning, especially english speaking, so that it will improve their speaking skills. for schools, this study will help them develop their english teaching activity. it will also help them to prepare to be globally competitive students in the future. at last, the existence of this research can be a motivation and reference for the next researcher to conduct a study related to teaching speaking to efl elementary school students. research method study consists of a plan, which describes how, when and where the data will be analyzed and collected (creswell, 2012). in conducting a study, it is important to decide the research design that will be used to get the data with specific purpose. this research belongs to descriptive qualitative study. it elucidates and describes the data gathered deeply. it portrays an accurately objective state or certain event based on the facts then accompanied by an attempt to draw general conclusions based on the obtained facts (ramadhani & bahri, 2017). the detailed information on getting the sample of the study, procedures of collecting and analyzing the data will be discussed later on in this chapter. population and sample population is a group of people or objects in one place, which can be used by a researcher as a sample in a study (suryana, 2012). the population of this study was all elementary school teachers in jepara, who are teaching english to the 3rd grade students. the sample, on the other hand, is sub group of people, items, or events from a large population that will be the main informant for a study (gay et al., 2012). in this study, with convenient sampling techniques, the researchers sampled 3rd grade teachers from three different elementary schools in kalinyamatan jepara that still had english as one of the participants taught for the students. the reason for choosing 3rd grade teachers as the sample was because in this grade teachers should teach more complex english speaking material to the students. furthermore, the respondents came from three different schools; so that more information obtained and problems experienced by each respondent could be compared. n. s. nikmah, c. anwar register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 306 procedures for collecting data some procedures were used for collecting the research data. they are preparing questionnaires and question lists, giving the questionnaire and conducting interviews, trustworthiness, and rigor. to determine the validity of the research instrument of qualitative data, the researchers, referring to gay et al., (2012), used four criteria. they are: 1) credibility, which is related to checking the tools and instruments before conducting the research; 2) transferability, related to the result of the study that can be transferred to another context or setting; 3) dependability, which is related to the examination of data analyzing process done by the expert; 4) confirmability which is related to re-checking the data and information obtained from the interview. adapted from muharram (2018); bashir et al. (2008), the researchers then used content validity for the question list and questionnaire. the researchers used simon’s rubric with experts’ judgment to ensure that the questionnaire and question list were appropriate to be used in the study. furthermore, the data collected from the interview was transcribed and sent back to the interviewees for the validation. for the reliability, the researcher used an expert view to address the reliability of the data collecting instruments. to examine the reliability of data collection the researcher sent the transcribed interview to the interviewees then asked for their approval. furthermore, the researchers re-checked the responses given from each participant and compared them to address the dependability of the research findings. data analysis four steps were used in analyzing the data gathered. they are reading or memoing, describing, classifying, and interpreting (gay et al., 2012). the first step to analyze the data was reading or memoing the data itself. before starting the first step, the researchers transcribed the interview in advance. after transcribing the interview data, the researchers read it carefully and started to underline the most important information. furthermore, the researchers made some notes in order to decide which information might be useful for the study. the second step involved describing the data. the main objective of describing data is to find complete explanation of context, setting, and efl young learners’ problems …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 307 interactions of participants. the next step was classifying the data, which consisted in breaking down the data into several parts and putting it into more general groups or categories. the researchers also re-read the transcribed interviews and selected specific data to use and eliminate the other data that did not provide evidence for the topic to do further analysis. the last step was data interpretation. this step aimed to find the meanings, connections, and links of the classified data. the researchers identified and abstracted important understandings from the data to know what is important, why it is important, and what the participants think about it. the researchers extended the analysis, connected research findings with previous studies and personal experience, and sought advice from friends or more experienced people in order to find the best result. results and discussion in this section, the researchers discussed the research findings and then compared as well as connected them with some relevant theories. from the interview conducted, the researchers found different problems in the learning of english speaking skill faced by efl elementary school students. nuraini (2016) claims that the problems can be caused by certain factors: native language, age, exposure, motivation, and learners’ autonomy. in terms of native language, the teachers viewed that students’ native languages, namely indonesian and javanese language, made it difficult for students to have english communication in class. they were not familiar with english language because they usually use bahasa indonesia and javanese language every time. teachers further said that in delivering the materials, they should translate it first so that students could understand and respond to the teacher. that finding was in line with the statement from nuraini (2016) about students not being familiar with the target language when the teacher cannot understand the situation and find a solution for it, then teaching activities will be disturbed. the next students’ problem was that they could not pronounce english words well. they often pronounced english words as the written form, whereas the english pronunciation was different. teachers stated that students were already used to indonesian writing and pronunciation, which had a n. s. nikmah, c. anwar register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 308 similar sound. as stated by nuraini (2016), english is a foreign language in indonesia and it has a completely different linguistic aspect with students’ native language, which becomes the fundamental factor in determining the success of speaking class. therefore, it is difficult for teachers to improve students’ speaking skill because they have to make students familiar with the difference of english writing and pronunciation. language input is very essential, but it is not sufficient if not followed by interaction. teachers (ts) first should make students familiar with english. ts can stimulate them to use english in class, giving them simple questions such as ‘how are you?’ and ‘are you ready to start?’ in the beginning of the lesson to gain their focus. ts should use english as much as they can, to form new english communication habits for students. if it is possible, ts can make an agreement with students to always use english during the lesson because students tend to do learning by doing. those will help students find a new habit in using english, as well as improving their responsibility to keep using english as the medium for interaction. from the students’ problems viewed by teachers related to native language, it can be concluded that the finding of the research was in line with the theory. the second indicator becoming the efl young learners’ problems in the learning of english speaking was students’ age. the researchers found different young learners’ problems viewed by teachers related to the characteristics of 3rd grade students in the age of 8-9 years old. the problem was mostly about students’ unstable mood and emotion. teachers stated there were usually overactive and over-passive students in class. teacher 2 further said that students in 3rd grade are one of the most difficult classes to teach because they are in transition between lower grade and higher grade. some of them were interested in learning english, especially speaking, but it made them overly active at times, which led to bothering other friends. it is in line with nuraini (2016), who states that young age is the best time to learn languages, but it also has some characteristics that potentially disturb the teaching and learning process. additionally, hanafi & sumitro (2020) stated that young learners are enthusiastic and curious in trying everything, but it can be a problem when they express it excessively. another problem was that students in the 3rd grade still did not have the sense of having good english. they joined the english class because it was one of the school requirements that made them less enthusiastic efl young learners’ problems …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 309 about joining teaching activities. it was supported by the statement from widodo & dewi (2019) about students’ lack of attention and concentration on the lesson taught is because they are focusing on the language they use in their current concrete situation. they still had no intention that english is important for their future; therefore, they often feel unmotivated and become passive in class activities. thus, it can be said that age also has a negative influence in teaching speaking for young learners. teaching speaking for elementary students is not easy, but it is also not as difficult as it seems. teachers should adapt to students’ learning phase. they should know what students like nowadays and collaborate with the lesson. teachers must try to use some learning methods to provide chances for students’ different learning styles and provide simple videos or examples about the use of english in life to form students’ understanding about the importance of english. those activities can help gain students’ interests in joining classroom activities and facilitate them with a comfortable learning environment. the next young learners’ issue was exposure. if we are talking about exposure, it is closely related to students’ habit of getting language inputs, especially english. exposure refers to how much students are exposed to the target language. as english is a foreign language in indonesia, it can be said that students’ chance of getting english exposure is lower than others who have english as their second language. from the interview, teachers observed that most students in their class have low english exposure. they further mentioned that students receive english only in the classroom and do not have chance to practice it outside. as stated by sulistiyo (2016) the teaching and learning of english in indonesia occurs only in formal classroom situations rather than in a daily basis. students did not have opportunities to use english in their daily communication that made it difficult to improve their speaking. the quality and intensity of target language exposure have become very important in teaching speaking for young learners, and it is one of the most crucial obstacles found by teachers (nuraini, 2016). another problem as expressed by teachers was their difficulties in facilitating best target language exposure for their students. if we are talking about the quality of english exposure, it is surely one of teachers’ responsibilities to give correct and appropriate english inputs for their students. this became a problem in teaching speaking for the 3rd grade students because teachers stated that they had difficulties in giving the best n. s. nikmah, c. anwar register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 310 english inputs for their students. they said that sometimes they mispronounce some words or sentences that affect students’ correctness in pronouncing english words. teachers’ difficulties in giving the best english inputs from the students should be given more attention, because english is more likely to be taught and learnt in the classroom. as stated by suryati (2013), when the target language is not possible to be used outside the classroom, the language inputs in the classroom are very important. therefore, we can conclude that exposure can be one of the problems in teaching speaking for young learners. teachers can anticipate this problem by not making themselves the only source of exposure from students. there are a lot of english songs or cartoons that can be the original english inputs from native speakers. one thing that should be remembered for teachers is that they should constantly improve their skills and teaching methods because every generation has their own characteristics and specialties. another internal factor of young learners’ problems was motivation. in the classroom context, motivation refers to students’ interest and willingness in joining classroom activities. one of the factors that indicate students are having low motivation is that they feel reluctant to participate in teaching and learning activities (nuraini, 2016). this problem was found by the researchers when doing interviews with teachers. teacher 1, 2, and 3 expressed their opinion about motivation and said that students’ motivation is one of the most essential elements in teaching speaking, especially for the 3rd grade students. teachers said that students’ lack of motivation became one of the hardest obstacles they found in teaching speaking. teachers added that the number of active students participating in class activities was not more than 50 percent. the rest of the students ignored the teachers, some were talking with their friends, and the others were walking around the classroom. it was in line with widodo & dewi (2019), young learners have a lot of reasons when they get bored, they will lose their focus, sleepy, keep silent, chat or play with friends, and be too lazy to do the activities. teachers can face this problem using various teaching methods and activities for students. language games such as picture games and guessing games can improve students’ initiative to speak, as well as sharpen their critical thinking skill. traditional games such as snakes and ladders can also be one of the activities used by teachers to maximize students’ participation in the classroom. another problem found is that students became shy to practice their efl young learners’ problems …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 311 speaking. they refused to respond whenever teachers called their names and asked them to practice in front of the class. this problem occurred when the teacher asked students to do some activities related to the lesson. this is in line with the statement from nuraini (2016) about shyness becoming the major obstacle that makes students inactive in joining class activities. another problem found was students were afraid of making mistakes. from the participants, they said that most of the students did not want to read or speak the language because they were worried about being teased by other friends, which made them lose their self-confidence. according to the teachers, those problems also occurred because students were not concentrating when the teacher was delivering the lesson. therefore, students had low capability to comprehend the materials and could not practicing their speaking. as stated by abrar (2016), students are mostly shy and afraid to practice their speaking due to their low competence. teachers can solve this problem rewarding students. this should not always be done in every meeting, but giving rewards such a snack, or new pencils can improve students’ courage to practice their speaking. this can improve their self-confidence and they cannot wait to practice their speaking in front of the class. the last factor that could account for the young learners’ problem in the learning of english speaking was learners’ autonomy. the great challenge in teaching especially young learners is to make sure students keep learning and practicing outside the classroom. as we know, students in the 3rd grade are in the age of 8-9 years old and still need a lot of supervisors from teachers and their parents. but if we look again at the position that english is a foreign language in indonesia it makes it more difficult for students to keep using english in their daily life. according to nuraini (2016), in teaching speaking english as foreign language students must be ready with the use of target language inside or outside the classroom, but in reality, students find it difficult to do that. it was in line with the findings; teacher 1, 2, and 3 found that students’ autonomy caused some problems, such as students’ lack of initiative to speak. other problems found that students forgot the lesson they had learned previously and they did not complete the assignment given from the teacher. teachers stated that those problems took place because students did not get enough attention and supervision from their parents. according to widodo & n. s. nikmah, c. anwar register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 312 dewi (2019), students should be involved in using the target language, especially at home; unfortunately, not all parents can guide them. teachers stated that most of the parents were working, and they could not give full attention to their children. furthermore, not all parents understand and are able to speak english, which made it more difficult for students to use english outside school hours, which in turn made it challenging for teachers to decide which teaching methods and assignments were suitable for students. as supported by widodo & dewi (2019), efl students get the chance to practice their speaking only in the classroom with limited time and teachers have difficulties creating habits for students to use english in their daily life. from the findings, it can be concluded that learners’ autonomy was one of the problems in teaching speaking to young learners. this problem becomes crucial because students’ learning process is also the responsibility of their parents. as regards parents’ supervision, teachers can make a group chat with the parents as their communication tool. they can also share the assignment directly to parents and remind them to guide their children to do the assignment. parents can ask when they have difficulties in guiding their children; therefore teachers can help as well as making sure that students are practicing their english outside the school hours. therefore, students can improve their speaking maximally with the great collaboration between teacher and parents. from the previous explanation, we could see that those problems are related to one another. if we look back, we can find that students’ native language influenced their exposure. indonesian and javanese are languages used by students in their daily life. in addition, english as a foreign language in indonesia makes it even harder for students to get opportunities to hear, read, or speak english outside the classroom. students did not have ready access to use english as a communication tool in their daily life. therefore, they did not get enough exposure outside school hours and it affected their speaking performances. as stated by widodo & dewi (2019), students do not have enough english input at home, which makes them less confident and hesitant about performing their speaking. other problems closely connected are students’ age, motivation, and their learning autonomy. as we know, students in the 3rd grade still did not have the efl young learners’ problems …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 313 sense of having good english. they still did not understand the concrete use of english and it made them unmotivated in joining class activities. the condition became worse because they were in an unstable mood. they could be really active one day, but become so quiet on other days. students also still needed a lot of supervision. nuraini (2016) stated that students really need to keep practicing and speaking outside the classroom, and they surely need strong attention from their parents. on the other hand, efl students have a lack of guidance especially from their parents, which causes them to forget the lesson they have learned. they also did not complete the assignment because their parents were too busy and did not have time to help their children to study. actually, students’ behaviors toward the teaching of english as a foreign language (tefl) are not always the same among elementary schools. anwar and kusumawarni (2018), who conducted a study in a private islamic elementary school in semarang even otherwise, found that young learners showed positive behaviors toward the teaching english as a foreign language, such as paying attention to the teacher’s explanation, writing down and reading the material, actively and bravely asking questions to the teacher, and making the vocabulary list to be memorized. conclusion based on the results of the study, found are the factors accounting for the problems that efl elementary school students face in the learning of english speaking. those issues are closely related to their native language, age, exposure, motivation, and their learning autonomy. it can then be concluded that there are many challenges for teachers in teaching english speaking to young learners dealing with their varied issues. students are supposed to get sufficient english language input both inside and outside the classroom. also, students really need some encouraging words from the teachers and parents about the importance of english in their career and future. furthermore, students need some supporting exposure from their environment, both inside and outside the classroom as a model of good examples in using the language appropriately. last but not least, efl young learners need to get their confidence, bravery, and initiative to participate in classroom activities. in doing n. s. nikmah, c. anwar register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 314 so, their teachers, classmates and other people surrounding must work hand in hand to help them. eventually, the researchers therefore would like to suggest for the next researchers to further 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(2012). using games to improve students’ communicative ability. journal of language teaching and research, 3(4), 801–805. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.3.4.761-770. microsoft word 03_register efl student register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021), pp. 203-224 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i2.203-224 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 203 efl students’ interpretations of e-learning during covid-19 using getamel: indonesian higher education context dedy yulianto,1* endang setyaningsih,2 sumardi sumardi3 english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sebelas maret, jl. ir. sutami no.36 a surakarta 57126, indonesia *) corresponding author email: ddy45425@gmail.com doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i2.203-224 submission track: received: 05-06-2021 final revision: 01-12-2021 available online: 05-12-2021 copyright © 2021 author(s) this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract while the use of e-learning has been around for decades, the global pandemic increased the number of investigations on e-learning exponentially. earlier studies have given useful insights into the benefits/ impacts of e-learning. however, students’ acceptance of technology within the context of emergency efl remote teaching is still under-researched. a qualitative study framed within the general extended technology acceptance model for e-learning (getamel) aims to shed light on students’ acceptance of technology during pandemics based on their perceived experience. it reports the challenges, opportunities of e-learning, and projections on future use based on the current experience. to collect the data, a questionnaire consisting of open and closed questions was distributed to 89 participants. in-depth interviews were conducted with focal respondents after gaining their consent. the data were then analyzed using the interactive model of data analysis. this study reveals that regardless of the negative experiences and challenges in the use of technology in e-learning, the students held positive perspectives and saw opportunities to use technology during the covid-19 pandemic. they projected their future practice using the technology. these indicate that the students well accept the use of technology in the elearning context. the study concluded that using e-learning during a pandemic is the ideal way to continue learning. however, given the challenges that students face, some changes in the implementation of distance learning are still needed. additional studies should address getamel on efl teachers in an indonesian school, so we know about the acceptance of elearning by in-service teachers. keywords: covid-19; efl students; e-learning; getamel; higher education d. yulianto, e. setyaningsih, s. sumardi register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 204 introduction responding to the increasing number of covid-19 cases which turn into a global pandemic, governments across the globe have issued special regulations for educational institutions. schools are closed and the teaching-learning process should run from homes. the schools’ closure has led to the massive use of online technologies to boost the practice of distance learning (dhawan, 2020). in indonesia, the minister of education and culture has directed all education units to run online learning beginning march 24, 2020 (mendikbud, 2020). online learning is viewed as a way out to maintain the learning process amidst the pandemic. the switch to online learning entails the implementation of internet-based learning in which the activities are conducted through the internet. this internet-based teaching and learning is called e-learning (schworm & gruber, 2012). e-learning provides many opportunities for students and teachers to conduct distance learning while improving student-centered learning (kumar basak et al., 2018). many pieces of evidence have been found in studies on the benefits of e-learning, such as e-learning offering flexibility to be utilized anywhere and at any time (shah, 2016); a platform for students/ instructors to develop autonomy in their study (joshi et al., 2020); and better media quality used to distribute materials for the students (sarker et al., 2019). aside from the opportunities it provides, e-learning is closely linked to the challenges that arise. the researcher had been investigating the difficulties that students encountered using e-learning for a long time before the pandemic spread across the world (fincham, 2016). the study's findings emphasize that distance learning cannot replicate the student experiences acquired in face-toface classes, even when students communicate via e-mail, skype, virtual learning environments, or teleconferencing. other results found that the digital divide, primary learning goal, and teacher-student interaction are the most challenging that students face (el refae et al., 2021). furthermore, they mentioned that students had problems when participating in distance learning, such as a poor internet connection, poor images and sound, a lack of realistic applications, classroom management, and a communication gap between instructors and students. efl students’ interpretations of e-learning during covid-19 …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 205 the use of e-learning during pandemics has been implemented for years. during covid-19, some studies regarding the effect of distance learning for students were reported in many kinds of research (mishra et al., 2020; rizun & strzelecki, 2020). nevertheless, the studies regarding students’ acceptance of elearning as a response to a change in learning are limited in the context of efl students in indonesia. in 2016, the well-known technology acceptance model (tam) has been developed into a general extended technology acceptance model for e-learning (getamel) (abdullah & ward, 2016). getamel was built to measure the students’ acceptance of technology especially the use of elearning. it consists of eight constructs: perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, experience, subjective norms, enjoyment, computer self-efficacy, and anxiety. first, perceived ease of use can be described as how people think the work can be done with less effort using technology (davis, 1989). it means that people want to use technology because they believe it can help them easily complete their tasks. second, perceived usefulness is the degree to which a person feels his work success will be improved using a certain technology (davis, 1989). it means that people believe that technology can improve their performance to finish their jobs. third, intention to use is the tendency to use a certain technology. it is defined as a tendency to use technology that can be seen by their attention and enthusiasm to use technology and their ability to inspire other users (davis, 1989). fourth, the experience is related to the amount and type of computer knowledge a person has gained over time (smith et al., 1999). it means that a person with greater computer skills and experiences has more optimistic feelings towards the use of every online/ distance learning tool. fifth, subjective norm refers to the view of the individual that other people who are relevant to him believe that a certain action should or should not be done (venkatesh et al., 2003). in this case, the subjective norm has to do with how the views of colleagues, teachers, and education policy affect the tendency of students to use e-learning. this suggests that students would use e-learning if other people they consider relevant/important suggested doing so. sixth, enjoyment is understood as the degree to which implementing any system or d. yulianto, e. setyaningsih, s. sumardi register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 206 technology is considered enjoyable (ryan & deci, 2000). many studies show that the enjoyment of using any device influences the students’ perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness. seventh, anxiety is defined as an appeal to worried or emotional reactions when a person wanted to do something (venkatesh et al., 2003). in the context of computer anxiety, it means that someone's anxiety when he wants to do a job using a computer. last, self-efficiency refers to an independent judgment of his or her own ability to perform a particular task (bandura, 1982). therefore, computer self-efficacy can be described as a user's belief that he or she can perform a certain task using a computer. findings also suggest that students who have higher e-learning, self-efficacy are more likely to use e-learning and computer-supported education. furthermore, this study is aimed to explore students’ acceptance of elearning, the challenges, and opportunities during covid-19, and their projection of future use by adapting the getamel as a guiding instrument. the research questions are formulated as follows: (1) how are the efl students’ acceptance and projection of future use of e-learning based on the current experiences during covid-19? (2) what are the perceived challenges and positive opportunities efl students feel in shifting into e-learning during covid-19? research methods this study used the qualitative case study to address the in-depth research questions and representing their reality (yin, 2018). a survey was conducted with an open-ended questionnaire and online semi-structured interviews. the questionnaire consisted of 33 questions. it adapted from getamel and added some questions regarding research needs and 16 semi-structured interviews, it was intended to find out the challenges and opportunities that e-learning serves during a covid-19 pandemic and their acceptance of e-learning. the target of the online survey was efl students in indonesia. the semi-structured interview also served to triangulate the data. this research included 89 efl students. convenience sampling was used to recruit participants. according to edgar & manz (2017) convenience efl students’ interpretations of e-learning during covid-19 …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 207 sampling is a technique for taking samples that are easily reachable near a location or internet service. given the current covid-19 pandemic situation, it was decided to choose participants who were easiest to locate or contact. data collection interview and questionnaire instruments were designed to gather information related to the research questions. the questionnaire was adapted from getamel to measure technology acceptance. furthermore, the interview was conducted to get the data related to the challenges and opportunities that the covid-19 pandemic offered. the interview was conducted for around 15 to 30 minutes for each participant. it was conducted using google meet and whatsapp because the interview cannot be conducted directly face-to-face during the pandemic. the interview was carried out in bahasa indonesia to get a better understanding of the information given by the interviewee. data analysis the collected data were then analyzed by following steps proposed by miles, huberman, & saldana (2014). the analysis of the data offered different phases including (1) data condensation; (2) data displays; and (3) drawing conclusion & verification. first, data condensation was carried out by selecting and simplifying relevant data through coding. second, data display was carried out by arranging and tabulating codes that enable conclusions. third, drawing conclusions was carried out by interpreting the data through data condensation, data display, and also data collection to prevent data loss. results and discussion this section conveys four main concepts concerning the efl students’ acceptance of e-learning, the difficulties, the constructive opportunities, and the projection to use e-learning for future practices. for each of the four concepts, the most representative excerpts from the participants' responses are chosen. the efl students’ acceptance of e-learning during a pandemic after more than a year of full-time online study through e-learning during the pandemic, the students used a variety of e-learning platforms to perform d. yulianto, e. setyaningsih, s. sumardi register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 208 activities. full online learning has influenced the students, as shown by how they viewed e-learning. this research revealed that the students’ acceptance of using e-learning is well accepted. in line with the study conducted by ismaili (2021), the students were pleased with their e-learning experience. the research also found that the use of e-learning during the pandemic are classified as positive and negative experiences, as follows: positive experience the students feel a positive experience towards the use of e-learning which they got from benefits that present for students. this part will be divided into four categories: usefulness, ease of use, student enjoyment, and computer self-efficacy. usefulness in the covid-19 pandemic, most students decide that e-learning will increase their learning efficiency. in line with the previous study, kratochvil (2014) found that e-learning could increase the efficiency of students learning. in addition, chopra et al. (2019) found that the use of e-learning may also help students advance in their careers and become more employable. subsequently, in this study, efl students perceived the usefulness of using e-learning in terms of time savings, learning performance, and effectiveness. the table below depicts the results of computations of questionnaire data and summarized interview data concerning participants' attitudes regarding elearning during the covid-19 pandemic. table 1 usefulness using e-learning usefulness respondents percentage time-saving 48 54.5% learning performance 42 47.2% learning effectiveness 38 42.7% efl students’ interpretations of e-learning during covid-19 …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 209 table 1 shows that by using e-learning during covid-19, the students agree that e-learning can complete the task quickly thus saving most of their time; improve their learning performance and effectiveness. it can be concluded that almost half of them experience the usefulness of using e-learning during the pandemic. furthermore, the results of the interview consistently confirm and validate the questionnaire results. for instance, the students can effectively use the time to finish their group project without having to meet in one place. “… when there is a group assignment, we don't need to wait to meet each other but we can have discussions via google meet or zoom” (ys, personal communication, 2021) most students accept that e-learning can improve their academic performance. for instance, students do not have to take notes on paper, they can exchange materials via google drive, and they can study from anywhere and at any time. “… i think it is very good because i do not need to use paper and it does not get scattered … ” (wgt, personal communication, 2021) based on the data obtained, efl students believe that using e-learning during the covid-19 can increase their success in finishing most of the studying activities. making them more helpful during the pandemic so that they can learn almost as normal. ease of use moreno et al. (2017) said that to be effective to use an e-learning system, the students' experience is associated with usefulness and ease of use. in this study, the same conclusion is reached. students perceived the ease of use of elearning after perceiving its usefulness. efl students believe that using elearning in a covid-19 pandemic makes learning distribution simpler. the students have easy access to the availability and accessibility of the e-learning platform (ismaili, 2021). the following table, which has been condensed but made representative, presents some of the most important points of the data collected. d. yulianto, e. setyaningsih, s. sumardi register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 210 table 2 ease of use ease of use respondents percentage easy to use 49 55.1% easy of physical effort 51 57.3% easy of mental effort 42 47.2% the table shows that e-learning is easy for the students to use in learning activities; they agree that using e-learning is free of physical and mental effort. the easiness of using e-learning is also supported by the result of the interview, which confirms the data. for example, students have no problem using zoom or google meet to conduct learning. “my experience with e-learning includes using many websites such as spada, … there are also other websites such as schoology, whose use is not much different …” (ma, personal communication, 2021) it can be interpreted that the e-learning system is very easy to use regardless of the number of e-learning available out there. most of the elearnings have the same features to allow students to easily use them. in addition, an e-learning system makes students free from physical and mental burdens that can occur during the pandemic. for instance: the students can get proper teaching from their own home. thus make them physically free from going to the classroom. “i feel comfortable using e-learning at home during this lecture because, with e-learning, students don't need to go to campus to study in a pandemic like this” (lap, personal communication, 2021) moreover, students do not need to think hard if they have to use the new e-learning system. it means that the students are also mentally free of effort in understanding the use of new e-learning. “my experience in using e-learning is the schoology platform and the spada which in my opinion is very easy to use and not too complicated” (dss, personal communication, 2021) efl students’ interpretations of e-learning during covid-19 …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 211 from the data above, it can be concluded that efl students believe using e-learning during the covid-19 pandemic makes learning distribution simpler and allows the students to operate the e-learning as desired. students’ enjoyment the data gathered from participants reveal that students enjoy using elearning for educational purposes. the study claims that enjoyment becomes an important aspect in supporting the acceptance of using e-learning. as reported by ashrafi et al. (2020) the intention to continue to use a system is affected by the enjoyment and subjective norm. in contrast with the previous finding, this study finds that enjoyment affects their decision to use e-learning, but subjective norm has only a small even less effect on efl students’ acceptance during the covid-19 pandemic. table 3 enjoyment enjoyment respondents percentage pleasure 35 39.3% competence 41 46.1% engagement 33 37.1% table 3 shows that the students find it fun using e-learning; they are competent in using e-learning, and they like to interact with e-learning. the result from the interview also validates the data. it shows that the students' enjoyment stems from the ease with which they can access the materials. for example, students can access the materials at any time and from any location. “my experience while using e-learning during this pandemic, e-learning can help to keep learning and can be used anywhere” (arm, personal communication, 2021) in addition, some students state that they like using e-learning because it makes material delivery more interesting, convenient, easy, and they do not have to meet in person, which is particularly important during this pandemic. in terms of engagement, the students agree that there is a decrease in interaction between students and lecturers. the same result was also conveyed by luaran d. yulianto, e. setyaningsih, s. sumardi register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 212 et al. (2014), who stated that using e-learning gradually decreases contact between students and teachers compared to face-to-face classes. however, some students feel comfortable because they are not required to communicate or meet with many people or go outside to study. “i feel comfortable using e-learning at home during this lecture because, with e-learning, students don't need to go to campus to study in a pandemic like this” (lapu, personal communication, 2021) in conclusion, efl students show enjoyment when using e-learning to study. the enjoyment is also related to their perception of usefulness and ease of use (almekhlafy, 2020). “in a pandemic like this, i think it is necessary to implement e-learning because it is arguably the most effective step so that the teaching and learning process can continue” (if, personal communication, 2021) it is conclusive that the technology of e-learning is preferable to use in the time of covid-19 where every student should learn at home. aside from avoiding face-to-face meetings, e-learning allows for continuous learning. computer self-efficacy chung et al. (2015) stated that computer self-efficacy can influence the students' intention to use a certain system. supported by yeou (2016) who discovered that computer self-efficacy is important in accounting for attitude and technology utilization. the same result is found in this study during the pandemic, students have a high level of self-efficacy. some students have been exposed to e-learning since they were in junior or senior high school. “because they have used the platform before the pandemic (schoology, spada, meet, zoom, google class) so they are not surprised and panicked when receiving instructions during distance learning” (ik, personal communication, 2021) table 4 computer self-efficacy computer self-efficacy respondent percentage prior knowledge 43 48.3% autonomous learner 46 51.7% support 33 37.1% efl students’ interpretations of e-learning during covid-19 …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 213 table 4 shows that efl students have already experience and knowledge about e-learning; they learn autonomously and can operate e-learning by following the manual books. it means that the students believed in their ability to perform the task by using e-learning with ease. as previously stated, their confidence comes from having prior experience with computers and knowledge about software and technological issues. prior experience is one of the factors that greatly influence the use of e-learning later by students. according to almekhlafy (2020), students who have no prior experience with online learning have a significant impact on the attitudes of students who use online learning. “i am very experienced in the field of computers, especially basic computer software and technical problems, and i am still interested in exploring other methods of learning through e-learning” (aar, personal communication, 2021) despite their first experience using e-learning, students remain confident in their abilities. they use e-learning by following the instructions in manuals or help from peers. the students will seek alternative solutions if anything is not known. “i can use an e-learning by looking at the user manual or if i feel confused, i can ask a friend who already understands using e-learning” (mcakw, personal communication, 2021) “perhaps as a result of the internet's assistance, i have developed the habit of automatically searching for how to use e-learning, if i do not understand” (nde, personal communication, 2021) it can be concluded that efl students are quite confident with their ability to operate e-learning during the covid-19 pandemic. at first, students are confused about using e-learning, but they become accustomed to it and believe it is more effective as time passes. further, it is a need for the students to have a high computer self-efficacy and is important to boost their confidence to complete the study. negative experience the issue of understanding the material is the negative experience that students have while using e-learning during a pandemic. the same issue was d. yulianto, e. setyaningsih, s. sumardi register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 214 reported by patricia aguilera-hermida (2020), students are having trouble comprehending the entire online learning given. “there are many things that we usually understand easily, such as in face-toface classes, i am worried that if there is the knowledge that does not arrive due to the interference, even though the lecturer/teacher has prepared the data by presenting via powerpoint, doc, pdf and so on” (fi, personal communication, 2021) understanding learning content becomes a concern among students. it is also supported by the result of the interview from the participants who claimed that they are afraid that they cannot absorb the material properly. this is feared because it can potentially reduce the academic achievement of students. table 5 the factors that affect students’ understanding the factor affects students’ understanding respondents percentage internet issues 42 46.2% quota internet 12 13.2% health issues 9 9.9% this study finds three factors representing a concern for students. the table shows that the difficulty in understanding the material is caused by three factors, namely internet issues, internet quota, and health issues. in some areas, internet connection is difficult to predict (sometimes stable, sometimes unstable), which contributed to the issue. students, especially those who live in rural areas, are affected by this issue (lai & widmar, 2021). they complain about the unreliable network during learning, which caused them to miss content, experience delays in submitting assignments, or fail in delivering assignments. “… sometimes you experience problems on the unstable internet signal, so the learning process is interrupted” (snb, personal communication, 2021) conventional teaching has become all online, causing internet quotas to run out faster. the same thing was found by fawaz et al. (2021), students felt the difficulties of using technology during the covid-19 pandemic, one of which was the internet quota that is not sufficient for their needs. this is one of the efl students’ interpretations of e-learning during covid-19 …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 215 concerns that students have, as they spend two to three times as much on the internet. “internet problems such as running out of quota or network errors, as well as problematic gadgets” (ik, personal communication, 2021) on the other hand, the students are concerned about their well-being (grubic et al., 2020). these issues had also been addressed by kratochvil (2014). students are often concerned about their health because all classes are delivered entirely online, requiring them to spend time in front of a laptop. vision problems and stress are among the health issues. for example, many students complain that their eyes hurt from staring at the laptop screen for too long. “anxiety is on eye health, because we have to stare at the screen of a smartphone or laptop for hours, plus the number of tasks given will increase the time to look at the smartphone or laptop screen” (ln, personal communication, 2021) in addition, staring at a laptop screen for an extended period induces stress and dizziness. moreover, not socializing with other people also causes stress and mental fatigue for some students. “the stress of not doing socializing with many people and the long screen-time made me very tired and greatly affected my mental condition” (dj, personal communication, 2021) it can be concluded the negative experience that the students mostly feel is related to internet use and health issues. because they come from different regions, students have different internet speeds depending on where they live. coupled with the use of devices for the long term also affects the health of students. mental and physical health issues are important factors for teachers and institutions to consider. the challenges faced during the pandemic yan et al. (2021) confirmed that the sudden transition from face-to-face learning to fully online learning will create its own set of problems for the students. the data collected from a questionnaire containing a list of problems that students may encounter can be extracted from the top three problems that they often meet. d. yulianto, e. setyaningsih, s. sumardi register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 216 table 6 the challenges faced by the students the challenges respondents percentage much homework 64 73.6% distraction from humans, pets, or others 48 55.2% socio-economic 41 47.1% the table states that the students are given more homework than usual; have a problem with their family members, and have an economic problem to purchase qualified devices. it means that during covid-19 mostly the efl students feel burdened by those problems. it is confirmed from the students’ interview. the first issue, many students accept that the amount of homework assigned during the pandemic is significantly higher than average (jan, 2020). during the first pandemic, nearly every lecturer assigned homework to students with little time to complete. “the anxiety that i often feel, namely when given assignments and the deadlines given is very short” (lp, personal communication, 2021) the second concern is the distraction at home. the students complain that their family is making noise during the learning activity (iivari et al., 2020), which is interfering with their concentration. this makes it difficult for them to concentrate on their studies. “i am also sometimes annoyed by family members making loud noises” (pkd, personal communication, 2021) another issue is that certain students do not have a proper device for online learning. it is normally caused by their family's financial situation. “the cellphone that i have is also not very supportive for online learning, so the results are not optimal” (ld, personal communication, 2021) the financial issue was associated with the number of quotas that they can purchase based on their economic background (pokhrel & chhetri, 2021). they can only afford to purchase a small quota to participate in online learning. efl students’ interpretations of e-learning during covid-19 …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 217 opportunities driven by the pandemic given the number of challenges, we must search out opportunities that will enable us to perform to the best of our abilities. for example, the shift from face-to-face to entirely online learning has made lecturers and students more conscious of the value of e-learning in the classroom. “… there are also platforms such as using kahoot, quizzes, english score, etc. and i think all of them are quite interesting and make me know about other elearning applications” (lrr, personal communication, 2021) the data obtained from the questionnaire, which includes a list of opportunities, is provided to students and conclusions can be drawn from the top three. this segment will look for the opportunities that students see by using e-learning during a pandemic. table 7 potentials provided by the pandemic the potentials respondents percentage introduced to various types of educational technology 73 83.9% more independently searching for learning resources 71 81.1% technological savvy 67 77% efl students state the opportunities of fully online learnings have introduced them to many kinds of e-learning; they become better at finding references on the internet, and more familiar with e-learning technology. those are the three things that the efl students feel during the covid-19 pandemic. first is the increased knowledge of e-learning during the covid-19 pandemic; by gaining hands-on experience with a variety of e-learning applications, their understanding of e-learning greatly improves. “all courses use the e-learning system today. the platforms used have different apps, so i can understand a lot of the applications involved and i believe they will be very useful in the future” (mf, personal communication, 2021) d. yulianto, e. setyaningsih, s. sumardi register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 218 second, the students become independent learners. the pandemic has given more time to search for additional learning materials from the internet. it provides excellent opportunities for students to develop their methods of searching for materials. “i learned how various platforms work that i didn't understand before and encouraged me to explore further via the internet if i was still confused about how an e-learning application works” (pkd, personal communication, 2021) third, the students become more skillful in using e-learning. the pandemic has necessitated the use of e-learning to keep teaching-learning activities going. after more than a year of pandemics, students are most likely to have honed the skills needed to use and operate e-learning for teaching and learning. students have become accustomed to e-learning and understand how to use it effectively. “besides that, i can also explore and improve soft skills, especially in the field of technology” (ld, personal communication, 2021) it can be concluded that even during this pandemic there are still opportunities that arise and can be used as a chance to enrich oneself with knowledge and skills. subsequently, they are already familiar with various kinds of e-learning systems, how to use them, and also practice them directly. positive projection of future practices the students' experiences serve as a reference point for future decisions. the table below shows that efl students intended to use e-learning for studying; they get access to the e-learning that is used during covid-19 so they keep using it for their future carrier. table 8 positive projection positive projection respondent percentage intention to use 44 50% accessibility 48 54.5% future use 33 37.9% efl students’ interpretations of e-learning during covid-19 …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 219 mostly, the efl students project their practice of using e-learning in the future, which is supported by the result of the interview with efl students. although there are barriers, students want to use it as a tool of teaching later in their careers when they become teachers. “if i become a teacher later, i want to create a classroom atmosphere that is not only lecturing in front of the class but must be accompanied by the optimal use of technology for the ease of student learning” (aar, personal communication, 2021) students who have seen the advantages of using e-learning tend to merge face-to-face learning with the use of e-learning. they want to foster a more productive learning environment by integrating face-to-face and e-learning. “most of the platforms used are easily accessible on both laptops and smartphones, making the learning process easier” (fi, personal communication, 2021) furthermore, the ease of access to e-learning is the reason students continue to use it. they can access e-learning from their laptops and smartphones, as almost all students own these devices. students expect that elearning will be beneficial in the future. learning can be done anywhere and at any time, making it more versatile. conclusion to conclude the study, efl students accept the use of e-learning during the covid-19 pandemic. acceptance of e-learning is shown by projecting themselves to continue adopting e-learning in the future. efl students also state that they will continue to use e-learning technology for teaching when they become teachers. the experience of efl students using e-learning while studying at educational institutions has developed the notion that e-learning should be used when teaching. as the result, they gain confidence in implementing e-learning in the classroom. during covid-19, some challenges and opportunities are perceived by efl students in the usage of e-learning. the difficulties encountered by them can be used as a model by lecturers and campus administrators to improve distance learning. while efl students can use the opportunities they have had d. yulianto, e. setyaningsih, s. sumardi register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 220 to develop their abilities and add skill, particularly in the field of e-learning. because of the challenges that students face, it is critical to develop lesson plans and modules that can be adapted to distance learning. as a result, research and development of lesson plans and modules to accommodate various contexts of e-learning are required. teachers must also engage in training. to optimize the effectiveness of e-learning, teachers are taught to teach remotely using elearning. training also helps teachers adjust to difficulties that arise in the online classroom later on. thus, the study provides useful insight but is limited by the number of available participants. other research is expected to cover a wide range of participants and address the acceptance of e-learning from the standpoint of efl teachers in indonesian higher education so that the specific benefits and constraints, as well as solutions for online learning implementation, can be identified.[rgt] references technology acceptance model for e-learning (getamel) by analysing commonly used external factors. computers in human behavior, 56, 238– 256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.036 almekhlafy, s. s. a. 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(2018). case study research and applications: design and methods (sixth edition). sage. d. yulianto, e. setyaningsih, s. sumardi register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 224 this page has been intentionally left blank. . 171 designing lesson plan based on critical thinking for language classes norwanto english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no.2 salatiga, central java, indonesia norwanto@yahoo.com abstract critical thinking includes a process of reasoning in thinking as stated by some scholars. in the process, there is universal standard to follow: clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and fairness. in language classes, critical thinking creates active classes. to bring critical thinking to classes, bloom‘s taxonomy and critical thinking strategies can be working definition in order critical thinking to be applied to pedagogical materials in a practical way. steps for critical thinking teaching includes five steps: (1) determining learning objectives, (2) teaching through questioning, (3) practicing before assessing, (4) reviewing, refining, and improving, and (5) providing feedback and assessment of learning. a lesson plan should reflect these five steps. keywords: critical thinking, language teaching, lesson plan, bloom’s taxonomy, critical thinking strategies abstrak berpikir kritis mencakup proses penalaran dalam berpikir seperti yang dinyatakan oleh beberapa ahli. dalam prosesnya, ada standar universal untuk diikuti: kejelasan, akurasi, presisi, relevansi, kedalaman, keluasan, logika, dan kewajaran. di kelas bahasa sendiri, berpikir kritis dapat menciptakan kelas yang aktif. untuk membawa pemikiran kritis ke dalam kelas, taksonomi bloom dan strategi berpikir kritis dapat menjadi metode yang tepat agar berpikir kritis dapat diterapkan pada materi pedagogis dengan cara yang praktis. langkah-langkah untuk mengajarkan berpikir kritis meliputi lima langkah: (1) menentukan tujuan pembelajaran, (2) pengajaran melalui pertanyaan, (3) berlatih sebelum menilai, (4) meninjau, menyaring, dan meningkatkan, dan (5) memberikan umpan balik dan penilaian pembelajaran. sebuah rencana pembelajaran harus mencerminkan lima langkah tersebut. 172 kata kunci : berpikir kritis, pengajaran bahasa, rpp, taksonomi bloom, strategi berpikir kritis introduction there are many definitions of critical thinking. moore and parker (2009: 3) define critical thinking as ―the careful application of reason in the determination of whether a claim is true‖. robert ennis (in hunter, 2009) states that critical thinking is ―reasonable, reflective thinking that is aimed at deciding what to believe or what to do‖. the two definitions emphasize critical thinking on reason. meanwhile, gieve (1998 in rear, 2010) gives some requirements for students to think critically. they must be able to ―examine the reasons for their actions, their beliefs, and their knowledge claims, requiring them to defend themselves and question themselves, their peers, their teachers, experts, and authoritative texts‖. in critical thinking, there is universal intellectual standard which must be applied to thinking as the assessment of thinking. the standard comprises clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and fairness (paul and elder, 2010). each part of the standard has some questions that may help self assessment for thinking. in classes, teacher may pose these questions in order to help students critically. paul and elder (2010) proposes the questions in the table: standard questions clarity could you elaborate further on that point? could you express that point in another way? could you give me an illustration? could you give me an example? 173 accuracy is that really true? how could we check that? how could we find out if that is true? precision could you give more details? could you be more specific? relevance how is that connected to the question? how does that bear on the issue? depth how does your answer address the complexities in the question? how are you taking into account the problems in the question? is that dealing with the most significant factors? breadth do we need to consider another point of view? is there another way to look at this question? what would this look like from a conservative standpoint? what would this look like from the point of view of . . .? logic does this really make sense? does that follow from what you said? how does that follow? but before you implied this, and now you are saying that; how can both be true? fairness do i have a vested interest in this issue? am i sympathetically representing the viewpoints of others? critical thinking can be also incorporated into language classes. car (1990), for example, proposes the use of news media in the class. comparing differing accounts and editorials may help students read with questioning attitude. critical reading, then, has been defined as learning to evaluate, draw inferences and arrive at conclusions based on the evidence (zintz and maggart, 1984 in carr, 1990). meanwhile, for writing, elbow (1983: in carr, 1990) has presented first order and second-order thinking. for first order thinking, he proposes free writing that will produces conceptual insight. 174 discussion to bring critical thinking to classes, working definition is important in order critical thinking to be applied to pedagogical materials in a practical way (rear, 2010). fortunately, bloom‘s taxonomy and critical thinking strategy can be the bridge between critical thinking and classes. bloom‟s taxonomy banjamin bloom (1956) identifies three domain of educational activities: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor (in clark, 2004). each domain has some major categories. clark (2004) summarizes the three domain and its categories. cognitive domain has six categories. the first is knowledge or the lowest ability to recall data or information. the second is comprehension which means the learners ability to understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. the third is application, the ability to use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction; applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place. the next higher level, the fourth, is analysis. in this category, students or learners are expected to be able to separates material or concepts into component parts, so that its organizational structure may be understood; distinguishes between facts and inferences. the fifth is synthesis, how to builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements; put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure. and the last is evaluation or to make judgments about the value of ideas or materials. the next domain is affective which has five categories. the first requires students to have awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention. 175 this category is usually called as receiving phenomena. the second is responding to phenomena. in this category, students must be active participation on the part of the learners, attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon and learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation). the third is valuing or the worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. this ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable. the fourth is organization or students or learners must be able to organize values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system. the emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. the last is internalizing values (characterization). students have a value system that controls their behavior. the behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional). critical thinking strategy paul, binker, and weil (1995) write 35 aspects or instructional strategies. these strategies are in three categories: affective strategies, cognitive strategies – micro abilities, and cognitive strategies – micro abilities. affective strategies includes strategy 1 (s-1) until strategy 9 (s-9): s-1 thinking independently , s-2 developing insight into egocentricity or sociocentricity , s-3 exercising fairmindedness , s-4 exploring thoughts underlying feelings and feelings underlying thoughts, s-5 developing intellectual humility and suspending judgment, s-6 developing intellectual http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s1 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s1 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s2 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s2 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s3 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s4 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s4 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s5 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s5 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s6 176 courage, s-7 developing intellectual good faith or integrity, s-8 developing intellectual perseverance, s-9 developing confidence in reason cognitive strategies macro-abilities has 17 strategies. they are: s-10 refining generalizations and avoiding oversimplifications, s-11 comparing analogous situations: transferring insights to new contexts, s-12 developing one‘s perspective: creating or exploring beliefs, arguments, or theories, s-13 clarifying issues, conclusions, or beliefs, s-14 clarifying and analyzing the meanings of words or phrases, s-15 developing criteria for evaluation: clarifying values and standards, s-16 evaluating the credibility of sources of information, s-17 questioning deeply: raising and pursuing root or significant questions, s-18 analyzing or evaluating arguments, interpretations, beliefs, or theories, s-19 generating or assessing solutions, s-20 analyzing or evaluating actions or policies, s-21 reading critically: clarifying or critiquing texts, s-22 listening critically: the art of silent dialogue, s-23 making interdisciplinary connections, s-24 practicing socratic discussion: clarifying and questioning beliefs, theories, or perspectives, s-25 reasoning dialogically: comparing perspectives, interpretations, or theories, and s-26 reasoning dialectically: evaluating perspectives, interpretations, or theories cognitive strategies micro-skills comprise 9 strategies. those strategies are s-27 comparing and contrasting ideals with actual practice, s-28 thinking precisely about thinking: using critical vocabulary, s-29 noting significant similarities and differences, s-30 examining or evaluating assumptions, s-31 distinguishing relevant from irrelevant facts, s-32 making plausible inferences, predictions, or interpretations, s-33 giving reasons and evaluating evidence and alleged facts, s-34 recognizing contradictions, and s35 exploring implications and consequences http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s6 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http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s32 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s32 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s33 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s33 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s34 http://www.criticalthinking.org/pagesstrategy-list-35-dimensions-of-critical-thought466#s35 177 steps for critical thinking teaching there are many constraints in language teaching (and teaching in general), such as teacher‘s assumption that students cannot learn the subject at hand unless the teacher covers it. hence, teachers must give up the belief and start active learning. this learning can make the course enjoyable and can encourage students to think critically. in addition, bloom,s taxonomy facilitates teachers to classify instructional activities as they advance in difficulties (duron, limbach, and waugh, 2006) figure 1 5-step model to move students toward critical thinking (duron, limbach, waugh, 2006) 178 designing lesson plan indonesian government regulation no.19 of 2005 on national educational standards, article 19 paragraphs 1 tells that teaching learning process is characterized with interactive, inspiring, fun, challenging, and active learning. it means that this regulation gives space for critical thinking. interactive and active learning such as discussion includes critical thinking strategies, such as s-33 giving reasons and evaluating evidence and alleged facts. this strategy can make students insightfully discuss evidence relevant to the issue and conclusions they consider (paul, richard w. binker, a.j.a. and weil, daniel, 1995). hence, the following discussions incorporate critical thinking into lesson plan. the format is from american english institute, university of oregon: critical thinking. the writer adds assessment row to this table. the writer includes the teaching models above that employ questioning, self and peer assessment, and teacher assessment in the lesson plan. lesson plan instructor: title of course: student age/level: 19 – 25 / intermediate title of lesson: writing research background of classroom action research number of students: 30 length of lesson: 100 minutes i. overarching goal of the lesson: after attending this class, students are able to understand how to write research background effectively 179 ii. prerequisites. at the beginning of this lesson, students are expected: (1) to have intermediate level of english; (2) to have completed their field work as english teachers in junior or senior high school; (3) to have passed research methodology class and methodology of language teaching. iii. instructional objectives for the lesson: bloom‘s domain and level ct strategy 1. working in group of 3 to read and discuss given examples of good research background (the condition), the students (the audience) will identify components or information that should be in a research background (the behaviour) accurately in four sentences (the degree of accuracy) cognitive, analysis level affective, responding to phenomena  s-21 reading critically  s-32 making plausible interpretatio ns  s-1 thinking independentl y 2. given questions about research background, the students will write outline of research background accurately based on components or information got in phase 1 activities cognitive, synthesis s-33 giving reasons and evaluating evidence and alleged facts 180 iii. lesson description 1. pre teaching [15 minutes] teacher introduces the topic teacher introduce the topic through questioning a. what do you know about research background? b. have you ever written research background? 2. brainstorming and discussion [70 minutes] phase 1 teacher gives examples of research background to students. the students work in group of 3 to discuss and restate components or information that should be written in a research background. they discuss the following questions: a. what is each paragraph mainly discussed? b. each paragraph informs the components of research background, what are they? after discussing the questions, each group, then, presents the conclusions and get feedback from other groups. the next step is the teacher‘s feedback. phase 2 students work individually. this phase will explore individual experience during their field work. if necessary, they may share their experiences with their friends but they have to submit the result individually. the outcome is an outline of a research background. the students may refer to the previous discussion. 181 in writing their outline, the students answer the questions as a guidance: what is the biggest problem or the most urgent problem faced by students to solve? could you provide data or information? (the problems and data should be based on your class during your field work) -what is/are the cause(s) of the problem? what is the possible solution for the problem? what is your rationale? phase 3 students share their outline with their classmates to get feedback phase 4 teacher provides feedback to students 3. assignment / homework write a background of classroom action research based on the outline! iv. assessment ct assessments description of ct assessments formative observation short response summative extended response teacher walks around the class to observe and check students‘ understanding while they are doing class assignments teacher gives some questions, e.g. to find out english teaching problems and students write the answer in a paragraph students write an essay, e.g. research proposal 182 the first few lines of lesson plan are class identities comprising instructor‘s name, title of course, students‘ age/ level, title of lesson, number of students, and length of lesson. it will inform three things: teacher, students, and course. the first part is goal of the lesson. goal and objective refers to the same thing, outcomes. however, goal refers to general outcome while objective is more specific. objective refers to performance students will acquire in the end of the class. the next part is prerequisites. these are assumptions teachers are making about students‘ skills, knowledge, and experience for this lesson. this is requirements students need to fulfill in order to be able to complete the lesson. the third part is instructional objectives. heinich and his colleagues (2002 in o'bannon. 2002) suggest four parts of well written objectives or usually called as the abcd's of instructional objectives. the a stands for audience. it is ―the learner‖ or ―the student‖ or as specific as ―the third grade science student‖. the b represents behavior. it is the verb describing the competency that the student will be able to perform after the instruction. it must be measurable, observable, and specific. the c stands for condition or the circumstances under which the objectives must be completed. the last is d or degree of accuracy. it is the standard that the learner must meet to reach acceptable performance. the fourth part is lesson description. this may include pre-, during, and post-activities, steps, or techniques that the students are doing. 183 assessment there are two types of assessment: formative and summative assessment. garrison and ehringhaus (2007) explain the differences. the first assessment is part of instructional process. it informs both students and teacher about students understanding at a point. because it can be incorporated into classroom practice, it can be used to adjust teaching and learning while they are happening. meanwhile formative assessment are conducted during class practice, summative are given periodically at a particular point in time, such as after instruction every few weeks, moths, semester, or once a year. it can be in form of state assessment, semester test, chapter test, etc. it can be tools to evaluate the effectiveness of programs, schools improvement goals, alignment of curriculum, or student‘s placement in specific program. furthermore, garrison and ehringhaus (2007) give some of the instructional strategies that can be used formatively. the first is observations. in this assessment, teacher goes beyond walking around the room to check student‘s work. the teacher may give feedback when he/she finds student who need clarification. the second is questioning strategies that should be embedded in lesson/unit planning. it may allows an opportunity for deeper thinking and inform teacher the degree and depth of understanding. the third is self and peer assessment. this assessment allows student to assess his/her or his/her friend works. it may helps to create a learning community within a classroom. other sample assessments are multiple choice, constructed response (jigsaw, fill in the blank, and matching), short response (sentence to a paragraph), extended response (essay or oral presentation), process 184 performance (showing classmates how to do something, for ex. baking a cake, assembling an airplane), project performance, portfolio, interview (oral performance: discussion, impromptus, debate), assessment rubric. conclusion critical thinking is a process of thinking involving reasoning as the basic for action. the process follows self assessment as proposed by paul and elder (2010): clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and fairness. these standards comprise questions that can be applied in classes of instructional to train critical thinking to students. critical thinking can be applied in language classes and employ bloom‘s taxonomy and critical thinking strategy as working definition. in designing lesson plan, there should be: course identity, goal and objectives of lesson, prerequisites, lesson description, and assessment. in writing objectives, abcd model can become the guidance and it should also includes bloom‘s taxonomy and critical thinking strategies. in addition, lesson description discusses pre, during, and after classes. references carr, kathryn s. 1990. how can we teach critical thinking? retrieved 27 october 2011 from http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9218/critical.htm clark, d. r. 2004. bloom's taxonomy of learning domains. retrieved dec 8, 2011 from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html duron, robert. limbach, barbara and waugh, wendy. 2006. critical thinking for any discipline. international journal of teaching and learning in higher education 2006, volume 17, number 2, 160-166 http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9218/critical.htm http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html 185 garrison, c., & ehringhaus, m. (2007). formative and summative assessments in the classroom. retrieved from http://www.nmsa.org/publications/webexclusive/assessment/tabid/1120 /default.aspx hunter, david a. 2009. a practical guide to critical thinking: deciding what to do and believe. new jersey: john wiley & sons, inc moore, brooke noel and parker, richard. 2009. critical thinking. new york: mcgrow-hill higher education o'bannon, b. 2002. how do i write an instructional objective? retrieved october 20, 2011 from http://edtech.tennessee.edu/~bobannon/writing_objectives.html paul, r. and elder, l.2010. foundation for critical thinking, online at website: www.criticalthinking.org paul, richard w. binker, a.j.a. and weil, daniel. 1995. strategy list: 35 dimensions of critical thought. retrieved october 22, 2011 from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/strategy-list-35-dimensions-ofcritical-thought/466 rear, david. 2010. a systematic approach to teaching critical thinking through debate. journal eltwo, volume 2. http://edtech.tennessee.edu/~bobannon/writing_objectives.html http://www.criticalthinking.org/ dinamika pengarusutamaan gender register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022), pp. 147-162 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v15i1.147-162 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 147 islamic female clerics’ preaching on the discourse of woman’s body, sexuality and domestication: a study through transitivity and appraisal analysis eva leiliyanti,1* hazalia zahra munir,2 wita awaliyah 3 1,2,3 applied linguistics master program, universitas negeri jakarta, jakarta timur, 13220, indonesia *) corresponding author email: eleiliyanti@unj.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i1.147-162 submission track: received: 08-01-2022 final revision: 06-04-2022 available online: 30-04-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract this text-oriented discourse analysis aims to evaluate and compare the language voiced by the two islamic female clerics’ (ustazah aisah dahlan and mamah dedeh) in their preaching as well as their stances on the discourse of muslim woman’s body, sexuality and ,domestication posted on their affiliated youtube accounts during this covid-19 pandemic. the data (two video transcripts with the duration 09 minutes 04 seconds and 42 minutes and 54 seconds, respectively) were taken based on stratified purposeful sampling. using transitivity system (ideational metafunction of language) postulated by m.a.k. halliday(2014) and language evaluation theory (interpersonal metafunction of language) developed by martin and white (2005), it was found that aisah dahlan’s preaching was dominated by attributive relational process and positive judgment in heteroglossic expressions to justify muslim men’s attitudes and behaviors, whereas negative judgment in force expressions were deployed in discussing the muslim woman’s body, sexuality, and domestication discourse. on the contrary, mamah dedeh’s preaching was dominated by the material process and positive judgement of sanction, which indicates that the husband and wife share equal responsibility in the household. keywords: ustazah, text-oriented discourse analysis, muslim woman’s body, islamic views on sexuality, domestication of woman, transitivity analysis, appraisal analysis http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v15ixx.xx-xx mailto:eleiliyanti@unj.ac.id http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ e. leiliyanti, h. z. munir, w. awaliyah 148 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) introduction the language role and use on gender related topics in social environment has been widely studied (hu et al., 2019; mshweshwe, 2020; yalley & olutayo, 2020; you et al., 2019), including religious fields such as lectures and sermons. patriarchal culture positions women as powerless and domesticated (dzuhayatin, 2020; siagian et al., 2018)(dzuhayatin, 2020; siagian et al., 2018). this can also be seen from the visibile positioning of the ustazah (female cleric), which is not comparable to the ustaz (male cleric) in the public sphere. this can also be seen from the female clerics’ (ustazah's) visibility that is not comparable to the visibility of male clerics in the public sphere, especially related to discussing the topics of woman’s body, sexuality, and domestication. even though the number is small, not all these female clerics speak out about this imbalance. the imbalance positioning and discourse of ustazah and ustaz in public sphere can be seen on the topic of woman’s body, sexuality, and domestication of women (dzuhayatin, 2020). men are the leaders for women means that men have power over women, so women must submit themselves to men as a form of obedience (isti’anah, 2019; waltz, 2016). this may happen to the relationship between a woman and a man in marriage and in general. talking about the role of women as wives in the perspective of the study of ‘doing gender’ (goffman, 1976), this role represents the manifestation of gender, i.e., the performance in the context of social institutions (in this case the family), which segregate the labor division as well as roles of men and women in the domestic area in the patriarchal family system (eslen-ziya et al., 2021). this discourse was then challenged. eslen-ziya et al. (2021) found that during the covid-19 pandemic, turkish men who then worked at home were involved in many activities that represented ‘gender undoing,’ i.e. showing their alternative masculine faces in the form of doing domestic work – raising children while doing housework with their wives. this discourse in the lens (eslen-ziya et al., 2021) echoes the division of roles and duties of husband or wife in islam. in contrast to eslen-ziyn et. al. (2021), an indonesian study of the discursive language of female domestication through two religious preaching of ustaz gus muwafiq from nahdlatul ulama in this covid-19 pandemic era demonstrate that the ustaz employed the plausible positive evaluative lexis islamic female clerics’ preaching on the discourse .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 149 in seeing the wife's position in the domestic realm (leiliyanti, dewi, et.al., 2020). eslen-ziyn et al. (2021) based on discursive language of female domestication through two religious preaching of ustaz gus muwafiq during the first year of pandemic sees a positive positioning of wife in the domestic realm. this positive lexis was used to lead muslim women to the discourse of devotion, piety, and obedience to their husbands (read also: and family) as controllers and discursive fences. muslim women’s efforts of obedience in the form of doing domestic work (raising children, caring for the house, serving the husband) as wives will be granted by transcendental rewards as their keys to heaven. gus muwafiq's language seems to glorify women/wives. but, this, on the other hand, shows a tendency to muslim women domestic preoccupation, as his argument indicates that such preoccupation is seen more appropriate for wives. similarly to the findings pertaining to the language evaluation on gus muwafiq’s preaching on the discourse of muslim women domestication, the research of leiliyanti et al. (2020) also found that ustaz adi hidayat's preaching on women's body discursive regulation corncerning grooming and display of their corporeal beauty, the ustaz employed patriarchal negative evaluative judgment on women's social behavior with intensified heteroglosic expressions (not individual statements bare declaration). adi hidayat (in leiliyanti et al, 2020) deployed this to indicate the integration of disciplining the muslim women’s social behavior, i.e., the way they discipline their bodies through facial cosmetics and dressing based on the religious attributes of ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ according to islam and by way of positioning the husband (and family) as the controller, gear, and ‘regulatory institute’ when muslim women want to express their bodies and sexual desire. simultaneously, adi hidayat (in leiliyanti et al, 2020) positions women within the religious attributive chasm of "jahiliyah" versus "non-jahiliyah" when they attempt to display their corporeal beauty in public spheres. in order to make this patriarchal habitus as well as habituation of muslim women’s corporeal discipline based on men's collective consciousness socioculturally acceptable and normal, adi hidayat's (in leiliyanti et al, 20202) constructed his thesis based on his interpretation of hadiths and verse of the qur’an pertinent to the religious concept of tabarujj (which means “display of e. leiliyanti, h. z. munir, w. awaliyah 150 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) beauty”, see nordin et al., 2016). tabarruj in language means to manifest (albuhaili in azmi, 2022). sheikh dr. yusof al-qardawi in nordin et al. (2016) stated that the activities of women in the jahilliyah period when leaving the house by displaying some of their beauty such as hair, neck, and chest, so that they can be disturbed by evil men (wicked). tabbaruj can be defined as an excessive ornamental activity and displaying it in public (nordin et al., 2016). ash-shiddieqy (in azmi, 2022) also argues that tabbaruj is an act of women displaying the beauty of their face and body and “their jewelry” to the public. in line with adi hidayat, ustaz khalid basalamah from salafi (leiliyanti et al., 2020) also uses negative evaluative lexis in discussing the discourse of muslim woman’s sexuality through the employment of relational dominant processes, i.e., using relational verbs to define/identify and negative judgment of propriety in a heteroglossic expression. the efforts to define/identify were aimed primarily at regulating, disciplining and normalizing the sexuality of muslim women in their covered clothes. simultaneously, women are positioned as the figures who place the financial condition of their husbands as their basic standard in measuring the stability of a man, whereas the men are seen merely as sexual predators who are neither able to suppress nor control their biological desires/basic instinct. this is then functioned as his core basis to justify their regulatory acts in disciplining and normalizing the muslim woman’s corporeal display of beauty and sexuality. this in his lens is conducted for noblesse oblige, i.e., to protect women. this chasm was then re-emphasized in basalamah's preaching entitled husband and wife manners and courtesy which positioned women as wives to satisfy her husband’s corporeal drive which is closely related to eros (life) and thanatos (death) drives. these then lead to the fulfilment of the male pleasure principle (in this case in the form of visual desire), sexual (procreation and sexual recreation), and food (hunger). however, men are rewarded with transcendental responsibility for their wives. the findings above do not necessarily indicate that islam closes access for women to actualize themselves in the public sphere and merely constitutes as domesticated sexual objects. arisandy (2016) notes that in the qur'an women have the equal position as men in community groups, such as in education and career as the representation of their muamalah actions islamic female clerics’ preaching on the discourse .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 151 (having a significant role) in their social environment as part of their worship, hs, 2019). the ustazah represents the woman standing by representing her as an intermediary figure who transmits knowledge and a role model in society as well as her family, must all times refer to the al-quran and hadith (kusmana, 2019) in her muamalah actions. however, the obligations of ustazah, and women for domestic duties (dzuhayatin, 2020) perpetually follow suit. aisah dahlan is a certified hypnotherapist and neuro-parenting skill practitioner with a medical background and a drug abuse management consultant. in her preaching, she intensively discussed how to build a harmonious family life based on shari’a and medical science. while mamah dedeh is known as an ustazah with a distinctive style of speech, who started preaching in 1994 bens radio broadcast. she was nationally well-known through her religious shows on national tv stations, indosiar and tvone. this study evaluates and compares the language voiced by the two islamic female clerics’ (ustazah aisah dahlan and mamah dedeh) in their preaching and their stances toward discourse of muslim woman’s body, sexuality and domestication posted on their affiliated youtube channels during this covid-19 pandemic. the data (two video transcripts with the duration 09 minutes 04 seconds and 42 minutes and 54 seconds, respectively) were based on stratified purposeful sampling. this is organized by discussing the discourse of the female body, sexuality, and domestication, as well as the language evaluation theory. research method this text-oriented discourse analysis deployed two preaching transcripts (entitled “kebutuhan suami yang harus dipenuhi istri menurut islam” and “para istri wajib nonton ini!!! hak seorang suami yang perlu kamu tahu”) taken from their affiliated youtube accounts (pecinta dr aisah dahlan, cht account and religione account, respectively) based on stratified purposeful sampling. the total clause in mamah dedeh's lecture is 419 clauses with 348 clauses using appraisal analysis. the total clause in aisah dahlan’s lecture is 249 with 109 clauses using appraisal analysis. the data was then coded according to the female body, sexuality, and domestication. they were analyzed by evaluating the lexis in two layers: (a) based on the e. leiliyanti, h. z. munir, w. awaliyah 152 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) ideational metafunction, i.e., transitivity system, and (b) interpersonal metafunction. the transitivity system is used to examine how each speech represents aisah dahlan’s and mamah dedeh’s stances, while interpersonal metafunction is deployed in evaluating their attitudes toward the discourse of woman’s body, sexuality, and domestication. results & discussion this section provides findings and discussion of body discourse, sexuality, and domestication represented by aisah dahlan and mamah dedehin their videos. this is divided into three parts: lexicogrammatical features, (focusing on the ideational and interpersonal analysis), logical structure, and social function. table 1 shows aisah dahlan and mamah dedeh’s views on topic under different processes. table 1. process types process types aisah dahlan mamah dedeh kebutuhan suami yang harus dipenuhi istri menurut islam para istri wajib nonton ini!!! hak seorang suami yang perlu kamu tahu behavioral 47 39 (19%) (9%) existential 2 ˗ (0,8%) material 46 197 (18%) (47%) mental 18 56 (7,2%) (13%) relational 112 33 (45%) (8%) verbal 24 94 (10%) (22%) clause 249 419 (100%) (100%) lexico-grammatical features the following sub section discusses the table of analysis based on the transitivity system and language evaluation theory (appraisal system) based on aisah dahlan’s and mamah dedeh’s preaching texts. the discussion of aisah dahlan’s preaching text islamic female clerics’ preaching on the discourse .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 153 aisah dahlan’s preaching was dominated by the relational process (112 clauses/45%). at the beginning of her preaching, dahlan explained the differences in the size of the hypothalamus of men and women prior to entering into the discussion of the husband and wife obligations in the household. dahlan justified all men’s attitudes and behaviors based on her medical background knowledge as hypnotherapist and general practitioner in her preaching. her language tends to be patriarchal, as she at all-time positions women as the ones who are always required to understand the actions and attitudes of their male partners in the household. the hypothalamus is positioned as the main element to reason this inclination. “memangnya hipotalamus apa bu aisah fungsinya? banyak, ada beberapa yang kita bahas hari ini ya.. 1 adalah pusat syahwat birahi. saudarasaudaraku sayang, ya, laki-laki syahwat birahinya memang lebih lebar, jadi istri memang harus siap sedia dicolek dikit untuk ajak hubungan intim ya, siaplah. (what is the function of the hypothalamus, mrs. aisah? many. there are several [functions] that we [will] discuss today. one is the center of lust. my dear sisters, yes, men's lust is higher, so the wife must be prepared to be poked a little [as he wants] to have sexual intercourse [with his wife]. [my dear sisters], yes, [you must] be prepared. [our literal translation])” [clauses 14-21] in kebutuhan suami yang harus dipenuhi istri menurut islam by aisah dahlan]. the second position of the process that dominates dahlan's preaching is the behavioural process (47 clauses/19%). dahlan attempted to regulate women's attitudes and behavior towards their male partners in the household: “bu aisah saya engga bisa bu aisah, saya ada cancer, saya ada cancer mulut rahim, nah itu harus dibicarakan sama suami. suami yang bijak ya dia sangat-sangat paham. gimana caranya bu aisah untuk saya juga mau bantu suami saya supaya birahinya tersalurkan, tapi nggak perlu dengan saya carikan perempuan untuk jadi istrinya. ya ibu harus pintar, harus cerdas gimana caranya ya, tentu mungkin tidak lewat vagina kah, itu bisa kok. (mrs. aisah, i can't. mrs. aisah, i have a cancer. i have a cervical cancer. [this] must be discussed with your husband. a wise husband, he will fully understand. how to do it, mrs. aisah? for me, i also want to help my husband to channel e. leiliyanti, h. z. munir, w. awaliyah 154 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) his lust, but i don't need to find a woman to be his wife. yes, you have to be smart. you have to be clever how to do it [sexual intercourse]. your husband’s lust may be channelled not through your vagina. this [method] can also be conducted, [our literal translation])” [clauses 57-69 in kebutuhan suami yang harus dipenuhi istri menurut islam by aisah dahlan]. the discussion of mamah dedeh’s preaching text at the beginning of her preaching, mamah dedeh mentioned the obligations of the husband in domestic life. even though the title of the lecture is ‘wives must watch this!!! husband's rights need to know’, mamah suggested that household obligations belong to both parties. husband and wife have their respective roles related to their rights and obligations. mamah dedeh's preaching was dominated by the material process (197 clauses/47%). these were used to indicate the actions that the husband and wife must take in exercising their rights and obligations in their marriage (based on the shari'a). “suami wajib berikan makanan sesuai dengan yang dimakan suami, suami wajib berikan pakaian sesuai yang dipakai suami, tidak boleh memukul wajah istrinya. (the husband is obliged to give food according to what his husband eats, the husband is obliged to give clothes according to what his husband wears, he must not hit his wife's face. [our literal translation])” [clauses 2 in para istri wajib nonton ini!!! hak seorang suami yang perlu kamu tahu by mamah dedeh]. the second dominant process in mamah's preaching is the verbal process (94 clauses out of 419 clauses/22%). mamah dedeh frequently cited hadith as her basis to justify her stance on the right and proper attitude of the husband and wife in marriage. ““rasul bersabda, “kalau seorang suami meminta istrinya tidur, istri wajib melaksanakannya” (the prophet prayed, "if a husband asks his wife to sleep, the wife is obliged to do it". [our literal translation])”. [clauses 48 in para istri wajib nonton ini!!! hak seorang suami yang perlu kamu tahu by mamah dedeh]. islamic female clerics’ preaching on the discourse .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 155 in this statement, mamah re-emphasized the rights and obligations of the husband and wife in the household, i.e. that the husband has the right over his wife's body and the wife must serve her husband. however, this does not mean that the woman's body belongs to her husband, as mamah conveyed: “artinya kalau perempuan begitu menikah dengan laki-laki dikatakan “engkau milikku, aku milikmu”. [kepemilikan bermakna perempuan] boleh ditampol, boleh dipukulin, boleh kasih pinjem temennya, boleh buat bayar utang. maka nya [karena] allah maha agung, dikatakan [allah bukan kepemilikan tetapi] [jawwaz] pasangan (this means that if a woman marries a man, it is said, "you are mine, i am yours". [this indicates ownership] the woman can be slapped, be beaten, be borrowed to a friend, be used to pay off debt. [as] allah is great, [allah] said [it is not ownership but] [jawwaz] partner)”. [clauses 40—45 in para istri wajib nonton ini!!! hak seorang suami yang perlu kamu tahu by mamah dedeh]. table 2. table of appraising items: aisah dahlan’s and mamah dedeh's preaching texts. three interacting domain in appraisal clerics aisah dahlan mamah dedeh attitude affect + 1 29 ˗ 11 11 judgment + 12 82 ˗ 10 58 appreciation + 1 7 ˗ 1 9 engagement monogloss 9 4 heterogloss 11 62 graduation focus 18 23 force 35 63 total 459 appraising items evaluation theory serves to evaluate spoken and written texts. this system has three parts, namely attitude, engagement, and rating. the attitude assessment system serves to assess several aspects in the form of objects, people, and emotions and their effects, which can be positive or negative in the text. e. leiliyanti, h. z. munir, w. awaliyah 156 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) in the attitude domain, aisah dahlan used positive judgment dominantly (12 clauses out of 111 clauses/11%) to justify men’s attitudes and behaviors. “anak-anak laki-laki walaupun masih kecil dan laki-laki suka bermain, tapi kalau ibunya sakit, laki-laki, anak laki yang jagain dibanding anak perempuan.” “(even though boys are still kids and boys like to play, but when their mother is sick, boys are the ones who take care of girls compared to girls [our literal translation])” [clauses 123-127 in kebutuhan suami yang harus dipenuhi istri menurut islam by aisah dahlan] in the attitude domain by mamah dedeh, mamah’s positive judgement was predominant (82 clauses/24%) in wife’s obedience to her husband and religious orders. “tapi itulah yang dikendaki oleh rasulnya buat kita para istri, bakti sama suami.” “(but that's what the apostle wants for us wives, filial piety with husbands, [our literal translation])” [clauses 180 in para istri wajib nonton ini!!! hak seorang suami yang perlu kamu tahu by mamah dedeh]. in the graduation domain, the force subsystem dominated (63 clauses/18%), as mamah wanted to frequently emphasize the equal responsibility of the husband and wife. seen in the repetition of the clause "jangan sampe ..." (“don't let ...) used by mamah for the wives (congregation) it is also shown to husbands who work outside. “jangan sampe kesucian rumah tangga kita dinodai oleh orang. jangan sampe kemuliaan rumah tangga kita dirusak oleh orang. jangan sampe harga diri rumah tangga kita dihancurkan oleh orang.” (“don't let the sanctity of our household be tempted by people. don't let the glory of our household be damaged by people. don't let the pride of our household be destroyed by people" [our literal translation])”. [clauses 183--185 in para istri wajib nonton ini!!! hak seorang suami yang perlu kamu tahu by mamah dedeh]. in the graduation domain by aisah dahlan, the force subsystem dominated (35 clauses/32%), aisah dahlan assigns a high scale to male characters compared to female characters by using the words more powerful, stronger, smarter. “laki-laki lebih hebat, lebih jago, lebih pandai menjaga keamanan dibanding perempuan” “(men are more powerful, stronger and smarter in islamic female clerics’ preaching on the discourse .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 157 maintaining security than woman [our literal translation])”. [clauses 110111in kebutuhan suami yang harus dipenuhi istri menurut islam by aisah dahlan] logical structure these two preaching texts are in the genre of analytical exposition, consisting of thesis, argumentation, and repetition of the preaching. aisah dahlan's lectures were dominated by relational processes and behavioral. at the same time mamah's lectures were dominated by material and verbal processes. as well as a positive assessment evaluation. aisah dahlan’s preaching text introduces the topic by accentuating the comparison between the size of the man’s versus woman’s hypothalamus (the man’s hypothalamus is larger than woman’s) using relational attributive process type. in the orientation part, dahlan discussed 4 functions of the hypothalamus:1) the center of lust, 2) maintaining security, 3) the center of thirst and hunger, and 4) the centre of sleep. in this section, dahlan positions the hypothalamus as the main element in regulating women's attitudes, behaviors ,and actions towards their partners in the household. as previously discussed, the man’s hypothalamus becomes the overarching entity used in the argumentation parts of her preaching, and repetition part by this female cleric in justifying her patriarchal disposition. this was employed to reason that women should always understand the condition of their partner regardless of the woman’s misfortune condition/corporeal impediment (see the analysis of clauses 14-21] in kebutuhan suami yang harus dipenuhi istri menurut islam by aisah dahlan). by this, when the negotiation phase between the husband and wife cannot be reached (i.e. in order to overcome the wife’s corporeal impediment), a muslim woman must then be willing to share her husband with another woman. understanding this dubious judgment was then framed by dahlan as an epiphany. in the orientation section, mamah provided an overview of the obligations between the husband and wife in her lecture. she opened her preaching by firstly accentuating the husband’s rights and obligations towards his wife. this was then followed by the rights and obligations of the wife towards her husband. the rights and obligations of the husband and wife e. leiliyanti, h. z. munir, w. awaliyah 158 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) are equal. in the argumentation parts, mamah dedeh suggested five shari’abased teachings pertinent to the rights and obligations of the husband and wife: the husband's: 1. provides food according to what he eats, 2. gives clothes according to what he wears, 3. not allowed to hit the wife's face, 4. not allowed to call the wife with non-preferable/favorable appellation, 5. not allowed to leave your wife other than at home. the wife’s: 1. must not leave her husband's bed, 2. must not hide her husband's rights towards her body, 3. must obey her husband, 4. must not leave the house without the husband's permission, 5. is not allowed to enter anyone into the house, especially the ones whom the husband dislikes. social function aisah dahlan’s preaching aims to induce the aforementioned epiphany and indoctrinate the patriarchal conception of the discourse on the body, sexuality, and domestication of muslim women that women are described as passive agents in the public sphere, but active in the domestic sphere. serving her husband is one of the priorities of muslim women. conversely, mamah’s preaching is aimed at teaching the audiences to recognize and practice the rights and obligations of partners in building a harmonious marriage life. marriage itself is a lingering religious practice that demands that husband and wife realize their positions, rights, obligations, and duties in the household. conclusion aisah dahlan arguably perceived the discourse of muslim woman’s body, sexuality, and domestication in patriarchal-inclined linguistic manners, i.e., to induce and forge muslim woman’s understanding of their partner's malecentric behaviors and attitudes. the male hypothalamus is positioned as the overarching element to justify her thesis. women are portrayed as passive agents in the public sphere, but active in the domestic sphere. serving a partner is one of the muslim woman’s priorities. dahlan also used heteroglossic expressions and positive judgement for men’s social/selfesteem pertinent to the discourse, but negative ones for women in islamic female clerics’ preaching on the discourse .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 159 adumbrating and corroborating the muslim woman’s body, sexuality, and domestication. on the contrary, mamah dedeh attempted to find a middle way, as she deployed heteroglossic expressions, as she frequently referred to other voices/points of view to justify this middle way. on the other hand, mamah dedeh views household affairs as being sincerely carried out by both parties. no party is harmed as they understand each other's roles, rights, and obligations according to the shari'a law. respect for husbands is inherent, inevitable, fundamental, and essential in islamic married life. women are strongly suggested to carry out activities outside home (getting higher education as well as having a career). however, when entering the house (read also: the domestic domain), respecting the husband (as their partner) is intrinsic. using heteroglossic expressions, mamah dedeh often refers to the other voices/points of view to justify this middle ground, i.e. positioning the husband-wife relationship as a partnership, not ownership. acknowledgments we thank unj’s graduate school of unj for funding this research. references arisandy, n. 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(2019). relasi gender patriarki dan dampaknya terhadap perempuan hubula suku dani, kabupaten jayawijaya, papua. sosiohumaniora, 21(1), 65. https://doi.org/10.24198/sosiohumaniora.v21i1.19335 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022), pp. 91-108 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v15i1.91-108 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 91 efl teachers' beliefs and ict integration practices during distance learning: employing replacement, amplification, and transformation framework anggi purwa lestarina,1* joko nurkamto,2 ngadiso3 1,2,3 english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sebelas maret, jl. ir. sutami no.36 a surakarta 57126, indonesia *) corresponding author email: anggi.lestarina@gmail.com doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i1.91-108 submission track: received: 24-01-2022 final revision: 06-04-2022 available online: 30-04-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract technology is successfully integrated when technology makes learning effective, efficient, and creative. it cannot be denied that technology positively contributes to teaching and learning. moreover, in the current pandemic conditions where the learning process must be carried out remotely, technology helps this teaching and learning process more accessible. the objective of the study is to see the efl teachers’ beliefs and ict integration practices during distance learning. this study investigates teachers' beliefs of ict integration based on the current theory and situation. the researchers used a qualitative approach in this case study; three efl teachers were interviewed and observed. the finding of the study is all efl teachers had positive beliefs about ict use for teaching and learning and student-centred belief orientation for pedagogical belief. one of three had low-self efficacy to utilize ict. ict was integrated for effective and efficient learning, which means teachers' level of ict integration was amplification based on the rat (replacement, amplification, and transformation) framework. however, overall, teachers' beliefs orientation were positive belief about ict integration, high self-efficacy belief, student-centred belief. still, they could not reach the high level of ict integration linked to creativity in teaching. they also faced some barriers in integrating ict, such as students' engagement and the learning in the distance still incomplete. they missed the motivation or stimulation stage for their students and the students' learning process was lack of speaking and listening enhancement activities. additional research should address more people as data objects to corroborate research results. keywords: ict integration, rat framework, teachers' beliefs, self-efficacy beliefs, pedagogical beliefs mailto:anggi.lestarina@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ a.p. lestarina, j. nurkamto, ngadiso 92 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) introduction ict is one of the important equipment in teaching and learning. due to pandemic cases, teachers have felt the need to integrate ict frequently into learning in the past year. although teachers may use technology often, they do not always integrate it successfully. effective integration of technology into teaching and learning remains a challenge (rodríguez et al., 2012). there are still many barriers that should be faced to achieve successful technology integration (farjon et al., 2018). the obstacles of teachers' technology integration come from internal and external factors. external barriers include a lack of resources in schools based on technology, time constraints, or a lack of technical or pedagogical support. internal barriers are intrinsic to teachers and include their beliefs on teaching and technology integration (eickelmann & vennemann, 2017). the use of technology in teaching is tied to teachers' beliefs, and teachers’ beliefs significantly impacted their effective use of ict in teaching (tondeur et al., 2017). according to zheng (2015), teachers’ beliefs are a personal system that can lead their thinking, action, and behaviour associated with the teaching and learning process. beliefs influence teachers' decisions to decide specific technology for effective and efficient instructions (ertmer, 2005). teachers who believe in the effective use of technology for learning tend to use technology and assume that technology is utilized for students' learning and self-efficacy. on the contrary, teachers who do not believe in the value of technology use tend to ignore technology integration (kim, 2015). the orientation of technology integration is dominantly for pedagogical goals (enochsson & rizza, 2009). it relates to teachers' pedagogical beliefs. teachers' pedagogical beliefs can act as barriers to technology implementation (toundeur et al., 2016) and influence technology adoption in the classroom (ertmer, 2005). a teacher who has traditional beliefs such as teacher-centred tends to avoid technology use, and teachers who have constructivist student-centred methods tend to use technology for learning (toundeur et al., 2016). hence, teachers need to pay attention to their beliefs related to the use of technology, considering their beliefs as preliminary funds for successfully implementing technology in the classroom. efl teachers' beliefs and ict integration practices .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 93 ding et al. (2019) investigated efl teachers' pedagogical beliefs and their technology integration practices in the classroom. the findings indicated that efl pedagogical beliefs be following their technology integration practices. hsu (2016) has conducted a study concerning teachers' beliefs and technology integration. the study examined teachers' beliefs, practices, and barriers to technology integration. this study showed that teachers who hold constructivist pedagogical beliefs about using technology had strong self-efficacy beliefs, put positive interest in using technology, and had two or more high-level activities in their lessons. the studies by ding (2019) and hsu (2016) are related to teachers' beliefs and practices using technology in the classroom. they still need further investigation of teachers' beliefs of ict integration based on the current theory and situation. this study is carried out to fill this gap with the focus on investigating teachers' beliefs and practices on integrating ict and the extent to which the technology is adopted based on teachers' ict level integration. the theories that underlie the study are the rat (replacement, amplification, and transformation) model and teachers' beliefs and technology. the framework from hughes et al. (2006) called the rat model is utilized to reveal teachers' level ict integration practices. the rationale for using this theory is that the theory assists in determining the level of teachers in technology integration by sequencing the teaching step in logical order. hence, this framework can be employed for getting detail about teachers’ ict integration based on step by step in teaching. still, this framework merely focuses on technology integration results, not on the process. it simply focuses on the extent to which technology is adopted in teaching without considering the background knowledge of teachers. furthermore, the theory about teachers' beliefs and technology from taimalu and luik (2019) and hsu (2016) also indicates teachers' beliefs, stating that a teacher’s belief is a roof concept for pedagogical belief, self-efficacy belief, and belief about technology as well as dichotomized for each belief. the terms are discussed. a.p. lestarina, j. nurkamto, ngadiso 94 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) research method this study used a qualitative approach in a particular descriptive case study as a method. a descriptive case study describes a phenomenon in its natural setting (yin, 2018). this method is appropriate for this research because it reveals teachers' beliefs concerning ict integration in a real-world context. furthermore, this research was conducted in a senior high school in bandung. this school was chosen because of the possible access and the consideration of data availability. moreover, research participants were selected purposively based on the research objectives in this study. three efl teachers who participated have qualifications such as (a) speaking english as a foreign language, (b) using ict in their teaching, and (c) teaching in senior high schools for 2-3 years. data collection according to yin (2018), two types of data collection techniques are employed in this study: a) interviews were carried out with the research participants to gain in-depth answers. the method of interviews used in this study was open-ended interviews. the interviews have been conducted in four major processes: conducting the open-ended interview, recording the interview, translating the interview, and transcribing the interview. the interviews used bahasa indonesia to gain in-depth answers. another technique is b) observation. the observation was conducted towards classroom and teachers' documents to get information about efl teachers' technology practices. the observation technique was the non-participant observation, and the researcher acted as an observer who did not involve in the event (yin, 2018). there were two main activities for this technique: observing and gathering field notes. in detail, the interviews were conducted to gain information about efl teachers' beliefs and their ict integration practices. the questions were adapted from taimalu and luik (2019), hsu (2016), and hughes et al. (2006). the interview was carried out for about 60 to 90 minutes, and it was conducted via a whatsapp call. furthermore, the observation gathered information about efl teachers' ict integration practices. it was carried out by observing the platforms or applications teachers used to teach in distance learning because of pandemic situation. efl teachers' beliefs and ict integration practices .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 95 data analysis the data was evaluated using yin's procedures (2018). the data analysis process included several phases: compiling, disassembling, reassembling, interpreting, and concluding. first, compiling was conducted to organize and sort the data in some order. second, disassembling was carried out to break down compiled data into smaller parts. the procedure was followed by giving codes or labels to the data pieces. third, reassembling was carried out to reorganize the parts of data into various groups and sequences. forth, interpreting was carried out to give sense to the findings. for this step, the researchers used the pattern matching technique from yin (2018). it was used to compare the data with the theories from other researchers. fifth, concluding was carried out to conclude the findings. results in this part, we present our findings regarding (a) the efl teachers' beliefs about ict integration, (b) the efl teachers’ technology integration practices, and (c) the interconnection between efl teachers’ beliefs and ict integration practices. the results provided in this part were chosen to represent this study. a. the efl teachers' beliefs about ict integration table 1 presents teachers' beliefs orientation about ict integration in the class. in this research, we found that teachers had four kinds of beliefs orientation. the beliefs are shown based on their type, and the description of each is followed. table 1 efl teachers' beliefs subject beliefs orientation beliefs description teacher a teacher b teacher c teachers' positive belief about ict integration beliefs about the positive impact of technology on student learning (hsu, 2016) teacher a teacher c teachers' high selfefficacy belief high levels of confidence to use technology for teaching and learning (hsu, 2016) teacher b teachers' low selfefficacy belief low levels of confidence to use technology for teaching and learning (hsu, 2016) a.p. lestarina, j. nurkamto, ngadiso 96 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) subject beliefs orientation beliefs description teacher a teacher b teacher c student-centred belief beliefs about incorporating technologies to support high-level student learning or other student-centred practices (hsu, 2016) all participants emphasized the importance of ict integration based on the results of the interviews. they believed that ict had an immense impact on teaching and learning. they agreed that the role of ict is essential because the learning should be in line with the development of technology or digital era as teacher a said in the interview: “the idea of using technology for teaching is great because our education should follow the development of technology and science.” besides, teacher b perceived that: “technology supports us as a teacher to teach in the modern era,” and teacher c stated that: “the use of ict is important because day by day the development of technology are raising significantly.” moreover, each teacher mentioned other benefits of the technology used for learning, such as supporting time efficiency, fun learning, and students' motivation. two teachers described high self-efficacy when they used technology for teaching and learning. they uttered that they were confident enough to use technology. as teacher a stated in the interview: “i am confident when using technology because i am interested in teaching that innovative and creative embedded.” on the contrary, only one teacher was not convinced to use technology. she said, “i am not sure when i face new technologies or an application for teaching, and i am just not sure whether i can operate it or not. sometimes, recent applications for education make me confused, and i still need peer guidance to use it.” the teachers oriented their learning to focus on students' needs, goals, and style while incorporating technology. they perceived that technology could support student-centred learning. for example, teacher c conveyed that 'i emphasize students and focus on learning on the process, not only the result. and i think technology can encourage me to increase student-centred learning because the learning can be in various ways, and students can enjoy the learning.' efl teachers' beliefs and ict integration practices .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 97 b. the efl teachers' technology integration practices all teachers had access to technology for teaching and learning (see table 2, 3, 4). they used various kinds of technologies to be applied. the main activities of utilizing technology are presented in the table, and the activities are divided into some categories based on teaching and learning stages. table 2 eflteachers' ict integration practices for instructional method instructional method subject technology resources activities preparation teacher a microsoft word, whatsapp making a lesson plan and checking students' attendance teacher b microsoft word, whatsapp teacher c microsoft word, google classroom interaction with students teacher a google classroom, whatsapp giving instruction or information and communicating with students teacher b google classroom, whatsapp teacher c zoom, google classroom, whatsapp assessment of students teacher a google docs, microsoft excel, pollev.com collecting the score of students' tasks and assessing students' work teacher b google docs, microsoft excel teacher c google docs, microsoft excel the instructional methods encompass some teaching and learning processes such as preparation, interaction with students, and assessment of students (hughes et al., 2006). all teachers used microsoft word to make and to prepare a lesson plan in the preparation process. besides, they used whatsapp to check students' attendance lists, and only teacher c used google classroom to check students' attendance lists. in the interaction process with students, google classroom and whatsapp were dominantly used by teachers to give instruction or information and communicate with students. zoom was merely used by teacher c. moreover, whatsapp is more likely used by teachers and students to do two-ways communication. google docs were dominantly applied for assessing students. the teachers usually collect students' tasks and evaluate students' work. teacher a utilized another technology web-based for assessing students' work, such as pollev.com. to recap students' scores, all teachers employed microsoft excel to recap and calculate students' scores easier. a.p. lestarina, j. nurkamto, ngadiso 98 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) table 3 efl teachers' ict integration practices for students' learning processes students learning processes subject technology resources activities learning activity teacher a powerpoint, google classroom, whatsapp the teacher gives learning material that students should read. teacher b google classroom, whatsapp teacher c powerpoint, google classroom, zoom the teacher gives learning material that students should read while explaining it. task milieu teacher a google docs, google classroom the teacher asks students to do the task individually, such as multiple-choice essays, or write the learning materials. teacher b google docs, google classroom teacher c wa, google docs, google classroom english was taught using powerpoint, google classroom, whatsapp, and zoom. it helped students or teachers easily find materials when they need them for review or future class. the teachers delivered learning materials mostly in one-way communication and asked the students to read and understand by themselves. along the learning process, most activities of students were reading and writing the learning materials, and english learning activities were lack of speaking and listening practice. some learning materials were provided on powerpoint. using powerpoint makes learning materials easier to be presented, and it assists teachers in explaining them. moreover, the powerpoint slides were uploaded to google classroom, making it easy to find or edit for future activities. it can be compared with saving only on a laptop. sometimes, teachers find it hard to search or forget the file's location. after giving the materials, the teachers asked the student to do some tasks, and mostly it should be done individually. all teachers applied google classroom and google docs to provide multiple choice or essay questions. besides, the applications assisted teachers in automatically assessing students' work. the teachers did not correct students' results one by one, and it decreased teachers' errors in evaluating students' work. efl teachers' beliefs and ict integration practices .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 99 figure 1. the example 1 of students' learning processes figure 2. the example 2 of students' learning processes figure 3. the example 3 of students' learning processes a.p. lestarina, j. nurkamto, ngadiso 100 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) all teaching or learning stages were covered and assisted by technology. the teachers attempted to apply technology in their teaching steps to pursue curriculum goals. table 4 efl teachers' ict integration practices for curriculum goals curriculum goals subject technology resources activities knowledge and experience to be gained, learned or applied. teacher a ms word, whatsapp, google classroom, google docs, microsoft excel, pollev.com, powerpoint teachers reach learning objectives based on technology-assisted. teacher b ms word, whatsapp, google classroom, google docs, microsoft excel teacher c ms word, whatsapp, google classroom, google docs, microsoft excel, powerpoint, zoom the use of technology assists the teachers in meeting their learning objectives. they perceived technology as helpful, but they still experienced some barriers. for example, one teacher stated: “technology can help me meet my learning goal based on the lesson plan, but i still have some student engagement problems. in this distance learning, students are lack engagement with the learning process, and there are a few exposures.” c. the interconnection between efl teachers’ beliefs and ict integration practices. we employed the rat framework to indicate how far the efl teachers integrate ict. the teachers' ict integration shows in the level amplification (see table 5). table 5 the alignment between teachers' beliefs and ict integration practices subject beliefs orientation ict integration level teacher a positive belief about ict integration, high selfefficacy belief, student-centred belief amplification teacher b positive belief about ict integration, low selfefficacy belief, student-centred belief amplification teacher c positive belief about ict integration, high selfefficacy belief, and student-centred belief amplification the level of teachers' ict integration can be categorized into amplification or middle grade because almost all participants used ict to efl teachers' beliefs and ict integration practices .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 101 increase their productivity and efficiency. however, they still faced some barriers, such as students' engagement. besides, the learning was still incomplete; for instance, they missed the motivation or stimulation stage for their students. regardless, it was merely focused on utilizing the ict; the teachers could increase their productivity and efficiency. the technology as amplification category focuses on technology use that amplifies current instructional practices, student learning, and content goals (hughe et al., 2006). the teachers used technology to make learning more accessible and efficient. with regards to technology integration at the amplification level, there is no fundamental change in any themes—instructional methods, student learning processes, and curriculum goals. the focus is effectiveness or streamlining rather than transition (hughes et al., 2006). the level of ict integration of the teachers incorporates with their beliefs orientation. however, overall, teachers' beliefs orientation were positive about ict integration, high self-efficacy belief, and studentcentred belief. still, they could not reach the high level of ict integration linked to creativity in teaching. discussion a. the efl teachers' beliefs about ict integration the study reveals that the participants had some beliefs through the teacher beliefs lens. they had positive beliefs about ict integration, high self-efficacy beliefs, low self-efficacy beliefs, and student-centred beliefs. teachers' beliefs can be seen as the "roof concept" for various beliefs. teachers' beliefs about technology consist of three components: selfefficacy beliefs for using technology, pedagogical beliefs, and beliefs about the value of technology use (taimalu and luik, 2019). the authors dichotomize each teachers' beliefs regarding technology. self-efficacy beliefs for using technology consist of low and high self-efficacy. beliefs about the value of technology use have two views: positive and negative. pedagogical beliefs are divided into student-centred and teacher-centred orientation. a.p. lestarina, j. nurkamto, ngadiso 102 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) another result is that all of the participants uttered their beliefs through thinking. some participants stated that they thought, using the words 'i think.' it showed that their beliefs are part of knowledge contribution. it is in line with the previous study. some researchers have stated that beliefs are a form of knowledge. borg (2006) said that attempting to separate knowledge and belief is not a particularly fruitful exercise, given that these constructs are not viewed differently in the minds of the teachers. according to zheng (2015), teachers' beliefs are “psychologically held thinking, conceptions, and understanding about teaching and learning.” meanwhile, it is challenging to describe teachers' beliefs in clear terms because of the variety of ways described in the literature (lim et al., 2013). some researchers have argued between teachers' beliefs and knowledge (zheng, 2015), and they have claimed that knowledge is perceived as intrinsically distinct from beliefs. for example, verloop et al. (2001) distinguished beliefs from knowledge. knowledge and beliefs are different concepts because knowledge is closer to the truth than beliefs. however, from the perspective of teachers' cognition, which is defined as the process by which teachers form ideas and concepts, knowledge and beliefs can be viewed as overlapping notions that are inextricably linked in the minds of the teachers. b. the efl teachers' ict integration practices ict integration refers to computer-based communication incorporated into the classroom's everyday teaching process (ghavifekr & rosdy, 2015). rodrı´guez et al. (2018) defined ict as the use of technology in classroom practice to provide explanations, use technical tools for students in the classroom, and include these tools in students' curricula by developing ict that has been fully implemented. it requires e-skill to implement ict optimally (adegbenro et al., 2017). ict encompasses all technology used, especially in education, to manage and communicate information (lawrence & tar, 2018). to identify efl teachers' technology integration, our study adopted hughes's (2006) analytic framework in which technology was integrated and represented as three specific orientations in the level: replacement, efl teachers' beliefs and ict integration practices .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 103 amplification, and transformation. replacement takes place as the lowest stage or level in integrating technology. it shows that with the use of technology, aspects of students learning processes, instructional methods, and curriculum goals remained precisely the same with traditional teaching methods. amplification is when aspects of students learning processes, instructional methods, and curriculum goals become more efficient and quicker with the use of technology. the last stage of the framework is transformation. it dealt with technology high-integrated when aspects of students learning processes, instructional methods, and curriculum goals were transformed in complex ways. moreover, creativity in teaching and learning emerges. the data presented that the teachers integrate and utilize various kinds of technology or ict for the instructional method, students' learning, and curriculum goals. for instructional methods, teachers used technology to make activities such as making a lesson plan and checking students' attendance, giving instruction or information and communicating with students, collecting the score of students' tasks, and assessing students' work easier and quicker. besides technology used for preparation, interaction with students, and assessment of students included in the instructional method, the teachers also applied technology for students' learning processes. technology was utilized to make learning activities and task milieu effective. overall, technology can assist teachers in reaching their learning objectives or curriculum goals. hence, it can be categorized that the efl teachers' integration level was at the amplification stage. the technology as amplification category looks at how technology has enhanced current instructional practices, student learning, or content goals. the main effects are increased efficiency and productivity. a common belief is that computers improve our ability to perform traditional jobs by amplifying or extending our capabilities, with the idea that these tasks stay fundamentally the same. the phrase "amplify" means "to make more powerful," and "refers very precisely to the intensification of an acoustic or electronic signal that does not experience any changes in its essential structure (hughes et al., 2006). a.p. lestarina, j. nurkamto, ngadiso 104 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) the amplification provides more data for the long term related to student and school data. these may promote different levels of information for parents, and possibly other levels of communication, connection, and interaction between parents and school agents. technology is affordable or used in the teaching process and strengthens the process. teachers must have various skills to effectively use technology, including communication skills, team-building skills, and adapting to novelty because technology will constantly evolve with the times. thus, the ability to adjust for teachers to develop the teaching process remotely is necessary (mishra et al., 2016). another result showed that the teachers used ict for many purposes. almost all stages of teaching procedural have been assisted by technology. in line with sipilä (2014), the result stated that many teachers reported using technology to address their professional and students' needs (sipilä, 2014). for different purposes, teachers use technology to promote: (1) administrative or management practices, such as monitoring the grades of students, (2) conventional or based on teachers' educational methods, such as lecturing or presenting, and (3) promote instructional activities focused on students, such as offering students the option of how to show their learning (li et al., 2018). besides, if properly used, technology will increase learners' engagement and access to their target languages, provide more opportunities for interaction and input, and enhance the effectiveness of the organization of teachers and the presentation of teaching material (golonka et al., 2014). c. the interconnection between teachers' beliefs and ict integration practices the findings show that the beliefs of efl teachers have a close association with their ict integration practices. ict was integrated for effective and efficient learning, meaning teachers' level of ict integration was amplified based on the rat framework. it was related to the participants' beliefs that they had positive beliefs about ict use for teaching and learning and student-centred belief orientation for pedagogical belief. however, one of three had low-self efficacy beliefs to efl teachers' beliefs and ict integration practices .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 105 utilize ict. moreover, they still could not reach the high level of ict integration linked to creativity in teaching. the study aligns with hsu (2016) and ding et al. (2019). hsu (2016) discovered that teachers who hold constructivist pedagogical beliefs about using technology put positive interest in the use of technology and had two or more high-level activities in their lessons. furthermore, ding et al. (2019) indicated that efl pedagogical beliefs follow their technology integration practices. the results of this study are in contrast with (prestridge, 2012). prestridge (2012) stated that teachers' beliefs in ict integration increase creativity in teaching practice. ict has merged with learning as a thought facilitator. with high beliefs, the teacher can read the situation to form new experiences for students in the teaching process. they were especially creating a learning model that is not boring for students. conclusion based on the research findings and discussion, the beliefs of efl teachers have a tight interconnection with their ict integration practices. ict was integrated for effective and efficient learning, meaning teachers' level of ict integration was amplified based on the rat framework. it was related to the participants' beliefs that they had positive beliefs about ict use for teaching and learning and student-centred belief orientation for pedagogical belief. however, one of three had low-self efficacy beliefs to utilize ict. moreover, they still could not reach the high level of ict integration linked to creativity in teaching. they also faced some barriers in integrating ict, such as students' engagement and the learning in the distance still incomplete. they missed the motivation or stimulation stage for their students, and the students' learning process was lack of speaking and listening enhancement activities. however, this study provides valuable knowledge, but it is limited by the data objects available, which used three teachers as participants. the use of more than three people as participants will contain diverse data and more complete research results. besides, to indicate the ict level integration of teachers, the study merely focused on how they utilize ict without a.p. lestarina, j. nurkamto, ngadiso 106 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) considering the content materials of learning, teaching methodology, and teachers' knowledge in detail. suggestions for future researchers can be the use of more people as data objects to corroborate research results and teacher background whether it will affect efl teachers' beliefs and ict integration practices during distance learning. references adegbenro, j. b., gumbo, m. t., & olakanmi, e. e. 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(2015). teacher beliefs as a complex system: english language teachers in china. switzerland: springer international publishing. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 1 “there should be a room for self-initiated activity” a narrative inquiry on my teaching practices hanung triyoko english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 02 salatiga, central java, indonesia hanungina@yahoo.co.id abstract this paper is my endeavour to shorten the gap between the realities in my own teaching practices and those practices presented in books and research reports as effective english teaching. in this paper, through narrative inquiry method of writing, i will refer to my experiences to show my way of knowing as well as my way of writing the specific contexts of my teaching of english. here and then, i may show my subjectivity upon certain issues in the english teaching-learning process but i do this to enable myself go deeper to my personal values. nonetheless, for the betterment of my classroom practices specifically and the teaching of english for islamic studies in indonesia, in general, my inquiry on my own professional practices and the insights on how i should see and make some changes in my teaching as specified by the aaa perspective discussed in details will become a very good start. keywords: self-initiated activity, narrative inquiry, aaa perspective abstrak tulisan ini adalah upaya saya untuk memperkecil kesenjangan antara kenyataan di praktek mengajar saya sendiri dengan praktek yang ada di buku dan laporan penelitian seperti mengajar bahasa inggris secara efektif. saya akan merujuk ke pengalamanku untuk memperlihatkan cara saya mengetahui dan juga cara saya menulis konteks khusus dari pengajaran bahasa inggrisku. di sini dan selanjutnya, saya mungkin menunjukkan subyektivitasku terhadap masalah tertentu terhadap proses belajar mengajar bahasa inggris tapi saya melakukannya untuk memudahkan saya sendiri mendalami nilai-nilai kepribadian saya. meskipun demikian, demi kebaikan praktek kelas mengajar saya khususnya, dan untuk pengajaran bahasa inggris untuk perguruan mailto:hanungina@yahoo.co.id register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 2 tinggi islam di indonesia, secra umum, pertanyaan saya terhadap praktek profesi saya sendiri dan wawasan tentang bagaimana saya harus melihat dan membuat perubahan di dalam pengajaran saya yang telah dikemukakan oleh pandangan aaa yang akan dijelaskan secara rinci, akan menjadi permulaan yang bagus. kata kunci: kegiatan inisiasi diri, pertanyaan narasi, perspektif aaa introduction as a non-native english teachers (nnet) involved in the teaching of english as a foreign language for islamic studies in schools in indonesia, i find myself perplexed with the rapid changing of the pedagogical as well the content knowledge of english teaching. english for islamic studies is part of the teaching of english for specific purposes in the context of english curriculum at the islamic university in indonesia. the main goals of the curriculum are to upgrade students‟ skills in understanding discourses in english on any issues related to islam and in using english to convey the teaching of islam and to represent their being moslem. this paper however will not elaborate on the content of curriculum, rather on the approach, methods, problems and solutions resulted from the writer's reflection on his own teaching practices. according to vally (1997: 70) teachers can “look back on events, make judgements about them, and alter their teaching behaviours in light of craft, research, and ethical knowledge” in order to improve his or her own teaching. this paper is my endeavour to shorten the gap between the realities in my own teaching practices and those practices presented in books and research reports as effective english teaching. instead of looking outside to the recommended practices in other classrooms and to characteristics of effective teaching performed by other teachers, i will start by looking inside register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 3 of me and of my own classroom to ensure that i have the full explanation to the dynamic of my professional practices. farrel, thomas r.c. (2008: 4) says “reflective practice occurs when teachers consciously take on the role of a reflective practitioner, subject their own beliefs about teaching and learning to critical analysis, take full responsibility for their actions in the classroom, and continue to improve their teaching practice”. cadman (2008), hewson (2007), tripp (1998), and reed-danahey (1997) have ascertained in some extent that it is necessary for teachers to reflect on their own practices and to adopt narrative inquiry in order to finds solutions to their context-specific problems. discussion narrative inquiry according to reed-danahey (1997: 9), the teacher doing the narrative methodology does not present his/her perceptions and feelings in isolation but locate them in the contexts. in this paper, i will refer to my experiences to show my way of knowing as well as my way of writing the specific contexts of my teaching of english. this kind of writing is called by alvermann (2000 in hewson, 2007: i) as narrative inquiry. here and then, i may show my subjectivity upon certain issues in the english teaching-learning process but i do this to enable myself go deeper to my personal values. indeed, subjectivity is the benefit of doing the narrative inquiry and is not separable from the realities of being a researcher (hewson, 2007: 31). furthermore, according to cadmann (2008: 30) through analysing my own reflections upon my own contexts, i can give another example of process taken by an english teacher to personalize the continuous demand of professional development. since i find a book written by leo van lier „interaction in the language curriculum; awareness, autonomy, and authenticity’ as an appropriate register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 4 framework to look into my current teaching contexts, i use lier‟s theoretical perspective and refer to many of his conceptions of language learning to illustrate how i may make changes to my professional practices. i taught english the way i learnt it i was convinced by what my parent said about the advantages of being able to master english when i knew that my first english teacher was a very respectable rich woman. since then, i was highly motivated to learn english. for many years, the most dominant motivation for indonesian students to learn english was to obtain well-paid job (bradford, 2007: 113). the very first thing i could show to other that i was good in english was to master all the rules of english structures. i learnt english structures from pieces to pieces, from simple to complex structures. generally, i was exposed to reading texts or dialogues in written form where particular structures of english used and then i should answer some reading comprehension questions that forced me to exercise my translation skills and to write few paragraphs on some topics recommended that also required me to utilize the introduced structures. learning english this way, i developed gradually my reading and my writing skills so when i was at university, i had developed the skills to appreciate and translate english classic novels, poems, and drama into bahasa, my mother tongue. my listening and speaking skills were developed outside schools. i loved paying attention to the lyrics of many western songs as well as to listen to english radio broadcasting. i also joined an english course run by a private for profit institution that facilitated me to develop my speaking ability through occasionally involved in conversations with native speakers assigned in the institution and very often with my peers who were also motivated to use their english. students‟ involvement in register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 5 english course outside school, according to dubin and olsthain (1986: 30), can be one indicator of a failure in the teaching english at schools. i often taught more than six classes every semester since i was first appointed as a teaching staff at salatiga state institute for islamic studies (stain salatiga), indonesia. i was too busy ensuring that i had covered up all the prescribed curriculum and materials of each subject i taught. the easiest way for me to look into my teaching performance was to look at my students‟ achievement, resulted from summative assessment in the form of tests in the middle and the end of semester. thank to the opportunity i have to pursue a higher study in australia that now i have been off from any teaching routines for two years. only now, i can see quite clearly that i taught my student english the way i learnt it. the prescribed curriculum to teach english for islamic studies in my university used framework similar to the curriculum framework of my school age english, in which the speaking and listening were given very little emphasise. the belief that students learnt english as a means to involve in global academic discourse dominated by english speaking countries was still dominant that the few authoritative people designing the curriculum focused on developing students reading and writing skills. the textbook english for islamic studies written by djamaludin darwis recommended as the main source provided many reading passages about the teaching of islam and the social and historical aspect of moslem communities in indonesia and all those reading were there to introduce students to certain discrete english structures. the author sequenced each chapter of the book in this order: reading passages, reading comprehension questions, language focus, glossary, and writing task. the way i learnt english, the prescribed curriculum and the recommended textbook, and the excessive workload had altogether led me to teach english the way i learnt it. my classroom activities register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 6 forced students to master english structures and i provided very little opportunity for them to use their english in real communication. the contexts of my teaching differ to the contexts of teaching when i learnt english. even though english is still considered as foreign language taught in schools, students nowadays have more opportunities to use their english outside schools. there are more english-speaking expatriates and tourists in indonesia and more access to internet where students may involve in authentic communication with english users. through the internet, students get many chances to use their english to communicate with any people, not necessarily native speakers, in any part of the world. furthermore, my students may be motivated to learn english for enormous reasons different to mine described above. to initiate some changes to my teaching practices i certainly need to consider influential factors in teaching and learning such as context, curriculum and materials, students’ treats, and assessment. the following section is how i look at those factors by using the lier‟s theoretical perspective of language teaching and learning. the aaa curriculum as a framework to look upon my teaching contexts and to initiate some changes in my teaching practices. in his book „interaction in the language curriculum; awareness, autonomy, and authenticity’, leo van lier builds his arguments on the english teaching-learning process upon the admition that there are always some constraints in the teachinglearning setting but there are also some sources and that sometimes actions intended to help can turn to control students‟ learning (1996: 7-8). teachers are required to distinguish between constraints inseparable to the teaching-learning setting or the intrinsic constraints and those perceived to be constraints due to enforcement of register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 7 certain system adopted by the institution or the artificial constraints (lier, 1996: 8). to use my teaching contexts as an example, i have to know whether the prescribed curriculum, the recommended textbook, and the excessive workload are parts of the intrinsic or the artificial constraints. when i am sure that these constraints are artificial then i can appropriately cope with them. teachers also need to be aware of the implications of activities in the classrooms in order to avoid misfit between the purposes and the procedures to achieve them. in my case, students‟ activities built around the unauthentic texts that contain chunks of english carefully chosen to help them learn english may control students‟ creativity and eventually slow down the pace of their learning. bernaus and gardner (2008: 388) assert that class anxiety increases and students motivation intensity decrease when the teacher is perceived as controlling. curriculum and syllabus curriculum is a journey to particular destination and syllabus is a guide to that destination. curriculum may be more or less clearly described but syllabus must be sensitive to constraints and sources specific to the institution where learning takes place (lier, 1996: 21). according to lier (1996: 29), curriculum should be open to teachers‟ dimension of practices rather than that of the higher authority. therefore, curriculum can also be seen as the teachers‟ theory of practice to transform their professionalism from an authority-based into a research-based one. unless i see myself as having the choices to modify the prescribed curriculum in my university, my endeavour to reflect on my own teaching practices will not be off any value to my professionalism. the obvious problem for me implementing the prescribed curriculum is that very often i feel i do not own the curriculum, a feeling commonly shared by teachers in this situation (el-okda, 2005: 36). register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 8 to follow blatantly all sequences of my classroom activities as prescribed in the textbook also means to ignore the function of syllabus in lier‟s perspective because syllabus, like a map, does not control the distance and the speed of someone‟s journey but to provide options and panoramas to be explored (lier, 1996: 20-22). the learning tasks planned in the syllabus shall promote the self-actualization of every learner and that the performance required doing the task is adjustable to local constraints and sources (lier, 1996: 206). lier (1996: 208) suggests that textbook is only one strand among many other strands in the course. using lier‟s conceptions on the curriculum and the syllabus, the opportunity to adjust my classroom activities on the spot is always open since one of the characteristics of a good syllabus is its ability to balance between planned and improvised elements, and between stability and variety (lier, 1996: 204). hence, i can also let my students bring their own materials or choose their own preferred learning activities while at the same time direct them to the purposes of their learning. besides, if we see learning materials as text, the designing of text is always shifting, it involves interactional process, and is being determined by the context (derewianka, 2003: 141). i shall not worry to provide similar materials, in kind and amount, to every class i teach, since students will also play more roles in the realization of the syllabus. consequently, i have to vary the assessment in order to address the specificity of each class. in the next paragraphs to follow, i will discuss why and how i may adopt lier‟s conception on assessment in language learning. awareness, autonomy, and authenticity awareness, autonomy, and authenticity in language learning must be seen as interconnected, in which each necessitates and influences the present of other. in order to learn a language, one must be in the state of awareness or register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 9 the condition when s/he is being aware that her or his experience to new learning is connected to her or his existing knowledge (lier, 1996: 12). to explain this conception of awareness simply, let me use an anecdote. i liked singing a japanese song „kokoronotomo’ but i could not say i was involved in any activities of learning japanese language. i might learn something else from my singing of that song but i might not learn at all about japanese language. this situation changed though when i met a friend from japan and started talking about the song and so i learnt little japanese from that song. autonomy means the present of choices and the acceptance of responsibilities for every language learner to develop their own sense of direction in learning language (lier, 1996: 19). smith argues that making students autonomous in the learning is a cross-culturally valid pedagogical goal (2008: 396). i learnt very little thing about the japanese language even though i liked singing „kokoronotomo’ because i did not have sense of direction of what i might do next with my japanese. authenticity in lier‟s perspective goes beyond the discussion of authentic materials and authentic tasks. lier (1996: 128) says authenticity is the result of validation of classroom events and language by students and teacher and the endorsement of the relevance of things said and done, and of the ways in which they are said and done. authenticity is more about action performed in class and cannot automatically be aroused from authentic materials therefore lier (1996: 136) questions the uncritical preference upon authentic materials than materials audience-designed for classroom learners. an authentic action is intrinsically motivated and it is the realization of free choices and the expression of what a person feels and believes (lier, 1996: 13). helping students create their own vision of ideal l2 learners can be the first step to foster students intrinsic motivation (dornyei, 2009: 33). one advantage of teaching english for islamic studies to moslem students is register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 10 offcourse the absence of any disconformities regarding the content of the textbook with what my students believe as moslem. however, obliging students do all the planned learning tasks in the textbook will diminish the potential of students taking authentic action. taking the aaa perspective above into considerations, the best thing that a teacher may do is to encourage and guide learning since a teacher can never cause or force learning (lier, 1996: 12). specific to language learning, lier (1996: 35) advices teachers lay emphasis on facilitating access to language, knowledge, and skill, than to simplify tasks, in order to assist students‟ learning. when rich variety of exposure to language is provided, the awareness, autonomy, and authenticity perspective will likely assist students learning. nevertheless, teachers cannot just bring to the classroom all language resources since the language exposed to students is usable when the learner can make sense of it, is receptive to it and makes an effort to process it (lier, 1996: 45). the role of the teachers in this sense is like providing temporary support in vigotsky‟s concept of zone of proximal development (zpd). however, teachers should maintain that the help from the teacher as the more competent other does not lead to external control since internal control of the learner is the prerequisite of the aaa perspective of language learning (lier, 1996: 117). interaction and conversation lier (1996: 5) emphasizes on the quality of interaction in the language learning as to ensure that no forms of interactions lead to superficial communication or even pseudo communication. for lier, interaction is the most visible manifestation of learning processes at work, in the classroom, although inner speech may well be equally crucial (lier, 1996: 35). the conception of interaction in lier‟s perspective necessitates the present of register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 11 conversation between two people or between a person and his or her inner self, in case of inner speech. furthermore, lier (1996: 54) says conversation as part of social interaction is the basic environment for the processing of language. to depend heavily on the sequences of activities, or the unit of analysis presented in the handbooks, especially when the handbook provides little chances for students to involve in social interaction among them or to have conversations between them means to deny students the basic environment for language learning. i can see now that my frequent involvement in conversations when i joined english course outside schools really compensated the lack of interactions in my schools. this is probably one of the reasons that quite a few students in my classrooms have the confidence to speak in english even though they have sufficient skills to read and write in english. if i had known that students themselves could organize the conversations and they did not have to stick to the planned activities in the textbook, i would have provided more peer conversations in my classrooms. besides, conversation needs to be locally assembled rather than to be planned since it has its own dynamic (lier, 1996: 168). assessment and motivation assessment correlates in various degrees to student motivation in learning either positively or negatively. the effects of assessment may impinge on more stakeholders, rather than just our students and may impose in students learning longer than what teachers may expect. lier (1996: 16) provides some guidance for teachers to reduce the unexpected effects of doing assessment. teacher must prioritize: 1. personal considerations upon political and institutional ones 2. self-knowledge upon evaluation by others register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 12 3. intrinsic upon extrinsic motivation 4. self-assessment upon institutional assessment looking back to what i had done in assessing my students learning, none of the above priorities was present. i kept trying to teach by the textbook and assessed my students‟ achievement based on similar type and items of tests. i did not know that all my students might achieve more, even to their highest potential, if i never assigned similar type and items of test and i involved students in the assessment process instead, from the very beginning. lier (1996: 119) argues that by letting students involved in the assessment process, students will feel that any feedbacks as the results of the assessment make sense because they belong to the process. bureaucratic demands and practices, external controls in the form of tests and grades may motivate students in learning, in the sense that students will work hard to achieve the standards and to feel success when they make it, but according to lier (1996: 121), this is just „surrogate motivation‟ and it will hinder authenticity. this is in accordance to mcdonough‟s claim that learners developing effective motivational thinking maximize their own resources than count on externally imposed structures and strategy (mcdonough, 2007: 369). a common problem faced by teachers is the perceived conflict between fulfilling their personal security and satisfying pedagogical needs of students (pachler, barnes, & field, 2009: 44). the four prioritises above, i think, can balance both teacher‟s and students‟ need therefore, help teachers solve this problem. principles to follow one of the goals listed in the prescribed curriculum in teaching english for islamic studies is to develop moslem speakers and writers who will take advantages of their mastery of english to represent the noble virtues register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 13 of islam and the identity of indonesian moslem. the pedagogical practices facilitating the achievement of this goal allow students to become themselves through the language they are learning (ushioda, 2009: 223). this particular goal can also be an example of what jenkins (2006:174) argues as prioritizing intelligibility than conformity in becoming successful english users because students will become themselves as the representations of moslem community rather then immerge in new cultural identities. furthermore, at the present teachers face a challenge to shift their teaching from system-based and form-based to language use and meaning orientation (byrnes, 2002: 420). in doing this shift, freeman and freeman (1998: 80) suggest teachers embed the linguistics elements of communication in a rich non-linguistics context. rather than starting with introducing a discrete language form, i can describe particular situation where students will use their english to communicate something about them as moslem. in setting the scene for students to use their english in real communication, i may use students l1 to make sure that students can connect their new learning with their existing knowledge. i may also use the downward technique, in which teachers establish what students might already know about the topic and build their comprehension on the text from that point onward (mangubhai, 2005: 205). to use lier‟s aaa perspective in language teaching and learning, i suggest that this can be achieved only if students are treated as having their own social and historical dynamics and every student is treated as individual. addressing feeling of individual in any classrooms is as important as addressing the cognitive aspects of the individuals (ellis, 2008: 22). anxiety in language learning will decrease too when students feel comfortable to discuss about themselves and their feeling (underwood, 1984: 17). i am aware now that my students have more variety in terms of motivations, register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 14 resources, strategies, tools, and purposes that influence their learning of english. below are some principles that i will follow to initiate changes in my teaching practices: 1. to reflect more in order to create a room for self-initiated activity that balance the intrinsic and extrinsic constraints and resources. 2. to place curriculum as a journey and syllabus as a map, not an end in itself, therefore i can deal with the prescribed curriculum and syllabus as describing destinations and directions so that my students and i always have choices regarding the ways and the speed of our learning journey. 3. to use textbook as one among many resources available to learn english and to allow students have their own learning materials to ensure the present of awareness, autonomy, and authenticity in my classrooms. 4. to expose students to variety of language forms and usage, not merely focus on structures, and to play role as a more competent other to let students pick what they need but at the same time place them on their zpd. 5. to practice assessment that is sensitive to students‟ need of selfactualization, self-determination, personal investment, and optimal experience. 6. to promote students‟ internal control of their learning and to avoid fake motivations. conclusion there are offcourse some practical things to elaborate further on how i can actually adopt the aaa perspective of language teaching learning to my classrooms of english for islamic studies in indonesia, which education system is characterised by its hierarchical decision making process. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 15 nonetheless, for the betterment of my classroom practices specifically and the teaching of english for islamic studies in indonesia, in general, my inquiry on my own professional practices and the insights on how i should see and make some changes in my teaching as specified by the aaa perspective discussed above, i am sure, will become a very good start. references bernaus, m., & gardner, r. c. (2008). teacher motivation strategies, student perceptions, student motivation, and english achievement. the modern language journal, 92(3), 387-401. bradford, a. (2007). motivational orientations in under-researched fll contexts: findings from indonesia. relc journal, 38(3), 302-323. byrnes, h. (2002). the role of task and task-based assessment in a contentoriented collegiate foreign language curriculum. english language testing journal, 19(4), 419-437. cadman, k. (2008). from correcting to connecting: a personal story of changing priorities in teaching english as an additional language. tesol in context, 17(2), 29-37. derewianka, b. (2003). trends and issues in genre-base approach. relc journal, 34(2), 133-154. dornyei, z. (2009). the l2 motivational self system. in z. dornyei & e. ushioda (eds.), motivation, language identity and the l2 self (pp. 942). bristol: multilingual matters. dubin, f., & olshtain, e. (1986). course design: developing program and materials for language learning. cambridge: cambridge university press. el-okda, m. (2005). a proposed model for efl teacher involvement in ongoing curriculum development. the asian efl journal quarterly, 7(4), 33-49. ellis, r. (2008). learner beliefs and language learning. asian efl journal quaterly, 10(4), 7-25. register, vol. 4, no. 1, june 2011 16 farrel, thomas s.c. (2008) reflective practice in the professional development of teachers of adult language learners. caela network brief. freeman, y. s., & freeman, d. e. (1998). esl/efl teaching: principles for success. portsmouth: heinemann. hewson, s. (2007). 'researchers know thyself'. critical reflection on a teacher's research journey: if i had know then... tesol in context, 16(2), 25-32. lamb, m. (2009). situating the l2 self: two indonesian school learners of english. in z. dornyei & e. ushioda (eds.), motivation, language identity and the l2 self (pp. 229-247). bristol: multilingual matters. lier, l. v. (1996). interaction in the language curriculum; awareness, autonomy, and authenticity. new york: longman group ltd. mangubhai, f. (2005). what can efl teachers learn from immersion language teaching? asian efl journal quarterly, 7(4), 203-212. mcdonough, s. (2007). motivation in elt. elt journal, 61(4), 369-371. pachler, n., barnes, a., & field, k. (2009). learning to teach modern foreign languages in the secondary school (3 ed.). new york: routledge. reed-danahey, d. e. (1997). auto/ethnography: rewriting the self and the social. oxford, uk: oxford international publisher. smith, r. (2008). learner autonomy. elt journal, 62(4), 395-398. tripp, d. (1998). critical incidents in action inquiry. in g. shacklock & j. smith (eds.), being reflexive in critical educational and social research (pp. 36-49). london: falmer. underwood, j. h. (1984). linguistics computers and the language teacher; a communicative approach massachusetts: newburry house publisher, inc. ushioda, e. (2009). a person-in-context relational view of emergent motivation, self and identity. in z. dornyei & e. ushioda (eds.), motivation, language identity and the l2 self (pp. 215-228). bristol: multilungual matters. vally, l. (1997). listening to other voices: a description of teacher reflection in the united stated. peabody journal of education, 72(1), 67-88 35 code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning diyah atiek mustikawati universitas muhammadiyah ponorogo diyah_mustikawati08@yahoo.co.id abstract this study aimed to describe a form of code switching and code mixing specific form found in the teaching and learning activities in the classroom as well as determining factors influencing events stand out that form of code switching and code mixing in question. form of this research is descriptive qualitative case study which took place in al mawaddah boarding school ponorogo. based on the analysis and discussion that has been stated in the previous chapter that the form of code mixing and code switching learning activities in al mawaddah boarding school is in between the use of either language java language, arabic, english and indonesian, on the use of insertion of words, phrases, idioms, use of nouns, adjectives, clauses, and sentences. code mixing deciding factor in the learning process include: identification of the role, the desire to explain and interpret, sourced from the original language and its variations, is sourced from a foreign language. while deciding factor in the learning process of code, includes: speakers (o1), partners speakers (o2), the presence of a third person (o3), the topic of conversation, evoke a sense of humour, and just prestige. the significance of this study is to allow readers to see the use of language in a multilingual society, especially in al mawaddah boarding school about the rules and characteristics variation in the language of teaching and learning activities in the classroom. furthermore, the results of this research will provide input to the ustadz / ustadzah and students in developing oral code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 36 communication skills and the effectiveness of teaching and learning strategies in boarding schools. keywords: multilingualism, bilingualism, mixing code and switching code. abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan wujud alih kode dan wujud campur kode tertentu yang ditemukan dalam kegiatan belajarmengajar di kelas serta faktor penentu menonjol yang mempengaruhi peristiwa wujud alih kode dan campur kode dimaksud. bentuk penelitian ini adalah deskriptif kualitatif, dengan studi kasus yang mengambil lokasi di pesantren al mawaddah kabupaten ponorogo. berdasarkan analisis dan pembahasan yang telah dikemukakan di bab sebelumnya bahwa wujud campur kode dan alih kode kegiatan pembelajaran di pp al mawaddah adalah peralihan penggunaaan bahasa baik bahasa jawa, bahasa arab, bahasa inggris, dan bahasa indonesia, pada penggunaan penyisipan kata, frasa, idiom, penggunaan kata benda, kata sifat, klausa, dan kalimat. faktor penentu campur kode dalam proses pembelajaran meliputi: identifikasi peranan, keinginan untuk menjelaskan dan menafsirkan, bersumber dari bahasa asli beserta variasinya, bersumber dari bahasa asing. sedangkan faktor penentu alih kode dalam proses pembelajaran, meliputi: penutur(o1), mitra tutur (o2), hadirnya orang ketiga (o3), topik pembicaraan, membangkitkan rasa humor, dan sekedar gengsi. signifikansi dari penelitian ini adalah memungkinkan pembaca mengetahui pemakaian bahasa dalam masyarakat multilingual, khususnya di pesantren al mawaddah tentang kaidah dan karakteristik variasi bahasa dalam kegiatan belajar-mengajar di kelas. lebih jauh, hasil penelitian ini akan menjadi bahan masukan bagi ustadz/ustadzah dan santri dalam mengembangkan keterampilan komunikasi lisan dan efektivitas strategi belajar-mengajar di lingkungan pesantren. kata kunci: multilingualisme, bilingualisme, campur kode dan alih kode diyah atiek mustikawati 37 introduction language is not something rare to hear. however, not all people understand about the understanding of the language. most people know that language is one of the communication tools used by humans to perform activities of daily living. in communicating, sometimes people do not just use one language. an interesting phenomenon is now often the case that many people make the transition (alternation) code, both of code (code switching) and code mixing (mixing code) in communicating with others. the phenomenon of code switching and code mixing can be seen either through electronic media and print media. in fact, if we examined closely, often occurrence of code switching and code mixes between speaker and partner speaker in an environment of our daily lives, either in writing or orally. the role of code switching and code mixing in the community is very important, in conjunction with the use of language variation by a person or group of people, especially in the use of language in bilingual or multilingual communities, for example in boarding school. boarding can be said is unique in relation to the use of code switching and code-mixing. boarding school is unique, because institutionally can be incorporated in the form of non-formal institutions but can also be referred to as formal education, because it has its own education program organized. in the boarding school there is no clear separation between the school and the environment. boarding schools are generally unified and organized in a systematic way so as to double as a formal school environment in the form of classes and trying to grow a certain lifestyle that make up a subculture in a general population. code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 38 boarding school as a subculture of society tent to have a certain culture and norms were used as pattern and the agreement rules in their social interactions. in terms of language contact members of the boarding school community ( students and the teacher ) many of which have the capability / control of more than one language ( indonesian, english, arabic, and local) that allows the so-called bilingualism and multilingualism with a wide variety of events, including over code and code-mixing. in the event of oral communication, community schools perform a variety of communication in different events and for the purpose as well as different interests. based on the tendency of language use at such events, researchers have tried to focus on events of teaching and learning activities in the classroom, the learning process or learning activities in select based on the consideration that variations may appear and the languages, including in this case are the events over code and code-mixing. teacher and students will try to understand the science they learned, by utilizing variations in language that is easily understood by both the ustadz and ustadzah. communication activities in the process of teaching and learning activities in modern pesantren al mawaddah always involve two or three languages. consequently, a speaker (students and teacher) sociologically cannot escape from the communication strategy, both for acceptance from the perspective of anthropology and sociology religious education. strategies that used by the speakers at the al mawaddah boarding school harness the potential variation of the language as a medium for knowledge transfer (transfer of knowlegde) covering religious science and general science. religious studies diyah atiek mustikawati 39 involving transcendental consciousness, while general science involves the rational consciousness in communication. that is, the arabic language on one side feels more acceptable in religious contexts for students or teacher at the boarding school to cultivate the field knowledge of islam is dominated by the use of the arabic language. while on the other hand, the appreciation of the english language that relate to modern science and technology was stressed. as a further consequence of contact between languages ​ ​ language that has been dominated by the language that dominated later, both because of the encouragement of academic environment and nonacademic chance of the emergence of language variations, including code switching and code-mixing (code switching and code mixing). the use of code switching and code-mixing in boarding schools al mawaddah is interesting to study. the tendency of language use, especially in the use of oral communication, both formal and informal show consistency and form a kind of specific patterns and norms. since al mawaddah boarding school was founded by kh. ahmad sahal, two foreign languages, namely english and arabic to learn and use together, either in the hostel and outside the hostel, both in formal situations (teaching and learning activities) and non-formal (care system), in addition to the local language (java) and indonesian. even the tendency of foreign language use is increasingly apparent consistency of the user after modern pesantren al mawaddah proclaimed as modern boarding international program. the core curriculum and language of instruction, namely arabic and english applied actively as the language of instruction lessons (in the process code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 40 of teaching and learning activities), everyday conversation, discussion, writing, and so forth. this study reviews the form of code-mixing and code switching found in the learning process in modern al mawaddah boarding school and what factors caused it. bilingual, contacts culture, and contacts languages the study of code switching and code-mixing is inseparable from the study of bilingual, bilingualitas, and bilingualism. someone who is bilingual is a person who has the ability to use two or more languages with others (nababan, 1984: 27). one's ability to use two or more languages may include the ability receptive (reading, listening) or productive capabilities (speaking, writing) or both. bilingualitas is the willingness or ability to bilingual (bilingual), while bilingualism is used to the habit of a person or a society in two languages (harimurti kridalaksana, 2001). bilingual can occur in a person or a group of people. a group of bilingual people are in the community when there are individuals who are bilingual. the first occurred bilingualism for their cultural contacts (in the broad sense) between the two groups of speakers of different languages. cultural contacts between the two different groups of speakers that can occur in the field of religion, trade, science and politics, the arts, economics and social activities. in such interactions will be mutual influence in the cultural field so that in one speaker will result cultural contacts. bilingualism occurs because of the cultural contact (in the broad sense) between the two groups of speakers of different diyah atiek mustikawati 41 languages. cultural contacts between the two different groups of speakers that can occur in the field of religion, trade, science and politics, the arts, economics and social activities. in its interactions will be mutual influence in the cultural field so in the speaker will occur cultural contacts. as a result of these contacts will influence either language within a bilingual or within a group of people. language contact between two different languages either in person or bilingual speakers between two different groups of speakers that will result in the interplay between the two languages, or a code switching and codemixing, including the mutual use and interference occurs. mackey, as cited by fishman (1968: 23) gives an idea of bilingualism as a symptom of substitutions. bilingualism, according to him, cannot be considered as a system. bilingualism is not a characteristic feature of the code but the disclosure; not a social nature but as individual. therefore bilingualism regarded as characteristic of language use, namely the practice of language usage alternately conducted by speakers. substitution in the use of it is motivated and determined by the situation and the conditions faced by speakers in action speak (kunjana rahardi, 2001: 14). suwito (1985: 39) has shown that where there are two or more languages are used interchangeably by the same speaker will pass the language contact. contact event that language could lead to a change in the language (language change). effect of changes in language directly it can be clearly seen the used of the lexicon of a language from the language that contact each other. these conditions can result in the existence of the symbiotic relationship between one languages code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 42 to another language at such a speech community. that is, never be possible for a speaker in the speech community that such would only use one language in a pure, unaffected by another language that already exists within the speaker. it can cause symptoms of interest in the study sociolinguistics are referred to as symptoms of code switching and code-mixing. code mixing and code switching code switching is the event of the transition from one code to another code. if a speaker originally used the code a (e.g. indonesian), then move onto the b code (e.g. java language), the use of language switching events like this are called code switching (suwito, 1985: 68). rather the code can be code switching styles, types, and variations of other languages. as disclosed myers & scotton (1993: 1-2) “code switching is the term used to identify alternations of linguistic varieties within the same conversation. the linguistic varieties participating in code switching maybe different languages, or dialects or styles of the same language”. code switching is a term alternation lingual variation in the same conversations. variations lingual which is taking part in code switching can be different languages, dialects, or a wide variety of the same language. code switching based on appel (in abdul chaer and leonie augustine, 1995: 141-142) is a "transitional phenomenon of language usage because of the changing situation". in contrast to appel that said code switching that occurred between languages, then hymes states diyah atiek mustikawati 43 over the code was not only occur between languages, but can also occur between a wide variety or styles contained in one language:" code switching has become a common term for alternates of two or more language varieties of language, or even speech styles". code switching can also be defined by switching or transfer of a form of speech from one language into another language, or from one variation to another variation, or from one dialect to another dialect (edi subroto et al, 2002: 11). code switching is conscious or deliberate generally occurs due to a certain reason and motivation. suwito (1985: 68) mentions that the event of switching code is the transition from one code to another code. so when someone speakers initially using a code and then switch to using code b, the intermediate code as it is referred to as code switching. the form of code switching in line which expressed by suwito is a restriction posed by dell hymes (1975 : 103 ) (in rahardi kunjana, 2001: 20), that the code switching is a general term used to mention the alternation use of two or more languages, some variation from one language, or even some styles of a variety. he also referred to what he called intern code switching (internal code switching), which happened between regional languages in a national language areas, inter-regional dialects in one language, or between several styles and styles that are present in a dialect. as is the external switching code (external code switching) is a language transition that occurs between the base language (base language) with a foreign language. code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 44 supomo poedjosoedarmo (1978: 46) explains that someone is often replaced the code language when conversing. its substitution can be realized or even possibly not realized by the speakers. symptoms of this kind of code arises because of the language component are manifold. furthermore, he also mentioned the term code switching transient (temporary code switching), namely the change of code language used by a speaker whose for a moment or temporary. in addition, he also mentions the permanent code switching (permanent switching code). said that because the language switching that occurs takes place permanently, although in fact it is not easy to do. rather latter code switching is usually associated also with an attitude shift the relationship between speaker and opponents said in a society. the cause of code switching declared by appel, hubers, and meijer that there is a close relationship between the form of the language used and the situations in which the language is used (1976: 99) (in edi subroto et al, 2002: 14). on the one hand the situation affect the form of the language used, in terms of other language users choose a form of language that fits the situation. when the situation changed language use, the form of the language used is also changing. thus, the situation of language usage greatly affected the transfer of the code. suwito (1985: 72-73) states that the language of code is an event caused by factors outside of language, especially the factors that are socio situational. several factors are usually the cause of the code switching as follows. 1) speakers (o1) diyah atiek mustikawati 45 the speaker sometimes consciously trying to switch to code against an opponent he said because there was intent. for example, if an employee is facing his boss in the office (in a formal situation), they should speak indonesian. but in reality it is not. 2) partner speakers (o2) each speaker in general is looking to the language used by the partner he said. in a multilingual society a speaker may have switched the code to customize the hearer faces. in this case the hearer can be divided into two groups, namely: (a) o2 the same linguistic background with speakers, and (b) o2 the different linguistic backgrounds with speakers. thus the hearer role is important in the event of code. 3) the third speaker presence two people from the same ethnic group are generally interacted with the language of their ethnic group. but when a third person is present in the discussions, and have a different language background, usually two people who first turning the code into a language that is controlled by a third person. this was done to neutralize the situation and at the same time respecting the presence of a third person. 4) the subject of conversation (topic) the subject is a dominant factor in determining the switching code. the subject is divided into two, the subject of formal and informal. the talking points also play an important role occurrence of switching code, because usually the speaker code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 46 tends to express desires, ideas, and his opinions are based principal ongoing talks (formal or informal) 5) to generate a sense of humour switching code often used by teachers, leaders meeting, jokers to evoke a sense of humor. this switching code is switching variant, switching style, or switching speaking style. 6) for prestige most speakers there are switching codes just for prestige. this occurs when both factors of the situation, the speaker, topic, and factors other socio-situational actually not required to switching codes. speakers tend to switching code to be wilderness by the hearer is more commanding and honorable. thus, the six factors that cause over the switching code are essential in assessing the control of the code, because it focuses on the six factors that will shape the language used by the speaker and the situation faced by the speaker and hearer. a study of code switching is empirical, is necessary to identify changes in a language or a language or code to other code based on the specific causative factors. the switching code can be seen from the element word, phrase or group of words, greeting words used, sentence intonation, and even certain forms of speech. (edi subroto et al, 2002: 14). code mixing mixing code is the use of language units from one language to another to expand the style or variety of languages, including the use of words, clauses, idioms, greetings and so forth (harimurti diyah atiek mustikawati 47 kridalaksana, 2001). an example, when referring to the mixing in communication developed by a bilingual or multilingual speakers, it involves the use of language elements in an utterance language x y, there will be a code-mixing events. if speakers choose between language x and language y in the same speech it will caused the mixing code. these elements can be lexical, syntactic or semantic. talking about the concept of code-mixing, will close relation to the concept of interference, they are deviations from the norm in any language due to the closeness between the two languages. however, mixing (mixing) it was not an interference event, however, the expression of a specific strategy for bilingual speakers (hammers hablanc f.h. & m, 1986: 36) according to grosjean, (in hamers 1986: 35) bilingual speakers use the model of a bilingual with bilingual speech of others who share the language and with whom they can mix the language (code switching, code-mixing and borrowing). so, code-mixing is produced by a bilingual speaker or in a bilingual society. according to swain & wesche et, al., cited by hamers (1986: 36) a majority of mixing code is lexical, with nouns as words that are most often replaced. many mixing a lexical reduplication or spontaneous translation when the translation is equivalent to that associated with synonyms. translation spontaneous it could indicate that the speaker is aware of the mixing is done carelessly as a communication strategy, and when the situation allows, acting as translator. suwito (1985: 75) describes this aspect of interdependence (language dependency) in a multilingual society is the occurrence of code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 48 code-mixing. if the code switching function within the context and relevance of the situation are the traits of dependency, then in codemixing traits characterized by dependence of the reciprocal relationship between the roles and functions of language. mixed code is happen without a clear motivation and clear causal factors as well. mixed codes generally occur in a relaxed atmosphere or occur because of habit. causes of the occurrence of mixed code according suwito (1985: 77), behind the two types of codemixing are (1) background on attitudes, (2) linguistic background. both are interdependent and often overlap. on that basis, can be identified reasons for the mixed code, namely: (1) identification of the role, (2) identification of the variance, and (3) the desire to explain and interpret. mixed into the code will appear for instance when a speaker to insert elements of regional languages ​ ​ in the national language (in this case indonesian), elements of dialects into regional languages. the language event may also indicate the identification of a particular role in the identification of specific registers or desire and certain interpretation. in other words, code-mixing that occurs because of the interrelationship between the role of speaker, language form and language function. the speaker who tend to prefer forms of interference specific code to support specific functions have a certain social background. mixed code in maximum condition is the convergence of language (linguistic convergence) whose elements from several diyah atiek mustikawati 49 languages, each of which has let its functions and support functions of language inserted. these elements can be divided into two, namely: (1) derived from the native language along with its variations, and (2) sourced from a foreign language. the first can be called mixed code into the (inner code mixing), the second one can be called a codemixing to the outside (outer code mixing) (suwito, 1985: 76). the form of code-mixing judging from the lingual form, part of a language derived from other languages can be a word, but it can also be a phrase or units of language larger. form of code-mixing can be distinguished based on linguistic elements involved (suwito, 1985: 79), namely: 1) the word element inserted.  antum boleh percaya boleh tidak, you boleh percaya boleh tidak, sampeyan boleh percaya boleh tidak: (‘anda boleh percaya atau tidak’) 2) the phrase inserted.  nah karena saya kadung apik sama dia, ya takteken: (‘nah karena saya sudah terlanjur baik dengan dia, ya saya tanda tangani) 3) the bastar form inserted.  banyak klap malam yang harus ditutup. 4) the repetition of words inserted  saya sih bolah-boleh saja, asal dia tidak tonya-tanya lagi. 5) the expression or idiom that is inserted  yah apa boleh buat, better late than never. code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 50 (‘yah apa boleh buat, lebih baik terlambat daripada tidak sama sekali’) 6) the clauses that is inserted  pemimpin yang bijaksana akan selalu bertindak ing ngarsa sung tuladha, ing madya mangun karsa, tut wuri handayani. ‘ (di depan memberi teladan, di tengah memberi semangat, di belakang mengawasi). in understanding code-mixing, researchers must identify the speaker basically speak the native language (base language), then the language possessed elements of other languages. mixed code can be regarded as part of the variation of a particular language speaker consciously and fundamentally by using elements of other languages ​ ​ that do as well as the communication strategy in order to explain or translate. thus the choice of words in the form of code-mixing was received by the audience. part languages derived from other languages that can be words, but can also be a phrase or units of language larger. research methodology this research is a qualitative descriptive study, while the research strategy using a case study approach rooted, because the problems and the focus of research has been determined in the proposal before the researchers conducting the study. the location of this research is "al mawaddah modern boarding school". the boarding school has a tendency to open towards positive values progress of the times and has participated in shaping the values of life in society, particularly with respect to the use of foreign languages (arabic and english). the location was diyah atiek mustikawati 51 chosen because of the community is in a social and educational institution that has a characteristics and motivation of the public image of indonesia in the rural areas. in particular, the location of this study was mts and ma in class iv and v in the process of teaching and learning activities carried out by students and teachers, in the event of oral communication. the type of learning activities focused on the initial activities, the core and the end of formal learning in certain subjects. this study will be conducted from february through december 2014. the target in this research is focused on the students and the teacher. taking into account the effectiveness of data mining, in this study were used as informants about 30 people. this restriction is because the focus of the research is in the class. so, the researchers tried to find the informant who adequately represent and reliable in limited quantities. object of study is the main focus of this research are: first, a form of code switching in teaching and learning activities focused on a form of code switching language (base language) indonesian. rather code from indonesian to english, arabic, and region (java) that occurs in the event of an oral communication. second, a form of mixing code in teaching and learning activities in the classroom. third, the determinant factors that will affect the use of code switching and code-mixing in the teaching and learning activities in the classroom which is focused on non lingual factors. the data in the study were classified into two kinds, namely (1) the primary data and (2) secondary data. primary data was intended as data obtained from various events or scenes that are said in boarding schools "al mawaddah", related to the teaching and learning code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 52 activities in the classroom which performed by students and the teacher. as is as secondary data is data obtained from interviews and a statement informant about everything related to the problem form of code switching and code-mixing in the teaching and learning activities in the classroom. data collection method used is a cakap method and simak methods. in a conversation method, widely used fishing techniques as basic technique and recording technique that ensue. refer to the method used in many of tapping techniques as basic technique, and technical notes and recording technique as the technique continuation (sudaryanto: 2001: 133-140). to obtain data on a form of code switching and code-mixing, simak method was used, which access data by listening to the use of language in the teaching-learning process in the classroom used by a religious teacher and students in the learning process. this technique was applied in the technical notes, see, and recording technique. participation of researchers in obtaining oral communication data, in this case can be active, that is by start the conversations, and be passive, that is by listening to the discussions. in-depth interviews (in -depth interviews) are used by researchers to find data on the determinants that affect prominent event code switching and codemixing in the process of teaching and learning in the classroom in "al mawaddah" boarding school. interviews conducted after the researchers obtained data on a form of code switching and codemixing uttered by the informant in question. so, the interview material adapted to code uttered by the informant. diyah atiek mustikawati 53 over the researchers conducted interviews with informants, in addition to recording that need, the researchers also noted the matters raised by the informant, because this way helpif the recording equipment as well as accelerate the process disturbed transcripts made ​ ​ after the interview is completed . once the data is deemed sufficient, the researchers quickly move into the computer and classified (categorization) by type and group in the data card. observations are not conducted by researchers because of the data that it is difficult for researchers to get it, because consideration of local norms and regulations, researchers using research assistants, namely ustadzah who previously had been trained and given sufficient insight about the main focus of research and methods of obtaining the necessary data. in this study, we will use two triangulation, namely triangulation methodology and data sources. first, triangulation method is done by collecting similar data but using the techniques or different methods of data collection. here the emphasis is on the use of different data collection methods, and even more clearly the effort leads to the same data source to test the stability of his informant. in this case the researchers used data collection methods questioner then conducted in-depth interviews on the same informant, and the results were tested with similar data collection using observation techniques. second, the triangulation of data sources used to clarify the questionable data, researchers conducted a triangulation with different sources. in this study, the data analysis is done by using an interactive model (miles & huberman, 1984). the three components of the code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 54 analysis in the analysis models are data reduction, data presentation and conclusion or verification during the data collection process takes place. methods of data analysis conducted on the determinants of prominent influence the events of code switching and code-mixing is by using padan method (sudaryanto, 2001: 13), as a tool determinants are beyond language form sociological context surrounding the events code switching and code mixing the teaching-learning process in al mawaddah boarding school. in the process of data reduction is accompanied by the identification, coding and categorization, researchers try to compare or classify the data that appears based on the shape, type, circumstances and determinants that affect the use of code switching and code-mixing is relevant. furthermore, the activity data presentation, information that is composed will give the possibility of drawing conclusions and taking action. in drawing conclusions, the final conclusions are not considered as data collection ends, but is part of the activities of the configuration intact. the conclusions also verified during the study. the data in this study also uses contextual approach, in particular by using the concept of speech as a base component design. said component concept in question is presented by dell hymes (s p e a k i n g). it was intended to find answers to the determinants that influence the events of code switching and code-mixing which is more focused on nonlinguistic factors. diyah atiek mustikawati 55 discussion & research finding the findings of the subject in this study stated that there are eight types of the use of language variation which is a form of codemixing when communicating in the learning process in al mawaddah boarding school are mixed code that is not only involves the use of one or two languages ​ ​ only, but the use of foreign languages ​ ​ such as arabic and english in the learning process. as for the form of mixed code boarding school in the learning process is described as follows: mixed code between indonesian with english the form of code-mixing encountered in the use of indonesian into english as the end of learning in class. at the time this data was taken by ustadzah by announcing their muhadharah activities to be held. in this first speech, ustadzah initially use the indonesian language but leave switch to using english words are concerned, joke. it can be listened to in the following speech: ustadzah : dalam mukadharah kamu seharusnya concern, walaupun anak-anak sekarang ini lebih banyak melakukan jokenya. the quotation of speech above showed that a ustadzah want to emphasize to all female students who followed muhadharah must be seriously and reduce joking when following muhadharah activities. furthermore, the speech below showed the code mixing that also occurs marked by the use of phrase in conversation between code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 56 ustadzah and female students in teaching learning process. ustadzah : pak amin rais itu adalah the first man di indonesia yang melakukan the brave of reform sebelum orang-orang lain melakukannya. female student : saya setuju, ustadzah. pada beliau itu (amin rais) saya mau positive thinking saja. the speech above showed the occurrence of the use of phrase infixation in the word ‘the first man’, ‘the brave of reform’, and ‘positive thinking’. it meant that the figure of amin rais was the first man who was brave to encourage, to do reformation for deposing new order government from its leadership. a female student then expressed her opinion about her agreement with ustadzah statement by saying that she agree and want to be ‘positive thingking’ or assume good faith on what has been done by mr. amin rais. then in this following speech, code mixing also occurs in the use of idioms, this happens at the end of lessons. ustadzah : perlu saya umumkan, bahwa kelas ini menurut catatan language centre banyak santri yang came late dalam setiap acara mukhadhoroh. untuk itu mohon diperhatikan dan tidak diulang lagi. kelas ini harus ada ketua yang bisa the right man and the right place dalam mukhadloroh, jadi tidak asal tunjuk. diyah atiek mustikawati 57 the use of idioms above were the idioms that have been become the words that are familiar for the female students, e.g. ‘language centre’, ‘came late’, ‘the right man in the right place’. therefore, when a ustadzah expressed these idioms the listeners or female students can follow and understand about ustadzah said. furthermore, code mixing also happened in the end of lessons when ustadzah would end and close the meeting at that time. code mixing of the use of english into indonesian code mixing of the use of english into indonesian encountered when ustadzah would close or end the teaching and learning process in class. in that speech, ustadzah used english clauses, and then switched to indonesian clause. it was intended for all female students in class one could understand what ustadzah said. ustadzah : ok. any question? in order to be clear my explanation, anda bisa membacanya lagi dan merumuskan tentang definisi yang ada dalam buku tersebut. i think time is up. see you. in the speech above, there were clauses of ‘ok’, ‘any question’, ‘in order to be clear my explanation, ‘i think time is up’, ‘see you’. basically, the use of these clauses aimed to provide information for female students, when that clauses were spoken, then the learning process would end soon and just waited for some questions about the topic at that time, if there were any questions from the female students. in addition, it was beneficial for the female students as the habbit of code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 58 using english as the communication tool from the beginning to the end of teaching and learning process. code mixing between arabic and english a form of code mixing in this following speech is the transition from arabic into the usage of english words. it can be seen in the following data : female student : ya, fi al-haqiqoh lahu handphone, lakin hp li la yastathi’, qod intahay al-waqt hatt a tarih sab’a ‘asyar, walam asytarii voucher (ya, sebenarnya ia punya telpon genggam, tapi hp punyaku tidak bisa dipakai, masa pakainya sudah habis sampai tanggal tujuh belas, dan saya belum membeli voucher) the word ‘handphone’, ‘voucher’ in the above speech are basically the words from english. but, these words have been popular and familiar as uptake language in indonesian speech, then when the words used or the speaker suddenly switched to using those words, the listener will have no difficulties for understanding the meaning of speech. in addition, the form of code mixing from arabic into english also occurs in this following speech: female student : “........ustadzah repeat......” the quotation of speech above was encountered in the collaboration activity of teaching and learning process when a female diyah atiek mustikawati 59 student asked to ustadzah for repeating what has been said. this is done because at that moment, the listener not so understanding towards the material that has been delivered. code mixing from english into arabic these speech is taken around the end of teaching learning process, when a ustadzah before closing the learning activities at that day giving reflection and conclusion for what has been learned before. it can be seen in the following data : ustadzah : the last, wa amma al-lughotu al-injilinziyyah as an international language, muhimmatun…wa idza ja’a adh-dhuyuf matsalan, la budd an tatakallamu biha. (terakhir, adapun bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa internasional. sangat penting, jika ada tamu misalnya anda harus berbicara dengan bahasa itu). the use of the word ‘the last’ that has meaning ‘end’, then followed by a sentence that is a conclusion from the main language that has been delivered. in those speech, the beginning of teaching and learning process, ustadzah taught using english then switched using arabic, both languages were often used by ustadzah in teaching and learning process. code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 60 code mixing from arabic into indonesian the events of code mixing in the use of arabic into indonesian were also found in some of the following speech : ustadzah : … mutanawwi’ah, macem-macem ahya : ba’din nasytariy idaam fiy kantin mubasyaroh anna : limaadza kok qolil ya attho’am? layla : kan ba’da maghrib? ahya : al waqt nahnu tadarusan… layla : dzalik tu ilaa basalia faqot in the above speech, it was found the use of the word macem, kantin, kok, suffix -an, which those words are derived from indonesian vocabulary. furthermore, code mixing also found in the below speech. it can be seen in the word delapan dua, delapan tiga, when the learning process took place with the subject of arithmetic. code mixing was also happened when ustadzah who asked in arabic, while the female students answered using indonesian. ustadzah : tamrin kam? female student 1 : tamrin delapan dua tadz,… female student 2 : delapan tiga… female student 3 : delapan dua, hereinafter, the use of idiom was also found in the data below. in this speech, ustadzah asked question using arabic while the female student answered by using idiom, it was kapal selam. ustadzah : alghowaashu, assafiinatu fiy daakhili l maa’, maadza? diyah atiek mustikawati 61 female student : kapal selam… furthermore, code mixing in the learning process also encountered in the use of verbs such as mencincang, bersuci, and so on. in that speech, ustadzah asked questions using arabic but female student who did not know what was meant, then she answered by using indonesian but ustadzah previously gave a clue about what was being asked. ustadzah : maa ma’naa ufarrimu? mencin… female student : mencincang ustadzah : wa laakin tajdiid…? female student : memperbaharui, ustadzah : maa ma’naa thoharoh? female student : bersuci… the next findings were the use of adjective and noun. the speech below indicates the code mixing but it was in adjective such as the word : alyadu (hand), yumna (right), yusro (left), al ashoobi’a (fingers), al wustho (middle finger), jadidun (new), and, and shoghirotun (small). here are the snippets of the speech : ustadzah : kalau ustadzah bilang alyadu… ustadzah : alyadu.. female student : tangan… ustadzah : yumnaa female student : kanan… ustadzah : yusroo... female student : kiri… code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 62 ustadzah : al ashoobi’a, female student : jari-jari ustadzah : jari tengah… jari tengah bahasa arabnya female student : alwusthoo… the next.... ustadzah : jadiidun ma’nahu female student : baruu the next.... ustadzah : maa ma’naa shogiirotan? female student : kecil… data of speech above was taken in the learning process at grade 1 madrasah tsanawiyah or as well as junior high school level. the female students at this level are not fully understood when ustadzah using intermediate language both arabic and english. code mixing from indonesia into javanese and arabic the main findings regarding code mixing in this research is the use of three languages at once in a speech such as javanese, indonesian and arabic. the speech of code mixing can be seen as follows : ustadzah 1 : kalo tidak ada bisa dipangku, maa ma’na dipangku? santriwati di taruh diatas ini… ustadzah 1 : di taruh di paha. ustadzah 1 : fatimah di kucir jadi 3 rambutnya, yang dua ditaruh kiri kanan yang satunya adalah diyah atiek mustikawati 63 naashiyatuhaa, kalau sempat, rambutnya sudah lurus enak di klabang juga boleh. the next data : ustadzah 2 : misalkan lo, kita tasyakuran punya anak, terus orang jawa membikin itu iwel – iwel ya ndak? iwel-iwel ini sebenernya dari kata wali waalidayniy, ya ndak? female student : oalaah, hahaha iwel-iwel. ustadzah 2 : tapi orang jawa tidak bisa bilang syahadatayn, akhirnya bilang apa? female student : sekaten… besides arabic words and phrases using indonesian there were some words using javanese such as iwel-iwel, sekaten, which they have not switched word in indonesia, so ustadzah still used the original words to avoid misunderstandings. code mixing from indonesian into javanese the next findings is code mixing from indonesian into javanese such as the word mbah-mbah (grandmother), dibuntel (wrapped). the data of speech can be seen below : ustadzah 1 : … kalo jaman mbah – mbah saya nggak ada sarung tangan seperti itu… ustadzah 1 : kalau di rumah sakit, kalau sudah tidak bisa ya dibuntel plastic. code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 64 code mixing from indonesian into arabic the last findings regarding the code mixing is on the use of indonesian and then switched into arabic. this happens in the exploration activity in teaching and learning process when ustadzah reviewing the previous lesson, with the aim that the female students always remember and understand about the material that has been received. the speech can be seen as follows: ustadzah 2 : seperti kemaren sudah diajarkan to, fiy ghoslil imamah dan mashul imamah iya kan? in the above speech, there were the word fi ghoslil imamah and mashul imamah, both sentences are the title of materials that have been taught in the previous meeting. code switching in the teaching and learning process a form of code switching that is found in this research is the use of four variations of code switching at the exploration activity, elaboration activity and the confirmation activity in the teaching and learning process. the description of code switching can be stated as follows: code switching from english into indonesia the first form of code switching was occurred in the exploration activity in teaching and learning process. at the beginning, ustadzah opened the learning activity using english, but when she started delivering the material then switching to use indonesian. for more details, it can be seen in this data of speech: diyah atiek mustikawati 65 ustadzah : good morning, and how are you today? female student : good morning, sir. i am fine ustadzah : so, so. ok. i would like to explain about tenses. please open your book page number 23. silahkan diperhatikan tentang definisi tenses, kemudian tulis kembali rumus yang ada dalam buku tersebut. buatlah contoh dalam bentuk simple present tense (1) code switching from indonesian into english the second form of code switching was in the elaboration activity of learning process. on that occasion, the female student asked about the functions of ‘to be’ by using indonesian, but ustadzah giving explanations by using english. it was done in order to make a habit for the female students using english during learning process, when at that time the subject are being delivered was english. for more details can be seen in the following data: female student : ustadzah, tolong dijelaskan kembali mengenai fungsi to be ustadzah : ok. thanks. actually you can open your book page 25. to be it means function as, ‘help’… to help sentence in order to stand and have meaning. so, to be is very important in sentence…… for example …..(2) code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 66 code switching from english into arabic the third was a form of code switching from english into arabic. it was found in the confirmation activity of learning process. at that time, previously ustadzah also gave the conclusion about the material. her speech can be seen in the following data : ustadzah : ok. student, i think time is up, antum, should be study english everytime… wa amma al-lughotu al-injilinziyah as an international language, muhimmatun… wa idza ja’a adh-dhunyuf matsalan, la budd an tatakallamu biha. (baiklah anak-anak, saya kira waktunya sudah habis. kamu semua, harus belajar bahasa inggris setiap waktu. adapun bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa internasional, sangat penting, jika ada tamu misalnya anda harus berbicara dengan bahasa itu). code switching from arabic into indonesia the last form of code switching was occurred in the exploration activity of learning process. ustadzah used indonesian to provide confirmation of what was delivered. her speech as follows : ustadzah : anniyatu juz-un minal wuduu’, fa idzan laabud fiyl wuduu’ binniyat. jadi kalau wudluu’ harus niat diyah atiek mustikawati 67 ustadzah : ijtihad haadza mashdar min ijtahada, yajtahidu, ijtihaad. ijtihaad itu perbuatannya, determinants of code mixing and code switching in teaching and learning process the teaching and learning process in classroom whether ustadzah or female students often used arabic as intermediate language. however, english was also frequently used in the learning process. in other words, the process of learning used two languages or bilingualism and even multilingualism. determinants of code mixing in teaching and learning process identification of the role a speaker will use language as a communication tool based on his/her role. similarly, an ustadzah in the learning process especially in al mawaddah boarding school an ustadzah will tend to use arabic as a communication tool when teaching. this is already as a rule in boarding school when the learning process must use arabic and english. furthermore, ustadzah uses her role in explaining the material, giving assignments, giving motivation, and guiding her female students, so ustadzah must use both foreign languages as a communication tool. as well as the female students, based on their role that mostly still on beginner level who are not fully accustomed using arabic and english during learning process. this was proved when the learning process took place, they were also asked using indonesian. code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 68 the desire to explain and interpret when starting from the purpose of speech in every process of communication, it will have a purpose why the speech happened. language switching in the form of code mixing and code switching has the purpose to explain about what was discussed so that the communication in the learning process can run fluently and acceptable. sourced from the native language and it variations the event of code mixing and code switching was also affected by the acquisition and the use of native language or mother tongue. the female students who were studying at al mawaddah boarding school came from different areas around indonesia and foreign countries such as malaysia, singapore, thailand, and other countries. thus, it will carry over during the learning process in the boarding school. sourced from foreign languages the differences of concept, structure, variation, and meaning in a foreign language is automatically different from the local language, the national language will affect the use of foreign language. the use of foreign and local vocabulary that is mixed in the process of comunication will lead the event of code mixing and code switching. more mixed langsuages between foreign language, national language and local language that are used by speaker, it will increase the opportunity for the use of language variation. diyah atiek mustikawati 69 determinants of code switching in teaching and learning process a. speaker (o1) and listener (o2) the referred speakers in this research were ustadzah, administrators, academicians’ boarding school, and female students. in interact both formally in the classroom and internal conditions outside the classroom will automatically affect how to speak and communication patterns that done by speakers. b. the presence of third person (o3) the presence of third person in the conversation will affect the ongoing conversation. an ustadzah who speak using local language and national language, but suddenly there are female students who came from different country, directly the process of conversation switched to another language even used arabic or english. c. the topic of conversation in the learning process, as the focus in this research, every speech in the communication process must have a purpose. learning in the classroom has a goal to transfer of education and knowledge to female students that has been brokendown into various types of teaching materials that was delivered on a daily basis. d. stimulating the sense of humor the use of two languages or code mixing and code switching simultaneously does not necessarily aim to reveal the seriousness and scientifics of the speakers and the listener. it also intends to show a sense of humor as the ice breaker when code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 70 learning process took place. it can be known through video that has been recorded in the learning process, when ustadzah switched to use the vocabulary of another language, at once the female students laugh because it was funny for them and as a refresher in the classroom. e. just for prestige the event of code mixing and code switching was often influenced by the factor of prestige. this happened when an informal atmosphere outside the classroom, the researcher encountered female students who intentionally used two languages simultaneously only for the prestige. even the use of sentence structure mixed with other language structures ensued. they considered this as a common thing without any effort to fix it. the form of code mixing that was analyzed in this research is both in and out code mixing that involved indonesian, arabic, english and local language (javanese) in the form of insertion elements of indonesian to elements of foreign languages (arabic and english) and the elements of local language (javanese). this insertion is element of words, phrases, repetition words, adjectives, nouns, and the repetition of words, idioms (expression), and clauses. the emergence of the form of code mixing and code switching is influenced by internal and external factors of language. an analysis of dominant factor influenced the events of code mixing in teaching and learning activities in the classroom based on dell hymes’s opinion (1974: 112) that in detail formulated by the acronym of diyah atiek mustikawati 71 ‘speaking’, it is ‘setting’ and ‘scene’, that has meaning place and atmosphere of the speech, ‘participants’; they are speaker and listener, ‘end’ or speech purposes, ‘act’ means the speech events, ‘key’ means that a variety of languages and the ways of speech, ‘instrument’ or tool used to communicate, ‘norm’ means rules that must be adhered to, and ‘genre’ means the type of activity in the event of speech. at al mawaddah boarding school there is the tendency to use four languages orally, inside or outside the classroom. the use of foreign languages ​ ​ (arabic and english) in the event of oral communication is an important thing in the development of language in the boarding shcool. this is because the mission of boarding school that tried to make al mawaddah boarding school as the international boarding school. with the international program is expected to attract the students from abroad to study in al mawaddah boarding school. as a result of the use of foreign languages can creat variations in language usage, which allows the code mixing event, and code switching as has been described and analyzed above. in code mixing, the characteristics of the depedency were marked by a mutual relationship between the ‘role’ (who is using the language) and ‘language function’ (what is to be achieved by speakers with their speech). in the event of code mixing, the elements of language or variations that insert to another language no longer have its own function. these elements have been fused with the inserted language, and overall it will only support one function. in the maximum condition, code mixing is a convergence of linguistic that its elements was derived from several languages, each of them had code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 72 shed their functions and supported the functions of inserted language (suwito, 1985: 75). broadly speaking, code mixing is divided into two groups: (1) inside code mixing, is code mixing that its elements are derived from the original language with all its variations; and (2) outside code mixing, is code mixing that its elements are derived from foreign languages. related to this research, a group which included into inside code mixing is code mixing that occurs between elements of cognates, for example, code mixing between elements of javanese with elements of indonesian. meanwhile, example of group that included into outside code mixing is code mixing between indonesian elements with the elements of arabic or english that is found in this reserach. the elements of language that involved in code mixing events, if it was seen in terms of the units of the language, variety of its forms is as follows; words, phrases, repeated words, idioms, and clauses. this reserach followed thelander’s opinion, 1976 (in suwito, 1985: 76) in identifying phenomenon of code mixing, which is the largest element that possible to insert in the event of code mixing is limited to the clause level. it means if the language elements that inserts (mixing) in code mixing is a unit of languages that higher than clause level (for example: a sentence, a series of sentences, or even a paragraph) then it will not be identified as code mixing phenomenon, but has been a phenomenon of code switching. based on the key findings, the code switching involves the use of four languages, namely: indonesian, arabic, english and local language (javanese). indonesian used as standard intermediate diyah atiek mustikawati 73 language in education (in this case is in al mawaddah boarding school), then indonesian as the base language that is used as the focus of the events of code switching that was happened. thus, code switching focus the switching events from indonesian into arabic, english and local language (javanese). the form of code switching that is analyzed is code switching in the teaching and learning activities in the classroom in the event of an oral communication between ustadzah and female students when learning activities, which are focused on:, exploration activities, elaboration activities and the confirmation activities. exploration activities including: opening and starting the lesson, greetings and giving motivation. elaboration activities including: delivering explanation, monitoring response and drawing conclusions. confirmation activities including: checking for students’ understanding and closing the meeting. in the teaching and learning activities in the classroom at al mawaddah boarding school the main code that is used in important activities such as in the teaching and learning process in the classroom is indonesian. the use of indonesian in al mawaddah boarding school is still dominant in the event of oral communication between ustadzah and female students in the classroom, especially for female students as the beginner or need more adaptation, although the actual foreign language (arabic and english) become the language that must be used by every ustadzah and fmale students in the boarding school. based on the data analysis, it should be delivered that code which regarding as language in this research is divided into two, namely javanese and non-javanese. code as non-javanese including code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 74 two languages, they were indonesian and foreign languages. foreign languages referred to english and arabic. based on the events of speech was compiled and transcribed in this research, it can be said that the code which regarding as language was dominant for its usage, compared with a form in the level of speech, code of dialects and code of diversity. the fact that in al mawaddah modern boarding school consists of female students and ustadz-ustadzah who came from different backgrounds and hometown caused towards language used by female students and ustadz/ustadzah that make a mutual contact between one languages to another language. the events of language contact caused variety of language codes in al mawaddah boarding school whcich occured in teaching and learning activities in the classroom. from this research, it can be said that language code that is often used in teaching and learning activities is indonesian. this is because indonesian relatively mastered by female students and ustadzah at al mawaddah boarding school compared with english, arabic, and javanese. in addition, indonesian is commonly used in al mawaddah boarding school because indonesian is the national language. from the results of data triangulation conducted by the researcher, the form of code switching and code mixing proved to have certain characteristics. for example, in the event of speech done by ustadz/ustadzah in the exploration activity, that was salutation, often using arabic; "assalamu'alaikum warohmatullahiwabarokatuh", then followed by english greeting: "good morning or good afternoon, diyah atiek mustikawati 75 how are you today". furthermore, in giving motivation, ustadz/ustadzah adjusted to the subject matter that was being taught. for example, ustadz/ustadzah who taught general subject would tend to use indonesian and english, linguistic subject would tend to use english and arabic, and religious subject would tent to use indonesian and arabic. meanwhile, data from the speech event of students or ustadz/ustadzah in the elaboration activity, namely delivering the explanation, monitoring response and drawing conclusions, a form of code switching and code mixing that arose would adjust to the subject matter that was being discussed. then, in the confirmation activity, the tendency of female students and ustadz conducted code switching and code mixing in order to adjust to the subject matter. in the meantime, sources of triangulation that have been done by the reseracher towards the key informants showed similar results with the data from the event of speech made by ustadz or female students who became the object in this research. most informants stated that the events of code switching and code mixing are a common thing in the teaching and learning activities in the classroom. ustadz or female students did code switching and code mixing in order to adjust with the topic of speech, to facilitate communication in the search for a certain understanding of explanations related to the subject matter, and as the habit. the collected data showed the same characteristics, so the researcher conducted a reduction of the data that have the same characteristics. the focus of researcher is on the exploration activity, elaboration activity and the confirmation activity of teaching and learning process in the classroom. code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 76 furthermore, from the triangulation method conducted by the researchers with interviews done by using method of questionnaire to the key informants, also showed the same tendency towards the given answers related to the events of code switching and code mixing. most informants stated that the events of code switching and code mixing that appeared caused by topic of speech and indication of prevalence or habits in boarding school. limitation of the data that presented in this research was also caused by the limitation of the researcher to develop the methods of speaking and listening. in the methods of speaking, for example, stimulating technique and recording technique used by the researcher sometimes experiencing technical difficulties, such as the low quality of recorder and cassette and the limited time owned by the informants in conducting interviews. in addition, the process of data collection conducted by the researcher at every stage has been carried out the validity of the data by doing some triangulation, either by triangulation of data, sources, or methods. the data findings and data analysis showed that the relevant trendency of number of data that presented in this research were sufficient to provide information and the overview of events of code switching and code mixing that appeared on the teaching and learning activities in the classroom at al mawaddah boarding school. conclusion based on the analysis and discussion that has been stated in the previous chapter that the form of code mixing and code switching, the learning activities in al mawaddah boarding school is the use of diyah atiek mustikawati 77 language switching either language javanese, arabic, english or indonesian, on the use of the insertion of words, phrases, idioms, the use of nouns, adjectives, clauses, and sentences. the determinants of code mixing in the learning process including: identification of the role, the desire to explain and interpret, sourced from the native language and it variations, sourced from foreign languages. on the other hands, the determinants of code switching in the learning process including: speaker and listener, the presence of third person, the topic of conversation, stimulating the sense of humor and just for prestige. code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 78 references abdul chaer dan leonie agustine, 1995. sosiolinguistik, perkenalan awal .jakarta: rineka cipta alwasilah, a.chaedar.1985. sosiologi bahasa. bandung: angkasa edi soebroto, d, maryono dwirahardjo, dan sumarlam. 2002. alih kode dan campur kode dalam pernikahan adat surakarta. proyek pembinaan bahasa dan sastra indonesia dan daerah jawa tengah. hamers, josane f. 1986. bilinguality & bilingualism. cambridge: cambridge university harimurti kridalaksana, 2001. kamus linguistik. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama hymes, d.1964. toward ethnographies of communication: the analysis of communicative events dalam language and social context by giglioli, p. paolo (ed). 1972. great britain: c. nicholis & company ltd. kunjana rahardi, r. 2001. sosiolinguistik, kode dan alih kode.yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar miles, m.b & huberman, a.m. 1992. analisis data kualitatif (edisi terjemahan oleh tjetjap r. rohadi). jakarta: ui press myers, carol & scotton.1993. social motivations for codeswitching: evidence from africa. oxford: clarendon press. nababan, p.w.j.1984 sosiolinguistik: suatu pengantar. jakarta: gramedia pride, j.b. and holmes janet, ed.1972. sociolinguistics. england: pinguin book. suwito.1985. pengantar awal sosiolinguistik: teori dan problem. surakarta: henary suwito, 1987. berbahasa dalam situasi diglosik, disertasi fsui. diyah atiek mustikawati 79 sudaryanto. 1996. linguistik: identitas, cara penanganan objeknya, dan hasil kajiannya. yogyakarta. duta wacana university press --------------. 2001. metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa.yogyakarta. duta wacana university press sumarsono dan paina partana. 2002. sosiolinguistik. yogyakarta; sabda. sutopo. 2002. penelitian kualitatif. surakarta; sebelas maret university press wardhaugh, r. 1990. an introduction to sociolinguitics. oxford: basil blackwell ltd. code-mixing and code switching in the process of learning 80 register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 153 politeness strategies and levels in tourism-service language in surakarta residency budi purnomo phd program gadjah mada university nusantara street no.1 bulaksumur, yogyakarta indonesia 55281 bupur_2005@yahoo.com abstract in tourism industry, tourists act as guests and tourism industry practitioners act as hosts. typically tourism industry practitioners will try to act politely and follow politeness strategies as well as possible when serving tourists to ensure their satisfaction. levels of satisfaction could be determined by the politeness of the hosts' behaviour towards their guests, including the politeness levels of their tourism-service language. this research was done in surakarta residency, the main tourist destination in central java. data sources of this research came from (1) informants and (2) events. the data were analyzed by brown and levinson‘s politeness strategies (1987). the results of this research show that the tourism industry practitioners in surakarta residency use various politeness strategies and levels in tourismservice language to serve their guests. keywords: politeness strategies, politeness levels, tourism-service language abstrak dalam industri pariwisata, para turis bertindak sebagai tamu dan para praktisi industri bertindak sebagai tuan rumah. secara khas, para praktisi industri tersebut akan berusaha bersikap ramah dan menggunakan strategi-strategi kesopanan sebaik mungkin ketika melayani para turis untuk memastikan kepuasan mereka terhadap pelayanan yang diberikan. tingkat kepuasan pelanggan dapat ditentukan dari tingkat kesopanan pada sikap para juru tamu terhadap tamu mereka, termasuk tingkat kesopanan dalam bahasa yang digunakan ketika melakukan pelayanan kepariwisataan. hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa para praktisi industri wisata di daerah surakarta menggunakan beraneka strategi dan tingkat kesopanan dalam bahasa yang mereka gunakan ketika memberikan pelayanan terhadap para pelanggan. mailto:bupur_2005@yahoo.com register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 154 kata kunci: strategi-strategi kesopanan, tingkat kesopanan, bahasa dalam pelayanan pariwisata introduction tourism is the second-largest source of income for indonesia after the oil and gas sector. that is why the development of tourism in this country is so important (www.tourismindonesia.com). since 2007 there has been rapid development of tourism infrastructure in surakarta residency, central java. this new infrastructure includes several new four star hotels, a dedicated area for evening culinary tours, a new batik museum, a colonial era steam train, a world water park, a world karst museum, a pre-historic java man museum tower, numerous new souvenir markets using traditional architecture, even accommodation for tourists with mobility difficulties. on 13 november 2009, the indonesian tourism award association declared surakarta city, a main tourism city in surakarta residency, to be the best indonesian destination (www.wisatasolo.com). however, the local government has not provided adequate training for the many current and potential people employed in this new tourism industry, in particular has not improved the quality of their service and attitude to tourists towards verbal and non-verbal communication. as one of the main tourism centres in indonesia, surakarta residency is a destination with many places of interest for tourists. places of interaction between tourists and tourism service providers in this area are the airport, bus stations, train stations, tourist information centres, travel agents, accommodation, restaurants, places of tourist interest, souvenir shops and excursions. the language the tourism service providers use during interaction in these many and varied locations – both verbal and non-verbal – plays an important role in satisfying the tourists. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 155 a basic goal of the tourism industry anywhere in the world is to provide an enjoyable and positively memorable time to tourists. it can be especially accomplished by tourism industry practitioners who are not only skilful at their services, but also know how to communicate well and using appropriate nuances of politeness. in the tourism industry, tourists act as guests and tourism industry practitioners act as hosts. as the hosts, tourism industry practitioners serve guests as well as possible in order to ensure the guests' satisfaction. levels of satisfaction could be determined by the politeness of the hosts' behaviour towards their guests, including the politeness of their ―tourism-service language‖. in this research project, i propose the term ―tourism-service language‖ or bahasa layanan wisata as a new term in english and indonesian which is different from the language of tourism which often refers to foreign language phrases provided for tourists. this research project focuses on the ―tourism-service language‖ of the tourism service providers in surakarta residency, central java. the study of tourism-service language in use lends itself to the study of pragmatic linguistics. according to verhaar (1996), pragmatics is a study of speech strategy, and this speech strategy is called rhetoric (leech, 1983). the form of speech includes two kinds: structural speech form and pragmatic speech form (rahardi, 2005). the former is a realisation of the speaker's intention based on structural characteristics whereas the latter is a realisation of the speaker's intention related to the background context of the speech situation. the context here means the broader situation which enables the speaker and hearer to interact with each other, and to understand each other's utterances (leech, 1983; mey, 1993). the situation includes things in environmental situation related to physical and social environments of an register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 156 utterance or knowledge background possessed by the speaker and hearer as a tool for the hearer to interpret the utterance meaning (nadar, 2009). typically tourism industry practitioners will try to act politely and follow politeness strategies when serving tourists. in an interaction tourists and tourism industry practitioners will co-operate each other in order that their speech can flow well, and each speaker can understand what they want through each other's utterances. moreover, considered in light of the host/guest roles of service provider and tourist, communicative interaction would certainly seek to avoid acts that could irritate his/her hearer's feeling, and the interaction would use certain strategies to reduce the hearer's unhappy feeling. to minimize the hearer's dissatisfaction, brown and levinson (1987) describe a model of politeness strategies which include positive politeness strategies and negative politeness ones. positive politeness is redress directed to the addressee's positive face, his/her perennial desire that his/her wants (or the actions/acquisitions/values resulting from them) should be thought of as desirable. redress consists in partially satisfying that desire by communicating that one's own wants (or some of them) are in some respects similar to the addressee's wants. unlike negative politeness, positive politeness is not necessarily redressive of the particular face want infringed by the face threatening acts (fta); that is, whereas in negative politeness the sphere of relevant redress is widened to the appreciation of alter's wants in general or to the expression of similarity between ego's and alter's wants. negative politeness is redressive action addressed to the addressee's negative face: his/her want to have his/her freedom of action unhindered and his/her attention unimpeded. it is the heart of respect behaviour, just as positive politeness is the kernel of 'familiar' and 'joking' behaviour. where positive politeness is free-ranging, negative register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 157 politeness is specific and focused; it performs the function of minimizing the particular imposition that the fta unavoidably effects. in the politeness model of brown and levinson (1987: 74), there are three scales to determine the high and low of politeness level for an utterance. the three scales are determined contextually, socially and culturally. they include (1) d the social distance between the speaker and the hearer, that is the degree of familiarity and solidarity they share, or might be thought to share; (2) p the relative power of the speaker with respect to the hearer, that is the degree to which the speaker can impose on the hearer and (3) r the absolute ranking of the imposition in a particular culture, both in terms of the expenditure of goods and/or services by the hearer, the right of the speaker to perform the act and the degree to which the hearer welcomes the imposition. with respect to the brown and levinson‘s politeness model above, the question on one level is: how are the politeness strategies in tourism-service language used by tourism industry practitioners in surakarta residency? the next question is: how are the politeness levels in tourism-service language used by tourism industry practitioners in surakarta residency that might satisfy or even disappoint tourists? the research questions above reconfirm more the needs of deep research related to tourism-service language in surakarta residency. the languages studied in this research are english as a foreign language (efl) and indonesian influenced by javanese. english is mostly used by tourism industry practitioners to communicate with foreign tourists and indonesian is mostly used by these practitioners to communicate with indonesian speaking tourists. this research undertakes a socio-pragmatic study with the consideration that socio-pragmatics is a branch of linguistics which studies register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 158 language with social and pragmatic approaches. therefore, the objective of the study is to describe politeness strategies and levels in tourism-service language used by tourism industry practitioners in surakarta residency. research methodology the type of this research is descriptive and qualitative because the problems studied related to describing strategies and levels of politeness in tourism-service language as used by the tourism industry practitioners in surakarta residency. this research was done in surakarta residency, the main tourist destination in central java. the surakarta residency includes surakarta, boyolali, sukoharjo, karanganyar, wonogiri, sragen and klaten regencies. it is also abbreviated as subosukawonosraten or well known as soloraya (www.wisatasolo.com). data sources of this research came from (1) informants and (2) events. the informants included (a) tourism industry practitioners in surakarta residency and (b) english speaking tourists and indonesian speaking tourists who get services from the tourism industry practitioners. the events were speech act events between tourism industry practitioners and tourists in places of interest and during the tour. to describe politeness strategies of tourism industry practitioners in using tourism-service language, the data were analyzed by brown and levinson‘s politeness strategies (1987) and to describe the politeness levels, the data were analyzed based on the tourists‘ perception towards tourismservice language as used by the tourism industry practitioners. the data from informants were obtained through distributing questionnaire to tourists and conducting in-depth interviewing with tourism industry practitioners. the data from events were obtained through register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 159 observation, field notes and recordings of speech acts between tourism industry practitioners and tourists. the secondary data were obtained from document analysis. subject of this research was tourism industry practitioners (speakers) and tourists (hearers) in tourism industry and other areas in surakarta residency where speech acts made by them. for reasons of wide population, it was used sampling technique to determine the research object. the sampling technique was done based on area sample and speaker sample. they were purposive samples used to determine research area by considering category of tourism industry and various speech acts made by the tourism industry practitioners and the tourists. based on the consideration, the research area chosen was tourism industries in surakarta residency and the subjects chosen were the tourism industry practitioners in the same area. the complete samples of area and subject observed are obviously shown in table 1 below. table 1. the samples of area and of subject observed no. location category speaker and hearer 1. adi sumarmo international airport tourist transportation tourist guide and tourist 2. tourist information center (tic), surakarta city tourism office tourist information center tic officer and tourist 3. natratour travel agent ticket reservation clerk and tourist 4. kusuma sahid prince hotel accommodation bellboy, receptionist and tourist 5. hotel sahid jaya solo accommodation bellboy, receptionist and tourist 6. hotel pramesthi solo accommodation bellboy, receptionist and tourist 7. diamond restaurant restaurant tour guide, waiter/waitress and tourist register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 160 8. kasunanan palace surakarta palace tourist destination tour guide and tourist 9. radya pustaka museum museum tour guide and tourist 10. windujenar antique market souvenir shop tour guide, souvenir seller and tourist 11. laweyan batik village souvenir shop tour guide, batik seller, batik painter and tourist 12. tawangmangu resort panorama tourist destination tour guide, ticket staff and tourist 13. sukuh temple temple tourist destination tour guide, ticket officer and tourist 14. pandawa water world water tourist destination ticket officer and tourist 15. janti fishery court water tourist destination cook, waiter/waitress and tourist this research used five techniques of collecting data: (1) observation and field notes, (2) recordings, (3) questionnaire, (4) in-depth interviewing and (5) document analysis. the observation was done in the airport, tourist information centres, travel agents, hotels, restaurants, places of interest and souvenir shops where the tourism industry practitioners and the tourists made speech acts during their interaction. during the observation, the researcher took fieldnotes. the fieldnotes were written to complement the observation. in this research the recordings was done to informants naturally. it means that they were not aware of being recorded. the recording was done by using a small tape recorder which has very high recording quality. this research used multiple-choice questionnaire. the informants (tourists) could choose one of the three alternative answers provided. the purpose of using the questionnaire was to obtain information about politeness levels of tourism-service language as used by tourism industry practitioners based on the tourists‘ perception. before printing 150 pieces of questionnaire, register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 161 the researcher made a ‗guinea pig‖ and did a trial questionnaire by distributing it to five tourists. the trial to the typical respondents aimed to find the weaknesses or omission, and then correct them. the type of questions in the questionnaire was multiple choice with likert scale, meaning that the tourists are supposed to choose three options, either p polite, n neutral or i impolite. a polite utterance is an utterance which has the criteria: appropriate manner and appropriate explanation; a normal utterance is an utterance which has the criteria: the tourist‘s desire is fulfilled and an impolite utterance is an utterance which has the criteria: the tourists feel unpleasant. from 150 pieces of the questionnaire distributed, 120 of them were completed by the tourists. from the 120 tourists, 70 of them were indonesian speaking tourists and 50 of them were english speaking tourists. the interview was done by the researcher to tourism industry practitioners to know the reasons why they used politeness strategies and levels during their interaction with the tourists. in this research the researcher analyzed documents of standard operation procedures (sop) of tourism industry practitioners to serve tourists made by tourism industries in surakarta residency. the purpose to analyze sop documents is to know whether politeness is included in the standard of serving tourists. before analyzing the data, the data corpus was classified to obtain accurate data types and to make easy in the process of further step analysis. the data analysis results or the research findings were in the forms of politeness strategies and levels in tourism-service language as used by the tourism industry practitioners in surakarta residency. in this research, the data validation was verified by using triangulation technique in order to improve th e credibility of the data. they were register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 162 carried out by comparing the data with similar type ones obtained from 13 (thirteen) kinds of conversation between tourists and tourism industry practitioners. in addition, the data were also verified by using different methods, that was, by observations and field notes, questionnaires, interviews and documents analysis. the speech acts identified in the observations and field notes were verified against the information elicited from questionnaires with the tourists, interviews with tourism industry practitioners and documents analysis of tourism industry. the utterances made by the tourism industry practitioners (speakers) were analyzed from the context of their background and then interpreted based on politeness strategies and levels which show politeness in tourismservice language to the tourists (hearers). the politeness strategies and levels were abbreviated to make easy in concluding research findings. the 15 positive politeness strategies were abbreviated as (1) pps1 (positive politeness strategy 1): notice, attend to h (his interests, needs, goods), (2) pps2 (positive politeness strategy 2): exaggerate (interest, approval, sympathy with h), (3) pps3 (positive politeness strategy 3): intensify interest to h, (4) pps4 (positive politeness strategy 4): use ingroup identity markers, (5) pps5 (positive politeness strategy 5): seek agreement, (6) pps6 (positive politeness strategy 6): avoid disagreement, (7) pps7 (positive politeness strategy 7): presuppose/ raise/assert common ground, (8) pps8 (positive politeness strategy 8): joke, (9) pps9 (positive politeness strategy 9): assert or presuppose s‘s knowledge of and concern for h‘s wants, (10) pps10 (positive politeness strategy 10): offer, promise, (11) pps11 (positive politeness strategy 11): be optimistic, (12) pps12 (positive politeness strategy 12): include both s and h in the activity, (1) pps13 (positive politeness strategy 13): give (or ask for) reasons, (1) register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 163 pps14 (positive politeness strategy 14): assume or assert reciprocity and (15) pps15 (positive politeness strategy 15): give gifts to h (goods, sympathy, understanding, cooperation). if an utterance was against a positive politeness strategy, it would be marked by x code. pps1x, for instance, is an utterance which was against positive politeness strategy 1. besides that, the 10 negative politeness strategies were abbreviated as (1) nps1 (negative politeness strategy 1): be direct, (2) nps2 (negative politeness strategy 2): question, hedge, (3) nps3 (negative politeness strategy 3): be pessimistic, (4) nps4 (negative politeness strategy 4): minimize the imposition, (5) nps5 (negative politeness strategy 5): give deference, (6) nps6 (negative politeness strategy 6): apologize, (7) nps7 (negative politeness strategy 7): impersonalize s and h, (8) nps8 (negative politeness strategy 8): state the fta as a general rule, (9) nps9 (negative politeness strategy 6): nominalize and (10) nps10 (negative politeness strategy 10): go on record as incurring a debt, or as not indebting h. if an utterance was against a negative politeness strategy, it would be marked by x code. nps1x, for instance, is an utterance which was against negative politeness strategy 1. the three politeness levels were abbreviated as (1) p (polite): well accepted and satisfactory enough, (3) n (normal): accepted, (4) i (impolite): not accepted and not satisfactory. data analysis of this research was done through three steps, those are (1) sorting data corpus by giving data number, context and content of conversation; (2) analyzing data based on politeness strategies and (3) analyzing them based on politeness levels. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 164 discussion the data analysed came from the 13 kinds of conversational discourse between tourists and tourism-industry practitioners, those are (1) receiving reservations, (2) meeting tourists at the airport/railway station, (3) providing information upon arrival on the way to the hotel, (4) helping tourists with their registration, (5) handling telephone enquiries, (6) giving directions, (7) giving information about art performances and entertainment, (8) beginning a tour and describing the itinerary, (9) describing points of interest on the tour route, (10) serving meals at restaurants, (11) describing processes used in making art objects (batik, leather puppets, gamelan instruments, etc.), (12) bargaining for souvenir prices and (13) describing tourist sites. conversation on handling reservations data (1) o: selamat siang, bu. ada yang bisa saya bantu? ‗good afternoon, madam. what can i do for you?‘ t: gini, mbak saya kemarin kan sudah pesan tiket solo-jakarta untuk sore nanti. tapi berhubung ada acara mendadak di solo, apa bisa saya tunda penerbangannya? ‗yesterday i booked a ticket for solo-jakarta for this afternoon flight. unfortunately, i have a sudden program in solo. can i delay the flight?‘ o: wah, kalau untuk mengundur seharusnya dua hari sebelumnya. ‗if you want to delay the flight, you should do it two days before.‘ t: waduh sudah kebacut itu, mbak. terus bagaimana nih karena saya nggak jadi terbang nanti sore, apa masih bisa ditukar uang? ‗i can‘t. so, if i cancel to fly this afternoon, can i change the ticket with money?‘ o: ya berarti tiket ibu hangus. ‘it means that your ticket is expired.‘ this conversation was between a natratour officer (o) and a tourist (t). the clerk‘s utterance wah, kalau untuk mengundur seharusnya dua hari sebelumnya (if you want to delay the flight, you should do it two days before) is against brown and levinson‘s pps6 (avoid disagreement). the clerk‘s register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 165 utterance ya berarti tiket ibu hangus (it means that your ticket is expired) is against brown and levinson‘s pps15 (give gifts to h (goods, sympathy, understanding, cooperation)). the questionnaire answers show that 36 (72%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance ‗if you want to delay the flight, you should do it two days before‘ used by the reservation clerk is p (polite), 14 (28%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 19 (27.15%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance wah, kalau untuk mengundur seharusnya dua hari sebelumnya is p (polite), none of them stated it n (normal) and 51 (72.85%) of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the reservation clerk‘s utterance ‗if you want to delay the flight, you should do it two days before‘ has polite level, but based on the indonesian tourists‘ perceptions, the utterance wah, kalau untuk mengundur seharusnya dua hari sebelumnya has impolite level. the questionnaire answers also show that 14 (28%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance ‘it means that your ticket is expired‘ used by the reservation clerk is p (polite), 32 (64%) of them stated it n (normal) and 4 (8%) of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, none of indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ya berarti tiket ibu hangus is p (polite), 7 (10%) of them stated it n (normal) and 63 (90%) of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the reservation clerk‘s utterance ‘it means that your ticket is expired‘ has normal level, but based on the indonesian tourists‘ perceptions, the utterance ya berarti tiket ibu hangus has impolite level. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 166 conversation on meeting tourists at the airport/railway station data (2) g: excuse me, madam. are you mrs. gisela tiedemann? t: yes, that‘s right. g: welcome to solo. i‘m wulan, your tour guide from nusantara tours. t: oh, good. it‘s nice to meet you. g: it‘s nice to meet you too, madam. are you ready to go to your hotel? t: yes. g: could you come this way, please? the car is just over there. this conversation was between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) in adi sumarmo international airport. the tour guide‘s utterance could you come this way, please? the car is just over there follows brown and levinson‘s nps1 (be conventionally indirect). the questionnaire answers show that 47 (94%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance could you come this way, please? the car is just over there used by the tour guide is p (polite), 3 (6%) foreign tourists stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 62 (88.57%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗ibu bisa lewat sini? mobilnya ada di sana‘ is p (polite), 8 (11.43%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance could you come this way, please? the car is just over there (‗ibu bisa lewat sini? mobilnya ada di sana‘) has polite level. conversation on providing information upon arrival on the way to hotel data (3) g: hello, everyone. my name is kiky and the driver‘s name is abim. on behalf of natratour i‘d like to welcome you all to solo. the bus ride to your hotel will take about fifteen minutes. the hotel is located in the center of the city and the airport is in the western part just register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 167 outside solo. right now i‘d like to take a minute to familiarize you with some brief safety precautions. firstly, i recommend you to remain seated until we reach our destination. secondly, please realize that it is against the law to get drunk in public. enjoy your vacation. t: ok, no problem. this conversation was between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) from adi sumarmo international airport to hotel sahid jaya solo. the tour guide‘s utterance secondly, please realize that it is against the law to get drunk in public follows brown and levinson‘s nps8 (state the fta as a general rule). the questionnaire answers show that 47 (94%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance secondly, please realize that it is against the law to get drunk in public used by the tour guide is p (polite), 3 (6%) foreign tourists stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 62 (88.57%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗yang kedua, tolong dimengerti bahwa mabuk-mabukan di depan umum adalah tindakan melawan hukum‘ is p (polite), 8 (11.43%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance secondly, please realize that it is against the law to get drunk in public ‗yang kedua, tolong dimengerti bahwa mabuk-mabukan di depan umum adalah tindakan melawan hukum‘ has polite level. conversation on helping tourists with their registration data (4) r: good evening, sir. may i help you? g: hallo. i have poor eyesight. can you fill in the form for me? r: yes, certainly sir. can i have your name? g: john davis. r: mr. john davis. now, can you give me your passport number? register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 168 g: it‘s zero nine two zero four seven eight. r: right. i am sorry, how are you going to pay? by cheque? by credit card? g: err … by credit card … visa. r: very good mr. davis. now, i‘ve put you in room 119, on the first floor. g: okay. this conversation was between a receptionist (r) and a walk-in guest (g) in kusuma sahid prince hotel. the receptionist‘s utterances can i have your name? and now, can you give me your passport number? follow brown and levinson‘s nps1 (be conventionally indirect). the receptionist‘s utterance i am sorry, how are you going to pay? by cheque? by credit card? follows brown and levinson‘s nps6 (apologize). the questionnaire answers show that 41 (82%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance can i have your name? used by the receptionist is p (polite), 9 (18%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 66 (94.3%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗bisa minta nama bapak?‘ is p (polite), 4 (5.7%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the receptionist‘s utterance can i have your name? ‗bisa minta nama bapak?‘ has polite level. the questionnaire answers also show that 43 (86%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance now, can you give me your passport number? used by the receptionist is p (polite), 7 (14%) stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 52 (74.29%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗lalu, nomor paspor bapak?‘ is p (polite), 18 (25.71%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 169 perceptions, the use of the receptionist‘s utterance now, can you give me your passport number? ‗lalu, nomor paspor bapak?‘ has polite level. furthermore, the questionnaire answers show that 49 (98%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance i am sorry, how are you going to pay? by cheque? by credit card? used by the receptionist is p (polite), 1 (2%) stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 67 (95.71%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗maaf, bagaimana cara pembayarannya? dengan cek? dengan kartu kredit?‘ is p (polite), 3 (4.29%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the receptionist‘s utterance i am sorry, how are you going to pay? by cheque? by credit card? ‗maaf, bagaimana cara pembayarannya? dengan cek? dengan kartu kredit?‘ has polite level. data (5) r: good morning, madam. may i help you? g: yes, i want to pay my bill. r: what is your name? g: kate doolan r: mrs. kate doolan. just a moment, please. (r prepares the bill). this is your bill. the total amount is rp 2,875,000 rupiahs. you want to recheck it? g: yes. (g checks the bill). that‘s right, thank you. this conversation was between a receptionist (r) and a guest (g) in pramesthi hotel. the receptionist is helping the guest who will check out. the receptionist‘s utterance what is your name? does not follow brown and levinson‘s nps1 (be conventionally indirect). the receptionist‘s utterance you want to recheck it? does not follow brown and levinson‘s nps1 (be conventionally indirect). register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 170 the questionnaire answers show that 47 (94%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance what is your name? used by the receptionist is p (polite), 3 (6%) of them stated it is n (normal) and none of them stated it is i (impolite). on the other hand, none of indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗siapa nama anda?‘ is p (polite), 28 (40%) of them stated it is n (normal) and 42 (60%) of them stated it is i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the receptionist‘s utterance what is your name? has polite level, but based on indonesian tourists‘ perception, the utterance ‗siapa nama anda?‘ has impolite level. the questionnaire answers also show that 50 (100%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance you want to recheck it? used by the receptionist is p (polite) and 70 (100%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗anda ingin mengecek ulang?‘ is p (polite). neither foreign tourists nor indonesian tourists stated that it is n (normal) and i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the receptionist‘s utterance you want to recheck it? ‗anda ingin mengecek ulang?‘ has polite level. conversation on handling telephone enquiries data (6) c: hallo. bisa disambungkan ke kamar pak suryono? (‗hello. can you connect me to mr. suryono‘s room?‘) o: mohon ditunggu sebentar … kok di sini tidak ada tamu yang menginap atas nama bapak suryono ya?( ‗wait a moment, please … there is no guest with the name mr. suryono here.‘) c: lho gimana sih hotel ini. pak suryono sudah check in seperempat jam yang lalu.(‗what happens with this hotel? mr. suryono has checked in fifteen minutes ago.‘) o: oh maaf, bu. kalau begitu coba saya sambungkan ke resepsionis. (‗oh, i‘m sorry, madam. i‘ll try to connect you to receptionist.‘) register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 171 this conversation was between a hotel telephone operator (o) of kusuma sahid prince hotel and a caller (c). the telephone operator‘s utterance kok di sini tidak ada tamu yang menginap atas nama bapak suryono ya?( ‗there is no guest with the name mr. suryono here.‘) does not follow brown and levinson‘s nps2 (question, hedge). the telephone operator‘s utterance oh maaf, bu. kalau begitu coba saya sambungkan ke resepsionis (‗oh, i‘m sorry, madam. i‘ll try to connect you to receptionist‘) follows brown and levinson‘s pps6 (apologize). the questionnaire answers show that 38 (82%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance ‗there is no guest with the name mr. suryono here‘ used by the telephone operator is p (polite), 12 (18%) stated it n (normal) and none of them stated in i (impolite). on the other hand, no indonesian tourists stated that the utterance kok di sini tidak ada tamu yang menginap atas nama bapak suryono ya? is p (polite), 5 (7.14%) of them stated it n (normal) and 65 (92.85%) of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the telephone operator‘s utterance ‗there is no guest with the name mr. suryono here‘ has polite level, but based on the indonesian tourists‘ perceptions, the utterance kok di sini tidak ada tamu yang menginap atas nama bapak suryono ya? has impolite level. the questionnaire answers also show that 50 (100%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance ‗oh, i‘m sorry, madam. i‘ll try to connect you to receptionist‘ used by the telephone operator is p (polite) and 70 (100%) indonesian tourists also stated that the utterance oh maaf, bu. kalau begitu coba saya sambungkan ke resepsionis is p (polite). neither foreign tourists nor indonesian tourists stated that it is n (normal) and i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the telephone operator‘s utterance ‗oh, i‘m sorry, madam. i‘ll try register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 172 to connect you to receptionist‘ oh maaf, bu. kalau begitu coba saya sambungkan ke resepsionis has polite level. conversation on giving directions data (7) g: can you tell me the best way to get to klewer market? b: well, it‘s easy. if you‘ll go there on foot, first, go down this street until you find a t-junction. turn left and go east for about two hundred meters until you see the big statue of slamet riyadi hero at gladak crossroad. then, turn right at the crossroad and go south for about a hundred meter until you see alun-alun of kasunanan palace. after that, cross the alun-alun, you will finally find the two-storey building with a big gate on the right. that‘s the klewer market. don‘t miss it. this conversation was between a bellboy (b) and a hotel guest (g) in the lobby of kusuma sahid prince hotel. the bellboy‘s utterance well, it‟s easy follows brown and levinson‘s pps11 (be optimistic). his utterance don‟t miss it also follows brown and levinson‘s pps11 (be optimistic). the questionnaire answers show that 29 (58%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance well, it‟s easy used by the bellboy is p (polite), 21 (42%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 63 (90%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗baik, mudah saja‘ is p (polite). 7 (10%) of them stated that it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the bellboy‘s utterance well, it‟s easy ‗baik, mudah saja‘ has polite level. the questionnaire answers also show that 17 (34%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance don‟t miss it used by the bellboy is p (polite), 33 (66%) of them stated it n (neutral) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 5 (7.14%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗jangan register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 173 sampai kesasar‘ is p (polite), 14 (20%) of them stated it n (normal) and 31 (72.86%) of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the bellboy‘s utterance don‟t miss it has normal level, but based on the indonesian tourists‘ perceptions, the utterance ‗jangan sampai kesasar‘ has impolite level. conversation on giving information about art performances and entertainment data (8) g: excuse me, is there any particular art performance or entertainment i can see in this city? o: why don‘t you watch wayang orang sriwedari in the evening? for city sightseeing, you can visit kasunanan palace, mangkunegaran palace, or radya pustaka museum. and for shopping, you can visit traditional markets, like klewer market and triwindu antique market or modern shopping malls, like solo grand mall and solo square. g: well, i‘d like to see the museum. how do i get there? o: why don‘t you go by becak? make sure that you negotiate the price before you go. you can also go by public transport. there are lots of buses passing by the museum. just tell the conductor your destination. this conversation was between a guest relation officer (o) and a guest (g) in hotel sahid jaya solo. the guest relation officer‘s utterances why don‟t you watch wayang orang sriwedari in the evening? and why don‟t you go by becak? follow brown and levinson‘s pps13 (give or ask for reasons). the questionnaire answers show that 50 (100%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance why don‟t you watch wayang orang sriwedari in the evening? used by the guest relation officer is p (polite), none of them stated it n (normal) and i (impolite). on the other hand, 16 (%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗mengapa tidak menonton wayang orang sriwedari register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 174 di malam hari?‘ is p (polite), 54 (%) stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the guest relation officer‘s utterance why don‟t you watch wayang orang sriwedari in the evening? has polite level, but based on the indonesian tourists‘ perception, the utterance ‗mengapa tidak menonton wayang orang sriwedari di malam hari?‘ has normal level. the questionnaire answers also show that 50 (100%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance why don‟t you go by becak? used by the guest relation officer is p (polite), none of them stated that it is n (normal) and i (impolite). on the other hand, 17 (24.29%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗mengapa tidak naik becak saja?‘ is p (polite), 53 (75.71%) stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the guest relation officer‘s utterance why don‟t you go by becak? has polite level, but based on the indonesian tourists‘ perceptions, the utterance ‗mengapa tidak naik becak saja?‘ has normal level. conversation on beginning a tour and describing the itinerary data (9) g: please be careful with your head when you enter the car. we have to go by car, instead of by bus today because the road is too steep for a bus. t: won‘t it be dangerous? g: no, it‘s quite safe. beside, we have an experienced driver. and the scenery will be worth seeing. don‘t worry. just enjoy yourself. t: okay. i‘ll take your words. let‘s go. this conversation was between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) in a tourist bus in front of pramesthi hotel the tour guide‘s utterance we have to go by car, instead of by bus today because the road is too steep for a bus is against brown and levinson‘s pps13 (give or ask for reasons). the tour register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 175 guide‘s utterance no, it‟s quite safe is against brown and levinson‘s pps6 (avoid disagreement). the questionnaire answers show that 11 (22%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance we have to go by car, instead of by bus today because the road is too steep for a bus used by the tour guide is p (polite), 39 (78%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 10 (14.29%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗kita harus pergi dengan mobil, bukannya bis karena jalannya terlalu curam jika kita menggunakan bis‘ is p (polite), 60 (85.71%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance we have to go by car, instead of by bus today because the road is too steep for a bus ‗kita harus pergi dengan mobil, bukannya bis karena jalannya terlalu curam jika kita menggunakan bis‘ has normal level. the questionnaire answers also show that 19 (38%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance no, it‟s quite safe used by the tour guide is p (polite), 31 (62%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 18 (25.71%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗tidak, cukup aman‘ is p (polite), 52 (74.29%) stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance no, it‟s quite safe ‗tidak, cukup aman?‘ has normal level. conversation on describing points of interest on the tour route data (10) g: it‘s about a twenty minute trek down to the grojogan sewu waterfall through hundreds of stairs. t: it looks steep! these stair steps are safe, right? i‘m scared … better to stay here. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 176 g: yes, you don‘t have anything to worry about. we do about 100 trips a day trek up and down the stair steps, and these tours have been going on for over ten years without any accidents. i‘m sure you can trek down through these stairs. let‘s try it! your tiresome will be paid by the beauty of the waterfall. this conversation was between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) at tawangmangu resort. the tour guide‘s utterance i‟m sure you can trek down through these stairs. let‟s try it! follows brown and levinson‘s pps11 (be optimistic) and pps12 (include both s and h in the activity). the questionnaire answers show that 29 (58%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance i‟m sure you can trek down through these stairs. let‟s try it! used by the telephone operator is p (polite), 21 (42%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 9 (12.85%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗saya yakin anda mampu menuruni tangga ini. mari kita coba!‘ is p (polite), 61 (87.15%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance i‟m sure you can trek down through these stairs. let‟s try it! has polite level, but based on the indonesian tourists‘ perceptions, the utterance ‗saya yakin anda mampu menuruni tangga ini. mari kita coba!‘ has normal level. data (11) g: now, if you look up straight ahead, you should be able to see a group of monkeys…. does anybody see the apes over there? on that branch. see? t: are they wild or tame? g: that‘s a good question. until now i haven‘t had any bad experience with them. unless you tease them, they don‘t attack people. most of them are tame. just like the ones we met at the entrance. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 177 this cconversation was between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) at tawangmangu resort the tour guide‘s utterance now, if you look up straight ahead, you should be able to see a group of monkeys follows brown and levinson‘s pps14 (assume or assert reciprocity). the tour guide‘s utterance does anybody see the apes over there? on that branch. see? follows brown and levinson‘s pps3 (intensify interest to h). his utterance that‟s a good question follows brown and levinson‘s nps9 (nominalize). moreover, his utterance unless you tease them, they don‟t attack people follows brown and levinson‘s pps14 (assume or assert reciprocity). the questionnaire answers show that 42 (84%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance now, if you look up straight ahead, you should be able to see a group of monkeys used by the tour guide is p (polite), 8 (16%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 65 (93%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗sekarang, jika bapak ibu lihat lurus di depan sana, akan terlihat sekawanan kera‘ is p (polite), 5 (7%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance now, if you look up straight ahead, you should be able to see a group of monkeys ‗sekarang, jika bapak ibu lihat lurus di depan sana, akan terlihat sekawanan kera‘ has polite level. the questionnaire answers also show that 37 (74%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance does anybody see the apes over there? on that branch. see? used by the tour guide is p (polite), 13 (26%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 32 (45.71%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗apa bapak ibu dapat milhat kera-kera itu? di atas batang pohon. kelihatan?‘ is p (polite), 38 (54.29%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 178 so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance does anybody see the apes over there? on that branch. see? has polite level, but based on the indonesian tourists‘ perceptions, the utterance ‗apa bapak ibu dapat milhat kera-kera itu? di atas batang pohon. kelihatan?‘ has normal level. then, the questionnaire answers show that 44 (88%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance that‟s a good question used by the tour guide is p (polite), 6 (12%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 59 (84.29%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗pertanyaan yang bagus‘ is p (polite), 11 (15.71%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance that‟s a good question ‗pertanyaan yang bagus‘ has polite level. furthermore, the questionnaire answers show that 40 (80%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance unless you tease them, they don‟t attack people used by the tour guide is p (polite), 10 (20%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 15 (21.42%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗jika bapak ibu tidak mengusik mereka, mereka tidak akan menyerang pengunjung‘ is p (polite), 55 (78.58%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance unless you tease them, they don‟t attack people has polite level, but based on the indonesian tourists‘ perceptions, the utterance „jika bapak ibu tidak mengusik mereka, mereka tidak akan menyerang pengunjung‟ has normal level. data (12) t: this hill is the highest one in this region, isn‘t it? register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 179 g: yes, yes … err … actually the highest hill is the hill of cedho temple … which we can see in around an hour ride. but this is the highest hill for recreational purposes like trekking and horse riding. t: can you accompany us to cetho temple? this conversation was between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) at sukuh temple the tour guide‘s utterance yes, yes … err … actually the highest hill is the hill of cedho temple … which we can see in around two hours ride. but this is the highest hill for recreational purposes like trekking and horse riding follows brown and levinson‘s pps6 (avoid disagreement). the questionnaire answers show that 12 (24%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance yes, yes … err … actually the highest hill is the hill of cedho temple … which we can see in around two hours ride. but this is the highest hill for recreational purposes like trekking and horse riding used by the tour guide is p (polite), 38 (76%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 52 (74.29%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗ya, ya … ehh … sebenarnya yang tertinggi adalah bukit candi cetho … yang dapat kita lihat sekitar satu jam perjalanan. tetapi bukit ini yang tertinggi untuk kegiatan rekreasi dengan berjalan kaki atau menunggang kuda‘ is p (polite), 18 (25.71%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance yes, yes … err … actually the highest hill is the hill of cedho temple … which we can see in around two hours ride. but this is the highest hill for recreational purposes like trekking and horse riding has normal level, but based on the indonesian tourists‘ perception, the utterance ‗ya, ya … ehh … sebenarnya yang tertinggi adalah bukit candi cetho … yang dapat kita lihat sekitar satu jam perjalanan. tetapi bukit ini yang tertinggi untuk kegiatan rekreasi dengan berjalan kaki atau menunggang kuda‘ has polite level. register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 180 conversation on serving meals at restaurant data (13) w: selamat siang, pak, bu? mangga mau pesan apa? (‗good afternoon, sir, madam? are you ready to order?‘) (w hands menu list to v1) v1: ikan guramih ada? (‗do you have guramih fish?‘) w : ada, bu. (‗yes, we have, madam.‘) v1: yang cepat digoreng apa dibakar? (‗the faster is fried or roasted?‘) w: digoreng, bu. tapi kalau dibakar bumbunya lebih meresap dan terasa lebih gurih. (‗fried, madam. but the ingredient is more absorbed and the tasted is more delicious if it is roasted.‘) v1: saya digoreng aja biar cepat. (‗i want it fried for the faster.‘) w: ibu digoreng. bapak digoreng juga?( ‗you are fried, madam. are you fried too, sir?‘) v2: saya dibakar aja. (‗i am roasted.‘) w: baik, segera kami siapkan. maaf untuk minumnya mau pesan apa?(‘all right, i‘ll prepare them soon. and for the drinks?‘) v1: saya es teh. (‗iced tea for me.‘) w: bapak es teh juga? (‗are you iced tea too, sir?‘) v2: saya lagi batuk. (‗i am cough.‘) w: minuman panas atau hangat juga ada di sini, pak. (‗warm or hot drinks are also available here, sir.‘) v2: ya, jeruk panas saja.( ‗well, hot orange please.‘) w: (leaving them to go to the kitchen) this conversation was between a waitress (w) and visitors (v1, v2) in janti fishery court. the waitress‘s utterances ibu digoreng. bapak digoreng juga? and bapak es teh juga? follow brown and levinson‘s pps6 (avoid disagreement). her utterance baik, segera kami siapkan follows brown and levinson‘s pps10 (offer, promise). moreover, her utterance minuman panas atau hangat juga ada di sini, pak? follows brown and levinson‘s pps15 (give gifts (sympathy) to h). the questionnaire answers show that none of foreign tourists stated that the utterance you are fried, madam. are you fried too, sir? used by the register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 181 waitress is p (polite) and n (normal), but 50 (100%) of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 9 (18%) indonesian tourists also stated that the utterance ‗ibu digoreng. bapak digoreng juga?‘ is p (polite), 61 (82%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the waitress‘s utterance you are fried, madam. are you fried too, sir? has impolite level, but based on the indonesian tourists‘ perceptions, the utterance ‗ibu digoreng. bapak digoreng juga?‘ has normal level. the questionnaire answers also show that 3 (6%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance are you iced tea too, sir? used by the tour guide is p (polite), 41 (82%) of them stated it n (normal) and 6 (12%) of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 26 (37.14%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗bapak es teh juga?‘ is p (polite), 44 (62.86%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the waitress‘s utterance are you iced tea too, sir? ‗bapak es teh juga?‘ has normal level. then the questionnaire answers show that 48 (96%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance all right, i‟ll prepare them soon used by the waitress is p (polite), 2 (4%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 67 (95.71%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗baik, segera kami siapkan‘ is p (polite), 3 (4.29%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the waitress‘s utterance all right, i‟ll prepare them soon(‗baik, segera kami siapkan‘) has polite level. furthermore, the questionnaire answers show that 9 (18%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance warm or hot drinks are also available here, register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 182 sir used by the waitress is p (polite), 40 (80%) of them stated it n (normal) and 1 (2%) of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 7 (10%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance „minuman panas atau hangat juga ada di sini, pak‟ is p (polite), 63 (90%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the waitress‘s utterance warm or hot drinks are also available here, sir ‗minuman panas atau hangat juga ada di sini, pak‘ has normal level. conversation on describing processes used in making art objects (batik, leather puppets, gamelan instruments, etc.) data (14) t: excuse me, i‘m interested to know about the batik processing. can you explain it to me, please? g: sure. let‘s go to that room. (g and t go to the processing room) this is the fabric that will be processed into batik material. first, it is colored by painting the desired patterns. t: yes, .... g: second, this special copper batik wax is dipped into melted wax, and stamped on the fabric. t: i see … it‘s hard work, isn‘t it? … working near the stove. g: yes, that‘s because the application has to use melted wax. besides, the worker has to take precaution to prevent the wax from dripping. t: i never imagine the waxing process is quite complicated. this conversation was between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) at laweyan batik village. the tour guide‘s utterance let‟s go to that room follows brown and levinson‘s pps12 (include both s and h in the activity). his utterance yes, that‟s because the application has to use melted wax. besides, the worker has to take precaution to prevent the wax from dripping follows brown and levinson‘s pps13 (give or ask for reasons). register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 183 the questionnaire answers show that 5 (10%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance let‟s go to that room used by the tour guide is p (polite), 45 (90%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 22 (31.43%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗mari kita pergi ke ruangan itu‘ is p (polite), 48 (68.57%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance let‟s go to that room ‗mari kita pergi ke ruangan itu‘ has normal level. the questionnaire answers also show that 15 (30%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance yes, that‟s because the application has to use melted wax. besides, the worker has to take precaution to prevent the wax from dripping used by the tour guide is p (polite), 35 (70%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 17 (24.29%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗ya, karena membatiknya harus menggunakan lilin yang dicairkan. di samping itu, pembatiknya harus mencegah agar lilinnya tidak menetes‘ is p (polite), 53 (75.71%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated in i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance yes, that‟s because the application has to use melted wax. besides, the worker has to take precaution to prevent the wax from dripping ‗ya, karena membatiknya harus menggunakan lilin yang dicairkan. di samping itu, pembatiknya harus mencegah agar lilinnya tidak menetes‘ has normal level. conversation on bargaining for souvenir prices data (15) s: ngersake nopo, den? (‗what do you want, madam?‘) t: mau lihat-lihat batik. (‗i want to see batik.‘) register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 184 s: mangga …. mau yang halus atau yang biasa? (‗please … you want the soft or the ordinary?‘) t: yang biasa aja, bu.(‗the ordinary, please.‘) s: (s hands the batik sample to t). mangga silakan pilih. nanti pilihan warnanya banyak. (‗please choose by yourself. there are many choices.‘) t: kalau yang ini berapa? (‗how much is this?‘) s: itu untuk bukaan dhasar ya… tujuh puluh lima ribu saja. (‗for opening … seventy five thousands rupiahs.‘) t: kalau empat puluh ribu gimana? (‗how about forty thousands?‘) s: wah belum ikut. kulakannya aja belum boleh. (‗mmm no … it‘s under the buying price.‘) t: kalau empat puluh lima bagaimana, bu? (‗how about forty five thousands?‘) s: ya sudah lima puluh ribu seperti harga bakul. (‗well, fifty thousands as the buying price.‘) this conversation was between a souvenir seller (s) and a tourist (t) in kauman batik village. the souvenir seller‘s utterances itu untuk bukaan dhasar ya… tujuh puluh lima ribu saja follows brown and levinson‘s pps13 (give or ask for reasons). her utterance wah belum ikut. kulakannya aja belum boleh is against brown and levinson‘s pps6 (avoid disagreement), but follows their pps13 (give or ask for reasons). besides that, her utterance ya sudah lima puluh ribu seperti harga bakul follows brown and levinson‘s pps6 (avoid disagreement) and their pps13 (give or ask for reasons). the questionnaire answers show that 12 (24%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance for opening … seventy five thousands rupiahs used by the souvenir seller is p (polite), 38 (76%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 9 (12.86%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance „itu untuk bukaan dhasar ya… tujuh puluh lima ribu saja‟ is p (polite), 61 (87.14%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the souvenir seller‘s register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 185 utterance for opening … seventy five thousands rupiahs (‗itu untuk bukaan dhasar ya… tujuh puluh lima ribu saja‘) has normal level. the questionnaire answers also show that 5 (10%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance mmm no … it‟s under the buying price used by the souvenir seller is p (polite), 44 (88%) of them stated it n (normal) and 1 (2%) of them stated it i (impolite). none of indonesian tourists stated that the utterance „wah belum ikut. kulakannya aja belum boleh‟ is p (polite), 7 (10%) of them stated it n (normal) and 63 (90%) of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the souvenir seller‘s utterance mmm no … it‟s under the buying price has normal level, but based on the indonesian tourists‘ perceptions, the utterance ‗wah belum ikut. kulakannya aja belum boleh‘ has impolite level. then, the questionnaire answers show that 7 (14%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance well, fifty thousands as the buying price used by the souvenir seller is p (polite), 43 (86%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). none of indonesian tourists stated that the utterance ‗ya sudah lima puluh ribu seperti harga bakul‘ is p (polite), 19 (27.14%) of them stated it n (normal) and 51 (72.86%) of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign tourists' perceptions, the use of the souvenir seller‘s utterance well, fifty thousands as the buying price has normal level, but based on the indonesian tourists‘ perceptions, the utterance ‗ya sudah lima puluh ribu seperti harga bakul‘ has impolite level. conversation on describing tourist sites data (16) g: sekarang kita memasuki pelataran candi sukuh. candi ini termasuk jenis candi hindu peninggalan kerajaan majapahit. di bawah ini simbol yoni dan lingga. (‗now we enter the front yard of register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 186 sukuh temple. this temple is a kind of hindu temple and a heritage of majapahit kingdom. there are symbols of yoni and lingga in front of the gate.‘) t: simbol itu maksudnya, pak? kok bentuknya erotis gitu? (‗what do the symbols mean, sir? why the shapes are erotic?‘) g: yoni itu simbol mr. p, kepunyaan laki-laki, sedangkan lingga itu simbol mrs. v, kepunyaan perempuan. (‗yoni is the symbol of mr. p, the man‘s belongings, and lingga is the symbol of mrs. v, the woman‘s belongings.‘) t: (tourist laughs). kesannya porno ya, pak? (‗they look like pornography, aren‘t they?‘) this conversation was between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) in sukuh temple. the tour guide‘s utterance yoni itu simbol mr. p, kepunyaan laki-laki, sedangkan lingga itu simbol mrs. v, kepunyaan perempuan follows brown and levinson‘s pps9 (assert or presuppose knowledge of and concern for hearer‘s wants). the questionnaire answers show that 41 (82%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance ‗yoni is the symbol of mr. p, the man‘s belongings, and lingga is the symbol of mrs. v, the woman‘s belongings‘ used by the tour guide is p (polite), 9 (18%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated in i (impolite). on the other hand, 63 (90%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance yoni itu simbol mr. p, kepunyaan laki-laki, sedangkan lingga itu simbol mrs. v, kepunyaan perempuan is p (polite), 7 (10%) of them stated it n (normal) and none of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance ‗yoni is the symbol of mr. p, the man‘s belongings, and lingga is the symbol of mrs. v, the woman‘s belongings‘ yoni itu simbol mr. p, kepunyaan laki-laki, sedangkan lingga itu simbol mrs. v, kepunyaan perempuan has polite level. data (17) context register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 187 t: pak, bisa diantar ke restoran di tengah waduk? (‗can you escort me to the restaurant in the middle of this dam, sir?‘) g: bisa, bisa, mangga pak. (‗yes, yes. come on, sir.‘) t: masih jauh pak jaraknya dari sini? (‗is it far from here?‘) g: ndak, ya paling saududan. (‗no, it‘s just like ―smoking a piece of cigarette‖.‘) this conversation was between a tour guide (g) and a tourist (t) on a boat sailing to floating restaurant of gadjah mungkur dam. the tour guide‘s utterance ndak, ya paling saududan follows brown and levinson‘s pps6 (avoid disagreement). the questionnaire answers show that 17 (34%) foreign tourists stated that the utterance no, it‟s just “smoking a piece of cigarette” used by the tour guide is p (polite), 24 (48%) of them stated it n (normal) and 9 (18%) of them stated it i (impolite). on the other hand, 21 (30%) indonesian tourists stated that the utterance „ndak, ya paling saududan‘ is p (polite), 38 (54.29%) of them stated it n (normal) and 11 (15.71%) of them stated it i (impolite). so, it can be concluded that based on the foreign and indonesian tourists' perceptions, the use of the tour guide‘s utterance no, it‟s just “smoking a piece of cigarette” (‗ndak, ya paling saududan‘) has normal level. conclusion from the 17 data that represent the 13 kinds of conversational discourse between the tourists and tourism-industry practitioners analyzed above, it can be concluded the characteristics of politeness strategies and levels as follows: 1. the tourism industry practitioners use various politeness strategies in using tourism-service language to serve their guests. some politeness strategies appear in certain conversations, that is pps6x and pps15x in receiving register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 188 reservations; nps1 in meeting tourists at the airport/railway station; nps8 in providing information upon arrival on the way to the hotel; nps1, nps6 and nps1x in helping tourists with their registration; pps6 and nps2x in handling telephone enquiries; pps11 in giving directions; pps13 in giving information about art performances and entertainment; pps6x and pps13x in beginning a tour and describing the itinerary; pps3, pps6, pps9, pps11, pps12, pps14 and nps9 in describing points of interest on the tour route; pps6, pps10 and pps15 in serving meals at restaurants; pps12 and pps13 in describing processes used in making art objects (batik, leather puppets, gamelan instruments, etc.); pps6, pps13 and pps13x in bargaining for souvenir prices and pps6, and pps9 in describing tourist sites. 2. the tourism industry practitioners use various politeness levels in tourismservice language to serve their guests. some politeness levels appear in certain conversations, that is n and i in receiving reservations; p in meeting tourists at the airport/railway station; p in providing information upon arrival on the way to the hotel; p in helping tourists with their registration; p in handling telephone enquiries; p in giving directions; n in giving information about art performances and entertainment; p in beginning a tour and describing the itinerary; n in describing points of interest on the tour route; p and n in serving meals at restaurants; n in describing processes used in making art objects (batik, leather puppets, gamelan instruments, etc.); n in bargaining for souvenir prices and p and n in describing tourist sites. this research shows that the politeness strategies in tourism-service language as used by the tourism industry practitioners in surakarta residency affect their politeness levels. the more appropriate they use the politeness strategies, the more polite levels they get. moreover, the more polite their register, vol. 3, no. 2, november 2010 189 tourism-service language, the more satisfaction the tourists obtain. therefore, it is suggested that tourism industry practitioners should always follow politeness strategies as well as possible when serving tourists to ensure their satisfaction. the research findings can be made as reference for further research projects related to politeness strategies and levels in service language other than in host-guest relationship (tourism), such as doctor-patient (medical), teacher-student (education), bank teller-customer (banking), seller-buyer (trade) relationships etc. in conversational discourse of socio-pragmatic framework. references brown, penelope and levinson, stephen c. 1987. politeness: some universal in language use. great britain: cambridge univesity press. dinas pariwisata kota surakarta. jumlah kunjungan wisatawan ke solo. http://www.visit-solo.com on 9 january 2009. grice, paul h. 1975. logic and conversation, in peter cole and jerry morgan (eds), syntax and semantics, vol.3: speech acts. new york: academic press. leech, geoffrey. 1983. principles of pragmatics. new york: longman group limited. mey, jabob l. 1993. pragmatics: an introduction. cambridge, massachusetts: blackwell publishers. nadar, f. x. 2009. pragmatik dan penelitian pragmatik. yogyakarta: graha ilmu. rahardi, r. kunjana. 2005. pragmatik, kesantunan imperatif bahasa indonesia. jakarta: penerbit erlangga. verhaar, j.w.m. 1996. asas-asas linguistik umum. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. http://www.visit-solo.com/ register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 170 the use of puppet: shifting speaking skill from the perspective of students’ self-esteem suesthi maharani english education department of graduate program of teacher training and education faculty of sebelas maret university email: swez.maharanny@yahoo.com abstract this article reports the result of a research dealing with, 1) the difference between puppet and picture in teaching speaking, 2) the difference between students having high self-esteem and students having low self-esteem, and 3) the interaction between teaching media and self-esteem. the samples were two classes namely experimental class taught by using puppet and control class taught by using picture. each class was divided into two groups in which each consisted of students having high self-esteem and those having low self-esteem. to collect the data, two instruments were used namely speaking test and self-esteem questionnaire. the data were, then, analysed by using descriptive statistics to describe the research data and inferential statistics namely multifactor analysis of variance anova 2x2 and tukey test to test the hypotheses. the findings of this research are: (1) puppet is more effective than picture to teach speaking; (2) the students having high self-esteem have better speaking skill than those having low self-esteem; and (3) there is an interaction between teaching media and students’ self-esteem in teaching speaking. based on the research findings, it could be summarized that puppet is an effective media in teaching speaking to the eighth grade students of one of junior high schools in semarang regency in the academic year of 2014/2015. the effectiveness of the media is affected by self-esteem. keywords: puppet media, picture media, speaking skill, self-esteem, experimental research. introduction students often value speaking more than the other skills of reading, writing and listening. they often feel a great deal of anxiety related to their oral production. meanwhile, the goal of language is communication and the aim of speaking in a language context is to promote communicative efficiency. that is why students have to be able to use the language as correctly as possible and with a purpose to deliver message or information orally. they should try to overcome the anxiety to speak in english and to avoid confusion in the message due to faulty of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and fluency. because learning speaking is a habit formation, it needs practicing as often as possible. mailto:swez.maharanny@yahoo.com register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 171 media is one of the important things to support teaching speaking and very determinative in the learning achievement. there are many kinds of media: visual, audio, and audio visual. according to levie, visual media is interesting to students, increasing of students' understanding, giving the material accurately and accountable, giving information accurately; and easily to be understandable and easily to be interpreted. additionally, visual media is more simple and easy to bring any where (agil, 2012). one of visual media to support teaching and learning speaking is puppet. as stated in reidmiller (2008), the use of a puppet can provide help with public speaking, especially for the shy or apprehensive student. puppet activities keep students actively engaged with hands-on activities. it can increase the students' involvement, motivation, and the development of student's reading, oral language, and communication skills. the other example of attractive visual media is picture. generally, this media is used because it is concrete. it means that the students can identify or imagine the real object drawn in the picture in giving statement of it. the primary purpose of this media is to make students easy to understand in giving opinion or probably perception of the picture. in learning speaking, the factors influencing is not only the media used by the teacher, but also the psychological aspects such as self-esteem. brown in kalanzadeh (2013) proposes that no successful cognitive or affective activity can be carried out without some degree of self-esteem, self-confidence and self-efficacy in your own capabilities to successfully perform that activity. related to students' self-esteem in learning, the students are supposed to have appreciation and trust themselves to involve or participate in teaching learning process to gain knowledge. according to the observation, it was found that the students got some problems in speaking skill. therefore, it was necessary for the writer to conduct a research on students’ speaking to find what media that was effective to solve the students’ problems. this research is aimed at identifying the effect of the teaching media and self-esteem on students’ speaking skill. particularly this research is proposed: (1) whether the puppet media is more effective than the picture media to teach speaking for the eighth grade students of one of junior high schools in semarang regency; (2) whether the students of register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 172 the eighth grade of one of junior high schools in semarang regency whose self-esteem is high have better speaking skill than those whose self-esteem is low; (3) whether there is any interaction between the teaching media and students' self-esteem to teach speaking. speaking is important way in communication in order to build a good relationship with others. for building a good communication, people must have a good speaking skill. thornbury (2005: 2-14) states that the word "speaking" has close relation to the language skill in the oral mode or speech production. it is one's ability to produce speech or oral language due to the complete knowledge of the language which has various areas of speaking; transactional function refers to purpose of conveying information and facilitating the exchange of goods and services, whereas interpersonal function refers to all about maintaining and keeping good relations between people. fulcer (2003: 23-29) states that speaking is the verbal use of language to express ideas, opinion, and feelings. according to hymes (1972: 269), speaking is the ability of being able to produce and comprehend utterances which are appropriate to the context in which they are made. florez (1999: 1) says that speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning both its form and meaning depend on the context, the participants, their experiences, the environment and the purpose for speaking. considering some definitions, it could be inferred that speaking skill is an ability to produce speech or oral language by comprehending, expressing, and sharing ideas, opinions or feelings depending on the context, participant, experience, environtment, and purpose. belfiore (2013) states that puppet is defined as a movable inanimate object or figure that is controlled by strings, rods, or by placing one's hand inside its body. puppet refers to material images of humans, animals, or spirits that are created, dis-played, or manipulated in narrative or dramatic performance (bell, 2001). it could be concluded that puppet is a movable inanimate object representing an image of humans, animals, or spirit which is created, displayed and controlled by strings, rods, or by placing one's hand inside its body. hornby (1995: 871) defines picture as a painting, drawing, sketch, etc especially as a work of art. while mckenchnie (1980: 1357) defines picture in webster dictionary that picture is an image, or likeness of an object, person, or scene produce on a flat surface, register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 173 especially by painting, drawing or photography. gerlach (1980: 273) states that pictures are a two dimension visual representation of person, places, or things. meanwhile, according to wright (1989: 29), picture is not just an aspect of method but through its representation of place, object, and people, it is essential part of the overall experiences. it could be concluded that picture is a painting, drawing, sketch or photograph on a flat surface which is defined as a likeness of person, place, thing or idea, which is clearly visible, striking, and colorful to visual material. self-esteem is defined as the perception of self-worth, or the extent to which a person values. charles (2007) states that self-esteem is how much someone values himself and how important he thinks he is. it's knowing he is worthy of love and respect and accepting his limitations and boundaries. it's how he sees himself and how he feels about his achievements. in rubio (2007), branden (1994) said that self-esteem is the disposition to experience oneself as being competent to cope with the basic challenges of life and of being worthy of happiness. rubio (2007) himself defines self-esteem as a psychological and social phenomenon in which an individual evaluates his/her competence and own self according to some values. according to some theories which had been stated, it could be simplified that self-esteem is a psychological aspect related to a sense of self-worth or personal value about feeling, assumption and belief toward one's own appearance and competence. research methodology the research was conducted in one of junior high schools in semarang regency from january 2015 to march 2015. this research was carried out at the second grade students in the academic year of 2014-2015. there is a dependent variable and two independent variables in this research. the dependent variable is speaking skill and the independent variables are teaching media and self-esteem. the teaching media used in the class in order to achieve the objectives were puppet media and picture media. puppet media was used to teach speaking in experimental class. and then, picture media was used to teach speaking in control class. the last variable was self-esteem as attributive variable provided as psychological aspect. the design of this research was a factorial design 2x2 with posttest only design to assess the effect of two or more independent variables on the dependent variable. the population of this research is the eighth grade students of one of junior high schools in semarang regency in the academic year of 2014/2015. this research was conducted in two classes, one class as the register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 174 experimental group and one as the control group. the number of the students in each class is 30 students, so there were 60 students as sample. and the writer used cluster random sampling. the writer used two instruments of collecting data in this study. there were speaking test and self-esteem questionnaire. speaking test was used to measure the students’ speaking skill by using scoring rubrics of speaking. speaking test was assessed by using readability of the test instruction which informs whether the test instructions are appropriately readable for students and whether the instruction of speaking test can be understood by the students. and the result of the questionnaire showed that more than 75% of students answered “yes” for each item in the instruction. it could be concluded that speaking test in this research is readable. and then, self-esteem questionnaire was used to measure the level of students’ self-esteem and it was assessed by using validity and reliability test. validity test is used to identify whether each item is valid or not, while reliability test is used to identify whether the instrument is reliable or not. the techniques used in analyzing the data were descriptive analysis and inferential analysis. descriptive analysis was used to know the mean, median, mode and standard deviation of the scores of the speaking test. to identify the normality and the homogeneity of the data, the reseacher used normality and homogeneity test which were done before testing the hypothesis. inferential analysis used was multifactor analysis of variance 2x2 to test the hypotheses. ho is rejected if fo is higher than ft. if ho is rejected, the analysis was continued to identify which group is better by using tukey test. discussion the data in this research are classified into eight groups: (1) the data of students’ speaking score taught by using puppet media (a1); (2) the data of students’ speaking score taught by using picture media (a2); (3)the data of speaking score of the students having high self-esteem (b1); (4) the data of speaking score of the students having low self-esteem (b2); (5) the data of speaking score of the students having high self-esteem taught by using puppet media (a1b1); (6) the data of speaking score of the students having low self-esteem taught by using puppet media (a1b2); (7) the data of speaking score of the students having high self-esteem taught by picture media (a2b1) and (8) the data of speaking score of the students having low self-esteem taught by pictur media (a2b2). the result of normality test for the eight groups shows that all the data of speaking scores for the eight groups are in normal distribution because lo of the entire data are lower than lt (lo< lt) at the level of significance α = 0.05. the summary of normality test could be seen in the table 1. table 1. the summary of normality test data number of sample lo lt α distribution of sample a1 30 0.088 0.161 0.05 normal a2 30 0.085 0.161 0.05 normal b1 30 0.083 0.161 0.05 normal register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 175 b2 30 0.060 0.161 0.05 normal a1b1 15 0.081 0.220 0.05 normal a1b2 15 0.111 0.220 0.05 normal a2b1 15 0.129 0.220 0.05 normal a2b2 15 0.127 0.220 0.05 normal the result of homogeneity test is 3.42. the data are homogeneous if χo 2 (χobtained) is lower than χt 2 (χtable) at the level of significance α = 0.05. because χo 2 (3.42) is lower than χt 2 (7.81), it could be said that the data are homogeneous. it means that the data of this research are obtained from homogeneous sample. the details could be seen in the table 2. table 2. summary of homogeneity test sample df 1/(df) si 2 log si 2 (df) log si 2 1 14 0.0714286 13.56 1.1322 15.8514 2 14 0.0714286 21.20 1.3262 18.5673 3 14 0.0714286 35.98 1.5561 21.7850 4 14 0.0714286 20.53 1.3124 18.3730 56 74.5768 after the data are normal and homogeneous, then the data are analysed by using multifactor analysis of variance (anova) 2x2 which could be seen in the table 1. this test is used to identify the effects of the independent variables and attributive variable toward the dependent variable. in addition, it functions to check if there is an interaction among those variables. the hypothesis is rejected if fo is higher than ft (fo> ft). the computation of hypotheses test by using anova test could be seen in the table 3 and the result of mean score could be seen in the table 4. table 3. multifactors analysis of variance (anova) 2x2 register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 176 source variance ss df ms fo ft( 0.05) between columns (∑xbc 2 ) 92.50 1 92.50 4.05 4.00 between rows (∑xbr 2 ) 199.00 1 199.00 8.76 columns by rows (∑xint 2 ) 119 1 119 5.22 between groups (∑xb 2 ) 411.35 3 137.12 within groups (∑xw 2 ) 1277.70 56 22.82 total (∑xt 2 ) 1689 59 table 4. the result of mean score self-esteem (b) teaching media (a) total puppet media (a1) picture media (a2) high self-esteem (b1) 84.83 79.53 82.18 low self-esteem (b2) 78.37 78.70 78.53 total 81.60 79.12 first, because fo between columns (4.05) is higher than ft (0.05) (4.00), the difference between columns is significant. therefore, ho is rejected. it means that teaching speaking using puppet media to the second grade of one of junior high schools in semarang regency in the academic year of 2014/2015 is significantly different from the one using picture media. the mean score of the students taught by using puppet media (81.60) is higher than the mean score of students taught by using picture media is (79.12). thus, it could be concluded that puppet media is more effective than picture media to teach speaking to the eighth grade of one of junior high schools in semarang regency in the academic year of 2014/2015. second, because fo between rows (8.76) is higher than ft (0.05) (4.00), the difference between rows is significant. therefore, ho is rejected. it means that students having high self-esteem are significantly different from those having low self-esteem. the mean score of the students having high self-esteem (82.18) is higher than the mean score of the students having low self-esteem (78.53). it could be concluded that students having high self-esteem have better speaking skill than students having low self-esteem at the eighth grade of one of junior high schools in semarang regency in the academic year of 2014/2015. third, because f interaction between groups (5.22) is higher than ft(0.05) (4.00), ho is rejected. therefore, there is an interaction between the two variables, the teaching media and self-esteem in teaching speaking to the eighth grade of one of junior high schools in semarang regency in the academic year of 2014/2015. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 177 after knowing the effects and the interaction of independent variables toward the dependent variable, it is also necessary to compare the mean of every treatment with the other means using tukey test. this test is used to identify which means are significantly different from the other. the details could be seen in the table 5. table 5. summary of tukey test first, because qo between columns (4.03) is higher than qt at the level of significance α = 0.05 (2.83), it means that puppet media is significantly different from picture media in teaching speaking. the mean score of the students taught by using puppet media (81.60) is higher than the mean score of students taught by using puppet media is (79.12). thus, it could be concluded that puppet media is more effective than picture media to teach speaking to the eighth grade students of one of junior high schools in semarang regency in the academic year of 2014/2015. second, because qo between rows (5.92) is higher than qt at the level of significance α =0.05 (2.83), it means that the students having high self-esteem are significantly different from those having low self-esteem. the mean score of the students having high self-esteem (82.18) is higher than the mean score of the students having low self-esteem (78.53). it could be concluded that students having high self-esteem have better speaking skill than students having low self-esteem to the eighth grade students of one of junior high schools in semarang regency in the academic year of 2014/2015. third, because qo between cells a1b1 and a2b1 (6.08) is higher than qt at the level of significance α = 0.05 (2.89), it means that puppet media is significantly different from picture media to teach speaking to the students having high self-esteem. the mean score of a1b1(84.83) is higher than a2b1(79.53), it could be concluded that puppet media is more effective than picture media to the students having high self-esteem. no data qo qt α status 1 a1-a2 4.03 2.83 0.05 significant 2 b1-b2 5.92 2.83 0.05 significant 3 a1b1a2b1 6.08 2.89 0.05 significant 4 a1b2a2b2 0.38 2.89 0.05 not significant register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 178 forth, because qo between cells a1b2 and a2b2 (0.38) is lower than qt at the level of significance α = 0.05 (2.89), it means that puppet media is not significantly different from picture media to teach speaking to the students having low self-esteem. and the mean score of a1b2 is 78.37 and a2b2 is 78.70. the following section discusses findings of this research by considering the result of data analysis: (1) the difference between students taught by using puppet media and picture media. the finding of this research reveals that there is a significant difference between teaching speaking using puppet media and teaching speaking using picture media. by using puppet, students become less inhibited when they are hidden behind the puppet by only handling it to move. puppet is an ideal springboard for developing speaking skill. as states by greensmith (2012), puppet as a media for learning speaking raises an activity of puppetry which provides an opportunity for students to become comfortable exploring language and becoming expressive verbally. they are free to try on new personalities and take them off again, with a puppet on their hand, broadening their own in the process. naylor, keogh, downing, maloney & simon (2007) state that using puppet appears to have a positive effect on lessons: enhancing children’s engagement and motivation, providing a stimulus for focused talk and investigation in science, raising the confidence of shy children, getting children to share their ideas and reveal their misconceptions, challenging children’s ideas and misconceptions in a creative way, providing opportunities for the teacher to take on a different role, supporting effective classroom management, creating a context for the use of vocabulary. belfiore (2013) explaines that puppetry in the classroom aids students to speak aloud in a group setting. not only that, puppet is also a wonderful visual aid for students, retaining their attention and encouraging them to participate in class. students are more willing to learn when they are having fun. according to jean piaget theory, puppet play helps students develop creative skills and cognitive skills by forcing them to use their imaginations. they make up the roles, the rules, the situations and the solutions. they have to listen and understand the information before they have to transcode and use it to deliver in puppet play. any puppet can encourage the quietest of students to start talking. they can help to http://www.learningtoys.ca/english/toys-that-teach-en-2/social-communication-skills.html register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 179 develop their social and motor skills, and can meet the visual, tactile and emotional needs of the individual (narayanan, 2012). teaching speaking by using picture as media is also interesting, but it can not depict motion as puppet does. if it is not unique, picture can seem uninteresting to pupils while it takes time and costs much to provide attractive pictures. the other reason is if the picture is small and unclear, it arouses problems in the teaching learning process since the students misunderstand about the pictures. in addition, according to baranowska (2002) about the use of picture, students will understand what they see quickly and there is a danger that they attain the general meaning of pictures in an easy and rapid way without coding them into their minds. because of that, they soon forget what they have learnt or do not care for exercises that give them the necessary practice. in accordance with the explanation of the differences between both media above, it could be summed up that puppet media has more complex and challenging activities which involves all the students being creative and having high self confidence and motivation in learning than picture media does. it could be estimated that puppet media is more effective than the picture media to teach speaking. it could be proved that the significant difference between puppet media and picture media could be seen from the learning activities and the process of the students to be active learners. thus, it could be concluded that puppet media is more effective than picture media in teaching speaking skill; (2) the difference between students having high self-esteem and students having low self-esteem. the finding of this research reveals that students having high self-esteem have better speaking skill than those having low self-esteem. the mean score of students having high self-esteem is higher than those having low self-esteem. students who have high self-esteem generally feel good about their ability to participate, confident in social situations and happy with the way. those who have high self-esteem do well the challenging speaking activity given by the teacher in their accomplishments and try hard to be successful. as a result, students with high self-esteem generally have a realistic assessment of their strengths and weaknesses. they have a better self-confidence, independent and cooperative attitude, optimistic, feeling comfortable with a wide range of emotions, and ability to solve problems. page & page register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 180 (1992) in ariyani (2013) state that the behavior commonly seen in students with high selfesteem is active, curious about surroundings, makes wide variety of contact, happy, confident; does not whine for what cannot be had. on the other hand, students with low self-esteem tend to feel unworthy, incapable, and incompetent. they think that they have a negative view of life that turns into low risk taking ability. they tend to expect the worst, exert less effort on their tasks especially challenging demanding ones, achieve less success and, is afraid and pesimistic to do something. as stated by jena (2002), low self esteem is a hopeless condition that keeps individuals from realizing their full potential. a person, who has low self esteem, feels incompetent, unworthy, and incapable. in fact, persons with low self esteem feel so poorly about themselves. by virtue of the above explanation, it could be stated that the students whose selfesteem is high will be much easier to follow any speaking activity given because they are more motivated, creative, and having self-confidence to find the solution out when they find some difficulties in teaching and learning process. on the contrary, the students whose selfesteem is low will find it easy to get stuck in involving in the activity given by the teacher. thus, it is obvious that the students, whose self-esteem is high, have better speaking skill than those whose self-esteem is low; (3) interaction between teaching media and students’ self-esteem in teaching speaking. the choice of media will influence student’s achievement, especially in teaching speaking. in speaking class the teacher must use suitable media in order to get the students more active and get involved. puppet media raises positive activities to enhance the students' speaking skill. the use of puppets provides an opportunity for students’ expression through social aspects of communication. through puppet plays, students can improve their proficiencies in oral language, involvement, and motivation. by the nature of this media, the activities created are really demanded for students who are active, creative, having high confidence, having high capability, having high self-worthy, and having belief of success to do challenging activities. naylor et al. (2007) say that puppets can provide a useful register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 181 mechanism to enhance children’s engagement and to promote talk involving reasoning in primary lessons. the students having high self-esteem usually have high motivation and belief to learn something. they will face their fear and anxiety as a challenge. they also have positive attitude towards the lesson by encouraging and supporting themselves to learn. they are energetic and capable to develop and enhance something. the activities are intended to encourage the students to develop conversation skills as risk taking, challenging and apropriate responses in a conversation and also develop sense of a story by exploring their capability in delivering it by involving themselves in a plot of story as one of the characters. they are expected to have high confidence and believe to be able to do the activities. as lawrence (2006: 8) says, the child with high self-esteem is likely to be confident in social situations and in tackling school work. he/she will have retained a natural curiosity for learning and will be eager and enthusiastic when presents with a new challenge. they are also more active and creative in class and do not affraid in making mistakes. by considering the explanation, the puppet is suitable media to teach speaking to the students whose selfesteem is high. on the contrary, the students with low self-esteem likely to give up or go through the motions of trying without really giving their best. they are afraid and pessimistic to do something challenging. the students with level of low self-esteem faced to be worst, less effort on their tasks, demanding the unchallenging activity, and achieving less success. they are afraid to speak and to take a risk in making mistake. they tend to choose an easy activity to do that will not demand them to do something different that they have to be brave, creative, and active. the students with low self-esteem find difficulties in the class, because they are mildly passive, tend to avoid new experiences, have limited contacts, shy and avoid getting problems (page & page, 1992 in ariyani, 2013). the activities created by using picture as media to teach speaking are also accordance with the characteristics of students having low self-esteem. at the beginning stages, the teacher facilitates the students by giving model to the activity by introducing the outline of a story by using picture as a media supported and then they work in group activity. by using picture, the students tends to do register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 182 easier activity that they only tell what is drawn. the students having low self-esteem need guidance and support in learning and the use of picture serves students guidance through its activity created. it is suitable with the characteristics of the students having low self-esteem. the students are less creative in the class and they just become the followers. although picture is interesting and easy to prepare, it possesses the characteristic which make the students tend to be passive, avoid new experience and do easy activity. therefore, the use of picture media is more effective for students having low self-esteem. based on the explanation, it could be concluded that there is an interaction between teaching media and students’ self-esteem for teaching speaking. there are some related previous studies in accordance with the variable of the reasearch conducted by the writer. first, research by naylor, keogh, downing, maloney, and simon (2007) entitled the puppets project: puppets and change in teacher practice set out to investigate whether the use of puppets can provide a stimulus that will generate the kind of talk that helps thinking and reasoning in science. a major aim of the project was to provide a resource for teachers that would help them to enhance their practice by increasing the opportunities for children’s talk that promotes thinking and reasoning and to become more dialogic in their teaching. the data show a decrease in the number of non-reasoning questions and an increase in the use of reasoning questions when puppets were used. this is consistent with the way that puppets present a problem to the class. when teachers used puppets they were more likely to ask open, thought-provoking questions which created opportunities for children’s talk. this contrasts with their typical science lessons, which were more dominated by recall questions. there was a decrease in the amount of information provided by the teachers and an increase in the use of argumentation in science lessons when puppets were used. this created more opportunities for children’s thinking and reasoning talk in the puppets lessons compared to the typical lessons without puppets. again this indicates a shift in teaching style towards more thought-provoking lessons. it appears that the use of puppets has enabled the teachers to become more dialogic in their science teaching, and that introducing puppets into the classroom has influenced some register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 183 fundamental aspects of their pedagogy. chi-squared tests show that each of the changes indicated above is significant. on the contrary with the previous study, the research conducted by the writer placed the students as the subject using the puppet as their media of learning speaking. the process of teaching and learning was focussed on the students’ activity in telling story by using media to help them provoking speaking skill. the teacher placed herself only as the facilitator. it emphasized the active participation of the students in using puppetry in telling story as vehicles for the creation of opportunities to increase their english skill. through the use of puppetry, it can gain the students’ attention, and provide an interactive experience stimulating their creativity and the desire to share thoughts and ideas in doing fun puppetry story telling experience. the writer also compared puppet with picture to find out which media is more interesting and effective to enhance the students’ speaking skill. the other related previous study is by nasution (2009) entitled story-telling technique using puppets to improve the speaking ability of the students of mtsn tangerang ii pamulang. the purpose of this study is to improve students' skills in speaking through storytelling techniques using puppets in terms of the content of the story and storytelling. based on the findings it can be concluded that the technique of storytelling using puppets is very effective to improve students’ engagement in the learning process and to increase the value of speaking student achievement. associated with stories and puppets as media and teaching materials, teachers are advised to provide media and material which were interesting according to the needs of the students. on the contrary, this writer’s research was not only focused on the media used but also the psychological aspect which influenced the students in learning speaking such as self esteem and the previous researchers do not investigate it. it provided the best way to teach which apropriate with the students’ condition. the main concern of this reserach was to see if such an interaction could be detected among students’ skill in oral production, covering the five components of vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, fluency, and content and media of learning and students’ self esteem. as it was shown, the level of learners' self-esteem has a significant effect on students’ speaking skill. so it might be helpful if teachers or other researchers pay more attention to their students' level of self-esteem and try to enhance it. also considering the media used was important for decision making purposes since it affects teaching learning process. the findings may be interpreted to mean that those who have higher levels of selfesteem are more creative, more risk taking and more prepared to share their views with others regardless of whether, lexically or grammatically, they produce what can be regarded as accurate or standard or even correct english both accuracy and fluency, something which can perhaps take care of itself in the process of communication. those caracters building are not investigated by the previous study. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 184 conclusion in accordance with the hypothesis testing, research findings are: (1) puppet media is more effective than picture media in teaching speaking. considering with the first conclusion of this research, there are some suggestions addressed to english teachers, students, school, and other researchers. (a) english teachers, this study can offer an effective and efficient media to apply in teaching speaking. in implementing this media, they should have a preparation to implement this media effectively. they should understand the concept as well as strength and weakness of this media in order to avoid obstacles which may appear in the teaching and learning process. (b) students, since puppet media is a new media for the students, the unique interesting and joyful learning experience of puppet media make them more enthusiastic in the classroom activities than monotonous learning media they used to be using. puppet media also enables the students to be optimist, creative and active in exploring ideas when they are retelling a story. so, the students should be more active in teaching learning process in order to improve their speaking skill. (c) school, by knowing that puppet is an effective media to teach speaking, the school should facilitate and support the implementation of this media by providing many resources deal with the procedure of using this media effectively and efficiently and requirements to make this media attracting for the students. furthemore, after the process of the implementation, the school should give more concern on the effects of this media to teach speaking in order to observe whether it is done properly or not. the school also should do some evaluation if there were problems in implementing this media. and (d) other researchers, they should be able to investigate something new and beneficial for teaching and learning development. they should be able to learn and understand the core of teaching media by reading some scientific sources such as journal or related research and following seminar or workshop, etc. then, they can implement a new teaching media and the findings should inspire the other researcher and english teacher to do further study or find another new media dealing with teaching english especially speaking skill. (2) the students having high level of self-esteem have better speaking skill than those having low self-esteem. there are some suggestions addressed to english teachers and students related to the second conclusion of this research. (a) english register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 185 teachers, the result of the media applied is also affected by the students’ characteristics. not all of the students feel comfortable with a particular media during the teaching and learning process. as proved in this research, puppet media is more suitable for the students with high level of self-esteem. meanwhile, picture media is more suitable for the students with low level of self-esteem. therefore, it is really important for the teacher to know the students’ characteristics in order to create a good and appropriate situation in a class before implementing this media in order to make the class interesting and not monotonous. and (b) students, by knowing their level of self-esteem, students need to adjust themselves to the media used by the teacher in order to gain a higher achievement of speaking skill. they also must manage their self-esteem well because it can influence their speaking skill. (3) there is an interaction between teaching media and self-esteem to teach speaking. based on the last conclusion, the writer constructed suggestions for english teacher and other researcher. (a) english teachers, they should be able to select the most appropriate teaching media based on the students’ condition. self-esteem becomes one of the important considerations in teaching speaking. thus, they should understand whether the media used can facilitate the students having high and low self-esteem to practice speaking. (b) other researchers, since self-esteem is regarded as one of the psychological aspects which influence speaking skill. this research can be used as a consideration to enrich their references in improving speaking skill viewed from a psychological point of view, self-esteem. references agil, kho. 2012. teaching speaking through visual media. retrieved from http://artcorners.blogspot.com, accessed at june 12 ariyani, y. n. 2013. the effectiveness of reap in teaching reading viewed from students’ self-esteem. thesis. english department of graduate program. surakarta: sebelas maret university. baranowska, m. 2002. valuation of visual aids. retrieved from http://www. edukacja.edux.pl/p-15478-valuation-of-visual-aids.php. belfiore, c. 2013. puppets talk, children listen. teach magazine. retrieved from http://www.teachmag.com, accessed at april 1 http://art-corners.blogspot.com/ http://art-corners.blogspot.com/ http://www/ http://www.teachmag.com/ register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.170-186 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 186 bell, j. 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(eds). self-esteem and foreign language learning. newcastle: cambridge scholars publishing. thornbury, scott. 2005. how to teach speaking. harlow, england: longman. http://www/ http://www.projectguru.in/ http://www.slideshare.net/kokilavaaninarayanan/the-importance-of%20puppets dinamika pengarusutamaan gender register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022), pp. 126-146 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v15i1.126-146 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 126 the pragmatics of ain’t within academic and social context jumanto jumanto1*, rahmanti asmarani2, sarif syamsu rizal3, haryati sulistyorini4 1,2,3,4 universitas dian nuswantoro, jl. imam bonjol 2015 semarang 50131, indonesia *) corresponding author email: ilhamj@dsn.dinus.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i1.126-146 submission track: received: 14-02-2022 final revision: 06-04-2022 available online: 30-04-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract this paper aims at exploring as well as describing the form, the meaning, and the function of the contraction ain’t, with the corpus data retrieved from english-affiliated urls or websites (web-data). this interpretive qualitative research employed interpretive techniques and a coding analysis. one finding showed that ain’t belongs to non-standard or informal english, which represents or is derived from the forms am not, is not, are not, has not, have not, do not, does not, did not, and the others. another finding described that ain’t implies different aspects, i.e. informality, topic area, low social class, emphasis, and content. the other finding also showed that ain’t is part of close language, or is used for close people for friendship or camaraderie and that ain’t belongs to informal utterances, which is then verified by other experts’ states and theories within a synthesis as the world platform of discussion. based on the findings, ain’t should be taught academically in classrooms or other teaching and learning encounters as an informal language with its various derived constructions, and students or learners should be made aware of its use within an interpersonal or social context, as it may lead to a rude situation, and a probable disharmony between the speaker and the hearer then happens. keywords: pragmatics; politeness; camaraderie; informal english; ain’t. “i ain’t gay but 20 dollars is 20 dollars” (donald trump: people magazine, 1998). https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ j. jumanto, r. asmarani, s.s. rizal, h. sulistyorini 127 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) introduction in 1998, the utterance i ain’t gay but 20 dollars is 20 dollars was popular and was probably intriguing to researchers. it was not the mere utterance itself, which is interesting, but what was contained in it and who made it interested the public more. a young businessman, with great success and great wealth, donald trump, then not yet enrolled to be president, and no one had expected so, made the utterance published and shared in general public by people magazine, with various probable reactions: psychological, political, academic, economic, social, and even some other contexts. linguistically pragmatically, the utterance contains three aspects of interest: ain’t, gay, and 20 dollars. the first is the utterance ain’t. previous knowledge from the linguistic context tells us that the utterance ain’t is probably short from am not. the question is: why did trump speak it into ain’t? did he imply something? did he mean something else? did he feel at ease saying it? why? and other questions rise. the second interest is the utterance gay. and the linguistic context also tells us that it is an adjective, but also a noun, a homosexual. why did trump choose the utterance, instead of another one? he could have said convenient, or pleased, or happy, as an alternative. why did he prefer the word gay? did he imply something? did he mean something else? did he also mean a homosexual? and there are probably some other questions addressed to this context. the third is the utterance 20 dollars. why did trump talk about money in public? was that not of an embarrassment? why did he freely talk about it? did he feel at ease saying it in public? did he actually say something about making money by having sex? these are questions, among others, concerning the third utterance. there are also probably others. this paper is not trying to answer all the initial questions above but will highlight one of the three points contained in the main utterance, i.e. ain’t, gay, and 20 dollars. the three points are, we suspect, what is called, in language use, as informality. the word ain’t is contracted, the word gay is informal or is taboo, and the words 20 dollars are about money or are probably a homosexual transaction, thus about wealth or payment for sexual service, which is usually a talk among or between close people, within a closed context. trump made this talk open to the public, why? language use is a the pragmatics of ain’t within academic and social context register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 128 matter of probabilities (leech, 1983; jumanto, 2014a; 2014b; 2017). this probability in language use is the main interest in this research, especially of the main concern on the utterance or the word ain’t. as the study of the interaction of meanings, or the study of speaker’s meaning, or analysis on language within its context, pragmatics will see the utterance ain’t from its locution, illocution, and perlocution, the three main aspects of which should come and be considered as simultaneous, not one after another of the three aspects. thus, we should consider here the form (locution), the meaning (illocution), and the probable effects (perlocution) the utterance brings in language use. this research explores what linguistic constructions contribute to the form, what probable various meanings reveal from the form, and what probable effects the form gives in relation to a particular hearer. the form is elaborated from the aspect of informality in language use, the meanings are dug up from accounts and examples in language use, and the effects—thus, functions—are confronted to two types of the hearer, i.e. close people and superiors, elaborated from the theory of power and solidarity in the side of the hearer within speaker-hearer interpersonal interactions (brown and gilman, 1968). the research data are taken from english-language-affiliated urls or websites as sources of accounts and examples on the utterance ain’t and its elaborations. there are 12 urls or websites employed as sources of data (web-data) in this explorative qualitative research. the use of ain’t in everyday context is, as pragmatics suggests, indeed, valid. as a pragmeme, i.e. a human act, the utterance is potentially there among speakers of the english language and is ready to launch in conversations, with a particular purpose of confirming something or instilling closeness or probable solidarity. however, speakers of the english language may fall into close speakers and not close people, the misuse of ain’t of which may lead to impoliteness or threatening the face of particular hearers. due to this potential risk towards face-threats upon the use of ain’t in verbal interactions, this research on the use of ain’t is indispensably important within an academic and social context. in the former context, school students of the english language should be made aware of the informal phenomenon on the use as well as usage of ain’t, while within the latter, learners of the j. jumanto, r. asmarani, s.s. rizal, h. sulistyorini 129 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) english language should know how to maintain politeness in verbal interactions concerning the use of ain’t towards close people or not close people. the term informality, upon exploration of other disciplines, has employed an economic context. hart (1972) coined this term in his article on informal income in his 1972 ilo report, and it then started to effect in the phrase informal sector (bangasser, 2000), which then refers to heterogeneity and inconsistencies, along with its collocations, among others: informal, nonstructured, non-observed, unorganized, irregular, unofficial, and unmeasured (sindzingre, 2006). the term informality then is an unclear combination between maximum policy importance and political salience, whose literature is broad and its creation showed multifaceted nature (kanbur, 2009). the term is generally used in the development context and is conceptualized and measured under growing inconsistencies (heintz, 2012). no single approach is best applied to the term and the term is often full of inconsistency among different studies (kanbur, 2009; heintz, 2012). issues on informality in language use are also of interest to researchers or linguists. jumanto (2014a; 2014b) asserts that there is a difference between formal and informal utterances. informal utterances use incomplete, shorter forms, are not in good order, and sometimes cut-down, reversed-up, and changed in favor of the speaker. informal utterances involve contractions, slangs, reverse-ups, changes, taboos, swearings, f-words, and uses any topics, personal and private. informal utterances are part of the close language with any topics: safe, common, personal, and private. as formality and politeness are regarded as equivalent (sifianou, 2013), informal utterances are used not for politeness, but for friendship or camaraderie, i.e. between friends or close people in a closed context. following jumanto’s (2014a) previous researches, and in line with economic accounts by bangasser (2000), sindzingre (2006), kanbur (2009), heintz (2012), and linguistic accounts on closeness politeness in the theories of the positive face (goffman, 1959), positive politeness strategies (brown and levinson, 1987), solidarity politeness (renkema, 1993), and friendship or camaraderie (jumanto, 2006; 2014a; 2014b), the language of informality, and, hence, informal english, which involves the notorious, casual, heterogeneous, the pragmatics of ain’t within academic and social context register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 130 inconsistent, irregular, unorganized, incomplete, shorter, cut-down, reversed-up, and speaker-dependent aspects, shows the direct nature, and has the literal nature. the direct nature shows honesty, frankness, and freedom in expressing true feelings and opinions, while the literal nature refers to the original and basic meaning of words and phrases of every day or daily conversations. research method this qualitative research is a literature review, with different activities, ways of thinking, knowledge advancement as a foundation, and theorydevelopment facilitation. a literature review also opens new areas of research (baker, 2000; webster & watson, 2002). this research also employs a synthesis and a summary from other works to contribute to new ideas, and the findings can be a base for future research (bolderston, 2008). within this literature review, interpretive techniques are also employed. based on this methodological context, premises are set up to be implemented in the interpreting process, so a conclusion can be induced or justified by an argument claim (audi, 1999). the premises built and proposed then function to limit areas of data verification, knowledge advancement, and theory development on the form, meaning, and function of ain’t elaborated in this research. the steps of thinking in this research are presenting, identifying, and categorizing the corpus data, which also employed a coding technique with three steps: open, axial, and selective coding (strauss & corbin, 1990; holloway, 1997; bohm, 2004; saladana, 2012), respectively for identifying data, categorizing them, and selecting the main phenomena of the data behaviors. the research data were obtained from english-language-affiliated urls or websites (web-data) as sources of accounts and examples for discussion as well as verification. for ease of reference, the web data are numbered (i.e. web-data 1; web-data 2; web-data 3; etc.). here, the corpus data referred to, discussed, and justified are open for other researchers to verify and elaborate. j. jumanto, r. asmarani, s.s. rizal, h. sulistyorini 131 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) from the accounts of the research methodology, the pragmatics of ain’t in this study is accounted for based on the three premises (p’s) proposed below. (1) the form of ain’t belongs to informal english with various derived constructions (p1); (2) the meaning of ain’t implies different aspects of meaning (p2); (3) the function of ain’t is bound to interpersonal context (p3). these three premises are proposed for inducing synthesized discussions, verifying the findings, and bringing the points into an end in the conclusions. findings and discussions the premise 1 (p1) this p1 states that the form of ain’t belongs to informal english with various derived constructions. informal english involves the notorious, casual, heterogeneous, inconsistent, irregular, unorganized, incomplete, shorter, cut-down, reversed-up, and speaker-dependent aspects. web-data 1 shows that ain’t is a century-old contraction, deriving from the word am not, is not, are not, has not, or have not. users have derided the word for years and considered it acceptable in spoken english, but not in formal writing. examples given in web-data 1 are (1) it ain’t much fun; (2) a lot of people say if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it; (3) this ain’t your grandmother’s lladró. web-data 2 explains that ain’t is a contraction, along with the other words gotta, gonna, and wanna, and is often used in english songs. the contraction ain’t refers to the constructions of auxiliaries before adjectives in english, is not, am not, and are not. however, it may also refer to the auxiliaries have not and has not. the construction belongs to nonstandard english, which is different from standard english. examples given in web-data 2 are (1) time just ain’t enough to heal everything; (2) i ain’t kidding; (3) i ain’t seen you before in this place; (4) trust me, she ain’t going to tell you the truth. web-data 3 explains that in common spoken english, the word ain’t is derived from am not, is not, are not, has not, and have not. the the pragmatics of ain’t within academic and social context register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 132 contraction is also used for do not, does not, and did not in some dialects. the development of the contraction for the various constructions of to be not, to have not, and to do not has occurred independently at different times. the establishment of ain’t for various constructions of to be not had not happened until the mid-18th century, while that of to have not had not occurred until the early 19th century. web-data 4 accounts for various opinions from english users in public, among others, about ain’t being a slang contraction and that it belongs to informal language. ain’t also stands for other words. as a slang contraction, ain’t is for is not, are not, am not, do not, and does not. the contraction is of informal language, e.g. ain’t nobody got time for that; she ain’t listening to you; why ain’t anybody texting me today. the contraction is also a single word equivalent to am not, are not, is not. web-data 5 accounts that ain’t is a contraction and is of informal english. the contraction is for am not, are not, is not, has not, and have not. examples given in web-data 5 are (1) if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it; (2) they ain’t got nothing to say; (3) he ain't won a fight in years; and (4) hey sis, i ain't forgotten about ya. web-data 6 shows that ain’t is a contraction for am not, are not, is not, have not, and has not. this web-data asserts that the contraction is not nonstandard, but is more common in use by the less educated in their everyday speech. ain’t is rampant in american english. within web-data 6, examples given in form of excerpts from famous people are (1) the wackiness of movies ain't funny anymore (richard schickel); (2) there ain't going to be any blackmail (r. m. nixon); (3) the creative process ain't easy (mike royko); (4) it ain't for money? say it ain't so, jimmy! (cleveland amory); (4) if it ain't broke, don’t fix it (andy rooney). other examples given by this web-data are ain't she sweet; it ain't necessarily; it's a free country, ain't it? those people ain't got a clue; her husband left and she ain't never been the same. web-data 7 shows that ain’t is nonstandard for am not, are not, is not, have not, has not, do not, does not, and did not. this web-data also includes an account that in 1706, the contraction was originally for am not. the contraction began to serve its general use for are not, is not, et j. jumanto, r. asmarani, s.s. rizal, h. sulistyorini 133 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) cetera, in the early 19th century. it also accounts that the form ain’t in 17701980 was a variant of amn’t, i.e. the contraction of am not, with some adjustment. web-data 8 accounts that ain’t is sometimes used instead of am not, aren’t, isn’t, haven’t, and hasn’t, but that use of ain’t is considered incorrect for some people. ain’t is used as dialect or in spoken english, e.g. well, it's obvious, ain't it; i ain't got kids, but i have to pay towards the schools. this web-data also shows that in british english, ain’t is not standard and is a contraction of am not, is not, are not, have not, or has not, e.g. i ain’t seen it. in american english, ain’t is informal for am not, is not, are not, has not, or have not in a dialectal or nonstandard usage. this web-data also accounts for the origin of ain’t. the contraction has enjoyed its early assimilation, with a lengthened and raised vowel, of amn’t, i.e. the contraction of am not, and has contributed to later confusion with a’nt (are not), i’nt (is not), and ha’nt (has not; have not). this contraction is also serving its role in idioms, e.g. if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it. web-data 9 accounts that ain’t is nonstandard and is at the first place, a contraction of am not. in the second place, the contraction is also for are not, is not, has not, and have not. ain’t has enjoyed a long history of controversy, as its first appearance in 1778 has evolved and replaced the century-earlier an’t, which was the contraction for are not and am not. this long history of form adjustment is probably due to adjusted convenience in pronouncing the contraction. web-data 10 accounts that ain’t is a troublesome or slang contraction, and asserts that the contraction is in the dictionary, but questions whether or not it is a word and whether or not it is ok to use it. this web-data also accounts that ain’t is considered improper and slang, but it has actually arisen as an alternative or solution to two other contractions, i.e. amn’t and aren’t, i.e. i’m doing all right, ain’t i, which is not clunky compared to: i’m doing all right, amn’t i?, or which is not plain wrong grammatically compared to: i’m doing all right, aren’t i? the web-data also accounts, however, that the contraction ain’t is not exclusively used in the first person singular, but also in the others, the conjugations of which are: i ain’t; you ain’t; he, she, or it ain’t; we ain’t; you ain’t; they ain’t, despite their usual unacceptability. the pragmatics of ain’t within academic and social context register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 134 web-data 11 defines ain’t as the contraction for is not, am not, are not, do not, have not, will not, does not, et cetera. the contraction is also used especially in the south and midwest of the united states, to indicate the double negative. examples in web-data 11 are (1) ain't nothing like that i ain't seen before; (2) he ain't got no money; (3) i ain't seen him since last year; and (4) she ain't going to school today. web-data 12 accounts for uk and us forms of ain’t. the form ain’t is not standard and is short from of am not, is not, are not, has not, or have not. examples given in web-data 12 are (1) he ain't going; (2) i ain't got none left; (3) you can't spend what you ain't got; and (4) i ain't got no money right now. this web data also accounts for ain’t as part of an idiom, i.e. if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it. from all the accounts contained in the web-data above, as suggested by premise 1 of this research, the form of ain’t belongs to informal english with the casual, incomplete, shorter, and cut-down aspects. the form of ain’t as part of informal english has been verified as unacceptable, especially in formal writing (web-data 1, 10); as non-standard or informal english (webdata 2, 5, 7, 9, 12); as the common spoken english in particular dialects (webdata 3); as slang or troublesome construction of informal language with its questionable correct or proper use (web-data 4, 8, 10); not as nonstandard, but only used by the less educated in their everyday speech (web-data 6); as a particular dialect of the south and midwest of the united states (web-data 8, 11); as typically used in the double negative (web-data 11); and as part of idioms (web-data 8, 12). also suggested by premise 1 of this research, the form of ain’t has been derived from various constructions. the contraction has been derived from am not, is not, are not (web-data 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12); from has not and have not (web-data 1, 2, 3, 5, 6,7, 8, 9, 11, 12); from do not and does not (web-data 3, 4, 7, 11); from did not (web-data 3, 7, 11); from are not and is not only (web-data 9); from to be not, to have not, and to do not (web-data 3); from the contractions amn’t, aren’t, and isn’t (web-data 11); and from will not and the others (web-data 12). thus, we have observed that the contraction ain’t has derived from various constructions, i.e. am not, is not, are not, has not, have not, do not, j. jumanto, r. asmarani, s.s. rizal, h. sulistyorini 135 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) does not, and did not, or the contraction has been derived from any words from to be not, to have not, and to do not. the contraction has also derived from and has been a solution to the contractions amn’t, aren’t, and isn’t. the form of ain’t has also been derived from will not and the others. this last finding on will not and the others, however, still requires further research. the premise 2 (p2) this p2 states that the meaning of ain’t implies different aspects of meaning. web-data 1 shows that ain’t is mainly used as a tongue-in-cheek expression (a joke), as part of a common expression, or in an effort to sound folksy, i.e. not serious or friendly. web-data 2 accounts that ain’t is used in english songs, and we can see the meaning from the lyrics which contain the contraction. the web-data 3 accounts that english speakers commonly use ain’t in informal and oral contexts, within particular dialects and regions. people use ain’t to mark a nonstandard and low socio-economic status of their educational level and effect rhetorically. ain’t is slang or informal english, which is used in texting and talking (web-data 4). web-data 5 asserts that ain’t is informal and its use of it was widespread in the 18th century. it is normally used in many dialects and informal contexts in both north america and britain but should not be used in formal contexts. web-data 6 accounts that as non-standard english, ain’t is more common in the habitual speech of the less educated, and is used in both speech and writing to catch attention and to gain emphasis, in journalistic prose as part of informal style, in fiction for purposes of characterization, in familiar correspondence as to the mark of warm personal friendship, and in popular songs for conveying metrical reasons and informal tone. web-data 7 explains that ain’t is more common in uneducated speech, but also in the informal speech of the educated. ain’t occurs in humorous and set phrases and is also used for emphasis, for deliberate effects in phrases to represent speech. these web-data 6 and 7 have similar references, as they both relate ain’t to the utterance that belongs to the speech by those with a low education background. web-data 8 accounts that ain’t is of dialectical or nonstandard usage, and occurs in idioms. web-data 9 accounts that ain’t is part of vulgarism, i.e. the pragmatics of ain’t within academic and social context register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 136 a term used by the lower classes, is often regarded as a sign of ignorance and is part of folksy expressions. web-data 10 asserts that ain’t is troublesome, improper, and slang; however, ain’t has been a solution to the clunky contraction amn’t or the grammatically wrong contraction aren’t. ain’t is acceptable in dialogue, for a colloquial tone, for comedic effect, or as part of a joke or well-known saying in general conversation. web-data 11 accounts that ain’t is typically used in the double negative, while web-data 12 accounts that ain’t is not standard in english, and is part of idioms. from all the accounts contained in the web-data above, as suggested by premise 2 of this research, the meaning of ain’t implies different aspects of meaning. the research finding shows that the different aspects of meaning implied in the contraction ain’t are: informality (web-data 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12); topic area (web-data 2, 3, 6, 10); low social class (web-data 3, 7, 9); emphasis (web-data 6, 11); and content (web-data 8, 12). the informality aspect of the meaning of the contraction ain’t is verified by its tongue-incheek expression, or a joke, as part of common expression, or in an effort to sound folksy or not serious or friendly, and commonly used by speakers in oral and nonstandard, informal settings. this aspect is also confirmed that ain’t is slang or informal language, used in texting and talking. ain’t is also used in many dialects and informal contexts and should not be used in formal contexts. that ain’t is more common in the habitual speech of the less educated, of dialectical or nonstandard usage, and part of folksy expressions also confirms this aspect of informality. the informality aspect of ain’t is also shown in that ain’t is troublesome, improper, and slang, but is chosen as a solution to clunky and grammatical constructions. ain’t is also typically used in the double negative, which is not standard in english. the topic area is the second aspect of the meaning of ain’t. here, ain’t is used in english songs, with the meaning of ain’t in the lyrics for a rhetorical effect. ain’t is used as an informal style in journalistic prose, for purposes of characterization in fiction, as the mark of warm friendship in familiar correspondence, and for metrical reasons and informal tone in popular songs. ain’t is acceptable in dialogue, for a colloquial tone, for comedic effect, or as part of a joke or well-known saying in general conversation. the low social class is the third aspect of the meaning of ain’t. this aspect is contained in j. jumanto, r. asmarani, s.s. rizal, h. sulistyorini 137 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) that use of ain’t is considered as a marker of low-socio-economic status of educational level, is more common in uneducated speech, and is part of vulgarism, i.e. a term used by the lower classes. emphasis is the next aspect of the meaning of ain’t. this aspect is employed in both writing and speech to provide an emphasis and to catch attention. this aspect also occurs in the typical use of ain’t in the double negative. the last aspect of the meaning of ain’t is the content. in this sense, ain’t can be used as part of idioms or idiomatic expressions. the premise 3 (p3) this p3 states that the function of ain’t is bound to interpersonal context. this context has been elaborated from two tendencies of politeness, distancing and closeness, which is in line with theories of goffman’s negative and positive face (1959), brown and levinson’s negative and positive politeness strategies (1987), renkema’s respect and solidarity politeness (1993), and jumanto’s politeness and friendship or camaraderie (2006), and types of the hearer in the theory of power and solidarity by brown and gilman (1968). jumanto (2014a; 2014b) elaborates all the theories above into the socalled distant language and close language. distant language is spoken to superiors for politeness, while close language is used to close people for friendship or camaraderie. to a broader extent, as accounted for above, superiors may also refer to the public in general, or potential strangers, or other hearers’ informal situations, while close people may also refer to those a speaker has known for a quite long time, and thus, has shared common knowledge and interests within a closed context of friendship, solidarity, or camaraderie. distant language elaborates formal, indirect, non-literal utterances, with safe and common topics. on the other hand, close language employs any topics: safe or common, personal, and even private. the form of close language is of informal, direct, and literal utterances. informal utterances usually involve contractions, slangs, reverse-ups, changes, taboos, swearings, and f-words (2014a; 2014b). the utterance ain’t, as the author has suggested and is now confirmed, is part of close language, or is used for closeness politeness to close people for friendship or camaraderie. ain’t also belongs to informal utterances, as it is incomplete, or shorter, or cut-down (or contracted) from the form am not, the pragmatics of ain’t within academic and social context register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 138 is not, are not, has not, have not, do not, does not, and did not. this utterance is used for close people for friendship or camaraderie, which is closeness politeness. the case in which donald trump uttered ain’t in public with the joke on homosexuality, as illustrated in the introduction of this research paper, implies things as follows: (1) as a superior due to his great wealth and success, donald trump is using a close language to the public for closeness politeness, or creates friendship or camaraderie to the public; (2) as a superior, donald trump is freely talking about homosexuality (gay), and a homosexual transaction taboo (i.e. 20 dollars is 20 dollars) as a joke to the public, which is subordinate to him or that he probably regards as subordinate, all of which instills friendship or camaraderie, thus a close language; (3) the contraction ain’t is part of an informal utterance, which is part of the close language for closeness politeness, or friendship or camaraderie. the use of ain’t as part of donald trump’s utterance before public can so far be seen as his positive-face (goffman, 1955) exposure or his positive face-management strategy (brown and levinson, 1987) for a joke with people, in general, to reduce his social distance with them, thus showing closeness to public. all this is in line with the perspectives of politeness theories from brown and levinson (1978; 1987) along with their advocates, which focuses on face-saving strategies and on reduction or avoidance of facethreats in verbal interactions. this is based on the stance that all utterances are potentially face-threats. however, many others believe that no utterances are intrinsically facethreats (fraser, 1990; turner, 1996; fukushima, 2000; arundale, 2006; o’driscoll, 2007) and that face-threats are a deliberate use of language to offend people (culpeper, 1996, 2005, 2011; kienpointner, 1997; bousfield 2008; bousfield and culpeper, 2008; bousfield and locher, 2008). here, the light of impoliteness theory is shed and research on impoliteness or facethreats is conducted (pérez de ayala, 2001; harris, 2001; o’driscoll, 2007). the use of ain’t in donald trump’s utterance is probably an intentional offense to those who oppose him or who are not in favor of his wealth and success. in other words, donald trump uses the ain’t utterance to deliberately offend a particular group of people (i.e. haters) in an indirect manner. j. jumanto, r. asmarani, s.s. rizal, h. sulistyorini 139 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) the use of ain’t can also be seen from the other perspective of verbal interactions or the interaction strategies, which is neither politeness nor impoliteness. the use of ain’t in verbal interactions may depend on who the interactants are and what the interaction is for within a particular context (o’driscoll, 2007; stewart, 2008; arundale, 2010; spencer-oatey, 2009; chang & haugh (2011). use of ain’t within interpersonal or social interaction may be termed differently as banter (leech, 1983; kienpointner, 2008), or jocular mockery (haugh, 2010a), or mock impoliteness (culpeper, 1996; 2011; bousfield, 2008), or a harmonious face-threatening act (su and huang, 2002; chang & haugh, 2011). thus, the use of ain’t within different interactions to different people should be evaluated differently, as there are complex relationships between face-threats and impoliteness (watts, 2003; haugh and bargiela-chiappini, 2010; chang & haugh, 2011). use of ain’t within interactions may vary and should be evaluated as not face-threatening, but as face-supportive or face-affiliative (su and hwang, 2002; bousfield, 2008; haugh, 2010a), as the interactants (the speaker and the hearer) have a mutual understanding (tracy, 2008), or the use of ain’t within different interactions may be regarded as sociopragmatically allowable (chang & haugh, 2011). the use of ain’t within donald trump’s utterance may be termed as what chang & haugh (2011) call strategic embarrassment which has referred to the previously proposed term politic by watts (1989; 2003). the use of ain’t within this particular context by donald trump is, therefore, regarded as appropriate and strategic and has no bad impact on the long-term relationship. the use, as well as the usage of ain’t, is important to be included in the academic curriculum of english language teaching and learning, so students are made aware of its various original forms and they will also learn about its use in conversations or verbal interactions. within interpersonal and social context, students and learners in general upon their knowledge of ain’t will be able to use the utterance appropriately, i.e. to confirm or instill solidarity within a close context with close people, and to avoid using it within a formal situation with not close people or superiors for the sake of politeness. using of ain’t to not close people or superiors or in a formal situation may lead to impoliteness, i.e. a rude situation, which is threatening their face or damaging the pragmatics of ain’t within academic and social context register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 140 the formal situation into a probable disharmony (jumanto, 2014a; 2014b), as the utterance “i ain’t know my schedule, sir!” from an employee to their new employer, for example. the interpersonal or social use of ain’t within theories of politeness, impoliteness, and strategic interactions may also be introduced to students and learners for their better understanding of its pragmatic use in verbal interactions. this way, students or learners are aware of whom they are talking to and why they are using or avoiding ain’t in the conversations or verbal interactions with different speakers within different contexts. conclusions based on the three proposed premises, the web-data verification and the accounts given, some points to bring this paper to an end are as the following. the form of ain’t belongs to non-standard or informal english with the casual, incomplete, shorter and cut-down aspects, which is unacceptable in formal writing. originally as a form to represent or a solution to amn’t, aren’t, and isn’t, the utterance ain’t has evolved and represented various constructions, i.e. am not, is not, are not, has not, have not, do not, does not, did not, to be not, to have not, to do not, will not and the others. this last finding on will not and the others, however, still requires further research. the meaning of ain’t implies different aspects of meaning, i.e. informality, topic area, low social class, emphasis, and content. the utterance ain’t has aspects of meaning as a joke, as part of common expression, or as an effort to sound folksy or not serious or friendly in an oral, nonstandard, informal context. ain’t is also used in the topic areas of english songs for particular meanings in the lyrics, of rhetorical effect, of informal style in journalistic prose, of characterization purposes in fiction, of warm friendship in correspondence, and of metrical reasons and informal tone in popular songs. the utterance ain’t is also considered as a marker of low socioeconomic status and educational level, is commonly used in uneducated speech, and is part of vulgarism, i.e. a term used by the lower classes. ain’t has also the aspect of emphasis, i.e. for gaining emphasis and catching attention in both writing and speech. this also occurs in the double negative. j. jumanto, r. asmarani, s.s. rizal, h. sulistyorini 141 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) content is the last aspect of the meaning of ain’t, as it is used as part of idioms or idiomatic expressions. finally, the utterance ain’t functions as part of close language or is used for closeness politeness to close people for friendship or camaraderie. the utterance ain’t should be taught academically in classrooms as an informal language with its various derived constructions, and students should be made aware that ain’t is part of the informal language or close language. close language involves informal, direct, and literal utterances. english learners, in general, should also be careful in using ain’t in conversations or verbal interactions not to threaten the face of not close people or superiors or others in a formal situation. otherwise, a rude situation may happen, and disharmony entails. in this context, the use of ain’t should be avoided, or they had better not use it. however, the pragmatic use of ain’t within interpersonal or social verbal interactions regarding politeness, impoliteness, and strategic interactions should also be introduced to students and learners for their better understanding of the discourse of ain’t within a particular text or utterance. references arundale, robert. 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(2002). “analyzing the past to prepare for the future: writing a literature review”, mis quarterly, 26(2), xiii-xxiii. the english-language-affiliated urls or websites (web-data): web-data 1 ain’t https://grammarist.com/usage/aint/ web-data 2 penggunaan ain’t, gotta, gonna, dan wanna dalam bahasa inggris https://www.ef.co.id/englishfirst/englishstudy/penggunaan-aint-gotta-gonna-danwanna.aspx web-data 3 ain’t https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ain%27t web-data 4 top definition of ain’t https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=ain%27t web-data 5 definition of ain’t in english https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ain't web-data 6 ain’t https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ain't web-data 7 ain’t https://grammarist.com/usage/aint/ https://grammarist.com/usage/aint/ https://grammarist.com/usage/aint/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ain%27t https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=ain%27t https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ain't https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ain't the pragmatics of ain’t within academic and social context register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 146 https://www.dictionary.com/browse/ain-t web-data 8 definition of ain’t https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/aint web-data 9 ain’t https://www.thefreedictionary.com/ain%27t web-data 10 is ain’t a word? https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/is-aint-a-word https://www.dictionary.com/browse/ain-t https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/aint https://www.thefreedictionary.com/ain%27t https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/is-aint-a-word microsoft word 04_register 2021 no. 1 hanung register journal – vol 14, no 01 (2021), pp. 65-82 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.65-82 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 65 hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific articles hanung triyoko,1* i dewa putu wijana,2 i praptomo baryadi3 1jurusan tadris bahasa inggris, fakultas tarbiyah dan ilmu keguruan iain salatiga, indonesia, 2jurusan sastra indonesia, fakultas ilmu budaya, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia 3jurusan sastra indonesia, fakultas sastra, universitas sanata dharma, indonesia *) corresponding author email: hanungina@iainsalatiga.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i1.65-82 submission track: received: 26-01-2021 final revision: 09-03-2021 available online: 01-06-2021 copyright © 2021 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract hedging and boosting or ‘pembentengan’ (indonesian) is the act of scientific writers in maintaining the smooth scientific communication. this paper answers two problem formulations, i.e., what are the linguistic manifestations of hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific articles, and how their meaning reveals the writer's level of confidence in the information conveyed. this study aims to enrich the description of scientific writing practices in indonesia to support the development of scientific writing skills in general. this research uses descriptive qualitative methods. this research data is in the form of sentences containing hedges and boosters from various scientific journals published in indonesia through the notetaking technique. the main theory to analyze the data is the theory on hedges and boosters. the data were analyzed semantically, syntactically, and pragmatically. the results show that hedges and boosters in the form of adverbs are the most commonly used in indonesian scientific writing. the meaning of hedges and boosters cannot always be determined by their lexical meaning because each hedge and booster has to be seen in its use in the sentence. the indonesian scientific community has its own agreement in the social interaction of scientific articles. keywords: scientific writing; hedges and boosters; confidence; doubt; function; interaction h. triyoko, i. d. p. wijana, i. p. baryadi register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 66 introduction hedges and boosters are part of the metadiscourse by which a writer makes the text easier for the audience to understand. metadiscourse is defined by crismore et al. as language material, in speech or writing, which does not add to the content of sentence information but is used to help listeners or readers organize, interpret, and evaluate the information contained in the text (chrismore et al, 1993). this serves the interactive characteristic of metadiscourse (thompson, 2001). hedges and boosters can be considered as the interactive elements of a text that functions to bridge the content of information in the text and the writer's interpretation of that information. (salager-meyer, 1997). a hedge when viewed from a semantic perspective, can be classified as the second modality of meaning as proposed by alwi (1992), namely the meaning of attitudes related to propositional truth, which is called the epistemic attitude gradation of sureness or uncertainty. however, the function of hedging or boosting is not always manifested linguistically as a modality. hedge or booster is a linguistic marker that is used to carry out functions related to social actions that accompany the composition of texts that allow writer and reader interaction called as the interpersonal or interactional function of metadiscourse (hyland, 1998), (hyland & polly, 2004). this is the main theory by which the data is analyzed so basically the researcher starts with reading all articles publication as the source of data of this research and then find those sentences when the writers interact with the readers using linguistic elements that do not add to the content of sentence information but are functional to express the interpretation or attitude of the writer of these sentences to the information conveyed. in examples (1) hedge is used to reveal doubts or delay the writer's commitment to the correctness of the sentence information. hedges and boosters are found both in indonesian scientific essays in the natural science and social science groups. hedges generally function to lower the power of asserting the correctness of information conveyed by scientific article writers while the information conveyed remains because the information provider (the writer or the speaker) has the aim of obscuring or hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 67 clarifying the information conveyed (lakoff, 1973). information is often interpreted simply as the content of an oral expression or the content of a written statement in language communication. information has long been proposed by aristotle and restated by gaskin (2008) as “the meaning of a declarative sentence, whereas a declarative sentence is a sentence that can be meaningfully stated as true or false, thus information can also be stated as true or false”. gibson (2004) urges that the sentence is the necessity to be a container of information. researches on the use of hedges and boosters in scientific articles in crosslanguage studies were carried out by, among others, sanjaya (2013) and sanjaya, sintawati, and suciani (2015). sanjaya (2013) proves that overall scientific articles in english are more expressive of transient information than scientific articles in indonesian by seeing the more frequent use of hedges in scientific articles in english. sanjaya, et al. (2015) clarify the typology of using hedges in indonesian scientific articles in terms of the similarities and differences with the use of hedges in english scientific articles. this dissertation research is different from the two studies because this dissertation research is not a cross-language research. this research relies entirely on the findings of data on the embodiment of hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific articles as a basis for describing hedges and boosters in the indonesian context. comparisons or references to writing practices or cultures in other languages are only used when necessary to clarify or emphasize the uniqueness of the indonesian context of using hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific articles so that comparison is not a goal but a way of discussion. wibowo (2011) examines the use of hedges and boosters in the editorial of indonesian newspapers. wibowo concluded that hedges are commonly used by editorial writers as an epistemic modality to disguise or disclose things such as numbers, actors, possibilities, accuracy, and involvement of the readers. in this study, wibowo did not propose strict criteria for linguistic manifestation in indonesian or bahasa which could be categorized as functioning as hedges and boosters because wibowo limited the discussion of hedges in the context and co-texts of newspapers editorial while this dissertation research discusses formations in the context and co-text of scientific articles and this dissertation uses syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic viewpoints to describe hedges and h. triyoko, i. d. p. wijana, i. p. baryadi register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 68 boosters. besides, the language of journalism is more popular and often lacks of intellectual rigour compared to the language of academia. (duffy, 2015). hardjanto (2017) in his dissertation writing entitled pembentengan dalam artikel penelitian ilmiah dalam bahasa inggris ‘hedges and boosters in english scientific research articles’ describes the ins and outs of hedges and boosters related to its lingual form and function. hardjanto's dissertation research presents important findings including that the field of science of scientific articles does not seem to affect the frequency or number of uses of the lingual form of hedges and boosters used and that the form of hedge and booster is used as a defensive-protective strategy for the writer to protect three things, namely the proposition, the writer, and the reader. tofan's dissertation was written in indonesian, but the object of his research was hedges and boosters in english so that this research for a dissertation with the object of research is the hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific articles is still very much needed. there are three reasons for the importance of the description of hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific articles, namely, first, a description of the matters of hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific articles has not been carried out or it can be said that it has not been found in the indonesian literature in the field of discourse analysis or scientific writing as a reference for discussion of hedges and boosters. the discussion on hedges and boosters in this dissertation can be an adequate contribution to the explanation of the various efforts made by scientific writers as the sole holder of communication initiatives in maintaining social interaction with readers in order to smooth the scientific communication in the indonesian context. second, knowledge of hedges and boosters in scientific articles in indonesian is part of the basic needs of developing practical skills in indonesian scientific writing so that this dissertation can enrich the descriptions of scientific writing practice in indonesia at the time this dissertation was compiled. third, the results of research on hedges and boosters in scientific articles in indonesian or bahasa will be part of an effort to compile a more comprehensive knowledge of the manifestation of social interaction in scientific articles in the indonesian context. this article answers two main questions, first, what are the linguistic manifestations of hedges and boosters in scientific articles in indonesian and second, how the meaning of the formation reveals the writer's level of hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 69 confidence in the information he conveys, starting from the range of doubt to the range of belief. research method this research used a qualitative descriptive method by describing hedges and boosters used in indonesian scientific articles syntactically, semantically and pragmatically. it is based on three premises that first hedges and boosters are used in a formal style of the scientific articles and therefore hedges and boosters are rigidly governed by the formal syntactical rules of bahasa indonesia. second, the choice of the manifestation of hedges and boosters is based on the closest intended meaning of the writers’ expressions of his/her attitudes toward the information conveyed in the sentences. third, in using hedges and boosters, the writers have some pragmatic reasons other than just expressing their attitudes toward the information. this is different to three premises proposed by jumanto and sulistyorini (2019:326) based merely on the pragmatic aspect of utterances. the research data is in the form of sentences containing the formations of 70 scientific article titles in indonesian, published in the year between 2000 and 2017 from various fields of science. the data consists of 281 sentences containing 76 different hedges and 120 different boosters. the data were collected in between april 2018 to august 2018. the research data were collected using the note taking technique (sudaryanto, 1993) or the 'taking note method' (muhammad, 2012). the researcher starts with reading all articles publication as the source of data of this research and then find those sentences when the writers interact with the readers using linguistic elements that do not add to the content of sentence information but are functional to express the interpretation or attitude of the writer of these sentences to the information conveyed. the research instrument for this dissertation is in the form of a collection table of sentences from reading scientific articles, and determining hedges and boosters based on the categories of the constituent words, patterns of use in sentences and reasons for their use using the skills and intuition of researchers, as native speakers of indonesian and as part of the scientific community of indonesia. the data are considered as accurate firstly by ensuring that they are taken from published scientific articles h. triyoko, i. d. p. wijana, i. p. baryadi register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 70 in bahasa indonesia in the forms of pdf file and secondly by ensuring that they consist of the linguistic elements serving as hedges or boosters and the linguistic elements containing the information shared by the writer. for the data analysis method, the researcher classifies the linguistic units that contain the hedges and boosters based on the similarity of the linguistic markers, either in the form of words or phrases or even clauses, disclosing the hedges and boosters. through this grouping, the researcher then describes semantically and syntactically the linguistic unit pattern that contains hedges and boosters. in the end, it is pragmatically determined that the function of the language unit containing the formation is in accordance with the similarity of the linguistic unit pattern. discussion categories of hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific articles based on the word categories proposed by kridalaksana (1986) and ramlan 1991, the hedges and boosters found in indonesian scientific articles can be grouped into (i) hedges and boosters in the verb category, (ii) hedges and boosters in the adverb category, (iii) hedges and boosters in the adjective category, (iv) hedges and boosters categorized as modality, and (vi) the phatic category of hedges and bosters as each of the examples is shown in the following sentences: (1) hasil yang diperoleh ini mengindikasikan bahwa sebagian besar istri dapat melakukan proses penyesuaian diri yang baik dengan keluarga suami. (psi 2012, nova 62) “the results obtained indicate that most wives can make a good adjustment process with their husband's family” (2) dari hasil studi itu diperkirakan kedalaman batuan dasar di wilayah jakarta pada 200 m hingga 480 m. (jurnal teknik sipil 2017, delfebriyadi dkk, 161) “from the results of the study it is estimated that the depth of the bedrock in the jakarta area is 200 m to 480 m.” hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 71 sentences (1) and (2) are examples of hedges and boosters that are manifested by word categorized as verbs. when viewed from the relationship between verbs and nouns in a sentence, the verbs that are used as hedges and boosters can be classified into active verbs such as menegaskan 'affirming', mencoba 'trying', mengindikasikan 'indicating', memperlihatkan 'showing', menunjukkan 'pointing', membuktikan 'proving', menggambarkan 'describing' and some others are passive verbs such as dirasa 'to be felt', diduga 'to be suspected', diperkirakan 'to be estimated', dipungkiri 'to be denied', and disinyalir ' to be presumed' the following sentences number (3) show a hedge that is manifested by adverb categorized words. (3) budaya jawa menempatkan perempuan seolah-olah menjadi nomor dua. (filsafat 2016 iva ariani 287) “javanese culture places women as if number two’ six groups of adverbs are found used as hedges and boosters through this research, namely the first, adverb that accompanies the verb. the second, adverbs accompany the adjective. the third, adverbs accompany the noun. the fourth, adverbs accompany other adverbs. the fifth, adverbs accompany the clause. the sixth, adverbs accompany the sentence and the seventh, adverbs whose manifestation is marked by the use of pun as the phatic word, such as sekalipun ‘eventhough’, manapun ‘whereever/whatever’, bagaimanapun ‘however’. the example sentences of using a booster in scientific articles number (4) below is manifested by word categorized as adjective. (4) pengemis merupakan suatu gejala sosial yang sampai saat ini belum menemukan solusi yang nyata untuk menyelesaikannya. (sospol 2012 putri 10) “begging is a social phenomenon which until now has not found a real solution to solve it.” while the sentence number (5) below is one of the examples of hedge that is manifested by noun. h. triyoko, i. d. p. wijana, i. p. baryadi register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 72 (5) fenomena yang terjadi akhir-akhir ini sangat lah memprihatinkan, karena kecenderungan merosotnya moral bangsa hampir terasa di semua strata kehidupan. (psi 2012 aprius 86) “the phenomenon that has occurred recently is very concerning, because the tendency to decline in national morals is almost felt in all strata of life.” while a booster that is realized by modality can be found in the example sentence number (6) below: (6) suatu ajaran atau pendapat harus dapat diperiksa atau diuji kebenarannya dengan pengalaman langsung dari penglihatan dan pendengaran orang banyak. (filsafat 2016 budisutrisna 9) “a teaching or opinion must be checked or verified by direct experience from the sight and hearing of the crowd.” finally, there are very few examples of hedges or boosters manifested in phatic category like seen in example sentence number (7) below: (7) sebetulnya p2kp bukanlah satu-satunya program penanggulangan kemiskinan yang dilakukan di perkotaan. (politika 2010 ahmad 76) “in fact, p2kp is not the only poverty reduction program implemented in urban areas.” this evidence of the use of boosters in phatic category is in accordance to kridalaksana’s statement that “different forms are always seen as motivated by different meanings” (kridalaksana, 2002: 75). the use of the phatic word ‘lah’ in bukanlah satu-satunya ‘not the only’ make the sentence expresses higher confidence of the writer toward the information shared in the sentence though the meaning of the combination of words is similar to bukan satu-satunya ‘not the only’. this linguistic phenomenon also serves as evidence that every little different in the use of linguistic elements, such as the use of the phatic word ‘lah’ is there for a reason,or is there as a product of the mind as suggested by baryadi (2013:49) that meaning formation process involves thoughts, symbols (language), and references. meaning of boosters and hedges and various sentence patterns with hedges and boosters hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 73 in the following, we will present a few sample sentences from the entire example sentences with various kind of boosters that express the writer's confidences from strong to weak. boosters revealing high confidence a booster in sentence (8) reveals the writer's confidence in the sentence information at its high ranges. (8) hal ini membuktikan bahwa dinding bata penuh dalam struktur rangka berkontribusi dalam menahan beban lateral seperti beban gempa bumi. (jurnal teknik sipil 2017 maidiawati dkk. 146) “this proves that the full brick wall in the frame structure contributes to withstand lateral loads such as earthquake loads.” the writer's choice of the use of a booster in the category of verb formation in active sentences as in the example sentence number (8) is the writer’s selection of a booster that reveals the meaning of high confidence ranges. selection of active sentences with the use of the word membuktikan ‘proves’ that has more intensity or effort compared to other words that share elements of meaning similar to that of membuktikan such as menggambarkan ‘describing’, menunjukkan ‘pointing’, memperlihatkan ‘showing’ is the writer's way of selecting boosters that reveal a range of high confidence meanings. the use of negation as a booster also adds to the height of the writer's conviction. the use of tidak cukup 'not sufficient' as a substitute for the meaning of the word kurang 'lacking' is the writer's way of enhancing his belief. other sentences with boosters that express the writer's belief in sentence information at a high level are sentences that use adverbs whose denotative meaning contains elements of the meaning of 'absolutes' such as sama sekali 'completely', mutlak 'absolutely', otomatis 'automatically', bagaimanapun (juga) 'however', manapun 'wherever', sekalipun 'eventhough', tentu saja 'of course', pasti 'certain', jelas 'clear'’. also adverbs whose denotative meanings contain elements of the meaning 'mostly', 'always', or 'very' like the following adverbs kebanyakan 'mostly', seringkali 'often', kerap 'often', senantiasa 'always', hampir-hampir 'almost', biasanya 'usually', secara konsisten 'consistently', sangat 'very', terlalu 'too + adj’'. often also in the form of adverbs that contain elements of the meaning 'real' such as sebenarnya 'trully', sungguh 'really', h. triyoko, i. d. p. wijana, i. p. baryadi register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 74 sesungguhnya 'really', sebetulnya 'actually', ternyata 'in fact', and nyata 'real'. this group includes adverbs that contain elements of the meaning of 'affirmation' also such as hanya 'only', terutama 'mainly', bahkan 'even', sekali lagi 'once again', setiap 'any', apalagi 'moreover', pada dasarnya 'basically', tegasnya 'strictly', belum pernah 'have never ...'. what is interesting is that the booster belum pernah 'have never ...'. though its meaning may conflict with the word pernah 'ever', or tidak pernah 'never' but these three adverbs have the same function, namely increasing the writer's confidence in sentence information. the readers accept the three as an emphasis on sentence predicates and add to the writer's confidence in the propositions of those sentences. there is also a booster in the adverbial formation bahkan 'even' located at the beginning of a sentence which is generally avoided in in a formal language style to add confidence to the sentence proposition even though the word bahkan 'even', semantically does not express beliefs and doubts. (9) bahkan anggaran daerah sering pula tertunda karena keterlambatan dprd untuk menyetujuinya (politika 2010 fitriyah, 59) “even, local budgets are often delayed due to the dprd's delay in approving them.” boosters revealing moderate confidence among the examples of sentences with boosters that express belief in a moderate range are boosters which are manifested by verbs which denotatively contain the element of the meaning 'to show' such as the verb menggambarkan ' to describe', menunjukkan ' to point', memperlihatkan 'to show', as seen in the following example sentence number (10). (10) trading activity yang tinggi menggambarkan usaha manajer investasi dalam mewujudkan return yang maksimal dengan melakukan perdagangan pada saat yang tepat (ijtihad 2016 setia, 229) “high trading activity describes the investment manager's efforts in realizing maximum returns by trading at the right time.” hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 75 through a series of high and low beliefs expressed by the boosters as illustrated with figure 1 below, it can be conveyed that mengindikasikan 'to indicate', memperlihatkan 'to show', menunjukkan 'to point', menggambarkan 'to describe', membuktikan 'to prove' have different degrees of confidence. the researcher found no other way to determine the high and low levels of belief through verbs that share certain elements of the same meaning such as menggambarkan 'to describe', menunjukkan 'to point', memperlihatkan 'to show' except by considering the elements of meaning of those words disclosing the boosters. figure 1 keraguan (doubt) keyakinan (confidence) mengindikasikan, (…daerah transisi …) mengambarkan, menunjukkan, memperlihatkan, membuktikan ‘to indicate’, (…transitional area, …) ‘to describe’, ‘to point’, ‘to show’, ‘to prove’ figure 1 also shows that the range of beliefs and doubts is in one line, but it does not mean that the highest belief can be called the lowest doubt or vice versa, the highest doubt is the lowest belief because the movement to the right in the sequence or towards the belief further clears the doubt. and movement to the left in the sequence or towards doubt further eradicates belief so that there is a transition area for the cessation of doubt towards belief and vice versa. the use of certain adverb groups which are used to avoid stating a certain number or reduce the absolute number or frequency and to reduce the intensity of seriousness such as hampir 'almost', hampir-hampir 'almost all', banyak 'a lot', cukup 'enough', betapa 'how...' , sampai-sampai 'to the point that …', setidaknya 'at least', seharusnya 'should be'also express the writer's belief in the sentence information in the medium range of confidence. boosters revealing low confidence an example of a sentence with boosters that expresses the writer's belief in sentence information that is in the low confidence range is represented by h. triyoko, i. d. p. wijana, i. p. baryadi register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 76 sentences that use the modality function, namely, rupanya 'apparently', bisa 'can'. they can also use double boosters and hedges such as rupanya tidak sepenuhnya 'that are apparently incomplete', bisa menduga dengan sangat kuat 'can predict very strongly', and dapat ditunjukkan 'can be demonstrated,' which is a way to reduce confidence. hedges revealing high doubt sentences with high-doubt revealing hedges use double hedges such as tampaknya bisa diasumsikan 'it seems to be assumed ...', relatif cukup 'relatively sufficient', and mungkin dianggap 'might be assumed as ...'. many hedges are also found to be manifested in passive sentences with verbs beginning with (di-) so that the hedges such as dirasa 'as it is felt', diduga 'suspected', disinyalir 'allegedly', diperkirakan 'estimated', dianggap 'considered' are examples of hedges to express the writer's doubts over the information in high ranges. hedges like dirasa 'as it's felt', diduga 'suspected', disinyalir 'allegedly', diperkirakan 'predicted', dianggap 'considered' also indicate that there's a rating of doubtful power with the highest sequence of doubt expressed by the hedge dirasa ‘as it’s felt’ hedges with the lowest range of doubt or at the very end of the line going to the direction of belief, although it's still in the range of doubt, is the hedge dianggap 'considered'. thus we get the order of hedges as follow dirasa 'as it's felt', diduga 'suspected', disinyalir 'allegedly', diperkirakan 'predicted', dianggap 'considered' as illustrated with figure 2 below. figure 2 keraguan (doubt) keyakinan (belief) dirasa, diduga, disinyalir, diperkirakan, dianggap, (daerah transisi) ‘as felt’, ‘suspected’, ‘allegedly’, ‘predicted’, ‘considered’ (transitional area) hedges revealing moderate doubt hedges manifested through the following adverbs are used by the writer to express the meaning of a moderate range of doubts, namely cenderung 'tend to', cukup 'sufficient', kadang-kadang 'sometimes', terkadang 'sometimes', hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 77 seolah (-olah) 'as if', tampaknya 'likely', agaknya 'seem', barangkali 'perhaps', rupanya 'apparently', sementara 'temporary', and relatif 'relative''. moderate doubt revealing hedge is also manifested by adverbs that accompany verbs whose meaning is to express doubt or uncertainty as kadang-kadang 'sometimes', terkadang 'sometimes', tampaknya 'as if', seolah 'as it were', seolaholah 'as if', tampaknya 'likely' and agaknya 'presumably'. also, adverbials whose meaning does express temporariness like sementara ’temporrily’. it can also be manifested with a modality as an introduction to sentences, namely barangkali ‘perhaps’ and tampaknya ‘apparently’. hedges revealing low doubt sentences with a hedge in the form of noun kecenderungan 'tendency' and a noun phrase besar kemungkinan 'most likely' are to express low doubt. contrary to the findings on adjective category formation which entirely reveals the meaning of the writer's range of confidence in sentence information, the hedges manifested in noun found in scientific articles in indonesian as a whole reveals the meaning of the writer's range of doubts on sentence propositions. various sentence patterns with hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific articles there are various linguistic units in indonesian scientific writing that contain hedges and boosters. hedges and boosters can be found in clauses, simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, sentences with negation, sentences with modalities, introductory sentences, etc. analyzing the data inductively as suggested by djajasudarma (1993:12), indonesian scientific writers have a choice of the following linguistic patterns: 1) sentences with predicates in the form of verbs filled in by lexicals whose meaning represents the level of the writer's confidence in the information, either doubt or belief. 2) sentences with adverbs filled with modalities or groups of adverbial words which significantly reduce or increase the writer's confidence in the information presented. 3) sentences with the use of lexical groups categorized as adjectives whose meaning reduces or adds to the writer's confidence in the information conveyed. 4) sentences with the use of nouns that mean doubt or belief or are in the meaning of a range of doubts or beliefs. the data of this study indicate that nouns are only used as hedges to reveal h. triyoko, i. d. p. wijana, i. p. baryadi register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 78 doubts. 5) it is the sentence with the use of the phatic word category that emphasizes the sentence predicate and at the same time adds the writer's confidence to the sentence proposition. 6) sentences with the linguistic manifestation of double or multiple hedges and boosters. 7) sentences with negation. 8) conditional sentences. those 8 patterns of sentences containing hedges and/or boosters make the meaning of the hedges or the boosters themselves cannot be determined from the meaning of the lexicals disclosing the hedges or the boosters, because each hedge and booster has to be seen in its use in the sentence this is in line to what subroto says that “the meaning of the lingual unit is the meaning that the lingual unit has in relation to other lingual units in a speech” (subroto, 2011: 23). the range of beliefs or doubts of scientific writers is conveyed through the choice of sentence patterns with hedges or boosters the meaning of sentences with one hedge or booster depend on the lexical or lexical combination meaning that the writer chooses. sentences with hedges or boosters in indonesian scientific articles can consist of more than one hedge or booster in one sentence, like sentence number (11). (11) sejarah politik kita menunjukkan bahwa perubahan-perubahan politik besar di masa lalu seakan menegaskan bahwa ketiga hal tersebut tidak dapat dicapai sekaligus atau berjalan seiring. (politika 2010 purwoko, 60) “our political history shows that the major political changes of the past seem to confirm that these three things cannot be achieved at once or go hand in hand.” in a sentence with double hedges and/or boosters such as sentence (11), the atmosphere that is captured by the reader in the form of belief or doubt is determined by the first hedge or booster in the sentence or by the dominance of the range of beliefs or doubts that are manifested through the lexical selection of the hedges and boosters. in sentence number (11) of the two hedges and boosters contained, the first hedge shows the meaning of the range of doubt, because the power of confidence contains in the meaning of the lexical menunjukkan ‘pointing’ is smaller than the power of other lexical which is hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 79 synonymous with that lexical such as memperlihatkan 'showing', and membuktikan 'proving'. the lexical which means doubt used as a hedge in sentence number (11) menunjukkan 'showing' and seakan 'seem' are more dominant to create an atmosphere of doubt compared to another lexical of booster in sentence (11), namely menegaskan 'affirming' so that the atmosphere generated by the sentence is the writer's doubt. thus, the reader interprets sentence number (11) as a sentence that has the atmosphere of the writer's doubts about the sentence proposition. conclusion as an answer to the the first research question, it is concluded that adverb is the most commonly used either as hedges or boosters in indonesian scientific articles. meanwhile, the least used hedges or boosters disclosers are the phatic words. for the second question about the meaning and pattern of hedges and boosters linguistic units, it is concluded that the meaning of hedges and boosters cannot always rely on the lexical meaning that fills the language units of the hedges or boosters because each of them must be seen in their use in the sentence. sentences with one form of hedge or booster, its meaning depend on the lexical meaning or lexical combination that the writer chooses. in a sentence with double hedges and/or boosters the striking atmosphere that is captured by the reader is determined by the first hedge or booster in the sentence or by the dominance of the range of beliefs or doubts that are manifested through the lexical selection of the hedges or boosters. the researcher suggests that for the future research on hedges and boosters in indonesian scientific articles, the focus can be shifted on the how and why hedges and boosters are used, to add to this research explanation on what hedges and boosters are used.[rgt] references alwi, h. (1992). modalitas dalam bahasa indonesia. kanisius. baryadi, i. p. (2002). idiom yang berunsur kata kerja dalam bahasa indonesia. sintesis, 7 (1), 46-62. h. triyoko, i. d. p. wijana, i. p. baryadi register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 80 crismore, a., markkanen, r. and steffensen, m. (1993) 'metadiscourse in persuasive writing: a study of texts written by american and finnish university students'. written communication, 10(1), 39-71. djajasudarma, f. t. (1993). metode linguistik ancangan metode penelitian dan kajian. eresco. duffy, a. (2015). journalism and academic writing sibling rivalry or kissing cousins?” asia pacific media educator, 25 (1). https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1326365x15575562. gaskin, r. (2008). the unity of the proposition. oxford university press. gibson, m. i. (2004). from naming to saying: the unity of the proposition. blackwell publishing ltd. hardjanto, t. d. 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(2015). comparing hedges used by english and indonesian scholars in published research articles: a corpusbased study. teflin journal, 26(2), 209–227. http://doi.org/10.15639/ teflinjournal.v26i2/209-227 sudaryanto, s. (1993). metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa (pengantar penelitian wahana kebudayaan secara linguistis). duta wacana university press. subroto, e. (2011). pengantar studi semantik dan pragmatik. cakrawala media. thompson, g. (2001.) interaction in academic writing: learning to argue with the reader. applied linguistics, 22(1), 58-78. https://doi.org/10.1093/ applin/22.1.58 wibowo, a.h. (2011). penggunaan ‘hedge’ dalam editorial surat kabar: analisis bentuk dan makna serta interpretasi perspektif kewartawanan. university utara malaysia. h. triyoko, i. d. p. wijana, i. p. baryadi register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 82 the page has been intentionally left blank. dinamika pengarusutamaan gender register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022), pp. 183-200 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v15i2.183-200 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 183 stance expressions in introduction of english research articles written by cambodian authors soeurn chenda1*, safnil arsyad 2, syafryadin 3 1graduate school, national university of battambang, battambang,053, cambodia 1, 2, 3postgraduate program of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of bengkulu, bengkulu, 38122, indonesia *) corresponding author email: shoeurnchenda@yahoo.com doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.183-200 submission track: received: 24-03-2022 final revision: 12-10-2022 available online: 01-12-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract stance expression indicates feelings, certainty or uncertainty, and interests of the authors. as the increasing needs of the readers on significant findings from the introduction section of research articles, a study on stance expression of introduction section in the english research articles written by cambodian authors has been conducted to employ crucial aims of the study: (1) examine stance expression types and the categories of each type; (2) compare the similarities and differences of stance expression types used in the introduction section of english ras written by cambodian authors published in local and international journals. thirty research articles written by cambodian authors published in local and international journals were used in this study. to fulfill these research objectives, the mixed-method research design was utilized in this study. all the four stance features, such as hedges, boosters, attitude markers, and self-expression, proposed by hyland (2005), were used as a lexical analysis framework model in this study. the results revealed that four stance expression types were found in this study. the hedge was the most frequently employed among the other types of stances. there is a significantly different in terms of the frequencies of hedge used within both ra journals, but there is no for booster, attitude marker, and self-mention. local cambodian authors should follow the international authors as models in applying stance in their ras. a comparison study of the stance expression and engagement between cambodian and international authors in the introduction should be expanded more different articles from available journals. keywords: english research article, introduction section, stance expression, local journals, international journals http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 mailto:shoeurnchenda@yahoo.com http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ s. chenda, s. arsyad, syafryadin 184 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) introduction stance expressions in written articles are very significant for extinguishing the quality of the research thesis and written articles. stance illustrates the feelings, uncertainty, certainty, and interests of the writers which is a significant area of writing consideration. also, the writer’s way of writing can be similar or different in their english research article writing like in the introduction section. accordingly, many international researchers studied the use of stance within research articles, theses, or dissertations in applied linguistics and science or other fields such as miasari et al. (2018)studied authorial stance in research article introductions in the field of science written by indonesian authors, who found that the four types of authorial stances in this field of science (biology, physic, and chemistry) like hedges: verb, adjective, adverb, noun and modal; booster: verb, adjective, adverb, model and noun, yet among these subcategories adverbs were the most commonly found. while attitudinal markers were highly counted in adjectives, and selfmention, last, subjective pronouns were often accounted for self-mention. wu and paltridge (2021) studied the stance expression in academic writing in chinese students’ ma dissertations and doctoral phd theses; the results showed that all four types of stance expression were found in both degrees, but the highest frequency used was hedges while the attitude markers were the lowest rate. phd students utilized fewer boosters and presented a broader set of attitude markers within their writing, which showed phd students have increased their abilities in declaring a position. in the same vein, lancaster (2016) conducted stance use in undergraduate writing between the econ students and the polth writer; hedges, disclaim markers, boosters, and self-mentions were significantly greater frequently used than the polth writers. the significantly greater frequency was attitude markers applied. however, none of the studies on the use of stance features were done in articles and none of the categories of each stance expression type on ra introduction written by cambodian authors were found, such as hedge, booster, attitude markers, and self-mention. thus, there is also no study about the comparison of the similarities and differences of stance expression types used by cambodian authors in language education in their article introductions published in local and international journals. more importantly, it is a rare case to find written research articles by cambodian authors regarding stance analysis in writing. therefore, there is no study of a comparison of the similarities and differences between the two groups of articles. this study is important because it can help article stance expressions in introduction of english research articles … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 185 writers in applying stance expression in the correct way and forms within their ras writing, especially in showing their certainty of claiming the truth of information to persuade the readers with the real objective of the study. thus, it also gives international readers more different information about the quality of local and international research articles written by cambodian authors in using stance expression in their writing. this provides them with more concepts in comparing the quality of local and internal research in terms of stance expression use. through these gaps, this study aims to identify the stance expression types used in the introduction of research articles (ioras) in language education fields and find out the similarities and differences between the two groups of english research articles written by the cambodian authors. this research aimed to answer the following questions: 1) what stance expression types and categories are used by cambodian authors in their introduction of research papers in language education published in local and international journals? and 2) what are the similarities and differences of stance expression types and categories used by cambodian authors in language education in their article introductions published in local and international journals? research method this study was designed following creswell (2012) as both qualitative and quantitative methods. it was built on corpus-based descriptive qualitative and quantitative research methods on the use of stance expressions in the introduction of english research articles written by cambodian authors published in local and international journals. the qualitative analysis was conducted to present the examples of each research question and objectives by analyzing stance expression in the sample text and the quantitative analysis was focused to calculate the frequency and percentage of stance expression types and sub-categories of each stance type. the researcher used the lexical analysis framework model of the four stance features analysis of hyland (2005) as the research design. the model of stance expressions focused on hedges, boosters, attitude markers, and self-mention in the introduction section of each english research article. s. chenda, s. arsyad, syafryadin 186 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) the corpus of the study this study involved thirty articles from local and international journals in the field of language education written by cambodian authors. convenience sampling was utilized as a sampling method for selecting the 30 articles in this corpus. the corpus of this study contained thirty english research articles focused on only the introduction section. table 1. distribution of the articles in the study. no sources of research articles code number of articles discussion average length of the introduction in word count 1 local journals loj 15 (50%) 604.6 2 international journals inj 15 (50%) 754.2 total 30 (100%) table 1 shows that the research articles (ras) in the field of language education have the most words on average with 604.6 found as written words in the ras introduction section written by cambodian authors published in a local journal, cambodia, while the average of word counts with 754.2 was found as the written word in the introduction section of research articles written by cambodian author published in international journals. the articles were selected from two types of journals including local journals and international journals, regarding several considerations as the following: 1) ras are written in english by cambodian authors; 2) ras are in the language education field; 3) ras have published from 2006 to 2021; 4) the papers are open-access, freely read and downloaded for who needs it.; and, ras are indexed by scopus, eric, esci, ebsco, mas, scimago, open j-gate, crossref, google scholar, sinta2, doal, ebscohost, ajournalseek, era, arc, opendoar, springer, sage, clasic, and roar; the ras published in local journals are under the controlled of the university only. there was no limitation of sample size in the qualitative research study. according to baker and edwards (2012), the participant numbers needed to ensure a sufficient sample for a project can be varied from one up to more than a hundred. as, qualitative research studies are mostly run with small samples (sandelowski, 1995) as well as making 10 research samples is quite usual (lichtman, 2010, as cited in sandelowki, 1995). otherwise, adler and adler (2012), students should orientate a small sample size from 6 to 12 or whatever they catch (cited in mocănașu, 2020). as an example, a study of the authorial stances in english ra introductions written by stance expressions in introduction of english research articles … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 187 indonesia authors within the science field such as biology, physic, and chemistry, by miasari et al. (2019) also included only 30 articles in their study. the procedure of data analysis the data was analyzed by marking stance expression of the four features model: hedges, booster, attitudinal markers, and self-mention, within frequency and percentage of each category: adjective, adverb, verb, model, found, subject pronoun, common nouns, possessive adjectives, and objective pronoun. furthermore, the procedures of data analysis were regarded as the following. thirty english research articles were downloaded from different cambodian local journals focusing on language education as mentioned above. the introduction of each article in the corpus of this study was read to get a thorough understanding of the content in the text and the 30 articles were converted into file text to fit the antconc software program; the text was reread to pinpoint the stances use of the text within the introduction, and each device of the stance features used in the introduction of ras was counted through antconc (v.3.5.8, 2021). to certify the reliability of this study, the researcher invited an experienced teacher of the second language, who taught second-language writing and majoring in the english language to be a second-rater. comparing both data from corater and researcher results after the following the frequency and percentage of stance. last, the interpretation of the data was described based on the identical features shown in the table/figure of the statistical research framework. the reliability of analysis results an independent co-rater was a lecturer from the english department of the institution of foreign languages. then the independent co-rater was trained for a week to identify or code the ra’s introduction based on the types of stance styles framework. next, the result of the analysis was discussed, negotiated, and clarified for an agreement between the researcher and the co-rater if there were any miscoding occurred. finally, the co-rater could work on their own independently to code the 6 sample texts on the stance framework. mchugh (2012) stated that the stance identification results from the co-rater and the researcher on a sample of 6 (20%) ras introductions were compared through the kappa score. brown (1996) illustrates that cohen’s kappa has made the maximum score of 1.00 and the lowest score of 0.00, (as cited in nur et al., 2021). consequently, kanoksilapatham’s (2005) study was adopted in this study, if cohen’s kappa mark is less than 0.40, this was regarded as ‘poor’, s. chenda, s. arsyad, syafryadin 188 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) between 0.40–0.59 ‘average’, between 0.60–0.74 ‘acceptable’, and 0.75 or above ‘excellent’. the following table 3 showed the result of the kappa measurement of the researcher’s checklist and the co-rater’s checklists table 2. inter-rater agreement result the number used of stance expression no. of agreement no. of disagreement k percentage 107 107 0 100 100% according to table 2, the researcher and the two co-raters discovered forty-one decision data drawn out while examining the corpus. most interestingly, the same data results between the researcher and the two co-raters unfolded. this meant that the random agreement data (pr(e)= 0% or 0.00), whereas 107 data were categorized as the same agreement data (pr(a)= 100% or 1). results & discussion the expression styles in the introduction section by cambodian authors the first finding of this study was significantly expressing a common occurrence in the local journals and international journals. the below table demonstrates the frequency styles of stance expression which were commonly found in local journals (loj) and international journals (inj) in this study. hedges, boosters, attitudinal markers, and self-mention were the four forms of stance expression styles discovered by data analysis from loj and inj publications through antconc. software. based on table 3, it can be seen that there are four types of styles found in this research: hedges, boosters, attitude markers, and self-mention. the total frequency of stance expressions from the thirty-research article introduction sections was 444 times; the frequent use of stance expression types in the research article introduction sections publish in local journals is greater than the research article introduction section published in international journals, which was counted in 201. otherwise, the hedge was mostly found in both research articles which were published in local journals, and international journals were 228 or 51.35%, applied by the cambodian authors in writing the ras introduction section. the second most frequent stance expression type use was boosters with a total number of 87 or 19.60%. these types are, must, really, find, found, and many others. stance expressions in introduction of english research articles … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 189 table 3. stance expression types found in research article introductions no stance expression categories (loj) (inj) total % n=15 n=15 n=30 frequency 1 hedges 140 88 228 51.35 2 boosters 38 49 87 19.60 3 attitude markers 43 36 79 17.79 4 self-mentions 22 28 50 11.26 total 243 201 444 100% additionally, the following rank was the use of attitude markers whose percentage accounted for 79 or 17.79% among all of the cases. they are appropriate, demonstrate, belief, find, shown, even though, even, etc. finally, it is different from the above three stance expression styles. there are only 50 or 11.26% of self-mention were found in this research such as i, my, the researchers, we, our, the writer, etc, to identify themselves in writing the research article introduction section. some examples presented about stance expression types engaged by the cambodian authors in their research article introduction sections published in local and international journals as the following: example1: “clayton (2006) has shown, …. that the khmer embraced learning english, as another to french (their colonial language………….” [03_inj] example2: “this means the researcher should have a decent understanding of the curriculum, the materials, and also the language levels the scholars are taking.” [06_inj] accordingly, example 1 shows that the author applied the verb “shown” as a past participle in present perfect tense to express the action which has just happened recently, and it is employed to cite the information that can be used about the writer’s stance. last, in example 2, the common noun “the researcher” was taken to directly mention the researcher who was doing the research. the hedges categories the following tables presented the total number of hedges found with examples in thirty ra introductions. s. chenda, s. arsyad, syafryadin 190 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) table 4. the frequency of hedges categories in the research article introduction section no. hedges categories ras in lef t o ta l % loj inj frequency 1 modal auxiliary verbs 76 33 109 47.81 2 epistemic lexical verbs 40 27 67 29.39 3 epistemic adjectives& adverbs 24 28 52 22.80 total 140 88 228 100 hedges were demonstrated in three diverse lexical categories, as shown in table 6. it can be noted that modal auxiliaries were the most frequently employed was 109 or 47.81% of all cases; through these results the researcher found that there are 76 modal auxiliary verbs were counted in the research article introduction section published in local journals, while only 33 out of 109 modal verbs were accounted for ras published in international journals (i.e., can, should, would, etc.); the second most utilized was epistemic lexical verbs with 67 or 29.39% of all thirty ras introduction sections published in both journals (i.e., seems, feel, suggested, claimed, preferred, argue, and so on). it showed that 40 out of 67 epistemic lexical verbs were found in ars published in local journals, but there are only 27 times counted for ras published in international journals. the last was epistemic adjectives and adverbs which accounted for just 52 times or 22.8 % of the total, likely largely, rather, etc. we can illustrate that the frequent use of adjectives and adverbs was slightly different between the loj ras and inj ras (24 to 28 adv & adv). there were 24 adjectives and adverbs found in loj ras, similarly, 28 out of 52 accounted for inj ras. some examples presented about hedge categories as following: example 3 “…..english needs analysis should be conducted before formulating any english language program….” [04_inj] according to the use of “should”, a modal verb hedge, in example 3 is applied to express the uncertain suggestion of evaluating the english language program before creating or running any english language program or courses. as a result of these above examples, it was possible to conclude that hedges can contribute to authors reducing the risk of dissimilarity. it can also be used to disprove the authors' claim and demonstrate doubt about the writers' entitlement to information. stance expressions in introduction of english research articles … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 191 the booster categories the three categories of boosters were discovered in these academic texts such as modal auxiliary verbs, epistemic lexical verbs, and epistemic adjectives and adverbs. table 5 below lists the boosters discovered in this study's corpus. table 5. booster categories in the research article introduction section no boosters categories ras in lef t o ta l percentage loj inj frequency 1 modal auxiliaries verbs 0 5 5 5.75 2 epistemic lexical verbs 27 28 55 63.22 3 epistemic adjectives& adverbs 11 16 27 31.03 total 38 49 87 100 based on table 5, it can be seen that in the english research article introduction sections written by cambodian authors; three categories of booster were counted for ras published in international journals as modal auxiliary verbs, lexical verbs, and adjective and adverbs while there were only two categories of booster were found in ras published in local journals: epistemic lexical verbs and adjectives and adverbs. as a result, the epistemic lexical verbs were the most commonly utilized by the writers with 27 times for ras in local journals and 28 times for ras in international journals. meanwhile, there were two results of this study also were shown that booster adjectives and adverbs were found more than 10 times from lj ras 11 of 15 cases and ij ras 16. finally, the author realized that modal auxiliaries were found 5 times counted for ij ras of this study. the writers brought out some examples of the two types of ras: example 4 “making a quotation takes the exact words from a source without any change and is clearly indicated as such, by quotation marks for example (anker, 2009; bailey, 2011).” [02_loj] according to example 4 above, it was presented that adverb booster “clearly” was employed to show the stance of the author about making a quotation mark to the exact words of sources. so, it can be concluded that booster stances can be formed in verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and modal auxiliary verbs, yet modal auxiliary verbs were not frequently found in these articles’ studies. the adjective, adverbs, verbs, and modal auxiliary verbs that have been mentioned and discussed above can be used to direct the certainty of the writers and emphasize a fact that they focused on. s. chenda, s. arsyad, syafryadin 192 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) the attitude markers categories the following table illustrates the three categories of attitude markers stance: they were attitude verbs, sentence adverbs, and attitude adjectives. the details and examples are presented below in the table. table 6. attitude marker categories in the research article introduction section table 6 shows that the three categories of attitude markers were found in ras journals, and the most common frequently used attitude marker stance was attitude adjectives, which accounted for 62 or more than 78 percent of the two ras. it can be seen that the adjectives were mostly employed in ras local journals 35 times when only 27 out of 62 were counted for ras international journals. notedly, adverbs were known as one of the attitude markers that were poorly found with only 13 or just more than 16 percent of thirty cases. a number of 8 out of 13 were found in ras of international journals; however, 5 out of 13 were adverbs used in ras published in local journals. finally, the poorest frequently use was attitude verbs with only 4 times in both types of ras journals. we can see that the writer rarely utilized this category, and it was just only 1 calculated for ras international journals. as can be seen, the use of attitudinal markers in the form of adjectives, adverbs, and verbs was taken to demonstrate the importance of the information in terms of building the field being researched, as well as to assist the author in expressing their thoughts toward the information. the use of attitude markers was pointed out through the following examples. example5 “…… the fact that one of the most important stages in any lesson is the warming-up phase….. [08_loj]” for example5, the word ‘important’ was used by the authors to stress their positive ideas on the effective using the warming-up stage among all the instruction phases in getting students’ attention. in short, it can be seen that attitude markers can no attitude markers categories ras in the le field t o ta l % loj inj frequency 1 attitude verbs 3 1 4 5.06 2 sentence adverbs 5 8 13 16.46 3 attitude adjectives 35 27 62 78.48 total 43 36 79 100 stance expressions in introduction of english research articles … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 193 be used in various forms as verbs, adjectives, and adverbs which were applied to address the importance of the information for strengthening their studying fields. thus, this type of stance expression can be used to support the writers to prompt their awareness toward the information which was considered as effective information and important information as to their research information. the self-mention expression categories the table below brings the detailed result of self-mention analysis used by the writers in the written english research article introduction section in the language education field. table 7. self-mention categories in the research article introduction section no. self-mention ras in le field t o ta l percent. loj inj frequency 1 subject pronouns 12 17 29 58 3 common nouns 5 7 12 24 4 possessive adjectives 5 4 9 18 2 object pronouns 0 0 0 0 total 22 28 50 100 based on table 7, the total number of using self-mention was 50 times of all thirty cases, which were published in local journals and international journals. however, 29 out of 50 frequencies were the subject pronouns ‘we’ were the most commonly employed by the authors in both types of ras journals. there were 17 times found in ras published in international journals, and in the ras published in local journals, there were only 12 counted in the study. the lower rate of use of common nouns “the researcher, the author” was also found in both ras journals with 12, which accounts for 24%. the lowest frequency found on the possessive adjectives was only 9 or18% from both types of ras journals. we can clearly see that 5 possessive adjectives were found in ras’ local journals; similarly, 4 out of 9 were counted for ij ras. it was ‘our’. therefore, the subject pronoun ‘we’ was found as the most commonly used by the authors in this research. the authors used ‘we’ to present themself in the writing research. the authors in both journals of the thirty english research articles did not use objective pronouns in presenting themselves in their text. the following example is presented about self-mention stance types. s. chenda, s. arsyad, syafryadin 194 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) example6 “based on our observations, some learners,...they fail to remember the detailed information in the stories.” [07_loj] according to example6, the author used the possessive pronoun ‘our’ to originally show their operating work in their study. through these examples, it can be concluded that the authors rarely referred to themselves as he or she in their text. as well, there were not many dissimilarities in self-addressing of self-mention stance regarding the thirty articles written by the cambodian authors published in both journals. the comparison between both ras’ introductions figure 1. the comparison of using each stance expression type based on figure 1, it can be seen that the total frequency of using each category of stance expression within the ras introduction section published in local journals was 243 by the cambodian authors while 201 times used in each category were counted in the ij ras introduction section. moreover, the researcher found that hedge was more highly used in ras in the local journals than in ras in international journals, with 148 times while there were only 88 times found in inj ras by cambodian authors. in contrast, the result revealed that booster was mostly utilized in the inj ra introduction with 49, but 38 times were discovered in the loj ra introduction. on the other hand, the figure also showed that the attitude markers used were greater found in the loj ra introduction with 43 while there were only 36 counted in the inj ra introduction. last, there are similar numbers of self-mention used were employed in both journals’ ras with 22 of loj and 26 of inj introduction. it means that the use of self-mention in both ra journals is almost the same, yet it is significant differences in the use of hedge, booster, and attitude markers in both ra journals written by cambodian authors. 140 38 43 22 88 49 36 28 hedge booster attitude marker self-mention loj inj stance expressions in introduction of english research articles … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 195 discussion the first research question was that the hedge categories are used by cambodian authors in the introduction of english research articles in the field of language education. the result showed that all four types of stance expression proposed by hyland (2005) appeared in the two ras’ introduction journals. they named hedges, boosters, attitude markers, and self-mentions. interestingly, the highest frequency used type was a hedge in both research article journals written by cambodian authors. however, the hedge has been often employed in local journal research articles than international journal articles. this can be assumed that local ra writers overused the hedge, which is not important, and this showed that local article journal writers were less confident than international ra writers in demonstrating their findings. thus, this might be due to the cultural factors of local writers who consider face-saving and respect to be an important reason to use hedges in their ra writing. getkham (2016) found that hedge was the biggest dominant used in the introduction and discussion sections. he stated that might be because of the cultural factor impact on saving face and showing politeness. thus, the hedge allows the author to expose a broad space where readers can discuss their understandings (hyland, 2005). this study is closely related to papangkorn and phoocharoensil’s (2021) study; they found that hedge was the most commonly used in english argumentative writing by native and thai learners. they also stated that this result showed weakness and less confidence on the part of both native and thai learners in tentatively expressing their argumentative text. hence, the finding of this research is in line with incharoesak (2018), in which thai high school students were sent to u.s middle college because they frequently used hedge in application essays to express their confident predictions. however, this result is contrasted with moini and salami (2015), who found that there was slightly less use of hedge in journal author’s guidelines because this light use was employed to soften the impact of journal assertions and to prompt probability. moreover, the hedge can be used to show the writer’s views, criticism, uncertainty, and little confidence and applied to soften the text or reduce the reluctance of the force of a statement. thus, this finding was supported by shen and tao (2021) who also revealed that the most frequent type of stance markers in both newspapers oc and medical ra was hedge. this high-frequency use of hedge demonstrated the authors' caution and weakening in creating appropriate truth expressing claims and s. chenda, s. arsyad, syafryadin 196 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) necessity for a statement. in this respect, petchkij (2019) found that the modals as subcategories of hedge were the most frequently employed by thai efl students in the academic writing classroom. the result of this study is also related to that of alghazo et al. (2021), in which modals and semi-modals were mostly counted and increasingly contributed to applied linguistics than in the literature research article abstract. the reason was that the slippery nature of the applied linguistic subject is remarked by uncertainty and ambiguity. that is why it impacted the la writer’s use of hedge subcategories in their writing as well as le writer’s writing too. the lexical verbs of sub-categories were booster and were the most frequent use the same in both english research articles. both authors used these sub-categories to show the strong certainty degree of their belief in a statement. this means that they revealed either the accepted idea or fact as evidence to represent their confidence in stating a statement. yet, this finding is closely associated with shen and tao’s (2021) study, which illustrated those epistemic lexical verbs of the booster category were mostly accounted for newspaper genre. it can be assumed that both researchers are confident enough in emphasizing a statement. the adjectives sub-category of attitude marker were mostly counted in these two ra introduction sections. the attitude markers are used by the authors to show the important judgment of a statement to pull the readers into a conspiracy of agreement as well as attitude markers refer to the affective of the writer (hyland, 2005). the result from getkham (2016) also supported this study that thai doctoral students often utilized adjectives as subcategories of attitude markers in their doctoral dissertation writing. otherwise, the useless one was subjective pronouns of self-mention were frequently counted in both ra introduction sections. however, the author realized that this subject pronoun was more commonly used in ijras than in ljras. this study is supported by karahan (2013), who studied self-mention use by turkish and non turkish in scientific writing articles and found that the subject pronoun of self-mention was always used in both turkish and non-turkish scientific writing articles. this can be assumed that the authors were not confident enough in addressing themselves in the introduction because their findings were not released yet. this is supported by getkham (2016) who presented the finding that writers used less self-mention in the introduction rather than in the discussion section because they felt more confident once they see the result in their discussion section. stance expressions in introduction of english research articles … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 197 the finding showed that there were no significant differences in terms of the frequent use of boosters, attitude markers, and self-mention. however, there was a significant difference in terms of the frequent use of hedges in both ra introductions. the hedge was the highest proportion of all stance expression types accounted for both research article types. this finding is similar to papangkorn and phoocharoensil’s (2021) comparison study that found the difference in frequencies of stance expression use, hedge was the biggest used in thai writers and native writers. this is closely related to petchkij’s (2019) finding about hedges being the most frequently used by native writers as well as sukhanindr (2008) found that native writers used more hedges than thai writers in the discussion section of research articles. therefore, this finding contrasted with the findings from incharoensak (2018) that hedge was used more in thai writers’ writing than in native writers’ writing. this can be concluded that thai and cambodian authors have similar cultures, which is the cause of the increase in the distribution of hedges. conclusion there are some points to be concluded in sequence: first, it was found that all four stance expression types proposed by hyland appeared in both ra introduction published in local journals and international journals. they were hedges, boosters, attitude markers, and self-mention. however, we see that the biggest frequency use type among the four types of stance expression was a hedge sub-category in the ra introduction sections of both journals. second, the subcategory of self-mention was mostly accounted by the subject pronoun “we” in the ra introduction sections of both journals. thirdly, the researcher found that differences in terms of the frequencies of use of hedge in the ra introduction sections of both journals were significant in this study. but there was no significant difference in terms of the booster, attitude markers, and self-mention because there was a very small difference in the frequency use of these types within both ra introduction sections. the cambodian authors use more attitude markers and boosters of stance expression in their introduction section to improve their research article writing quality. there were only 15 ras selected from local journals and the other 15 ras were chosen from international journals. however, the other content such as the abstract, methodology discussion, and conclusion section were not discussed in this study and should be discussed by another researcher. furthermore, for further study, the researchers can study the comparison of the stance expression and engagement s. chenda, s. arsyad, syafryadin 198 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) used between native cambodian authors and non-native cambodian authors in ras published in international journals in the introduction section or the discussion section by expanding more sample from different research articles from diverse available journals. references alghazo, s., al salem, m. n., alrashdan, i., & rabab'ah, g. 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(2021). stance expressions in academic writing: a corpus-based comparison of chinese students’ ma dissertations and phd theses. lingua, 253, 103071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2021.103071 https://e-flt.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/petchkij.pdf https://e-flt.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/petchkij.pdf https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.4770180211 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247981 https://so04.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/abc/article/view/54445 https://so04.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/abc/article/view/54445 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2021.103071 203 a conversational implicature analysis in oscar wilde’s short story “happy prince” faizal risdianto, s.s,m.hum english department of educational faculty state islamic studies institute (stain) salatiga jl. tentara pelajar no. 02 salatiga, central java, indonesia faizrisd@gmail.com abstract the title of this paper is a conversational implicature analysis on oscar wilde‘s ―happy prince‖. in this paper, the writer discusses conversational implicature in one of oscar wilde‘s short stories entitled ―happy prince‖. the objectives of the study are to identify the implicature utterances conveyed by the characters in oscar wilde‘s ―happy prince‖ and to describe the implied meaning uttered by the characters in oscar wilde‘s ―happy prince‖. in this study, the writer applies qualitative research method. the objects of this study are ten utterances of conversational implicature in oscar wilde‘s ―happy prince‖. those conversational implicature are obtained through frequent reading and analysis. this study employed the researcher as the instrument to find adequate and profound data and analyze them. the procedures and steps that have been used in this research are: (1) the provision of data, (2) data classification, (3) and data analysis. in analyzing the data, the writer uses gricean theory. it is a theory about conversational implicature generated by four maxims. those are maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of relation and maxim of manner. then the last step is (4) the presentation of data analysis. after conducting the research, the writer found ten conversational implicatures in oscar wilde‘s short story ―happy prince‖. in the short story, there are some variation‘s meanings of the conversational implicature used in the short story which closely related to the conversational implicature; they are cooperative, politeness and ironical principle. in oscar wilde‘s short story ―happy prince‖, there are six maxims of politeness principle, two maxims of cooperative principles and two maxims of ironical principles. besides that, the reasons of the conversational implicature used in oscar wilde‘s short story ―happy prince‖ are to make us easyly understand the dialogue in the short story conversations and it is aimed at minimizing misunderstanding among the readers and literary critics. keywords: conversational implicature, maxims, gricean theory, short story 204 abstrak judul tulisan ini adalah analisis implikatur percakapan pada cerpen oscar wilde "happy pangeran". dalam tulisan ini, penulis membahas implikatur percakapan di salah satu cerita pendek oscar wilde yang berjudul "selamat pangeran". tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengidentifikasi ujaran implikatur yang disampaikan oleh karakter dalam oscar wilde "happy pangeran" dan untuk menggambarkan makna tersirat yang diucapkan oleh karakter dalam cerpen tersebut. dalam penelitian ini, penulis menggunakan metode penelitian kualitatif. obyek penelitian ini adalah sepuluh ujaran implikatur percakapan di oscar wilde "happy pangeran". implikatur percakapan tersebut diperoleh melalui aktivitas membaca dan analisis secara intensif. penelitian ini menggunakan peneliti sebagai instrumen untuk menemukan data yang memadai dan mendalam untuk keperluan analisis data. prosedur dan langkah-langkah yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah : (1) penyajian data, (2) klasifikasi data, (3) dan analisis data. dalam menganalisis data, penulis menggunakan teori gricean. ini adalah teori tentang implikatur percakapan yang dihasilkan oleh empat maksim. mereka adalah maksim kuantitas, maksim kualitas, maksim hubungan, dan maksim cara. kemudian langkah terakhir adalah (4) analisis data. setelah melakukan penelitian, penulis menemukan sepuluh implikatur percakapan dalam cerita pendek oscar wilde "happy pangeran". dalam cerita pendek tersebut, ada beberapa variasi makna dari implikatur percakapan yang terkait erat dengan implikatur percakapan; prinsip kooperatif, kesopanan dan ironis. dalam cerita pendek oscar wilde "happy pangeran", ada enam maksim dalam prinsip kesantunan, dua maksim dalam prinsip kooperatif dan dua maksim dalam prinsip ironis. selain itu, alasan dari implikatur percakapan yang digunakan dalam cerita pendek oscar wilde "happy pangeran" adalah untuk membuat kita memahami dialog dalam percakapan cerita pendek dengan mudah, yang ditujukan untuk meminimalkan kesalahpahaman antara pembaca dan kritikus sastra. kata kunci : implikatur percakapan, maxim, teori gricean, cerita pendek introduction language plays important and significant roles in human communication. they use it by the aim creating common understanding between the speaker and the hearer. to know what the speaker means, the hearer should interpret what the speaker‘s utterance is. dealing with this interpretation, based on 205 experience, it is a tricky affair. sometimes there are possible misunderstandings and sometimes it seems to be the rule rather than the exception (jacob l. mey, 1983: 100). according to leech, interpreting an utterance is ultimately ―a matter of guesswork, or (to use a more dignified term) hypothesis formation ―(1983:30). regarding on the above statement, people have to interpret the speaker‘s saying. in pragmatics, it is called as conversational implicature. grice says that conversational implicature can be defined as ―a different (opposite, additional, etc) pragmatic meaning of an utterance with respect to the literal meaning expressed by utterance‖ (jacob l. mey, 1998: 371). in a case of conversational implicature the hearer crucially makes the assumption that the speaker is not violating one of the conversational maxims, relevance, informativeness, or clarity. this, in fact, has a contradiction in real daily conversation. it makes it possible for the use of implicature to give more elaboration on the lingual phenomenon. according to james r. hurford, implicature is a concept of utterance meaning as opposed to sentence meaning. furthermore, implicature is related to the method by which speakers work out the indirect illocutions of utterance (1983: 278). this kind of case can be easily found conversation taken from literary work of arts like novel or short stories. short story is one of the popular genres of fiction which sometimes contains implicature in the conversation among the characters. in this paper, the writer will try to elaborate more about conversational implicature in oscar wilde‘s short story ―happy prince‖ but it will be described about the synopsis of this famous classic short story. gricean theories of conversational implicature according to grice there is a general cooperative principle between speakers and hearers which controls or guides the way they speak (f.r. palmer, 206 1981: 173). the cooperative principle consists of four maxims with their sub maxims. the four maxims are: the maxim of quantity which has the principles of ―make your contribution as informative as required‖ (for the current purposes of exchange) and ―do not make your contribution more informative than is required‖, the maxim of quality which has the principles of ―try to make your contribution one that is true‖ and ―do not say what you believe to be false‖ or ―do not say that for which you lack evidence‖, the maxim of relation which has the principle of ―be relevant‖ and the last one, the maxim of manner with its principle ―be perspicuous‖ ―avoid obscurity of expression‖, ―avoid ambiguity‖, ―be brief‖ and ―be orderly‖. it is important to recognize these maxims as unstated assumptions we have in conversations. we assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information and they are telling the truth, being relevant and trying to be as clear as they can. these rules according which people are expected to behave when communicating with one another are frequently flouted or violated. and that is the factor which conversational implicature results from. it occurs when people do not observe the conversational maxims, it does not matter which one or how many of them. the politeness principle the other principle of conversational implicature is politeness principles. according to george yule in ―pragmatics‖, politeness can be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person‘s face (1996: 60). in this sense, politeness can be accomplished in situations of social distance or closeness. showing awareness for another person‘s face when the others seem socially distant is often described in terms of respect. showing the equivalent awareness when the other is socially close is often described in terms of friendliness, ―camaraderie‖ or solidarity. in simple terms, george yule 207 distinguished two politenesses, there are: (1) positive politeness which deals with face saving act which is concerned with the person‘s positive face. this tends to show solidarity, emphasizes that both speakers want the same thing and they both have a common goal, (2) negative politeness which can be defined as a face saving act which is oriented to the person‘s negative face which tends to show difference. this emphasizes the importance of the other‘s time or concerns and even includes an apology for the imposition or interruption. besides that, according to geoffrey leech, politeness principles distinguish into six maxims: (1) the maxim of tact which has the principle of ―minimize the expression of beliefs which imply cost to other‖ and ―maximize the expression of beliefs which imply benefit to other‖, (2) the maxim of generosity which has the principle ―minimize the expression of beliefs that express or imply benefit to self‖ and ―maximize the expression of beliefs that express or imply cost to self‖, (3)the maxim of approbation which has the principle of ―minimize the expression of beliefs which express dispraise of other‖ and ―maximize the expression of beliefs which express approval of other‖, (4) the maxim of modesty which has the principle of ―minimize the expression of praise of self‖ and ―maximize the expression of dispraise of self‖, (5) the maxim of agreement which has the principle of ―minimize the expression of disagreement between self and other‖ and ―maximize the expression of agreement between self and other‖ , (6) the maxim of sympathy which has the principle of ―minimize antipathy between self and other‖ and ―maximize sympathy between self and other‖. the ironical principle the phenomenon of irony has been employed in ordinary conversation as well as in literature since ancient times and it is still a popular means of 208 expression, especially in english culture. english liking for the use of irony in conversation in apparent from interaction among friends, television programs, radio broadcasting and a number of other ordinary speech situations and there can be no wonder that the use of this linguistic device is frequently present in fictional discourse if an author tries to make his/her work of art sound more authentic. irony indicates that what is meant is the contradictory of what is said. the use of irony is intentional, in other word; we employ this linguistic device in utterance if we want the addressee to encode the extra meaning hidden in the ironical remark. irony is contradicting either what the speaker has said or usually says, or, contradicting what the take to be true. to read the irony a hearer or reader do not just have to know the context, but also have to be committed to specific beliefs and positions within that context (martina stykatova, 2009: 53). irony principle is a second order principle, which builds upon, or exploits, the principle of politeness. it allows the hearer to arrive at the offensive point of the speaker‘s remark indirectly, by way of implicature (leech, 1983: 82). irony, as a number of other means of expression, is also frequently employed in fictional works like novels and short stories. it provides interestingness in dialogue, it makes explicit and implicit dialogues more sophisticated and it is more laborious for readers. the use of irony in conversation is intentional. the author of the literary works employs irony with some particular goal; they wish to achieve a particular purpose. irony can have a function humor and ridicule. it can serve only for entertaining the readers. the speaker or writer may want to be sarcastic, he or she may want to indicate that something is disapproved but does not want to be too direct when criticizing. 209 in contrast to all the conversational implicature discussed so far, conventional implicature are not based on the cooperative principle or the maxims. they do not have to occur in conversation, and they do not depend on special contexts for their interpretation. the same as lexical presuppositions, conventional implicatures are associated with specific words and result in additional conveyed meanings when those words are used (george yule, 1996: 45). conventional implicature is always conveyed, regardless of context. according levinson, conventional implicature are non-truth-conditional inferences that are not derived from super ordinate pragmatic principles like the maxims, but are simply attached by convention to particular lexical item (1983: 127). research methodology this research is a qualitative descriptive research. the objects in this study are ten utterances of conversational implicature in oscar wilde‘s short story ―happy prince‖. those conversational implicature are obtained through frequent reading and analysis. this study employed the researcher as the instrument to find adequate and profound data and analyze them. the procedures and steps that have been used in this research are: (1) the provision of data, (2) data classification, (3) data analysis in which in the method of analyzing data, the writer uses gricean theory. it is a theory is about conversational implicature generated by four maxims. those are maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of relation and maxim of manner. then the last stage is (4) the presentation of data analysis. 210 discussion the synopsis of “happy prince” ―happy prince‖ short story started with the scene when at one cold night a little swallow flew over the city where a beautiful statue stood. the swallow‘s friends had gone away to egypt six weeks before, but he had not because he was in love with the most beautiful reed. the other swallows had told him that his love was ridiculous because the reed had no money and too many relations, and she was always flirting with the wind. while he was flying he saw the statue. it was covered by thin leaves of fine gold; for eyes he had two sapphires and a large red ruby glowed on his sword. when the prince whom the statue was made after he died he did not know what tears were he lived in a palace where sorrow was not allowed. the court used to call him the happy prince, and when he died the town councilors decided to build the statue, which was set up so high that he could see everything in the city. the swallow decided to sleep on the statue‘s feet, but just when he was putting his head under his wings, he felt a drop of water, and then another. when he looked up he realized that the happy prince was crying because he could see the misery and ugliness of his own city. so the happy prince asked the swallow to be his messenger. through a small window the happy prince could see a very poor seamstress who was embroidering passion flowers on a satin gown, and he could also see her ill boy. they had no food to eat, so the happy prince told the swallow to take out the ruby from his sword and give it to them. the following night the happy prince saw a man in a cold garret trying out to finish a play, but he was too cold to write, so the happy prince asked the swallow to take out a sapphire from his eyes and give it to him in order to buy wood. the following day, he saw a match-girl whose matches had fallen in the 211 gutter, whose father would hit her if she did not bring home some money. in order to help her, the happy prince asked the swallow to pluck the sapphire from his other eye to give to the girl. as a result of this action he became blind and the swallow had to fly over the city in order to tell him what he had seen. he saw two children crying of hunger and a lot of poverty, so the happy prince decided to take out all the golden leaves so as to give them to the poor children. at last the swallow realized that he would die because of the cold winter, and he decided to stay with the happy prince. the prince asked the swallow to kiss his lips as he loved him, and once the swallow did so he fell down at the prince's feet. at that moment a crack sounded inside the statue as the prince's heart broke. early the next morning, the mayor saw the statue but, as it was not beautiful, he decided it was no longer useful, so he decided to pull it down. the statue was melted in a furnace and reused. the broken lead heart, however, did not melt, and so it was thrown away on a dust-heap alongside the dead swallow, the prince's final friend. however, an angel charged by god to find "the two most precious things in the city" returned with the dead bird and the prince's broken heart. god approved of the angel's choice, and decreed that both the swallow and the prince would live happily in his presence forever. interestingly in this short story wilde personifies the statue of happy prince and the swallow as his creative means of giving social criticism. even though this is a fairy tale which at the first time intended just for wilde‘s two sons but its educational and humane value go far beyond the fairy world of children. the story develops children's compassion and sympathy for the poor and makes adults look back on their attitude toward the unfortunate people 212 around them. all the good actions of the happy prince are so worthy and touching that he deserves our respect and admiration. one of them is the happy prince's actions of helping the poor .without the ruby from his sword hilt, the seamstress's son may die of fever. his immediate and valuable action also helps the playwright out with a sapphire to buy food and firewood and escape from hunger and coldness. again, the happy prince prevents the poor little match seller from being beaten by giving her the remaining sapphire. he is not hesitant to strip himself of all fine gold leaves to help the homeless children. although the happy prince is a beautiful statue, a splendid work of art, he accepts his dull and grey appearance to help the needy to have a happy and sufficient life. his actions deserve being appreciated and praised. (http://www.online-literature.com/poe/177/) biography of oscar wilde this beautiful short story was written by oscar wilde. he was an 19 th century irish writer whose works include the play ―the importance of being earnest‖ and the novel ―the picture of dorian gray‖. he is also one of the victorian era's most famous writers, a wit whose good-humored mocking the general convention which became less favored after he was jailed for homosexuality. wilde grew up in a prosperous family and distinguished himself at dublin's trinity college and london's oxford. he published his first volume of poems in 1881 and found work in england as a critic and lecturer, but it was his socializing (and self-promotion) that made him famous, even before the 1890 publication of ―the picture of dorian gray‖. in 1895, at the height of his popularity, his relationship with the young poet lord alfred douglas was declared inappropriately intimate by douglas's father, the marquees of queensberry. wilde sued for libel, but the tables were http://www.online-literature.com/poe/177/ 213 turned when it became clear there was enough evidence to charge wilde with "clearly seen indecency" for his homosexual relationships. he was convicted and spent two years in jail, after which he went into self-imposed exile in france, bankrupt and in ill health. his other works include the comedies ―lady windermere's fan‖ (1892), ―a woman of no importance ―(1893) and an ―ideal husband‖ (1895), several collections of children's stories like ―happy prince and other tales‖ (1896). surprisingly , at first oscar wilde did write these works of art just for his own children‘s bed times stories but then these become so popular not only for children but also for adult people.( encyclopedia britannica, 1964:120) social condition at victorian era the victorian era of british history was the period of queen victoria's reign from 20 june 1837 until her death on 22 january 1901. it was a long period of peace, prosperity, excellent sensibilities and national self-confidence. at the same time, in contrast, it was also a moment when religious morality changed drastically. when victoria took the throne, the anglican church was very powerful in running schools and universities, and with high ranking churchmen holding offices in the house of lords. the church's power continued to rule in rural areas throughout the victorian era; however that was not the case in industrialized cities. in the cities those against the church were many and the disagreement or rejection was everywhere. the opposing secular group was against what the anglican church was using its power for. the church demanded obedience to god, submissiveness and resignation with the goal of making people to do the will of the church. ironically, the church aimed to fulfill the will of the elite and cared little if at all about the needs and wants of the lower, poor peasant class then emerged methodism, congregationalism, the society of friends (quakers) and 214 presbyterianism. the methodists and presbyterians in particular stressed personal salvation through direct individual faith in jesus christ's sacrificial death and resurrection on the behalf of sinners, as taught in the new testament gospels and the writings of the apostles peter, james and paul. this stress on individualism is seen throughout the victorian era and becomes even more developed in middle class life. the "crisis of faith" would hit religion and the citizens' faith like a brick. the crisis of faith was brought about in 1859 with charles darwin's work on the origin of species; his theory was (in the basic form) that the natural world had become what it was through gradual change over thousand years. he stated that natural selection and survival of the fittest were the reasons man had survived so long. his theory of evolution based on empirical evidence would call into question christian beliefs and victorian values. people whose lives became totally uprooted felt the need to find a new system on which to base their values and morality. unable to completely lose faith, they combined both their religious beliefs with individual duty -duty to one's god, fellow man, social class, neighbor, the poor and the ill. these ideas had a great influence in the mind of oscar wilde as the author who had a high social awareness on moral-ethic values and social justice. he had seen the dark sides of industrialization in england urban society and tried to give deep criticism through his fairy tales like ―happy prince‖. at first, people just see that this short story is just one of interesting bedtime stories for children but after a reader reads it many times there is something different. this was aimed not only for children but also a good moral inspiration and teaching for adult. (samekto, 1974:75). 215 the conversational implicature analysis "who are you?" he said. "i am the happy prince." "why are you weeping then?" asked the swallow; "you have quite drenched me." this conversation is in accordance to the cooperative principle by the maxim of quantity. when the statue of happy prince was asked by the swallow he gave an answer which was exactly provides the quantity of expected answer. he did not give an information more that the reply needed by the swallow. "i am glad that you are going to egypt at last, little swallow," said the prince, "you have stayed too long here; but you must kiss me on the lips, for i love you." "it is not to egypt that i am going," said the swallow. "i am going to the house of death. death is the brother of sleep, is he not?" and he kissed the happy prince on the lips, and fell down dead at his feet. this conversation is in line with the cooperative principle by the maxim of quantity. when the statue of happy prince was asked by the swallow he gives an answer which is exactly provides the quantity of expected answer. quite similar to above analysis the happy prince did not give an information more that needed by the swallow. "far away," continued the statue in a low musical voice, "far away in a little street there is a poor house. one of the windows is open, and through it i can see a woman seated at a table. her face is thin and worn, and she has coarse, red hands, all pricked by the needle, for she is a seamstress. she is embroidering passion-flowers on a satin gown for the loveliest of the queen's maids-of-honor to wear at the next court-ball. in a bed in the corner of the room her little boy is lying ill. he has a fever, and is asking for oranges. his mother has nothing to give him but river water, so he is crying. swallow, swallow, little swallow, will you not bring her the ruby out of my sword-hilt? my feet are fastened to this pedestal and i cannot move." 216 this conversation can be categorized as the politeness principle by the maxim of sympathy. intelligently the author used ―happy prince‖, the statue as a means of showing sympathy to the poor seamstress woman whose little boy is lying ill. this is a nice instance of politeness principle. "swallow, swallow, little swallow," said the prince, "far away across the city i see a young man in a garret. he is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. his hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. he is trying to finish a play for the director of the theatre, but he is too cold to write any more. there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint." "i will wait with you one night longer," said the swallow, which really had a good heart. "shall i take him another ruby?" "alas! i have no ruby now," said the prince; "my eyes are all that i have left. they are made of rare sapphires, which were brought out of india a thousand years ago. pluck out one of them and take it to him. he will sell it to the jeweler, and buy food and firewood, and finish his play." this conversation is in accordance to the politeness principle by the maxim of sympathy. brilliantly wilde used ―happy prince‖, the statue as a means of showing sympathy to the hungry young man who felt cold that he was unable to finish a play for the director of the theatre. then happy prince asked the swallow to pluck expensive sapphire from the statue‘s eyes and gave it to the hungry man. it is given so that the man can buy food and firewood and finish his play. "in the square below," said the happy prince, "there stands a little match-girl. she has let her matches fall in the gutter, and they are all spoiled. her father will beat her if she does not bring home some money, and she is crying. she has no shoes or stockings, and her little head is bare. pluck out my other eye, and give it to her, and her father will not beat her." this conversation belongs to the politeness principle by the maxim of sympathy. smartly the writer used happy prince, the statue as a means of showing sympathy to the little match-girl who will be beaten by her father if 217 she did not bring some money. happy prince then asked the swallow to pluck his other eye and give the rare indian sapphire to her. this was done in order her father will not beat her. “dear prince," said the swallow, "i cannot do that"; and he began to weep. "swallow, swallow, little swallow," said the prince, "do as i command you." this conversation is in line with the politeness principle by the maxim of sympathy. intelligently the author told the reader about the feeling of swallow which did not have a heart to pluck the rare sapphire from the face of happy prince stature. this was done it is given in order to make a hungry man could buy food and firewood and finish his play. "i will stay with you one night longer," said the swallow, "but i cannot pluck out your eye. you would be quite blind then." "swallow, swallow, little swallow," said the prince, "do as i command you." this conversation is in line politeness principle by the maxim of sympathy. intelligently the author telling the reader about the feeling of swallows which did not have a heart to pluck the other rare sapphire from the face of happy prince stature. the swallow afraid this will make him blind. this was done to the little match-girl who will be beaten by her father if she did not bring some money. happy prince asked the swallow to pluck the last sapphire in his eye and give the expensive jewelry to her. this was done in order her father will not beat her. "it is a ridiculous attachment," twittered the other swallows; "she has no money, and far too many relations"; and indeed the river was quite full of reeds. then, when the autumn came they all flew away. this conversation is a flout and violation of the politeness principle particularly the maxim of approbation. the author told us about the 218 conversation among the other swallows which criticize the effort of the swallow which try to disturb the female reed. a remark that ―the reed has no money and far too much relation‖ is a violation of maxim of approbation. ideally as the speaker the swallows made a conversation which ―maximize the expression of beliefs which express approval of other‖ but in fact it can be clearly seen that they made a remarks which ―minimize the expression of beliefs which express dispraise of other‖. he was very much admired indeed. "he is as beautiful as a weathercock," remarked one of the town councilors who wished to gain a reputation for having artistic tastes; "only not quite so useful," he added, fearing lest people should think him unpractical, which he really was not. this remark is the instance of ironical expression. in this case, the words ―one of the town councilors that the statue of happy prince is as beautiful as weathercock‖ is in contradiction with his character. the readers have known that he said that just to gain a reputation for having artistic tastes whereas, in fact, he did not have any artistic tastes. this is the smart way of the author to mildly criticize the dumb government official at that moment. it is actually offensive but the writer remarks it indirectly through the characters in the short story by way of implicature. early the next morning the mayor was walking in the square below in company with the town councilors. as they passed the column he looked up at the statue: "dear me! how shabby the happy prince looks!" he said. "how shabby indeed!" cried the town councilors, who always agreed with the mayor; and they went up to look at it. "the ruby has fallen out of his sword, his eyes are gone, and he is golden no longer," said the mayor in fact, "he is little better than a beggar!" "little better than a beggar," said the town councilors. this remark is another example of ironical expression. in this case it can be seen the funny expression of the stupid town councilors which always 219 imitate what the major said. actually, the town councilors has his own wish and desire but because of his vested interest towards the major he always justifies what the major said to him..this is the intelligent craftsmanship of wilde in mildly criticizing the fool government official at that moment. it is actually offensive but the writer remarks it indirectly through the characters in the short story by way of implicature. conclusion in the short story, there are some variation‘s meanings of the conversational implicature used in in oscar wilde‘s short story happy prince, as follows: conversation implicature connected with cooperative principles, politeness principle and ironical principle. in oscar wilde‘s short story happy prince, there are six forms of politeness principle, two forms of cooperative principles and two ironical principles. the reasons of the conversational implicature used in oscar wilde‘s short story happy prince are to make easy we understand the dialogue or conversation in the short story. beside that this is aimed at minimizing misunderstanding among the readers and literary critics. references encyclopedia britannica vol 14 th . 1964. ―oscar wilde‖. chicago. william benton publishers. grice, paul. 1975. logic and conversation. london. oxford university press. hurford, james r. 1983. semantics of coursebook. new york: cambridge university press. 220 leech, geoffrey. 1983. principle of pragmatics. united stated of america: longman group. levinson, stephen c. 1983. pragmatics. new york. cambridge university press. martina stykatova. 2009. (http://is.muni.cz/th/124889/ff_m/m.a. diploma_thesis.txt) mey, jacob l. 1983. an introduction of pragmatics. united states of america: blackwell. mey, jacob l. 1998. concise encylopedia of pragmatics. new york: elseiver. palmer, f.r .1981. semantics. new york. cambridge university press. potter, james l. 1967. elements of literature. the united states. the odyssey press.inc. samekto,s.s, m.a. 1974. ikhtisar sejarah kesusastraan inggris. jakarta. pt.gramedia. yule, george. 1996. pragmatics. new york. oxford university press. http://www.online-literature.com/poe/177/ http://is.muni.cz/th/124889/ff_m/m.a.%20diploma_thesis.txt http://is.muni.cz/th/124889/ff_m/m.a.%20diploma_thesis.txt http://www.online-literature.com/poe/177/ dinamika pengarusutamaan gender register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022), pp. 64-90 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v15i1.64-90 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 64 minimalist perspective on legal communication: a case study of english to urdu translation of punjab laws naumana kanwal1, muhammad javed iqbal2*, mariam mushtaq3 1,3gujrat institute of management sciences, pmas-arid agriculture university, gujrat, pakistan, 2centre for languages and translation studies, university of gujrat, gujrat, pakistan *) corresponding author email: dr.javediqbal188@gmail.com doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i1.64-90 submission track: received: 31-12-2021 final revision: 06-04-2022 available online: 30-04-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract syntactic choices and complexity reduction make translation communicative for the readers. this paper underscores the syntactic choices as well as complexity reduction in urdu translation of punjab laws in english. the study focuses on legal communication in a minimalistic perspective. it draws upon the theory of minimalism proposed by chomsky (1993), along with the three-stage model by nida and taber (1969). data is analyzed by employing burton’s (2021) clausal analysis. the legal data used for the research comprises punjab laws in english and their urdu translation. the findings reveal minimalism as a useful strategy in the translation process for reducing structure complexity and making the translation understandable to laypeople. the study is beneficial to english-urdu translators since it instructs them on how to make their translations communicative, especially when dealing with legal texts. it is also useful for academics in the field of translation studies who are working on minimalist views. keywords: minimalism, complexity reduction, legal translation, syntactic choices, communication http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/ http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ n. kanwal, m.j. iqbal, m. mushtaq 65 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) introduction translation is a complex phenomenon, particularly when it comes to legal translation. to make translation communicative, syntactic decisions are crucial. according to sadiq (2008), because the organization of signs in each language differs due to syntactic structures, it is not enough to simply translate the words; they must be ordered in a way that corresponds to the target language structure norms. otherwise, the target readers will have great difficulty grasping the idea. this paper investigates how the complexity of legal sentences in english is decreased throughout the urdu translation process, and how legal communication is maintained in punjab laws by decreasing operations and words. the current study looks at legal communication from a minimalist approach. it is based on chomsky's (1993) concept of the minimalist program (mp), in which he explores the economy principle of language by emphasizing the simplicity of language structures. minimalist program explores the concept that the fundamental operations of language are not complex but rather simple and few (clark, 2020). the language economy principle is unquestionably a crucial factor that governs both language use and change. it is the dynamic stability between the speaker's tendency to make the least amount of effort and the achievement of their communicative needs (iamartino, 2015). the language economy principle combines the concepts of "economy of derivation" and "economy of representation," which deal with the smallest number of steps and the smallest number of words in the generation of sentences (chomsky, 1995). however, the speaker can make a concise but communicative sentence using the bare minimum of steps and words. in this context, vicentini (2003) claims that the linguistic structure undergoes many modifications and alterations to provide the greatest possible communication. similarly, different ideas are conveyed from one language to another by altering the structure of the source text according to the target language's conventions. sentences are reassembled in a variety of ways to convey the full meaning. in this way, the language economy principle of the minimalist program is likewise linked to translation. the translation process is tied to the minimalist philosophy in this study. by operationalizing the three-stage translation model of nida and taber minimalist perspective on legal communication .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 66 (1969) and chomsky's (1995) minimalist program, both economy of derivation and economy of representation are applied to english legal texts of punjab laws and their urdu translation. nida and taber's (1969) threestage translation model is based on chomsky's (1993) generative grammar, in which the source language's deep structures, also known as kernel sentences, are transformed into the target language's deep structures and then reconstructed using target language norms. as a result, in the translation process, economy principles are used to reduce the source language sentence to the simplest, fluent, and understandable form possible. it demonstrates how economy principles are important in decreasing sentence complexity and developing basic structures in translation that is easily understood by target readers and convey the entire meaning to the audience. in this regard, murphy (2020) asserts that minimalism contributes to higher cognition of individuals as well. in the same way, the purpose of legal text translation is to make the translation understandable for laypeople. this study aims to look into how the economy principle can help in making legal texts more communicative for the intended audience. recent years have seen that the syntactic component has become the most prominent focus of research in linguistics particularly in generative grammar and the most noticeable reformulation of generative grammar has been the minimalist program introduced by prominent linguist chomsky (1993). minimalism is generally linked with certain creative tendencies whose function is stripped down to its most basic elements (andreu & gallego, 2009). in this regard, chomsky states that grammars are minimally complex and completely structured in optimal design. he represents four essays namely principles and parameters theory, economy of derivation and representation, a minimalist program (mp) for linguistic theory, categories and transformations in a minimalist framework. however, this article primarily focuses on the economy principle of language. these principles emphasize the simplicity of language structures. the word ‘economy’ was derived from économie, a french word, in 1530 (simpson, 1989). as this word has been extensively used in contemporary linguistics based on grammar as well as language theory, the first quantitative study unveils that it has not been discussed in depth in grammar and n. kanwal, m.j. iqbal, m. mushtaq 67 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) linguistics. chomsky (1993) first uses the term in his theory of mp under the field of grammar and linguistics. the term is defined as thrift, less burden, saving, and gain and it is an essential idea in generative grammar which asserts that structural or, in more linguistic terms, syntactic representations must consist of as few constituents as possible. furthermore, it should involve minimum syntactic derivations as well as grammatical operations. language varies due to certain external and internal forces that also influence social contacts and customs as well as cause variation in irregularity, constant importation, and alteration in communication. the economy of language controls the whole language system with minimum cost and thus is called “the principle of least effort” (vicentini, 2003). the economy principle of language states that the cost, as well as the length of derivation, must be minimized. in this regard, collins (2001) claims that in the process of derivation, representations to be made must not be kept complex; rather, they should be simple, holding a minimal number of syntactic objects that can be interpretable. in other words, the economy principle suggests simpler forms of sentences following shortest derivation moves and they must be communicative for the audience. according to chomsky (1995), ‘minimality’ allows you to choose from two comparable operations and selects the lowest one. this is similar to the shortest derivation requirement (sdr) with the smallest number of derivational operations. sdr minimizes the derivational steps and lessens the number of operations for convergence. chomsky (1995) states that full interpretation can easily be understood by using as few words as possible in the economic realization of deep structures. the reason behind this claim is that extra steps in the derivational process correspond to additional symbols and violations. in other words, the economy principle leads towards the rejection of less conspicuous forms and suggests the most conspicuous ones. similarly, workflow, under these conditions, is a grammar that can reduce the level of ranks, movements’ length, and the number of derived steps or violations of certain conditions (collins, 2001). in this context, vicentini (2003) argues that to achieve the aim of best possible and efficient communication in the most effective way, language structures go through numerous changes and adaptations. he asserts that minimalist perspective on legal communication .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 68 the speaker and the listener both tend to minimize efforts in communication. he and xiao (2008) supporting the idea argue that the speaker generally tries to communicate rich messages by using fewest words while the addressee expects precise information from the speaker that entails a greater amount of information units to make the prior understood in the given context. hence, the speaker emphasizes a word or phrase to convey its meaning to the recipient more clearly. similarly, anjomshoa and sadighi (2014) assert, “the reductions and minimizations of the minimal program result in a system that is immensely different in many respects to the earlier generative gb system of language.” jespersen (1949) rejects this idea as it is an addressee-biased approach and states that linguistic economy must be considered from both perspectives; the addressee and the speaker. according to him, the speaker, and the listener both tend to lessen their efforts in communication. the essential part of the linguistic economy is to produce the structures that are communicative for the speaker by saving his/her articulating energy as well as for the addressee by minimizing his/her mental efforts. therefore, the mental energy of the listener and the energy of the speaker’s articulation are optimally saved. the principle of linguistic economy reduces the speaker’s time and energy, but it is not always appreciated because sometimes complete satisfaction of linguistic economy makes the message incomprehensible and increases the concentrating energy of the listener. in the process of language acquisition, the economy principles are quite useful. in the context of the acquisition of children’s language, jackendoff (2005) proposes a strategy of ‘minimize complexity’ to deal with the apparent language complexity that is to minimize what has to be learned for instance complexity of adult grammar through simplifications. in this context, vaneenoo (2011) states that minimalism principle appears as a valuable device for complex as well as diverse understanding, which elucidates the firm idea of simplicity in its aspects. the historiographical analysis of vicentini (2003) also sheds light upon the role of the linguistic economy in functionalism and formalism. by analyzing the notion of the linguistic economy in different texts from the 16th to 18th century, it is stated that the principle of economy can be defined as a result of the creation of the communication theory and models of linguistic n. kanwal, m.j. iqbal, m. mushtaq 69 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) variations. furthermore, lowth (1762) studies different early modern english works to investigate the phenomenon of the linguistic economy. he states that the english language is simple to learn that involves few grammatical rules and it is the most simple of all european languages in terms of its construction. the idea of simplicity, in general terms, is taken as a guideline to the statements and comments of the writers who search for it within the linguistic system. in this regard, various meanings are conveyed for the idea of simplicity e.g. non-difficulty, sobriety, brevity, and efficiency (ibid.). the overall simplification of the english language points us towards economic trend, which is the reason for its worldwide spread; its grammatical form and construction save the learner from many difficulties and are adequately clear (collyer, 1735). in this way, the economy principle upholds stability between efficient and direct communication. according to the theoretical approach of the principle of economy, most of the variations occur in the linguistic system due to full optimization of communication and any change will occur only when they are needed rather than to make a linguistic system easier or more complex. according to vicentini (2003), the variations occur in a linguistic system to fulfill the communicative needs of the speakers and communication is the most essential feature of any language as well as translation. in this regard, nida and taber (1969) present a communication model by introducing the communication theory in translation studies. the model comprises sender, message, receiver, setting, medium, noise, and feedback. it states that translation is a message, which goes through the steps of decoding and recoding by the sender and the receptor. following the idea, nida and taber (1969) were the first who applied chomsky’s theory of generative grammar in translation to conceptualize the function of universal patterns behind diverse grammatical structures. they emphasize retaining the complex foreign elements from the text to advantage the target language readers. the economy principle is also linked with the interpretive theory. they are interrelated as both of them focus on the function of the language. the interpretative theory states that the interpreters aim to determine the functional equivalence for the target audience. in this context, lederer (2010) minimalist perspective on legal communication .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 70 asserts that the reformulation occurs according to the sense produced by the combination of the interpreter’s cognition and his/her linguistic choices instead of the original language’s form. thus, the sense is the major component of interpreting (shuttleworth & cowie, 2004). according to interpretive theory, translation is not only a process of transforming one code into another rather communication of ideas. similarly, economy principle is simple and understandable representation through minimal derivation. economy principles are purely linguistic and are not yet applied to the phenomenon of translation; however, the current research deals with the application of the economy principles on the process of translation and intend to explore that these principles work as an aiding tool in producing a communicative product. a significant number of research studies have been conducted on the idea of minimalism. fong (2008) conducted a study on the idea of minimalism focusing on computational issues in languages having sov structure by employing the probe-goal framework. he asserts that the probe-goal framework as a kind of chomsky’s generative theory works as an aiding tool to discover pre-nominal relative clauses in turkish, korean, and japanese because of their sov structure. in the same way, zipf (1949) investigated speech as a natural phenomenon, human conduct is naturally predisposed to the criteria of regulating economy, which is guided by the principle of minimum effort. this is also true in terms of language development. during the dynamic process of language change words are continually reduced and changed in meaning but under principle of least effort an equilibrium with maximum economy of communication is kept with maximal permutation and elimination of words, borrowing and alteration. furthermore, kobayashi (2015) did a study on the principle of linguistic economy and emphasis in english that was connected to the principles of minimalism. to emphasize specific english terms, he states that the earlier theory regarding sound patterns was wrong since it focused on speaker and hearer. the climax may influence the expression of need, which is thought to be a primary cause of stress shifts. it suggests that one needs to spend more time and effort in order to understand the message's clarity and accuracy. n. kanwal, m.j. iqbal, m. mushtaq 71 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) ali, jabbar, and kiyani (2021) investigate scrambling in clause-internal by operationalizing minimalist programs as a framework on the urdu language. the study is based on urdu naturalistic data that comprise a corpus of 100 proficient speakers of urdu, collected in audio format, within a normal setting. the study explores that when the minimalist program is applied to urdu data, the displacement of statements from base to host position depends on the phase heads, and thus there is no need for other external devices fundamentally needed for scrambling. linguistic redundancy is strongly connected to economy principles and has an important role in the occurrence of successful communication (wit and gillette, 1999). linguistic redundancy, whether it is contextual or grammatical, is very helpful in communication as it provides a suitable way to reduce the complexity of communication by creating simpler forms. in this regard, samadi, sayyar, and sadighi (2015), by advocating the phenomenon of economy and simplicity in minimalism, assert that regarding cognition and evolution, the minimalist approach is very advantageous for child acquisition. the minimalist approach is based on syntactic rules that make learning easier and assist child acquisition. in the same context, vicentini (2003) asserts that by using rich vocabulary and fewer words, comprehensible results can be achieved in communication. he propounds the argument by researching the role of the economy principle in modern english works (16th-17th century). he analyzes linguistic economy on phonetic/phonological, lexical, and syntactic levels and concludes that the use of minimum however tangible vocabulary can result in clear communication. furthermore, mobbs (2015) explains minimalism and the language faculty design as acquisition and use of language. he discusses different arguments regarding minimalism and then states that minimalism is a linguistic inquiry with linguistic variations for the role of language in human cognition. the current research explores the syntactic choices as well as complexity reduction making legal translation effective for the readers by applying the theory of minimalism proposed by chomsky (1993) and the three-stage model of nida and taber (1969) in english-urdu legal translation. minimalist perspective on legal communication .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 72 research method the legal text of punjab laws was acquired from the punjab codes website http://www.punjablaws.gov.pk/ for the current study where a variety of legal categories are available. the information is gathered based on the scholars' own legal translating experience. examples that are suitable for this study have been extracted. both source and target language files are retrieved from punjab codes' official website, and multiple processes are used to make the selected text adequate for the analysis. both the source and target text files are downloaded independently and converted to plain text files. subsequently, the text files are imported into microsoft excel and aligned on two columns. both aligned forms are made parallel evenly with the use of microsoft excel data operations, asap utilities, and manual review. data are extracted after the parallel creation procedure. purposive sampling is the data extraction technique used, in which examples are chosen depending on qualities that the researchers think are appropriate for the investigation. the researchers have manually examined the data and extracted the related data in the form of complex segments (a sentence with more than twenty-four words or more dependent clauses along with one independent clause, as huang (2016) defines it, and their translation choices, which are further analyzed in this research. the current study's theoretical approach is based on chomsky's (1993) theory of minimalism and nida and taber's (1969) communicative translation model. chomsky (1995) emphasizes in the minimalist program that language must have some constraints, which he refers to as "virtue conceptual necessity," or the usage of only those words that are required for syntactic processes. according to radford (2007), the concept goes toward the economy principles in syntactic structures, which “require that syntactic representations contain as few constituents as feasible and syntactic derivations use as few grammatical processes as possible” (p. 335). http://www.punjablaws.gov.pk/ n. kanwal, m.j. iqbal, m. mushtaq 73 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) figure 1. chomsky’s minimalism (economy of derivation and economy representation) the study is based on the two most significant economy principles. the economy of derivation in translation is described as a sentence restructuring stage. to produce a sentence, only a few steps must be taken, and only a few operations must be performed. when a sentence is finished, it has the bare minimum of elements and conveys a complete meaning, demonstrating an economy of representation. these economy principles serve as a foundation for making the intended text more communicative. the current study establishes a link between the notion of minimalism and the translation process. nida and taber's (1969) three-stage model is combined with minimalism theory to assess the acquired data. this model depicts a as a source text, which is then analyzed to reveal the deep structure, which is represented by x. this x is then transferred into the target language's deep structure (known as the kernel sentence) and shown as y in the picture. in addition, the other structure is examined and restructured following chomsky's economy principle. different phrases and clauses derive for minimalism economy of derivation syntactic derivation syntactic variation economy of representation data representation minimalist perspective on legal communication .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 74 translation and a minimal link is established together, reducing the complexity of the structure, and then b is displayed in the figure as receptor language, which illustrates the usage of the economy of representation. as a result, the target language's clear and easy structure emerged, which is deemed communicative by the target audience. according to nida (1964), sentences in translation go through a process in which they are first interpreted into the source language's deep structure and then converted into the target language's deep structure, and these sentences are referred to as kernel sentences by nida and taber (1969). the structures in the target language appear as absolute structures after such syntactic alterations. kernel sentences serve as the central unit of any sentence, developing the surface structure. in order to illustrate these principles whether it is economy of derivation or economy of representation, burton’s (2021) clausal analysis is used in data analysis, and clause is taken as equivalent to a sentence as he gives a clause a rank of a sentence. by using his idea, syntactic structures are presented in order to depict the idea of economy. in addition, back-translation is also provided to depict the changes more clearly. figure 2. the three-stage model by nida and taber (1969) a (source language) x (deep structure) b-receptor (economy of representation) y (deep structure) (analysis) re-structuring (economy of derivation) transfer n. kanwal, m.j. iqbal, m. mushtaq 75 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) data analysis the data selected from the translated legal text is analyzed and discussed in this part. the data is acquired using a technique called purposive sampling, which is appropriate for our study. the data is tabulated and evaluated using the methodology described in the preceding section. the extracts are also transliterated in the translated form for the convenience of the readers. the data is studied on a syntactic level, demonstrating how a structure with minimum constituent might be more communicative than longer phrases and clauses in the translation process. extract 1 english source text christian marriage act, 1872 urdu translation transliteration charch of england ya charch of rome ka kaahin ya mazhab ke kisi minister ki janib se shadian rismaanay ke liye licence yafta nah honay magar bator usquf faiz kisi shakhs ki janib se rismai gayi har shadi is ke rismany ke foran baad musna tor par register ki jaye gi ( yani ) is act se munsalik chouthay schedule mein darj shakal ke mutabiq is ki janib se is maqsad ke liye rakhi gayi shadi register buk mein aur shadi register buk se munsalik srtifkit mein musna tor par bhi register ki jaye gi. extract 1 describes the syntactic level analysis in the context of reduction of complexity and the process of communication in translation. the present extract shows how the complexity of structures is reduced during the process of translation and the structures are made communicative for the common readers. the deep structure of the given extract in the source language is: minimalist perspective on legal communication .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 76 “the authorized person of solemnizing marriage will immediately register the marriage after solemnizing it.” the first step is to analyze the deep structure of the source language so that the main theme of the sentence is made understandable. then the sentence is to transfer in the deep structure of the target language. the possible deep structure of the target language is: " bator usquf faiz shakhs shadi rismany ke foran baad is ki registration kere ga. " the most important point in the legal text is to maintain the meaning of the text because if the meanings get changed the whole text becomes ambiguous and the legal implication is changed. for that purpose, the structure other than the main theme is a responsibility to change accordingly. the structure of the english language is different from the urdu language. the main structure is changed in the process of translation but arranging the target text structure properly and communicatively is a difficult task. in the given extract, the translated structure is modified according to urdu language rules and in minimum words, which is communicative and economically minimal at the same time. the information given in the extract other than deep structure is as important as the deep structure itself, so it is carefully connected to the main theme but the structure becomes complicated when that information is attached to it. it is presented in the form of various phrases and clauses, which are connected by different connectors. these phrases and clauses are connected in a way that the structure is made complex by them. the given extract represents the application of economy principles on text. source text (labelled bracketing) s[s1[every marriage s2[solemnized by any person]s2 s3[who has received episcopal ordination] s3, s4[but who is not a clergyman of the church of england, or of the church of rome] s4, s5[or by any minister of religion licensed under this act to solemnize marriages] s5, shall, s6[immediately after the solemnization thereof ] s6 be registered in duplicated by the same] s1; s7[(that is to say) in a marriage registerbook to be kept by him for that purpose, according to the form contained in the fourth schedule hereto annexed and also in a certificate attached to be marriage-register-book as a counterfoil.] s7] n. kanwal, m.j. iqbal, m. mushtaq 77 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) target text (labelled bracketing) s[s1[charch of england ya charch of rome ka kaahin ya mazhab ke kisi minister ki janib se shadian rismaanay ke liye licence yafta nah honay magar bator usquf faiz kisi shakhs ki janib se rismai gayi har shadi is ke rismany ke foran baad musna tor par register ki jaye gi]s1 s2[ ( yani ) is act se munsalik chouthay schedule mein darj shakal ke mutabiq is ki janib se is maqsad ke liye rakhi gayi shadi register buk mein aur shadi register buk se munsalik srtifkit mein musna tor par bhi register ki jaye gi.]s2] back translation (labelled bracketing) marriage that is solemnized by any person who is not the priest of the church of england or the church of rome or not licensed by any minister of religion, but a bishop, will be duplicately registered immediately after the ceremony. that is to say; in accordance with the form given in the fourth schedule attached to this act, the duplicate will also be registered in the marriage register book kept by him for this purpose and also in the certificate attached to the marriage register book. the labelled bracketing shows a clear difference on the syntactic level in the given extract. the legal text is complex and has sentences within sentence. there are seven different clauses, shown in the source text but these are converted into two clauses in the target text. in this case, the economy of derivation is clearly shown. while constructing a sentence in the target language, clauses are merged and a less complicated and minimal structure is made which is less complex and easy to understand for common readers. the final structure shows economy of representation. the structures in the source text are lengthy and complex and the target text brings a comprehensive expression in the urdu language for target readers. moreover, back translation is also given here to show the reduction of complexity in target text. it is clear that the structure vise translation does not give a proper understanding of the information so there is a need to reconstruct the translation in a way that is having a piece of complete information as well as communicative. the source structure in the given extract is reconstructed in a way that is minimal as well as communication and according to the rules of the target language. the connected phrases and clauses are merged minimalist perspective on legal communication .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 78 communicatively. when the whole structure is read in a single go, it is minimal as a whole, it is not complicated and it is communicative at the same time. extract 2 english source text the motor vehicles ordinance, 1965 urdu translation transliteration jo koi bhi gaari chillate waqt ya gaari chalanay ki koshish karte waqt sharaab ya dawa ke iss had tak zair-e assar hai ke gaari par munasib control barqarar nahi rakh paata, chay mah tak ki muddat ki qaid ya aik hazaar rupay tak ke jurmana ya dono sazaon ka mstojb ho ga, aur agar woh pehlay bhi aisay jurm mein saza yafta ho aur dobarah iss section ke tehat qabil e saza jurm ka murtakib paaya jaye to woh aisay har jurm par kisi bhi terhan ki do saal tak ki qaid ya aik hazaar rupay tak ke jurmana ya dono sazaon ka mstojb ho ga . extract 2 is analyzed by comparing the source language structure with target language structures in terms of reduction of complexity. the given structure is complex when it comes to the process of translation. the analysis of the given extract shows that the deep structure is: “if a person under the influence of any drug is driving a car shall be punishable with fine or imprisonment.” the possible deep structure in the target language is: n. kanwal, m.j. iqbal, m. mushtaq 79 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) koi shakhs jo gaari chillate waqt dawa ke zair-e assar hai jurmana ya qaid ki saza ka murtakib ho ga . the understanding of deep structure is important for the translation of complex structures. it is easy to understand the other information linked with the main idea and helpful in maintaining the right meaning of a translation. every word of legal text contains a significant meaning itself. the difference in the sentence structures of two languages is obvious in translation but formal translation only conveys equivalent meaning and is not communicative. to make the text communicative it is important to modify the structure according to the target language. the source structure in the given extract is modified for communicative purposes and it is made easier while reconstructing the sentence. the given text shows that the minimalist approach is used in the process of translation. source text (labelled bracketing) s[s1[s2[whoever while driving or attempting to drive a motor vehicle is under the influence of drink or a drug to such an extent as to be incapable of exercising proper control over the vehicle]s2, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term]s1 s3[which may extend to six months]s3, s4[or with fine which may extend to one thousand rupees, or with both]s4, s5[and if having been previously convicted of such an offence]s5,s6[ shall again be guilty of an offence punishable under this section]s6, s7[shall be subject for every such subsequent offence to imprisonment of either description for a term]s7 s8[which may extend to two years]s8, s9[or with fine which may extend to one thousand rupees, or with both]s9. target text (labelled bracketing) s[s1[s2[jo koi bhi gaari chillate waqt ya gaari chalanay ki koshish karte waqt sharaab ya dawa ke iss had tak zair-e assar hai]s2 ke gaari par munasib control barqarar nahi rakh paata,] s1 s3[chay mah tak ki muddat ki qaid ya aik hazaar rupay tak ke jurmana ya dono sazaon ka mstojb ho ga,]s3 s4[aur agar woh pehlay bhi aisay jurm mein saza yafta ho]s4 s5[aur dobarah iss section ke tehat qabil e saza jurm ka murtakib paaya jaye]s5 s6[to woh aisay har jurm par kisi bhi terhan ki do saal tak ki qaid ya aik hazaar rupay tak ke jurmana ya dono sazaon ka mstojb ho ga]s6]. minimalist perspective on legal communication .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 80 back translation (labelled bracketing) anyone who is under the influence of alcohol or drugs while driving or attempting to drive to such an extent that he cannot maintain proper control over the vehicle is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or a fine of up to one thousand rupees or both and if he has been convicted of such an offense before and is again found guilty of an offense punishable under this section, he shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or up to one thousand rupees for each such offense will be liable to a fine or both. the structure is divided according to the concept of sentences within sentences. there are nine different clauses within one sentence and when it is translated, six clauses are made equal to nine clauses. it means different phrases and clauses are merged to make simpler and easier structures in the target language. it clearly shows the economy of derivation and economy of representation here. the words are reduced minimally and in the final product, communicative and minimized structures are presented. the strategy of back translation is also used to show the difference between source text and retranslation of target text. if the translation is done according to the source language structure, there will be a problem in communication between the text and the audience. the other problem is that these structures do not fit in the whole sentence and cause the breakage of the structure. the fluency of the text is affected by these structures because of the repetition of the connectors used in the target language. the reconstruction of the sentence according to the target language rules makes the structure and its meaning easier to understand. the words are reduced while reconstructing the sentence and a comprehensible structure is made out of it. extract 3 english source text n. kanwal, m.j. iqbal, m. mushtaq 81 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) the punjab land-revenue act, 1967 urdu translation transliteration koi shakhs jo khud ko 111 [ kisi commissionaire ], collector ya kisi assistant collector ki janib se jari kiye gaye hukum se mutasirah samjhay avrjo aisi nai aur ahem shahadat jo munasib ahthyat se kaam lainay ke bawajood is ke ilm mein nahi thi ya jisay yeh hukum jari kiye jane par paish nahi kar sakta tha, ki daryaft se ya record mein kisi ghalti ya khata ki wajah se ya kisi deegar maqool wajah ki bunyaad par –apne khilaaf jari kiye gaye hukum ki nzr ِ sani ke liye 112 [ commissionaire ], collector ya assistant collector, jo bhi soorat ho, ko nazar sani ki darkhwast day sakta hai aur aisa afsar apni janib se ya –apne paish ro ki janib se jari kiye gaye kisi hukum ko tabdeel, mansookh ya is ki tasdeeq kar sakta hai : extract 3 is complex in nature because of the phrases and clauses, which are connected together with one after another apart from the deep structure and main theme of the sentence. various phrases and clauses are connected through different connectors making a long sentence that makes it complicated to comprehend. the deep structure of the source language is; “any person considering himself aggrieved by an order passed by collector or an assistant collector may apply for a review of the order to collector or assistant collector.” the other information related to the deep structure is connected through connectors and brings a complex sentence to the audience. the translation of deep structure helps to understand the core meaning of the sentence. the possible deep structure of target text is; koi shakhs jo khud ko kisi commissionaire, collector ya kisi assistant collector ki janib se jari kiye gaye hukum se mutasirah samjhay collector ya assistant collector, jo bhi soorat ho, ko nazar sani ki darkhwast day sakta hai . minimalist perspective on legal communication .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 82 while adding the other information in deep structure and reconstructing the sentence, it is modified according to the rules of the target language and phrases and clauses are merged in a way that sentences remain fluent and communicative at the same time. the clauses are divided as equal to sentences for the comprehensibility of target audience. source text (labelled bracketing) s[s1[any person considering himself aggrieved by an order passed by 111[a commissioner], collector or an assistant collector, and who, from the discovery of new and important matter or evidence which, s2[after the exercise of due diligence]s2 was not within his knowledge]s1 s3[or could not be produced by him at the time]s3 s4[when the order was passed]s4, s5[or on account of some mistake or error apparent on the face of the record or for any other sufficient reason, desires to obtain a review of the order passed against him,]s5 s6[may apply for a review of the order to 112[the commissioner], collector or assistant collector, as the case may be,]s6 s7[and such officer may modify, reverse or confirm any order passed by himself or by any of his predecessors-in-office:]s7] target text (labelled bracketing) s[s1[koi shakhs jo khud ko 111 [ kisi commissionaire ], collector ya kisi assistant collector ki janib se jari kiye gaye hukum se mutasirah samjhay]s1 s2[s3[avr jo aisi nai aur ahem shahadat jo munasib ahthyat se kaam lainay ke bawajood is ke ilm mein nahi thi]s3 s4[ya jisay yeh hukum jari kiye jane par paish nahi kar sakta tha,]s4 ki daryaft se ya record mein kisi ghalti ya khata ki wajah se ya kisi deegar maqool wajah ki bunyaad par –apne khilaaf jari kiye gaye hukum ki nzr sani ke liye 112 [ commissionaire ], collector ya assistant collector, jo bhi soorat ho, ko nazar sani ki darkhwast day sakta hai]s2 s5[aur aisa afsar apni janib se ya –apne paish ro ki janib se jari kiye gaye kisi hukum ko tabdeel, mansookh ya is ki tasdeeq kar sakta hai :]s5] back translation (labelled bracketing) a person who considers himself to be affected by an order issued by 111 [a commissioner], a collector or any assistant collector and who has not been aware of any new and important evidence which, despite due diligence or cannot present it on issuance of order, can apply to 112 [commissioner], n. kanwal, m.j. iqbal, m. mushtaq 83 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) collector or assistant collector, or any other, for revision of order issued against him on the basis of discovery or any error or mistake in the record or on any other reasonable ground. the officer may request a review and such officer may change, revoke or confirm an order issued on his behalf or by his predecessor: the given extract clearly shows the application of economy principles in the translated version of source text. sentences within a sentence are shown in the target text to present the complexity of the source text. the translated version has fewer sentences, which represents the economy of derivation. it also shows that the complexity is reduced in target text so that the target audience easily understands the text. if the translation is done according to the source language structure, the fluency of the sentences gets affected and it is difficult to comprehend for the target audience what the structure is all about. for that purpose, the structure of the target text is rearranged and reconstructed in a way that is minimal, fluent, and communicative at the same time and which is presented in a whole proper way. the phrases and clauses are merged in a proper way and by avoiding so many connectors which are the reason to break the sentence in between. the repetitive use of connectors can cause the breakage of the sentence structure and the minimal use of words and merging the phrases and clauses are the source of making a communicative text. extract 4 english source text the transfer of property act, 1882 urdu translation minimalist perspective on legal communication .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 84 transliteration kisi moahida ya muqami rasam mein is ke bar aks kuch mojood nah honay par tamam kiraya jaat, saalianay, pnshnin, companiyon ke munafe jaat aur aamdani ki noiyat ki deegar meaadi adayigyan un ki vasuli ke haq daar shakhs ke mafaad ke intqaal par muntaqil kanandah aur muntaqil ilaihi ke darmiyan din bah din barhti hui wa jab alada musatawir hon gi aur isi lihaz se qa bil taqseem hon gi, magar woh un ki adaigi ke liye muqarrar kardah tareekh par wajib alada hon gi. extract 4 is complex because of the way information is presented and arranged in a sentence. technical texts are complicated because of the fieldspecific vocabulary and the way of presenting them because every chunk of it has important information that is mandatory to convey to the target audience without changing and ambiguity. to avoid ambiguity in the text, the first step is to find out the deep structure of the sentence that is; “all rents, annuities, pensions, dividends, and other periodical payments shall be deemed to be apportionable on the given terms.” it provides insight into the theme of the text and is a way to understand other information linked with it. the possible deep structure of target language is; " tamam kiraya jaat, saalianay, pnshnin, munafe jaat aur deegar meaadi adayigyan muqarara sharait par wajib alada musatawir hon gi. " the deep structure gives some insight into the meaning of the sentence. it helps to collect the meaning from other structures of the sentence linked with it. minimal steps are taken while reconstructing the text and joining phrases and clauses altogether in the given target text. phrases and clauses are merged in a simple form and minimum words. if the structure is arranged according to the source text, the sentences are longer, more complicated, and ambiguous at the same time because of the different arrangement rules of the two languages. to clear the ambiguity, the following analysis is given in which structure is divided into different sentences in source and target language, which clears the application of economy principles. n. kanwal, m.j. iqbal, m. mushtaq 85 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) source text (labelled bracketing) s[s2[in the absence of a contract or local usage to the contrary]s2, s1[all rents, annuities, pensions, dividends and other periodical payments in the nature of income shall, s3[upon the transfer of the interest of the person entitled to receive such payments]s3, be deemed, as between the transferor and the transferee, to accrue due from day to day]s1, s4[and to be apportionable accordingly]s4, s5[but to be payable on the days appointed for the payment thereof.]s5] target text (labelled bracketing) s[s2[kisi moahida ya muqami rasam mein is ke bar aks kuch mojood nah honay par]s2 s1[tamam kiraya jaat, saalianay, pnshnin, companiyon ke munafe jaat aur aamdani ki noiyat ki deegar meaadi adayigyan un ki vasuli ke haq daar shakhs ke mafaad ke intqaal par muntaqil kanandah aur muntaqil ilaihi ke darmiyan din bah din barhti hui wa jab alada musatawir hon gi]s1 s3[aur isi lihaz se qa bil taqseem hon gi]s3, s4[magar woh un ki adaigi ke liye muqarrar kardah tareekh par wajib alada hon gi.]s4] back translation (labelled bracketing) all annuities, pensions, company profits and other term payments of the nature of income, in the absence of anything contrary to any contract or local custom, on the transfer of interest to the person entitled to receive them will be considered as increasing day by day between the transferor and the transferee and will be divisible accordingly, but they will be due on the due date for their payment. the extract given above represents the economy principles of language clearly as the sentences within the sentence are less in translated version as compared to the source text. the reason is to make translated text easy to understand for target readers. back translation is also given above. the reason to show back translation is the difference between the original text and the retranslation of its target text. the complexity is reduced in the retranslation version. the translation according to the source text structure is broken into chunks and does not provide the proper information. the fluency of the sentence is affected by formal translation. so, to make the text communicative minimalist perspective on legal communication .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 86 the sentence is restructured as given in extract 4. while reconstructing the structure phrases and clauses are merged and steps for making sentences are minimum than before. the final structure is also minimal because of the merged chunks of the sentence. the final structure is communicative and easy to understand for the common readers. extract 5 english source text the punjab land-revenue act, 1967 urdu translation transliteration deegar revenue afsaraan ke –apne mutaliqa control ke tehat un ke rubaroo kisi qabil e samaat karwai ya kisi zair-e samaat muqadmay ke hawalay se 25 [ koi commissionaire ] ya collector zeli section ( 1 ) ke tehat board of revenue ki janib se qabil e istemaal ikhtiyarat kwasi terhan ke hukum ke zariye aur isi andaaz mein istemaal kar sakta hai . extract 5 shows the other example of the complex sentence structure of the legal text. the legal text gives detailed information on a given topic in a single sentence. the information is linked together in a way that there is a space of phrases and clauses in between the subject, main verb, and the object, which makes the sentence, complicated to comprehend. it is important to understand the deep structure of the source text to translate into the target language with complete information. the deep structure of the source text is: “the powers which are exercisable by the board of revenue may be exercised by a commissioner or collector.” the other structures connected to it are joined together in a complicated way. the structure is first translated to the deep structure of the target language. the possible deep structure of the target language is: " revenue afsaraan koi commissionaire ya collector board of revenue ki janib se qabil e istemaal ikhtiyarat istemaal kar sakta hai. " n. kanwal, m.j. iqbal, m. mushtaq 87 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) the other information related to the deep structure is arranged according to the rules of the target language. for that purpose, the phrases and clauses are merged and minimum steps are taken to create the final sentence. if the structure is according to the source text rule it will be ambiguous and have a less comprehensibility level. for example: source text (labelled bracketing) s[s1[the powers exercisable by the board of revenue under sub-section (1) may, by like order and in like manner, be exercised by 25[a commissioner] or collector in respect of any business cognizable by, or any case pending before, other revenue officers under their respective control.]s1] target text (labelled bracketing) s[s1[deegar revenue afsaraan ke –apne mutaliqa control ke tehat un ke rubaroo kisi qabil e samaat karwai ya kisi zair-e samaat muqadmay ke hawalay se 25 [ koi commissionaire ] ya collector zeli section ( 1 ) ke tehat board of revenue ki janib se qabil e istemaal ikhtiyarat kwasi terhan ke hukum ke zariye aur isi andaaz mein istemaal kar sakta hai .]s1] back translation (labelled bracketing) the powers of the board of revenue under sub-section (1) may, by order and in the same manner, be exercised by 25 [any commissioner] or the collector in respect of any proceedings or any pending case before them under the respective control of other revenue officers. the above given extract has one sentence in the source text and is translated into the source text in only one sentence. the source text is apparently difficult to comprehend because of the organization of structure. phrases are interlinked in a way that structure is break down in pieces. in the target text, the organization of structure is different which makes the text easy. while rearranging the sentence, structures are merged and minimal steps are taken to make the whole sentence meaningful and to avoid ambiguity. in this way, the final structure is minimal and communicative at the same time. back translation is also given above to show the reduction of complexity in targeted version of original source text. minimalist perspective on legal communication .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 88 conclusion the above analysis exhibits that legal texts are difficult to comprehend, which makes the task of translating a legal text more difficult. because the legislation is intended to be understood by ordinary people, the first and most crucial feature is to make the text communicative for the target audience. the most important point to keep in mind when translating a legal document is that it has legal repercussions. the translated material in this article demonstrates simple translation structures. the accompanying examination of data demonstrates that using language economy principles in the translation process can minimize the complexity of the translation and improve text comprehension. the model offered for the study outlines the entire translation process. it shows that a sentence's deep structure is so important that it may be used to extract meaning from a text. rather than adopting more steps in structure with a lower comprehensibility level, while rebuilding a text, modifying the structure in smaller amounts might express meaning that is more effective. the study also finds that shorter sentences are easier to understand than the lengthier ones. the economy principles lay the way for a communicative translational strategy in this regard. the present study reveals that economy principles can be used as a translation method or procedure. it gives translators a theoretical foundation for communicative translation. the model given in this study can aid in the development of a more effective and communicative translational project. to put it another way, the study provides a useful tool for teaching translators how to make their translations more communicative, especially in the context of legal translation. it will also serve as a great resource for researchers, working in the subject of translation studies, who are interested in a minimalist perspective on translation. references ali, a., jabbar, q., & kiani, h. (2021). clausal-internal scrambling in urdu language: a derivation by phases. reila: journal of research and innovation in language, 3(1), 52-60. n. kanwal, m.j. iqbal, m. mushtaq 89 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) anjomshoa, l., & sadighi, f. (2015). minimalism, economy, simplicity, and children language acquisition. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 192, 142-149. burton-roberts, n. (2021). analysing sentences: an introduction to english syntax. routledge. chomsky, n. (1993). a minimalist program for linguistic theory. cambridge, mass. mit press. chomsky, n. (1995). the minimalist program. mit press, cambridge, ma. clark, b. (2020). the evolvability of words: on the nature of lexical items in minimalism. frontiers in psychology, 10, 3071. collins, c. (2001). economy conditions in syntax. the handbook of contemporary syntactic theory, 45-61. collyer, j. (1735). the general principles of grammar; especially adapted to the english tongue. with a method of parsing and examination, etc. tho. collyer. dictionary, o. e. (1989). oxford english dictionary. simpson, ja & weiner, esc. fong, s. (2008). parsing in the minimalist program: on sov languages and relativization. the canadian journal of linguistics/la revue canadienne de linguistique, 53(2), 237-252. gallego, a. j., & andreu, j. f. (2009). the minimalist program and the concept of universal grammar/the minimalist program and the concept of universal grammar/the minimalist program and the concept of universal grammar. catalan journal of linguistics, 8, 7-15. he, a. w., & xiao, y. (eds.). (2008). chinese as a heritage language: fostering rooted world citizenry (vol. 2). natl foreign lg resource ctr. iamartino, g., bignami, m., & pagetti, c. 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(1949). human behaviour and the principle of least effort. cambridge, ma: addison-wesley press. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.1-11 1 the integration of vocabulary and effective sentence mastery towards students’ argumentative writing skills tien rafida english department, faculty of education and teachers training uin north sumatra titinrafida@gmail.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.1-11 english abstract the aims of this research is to reveal the integration of vocabulary and effective sentence mastery against the students of english department of faculty of education and teachers training uin north sumatra’s argumentative writing skills. this research uses a quantitative approach. the populations are students of english department of 6 classes. the samples in this result are students of class ii. by using cluster random sampling, it was obtained a sample of 140 students. the instrument used is a test. these results indicate that: (1) vocabulary mastery contributed positively and significantly to the argumentative essay writing skills of students. the amount of contribution is 18.4%; (2) effective sentence mastery contribute positively and significantly to the argumentative essay writing skills of students. the amount of contribution is 11.7%; (3) the mastery of vocabulary and mastery of effective sentences contributed positively and significantly to the argumentative essay writing skills of students. the contribution is 26.5%; (4) mastering vocabulary to effectively contribute by 16.39% against the argumentative essay writing skills of students; (5) the mastery effective sentence effectively contribute 13.11% against the argumentative essay writing skills of students. based on the results of this study, it was concluded that the vocabulary and effective sentences mastery are the two factors that influence the argumentative essay writing skills of students. keywords: vocabulary, effective sentence mastery, argumentative writing skills indonesian abstract tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui integrasi kosa kata dan penguasaan kalimat yang efektif pada mahasiwa jurusan bahasa inggris fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan uin sumatra utara dalam kaitannya dengan keterampilan menulis esai argumentatif. penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif. populasinya mahasiswa jurusan bahasa inggris dari 6 kelas. sampel dalam penelitian ini adaalah mahasiswa kelas ii. dengan menggunakan cluster random sampling, diperoleh sampel sebanyak 140 siswa. instrumen yang digunakan adalah tes. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa: (1) penguasaan kosa kata berkontribusi secara positif dan signifikan terhadap keterampilan menulis esai argumentatif mahasiswa. jumlah kontribusinya adalah 18,4%; (2) penguasaan kalimat yang efektif berkontribusi secara positif dan signifikan terhadap keterampilan menulis esai argumentatif mahasiswa. besarnya kontribusi adalah 11,7%; (3) penguasaan kosakata dan penguasaan kalimat efektif memberikan kontribusi positif dan signifikan terhadap kemampuan menulis esai argumentatif mahasiswa. kontribusinya adalah 26,5%; (4) menguasai kosakata mailto:titinrafida@gmail.com http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.873 tien rafida berkontribusi secara efektif sebesar 16,39% terhadap keterampilan menulis esai argumentatif mahasiswa; (5) penguasaan kalimat efektif menyumbang 13,11% terhadap kemampuan menulis esai argumentatif mahasiswa. berdasarkan hasil penelitian ini, disimpulkan bahwa kosakata dan penguasaan kalimat efektif merupakan dua faktor yang mempengaruhi kemampuan menulis esai argumentatif mahasiswa. kata kunci : kosakata, penguasaan kalimat efektif, keterampilan menulis esai argumentatif. introduction one person's language skills acquired through the study of english in a campus environment where education takes place, can be characterized by their skills to communicate. therefore, learning vocabulary and writing should be implemented in to make students skilled language, both oral and written. for that, a student must know that the language consists of grammatical units, namely discourse, sentence, clause, phrase, word, and morpheme. english department which is a favorite department in the faculty of education and teaching (fitk) state islamic university of north sumatra (uin-su). from the results it is observed that the teaching of english is still far from expectations. not achieving the goal of teaching of english is often perceived by students and the public. today in our society increasingly audible voices that expressed less satisfied with the results of english teaching. the phenomenon in teaching of english to hinder the achievement of english teaching came from students, teachers, learning materials, and the implementation of the teaching and learning process. actually, the development of writing skills in general has started an advanced course. thus, students should already have the skills to write well. but in reality, from the observation that researchers do at pbi fitk uin-su, can be delivered several observations: 1) unskilled students making up for his mastery of grammatical still weak and vocabulary inadequate, 2) lack of mastery in choosing words and phrases ,3) the use of the sentence and paragraph development in writing is not correct, 4) spelling and punctuation used in the writing not in accordance with the rules, 5) interest in reading books related to the english is still low, and 6) the rarely done exercises and another wrote habituation. problems of teaching english that comes from teachers are the shortage of teachers in implementing the learning process, namely: 1) lack of ability of teachers to select and use learning strategies teaching, 2) lack of ability of teachers implement the curriculum in teaching and learning, 3) lack of control of the teachers the subject matter, 4) the teachers who teach in english instead of english education background, and 5) lack of ability of teachers to evaluate student results. in order to have good writing skills, students are required to have a lot of vocabulary, master standard english spelling, and know how to use of sentences, clauses, and phrases. in concrete terms this research problem can be identified as a lack of mastery in choosing words and expressions, the use of incorrect sentence and paragraph development in writing, inappropriate spelling and punctuation used in writing which is not in accordance with the register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.1-11 3 rules, low interest in reading the books related to the english, and it is rare to do exercises and make a writing habit. a primary issue in this research can be formulated with how great is the contribution made by the vocabulary and the contributions made by the mastery of effective sentences against the argumentative essay writing skills of students of pbi fitk uin-su. simultaneously, this research aims to reveal the magnitude of the vocabulary and effective sentence mastery contribution to the argumentative essay writing skills of students fitk uin pbi-su. as research benefits expected to be useful for improving the quality of education and the teaching of english in particular about the vocabulary, sentences, and write the essay, the author can add insight and improve knowledge both theoretically and practically. theoretical review stork (1976: 250) said that the vocabulary was the stock of words which were at the disposal of a speaker or writer. the terms refer to my vocabulary all words and phrases were used such as a particular variety-dialect-register, or terminology: a vocabulary word of inventory owned by the writer or speaker. that term refers to whole words, phrases were used in specific variations such as: dialects, registers, or in general terms. furthermore, dale (in tarin, 1989: 23) was suggested several techniques that could be done in the development of the vocabulary of students, namely: (1) the need as teaching, (2) the user context, (3) synonyms, antonyms, hyponymy, (4) the origin of the word, (5) prefixes, (6) suffix, (7) the root of the word, (8) the words and spelling, (9) semantics, (10) figure of speech, (11) literature and vocabulary development, (12) the use of dictionaries and (13) a play on words. in an effort to increase the quantity and quality of student vocabulary are actually all of these techniques can be used. however, in order that the technique could be used in accordance with the matter to be assessed, it should be selected in advance whether it is appropriate techniques are used or not. effective sentence the sentence is the main element of a discourse (ambo enre, 1988: 75). it is true to say that we must first learn to recognize words before the start stringing a sentence, but the sentence stating that we want to express meaning. the meaning is not the same as the number of words that make sense. mc wharter (1980: 57) explained that the sentence as a set of words express the unity of thoughts or ideas. a minimum number of sentence consisted of a subject and an activity associated with the subject which he called a predicate. simultaneously elements of subject and predicate form the core parts are the core element of a sentence that carries significance (keraf, 1990: 35), (keraf, 1990:35 & oshima, 1991:74). tien rafida similarly, sugono (1998: 89) stated that a sentence should meet the requirements of grammatical construction. that means that the sentence should be arranged based on the correct rules which include: (a) the elements in a sentence, (b) the application of the correct spelling, and (c) selecting the right words in a sentence. argumentative essay writing writing as one of the components of language skills, requiring the expertise of a person in using a form of written language for communication purposes (keraf, 1990: 42). furthermore, halim et al. (1974: 35) added that writing skills are the skills to organize and express the elements as follows: (1) the content of the article, (2) the form of essays, (3) grammar, (4) style or choice of structure and vocabulary, and ( 5) the application of spelling and punctuation. methods & discussion the following is the description of histogram distribution of variable frequency vocabulary such as, i n t e r v a l class figure 1: frequency distribution histogram values vocabulary mastery from the calculation done to be obtained 24.3% (34 students) including a group of high, 59.3% (83 students) including a group of moderate, and 16.4% (23 students) belong to a group that received a low score. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.1-11 5 effective sentence mastery figure 2: frequency distribution histogram sentence mastery value effective from the results of calculations carried a picture that 23.6% (33 students) belong to a group that earns high marks, 55.0% (77 students) including a group of moderate, and 21.4% (30 students), including low groups , data argumentative essay writing skills i n t e r v a l class tien rafida figure 3: histogram frequency distribution of skills from the results of the calculations have been made to know that 15.0% (21 students) including a group of high, 64.3% (90 students) including a mediocre group and 20.7% (29 students) included in the low group. these data show that students in essay writing skills of argumentation in general are in the moderate group. furthermore, based on the level of understanding that is obtained from the average value with a maximum value is obtained tendency essay writing skills of argumentation indonesian students were in enough categories, namely 79.39%. curve estimation simple regression line equations variable x1 with y figure 4: distribution of variable data mastery vocabulary the picture above may explain the paradigm of the formation of the relationship variables mastery of vocabulary by using the arguments writing skill that are in the reception area which is linear and only one point that is outside the linear region (data extreme) which is used as a point prediction in order to establish the contribution vocabulary mastery of the skills wrote an essay arguing. contributions mastery sentence writing skills writing effective against arguments a. curve estimation equation simple regression lines b. variable x2 with y peng uasaan kosakata (x1) 9080706050 k e te ra m p il a n m e n u li s k a r a n g a n a rg u m e n ta s i ( y ) 90 80 70 60 50 observed rsq = 0. 1736 linear rsq = 1. 0000 register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.1-11 7 figure 5: distribution of variable data x2 and y from the above it can be concluded that the effective sentence has a positive and significant relationship with determination coefficient of 0.137. this means that the argument essay writing skills of students 13,7 %% determined by the mastery of effective sentences and the balance of 86.3% is determined by other factors. the contributions of vocabulary and effective sentence mastery towards argumentative essay writing skills from this regression equation can be concluded that the vocabulary and mastery of effective sentences together against the argument essay writing skills of the student has a significant relationship. the coefficient of determination obtained at 0.275 indicates that the argument essay writing skills of students is determined by the vocabulary and mastery of their effective sentence against the argument essay writing skills by 27.5%, and the remaining 72.5% is influenced by other factors. effective & relative contributions to the variable bound variables effective and relative contribution of each independent variable on the dependent variable. although the terms of the empirical seen that the vocabulary and mastery of effective sentence of students to skills of arguments essay writing skill make a meaningful contribution, but due to the nature test in capturing vocabulary, effective sentence mastery and essay form provided with materials and topics are limited, so the vocabulary and arguments mastery of effective sentences and essay writing skills of students of pbi uin-su still need to be improved. the independent variables are measured with test vocabulary and mastery of effective sentences students. the instrument of this research is in the form of a test. problem for peng uasaan kalimat efektif (x2) 9080706050 k e te ra m p il a n m e n u li s k a ra n g a n a rg u m e n ta s i (y ) 90 80 70 60 50 observed rsq = 0. 1369 linear rsq = 1. 0000 tien rafida vocabulary tests of 60 questions (in the form of matching words as much as 30 multiplechoice questions and 30 questions), while the question to test the mastery of effective sentence in the form of multiple-choice questions numbered 40. as for student essay writing skills test, asked for an essay based on the title that has been provided. the trials are valid and reliable instrument in accordance with procedures implementation, such as: (1) the determination of sample testing, (2) the implementation of the trial, (3) analysis of the trial, and (4) the results of testing the validity and reliability of the instrument. while the data analysis technique using simple regression techniques and multiple regression and partial correlation techniques. the tools for analyzing the data also using spss version 11.0 for windows. dealing with the relationship among these three variables can be seen in the following diagram: figure 6: the conceptual framework of the result variables third link information: x1 = mastery vocabulary x2 = mastery effective sentences y = arguments essay writing skills conclusions the conclusion of the result can be expressed as follows: 1. vocabulary mastery (x1) has a positive and significant contribution to the argument essay writing skills (y). this shows that the vocabulary (x1) consistently contribute directly to the arguments essay writing mastery (y). therefore, if the level of student mastery of vocabulary is good, the better the argument essay writing skills of students’ fitk uin pbi-su 2. the mastery of effective sentence (x2) has a positive and significant contribution to the argument essay writing skills (y). this shows that the mastery of effective sentences (x2) consistently also contribute directly to the student's argument essay writing skills (y). therefore, the better the level of student mastery of effective sentences, the better the argument essay writing skills mastery students’ fitk uin pbi-su 3. the mastery of vocabulary (x1) and mastery of effective sentences (x2) together have a positive and significant contribution to the student's argument essay writing skills (y). this shows that the vocabulary (x1) and mastery of effective sentences (x2) consistently x1 x2 y register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 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(1987). woodcock reading mastery tests—revised. circle pines, mn: new york. american guidance service. register journal – vol 15, no 02 (2022), pp. 264-283 doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.264-283 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 264 exploring lecturers’ standpoints in composing digital fiction and students’ multimodal literacy level fiftinova fiftinova1*, nandang heryana2, ida rosmalina3 1,2,3 language education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya, indonesia *) corresponding author email: fiftinova@fkip.unsri.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.264-283 submission track: received: 23-06-2022 final revision: 19-10-2022 available online: 01-12-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract multimodality, which encourages the combination of text, image, sound, and videos, could be varied from class to class. multimodal literacy as a new dimension of literacy in the 21st century has emerged as a critical skill that efl students must develop, given its role as a source of meaning in communication. the purpose of this study was to identify the level of students’ multimodal literacy and to identify lecturers’ standpoints on students’ multimodal literacy. this study was conducted both quantitatively and qualitatively and involved 71 efl students who took creative writing subject in an english education program in one state university in south sumatera. the data were collected by distributing a questionnaire from bulut et al. (2015) and by interviewing 3 lecturers who taught the subject. descriptive statistics and one-way anova were used to determine mean, standard deviation and differences in terms of gender and classes with different lecturer; qualitative data were thematically analyzed to categorize the themes. the results indicated that students’ multimodal literacy level was categorized high as indicated by the mean of each aspect of questionnaire: 4.22, 4.11 and 3.6 respectively. there was no different level of multimodal literacy between male and female students, and different lecturers with different instructions did not influence the level. finally, the lecturers perceived positively to students’ multimodal literacy. similarly, referring to the lecturers’ view, the students gave positive attitude towards multimodal writing and hence making their multimodal digital fiction successful. keywords: multimodal literacy, digital fiction, creative writing, efl mailto:fiftinova@fkip.unsri.ac.id http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ f. fiftinova, n. heryana, i. rosmalina 265 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) introduction in the global world today, digital fiction has started to be used by teachers in an english language classroom. as it is digitally born, digital fiction offers a deeper degree of interaction involving decision-making (frank, 2019), thus going beyond the simple eye move or turning of pages. students are allowed to have interaction with the text by selecting the move of the story which causes each to experience a different storyline (astrid et. al, 2016; kaba, 2017; frank, 2019; skains, 2019). unlike conventional fiction, students reading digital fiction are given multiple modes such as image, sound, and video besides text. in writing too, students are allowed to enrich the text with those multimodal aspects. the modes of such image, sound and video distinguishes the text as multimodal. today's digital fiction as multimodal text is one that students can easily locate in their daily lives, particularly outside of campus (nouri, 2018; almusharaff & engemann, 2020) they will discover it on a variety of social media platforms such as facebook, instagram, and twitter; on websites such as blogs, wattpad, youtube; and on applications such as book creator, canva, or filmora. additionally, they discovered it in the campus learning environment, such as teacher-led presentations and learning websites that they used for online learning, particularly during the covid-19 pandemic. nowadays, multimodal texts are used as learning resources in the field of english education. these multimodal texts are used as a supplement to the textbook (which contains still images) and/or the module as the primary source. multimodal texts are frequently used to aid students' comprehension of reading and to encourage students’ participation in-class activities. however, because multimodal elements have not been explicitly taught to students, they lack experience constructing meaning using modes other than text. thus, the opportunity for students to think critically has been underutilized, and multimodal literacy has received less attention from teachers during the classroom learning process (warschauer, 2008; eksi & yakisik, 2015). multimodal literacy, as a new dimension of literacy has emerged as a critical skill that students in the field of english education must develop, given its role as a source of meaning in communication. multimodal literacy is the exploring lecturers’ standpoints in composing digital fiction … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 266 study of language in which two or more modes of meaning coexist (mills & unsworth, 2017). multimodal literacy refers to the ability to interpret and produce multimodal artifacts in response to multimodal texts (jewitt & kress, 2003; van leeuwen, 2017). language and literacy facilitate communication by incorporating a variety of meanings, including writing, visual images, movement, posture, and sound. in this case, students must recognize all modes of communication used by semiotic sources to convey meaning (kress, 2010), which must be explicitly taught. for example, visual texts depict objects, people, and places using a variety of visual semiotic sources such as lines, patterns, sizes, and symbols, whereas written language relies on a set of nouns and adjectives to convey meaning. additionally, students should be taught how writers select various modes to determine the most effective way to tell a story and how meaning is "woven" into multimodal texts through the selection and use of various modes in various combinations (jewitt, 2009). literacy is determined by the analysis, review, and production of words and pictures as a whole, not by separate interpretations of words and pictures (bearne & wolstencroft, 2007). in writing activities in efl context, multimodal literacy is expected to be developed by creating or producing multimodal texts. this means that the product of the writing class is not in the form of ordinary verbal text but it has been equipped with other modes such as visual images, sound, or video. students are asked to construct multimodal meaning based on the purpose of the written text so that the text becomes effective or easy for readers to understand. writing multimodal texts in the classroom can be a motivation for students for it is relevant to their daily activities. (garcía et al., 2011) argued that multimodal texts are viewed as relevant and motivating resources that contribute to the pleasant and attractive nature of the efl environment because the students believe that this type of text is profoundly connected to everyday life. by making writing assignments more relevant to students' lives and by creating more authentic audiences for students' writing, well-designed writing projects that incorporate student-created multimedia and multimodal outputs have the potential to increase struggling students' motivation to complete writing assignments (darrington & dousay, 2014). students feel that multimodal text is more interesting for them (tüzel, f. fiftinova, n. heryana, i. rosmalina 267 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 2013) because it is authentic material that can support their communicative performance (lotherington & jenson, 2011), allow students to connect with personal literacies (cappello et al., 2019), and because it is the genre that they are already familiar with on a daily basis (williams, 2016). walsh supported the use of multimodal texts to expand students' learning experiences and provide them with a broader understanding of information and abilities (2010). in english education study program, writing instruction has been directed at writing that supports multimodal literacy. this is to equip the prospective teachers with multimodal communicative competencies as they are responsible for the english language teaching at the secondary level. haquin (2011) stated that it is important to know how to use the semiotic power of words and their characteristics and how they are used in teaching the things they can do to show the world and communicate. it is critical in teacher education to develop metalanguage to comprehend the connection between modalities and cultural meanings accessible to everyone in any situation (hobson, 2014). in addition, reading and writing in this complex semiotic context requires not only “other literacy skills” but also a “metalanguage” to deconstruct the numerous modalities of meaning production (e.g., kress, 1997; unsworth, 2006, 2008). in a creative writing course, students are encouraged to produce multimodal compositions through digital fiction writing. in this course, students create digital fiction by using various digital tools that are their preferences or at the suggestion of the lecturer team who teaches them. some of the digital tools that students use are video editors, canva, and/or twine. in this creative writing process, students can express creative ideas using imagination and reflect on imagination by constructing meaning from various choices of existing semiotic modes or sources. in this study, the writers wanted to identify the level of students' multimodal literacy in digital fiction writing and the lecturers’ view on the multimodal literacy. this investigation of multimodal literacy level was firstly introduced by bulut et al. (2015), who also created an instrument to measure it. according to them, teachers must have multimodal literacy skills to keep up with evolving technology as part of their teacher training. several exploring lecturers’ standpoints in composing digital fiction … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 268 academics have investigated the level of multimodal literacy of prospective teachers. pramono and suherdi (2019) found that the multimodal literacy level of 40 ppg students was categorized as high. similarly, the findings of eksi and yakizik (2015) revealed that pre-service english language teachers have quite a high multimodal literacy level, and ability and knowledge improve in direct proportion to the amount of time spent on the internet, the academic year, and gender. the more time pre-service teachers spend on the internet and the more multimodal structures they encounter, the more multimodal literate they become. these 2 studies suggested that prospective teachers tend to have high multimodal literacy levels in their learning process and that future research should be conducted on a bigger sample than theirs. a high level of multimodal literacy was also indicated by a study conducted by (ulu et al., 2017). in addition, they claimed that multimodal literacy has a positive and significant influence on critical reading self-efficacy perception. in this study, the level of multimodal literacy of prospective teacher students and lecturers’ views on multimodality were investigated to verify the previous results. this study did not take a bigger sample as recommended by previous research; this study chose students of creative writing course as the sample. moreover, identifying the lecturers’ perspective regarding multimodal composition strengthened or confirmed the level of multimodal literacy obtained and provided insight into multimodal pedagogical practice. the results added new insight or contributions to the multimodal composition learning procedure which is in line with the development of 21st-century skills (4c). perceptions of teaching multimodal literacy have also been studied by ryu and boggs (2016), and almusharraf and engemann (2020). the results of their research indicate that teachers respond positively to the implementation of multimodal literacy in the classroom. this implementation facilitates students in creating effective communication. almusharraf and engemann claimed that effective instruction in teaching multimodality is lecturers’ multimodal competence and suggested that assessment should be done multimodal too. the most significant job of lecturers in a multimodal setting was to engage students in critical reflections on themes such as the usage of modes and media to transmit ideas, according to one crucial conclusion (dahlström, 2021). f. fiftinova, n. heryana, i. rosmalina 269 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) in conclusion, this study describes the level of multimodal literacy of prospective english teachers in writing digital fiction and the lecturers’ view on multimodal literacy. the description of the level of multimodal literacy was enriched by the teachers’ views which eventually become the basis for planning future instruction for multimodal composition. research method this study was conducted using both quantitative and qualitative method. quantitatively, students’ multimodal literacy was depicted through means and standard deviation. therefore, a 17-items questionnaire from bulut et al. (2015) was used to collect the data. this questionnaire consists of three categories: 1) expressing oneself using multimodal structure, 2) interpretation of the contents presented in multimodal structure, and 3) preferring multimodal structures. the students were asked to determine one choice of agreement from a five-point likert scale (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree). this questionnaire got a slight modification to meet the research goal. in addition, qualitatively, to portray teachers’ views on multimodal literacy, an individual interview was conducted. in this case, 3 teachers teaching 3 different classes were selected. the interview questions were sent by e-mail to 2 teachers, and face to face interview was conducted with one of the teachers as she was available for an offline interview. both kinds of interviews were documented by recording the conversation, noting down several important information, and then the record was transcribed. the participants involved in this study were 71 students from 4 classes (class a, b, c and d) who took a creative writing course in the second semester in the academic year 2020/2021. this research was conducted in a creative writing class in an english education study program of a state university in palembang. one of the course’s learning outcomes is the ability to master and use relevant and current information and communication technology in the context of english learning. this course is 2 credit hours and was done online using a variety of platforms such as e-learning, zoom meeting, google classroom, and google meet. additionally, the other participants were 3 lecturers from 3 different classes of creative writing. the lecturers were selected as they were those who were responsible for the exploring lecturers’ standpoints in composing digital fiction … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 270 teaching of creative writing in the department. writing is their expertise and their teaching experience is more than 15 years. the data from the questionnaire were analyzed using descriptive statistics to determine means and standard deviations. the difference among gender and group with 4 different lecturers were analyzed using one-way anova. to interpret the data about students’ level of multimodal literacy, the five points likert scale conversion was used. the weighted mean interval score includes 4.21-5.00 (very high), 3.414.20 (high), 2.61-3.40 (moderate), 1.81-2.60 (low) and 1.00-1.80 (very low). meanwhile, data from interviews were analyzed thematically by following a procedure from creswell (2012). the procedures include data organization– reading– data description– classification-interpretation. results & discussion data from the questionnaire showed the demographic of the respondent-students. the students were grouped depending upon their gender and class they enrolled in. table 1. participant’s demographic n percentage gender female 62 87.3% male 9 12.7% class class 6b-p 19 26.8% class 6b-i 21 29.6% class 6a-i 21 29.6% class 6a-p 10 14.1% table 1 above shows that the students were grouped into 4 classes taught by 4 lecturers with different years of experience and methods in teaching creative writing. students’ multimodal literacy level in writing digital fiction as the questionnaire consists of 3 categories, students’ multimodal literacy in writing digital fiction is discussed per category in the following sections. f. fiftinova, n. heryana, i. rosmalina 271 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) expressing oneself using multimodal structure based on the weighted mean interval score in data analysis section, it was found that, on average, students showed high agreement (4.22) on using multimodal structure. as described in table 2, students stated that multimodality or the use of varied modes such as images, sound, or videos offers easiness for expressing their ideas. it is indicated clearly in the statement “using various elements (such as music and images) in presentations/digital fiction/story makes it easier to make my point” with mean of 4.41 and standard deviation of 0.623. another evidence could be seen from the statement “i organize my thoughts systematically in my presentations/digital fiction/story. thanks to various visual elements (such as image and video)” with mean 4.32 and standard deviation 0.528. table 2. expressing oneself using multimodal structure statements mean std. dev using various elements (such as music and images) in my presentations/digital fiction/story makes it easier to make my point. 4.41 0.623 i use visuals such as graphics/ tables/ pictures, and photographs in my writings. 4.06 0.735 i prepare an interactive presentation/digital fiction/story making use of music, visuals, and animations. 4.24 0.686 i organize my thoughts systematically in my presentations/digital fiction/story. thanks to various visual elements (such as image and video). 4.32 0.528 i express myself more explicitly in environments in which writing, sound, and images exist together. 4.07 0.724 total 4.22 interpretation of the contents presented in multimodal structure dealing with the second aspect of “interpretation of the contents presented in multimodal structure”, students also had a high agreement (mean= 4.11) on 7 statements described in table 3 below. exploring lecturers’ standpoints in composing digital fiction … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 272 table 3. interpretation of the contents presented in multimodal structure statements mean std. dev i pay attention to the body language of the individuals i am listening to. 4.23 0.659 i can realize how visual, auditory, and written elements influence individuals. 4.18 0.723 i use body language that is in harmony with the words i choose when speaking. 4.08 0.751 i relate various visual and verbal information on various media tools to each other 4.13 0.584 i interpret the information that i gather from numerous resources. 4.07 0.683 i relate the information to which i have access using visual and auditory elements. 4.08 0.528 i can decide whether or not content presented on various media (newspaper, tv, social media, etc.) is true. 4.04 0.664 total 4.11 as revealed in table 3, students do not only need verbal structure when making meaning. they interpret a certain meaning using various modes given. the statement “i pay attention to the body language of the individuals i am listening to” got high agreement from the students as the mean is 4.23 and the standard deviation 0.659. similarly, the other 6 statements tend to have high agreement from the students. they believe that information is true and can be decided from multimodality as indicated by the statement “i can decide whether or not content presented on various media (newspaper, tv, social media, etc.) is true” with mean of 4.04 and 0.664 of standard deviation. preferring multimodal structures students have their preferences dealing with selecting structures for creating multimodal digital fiction. table 4 presents that their level of preferences is categorized high with mean 3.6. for instance, the students showed disagreement (3.82) to the statement “the use of visual, auditory and written elements together leads to laziness of the mind” and “i only believe in the power of verbal expression when sharing my thoughts’ (3.11). all the respondents disagreed with all of the negative assertions in the questionnaire. f. fiftinova, n. heryana, i. rosmalina 273 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) table 4. preferring multimodal structures statements mean std. dev i do not like trying to interpret images, sounds, graphics, and writings simultaneously. 3.62 0.868 i only believe in the power of verbal expression when sharing my thoughts. 3.11 0.903 i get distracted in electronic environments in which visual, auditory, and written elements are used together. 3.49 0.876 the use of visual, auditory, and written elements together leads to laziness of the mind. 3.82 0.931 i get bored in communication in which written, auditory, and visual elements are used together. 3.80 0.804 total 3.6 as described above, the multimodal literacy level of the students involved in digital fiction writing activities can be classified high because the mean of each aspect exceeds (3.41). based on the score interval depicted in research method section, the mean of the first aspect which is expressing oneself using multimodal structure is (4.22). this was categorized as very high. the mean for the second and the third aspect are categorized high as the scores are 4.11 and 3.6. this high multimodal literacy level it is relevant with results from (ekşi & yakışık, 2015), ulu et al. (2017), and (pramono & suherdi, 2019). the result of this present study indicates that english prospective teachers are already aware of the use of multimodal structure in writing digital fiction. they have their own preferences and decide which mode they put in their digital fiction as using this multimodality allows them to have critical thinking and problem-solving skill or what nouri (2018) claimed as ‘active designers.’ furthermore, the result revealed that multimodal texts such as text, image, sound, video and body language are highly explored to build interpretation to support the production of digital fiction. this exploration of multiple communication modes has become digital writer’s choices since several decades ago (astrid et.al, 2016), and it is growing as the technology develops. to obtain deep insight into students’ multimodal literacy based on the gender and the class they belong to, calculation using one-way anova was conducted. exploring lecturers’ standpoints in composing digital fiction … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 274 table 5. multimodal literacy level differences between genders n mean std. deviation mean difference f-hit sig remark male 9 3.92 6.20 -1.13 0.259 0.613 not significant female 62 3.99 6.21 based on table 5, the anova test yielded an f-count value of 0.259 and a sig.f value of 0.613. because sig.f is greater than 0.05, it is not significant. this explains that with significance level 5%, there is no significant difference between male and female students’ multimodal literacy level. table 6. multimodal literacy level differences among classes n mean std. deviation f-hit sig remark class 6b-i 21 3.93 5.80 2.287 0.087 not significant class 6a-p 10 3.98 5.94 class 6a-i 21 4.14 6.46 class 6b-p 19 3.87 5.74 table 6 explains that the mean of multimodal literacy level of 21 students of class 6b-i is 3.9, the mean of for 6a-p is 3.98, the mean of 21 students in 6a-i is 4.14 and the mean of 19 students of class 6b-p is 3.87. statistically, the anova test obtained an f-count value of 2.287 and a sig.f value of 0.087. because the value of sig.f is 0.087 > 0.05, it means that it is not significant. thus, statistically at a significant level of 5%, it can be stated that simultaneously there is no significant difference in the mean of students’ multimodal literacy level among the four classes. perspectives and challenges of facilitating multimodal literacy in writing digital fiction the interview was conducted individually with each interviewee and done both virtually or face to face. the interview session was recorded through zoom meeting and video recorder. the result of the interview was transcribed, and the transcription was thematically analyzed. after the analysis, several themes were found to be relevant as lecturers’ perspectives f. fiftinova, n. heryana, i. rosmalina 275 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) on multimodality in digital fiction writing. the following are several passages from the interview session with the lecturers (ri and ss, cd). the interviews with the lecturers (ri and ss) were done both online and face to face based on their preferences. the purpose of the interview is to address “what are the perspectives of the lecturers towards students’ multimodal literacy? as the finding from the questionnaire reveals that students-respondents have a high multimodal literacy level, the findings from the interview also affirm that the lecturer perceived the students are successful in writing their multimodal composition. lecturer ss said: so, i can see as the whole, and for some, for the one group that has difficulty finding the tools also they end up with a book which is – in terms of the content is pretty good, it’s just the composition of the picture is not as smooth. but i think, in general, i can see that they’re successfully doing the multimodal project.(ss) this success could be associated with the instruction applied by lecturers. all the lecturers mentioned that in their creative class they support their students to collaborate and to explore various digital tools to create digital fiction. ri stated: i applied collaborative learning model for three meetings. the steps: a) introducing the multimodal projects by asking them to read the material and discuss in a big group in a discussion forum in e-learning. b) composing the multimodal projects, and c) creating the digital multimodal form.(ri) similarly, ss claimed that the cooperation that occurs in this class is therefore naturally mediated by many technologies, including multimodality, the platform itself, and the affordances that students employ when they write. meanwhile, cd argued that the students develop ed multimodality through collaboration with peers. they gained knowledge from one another but maintained confidence in their own abilities to develop original things. another perspective from ss should be highlighted: she believed that the multimodal digital fiction composition in creative writing subject is a result of exploring experience as she stated for writing books collaboratively, the process includes… also i think, in the beginning, revisiting their experience. so, i always begin with the exploring lecturers’ standpoints in composing digital fiction … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 276 experience of the students, and how their experience manifested in different multimodal elements. so, it could be pictures, videos, the audio they have, or maybe the sketch that they make and so on. so, it always begins with the students’ experience and then connects to how they experience at present and then how those experiences connected with other text that they learn or other students’ experience. (ss) in compiling a multimodal digital fiction, the lecturers admitted that students often use multiple technologies such as filmora, kidmaster, ibis (digital drawing), canva or comic strip, and other applications which are students' preferences. in selecting the application, the lecturers did not advise on certain applications because they were quite familiar with these applications in their daily lives. dealing with this, ri stated “i let them select the kind of technological tool they knew exactly though i had provided a link for the material that “(ri) and cd agreed by mentioning that “about the devices used, the students are free to choose which they think they are familiar with”(cd). digital fiction learning in the creative writing class received a positive response from students. in other words, there is a positive attitude from the students towards multimodal composition activities. the assessment of multimodal composition was carried out with different ways by the 3 lecturers. the first lecturer or ss evaluated by focusing on aspects such as content (plot, character, and language use) and creative design (smooth picture or good layout). this lecturer did not only evaluate students’ works but also considered the process of making a multimodal composition, such as persistence and problem-solving in every problem encountered. ss stated: i look at all the processes from the draft. so, the draft is … well, actually from the very beginning, the outline. so how they… it’s not just about the look because writing is also that content. so, the multimodal aspect is the… make what it looks like. so, the use… my assessments are two, so the first one is the content. the content means like the story, the essence of the story itself. and then, the presentation of the story into the whole book or memoir, or poetry. so i think that’s the two aspects that complemented each other. in terms of content, then i will follow the content like we assess f. fiftinova, n. heryana, i. rosmalina 277 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) writing, whether how they express the story, how the plot is clear, for example. so, that’s more focused on the writing. now, the other aspects, the multimodal aspect, the assessment is looking at how they can solve the problem, for example, oh they want to express the story into this picture. what kind of resources that they use? so, their effort to find the appropriate resource or the appropriate tool is also my consideration. looking at how they afford the technology that meets their need. because i think that’s important, that’s kind of problem-solving skills also, so finding out what is the appropriate tools to help them do the project (ss). on the other hand, the second lecturer, ri, used a simple rubric that focuses on the composition of text, images, and sounds as well as student creativity. meanwhile, cd stated “i emphasize my assessment on the originality of the students’ work. i allow them to be as creative as possible”(cd). the lecturers found no significant difficulties in teaching multimodal composition. however, ri stated that she needed to learn more about teaching with multimodal composition. meanwhile, ss stated that the issue that could be a problem was that this writing project would take a long time. in terms of difficulties, it’s just all the work is a bit time-consuming, because in the regular writing it’s just regular paragraph essays, for example, right? while in multimodal, they have to include all of the resources to make into an interesting writing (ss). the high level of students’ multimodal literacy is also supported by data from interviews. the data described several emergence themes which becomes essential aspects of multimodality (figure 1). according to the lecturers’ view, the students were successful in making their multimodal digital fiction. this success can be said to be directly proportional to their high level of multimodal literacy. moreover, students had a positive attitude towards learning multimodal composition. another factor influencing the high level of multimodal literacy is that students were already technologically literate before they participated in creative writing course, making it easy for them to be creative. the students were digital natives or active users of digital tools both in their academic or non-academic context. as a result, in shaping digital fiction, the students become independent learners who have exploring lecturers’ standpoints in composing digital fiction … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 278 opportunity to choose independently digital tools that is familiar with them (frank, 2016; skains, 2019). by doing this, students were engaged in problem-solving skill and critical thinking skills. figure 1. essential aspects in multimodal literacy what also needs to be an important concern from this research are the learning procedures which could facilitate students’ writing of digital fiction. the procedures in this context include introducing multimodal writing projects, recalling experience (brainstorming), collaborative work, and independent multimodal assignment. assigning students to a project-based activity while completing multimodal works provides opportunities for students to express more by using many modes (skains, 2019) to achieve learning objectives and hence affect multimodal literacy level. the procedures designed in this study is potential in developing students’ multimodal task as jim and polio (2020) proposed three important aspects: objectives and multimodal writing instruction, mode of language in multimodal tasks, and independent and collaborative work. dealing with assessment, the lecturers focus on the process of creating multimodal composition and the final product. writing digital fiction does not multimodal literacy assessment challenges digital tools successful composition attitude learning procedure f. fiftinova, n. heryana, i. rosmalina 279 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) only deal with the multimodality of the product but also with students’ effort in solving the problem, persistence, and hard work. drafting, revising, editing and having peer and lecturer’s feedback are promoted during the process of writing. meanwhile, the multimodal digital fictions are evaluated its content (plot, character, language use), originality, design and creativity. even though, the lecturers tend to have similar standard of evaluation, the standard is not well established and relevant. according to adsanatham (2012) and fjørtoft (2020), assessment in writing multimodal digital text should involve the students who are the writer-designers. students are responsible for their own evaluation during the process of writing and thus the writing shows some progressions. as a final point, teaching writing multimodal digital fiction is quite challenging for the lecturers. they believe that they themselves must recognize and learn digital tools for learning to write multimodal text. this makes sense as they are the facilitator and model for these student-teachers. jiang et al (2021) believe that teacher or lecturers engage with digital multimodal composing is a multifaceted continuum. they may have different points when teaching digital multimodal composition. the findings also show that teachers' ideas of themselves, students, and language directed and mediated these personalized exchanges. another problem is that giving multimodal task is a bit consuming. the lecturers should provide a good time management to encourage students to complete the task. conclusion the level of multimodal literacy of the students tends to be high these days; they are millennials who have been exposed to and used to a range of multimodal texts from an early age, whether pictures (drawings and photographs), sounds, videos, or text. the students have had multimodality potentials before they began the academic life. they actively look for solutions to the problems faced in creating multimodal works. as a result, in writing digital fiction, the students do not have much difficulty, and they have a good attitude to writing it. therefore, classroom instruction will undoubtedly serve as a catalyst for developing multimodal literacy. this study implies that lecturers should address two critical components while exploring lecturers’ standpoints in composing digital fiction … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 280 teaching writing: multimodal writing instruction and multimodal writing evaluation. to summarize, the findings of this study will contribute to the growth of multimodal writing training in the field of english language teaching. acknowledgments the writers would like to gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the rector of universitas sriwijaya in completing this research. references adsanatham, c. 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(2010). multimodal literacy: what does it mean for classroom practice? australian journal of language and literacy, 33(3), 211-239. https://www.alea.edu.au/documents/item/63 136 error analysis on the use of “be” in the students’ composition rochmat budi santosa stain surakarta jl. pandawa pucangan kartasura, sukoharjo, central java, indonesia b_santoz@yahoo.com abstract this study aims to identify, analyze and describe the structure of the use of some errors in the writing of english sentences in the text and the aspects surrounding the student semester 3 of english department stain surakarta. in this study, the researcher describes the error use of 'be' both as a linking verb or auxiliary verb. this is a qualitative-descriptive research. source data used is a document that is the writing assignment undertaken by the students taking writing course. writing tasks are in narrative, descriptive, expositive, and argumentative forms. to analyze the data, researcher uses intra lingual and extra lingual method. this method is used to connect the linguistic elements in sentences, especially some of the elements either as a linking verb or auxiliary verb in english sentences in the text. based on the analysis of error regarding the use of 'be' it can be concluded that there are 5 (five) types of errors made by students; error about the absence (omission) of 'be', error about the addition of 'be', the error on the application of 'be', errors in placements 'be', and a complex error in the use of 'be'. these errors occur due to inter lingual transfer, intra lingual transfer and learning context. keywords: error analysis, students writing abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi, menganalisis, dan menggambarkan pola kesalahan dalam penulisan kalimat bahasa inggris dalam teks dan aspek-aspek lainnya pada mahasiswa semester 3 jurusan bahasa inggris stain surakarta. dalam studi ini , peneliti meneliti tentang kesalahan penggunaan ‗be‘ baik sebagai kata kerja penghubung atau kata kerja bantu. 137 penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kualitatif deskriptif. sumber data yang digunakan adalah dokumen berupa tugas menulis yang dilakukan oleh siswa yang mengambil mata kuliah writing. tugas tersebut berbentuk narasi, deskriptif, ekspositif, dan argumentatif. untuk menganalisis data, peneliti menggunakan metode intra lingual dan ekstra lingual. metode ini digunakan untuk menghubungkan unsur-unsur linguistik dalam kalimat, terutama beberapa elemen baik sebagai kata kerja penghubung atau kata kerja bantu dalam kalimat-kalimat bahasa inggris pada teks. berdasarkan analisis kesalahan mengenai penggunaan ‗be‘ dapat disimpulkan bahwa ada 5 ( lima ) jenis kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa ; kesalahan tentang tidak adanya (penghilangan) ‗be‘, kesalahan tentang penambahan ‗be‘, kesalahan pada penerapan ‗be‘, kesalahan dalam penempatan ‗be‘, dan kesalahan yang kompleks dalam penggunaan ‗be‘. kesalahan ini terjadi karena adanya transfer interlingual, transfer intra lingual dan konteks pembelajaran. kata kunci : analisis kesalahan , tulisan mahasiswa introduction as a means of communication, language consists of form and meaning. forms of language can be divided into elements such as words, phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, and even at a higher level called discourse or text. in general, language users often use a form of language to convey information. therefore, for the meaning of the information submitted is not false and easily understood, language users need to understand the aspects of linguistics, particularly grammatical aspect in formulating phrases, clauses or sentences, and non-linguistic aspects, especially socio-cultural aspects that surround the language. just as in preparing the english sentence, the writer should understand the broad sense of sentence, which includes a sentence pattern or elements, sentence structure and functions of sentences. understanding these differences 138 thus need to be considered by the writer because grammatical structures of one language to another language tend to differ. callow (in baker, 1995: 180) states that ―each language has its own patterns to convey the interrelationships of persons and events….‖ to illustrate the differences in grammatical structure, the following is a comparative examples of english sentences and indonesian: ind : mahasiswa-mahasiswa stain surakarta rajin dan cerdas. eng : the students of stain surakarta are diligent and smart. from the comparison of the two sentences, it can be stated that there are differences in grammatical structure between english and indonesian languages. in this context, the indonesian sentence structure does not recognize linking verb between the subjects with the predicate that follows it. however, the english sentence requires a linking verb that is to link the subject with the predicate that follows it. the use of ‗be‘ in the sentence is a must because without it, the sentence will not be acceptable according to the grammatical english. in more remote, the use of ‗be‘, covering is, am, are, was, and were depends on the type of subject. for example, for the third singular and third plural pronoun, each is followed by ‗is‘ and ‗are‘, while the subject is first person singular or plural, each is followed by ‗am‘ and ‗are‘, and the subject is second person (you) is followed by are. therefore, the accuracy of using them in the writing of english sentences such as this must be considered, especially by students who are developing writing skills in english as a foreign language. they should understand the difference between grammatical structure of english and indonesian. this is because they assume that grammatical aspects of the two languages are similar. by writing english sentences according to the 139 grammatical structure, the meaning of it will be accurate, easily understood and acceptable. based on the background of the problems above, the formulation of the problem in this research are ‗how are the use of "be" in writing english sentences mistaken by the students? and what are the aspects surrounding it?‘ error analysis error analysis is a procedure used by researchers and educators that includes sampling, identifying errors in the sample, evaluating the seriousness of the error. teachers should understand better about the mistakes made by students. ellis said in her book the study of second language acquisition that error analysis is a procedure used by researchers and teachers which involves collecting samples of learner, identifying the errors in the sample, describing these errors, classifying them according to hypothesized causes, and evaluating their seriousness (1994: 50 – 57). the sentence, which is free from error must have two criteria namely acceptability and appropriateness. acceptance means the sentence is spoken or written by students must be understood by native speakers as the owner of that language. acceptance here is not referring to the rules of grammar but in the context of suitability. while appropriateness refers to the ability of constructing sentence that fits the context. lyons in james (1998: 67) says that an acceptable utterance is one that has been, or might be, produced by a native speaker in some appropriate context and is, or would be, accepted by other native speakers as belonging to the language in question. to decide on the acceptability of a piece of language we refer not to rules, but the contexts, trying to contextualize the utterance in question. 140 the importance of error analysis analyzing the errors made by students provides many benefits in teaching and learning. for this reason, understanding errors is a very valuable feedback to evaluate, plan teaching materials, and implement teaching strategies. by knowing the similarity type of error will be greatly useful in determining the sequence of teaching and the emphasis in the classroom. alatis (1977: 138) states that ‗familiarity in the types of errors that students actually make is as a valuable guide for determining the sequence and emphasis of instruction in the english foreign language (efl) classroom.‘ dulay, burt and krashen in fauziati (2002: 75) said that ‗error analysis has several major purposes. the first is providing data from which inferences about the nature of the language learning process can be made. and, it is to indicate teachers and curriculum developers which part of the target language students have most difficulty producing correctly and which error types detract most from a learner’s ability to communicate effectively.‘ error analysis also provides insights about the process of foreign language acquisition, which further contributes to the practice of classroom teaching. in other words, the theoretical error analysis goal is to understand the process of learning a foreign language as well as strategies for making teaching a foreign language better and more efficient. the difference between error and mistake the difference between errors and mistakes are often confusing because these two seem similar. however, both are two terms that can be clearly distinguished. error will always be made by foreign language learners. this is the first step in order to master the language and each learner will experience 141 and pass through this stage for success of learning. james (1998:83) says that an error can not be corrected by himself until there is an explanation (input) have been given clearly. in other words, the error requires further learning before the learner can correct his own mistakes. ―errors cannot be selfcorrected until further relevant (to that error) input (implicit or explicit) has been provided and converted into intake by the learner. in other words, errors require further relevant learning to take place before they can be selfcorrected.” mistake is also an error but rather caused by fatigue, excitement, forgetting, fatigue, attention distruction, and so forth. mistake can be corrected by the learner. according to corder in freeman (1992: 59) ‗a mistake is a random performance slip, therefore, caused by a fatigue, an excitement, etc and it can be self-corrected. a mistake is caused by performance factors, such as limitation, or forgetfulness, tiredness or some situation of stress or when our attention is divided.’ writing skills writing is one of the four language skills. as a means of communication, writing is a process to convey information, or ideas on the reader. however, conveying information or ideas is not an easy activity. the writer must be able to convey with easily understood language for the information or ideas that are intended to the reader. therefore, for his work can be understood easily by readers, writer must master linguistic aspects, particularly the aspect of grammatical and non-linguistic aspects. from the aspect of linguistics, the author should understand all aspects surrounding the information or ideas that he realizes in the form of text, such as grammatical aspect and the use of punctuation. grammatical errors and the 142 use of punctuation can cause the writing difficult to understand or even not at all meaningful. harmer (2004: 111) states that the linguistic aspects of the work of writing errors can include spelling error, mistake in word order, grammar mistake, wrong verb tense, concord mistake, unclear meaning, punctuation mistake, something unnecessary, and too formal or informal. of the nonlinguistic aspects, the author should consider the readers. the reader can be seen from the elements such as age, educational level, profession, gender, and even family backgrounds. regardless of such elements, the result of writing that he made would be less beneficial or even not at all be useful to readers. types of sentences according to the form or structure, the sentence can be divided into single sentences (simple sentence) and compound sentence (complex sentence). frank (1972: 223) argues that the sentence is divided into four types, as in his statement: simple sentences are such sentences have only one full predication in the form of and independent clause, 2) compound sentences are such sentences have two or more full predications in the form of independent clauses, 3) complex sentences are such sentences also have two or more full predications. one of these is an independent clause (or, main clause) that is similar to the form of the simple sentence, and one or more of these are dependent clauses (or, subordinate clauses), 4) compound-complex sentences are contain two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. while frank divides sentence into four different types, the second sentence (compound sentence), third (complex sentence), and fourth (compoundcomplex sentence) can be classified into one sentence, that sentence compound (complex sentence). 143 waldhorn and zeigar (in mas'ud, 1998: 18) distinguish sentences into simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, and compoundcomplex sentence. simple sentence is the sentence that contains only one main verb (one main clause or sentence stem), which reflects the existence of one idea. simakbaca secara fonetikcomplex sentence is the sentence that contains one main clause and one or more independent clause (subordinate clause, that is the clause which rely on main clause), which between them related by using the relative pronoun, such as who, whom, the which, that, and whose. compound-complex sentence is a perfect compound sentence containing one or more main clause and one or more dependent clause. research methodology related to the goal achieved, namely to identify and analyze, and describe the precise use of ‗be‘ in the english sentences, this type of research is qualitative-descriptive. in this study, researcher will describe the accuracy and error use of ‗be‘ as linking verb and as an auxiliary verb. data sources and data in this study, source of data used is document. sources of data are a writing assignment undertaken by the student semester 3 stain surakarta. writing assignment here is that students are asked to make a good essay in the form of narration, description, exposition, and argumentation within 90 minutes without opening the notebook or dictionary. the data in this study is english sentences that contain ‗be‘ (is, am, are, was, were, be, being, or been) in their writing. 144 in this research, data collection techniques used by the researcher refers to technical note. the researcher reads and then records all the sentences that contain ‗be‘ written by the students of semester 3 stain surakarta. the results, researchers find out the accuracy and errors in the use of ‗be‘ in english sentences. in addition, to simplify the analysis, each sentence is numbered in sequence and coded and retrieved 3 last digits of the students index number. data analysis method according to mahsun (2005: 112), there are methods of language analysis in the study of languages, namely intra lingual method and the extra lingual method. intra lingual method is a method of analysis by comparing the connecting elements that are lingual, both contained in one language or in several different languages. extra lingual method is used to analyze the elements that are extra lingual, namely linking the language problem with things that are beyond language. to analyze the data in this study, the research uses intra lingual and extra lingual methods. these methods are used to connect the linguistic elements in sentences, especially some of the elements either as a linking verb or auxiliary verb in english sentences in the text, and language problem with things that are beyond language. discussion and finding having collected the data, the researcher compiles the following points; 1. broadly speaking, students are able to express ideas and thought into writing in english. it was proven that the average student are able to write as much as one sheet of full page, even some of them more than one page. 145 2. most of their writing are narrative that they share the experience they've ever experienced. stories are arranged vary from campus life problems to vacation stories, family, as well as funny and thrilling events. 3. almost of all the existing writings, we always find sentence/sentences which contain a 'be' both as a linking verb or auxiliary. while the tenses are used mostly in the form of past tense because they talked about what had happened. based on the analysis of error regarding the use of 'be' it can be concluded that there are 5 (five) types of errors made by students; error about the absence (omission) of 'be', error about the addition of 'be', the error on the application of 'be', errors in placement of 'be', and a complex error in the use of 'be'. these errors occur due to intra lingual transfer, extra lingual transfer and learning context. error in omission of „be‟ here are the findings of errors in the removal/omission of 'be'. omission here means that the student intentionally or unintentionally has made a sentence that does not put ‗be‘ that should exist in the sentence. datum 045: we very happy in there so much the sentence pattern is subject + adjective phrase. here, we can see that the writer tries to express that we are very happy. the sentence is not equipped with 'be', where between subject and predicate in english must be accompanied by conjunctions (linking verb). in other words, the fault lies in the absence of ‗were‘ because the sentence tells about the experience of the past. 146 table 1 omission of ‗be‘ no data code erroneous sentence 1 042 around the yard there is a pool that can use to wash our hand or wash our face. 2 045 in there we very happy so much the first day we went to museum bali, we guide by mr. dewa. 3 057 first we made nastar because nastar more easier than cake 4 061 i‘m the first person who ready to explain my material 5 073 because it so far and the route not flat 6 080 i still fasting when i sick, i had experience which i like i absent in my class 7 043 it usefull for the student when they want to continue their study at university. 8 076 i spoke to the police while crying because i still very afraid. 9 081 you can go there by following students who crossing here 10 094 i really tired, because i had to walk along the way of my boarding house 11 008 now i still happy in here. 12 091 so i confused when i would parking my motorcycle. 13 092 i proud with my mother. 14 107 i far away from my parents. i proud with them. 15 109 my parents hungry with me i driver motorcycle and must ready to face examination. 16 111 i very happy. i very hungry. 17 113 she very beautiful. she very hungry. 147 error in the addition of 'be' analysis of erroneous sentences in the form of the addition of 'be' is as follows. datum 008: but, anything was happen. in this sentence, the student tries to express that something has happened. this incident has been going on so that the pattern of 'past tense', as shown by the use of 'be' form was. however, the use of 'be' is to connect between the subject and predicate when the predicate is not an active verb. in the above sentence structure ‗happen‘ is an active verb, and thus connective word 'be' is unnecessary. the sentence is incorrect because it adds unnecessary ‗was‘. as in 'past tense', ‗happen‘ is replaced by a second form ‗happened‘. table 2 error in addition of ‗be‘ no data code erroneous sentence 1 008 but, anything was happen. 2 054 i am very love my campus 3 055 ragunan zoo is another place that i was visited 4 056 all of the member osis were had to attend that event 5 063 the end of july was come 6 068 they can be to celebrate of iedul fitri with happiness 7 072 so, i worked while i was studied. they have been give me an unforgettable experience. 8 083 the concert was started 9 036 when i was clean it, all my friends laughed loudly. 10 049 it was happened when i was in senior high school. 11 062 the woman got a hurt in her legs and her baby was fell. 12 066 that was happened one year ago in september 2007. 148 i did it because want not to be come late to campus. 13 082 then i was fell down in the road. 14 090 finally, i decided to go there and proof what my friend was said 15 094 i knew that something was happened 16 118 i am still remember it until now. 17 059 they are usually helped me, if i get a problem in the work. our body is listen the alarm sound 18 088 my grand father was pass away five years ago. 19 097 i would like to tell you about my experiences when i was study about music. 20 102 that was happen when i was studying in senior high school. 21 104 when holiday was arive, i had so many planning. my holiday was come. 22 106 he was suggest me to lisen music. 23 112 they were very loves me. 24 115 i was became private teacher for her. it is can make my skill well. 25 121 i was very like because my uncle was very humble to me. error in application of 'be' application error 'be' here means that the sentences have been prepared by the students 'be' inappropriately. datum 008: i moved to a class d because i am not join mid semester test. in this sentence there is 'am' specifically used by the first person singular in the pattern of 'present tense'. at first glance there is no problem in this sentence. however, when carefully considered, the use of auxiliary ‗am‘ as inappropriate. the sentence tells about events that already took place (i moved to class d). so clause (because i am not join mid semester test.) should not use ‗am‘ but ‗did‘ as auxiliary. 149 table 3 error in application of ‗be‘ no data code erroneous sentence 1 008 i moved to class d because i am not join mid semester test. i am not come to mid semester test 2 063 the agenda be held for 3 days 3 068 so i‘m confuse when i would choose clothes 4 073 i were not finded 5 084 i‘m confuse to made a good condition i scream ―stop it‖ and the new comers be silent the day was fast and i am fasting 6 when i was in junior high school at smp 19 surakarta, i ever be a librarian but now, the head of the librarian was not keep the library again. 7 082 but it didn‘t matter because the situation didn‘t serious 8 108 last 2 week there is a new friend 9 052 my school had study tour to bali island, i am very happy 10 087 my friends in here is very kind with me. 11 110 but some of them is still serious in studying. 12 116 it are about skill english. 13 120 after that we forgotten about the schedule train, we are running until station. 14 124 i hope i can to be a good student. errors in the placement of 'be' the use of 'be' in english structure must consider the subject and the form of time (tenses), it should also be noticed the correct placement. in this research we find some form of 'be' where the placement is not appropriate. the following is the error in the placement of the phrase 'be'. 150 datum 042: near the mosque there is a high tower that we can see how our world is beautiful. this is a significant positive sentence pattern 'near the mosque there is a high tower where we can see how beautiful this world'. there are two 'be' in this sentence, 'be' the first refers to the 'there', while 'be' the second one refers to our world. the use of 'be' is correct. the error lies in the 'be' the second. the placement of ‗be‘ in front of a designated object is incorrect because this is not a question but a statement. this could be corrected to be ‗near the mosque there is a high tower that we can see how beautiful our world is‘. so 'is' is placed after the noun ‘our world‘. table 4 error on the placement of ‗be‘ no data code erroneous sentence 1 042 near the mosque there is a high tower that we can see how is beautiful our world. 2 046 andrea makes me confuse about how is god working and what is god willing 3 103 you can imagine how is hard to keep a baby. complex errors in the use of 'be' error made by students regarding the use of 'be' does not cover only in terms of addition, omission, or placement, but also errors in the complex error. datum 063: the event started after dzuhur, beginning with a built camp in every place the which was provide by the presenter 151 in the long sentences there is 'was' as a 'be' in past form. complex error occurs that 'was' is not as an auxiliary or linking verb, and it makes the sentence incorrect. when it is passive form of the verb, ‗provide‘ should be in past participle of 'provided' table 5 complex errors in the use of 'be' no data code erroneous sentence 1 063 the event started after dhuhur, beginning with built camp in every place which was provide by the presenter 2 112 we weren‘t spoken about study. 3 118 many exercise that i must be done. from the above data analysis, there are three main factors causing the errors in the use of 'be' by the students in the sentence which they set. the three main factors are inter lingual transfer, intra lingual transfer, and context of learning. errors caused by inter lingual transfer factor can be seen from the interference of mother tongue into a foreign language learned. to know this error, researcher has to translate the grammar studied in the target language and compare them so that the intended meaning can be known by students. negative transfer between the elements in the foreign language can lead to intra lingual error. in other words, the students have not mastered english grammar well. there are four types of errors; overgeneralization, 152 ignoring rules of grammar, incomplete grammar application, and false concepts. context of learning factor refers to the fact that the learners commit errors in their context of learning as the result of misdealing clarification from the teacher, faulty presentation of structure or word in a text book or even because of pattern that was memorized in drill, not in contextualized. conclusion in general, the text made by students in the form of the english language is already good. although this study is only limited on the analysis of errors in writing, the complete thought as outlined in the text is clearly understood. the result of error in general is not so conspicuous both in quantity and quality. meanwhile, based on error analysis on the use of 'be' it can be concluded that there are 5 (five) types of errors made by students that is, error about the absence (disappearance) of 'be', a error about the addition of 'be', the error on the application of 'be', errors the placement of 'be', and a complex error in the use of 'be'. such errors occur due to several factors; inter lingual transfer factor, intra lingual transfer factor and factor of learning context. errors due to inter lingual transfer factor is still affected by the intervention of mother tongue in the structure of english. while intra lingual transfer factor caused by negative transfer in the elements of english. this transfer includes the four things. they are overgeneralization, ignoring rules of grammar, the application of improper grammar, and false concepts. 153 references baker, mona. 1995. in other words: a course on book translation. london: routledge. frank, marcella. 1972. modern english: a practical reference guide. new jersey: prentice-hall, inc. harmer, jeremy. 2004. teach writing. england: pearson education limited. keraf, gorys. 1991. tata bahasa rujukan bahasa indonesia. jakarta: pt gramedia widiasarana indonesia. kridalaksana, harimukti. 2001. kamus linguistik (edisi ke-3). jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. larson, mildred l. 1988. penerjemahan berdasar makna: pedoman untuk pemadanan antar bahasa (terjemahan kencanawati). jakarta: penerbit arcan. moeliono, anton, m. dan soenjono dardjowidjojo. 1988. tatabahasa baku bahasa indonesia. departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia. cet. ke 1jakarta: balai pustaka, dan yogyakarta: gajah mada university press, 1988. mas‘ud, fuad. 1995. essentials of english grammar. yogyakarta: bpfe. santoso, riyadi. 2003. semiotika sosial, pandangan terhadap bahasa. surabaya: pustaka eurika. shaw, harry. 1986. handbook of english. singapore: fong & sons pte. ltd. sumarlam. (2003). teori dan praktik analisis wacana. surakarta: pustaka cakra. suryawinata, zuchridin dan sugeng hariyanto. 2000. translation: bahasan teori dan penuntun praktis menerjemahkan. yogyakarta: penerbit kanisius. swan, michael. 1995. practical english usage. hongkong: oxford university press. register journal – vol 15, no 02 (2022), pp. 163-182 doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.163-182 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 163 thematic contents of preschool-aged children’s utterances as media to shape their understanding of the world titik sudartinah* universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia *) corresponding author email: titiksudartinah@uny.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.163-182 submission track: received: 07-03-2022 final revision: 12-10-20222 available online: 01-12-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract language ability develops greatly during preschool age. triggered by the high curiosity that goes hand in hand with the exposures to others around them, preschool-aged children show great efforts in creating a collection of vocabulary to help them learn and use language in real contexts. this research aims to identify the thematic contents of preschool-aged children’s utterances and explain the categories of these thematic contents to shape their understanding of the surrounding world. to answer these objectives, both qualitative and quantitative data were used. the qualitative data were the utterances of preschool-aged children when participating in conversations, while the quantitative data were the frequency of occurrence of each thematic content, which is used to support the qualitative interpretation. the data were collected during classroom sessions in two preschools in yogyakarta, indonesia for a one-week period. the participants were 29 preschool-aged children, whose age ranges from 3 to 5. audiovisual recordings, field notes, datasheets, and elan 5.5. and flex 8 software were the instruments for data collection and analysis. the results show that there are two main thematic contents expressed by these preschool-aged children, i.e., objects and people. these thematic contents can be detailed into 9 categories of objects and 4 categories of people. these support the overall interpretation revealing the picture of the world as perceived by the children. in general, through the thematic contents of their utterances, preschool-aged children try to build a complete understanding of the world they live in and these thematic contents also serve as the media for understanding the stance of their peers and teachers in a conversation. keywords: preschool-aged children; thematic contents; utterances mailto:titiksudartinah@uny.ac.id http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ t. sudartinah 164 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) introduction preschool age is marked with some vast development in terms of language ability. the discussion on preschool-aged children, especially regarding their language ability, has been of increasing attention especially among those in psychology, early childhood education, and linguistics. in psychology, some studies of preschool-aged children’s language focus on preschool-aged children’s language skills and behavior problems (davis & qi, 2020; goldstein & naglieri, 2011; martins et al., 2016), how emotion affects preschool-aged children’s language (alcock, 2016; martins et al., 2016) and the relationship between preschool-aged children’s sociocultural backgrounds with their language skills (becker et al., 2013; dolores et al., 2013; kontopodis et al., 2011). meanwhile, the discipline of early childhood education mainly investigates the educational aspects of preschool-aged children’s language, such as how to deal with preschool-aged children in classroom settings (dalgren, 2017; geary & berch, 2016; hornby, 2011; mccabe et al., 2000) and how the curriculum accommodates preschool-aged children’s language development (dickinson & porche, 2011; dwyer & harbaugh, 2018; justice et al., 2011). in linguistics, the discussions are quite more various, from language development in general (becker et al., 2013; fiano, 2014), to the structural and pragmatic aspects of the development (carmiol & vinden, 2013; d. k. oller et al., 2013; sorsana et al., 2013; wasik & iannone-campbell, 2013). in terms of their language ability, preschool-aged children start to develop a higher ability in producing utterances, using syntactically more complex constructions and moving closer to that of adults. some previous studies found that preschool-aged children master up to 1,000 vocabulary items and use around 12,000 words per day (arnett & maynard, 2013; davies, 2011; owens, 2012). these vocabularies are largely acquired through their verbal interactions with people in their environment, including families, caregivers, and peers. these interactions are sources of whatever the children need to learn, as they provide opportunities for them to recognize, internalize, store, and use the words they hear. nevertheless, in learning the words, preschool-aged children also learn how to correctly use them according to the grammar of the language they are exposed to (davis-kean et al., 2016; tabors et al., 2001; weisleder & fernald, 2014). participating in such interactions, preschool-aged children start to use specific registers and adapt their thematic contents of preschool-aged children’s utterances … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 165 voice and intonation according to the role they played in the interactions. this discursive ability is clearly represented in their utterances. for instance, 3-year-old preschool-aged children are good at imitating adults’ heavy tones during pretend plays with peers (ervin-tripp et al., 2005; stude, 2014), and 4-year-olds start to have the ability to negotiate roles in pretend plays and differentiate imaginary things from the real ones (stude, 2014). in order to provide a comprehensive picture of preschool-aged children’s language, an investigation on mean length of utterance (mlu) is seen to be more accurate than using age alone as a variable (behrens, 2009; foster-cohen, 2009; kupisch et al., 2009; mcdaniel, 1996). by doing this, researchers can reveal the complexity of preschool-aged children’s language, especially in terms of the vocabularies and grammatical structures of their utterances. parker & brorson (2005), for instance, compared mean length of utterance in morphemes (mlum) and mean length of utterance in words (mluw) and found that mluw is simpler and easier, yet it yields the same effectiveness in providing a picture of preschoolaged children’s language. in addition, mluw can be applied to a wider range of languages due to the many differences regarding the concept of morphemes in different languages in the world (kupisch et al., 2009). meanwhile, calculating the mlu of preschool-aged children’s utterances is not the only way to map their language ability. some researchers prefer to investigate the richness of preschool-aged children’s vocabulary, with emphasis on the elements composing their utterances, such as the lexical content, the subject and predicate, and the themes discussed in an interaction. o’neill et al. (2009) and ifantidou (2014) mention that the variety of themes brought by preschool-aged children in their utterances is a clue to their pragmatic competence. themes change dynamically in preschool-aged children’s conversations, enabling relatively short turn-takings and unfinished exchanges of information, representing the here-and-now concept. therefore, in order to become an active participant in a conversation, preschool-aged children need to actively take turns. however, this task involves a complex communication skill, which requires their sensitivity such as knowing when it is possible for them to take turns and what to do when they get their turns. in fact, children, in general, cannot acquire these communication skills by themselves. they need some exposures from which they can learn about the skills from their surroundings, either from parents and other family members, caregivers, t. sudartinah 166 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) other adults (such as teachers in nurseries, daycare centers, and kindergartens) or peers. these people provide some scaffolding for the children through examples in given contexts. as mentioned by bryant (2009) and santrock (2011), families, peers, and schools are important for a child’s all-aspect development. they build what bruner (1983) referred to as language acquisition support system (lass). each element in this support system goes hand in hand in creating opportunities for children to learn about the language and how to use it. family is the first and main environment where children learn all about their life and the life of others. meanwhile, when children began to get along with people out of their families, school environment is important to acknowledge. in indonesia, early childhood education institutions are playing more important roles nowadays. more parents put their preschool-aged children under the care of teachers in preschools and kindergartens. as a consequence, there are more opportunities for preschool-aged children to interact with people other than their families, i.e. with both peers and teachers, and therefore, there are more chances that preschool-aged children develop their communication skills in the school environment. sammons (2010) acknowledges that being involved in preschool interactions is beneficial for preschool-aged children as they can develop their intellectual as well as their social skills and behavior. especially for those who do not get sufficient exposures from their main environment at home, preschools surely become the medium from which preschool-aged children can learn about being social and gain new experiences and linguistic exposures. in the context of preschool-aged children in indonesia, some studies of preschool-aged children’s language in preschool settings were already conducted, such as by iswatiningsih (2016), prihantoro (2014), siddiq (2019), and sukartiningsih (2010). these studies were on the acquisition of bahasa indonesia as preschool-aged children’s first language and the structural and pragmatic dimensions of the acquisition. although they discuss the structural aspects of the acquisition, the discussion was mainly on the syntactic structure of preschool-aged children’s utterances. the thematic contents of the utterances have not gained much attention. nevertheless, this is an important aspect to discuss within the study of preschool-aged children’s language as it is believed that how they build their understanding of the surrounding world can be seen through the way they employ thematic contents of preschool-aged children’s utterances … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 167 lexicons and build themes. with regards to this, this research aims to highlight the thematic contents of preschool-aged children’s utterances in bahasa indonesia and the preschool-aged children’s world as represented through the thematic contents of their utterances. research method as the research was mixed-method, both qualitative and quantitative data were used. preschool-aged children’s utterances, when conversing with their peers and teachers, served as the data source. 29 preschool-aged children, ranging from 3 to 5 years old, and 5 teachers from 2 preschools in yogyakarta, indonesia became the participants. the instruments were audio-visual recordings and transcripts of the conversations between preschool-aged children and their peers and teachers, fieldnotes, datasheets, and elan 5.5. and fieldworks language explorer (flex) 8 software, which were employed for data transcription and identification of lexicons’ frequency. prior to data collection, a pre-research activity of observation was conducted in several preschools in yogyakarta to determine the research setting. two preschools were finally selected as the setting due to the fulfilment of some criteria, such as high opportunities of verbal interactions between preschool-aged children and their peers and teachers, the availability of various playthings and learning resources that can be accessed and used by the preschool-aged children, and a smaller number of preschool-aged children under the supervision of a teacher. as this research involved preschool-aged children, in order to fulfill the research ethics, informed consent was distributed to parents prior to any participation of the preschool-aged children in the research, and only the initial of the children’s first names were disclosed. the data were collected by recording the conversations between preschoolaged children and their peers and teachers during classroom sessions. the recordings were done for an hour a day for a week (six days) period, resulting in 11 hours 27 minutes duration of the recording. the next step was transcribing the utterances using elan 5.5. when the transcription was completed, the preschoolaged children’s utterances were identified, resulting in 4,198 utterances, and examined using flex 8 in order to identify the lexicons that reveal the thematic content of their utterances. t. sudartinah 168 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) results & discussion the results show that there are 2 main themes shown in the preschoolaged children’s utterances, i.e. objects and people. objects become the main thematic content delivered by preschool-aged children. seventy five percent of the thematic contents were about objects, which occur 437 times. meanwhile, the theme of people is the next thematic content, with 147 occurrences (25%). there are 9 categories of objects and 4 categories of people that are discussed by preschool-aged children, as presented in table 1. table 1 shows that preschool-aged children mainly talk about objects when conversing with their peers and teachers in the classroom setting. the discussions on objects are meant to enrich the preschool-aged children’s vocabularies and enhance their understanding of the elements existing in their surrounding world, shown by the nouns representing things around these preschool-aged children. besides objects, preschool-aged children complete their picture of the world by discussing people – both real people in their life and imaginary characters from movies or stories, and the places where they do their activities. all these thematic contents provide a complete description of the world as understood by the preschool-aged children. tabel 1. the thematic contents of preschool-aged children’s utterances no thematic contents frequency 1. objects a. things around at the moment of speaking 83 b. food and drink 77 c. parts of body and accessories 77 d. houses/buildings/public places 61 e. abstract concepts/ideas 43 f. animals 42 g. nature 25 h. vehicles 16 i. occupations/social status 13 total 437 2. people a. interlocutors (peers and teachers) 72 b. family 39 c. others 30 d. self-speakers 6 total 147 total sub-themes 584 thematic contents of preschool-aged children’s utterances … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 169 as language develops with age, compared with younger children, preschool-aged children are faced with more complex communicative situations. they sometimes need to participate in multi-participant conversations, which of course requires sophisticated communication skills. in order to participate in such conversations, it is necessary to actively take turns and monitor their understanding of what their interlocutors say. in general, preschool-aged children with more advanced communication skills during interactions with a peer are more likable to befriend. the same kind of acceptance by peers also occurs to ones with rich vocabularies (owens, 2012). social cognitive ability, therefore, is one of the earliest important abilities that children need to acquire. preschool age is a period during which lexicons and conceptual meanings are greatly developed by children (owens, 2012). this implicitly signals the possibility of a high variety of thematic contents discussed in conversations, in which they become participants. however, some studies found that these thematic contents are still closely related to the principle of here-and-now, as in earlier age. as mentioned by dardjowidjojo (2000) and ninio (2014), topics in conversations with preschool-aged children are relatively fast-changing, with things familiar to them becoming the main ones to discuss. due to the dynamic changes in topics, identifying the thematic contents in conversations with preschool-aged children as participants is a complex task. marvin (1996) and ifantidou (2011) suggest that the genres or themes discussed by preschool-aged children can be identified by investigating the referents related to time, people, objects, activities, and ideas that are presented in preschool-aged children’s utterances. therefore, the semantic content of the preschool-aged children’s utterances can be revealed. as mentioned by simms (2008) and rowland (2014), nouns and pronouns are clearly the word classes that can resemble the contents of preschool-aged children’s utterances. thus, in the present study, the identification of thematic contents is based on the investigation of nouns and pronouns in the utterances of 29 preschool-aged children that become the participants in the research, resulting in objects and people as the main thematic contents of their utterances. t. sudartinah 170 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) objects as the main thematic content of preschool-aged children’s utterances various objects are discussed in preschool-aged children’s utterances, which are discussed 437 times, which accounts for 74.8%. when discussing objects, preschool-aged children mostly talk about familiar things located at the same place at the moment of speaking. there are 9 categories of objects that are discussed: 1) things around, 2) food and drinks, 3) parts of body and accessories, 4) houses/buildings, 5) abstract concepts/ideas, 6) animals, 7) nature, 8) vehicles, and 9) occupation/social status. table 2 presents some examples of how these thematic contents are presented in preschool-aged children’s utterances. table 2 shows the categories of objects discussed by preschool-aged children. the main objects to discuss are things that are around them and familiar to them, comprising technology-related items, household things, valuables, stationery, playthings, and unspecific things in a near location which are usually referred to using demonstrative pronouns. in addition, preschool-aged children already have some awareness regarding valuables such as money and gold. although these nouns only exist in the context of pretend play, it is clear that preschool-aged children have developed a certain level of understanding that some things have more value than others and can be used to buy other things. table 2. the thematic content of objects in preschool-aged children’s utterances no object category examples 1 things around at the moment of speaking technology-related items, household things, valuables, stationery, playthings, unspecific things in a near location 2 food and drinks spices, vegetables, fruits, drinks, fast food, cakes, and cooking activities 3 parts of body and accessories parts of body, jewelry, outfit, cosmetics/medicine 4 houses / buildings / places parts of a house, public places, commercial places 5 abstract concepts / ideas temporal concepts, colors, possession, faith 6 animals real animals, animals in fantasy/stories, animals in rituals 7 nature plants, sky objects, natural phenomena, geographical location 8 vehicles kinds of vehicles, parts of vehicles 9 occupation/social status kinds of occupation, social status thematic contents of preschool-aged children’s utterances … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 171 meanwhile, although all utterances in the research data are produced in a classroom context, there are not many discussions on stationery and other writing utensils. the same case also occurs when the preschool-aged children are in the playground. there are not many play things that become parts of the discussion. instead, the preschool-aged children talk about the activity they do with their peers there. this finding implies that preschool-aged children tend to have an interest to discuss the detail of their actions rather than discussing the tools they use to do the activities. it is interesting to note that when discussing the activities, demonstrative pronouns are often used to point to objects that are not familiar to preschool-aged children, either because they do not know the name of the objects or because they have not seen them yet, to point to familiar-but-forgotten objects, and to point to several objects without specifying any of them. the next category of object discussed in conversations involving preschool-aged children as participants is food and drinks. when talking about food and drinks, all aspects in this regard are discussed, from the raw ingredients for making food and drinks, the activities of cooking, to the readyto-eat one. the preschool-aged children talk about them by describing their appearance, characteristics, taste, what to do with them, benefits of consuming them, and just sharing their experience regarding the food and drink discussed. comparing the two preschools that become the research setting, it is seen that the discussion about food and drinks occurs only in one preschool, but not in the other. this is due to the difference in classroom arrangement between the two schools. one of the preschools divides its classrooms based on the functions of the rooms, such as preparation, role-play, and nature. the discussions on food and drinks occur in the role-play room, where the room is set like rooms at home: a living room, kitchen, bathroom, etc. although when role-playing preschool-aged children have the freedom to talk about anything they like, as the activity and playthings are set exactly like in a real home, the discussion is usually around home activities, such as eating behaviors in the dining room. the availability of thematic playthings in each classroom serves as a means that teachers can use to scaffold their students’ activities in the class. t. sudartinah 172 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) meanwhile, other objects discussed by preschool-aged children in their interactions with peers and teachers are houses, buildings, and places, which can be detailed into parts of a house, public places, and commercial places. when discussing their houses, preschool-aged children tend to use the common noun rumah ‘house’ and other rooms such as tempat bikin roti ‘a place for baking cakes’ or ‘kitchen’ and meja makan ‘dining table.’ in addition, there are also some other buildings to discuss, such as penjara ‘jail’ and kuburan ‘cemetery,’ which are found in the context of pretend plays, masjid ‘mosque,’ and minimarket, as a location where one of the preschool-aged children bought his food. besides discussing real objects, preschool-aged children also develop their ability to regard abstract objects or ideas. this thematic content is discussed more frequently than that of animals. several abstract concepts are discussed by preschool-aged children in the two preschools: temporal concepts, colors, possession, and concepts related to faith and rituals. in terms of temporal concepts, preschool-aged children have developed their understanding of day (name of days and 24-hours duration as a day) and time during the day (morning, noon, and evening). in addition, they also understand the differences among colors, although they are still confused about differentiating color gradation. in relation to possession, preschoolaged children understand that some indonesian suffixes signal possession, such as the suffix -ku ‘my’, -mu ‘your’, and -nya ‘his/her/its’. meanwhile, preschool-aged children also develop their understanding of faith and other religious/cultural rituals through the learning processes. when teachers explain a topic about nature, for instance, they can provide scaffolding to their students by asking them to answer questions about things that god has created and some religious values about this. through such scaffolding, preschool-aged children are encouraged to explore and share their experiences with their peers. therefore, the knowledge becomes shared knowledge. to understand these abstract concepts/ideas, preschool-aged children need to show stronger efforts compared to that understanding concrete objects as their memory is still developing and has not been at its maximum capacity. besides, processing abstract concepts and their thematic contents of preschool-aged children’s utterances … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 173 representations are much more complicated than understanding concrete objects that can be seen and touched (schneider, 2015; viau et al., 2010). the next object to discuss by preschool-aged children in their interactions with peers and teachers is animals. three categories of animals are discussed: 1) sea, land, and air animals, 2) animals in fantasy/stories, and 3) animals in rituals. when talking about animals, preschool-aged children mostly talk about animals that are familiar to them and often seen in daily life, such as fish and cows. however, the discussion of fantasy animals, such as dinosaurs and dragons, is also present, as these toy animals are available in the classroom or brought by the preschool-aged children from home. discussing them, preschool-aged children compare and share their understanding regarding the physical appearance and characters of these animals as what they saw in movies or read in stories. the last category is animals that are related to a ritual, whether it is a religious ritual or a cultural one. for instance, when sharing about their experience attending the eid-aladha celebration, these preschool-aged children also discuss the common sacrificial animals in the celebration, such as cows and camels. in addition, there are also some discussions on objects that are related to nature, such as plants, celestial bodies, natural phenomena, and geographical conditions. plants that become a sub-theme in the speech of preschool-aged children are plants that are around them, either at home or at school or in other places they have visited, as well as those related to their playing activities. for example, when asked to describe the situation around her house, b told her friends about the guava tree in her house, and while playing, she said that the dinosaurs' diet was grass. meanwhile, the sub-theme about celestial bodies appeared in the conversations of preschool-aged children when they were learning about god's creation. another example was produced by l when she saw m carrying a pair of binoculars. because she has experience and knowledge about the object, she can tell the function of the object. in addition, there are 2 natural phenomena that are also told in the stories of preschool-aged children, namely earthquakes and rain. the earthquake was told by a as part of god's creation, which at that time became the theme of the lesson. a received exposure to this earthquake from tv, as t. sudartinah 174 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) he agreed when asked by the teacher about where he got to know about earthquakes. experience, either directly or indirectly, is a source of language exposure in early childhood. for instance, when the teacher was conveying the importance of maintaining cleanliness in order to have a healthy body, p suddenly shouted that he had just played in the rain. c responded to this statement, stating that p could have a cold as a result of playing in the rain. the last object category whose frequency of occurrence as a sub-theme in the speech of preschool-aged children is very minor is vehicles, whether land, sea, and air vehicles or their parts, as well as occupations or status. when talking about vehicles, most of them only mention names, for example, kereta bandara 'airport train' and mobil polisi 'police car', while parts of vehicles and other things related to vehicles are not discussed too much, for example, helm 'helmet' and setir 'steering wheel.' this sub-theme about vehicles often appears in context when talking about work. for example, in a pretend play to catch criminals, words related to these activities appear, such as mobil polisi 'police car', penjara ‘jail', and work as a polisi 'policeman'. several other jobs that are also found in the speech of preschool-aged children include the work that is being played by the child, such as penjual es krim 'ice cream seller' and what he aspires to be, such as dokter 'doctor'. apart from work, the status during pretend plays is also discussed, such as pangeran 'prince'. this is also the case with the status attached to someone or something that is known to the child, for example, the status of juara 'champion'. people as the second thematic content of preschool-aged children’s utterances the theme of people also gets sufficient attention in the speech of preschool-aged children, as evidenced by the high frequency of occurrence (147 times or 25.2%) in the speech produced by these children. there are several categories of people being discussed, namely peers and teachers (72), family (39), self-speakers (6), and others (30). thematic contents of preschool-aged children’s utterances … register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 175 table 3. the thematic content of objects in preschool-aged children’s utterances no people category examples 1. 1 interlocutors (peers and teachers) second personal pronouns, ‘friends’, the address term ‘ma’am’ 2. 2 family ‘father’, ‘mother’, ‘grandparents’, ‘uncle and aunty’, ‘brother’, ‘sister’ 3. 3 self-speakers first personal pronouns, own name 4. 4 others movie characters, ghosts in discussing the interlocutor, be it peers or teachers, mentioning the name of the speech partner is the most important thing to use. next is the mention using the noun teman-teman 'friends', pronouns for people, for example kalian 'you', kamu 'you', and dirimu 'yourself' to mention peers, and the address term bu ‘ma’am' to refer to teachers. as all the teachers are females, it is reasonable that the word bu becomes the most frequently used noun by preschoolers, which is used 540 times in 4198 utterances. the role of the teacher in interaction in the classroom with preschool-aged children is indeed quite central, where the teacher is usually the most active party in learning activities in the classroom. although the pattern of learning carried out is slightly different because it is center based, in the second preschool, the teacher's role in learning activities is also quite basic. although in the main activity the teacher does not constantly intervene in the activities executed by the children, she still monitors the course of activities and immediately provides feedback if the activities carried out have started to get out of control. meanwhile, there are quite a number of family members who become sub-themes in the speech of preschool-aged children, especially members of the nuclear family, namely ayah 'father', ibu 'mother', adik perempuan 'sister', and kakak laki-laki 'brother'. in addition, other family members who were also discussed were kakek-nenek 'grandparents' and pakde-bude ‘uncle and aunty’. all of these family members appear as sub-themes in the speech of preschool-aged children, both when the children tell their real experiences and when they are playing roles. meanwhile, when these preschool-aged children talked about themselves, they mostly used the word aku 'i', followed t. sudartinah 176 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) by saya 'i', and their names. of the 29 preschool-aged children who participated in this study, only 3 always used their names to refer to themselves. in addition to the three sub-themes above, there are also several other people or personas that become sub-themes in the speech of preschool-aged children, and are classified into others since each of them occurs with little frequency. most of them are characters in stories or movies, such as 'zombies', setan 'devils', and upin dan ipin 'upin and ipin', and general nouns such as orang 'person', bayi 'baby', and perempuan 'woman'. to sum up, it is clearly visible that preschool-aged children already have the ability to participate actively in conversations with their peers and teachers in the preschool setting. they show their cooperation with their interlocutors in building and managing conversational themes. this way, they also complete their understanding of the world they live in, which is captured from the way they use nouns and pronouns in their utterances to refer to objects and people in real life. conclusion preschool-aged children mostly talk about themes related to the hereand-now principle as well as fictional stories wrapped in pretend play activities when interacting with peers and teachers, with objects dominating the children's conversations, followed by the theme of people. it is interesting to note that family is also discussed even though the setting of all conversations was at preschools. the high use of the types of words with reference (nouns and pronouns) in preschool-aged children's utterances indicates that the semantic content in the form of themes represented through these nouns and pronouns is an important part that contributes to the success of conveying the meaning of speech produced by these children. they help the children to build a complete picture of their surrounding world. studies on preschool-aged children’s language are important to conduct as they can provide significant contributions to many parties, such as parents, educators, other researchers, and education policymakers. however, in this study, observations were only made on the utterances of preschool-aged thematic contents of preschool-aged children’s utterances … register journal – vol 15, 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(2014). social environments shape children’s language experiences, strengthening language processing and building vocabulary. in i. arnon, m. casillas, c. kurumada, & b. estigarribia (eds.), language in interaction: studies in honor of eve v. clark (pp. 29– 50). john benjamins publishing company. https://doi.org/10.1080/10489221003620946 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.01095 dinamika pengarusutamaan gender register journal – vol 15, no 02 (2022), pp. 311-330 doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.311-330 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 311 scrutinizing register realization in facebook trading group antonius setyawan sugeng nur agung1*, monika widyastuti surtikanti2, masfa maiza3, efrika siboro4 1,2,4 universitas katolik santo agustinus hippo, indonesia 3 universitas satu nusa lampung, indonesia *) corresponding author email: antonius.setyawan.007@gmail.com doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.311-330 submission track: received: 08-07-2022 final revision: 09-11-2022 available online: 01-12-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract this study aims at scrutinizing the register patterns used by the sellers in promoting their goods in the popular facebook trading group used by people in ngabang, west borneo, “ngabang jual-beli”. the group is an ambient representation of language variation used in west borneo. the register analysis covers the field, tenor, and mode of the discourse. the data analysis encompasses domain, taxonomy, componential, and cultural theme analysis modified by santosa (2017). the domain covers the kinds of goods being sold. the taxonomy analysis is the three metafunctions in the sfl framework. the combined domain and taxonomy in the componential analysis figure out the register patterns in the group. the findings reveal that in the field of discourse, the posted clauses are dominated by the use of the material process, relational identification, and relational attributive process. the material process reflects the experiential meaning of the current activities. meanwhile, the information of the goods realizes relational identification and relational attributive processes. with respect to the tenor of discourse, there is a tendency for the sellers to use declarative clauses which reflect equal status between the sellers and the customers by considering the minimal social distance. furthermore, in the mode of discourse, the unmarked topical theme reflects as the majority of the ellipsis subject referring to the sellers. the study implies the language used in digital trading should take into account the participants, the relationship among the participants, and the media used to persuade their target market. keywords: facebook trading group, online shop, register, systemic functional linguistics mailto:antonius.setyawan.007@gmail.com http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ a. s. s. n. agung, m.w. surtikanti, m. maiza, e. siboro 312 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) introduction facebook changes the way people sell their goods. its ability to provide information, personal text, and photo as the media richness is the vividness of online content (coyle & thorson, 2001; van der heide et al., 2012; wang et al., 2010). a good understanding of the product and the ability to simplify sophisticated functional and technical terms of the offered products are outstanding selling skills that online sellers must have to provide similarunderstandable information within their posts between the sellers and the potential consumers. the ability to provide rich information using simple language may support the effectiveness of the sellers’ posts. to achieve effective selling, the sellers should prioritize caring about creating successful posts when offering their goods. however, it is not an ability that every seller has. the members of the facebook trading group are known to vary in age, gender, goods expertise, and educational levels. facebook posts in facebook trading groups display a variety of language used by the members of the groups as they engage in communication and business dealings with one another. given this variability, the sellers must be able to identify the participants they are interacting with, the nature of their interactions with customers, and the appropriate terminology to use when posting on facebook. in online selling, the use of language is one factor that influences the sale (tabpawan, 2022). a register viewpoint makes it simple to see the language dimension used in a particular community. the chosen register is meant to make communication between the members of some specific groups easier (nurani et al., 2014). the present study investigates a facebook trading group named “ngabang jual-beli”. this facebook group is popularly used by people in ngabang, landak regency, west borneo. it has 27.400.000 members from several districts around the landak region and 110-120 average daily posts. the group consists of various sellers depending on the offered goods such as electronics, vehicles, food and beverage, and fashion. each seller employs a different register covered by mixed language, english and indonesian (agung et al., 2021) which makes this group worth scrutinizing. in the context of systemic functional linguistics (sfl), register is defined as the configuration of semantic resources that the member of the scrutinizing register realization in facebook trading group register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 313 culture associates with a situation type (halliday, 1978). it is the meaning potential that is accessible in a given social context. in this case, the register refers to the linguistic functional variation known as language style. as a language variation viewed from the use, register is affected by the context of the situation and also the linguistic features realized in the text. halliday & hasan (1989) defined register as a variety according to its use including three parameters of the context of the situation in which it is used. those parameters cover field, tenor, and mode of discourse. the first parameter, the field of discourse refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place: in what situation the participants are engaged in, and in which language figures as some essential components (halliday & hasan, 1989). field is the realization of ideational metafunction which analyzes clauses and discourse. at the clause level, the analysis goes to transitivity, a group of verbs, and a group of nouns. meanwhile, at the discourse level, the analysis covers reference chains, lexical strings, and activity order (wiratno, 2018). the second parameter, tenor of discourse refers to what kinds of role relationships are being obtained among the participants, including permanent and temporary relationships in which they are involved (halliday & hasan, 1989). tenor can be viewed through the negotiation relationship among the language users involved in the text. tenor is the realization of interpersonal metafunction involving three kinds of relationship, namely status, contact, and affect (wiratno, 2018). status is the position of each participant in the discourse, whether they are in an equal position or not. contact reveals the intimacy of the relationship between participants such as whether the participants are in face-to-face, indirect, or one/two ways communication. affect relates to the emotional relationship among the participants. third, mode of discourse refers to what part the language is playing, and what the participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation: the symbolic organization of the text, the status that it has, including the channel and the rhetorical mode (halliday & hasan, 1989). mode is the realization of a textual metafunction. to reveal the mode of the discourse in the text, it can be seen through kinds of moods, theme realization, a. s. s. n. agung, m.w. surtikanti, m. maiza, e. siboro 314 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) lexis use, the complexity of the clause, and the interdependency of clause relationship (wiratno, 2018). studies of registers on online trading have been conducted by some researchers (agung et al., 2021; alfi, 2013; lubis et al., 2016; wardana, 2013). the studies of register on facebook trading reveal the domination of verb register form in the sellers’ posts (agung et al., 2021; alfi, 2013; lubis et al., 2016). moreover, the registers are formed by the mixed language (english and indonesian). the register functions are mostly in the form of offering and consultative. their studies employed a sociolinguistics perspective to depict register realization. these studies can identify the different linguistic forms of register used in facebook’s online buying and selling. however, they are unable to explain how clauses are produced within the activity of promoting goods and services on facebook. the depiction of mixed-language use to the traits of clauses in the sellers’ posts throughout their promotions is a myriad of analyses for upcoming research. those earlier research, in contrast to this one, were not designed to capture the phenomenon of register utilized by the sellers, particularly about its classification of the supplied commodities. online sellers on facebook also come from a variety of social backgrounds. since each seller probably uses their technical jargon, there are many different terms. furthermore, those studies have not yet taken into account how well-developed interpersonal relationships between the sellers and the customers lead to successful selling. meanwhile, wardana (2013) scrutinized register realization in action figure trading on kaskus online trading forum using the sfl approach. the study reveals there are 10 ordinary terms and 4 uncommon terms. the meaning of the terms should be viewed through field, tenor, and mode dimensions. additionally, the language used in the forum is informal which enables sellers and customers to build a close relationship. despite this research was able to use sfl views to disclose a three-dimensional register, it is still relatively limited in terms of the language used for buying and selling in online forums in kaskus. the peculiarities of the creation of clauses in online forums for buying and selling in kaskus are not yet covered by this research. scrutinizing register realization in facebook trading group register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 315 according to a review of earlier research, a register study is required to reveal the proliferation of clauses in sellers' facebook posts in indonesia. facebook users in indonesia are diverse therefore the sellers have to adjust and simplify the use of promotional language to enhance a simpler understanding of the facebook users when reading the sellers’ posts. in addition, interpersonal relationship is a part of the priority of analysis in online buying and selling on facebook to take a holistic picture of registers in buying and selling on facebook. this study offers an analysis of register from an sfl perspective. it enables to reveal the characteristics of clauses in the sellers’ posts in the online trading group on facebook. furthermore, the register realization from three dimensions in field, tenor, and mode based on the offered goods is another priority. a register study is necessary to involve the context of the situation yet where its immanent register lies in the context of situation level, one level higher than language, and one level lower than genre in the context of culture field (martin, 1992; wiratno, 2018). given that case, the context of the situation is supposedly circumscribed in the kinds of the offered goods. each seller may have a different register for promoting them. giving domain classification to the kinds of goods being sold offers a new paradigm to the register study. it also depicts the patterns of register in online trading within facebook group. moreover, to the best of our knowledge, the register study employing sfl approach on local facebook online trading in indonesia is very limited. this study is expected to provide new insight into register in sfl which reveals linguistic phenomena in the context of online buying and selling of the "ngabang jual-beli” facebook group in west borneo. hence, the present study attempts to answer the gap by answering the following questions: 1. what are the language characteristics of the sellers in the "ngabang jualbeli” facebook trading group? 2. what is the register realization covering field, tenor, and mode in each domain of the sellers of the "ngabang jual-beli” facebook trading group? a. s. s. n. agung, m.w. surtikanti, m. maiza, e. siboro 316 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) research method this qualitative study employs systemic functional linguistics to depict the register realization. it describes the analysis based on the systemic functional linguistics (sfl) framework developed by halliday & hasan (1989) covering three parameters, namely field, tenor, and mode of the discourse. the field of discourse includes experiential meaning (experiential). this involves transitivity analysis which realizes experiential meaning, namely process, participant, and circumstance (santosa, 2003). the tenor of discourse involves interpersonal meaning. tenor relates to three interpersonal relations, namely status, contact, and affect (santosa, 2003; wiratno, 2018). the mode of discourse is realized through textual meaning. this analysis is realized in the kinds of mood and theme. the data of this study is the clauses derived from the sellers’ posts in the "ngabang jual-beli” facebook trading group in west borneo that realized the register of online trading limited to the postings from january 2021 to december 2021. the variety of the sellers and the prevalence of the mixed language are the reasons for choosing this group. the data were analyzed by domain, taxonomy, componential analysis, and cultural theme (spradely, 1980; miles & huberman, 1994; modified by santosa (2017) whereas the domain covers the kinds of the offered goods; the taxonomy analysis is the three metafunctions in the sfl framework. the domain analysis identified the usage context (santosa et al., 2021). the domain and taxonomy were combined in the componential analysis. it portrays the register patterns in the "ngabang jual-beli” facebook trading group. the componential analysis investigates the relationships between the data categories in the taxonomy and the context of the data in the domain. theoretical analysis is employed to depict the contextual relations among the categories in the cultural theme. results & discussion as explained above, the register of the discourse can be obtained through the three parameters: field, tenor, and mode of the discourse. field of the discourse is realized through experiential meaning. the experiential meaning can be revealed through transitivity analysis involving the lexicogrammatical analysis of the clauses. tenor of the discourse is realized through scrutinizing register realization in facebook trading group register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 317 interpersonal meaning. the interpersonal meaning has its grammar structure called mood system and mood structure. mode of the discourse is the projection of textual meaning. it is oriented to the medium of communication in terms of spoken and written language. however, the influence of the local language on the use of bahasa indonesia in promotion dominates the data of the study. hence, the description of the characteristic of the data is drawn as follow. characteristics of the data fifty posts obtained from the "ngabang jual-beli" facebook trading group from may to july 2021 are considered as the data of the study. as a member of the group, we have observed and found out that there are four kinds of goods offered in the group, namely vehicle, food and beverage (f&b), electronic, and fashion. these goods are considered as the domain of the analysis. first is the analysis of the pattern of the clauses. the analysis divulges the partiality of using a simple-clause ellipsis in the subject, predicate, or complement. the sellers are keen on omitting the subject of the clause. table 1 describes the pattern of the clauses of the posts. table 1. post with ellipsis no kinds of goods ellipsis (in %) subject predicate complement 1. vehicle 9.8 12.0 4.3 2. f&b 6.5 12.0 3. electronic 35.7 11.0 6.5 4. fashion 2.2 according to the offered goods, each seller uses a different pattern of clauses. electronic sellers mostly omit subjects in their clauses. they initiate the predicate in their clauses. for instance: [1] jual hp vivo v19 harga 1,800 nego kondisi hp seperti di poto minat chet (selling vivo v19 cellphone-price 1,800negotiable-cellphone’s condition as seen in the picture-interested kindly chat) ø jual hp vivo v19 harga 1,800 nego [kondisi hp seperti di poto minat chet] s p o complement a. s. s. n. agung, m.w. surtikanti, m. maiza, e. siboro 318 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) vehicle, f&b, and fashion sellers tend to omit the predicate of the clause in their posts. for instance, [2] soul gt.2014. surat lengkap, tangan pertama. (soul gt 2014 (has) complete vehicle registration certificate, first-hand) ø [menjual] soul gt.2014 [dengan]surat lgkp, tangan pertama s p p complement [3] 1 buah 8000 besar2 ya (the (price of each) big fruit (is) 8000) [harga] 1 buah ø [adalah] 8000 besar2 ya s f complement [4] ready sepatu cewek ukuran 38 bahan karet, lentur, ringan, kuat. (ready, women shoes size 38, material rubber, light, and solid) [it] [is] ready sepatu cewek [dengan] ukuran 38 bahan karet, lentur, ringan, kuat s f/p complement circumstances analyzing the characteristics of the data, particularly on the language use reveals that the sellers tend to simplify the clauses by omitting subject or predicator/finite. they merely focus on the complement referring to the goods, price, and quality. field of discourse the description of field of discourse in the "ngabang jual-beli” facebook group reflects the experiential process derived from transitivity analysis covering process, participant, and circumstance. as matthiessen (2019) said that register relates to what is happening to the nature of the social action that is taking place; what the participants are engaged in, in which the language figures some essential components. the transitivity analysis of the process also involves material, mental, relational identification, and relational attribution. its analysis of participants covers the actors or phenomena of the process. meanwhile, circumstance includes scrutinizing register realization in facebook trading group register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 319 location, manner, thing, and time. table 2 presents the result of transitivity analysis in experiential meaning. table 2. the frequency of transitivity analysis in experiential meaning no kinds of goods experiential meaning (in %) men mat idt att circumstance loc man thi tim 1 vehicle 12,12 2,02 11,11 15,38 2 f&b 5,05 4,04 11,11 8,08 15,38 8 3 electronic 19,19 4,04 18,18 23,08 23 11,54 4 fashion 1,01 1,01 3,03 3,85 the transitivity analysis reveals that the material process is dominated by the clauses which are used by the sellers of vehicle and electronic. an example of a material process can be seen below. [5] jual/ tukar-tambah vivo y81. (sell/trade-ins vivo y81 cellphone) ø jual/ tukar-tambah vivo y81 actor material (doing) process goal the clause jual/tukar-tambah vivo y81 is jual /tukar-tambah (sell/ trade-ins) considered as a material process. it is because the verb shows the process of doing something that is selling/ trading the cellular phone vivo y81. the actor of this process is the ellipsis. yet, it refers to the seller itself. reviewing the promotion activities posted by the sellers, the study finds that most of them realize the material process. it is indicated by the terms which are used by the sellers such as jual (sell), tukar-tambah (tradeins), melayani (serve), pesan (order), etc, and reflect the material doing the process. the goal of the process is the offered goods. meanwhile, the trend in food & beverage sellers is to use a relational identification process in their clauses. it is accustomed to establish identity to something. the characteristics of its participant are token and value. the occurrence of the identification process of f&b posts was 11.11%. the example can be seen below. a. s. s. n. agung, m.w. surtikanti, m. maiza, e. siboro 320 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) [6] gandaria masak 20.000/ bungkus (the [price of] ripe gandaria fruit is 20k/pack) (harga) gandaria masak ø [adalah] 20.000/ bungkus token process value the finite [adalah] (is) can be categorized as a relational identifying process. that finite relates to "the process of being" to establish value. its process is realized by an identity [adalah] (is) 20.000/ bungkus. the clause of gandaria masak 20.000/ bungkus signifies that the f&b seller wants to give information that the price of the ripe gandaria is 20k rupiahs per pack. the finite [adalah] (is) belongs to the relational identifying since it substantiates a value of 20.000/ bungkus as the identity to the token gandaria masak. the data also shows that all of the sellers operate attributive processes in their clauses. its frequency is 18.18% in the electronic posts, 11.11% in the vehicle posts, 8.08% in the f&b posts, and 3.03% in the fashion posts. the relational attributive process realizes a quality to something “the process of being”. the characteristics of its participant are carrier and attribute. the attribute is typically an indefinite nominal group or nominal group with an adjective as the head. an example of an attributive process can be seen below. [7] motor kami noken, kk (motor [yang] kami [jual] tidak ada kendala, kakak!) (the motorcycle [we offer] has no mechanical problem) motor [yang kami] jual] tidak ada kendala kakak carrier attributive process data [7] reveals finite/predicator tidak ada kendala as a relational attributive process since it indicates "the process of being" to assign a quality to something. its process is realized by the quality of the motorcycle with no mechanical problems. thus, the motorcycle is the carrier of this attributive process. in short, the clauses that use relational identification and attributive process conceive that the sellers want to give value to the promoted goods. scrutinizing register realization in facebook trading group register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 321 in the "ngabang jual-beli" facebook group, mental processes are found in fourth place and come out with a percentage of 5.05 appearing in f&b posts. mental processes involve the senses for instance feeling, thinking, perceiving, etc. the mental process consists of three kinds, namely affective (feeling), cognitive (thinking), and perceptive (perceiving through the five senses). [8] pelanggan2 saya suka dengan ayam gepreknya. (my customers like the mashed chicken) pelanggan2 saya suka dengan ayam gepreknya senser process phenomenon the verb suka (like) belongs to the mental process in the subcategory of affective (santosa, 2003; wiratno, 2018) since the sensing process is reflected through the feeling “like” the (smashed chicken) ayam geprek being sold. the characteristics of its participants are recognized as senser and phenomenon. in this case, the senser is realized by pelanggan-pelanggan saya (my customers). it acts as the subject of the clause. meanwhile, dengan ayam geprek (the smashed chicken) acts as a phenomenon. by using a mental process, the seller wants to tell that the customers have the same feeling as them about the food being sold. it is done by delivering strong evidence, the f&b sellers tend to use the customers' testimony. showing the same feeling and perception toward the taste of the promoted food is considered important. the promotion activities also embrace the circumstance (location of the online shops), manner (negotiable price), thing (the condition of the goods), and time of the delivery service. tenor of discourse the tenor of discourse reflects the interpersonal relationship between the sellers and the customers. the analysis steps in three aspects namely status, affect, and contact (wiratno, 2018). the status reflects the intimate relationship between the sellers and the customers. the affect relates to the emotional point of view or the participant's judgment (santosa, 2003; wiratno, 2018). it means that affect refers to the sellers' justification of the a. s. s. n. agung, m.w. surtikanti, m. maiza, e. siboro 322 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) promoted product to the customer candidates. meanwhile, the contact is looking for the familiarity of the language used between the participants. it involves the signature of the relationship whether it is oneor two-way communication, direct or indirect communication, and how close the relationship is. the findings disclose the sellers’ clauses are dominated by the interaction of giving information. figure 1 illustrates the composition of interpersonal interaction of the sellers’ clauses. figure 1. mood structure analysis reviewing, the data, the sellers exploit giving information clauses largely in their postings. they describe their goods and services to provide information catchy information to the facebook group visitors. meanwhile, there are 7% of the sellers' clauses ask for service such as asking for the buyer's identity for the delivery kinds of stuff. the interpersonal interaction is best portrayed in the mood system analysis. the data divulges that indicative declarative clauses dominate the sellers’ postings. they are presented in various goods. in addition, the imperative clauses are also presented in f&b, electronic, and fashion domains with lower frequency. table 3 below shows the mood analysis. 93% 7% proposition proposal scrutinizing register realization in facebook trading group register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 323 table 3. the frequency of mood system analysis no kinds of goods interpersonal meaning (in %) indicative declarative imperative 1. vehicle 24.49 0 2. f&b 22.45 1.02 3. electronic 42.86 4.08 4. fashion 3.06 2.04 table 3 manifests the declarative clause becomes the majority in the "ngabang jual-beli” facebook group. the identification of declarative clauses can be seen from the position of the subject that precedes the predicator or finite. declarative clauses are beneficial to provide information on the promoted goods to the customer candidates. the finding indicates that the degree of relationship between sellers and customers is equal. an example of the declarative clause is as follows. [9] vivo y12i mulus ori 1,400 nego tipis (vivo t12i flawless original, price 1,400, negotiable) (kondisi/condition) vivo y12i ø [adalah] mulus ori 1,400 nego tipis s f complement mood residue indicative: declarative; giving information meanwhile, the imperative clauses can also be found on the sellers’ posts in f&b, electronic, and fashion. imperative clauses are identified from the position of predicator or finite that precedes the subject. they are used by sellers for particular reasons. first, f&b sellers utilize imperative clauses to ask the customer candidates to list their names in the pre-order list. [10] tulis nama dan alamat untuk po (write your name and address for pre order) tulis nama dan alamat (anda) untuk po predicator subject complement mood residue a. s. s. n. agung, m.w. surtikanti, m. maiza, e. siboro 324 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) second, some electronic and fashion sellers utilize it to ask the customer candidates to visit their offline shops for further transactions such as quality checking or sampling. [11] cek kondisi barang, datang saja ke toko anshana di jalan tungkul nomor 105 (kindly visit anshana shop at tungkul street number 105 to check the condition of the good) cek (kondisi barang), datang saja ke toko anshana di jalan tungkul nomor 105 predicator complement mood residue as the predicator precede the subject or complement, it indicates that the sellers bespeak the buyer to do something. they lead and attempt to provide the opportunity for the buyer candidates to check the quality of the goods to prevent complaining. the imperative clauses help the sellers to persuade buyer candidates to visit their shop and provide face-to-face transactions are excluded. furthermore, the next aspect to be considered is the affect. considering the frequent use of declarative clauses, it denotes that the sellers put themselves as part of the customers' social life. providing a detailed description of the promoted products is for the sake of building product value. the agentive role is said to be equal and the social role is considered nonhierarchic. viewing the aspect of contact, the use of familiar terms of trading is customer friendly and more understandable for instance jual/ tukartambah, pre-order, minat, chat, inbox, pengantaran, etc. the minimal frequency of the appearance of the technical terms implies that the social distance between participants is considered minimal. mode of discourse martin (1992) in santosa (2003) states that mode covers two variables namely channel and media. channel relates to language use; it tends to be spoken or written language. meanwhile, media refers to the proportion of the language used in certain media. those variables are realized in the textual scrutinizing register realization in facebook trading group register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 325 theme of the clause. in the "ngabang jual-beli” facebook group, the textual theme is mostly expressed by unmarked topical themes. table 4 shows the percentage of the realized textual meaning in the group. table 4. the percentage of textual meaning no kinds of goods textual meaning (in %) marked topical theme unmarked topical theme 1. vehicle 24.49 2. f&b 1 22.45 3. electronic 46.94 4. fashion 5.10 the unmarked topical themes are realized through the use of the subject ellipsis "i" which appears in the "ngabang jual-beli” facebook group that refers to the sellers. the existence of unmarked topical themes mirrors the position of the actors (sellers) as the doer of promotion activity. the channel variable can be analyzed through the pattern of the clauses. most of the clauses are complex clause-type paratactic. the indication is obvious in the use of elaborative conjunction comma (,) in the clause (santosa, 2003). the function of complex clause-type paratactic tacks on the information especially the specification of the promoted goods. since the clauses are mostly omitted either in the subject or predicate, it signifies that the language form in the group tends to be spoken text with two ways of communication (eggins, 2004; pratiwi, 2016). it gives a significant result to the number of followers of ngabang jual-beli. various social backgrounds of the group’s members can easily understand the posted promotion by the sellers. with respect to the language, ramirez-asis et al. (2021) noted that promoting products on facebook needs both interactive language and real-time connectivity to keep in touch with the customers. hence, the usage of spoken text channels is appropriate in social media. discussion the study demonstrates that the language characteristic of "ngabang jual-beli” posts represents the usage of simple clauses. it is indicated by the omission of the subject or predicator (finite) for the sake of effective a. s. s. n. agung, m.w. surtikanti, m. maiza, e. siboro 326 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) promotion by exposing the complement referring to the goods, price, and quality. the result of the study corroborates lubis et al. (2016) and (wardana, 2013) that the role of language in promotion is oriented to persuade people to buy goods by applying effective and efficient words. concerning the field of the discourse, the results reveal that the sellers frequently use relational and material processes to shape their promotion. it is because buying and selling are the prime activities in such a group. sellers use various terms of language as a medium by writing the word “jual” (sell), “tukar-tambah” (trade-in), and so on. this study confirms that promotion posting involves large numbers of verbs (alfi, 2013). the social setting and purpose of the interaction are referred to as the field. the social setting of the register occurs when the sellers provide additional information about the purchasing and trading system, the merchandise, and its specifications. the material process helps the sellers convey the process of doing which is realized through verbs showing physical activity (wiratno, 2018). additionally, the relational process helps the sellers to describe the offered product (ibid.). for the tenor of the discourse, the domination of proposition clauses contributes to the equality relationship between the seller and the potential buyers. the existence of a declarative clause in most of the seller's clauses indicates that the sellers pose their selves in an equal position with the buyer. this is in line with the study from agung et al. (2021) and (wardana, 2013) revealing that the social distance between seller and buyer in trading tends to be minimal. the findings of pratiwi's (2016) study, which asserted that there is less interaction between advertisers and their target consumers in mass media commercials are in conflict with this. the assumption that there is an intense interaction between buyers and sellers in social media trading is supported by the study's outcome comparison. the sellers attempt to polish their postings as interactive as possible by eliminating the distance. the result of mode of the discourse analysis reveals that the sellers tend to use spoken text in their promotion activity to give informative content. it can be seen through the form of two-way communication, the existence of many ellipses clauses, and more dominant complex clauses (santosa, 2003). moreover, spoken text which is appropriately used in social media such as scrutinizing register realization in facebook trading group register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 327 facebook is proven successful in attaining customer response (chetioui et al., 2021). in line with this, “ngabang jual-beli" facebook group has massive followers and active members. they have various social statuses and educational backgrounds, so simple language use is effective. the use of language is the art of selling in advertising to persuade consumers to change their concepts and attitudes which evokes more interest in the offered posts (thongchuay & srinuanpam, 2019). this strategy is an effective implementation to be adopted in the level of post advertising, namely from “push advertising” to “trust advertising" which leads to the successful selling of the sellers (dehghani & tumer, 2015). conclusion register realization in the "ngabang jual-beli" facebook group can be magnified through its variables namely: field, mode, and tenor of discourse. the field of discourse presents the experiential discourse covers the process involving the clauses, participants, and circumstances. the material process is the most dominant process realized in the sellers' clauses. in this case, the majority of electronic sellers use it in their posts. it signifies the involvement of physical activity in selling and trading. furthermore, relational identification and attributive process are used by the seller to describe their promoted goods. the circumstance of the process involves the circumstance of location, thing, manner, and time. the tenor of discourse reveals that the relationship between the seller and the customer candidates is agentive or social roles. their status is equal and social distance is minimal. with respect to the mode of discourse, the unmarked topical theme is the majority theme that is used by the sellers. the unmarked topical theme is realized through the ellipsis subject "i" referring to the seller. in addition, the promotion texts are the form of spoken-written text with two ways of communication. this implication of this research actualizes the need for language use in the context of marketing on social media, especially facebook. informative, effective, and efficient are the characteristics of that needs. the sellers have to notice their language use and its affinity with what the participants are doing (field), the relationship among the participants (tenor), and the suitability of form and meaning towards the choice of the media (mode). despite the present study a. s. s. n. agung, m.w. surtikanti, m. maiza, e. siboro 328 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) could reveal the pattern of the register in the online trading group, there is a limitation regarding the time of the study. the source of data has no various patterns since the limitation of the focus is only on the seller and buyer’s interaction without comparing to the other groups. if similar research is conducted within a larger group for a longer duration, the interaction between seller and customer candidates in the comment box will gain more interesting topics and findings for future study. references agung, assn., surtikanti, mw., & maiza, m. 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(2018). pengantar ringkas linguistik sistemik fungsional. pustaka pelajar. 113 deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie nur kholis sekolah indonesia, kuala lumpur. cool.alcukil@gmail.com abstract this essay is a descriptive qualitative research which will attempt to answer the following objectives: (1) what are types of deixis found in the movie of “the good dinosaur”? and (2) what is the most dominant deixis found in the movie “the good dinosaur” and the analysis? from the analysis of the movie entitled “the good dinosaur”, found some data finding about the types of deixis which used in the movie. five types of deixis they are: personal deixis, time deixis, place deixis, social deixis, and discourse deixis found in the film in the different data percentage. personal deixis found in the highest percentage which directly answers the second objective with the data collection 80%, time deixis 5%, place deixis 3%, social deixis 9% and discourse deixis 3%. personal deixis has a correlation to the point of view of narrating the film “the good dinosaur”. this caused by the finding of personal deixis involving thr first, second and third pronoun in determining the story. further, this contribute to make the personal deixis dominate the deixis used in the film. key words: deixis, types of deixis, personal deixis. abstrak karangan ini merupakan sebuah penelitian deskriptif qualitatif yang akan mencoba menjawab rumusan masalah: (1) jenis-jenis deiksis apakah yang ditemukan dalam film yang berjudul “the good deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie 114 dinosaur”? dan (2) apakah jenis deiksis yang dominan ditemukan dalam film “the god dinosaur” serta analisisnya?. dari analisis film yang berjudul “the good dinosaur”, ditemukan beberapa penemuan data tentang jenis-jenis deiksis yang digunakan dalam film. lima jenis deiksis yakni deiksis persona, deiksis waktu, deiksis tempat, deiksis social dan deiksis wacana ditemukan dalam film dengan persentase data yang berbeda-beda. deiksis persona ditemukan dalam persentase tertinggi yang sekaligus menjawab pertanyaan kedua dengan perolehan data sebesaar 80%, deiksis waktu sebesar 5%, deiksis tempat sebesar 3%, diksis social sebesar 9 % dan deiksis wacana sebesar 3%. deiksis persona memiliki keterkaitan dengan sudut pandang penceritaan dalam film ‘the good dinosaur”. hal ini dikarenakan hasil penemuan deiksis persona yang melibatkan kata ganti pertama, kata ganti kedua dan kata ganti ketiga memiliki dalam menentukan jalan cerita. hal ini kemudian mendasari kenapa deiksis persona mendominasi deiksis yang digunakan dalam film. kata kunci: deiksis, macam-macam deiksis, persona deiksis introduction language is a tool to communicate between the speaker and the partner of speaking in the daily activity which has its own meaning and purpose. in the communication, language plays the most important thing to transfer and deliver the meaning to the hearer. to transfer it, well we know the name of verbal communication and written communication. both of the kind of communication has their basic function of language tend to the need of the people to use the language in communication. some of the functions of language are to express the feeling, to communicate, as a tool to make an integration and social adaptation in a particular environment and situation and also as the tool for social control (keraf, 1997:3). nur kholis 115 deals to pragmatic in a language, leech (1983:14) explain in his opinion that “pragmatic deals with verbal acts and performances which take place in particular situation, in time”. as a part of language, pragmatic, which since 1938 had been acknowledged to be the new room of linguistics study, plays a fundamental role in studying the verbal acts in a particular performance and situation. thus, pragmatic is a study of the ability of the language user in combining and adapting sentence correctly (yuliana, 2011:1). as the part of language which also means as a study of language that involves the aspects in the outside of language, pragmatic has its own scope. based on gazdar (1979:2), pragmatics is the study of deixis (at least in a part), implicature, presupposition, speech acts and aspect of discourse structure. based on the explanation of gazdar, the brief explanation of those studies in pragmatics, when the language focuses on how the hearer could response and answers explicitly the questions of the questioner with some non literal word of answer, the study of pragmatic is divined as implicature. however, if the hearer can give a response with some additional meaning such as some assumptions, the study named as presupposition. further, levinson in suyono (1990:5) a linguist define other part of pragmatic namely speech acts that according to him, communication is not only a symbol, word or sentence but it is more appropriate to be called as a the result of those which forms a behavior of speech act, which this is also studied in the pragmatic. another part of pragmatic is deixis that could be meant as a condition in semantic which exist in a sentence or utterance in which deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie 116 only could be interpreted the reference with considering the context of speaking or sentence. in this occasion, during the fulfilling of the paper, the writer interested to raise the study of pragmatic which deals to the reference that considering the context of speaking to be interpreted: deixis. deixis in a communication plays some important matters to refer who or what the object is being talked about. deixis is a part of language which always present both in daily communication and in the text or discourse. as what yule (1996:1) stated, “the technical term for one of the most basic things we do with utterances which means pointing is called deictic expression. to analyze those explanations of deixis, the writer tries to analyze it from the very good movie namely “the good dinosaurs” movie directed by peter sohn. the good dinosaur is a 2015 american 3 d computer animated comedy drama adventure buddy film produced by pixar animation studios and distributed worldwide by walt disney pictures, directed by peter sohn from a screenplay by meg lefauve. set on a fictional earth in which dinosaurs never went extinct, the film follows a young apatosaurus named arlo, who meets an unlikely human friend while traveling through a harsh and mysterious landscape. bob peterson, who came up with the idea for the story, directed the film until august 2013. in october 2014, sohn was announced as the new director. the film, along with inside out, marks the first time that pixar has released two feature films in the same year. the good dinosaur premiered on november 10, 2015 in paris, and was released in the united states on november 25, 2015, to positive reviews. the nur kholis 117 film grossed $329.1 million worldwide – lowest for a pixar film – on a $175–200 million budget. this film is directed by peter sohn, an american animator, director, voice actor, and storyboard artist at pixar animation studios. sohn started his career with pixar in the art and story departments for finding nemo. he also worked on the incredibles, ratatouille and wall-e. sohn also performed the voice of emile in ratatouille. he made his directorial debut with the short film partly cloudy in 2009 which he also wrote. partly cloudy was included in the animation show of shows in 2009. sohn co-directed the english-language version of ponyo on the cliff by the sea in 2009 with john lasseter and brad lewis. sohn was directing for about 18 film which as the production of pixar and other studios. some of the films directed by sohn are monster university, toy story, up and the good dinosaurs. a very important thing to do during watching the movie is following the plot so that the viewer could catch the story. plot could be met by scene per scene with the dialogue that tells us the story. thus, because of the dialogue per scene contains its own discourse that stated by the actors that possibly to be analyzed the writer propose the paper under the title “deixis analysis of the good dinosaur movie directed by peter sohn: pragmatic’s study”. synopsis of the movie in an alternate timeline, the asteroid that would have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago passes safely over earth. millions of years later, two apatosaurus named henry and ida, deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie 118 who are farmers, watch as their three eggs hatch into children: libby, buck, and the runt arlo. unlike his siblings, arlo has trouble adjusting to farm life; while the others are successful and allowed to "make their mark" (a mud-print on the family's corn silo), arlo's timid nature makes even his simple tasks difficult for him, so henry attempts to give arlo a sense of purpose by putting him in charge of guarding their silo from critters, and helps him set up a trap. the trap manages to capture a feral cave boy, but arlo doesn't have the heart to kill him, and sets him free. disappointed, henry takes arlo to track the cave boy, leading them into a ravine where it begins to rain. arlo injures himself, and henry decides to turn back, but a massive flash flood occurs, and henry only manages to save arlo before being swept away and killed. without his father, arlo must shoulder more of the workload. he spots the same cave boy inside the silo and, blaming him for his father's death, chases him until both of them fall into a river. arlo cannot swim, and is quickly swept downstream where he hits his head on a rock and is knocked unconscious. waking up, he is dismayed to find himself far from home and tries to survive on his own with minimal success, becoming trapped when a boulder pins down his leg. arlo awakes to find his leg has been freed, and the cave boy appears with food for him to eat. the cave boy then leads arlo to a berry tree, where the cave boy fends off a large snake, amazing arlo, and also impressing a nearby styracosaurus, who wants to keep the boy. the eccentric older dinosaur forces arlo to compete with him to give the boy a name he will respond to, which arlo finally wins when he calls him "spot", and the styracosaurus relents. arlo and spot bond, as nur kholis 119 arlo laments his lost family, and spot reveals that his own parents are dead. when a thunderstorm strikes, though, arlo runs away in fear, and loses the riverbank he has been following home. the next morning, arlo wakes up to find spot at his side. they are noticed by a band of pterodactyls that appear to be conducting a rescue operation but turn out to be savagely carnivorous. when the pterodactyls try to take spot, arlo and spot flee, happening upon a pair of tyrannosaurus named nash and ramsey, who ward off the pterodactyls. nash, ramsey, and their father butch have lost their herd of longhorns, so arlo offers spot's help in sniffing them out. they locate the herd, but butch recognizes the work of cattle rustlers, and uses arlo as a lure. arlo and spot attract the attention of the rustlers allowing butch and his family to attack. during the fight, arlo musters his courage and fends off two raptors that have overwhelmed butch, helping to turn the fight in their favor. having gained their respect, arlo joins the t. rexes in driving the cattle south when he sees the familiar mountain peaks of his homeland in the distance, and leaves with spot to return home. along the way, arlo and spot encounter an adult feral caveman in the distance, and though spot shows interest, arlo dissuades him and they continue on. as another storm approaches, the pterodactyls return and attack, this time managing to carry spot away. arlo becomes entangled in some vines, where he has a vision of henry leading him back home. arlo instead resolves to save spot, making the vision of his father proud before he fades away. arlo wakes up filled with determination and finds and attacks the pterodactyls, which have cornered spot at the river. arlo and spot manage to overpower the pterodactyls, plunging deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie 120 them one after another into the water where they are swept helplessly downstream. another flash flood occurs, triggering a massive torrent to approach. despite his fear, arlo leaps into the water to rescue spot as the two are swept away toward a waterfall. arlo protects spot as the two falls, and carries him to shore. as they approach arlo's home, the two again hear the unknown caveman call, and are approached by an entire caveman family. with great reluctance, arlo pushes spot to join his kind, and the two of them share a tearful goodbye. arlo finally arrives back home to his mother and siblings, and makes his mark on the silo between those of his mother and father. film as a literacy media nowadays, technology has been long developed. literacy resources could not only be found by the reading habit but trough many resources that also involve another part of senses such like visual, audio and the combination of both visual and audio. even of course the use of reading habit is the main resource to acquire the information. film also called a movie, motion picture or photoplay as described by wikipedia (2016, retrieved may 12th 2016) is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon or optical illusion. in recent, the use of a movie is not just as an entertainment to amuse the viewer, but also useful for education. quoted from tempo (2016, retrieved may 12th 2016), there are six ways to build science literacy which one of them was trough film. moreover, noves (2000) in nur kholis 121 tempo stated that study of science should be fun, and the way to make it happen is by movies. this kind of learning tyle has been applied for the student university in brazil where there, they study science by referring to such scientific movies such like star wars, a space odyssey, star trek and others. this shows us that the existence of movie, now becomes the alternative ways to educate the students and largely people. film literacy as explained by the west georgia university in westga.edu (retrieved may 12th 2016) is a convergence of the interdisciplinary practices of literary and media studies, which both concentrate on the analysis of significance in all manner of texts: visual and written. ushering students toward a more open notion of literary discourse and practice, critical media pedagogy begins with the assumption that visual images, songs, advertisements, and film are inherently ideological and political. the media enacts, as john berger, an art critic frames it as the ways of seeing that can effectively produce and determine the meanings and outcomes of discourse itself and which, therefore, shape the cultural contexts. john berger according to make film as one of media reference proposed on his script entitled ways of seeing (1972) that described by west georgia university in his westga.edu (retrieved may 12th 2016) 3 core concepts of media literacy that can be applied to films as follow: 1. representations and images in media catalogue or mirror commonly shared practices, ideologies and experiences. in this sense, media representations play a formative role in reifying and entrenching cultural practices and are seen to be expressions, often, deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie 122 of the collective (or dominant) will. an advertisement, for example, might project gendered, classist, and even racial fears or fantasies; a film might catalogue the beliefs, assumptions, and prejudices of a particular historical moment. 2. to draw from henry giroux, one of todays leading critical pedagogy scholars, the media enacts its own invisible pedagogy. media is not neutral terrain but rather contains embedded arguments, points of view, and messages. 3. according to maurice e. stevens, in an article on spike lees malcolm x, the visual medium is an arbiter of identities. hence more than merely reflecting shared beliefs, customs and value-systems by which we come to identify ourselves, the media plays a critical role in constructing identities and social ideology, promoting, challenging, and mediating prevailing attitudes toward corporeality, race, gender, class, sexuality, occupation, (etc.) that permeate western culture and language at their deepest levels. deixis in pragmatics deixis deals with connections between discourse and the situation in which discourse is used. the term of ‘deixis’ is derived from the greek word which mean ‘to show’ or ‘to indicate’ used to denote the elements in a language which refer directly to the situation. moore (2001:14) give definition about deixis that "deixis is an important field of language study in its own right and very important for learners of languages. but it has some relevance to analysis of conversation and pragmatics. it is often and best described as "verbal pointing", that nur kholis 123 is to say pointing by means of language. the linguistic forms of this pointing are called deictic expressions, deictic markers or deictic words; they are also sometimes called indexicals." moreover, deixis is a technical term (from greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterance. or it can be said ‘pointing’ via language. essentially language, deixis concerns with the ways in which the interpretation of utterance depends on the analysis of that context of utterance. here are the explanations of five kinds of deixis as proposed by levinson: a. person deixis in many languages, person deixis can also contain other meaning elements like the gender of the third person. in addition, to pronoun and agreeing predicates, person, or participant-role is marked in various other ways. person deixis concerns with the encoding of the role of participants in the speech even in which the utterance in question is delivered. yule (1996, p.9-10) describe that person deixis involves the speaker and the addressee and operates in a basic three-part division they are: 1) first person (i). the first person deixis is a reference that refers to the speaker or both speaker and referent grouped with the speaker which is expressed in singular pronouns (i, me, myself, mine) and plural pronouns (we, us, ourselves, our, ours). the first person deixis can be divided into exclusive first person deixis, which refers to a group including addressee. deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie 124 2) second person (you). the second person deixis is a deictic reference to a person or persons identified as addressee, such as you, yourself, yourselves, your, yours. 3) third person (he, she, it). third person deixis is a deictic reference to a referent(s) not identified as the speaker or addressee and usually imply to the gender that the utterance refers to, for example: he, she, and they, him, himself, her, herself. b. place deixis is also described as spatial deixis, where the relative location of people and things is being indicated. place deixis or spatial deixis usually expressed in this, these, there, here, that, and those. place deixis can be described along many of the same parameters that apply to the time deixis. therefore, those references to place can be absolute or relational in nature. grundy (2000) add that there are three degrees of proximity is by no means uncommon, with some languages distinguishing proximity to the speaker and to the addressee. they are: here (proximal), there (distal), where (and the archaic hither, hence, thither, thence, wither, whence), left, right, up, down, above, below, in front, behind, come go, bring, and take. briefly, place deixis is an expression used to show the location relative to the location of a participant in the speech even. c. time deixis place deixis is also called as temporal deixis. renkema (1993, p.79) stated that time deixis is a reference to time relative to a temporal reference point and it is typically the moment of nur kholis 125 utterance. these language resources are the adjectives of time in the line yesterday, now and tomorrow, and the verb tenses. the verb sometimes also has another function besides referring to a specific time. for example: a: i live here now b: i live there now the present tense is the proximal form as in (a) and the past tense is distal form as in (b). the deictic items use reference that can only be determined in relation to the time of the utterance in which they occur. such as: this / last / next monday / week / month / year. now, then, ago, later, soon, before. yesterday, today, tomorrow. in other words, time deixis is an expression in relation to point to certain period when the utterances produced by the speaker. d. social deixis social deixis does not deal with three main components (person, place and time) of the coordinate system of subjective orientation, but they show how different social rankings and the participants of communication utter relationships within society via language. it is rather to refer to the level of relationship between people than to information. levinson (1983, p.90) stated that social deixis concerns with the aspects of sentences which reflect or establish or determined deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie 126 by certain realities of participants or the social situation in which the speech event occurs. he adds that there are two basic kinds of social deixis information that seems to be encoded in language around the world. they are: relational social deixis and absolute social deixis. relational social deixis is a deictic reference to some social characteristic of referrent apart from any relative ranking of referents or deictic reference to a social relationship between the speaker and addressee. in english, relational social deixis may be a lexical items (e.g. my husband, teacher, cousin, etc), pronouns (you, her). absolute social deixis is a deictic reference usually expressed in certain forms of address which will include no comparison of the ranking of the speaker and addresse. for examples: your highness, mr. president, your majesty, etc. briefly, social deixis is a deictic expression used to distinct social status. social deixis separated in to two kinds relational and absolute social deixis. e. discourse deixis discourse deixis deals with the orientation in the text through the writer or the speaker, the relation of the text passages to the current utterance either as a head of time or past, forthcoming or simultaneous. it encodes reference to portions of the unfolding discourse in which the utterance is located (levinson, 1983, p.62). it means that discourse deixis is deictic reference to a portion of a discourse relative to the speaker’s current location in the discourse, such as: above, below, last, previous, proceeding, next or following (usually used in texts) and this, that, there, next, last (usually used in utterances). nur kholis 127 in spoken or written discourse, there is frequently occassion to refer to earlier or forthcoming segments of the discourse. since discourse unfolds in time, it is natural to use temporal deictic terms to indicate the relation of the referred to to the temporal location of the present utterance in the discourse. but spatial terms are also often employed. reference to parts of of a discourse which can only be interpreted by knowing where the current coding or receiving point is, are clearly deictic in character (asher 1994:856). levinson (1983:86) added that discourse deixis should be distinguished from a related notion that of anaphora. moreover, discourse deixis shares with anaphora and cataphora the capacity to function as a text cohesion device. as we noted, anaphora concerns with the use of a pronoun to refer to the same referent as some prior term. anaphora can hold within sentences, across sentences, and across at speaking in a dialogue. deictic or other referring expressions are often used to introduce a referent, and anaphoric pronouns are used to refer to the same entity thereafter. however, it is important to remember that deictic and anaphoric usages are not mutually exclusive. therefore, in principle the distinction is clear: when a pronoun refers to a linguistic expression itself, it is discourse deictic. when a pronoun refers to the same entity as a prior linguistic expression refers to, it is anaphoric. in other words, discourse deixis is an expression used to refer to certain discourse that contain the utterance or as a signal and its relations to surrounding text. deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie 128 research objective based on the background above, the paper only analyzed the scope of pragmatic that focus on deixis in the film entitled “the good dinosaurs movie directed by peter sohn”. this film is an english film that possibly to be analyzed the language used for communicating in the film. thus, the study of this paper will focus to analyze of the research question as follow: 1. what are types of deixis found in the movie of the good dinosaur? 2. what is the most dominant deixis found in the movie and the analysis? research methodology the research will present some data in order to complete the research and will use a descriptive qualitative method to analyze the data because the goal of this method is to describe the facts, characteristics, and relationship of the researched elements. bogdan and biklen (1982:37) states that there are five features of qualitative method: the natural setting is the direct source of data and the researcher is the key instrument in qualitative research; qualitative data are collected in the form of words or picture rather than numbers; qualitative researchers are concerned with process as well as product; qualitative researchers tend to analyze their data inductively; how people make sense of their lives is a major concern to qualitative researches. nur kholis 129 in addition, moleong (1995, p.6) says that qualitative research is descriptive, which means that the analyzed data and its findings are in the forms of descriptions, instead of numbers. therefore, it is clear why this method is chosen. a descriptive method will be applied in presenting the data, analysis, and its findings. this method is the most appropriate method because it will systematically and factually describe and illustrate the characteristics and the connection between the phenomena studied (gay l. r: 1998:34). descriptive methods is appropriate for this study because the goal of this study is systematically, factually, and accurately describes or illustrates the fact, characteristics and relationship of the researched element. discussion & finding 1. the finding data from those five kinds of deixis, there are the finding data from the good dinosaur movie: a. personal deixis division kind of expression type of pronoun number of finding data first singular i 81 me 21 myself 1 mine 0 plural we 18 us 1 our self 0 our 5 ours 0 second you 100 deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie 130 yourself 1 yourselves 0 your 39 yours 2 third he 4 she 3 they 9 him 16 himself 0 her 3 herself 0 total 304 b. place deixis c. time deixis type number now 6 then 0 ago 0 later 0 soon 0 before 4 yesterday 2 today 1 tomorrow 0 last day 0 last week 0 last month 0 next week 0 next month 0 type number where 9 here 0 there 11 total 20 nur kholis 131 total 13 d. social deixis kind type number relational momma 15 poppa 16 son 2 brother 1 absolute 0 total 34 e. discourse deixis type number this 3 there 1 that 2 total 11 analysis of dominant deixis used in the story of the movie from the finding data, we can observe the most dominant deixis used in the movie is the personal deixis which completing 80% of the total deixis found in the movie. we can observe it in the chart below: deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie 132 personal deixis longer we talk about the character of the movie. in this context, the use the author, that is peter sohn, asks us to analyze the story from where the author tells it in the context of narrating. this is called as point of view of a story. winahyutari (2004:131) stated that point of view is the way the writer shows the story. while pratiwi (2005:45) argued that showing the point of view is the way to appear the figure or actors in the story. from those definition, we can conclude that point of view is a technique used by author in appearing the character of the story. moreover, point of view is apparently not only the way to appearing the character, but in the story, most of point of view shows the story about the character, action, set and many occurrences that make the story in some literature. abrams in nurgianto (2002:252) defined there are three kinds of point of view in the story. they are: 1. third person of point of view the author is someone who put on his/herself in the outside of the story and show the characters by the name or the pronoun nur kholis 133 such like he, she and they. the name of the character always be mentioned and as a variation there is used the pronominal. this to ease the readers to recognize the characters are being described in the story. the third person of point of view is divided in to two kinds, they are: a. he/she is the omniscient in this point of view, told from the point of view he/she. author knows everything deals with characters, events, and actions also motivation which cause the story. b. he/she as an observer author describes what the characters see, listen, experience, think and feel. 2. first person of point of view a. i as the main character in this point of view, i tells every occurrences and the behavior which “i” experience well internal or external conflict of the “i”. here, “i” becomes the focus of the story which every single event that has a relation towards i is told by. b. i as an additional character in this point of view, i arises not as the main character, but as an additional character. i appears to bring the story towards the readers, while the characters of the story are allowed to brim their self in the story to tell their experiences in the story. 3. mixed point of view deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie 134 mixed of point of view is the mix of both first and third of point of view. from those explanations, we can analyze the point of view used in the movie of the good dinosaur which mainly use the mention of the name of the characters of the story and directly use a face-to-face conversation, in the film use the third person of point of view. even, basically the movie uses the third person point of view, however, in the following story the character always uses the first of point of view to describe their own experience as a variation of the story. it proved by the use of the personal deixis which also use the first pronoun. now let us compare the use of the first, second and the third person used in the movie. nur kholis 135 second personal is also dominate in the chart above, but as we know, in the third person of point of view, the second personal pronoun is used as the opposite of the first personal pronoun. it describes the plot of the story which also deliberating another character that influencing each other. this might the real dialogue becomes real or “lifelike” in the story and also make the readers deliberated to show directly to the conflict which faced by the characters. so when we combine both of first and second personal pronoun and compare it to the third personal pronoun it will be 99% accordance with 1%. this caused by the dialogues of the movie deliberating the first and second personal pronoun. it can be analyzed from some part of the dialogue that taken as example below: minutes 00:14:24,464 to 00:14:27,133: “i got a new job for you tomorrow.” minutes 00:20:51,517 to 00:20:55,189: “but i need you to do more, arlo.” minutes 00:50:37,255 to 00:50:41: “and i said we would get you home.” minutes 00:53:37,068 to 00:53:40,305: “how many times i got to tell you this?” minutes 00:58:59,457 to 00:59:03,029: “i know you're there. i can smell you.” this can be combined both of the second personal pronoun with the third personal pronoun and compare it to the first personal pronoun becomes 53% accordance with 47%. this caused by some of deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie 136 the dialogues in the movie deliberating between the third and the first personal pronoun. it means that between the third and the first or conversely has a relationship that make both of personal pronouns used to make a conversation in the movie. this could be analyzed from the example below: minutes 00:11:10 to 670 00:11:15,575 : “tell momma i love her.” minutes 00:37:08,126 to 00:37:10,869: “i name him, i keep him. hmm...” minutes 00:57:48,719 to 00:57:52,056: “ask me what i think they're doing.” minutes 01:12:34,171 to 01:12:37,808: “so i got to go help him.” minutes 01:12:38,008 to 01:12:41,214: “because... i love him.” in brief, it can be said that in the movie, there are two types of point of view used to describe the experiences experienced by the characters of the movie. as the basic, the author use third person of point of view to describe the story by let the characters talk and make a dialogue between the characters by naming her/his self and make a mention of each characters as the variation of using of pronominal. in this context, the author is also allowing the character to have a direct conversation that could be enjoyed by the readers in case as the viewers. however, in the way the characters play their role, they also tell him/herself and sometime tell others by combining both of first and second and second and third personal pronoun. as the nur kholis 137 developing of the story, this is allowed in a story to add the pursue essence of the movie could be longer enjoyed by the viewers. conclusion based on the data presentation and data analysis of deixis used in good dinosaur the movie, the writer draws some conclusion as follows: 1. five types of deixis are found in the movie of the good dinosaur. they has different number of finding data which the percentages are: personal deixis 80%, place deixis 5%, place deixis 3% social deixis 9%, and discourse deixis 3%. 2. the huge number of deixis and will be the most dominant deixis found in the movie of the good dinosaur is personal deixis which accumulated 80% of total deixis. personal deixis could be the most dominant deixis used in the movie because of it deals with the point of view where there, between the finding data and the point of view meet the correlation. first and second personal pronoun and second and third personal pronoun can built a story way which both of them influences the finding data that deploy the personal deixis to be the most dominant. deixis analysis of the good dinosaur the movie 138 references berger, john. 2008. ways of seeing. uk: penguin. cutting, joan 2002. pragmatics and discourse. a resource book for students.london: routledge. keraf, gorys. 1991. tata bahasa rujukan bahasa indonesia. jakarta: pt grasindo leech, geoffrey. 1983. principle of pragmatic. london: longman. mey, jacob l. 2001. pragmatics. an introduction. 2nd edition. oxford: blackwell. moleong, lexi. 1995. metode penelitian kualitatif. bandung: remaja rosda karya. nurgiyantoro, burhan. 2002. teori pengkajian fiksi. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. pastia, andi lisano. 2013. skripsi analisis penggunaan deiksis persona pada novel laksamana jangoi karya muharoni. yuliana, nuryati. 2011. skripsi analisis pragmatik dalam kartun editorial "kabar bang one" pada program berita tv one. perpustakaanuns.ac.id. tempo. 2005. enam aktivitas membangun literasi sains. retrieved may 12th, 2016, from https://indonesiana.tempo.co/read/43502/2015/06/09/desibelku.1 /enam-aktivitas-membangun-literasi-sains. wikipedia. 2016. film. retrieved may 12th, 2016, from https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/film. westga.. introduction: what is media literacy?. retrieved may 12th, 2016, from www.westga.edu/~mmcfar/filmmedia%20literacy.htm register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.48-61 1 problem-based learning to improve students’ grammar competence mukminatus zuhriyah universitas hasyim asy’ari tebuireng jombang zoehrea@gmail.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.48-61 english abstract grammar becomes one of the subjects studied in all indonesian english departments. it is because grammar has the important role in all english skills. grammar makes those four english skills meaningful. somebody can be said as a master of english when he or she also masters grammar. unfortunately, learning grammar is not as easy as what we think. it needs the effective method that can make the learners motivated and active in learning as well as in applying the grammar in the real life. problem-based learning applied in this research is one of the alternatives that can help the learners learn grammar easily. this research was a collaborative action research whose general purpose to know whether or not problem-based learning could improve the students’ grammar competence. meanwhile, the specific purposes were to know the lecturer’s activities, the students’ activities, and the students’ responses when problem-based learning was implemented in grammar class. nine students of the fifth semester of english department of education faculty of hasyim asy’ari university (unhasy) tebuireng jombang in the academic year of 2016/2017 became the subjects of this research. the data got was from the observation notes and the grammar test. there was an improvement on students’ grammar competence from cycle one to cycle two. it was proven by their mean score from 66.7 in cycle one to 72.8 in cycle two. meanwhile, the percentage of students passing the minimum mastery criteria was from 44.4 in cycle one and 88.9 in cycle two. so that it can be concluded that problem-based learning could improve students’ grammar competence. keywords: problem-based learning, grammar competence, unhasy students indonesian abstract grammar merupakan salah satu mata kuliah yang dipelajari seluruh jurusan bahasa ingggris di indonesia. hal ini disebabkan grammar memiliki peranan yang penting dalam semua skill bahasa inggris. grammar membuat keempat skill bahasa inggris tersebut bermakna. seseorang dikatakan menguasai bahasa inggris ketika dia juga menguasai grammar. sayangnya, mempelajari grammar itu tidak semudah yang kita kira. ini memerlukan metode yang efektif yang mampu membuat mahasiswa termotivasi dan aktif dalam belajar dan begitu pula dalam mengaplikasikannya dalam kehidupan nyata. problem-based learning yang diaplikasikan dalam penelitian ini merupakan salah satu alternatif yang mampu membantu mahasiswa untuk mempelajari grammar dengan mudah. penelitian ini adalah penelitian tindakan kelas yang sifatnya kolaboratif yang tujuan umumnya untuk mengetahui apakah problem-based learning mampu meningkatkan kompetensi grammar mahasiswa. sedangkan mailto:zoehrea@gmail.com http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.873 mukminatus zuhriyah tujuan khususnya adalah untuk mengetahui aktifitas dosen, aktifitas mahasiswa, dan respon mahasiswa pada saat problem-based learning diaplikasikan di kelas grammar. sembilan mahasiswa semester lima prodi bahasa inggris, fip, universitas hasyim asy’ari (unhasy) tebuireng jombang tahun akademik 2016/2017 menjadi subyek dalam penelitian ini. data dalam penelitian ini diperoleh dari catatan observasi dan tes grammar. ada peningkatan kompetensi grammar mahasiswa dari siklus satu ke siklus dua. ini dibuktikan dari nilai ratarata mereka dari 66.7 di siklus satu menjadi 72.8 di siklus dua. sedangkan prosentase mahasiswa yang lulus kkm dari 44.4 persen menjadi 88.9 persen. dengan demikian bisa disimpulkan bahwa problem-based learning mampu meningkatkan kompetensi grammar mahasiswa. kata kunci: problem-based learning , kompetensi grammar, mahasiswa unhasy introduction we all know that all english departments in indonesian universities always put grammar as one of the subjects in their curriculum that should be taken by the students. grammar is a very important language component that should be mastered by the english students. it is because grammar has the roles in all language skills. when reading, grammar is needed to understand the content of the reading texts well. when writing, grammar is needed to get understandable writing. it also happens when listening and speaking. it is supported by mart (2013: 124) who states that understanding grammar is the key in foreign language acquisition. in line with this, tomakin (2014: 116) states that somebody cannot master a language without learning its grammar because grammar helps him or her to construct meaningful words or sentences. additionally, priya (2015: 447) argues that communication becomes coherent and logical by using grammar. then, baleghizadeh and mozaheb (2011: 364) state that the learners’ age, their proficiency level, and educational background cause the importance levels of grammar to be different. it is a fact that learning grammar is not easy. many students of the fifth semester of english department of education faculty of hasyim asy’ari university (unhasy) often make mistakes in their grammar. it is because the acquisition of grammar itself is related to somebody’s cognitive skills (uibu and liiver, 2015: 72). besides, baleghizadeh and mozaheb (2011: 364) state that there are some special characteristics to be a teacher of grammar for esl/efl learners. according to lawrence and lawrence (2013: 66), teaching grammar is not register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.48-61 3 the easy work because the teacher of grammar must have the knowledge of grammar and its application. based on the preliminary study to the fifth semester students of english department of education faculty of hasyim asy’ari university (unhasy) held on november 7, 2016, the students still had low grammar competence. it could be seen from the score of grammar which they got. their mean score was 65. the highest score was 70. the percentage of the students getting 70 was 22.2 %. the causes of the lack of this grammar competence can be from the students and the teacher. matas and natolo (2010: 371) state that teaching grammar needs student-centered methods. one of the student-centered methods is pbl. that was why pbl was implemented in this research. this research was generally to know whether pbl could improve the grammar competence in the fifth semester students of english department of education faculty of hasyim asy’ari university (unhasy) tebuireng jombang in the academic year of 2016/2017. it was specifically to describe the lecturer’s activities, the students’ activities, and the students’ responses when pbl was implemented in the grammar class. previous studies several former researchers have conducted previous studies presenting the data which became the proof of the success of pbl in enhancing students’ abilities. othman and shah (2013: 125) in their research entitled “problem-based learning in the english language classroom” found that the post writing test of the students taught by using pbl method got improvement, especially the support and argument of their essay became larger than before. next, aziz, zain, samsudin, and saleh (2014: 126) in their research entitled “the effects of problem-based learning on self-directed learning skills among physics undergraduates” conclude that they did not find the significant differences between pbl and pbl with lecture method, meaning pbl without or with lecture method could improve self-directed learning skills better than the conventional one. the research entitled “does problem-based learning improve problem solving skills? a study among business undergraduates at malaysian premier technical university” by kadir, abdullah, anthony, saleh, and kamarulzaman (2015: 166) found that students’ problem solving abilities got improvement by the use of pbl. then, keong and mohammed (2015: 87) in their research entitled “improving iraqi secondary students’ speaking performance through problem based learning approach” conclude that students’ speaking ability and motivation got improvement. furthermore, mukminatus zuhriyah dastgeer and afzal (2015: 1315) in their research entitled” improving english writing skill: a case of problem based learning” found that pbl was more effective than conventional lecture method to improve secondary level students’ writing skill. grammar grammar contains a lot of rules of forming words and sentences starting from simple rules up to complex rules. it is supported by tuan and doan (2010: 61) who define grammar as the language rules consisting of how to construct and form the words. meanwhile, hartwell in alduais (2013: 38) presents the definitions of grammar as follows: (1) a set of formal patterns in which the words are arranged in order to convey larger meanings, (2) a branch of linguistic science concerned with the description analysis and formulization of formal language patterns, (3) etiquette grammar, (4) common schools of grammar, internalized grammar, and (5) stylistic grammar. then, mcclure in alduais (203: 38) states that there are four kinds of grammar, such as teachers’ or schools’ grammar, phrase structure grammar, transformational generative grammar, and cognitive grammar. problem based learning problem based learning is one of the teaching methods which are studentcentered and the teacher becomes a facilitator. it is supported by etherington (2011: 54) who states that problem-based learning is a student-centered method of teaching in which the students get the duty o solve the real problems related to their materials. meanwhile, keiziah (2010: 126) argues that pbl is an innovative teaching method in which the students solve the learning problems in small group and then, they work independently. in line with this statement, simone (2014: 18) explains that in pbl the learners have collaborative work in analyzing the complex problems and independent work in resuming the problem solving. according to othman and shah (2013: 128), here are the procedures of pbl. the students are grouped into teams of four students, then given a problem on the first day of each new task and expected to present their findings to the class in the following week. after that, the students do the presentations and make a written report that must be submitted to the teacher a few days after all the presentations of a task are done. dahlan in rohim (2014: 2-3) presents the procedures of problem-based learning (pbl) as follows: (1) the teacher gives problems to be discussed, (2) the teacher divides the students into pairs, (3) the teacher gives guided questions in order that the students know how to solve the problems, (4) the students discuss with their pairs, (5) the teacher gives time for each pair to express their idea, (6) if register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.48-61 5 time is over, the position of asker or answerer has to be changed, and (7) the teacher asks students to retell the result of discussion to class randomly. next, dastgeer and afzal (2015: 1316) give the procedures of pbl as follows: (1) in the first meeting, the class is divided in small groups of 4-5 each and the problems to be discussed and solved are told to the students, (2) in the second meeting, the students clarify and make the focus for finding the solutions, and (3) in the third meeting, the students share and discuss as well as debate the solutions to make final solution in the groups and followed by having written agreement of final solutions with the whole class. research method this research was a collaborative classroom action research consisting of four main steps. they were planning the action, implementing the action, observing the action, and reflecting the action. in this research, the researcher was the lecturer of grammar class, especially advanced english grammar. a semester of teaching learning planning (rps) of grammar for the fifth semester and blank forms of observation sheets were given to the collaborator. the observation sheets were in the form of field notes which were used to report everything related to the lecturer’s activities, students’ activities, and students’ responses when the lecturer implemented pbl in grammar class. there were two cycles with two meetings of each cycle in this research. meanwhile, the subjects of the research were 9 students of the fifth semester of english department of education faculty in the academic year of 2016/2017, hasyim asy’ari university (unhasy) tebuireng jombang. techniques of collecting data and data analysis observation and the post-test of grammar were the techniques of collecting data in this research. observation was done by the collaborator by writing all the things which happened in the class in every meeting of the cycle. meanwhile, the post-test of grammar was held in the following meeting after the second meeting of every cycle. this research used descriptive data analysis and statistical data analysis. the descriptive data analysis gained from the observation data. this data told about the lecturer’s activities, the students’ activities, and the students’ responses during teaching and learning process using pbl. then, the statistical data analysis was got from the score of the post-test of grammar. this score showed the improvement of the students’ grammar competence and the percentage of the students who could pass the minimum criteria mastery. the mean score of pre-test, post test i, and post test mukminatus zuhriyah ii were compared to know the improvement of the students’ grammar competence. then, it was consulted to the computational result of spss t-test to know whether or not the improvement of the mean scores was significant. it used spss version 20. meanwhile, the minimum mastery criteria was 70. when 75 % of the students got score 70 became the criteria of the success of this research. discussion cycle one cycle one had two meetings. the first meeting was held in november 8, 2016. then, the second meeting was in november 15, 2016. a. the lecturer’s activities in the first meeting and the second meeting of cycle one, basically the lecturer did the same activities. as usual she always does every day, she always checks the attendance list at first after opening the class by greeting. something different from her usual activities was that she told the students that she would use the pbl method to teach grammar class. after that, she did the procedures of pbl. below were the descriptions of this. a. the lecturer gave the problems to be solved by the students ( the problems were about the definition of noun clause and its examples in the form of reading text in the first meeting and the usages of noun clause in the sentences and the examples in the form of reading text in the second meeting) b. the lecturer grouped the students into three groups c. the lecturer gave guided questions about the definitions of noun clause, the usages of noun clause in the sentences and the real examples of noun clause in the reading text d. the students discussed with their groups e. the lecturer asked one of the groups to present the result of their discussion to the class randomly f. the lecturer gave the corrections of the students’ explanation in front of the class. in the first and the second meetings, the lecturer was walking around the class to check the students’ activeness in doing what she instructed. she did not give the exact time when the students had to finish their discussion. it seemed that she only used their feelings when to stop discussion and asked the representative of the group pointed to present the result of their discussion in front of the class. she also did not give the time limitation for the students to register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.48-61 7 present the result of their discussion. that was why she only had little time to review the result of the presentations and the students did not have enough time to ask more explanation from the lecturer. b. the students’ activities here are the descriptions of what the students did in the first and the second meeting of cycle one. a. the students sit in group of three b. the students discussed about the definition of noun clause and the examples in the form of reading text for the first meeting and the usages of noun clause in the sentences and the examples in the form of reading text for the second meeting c. the students found the information needed from internet and other sources d. the pointed group presented the result of their discussions in front of the class while other students asked questions about what they did not know. in the first meeting of this cycle, there was one group that seemed did not seriously do what the lecturer instructed. they made a joke one another while keeping looking at their laptop. they were pointed by the lecturer to present the result of their discussion. then, they admitted that they were doing the assignments from another lecturer. after that, other group came forward to change the first group pointed. this group told the result of their discussion until the end. in the second meeting, all of the groups paid full attention to their duty. unfortunately, there was one student coming late. he directly joined their group to do the instructions from the lecturer with their group. when the lecturer pointed one of the groups to present their result of their discussion, there was one student asking permission to go to the bathroom. it did not disturb the class at all. the discussion could run well. the following day after the second meeting was the meeting for post-test i. it was held in. the mean score from this test was 66.7. only 44.4% of the students could pass the minimum mastery criteria. that is why cycle one was considered unsuccessful. c. the students’ responses the students seemed comfortable with pbl method that was applied by the lecturer since the first meeting of cycle one. they gave positive responses by following what the lecturer requested. only one group was known not to do their duty well. they told the lecturer honestly that they did the assignment from other lecturer. but other groups were active and mukminatus zuhriyah serious to find the solutions of the problems given by the lecturer. at the end of the class, they asked the lecturer about what grammar books were good for their references. the lecturer suggested using every grammar book and the important point was that they could understand the explanation from that book. then, in the second meeting, all of the students were serious in doing discussions and finding the solutions of their discussion problems. all of them brought grammar books that they had. it was not the same as in the first meeting when all of the students only counted on the internet to find the solutions. at the end of the class, some of the students told the lecturer that they still found difficulty in applying their grammar when writing. the lecturer, absolutely, gave suggestion to write everything everyday by considering the rules of grammar they had learned. cycle two cycle two also had two meetings. the first meeting was held in november 22, 2016. then, the second meeting was in november 29, 2016. a. the lecturer’s activities what the lecturer did in the first meeting and the second meeting of cycle two was generally the same as what she did in cycle one. the differences were about the problems given to the students and the time limitation for discussion section and presentation of the discussion result. when cycle one, there was no exact time limitation. it was because she seemed to use their feelings only when stopping discussion and presentation. there was no exact time contract. but it was different when cycle two. the lecturer gave the students the exact time for discussion and presentation. it was thirty minutes for discussion and thirty minutes for presentation including questioning and answering in the presentation section. the procedures of pbl in cycle two were as follows. a. the lecturer gave the problems to be solved by the students ( the problems were about the definition of coordinating conjunctions and its examples in the form of reading text in the first meeting and kinds of coordinating conjunctions and its examples in the form of reading text in the second meeting) b. the lecturer grouped the students into three groups c. the lecturer gave guided questions about the definitions of coordinating conjunction, kinds of coordinating conjunctions, and the real examples of gerund in the reading text d. the students discussed with their groups in thirty minutes register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.48-61 9 e. the lecturer asked one of the groups to present the result of their discussion to the class randomly (time for presentation was thirty minutes) f. the lecturer gave the corrections of the students’ explanation in front of the class. b. the students’ activities here are the descriptions of what the students did in the first and the second meeting of cycle two. a. the students sit in group of three b. the students discussed about the definitions of coordinating conjunctions and the examples in the form of reading text for the first meeting and kinds of coordinating conjunctions and the examples in the form of reading text for the second meeting (time for discussion was thirty minutes) c. the students found the information needed from internet and the grammar books they brought d. the pointed group presented the result of their discussions in front of the class while other students asked questions about what they did not know (time for presentation was also thirty minutes) both in the first meeting and the second meeting of cycle two, all of the students in their groups did serious effort to do their task based on the problems given by the lecturer. in the first meeting, there was one group raising a hand to present their result of discussion before the lecturer pointed one of the groups. of course, the lecturer gave the chance to come forward while reminding that the time was thirty minutes for them in front of the class. their presentation was great. they presented reading text containing what they do everyday. the text was not taken from internet anymore but they wrote the text by themselves by applying the patterns of noun clause and coordinating conjunctions they just learned. in the second meeting, every group divided the duty for every member. then, they discussed what they got to solve the problems given by the lecturer. fortunately, all the three groups wanted to present their discussion result. finally, the lecturer asked them to do the lottery. the presentation was excellent. the explanation was complete and the reading text was from their real life. the following day after the second meeting was the meeting for post-test ii. it was held in november 30, 2016. the mean score from this test was 72.8. 88.9% of the students mukminatus zuhriyah could pass the minimum mastery criteria. that is why it can be said that cycle two was considered successful. c. the students’ responses all the students were very comfortable with pbl method that was applied by the lecturer. all of them were full of motivations to join the grammar class. it was proven when the time for presentation in the second meeting came, all of the groups wanted to present their discussion result. they were more active. it could be seen that there was no student coming late anymore. no students wanted to leave the class before the time was really over. discussion teaching grammar by using problem-based learning improved not only students’ grammar competence but also students’ speaking skill as well as students’ writing skill. when the students were discussing grammar problems given by the lecturer, they tried to speak as clearly as possible to explain their ideas about their solutions to their friends. this condition was interchangeably done by them in the case of giving questions and answers. it also happened when they were presenting their discussion result in front of the class. they also tried to use the appropriate grammar when asking and answering questions. al-mekhlafi and nagaratnam (2011: 71) state that when grammar is seen as a resource, it can help communication. all of us know that the forms of communication can be oral and written. that is why the activities that the students did in their grammar class also could improve their writing skill. it could be seen from the reading texts that they themselves made. they were strongly motivated to make the reading texts without copying from the internet anymore. they enjoyed learning and applying their grammar lesson in their writing reading texts. asgari (2013: 488) states that the increasing of students’ motivation will effect on the learning improvement. that is what happened when students did what the lecturer instructed in their grammar class. conclusions based on the result of the research, the conclusions can be explained as follows: 1. problem-based learning could improve grammar competence in the fifth semester students of english department of education faculty of hasyim asy’ari university (unhasy) tebuireng jombang in the academic year of 2016/2017. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.48-61 11 2. in cycle one, the lecturer’s activities was following the procedures of problem-based learning that she planned. she walked around the class when the students discussed. there was something less in cycle one. she only used her feelings to stop the time for discussion and presentation without telling the students the exact time. then, she gave the time limitation in cycle two after getting information from the observer. the time for discussion was thirty minutes as well as the presentation. 3. the students’ activities in cycle one and cycle two were basically the same. in cycle one, there was one group who did the assignment from another lecturer. so that they did not pay full attention to their discussion. in cycle two, all of the students were active in joining the discussion and also the presentation. all of the groups wanted to present their discussion result in the second meeting of cycle two. but finally, the lecturer made a lottery to choose the group presenting their discussion result. besides, all of the groups presented their discussion result, made their own reading text without searching from internet or other sources. their mean score was 66.7 in cycle one and 72.8 in cycle two. then, 44.4% of students passed the minimum mastery criteria in cycle one and 88.9% of students passed the minimum mastery criteria in cycle two. it means that there was an improvement of their grammar competence. 4. the students’ responses were good since cycle one. even though some of them said that they still got difficulty in applying their grammar in their daily life. in cycle two, the students were more motivated to join the grammar class. it was little different between cycle one and cycle two. from the conclusions above, it could be seen that grammar was learned more interestingly by using pbl. this study found something different from the previous studies using pbl. the finding was that the increase of the students’ grammar competence was in line with the increase of their speaking skill and their writing skill. it was because pbl applied in this grammar class gave the opportunities to the students to speak and write more and more. then, the students seemed to compete in making the better writing and to speak more in presenting their ideas related to the problems of the grammar materials given by the lecturer. besides, their motivation to learn also had a role in the success of their grammar achievements. mukminatus zuhriyah references alduais, a. m. s. (2013). main schools of grammar, grammar in schools and pedagogical grammar. international journal of english language education, 1(1), 35-48. doi:10.5296/ijele.v1i1.2720 al-mekhlafi, a. m. & nagaratnam,r. p. (2011). difficulties in teaching and learning grammar in an efl context. international journal of instruction, 4(2), 69-92. asgari, m. (2013). using current issues of interest in teaching grammar. international research journal of applied and basic sciences, 4 (2), 487-495. aziz, m. s., zain, a. n. m., samsudin, m. a. b, & saleh, s. b. (2014). the effects of problem-based learning on self-directed learning skills among physics undergraduates. international journal of academic research in progressive education and development, 3(1), 126-137. doi: 10.6007/ijarped/v3-i1/694 baleghizadeh, s. & mozaheb, m. a. (2011) a profile of an effective efl grammar teacher. journal of language teaching and research, 2(2), 364-369. doi: 10.4304/jltr.2.2.364-369 dastgeer, g. & afzal, m. t. (2015). improving english writing skill: a case of problem based learning. american journal of educational research, 3(10), 1315-1319. doi:10.12691/education-3-10-17 etherington, m. b. (2011). investigative primary science: a problem-based learning approach. australian journal of teacher education, 36(9), 53-74. htp://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2011v36n9.2 kadir, z. a., abdullah, n. h., anthony, e., salleh, b. m., & kamarulzaman, r. (2015). does problem-based learning improve problem solving skills? a study among business undergraduates at malaysian premier technical university. international education studies, 9(5), 166-172. doi:10.5539/ies.v9n5p16 keiziah, a. a. (2010). a comparative study of problem-based and lecture-based learning in secondary school students’ motivation to learn science. international journal of science and technology education research, 1(6), 126-131. keong,y. c. & mohammed, a. h. (2015). improving iraqi secondary students’ speaking performance through problem based learning approach. international journal of education and research, 3(12), 87-96. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.48-61 13 lawrence, a. j. & lawrence, a. s. a. (2013). attitude of student teachers towards using grammar games for teaching english. international journal on new trends in education and their implications, 4(1), 65-72. mart, c. t. (2013). teaching grammar in context: why and how? journal of theory and practice in language studies, 3(1), 124-129. doi: 10.4304/tpls.3.1.124-129 matas, c.p. & natolo, m. (2010). love grammar: student-driven grammar learning games. the international journal of learning, 17(10), 371-381. othman, n. & shah, m. i. a. (2015). problem-based learning in the english language classroom. journal of english language teaching, 6(3), 125-134. doi:10.5539/elt.v6n3p125 priya, s. p. (2015). the importance of teaching grammar more interestingly in the classrooms. international journal of english language, literature and translation studies (ijelr), 2(3), 447-449. rohim, a. (2014). improving students’ speaking skill through problem based learning (pbl) strategy. jp3, 3(8), 1-7. simone, c. d. (2014). problem-based learning in teacher education: trajectories of change. international journal of humanities and social science, 4(12), 17-29. tomakin, e. (2014). teaching english tenses (grammar) in the turkish texts: a case of simple present tense: işıl maketi iter. international journal of learning & development, 4(1), 115-131. doi:10.5296/ijld.v4i1.5154 tuan, l. t. & doan, n. t. m. (2010). teaching english grammar through games. journal of studies in literature and language, 1(7), 61-75. uibu, k. & liiver, m. (2015). students’ grammar mistakes and effective teaching strategies. international journal of teaching and education, 3(1), 70-87. doi:10.204.72/te.2015.3.1.006 register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 204 the use of teaching british parliamentary debate through android application, video, and powerpoint presentation to improve the students’ speaking skills surya agung wijaya vocational high school (smk) n 2 salatiga jl. parekesit salatiga, central java, indonesia sawpedia03@gmail.com abstract the researcher conducted the study to increase the students’ speaking skills through android application, video, and powerpoint presentation in teaching british parliamentary debate. this study answers two questions (1) how is the implementation of teaching british parliamentary debate through android application, video, and powerpoint presentation at english debate club in smk n2? (2) to what extent is the improvement of teaching british parliamentary debate through android application, video, and powerpoint presentation at english debate club in smk n2 to improve the students’ speaking skills?. the research design of this study was classroom action research. it had three cycles. each cycle consisted of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. from the study, the researcher could conclude that the implementation of the study improved gradually from cycle 1, cycle 2, and cycle 3. the improvement of the study was showed when the researcher conducted cycle 3. the result of the t-test of cycle 3 was 2.56. before the impact has not seen by the researcher in the cycle 1 and cycle 2, the result of the t-test of cycle 1 and 2 was 1. the passing grade was 72, and the target of the passing grade was 85%. the result of the post-test of cycle 3 was 90.91% from students. they passed the passing grade. the passing grade of cycle 3 was over the target, so the researcher stopped the study. thus, instruments proved that it could improve the students’ speaking skills. keywords: british parliamentary debate, android, video, powerpoint presentation, speaking introduction debate is something exists in the daily activities when you are pro or contra with the social problems. it is the real practice of debate. according to harvey-smith (2011: 1), debate is a particular form of argument. it is not a way of reconciling differences – that is a misconception. debate is a way of arbitrating between differences. it means that the debate is not to make agreement between government and opposition teams after the debate. from the debate between government and opposition teams, the audiences and the adjudicators will make a judgment, and they can support government or opposition teams. according to harvey-smith (2011: 2) says that worlds style is normally termed the british parliamentary mailto:sawpedia03@gmail.com register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 205 (bp) debate, which grew out of the traditions of the united kingdom parliament in westminster and follows some of the conventions of the house of commons. it means that the british parliamentary is used by all countries to conduct debate competition. house of common is like the house of representative (dpr) in indonesia, so debate comes from the habit of members of the council. this habit is adopted by the world universities‟ debating council, and it separates into the world. the researcher explains introduction from three points of view. there are the problems of teaching and learning process of debate, the reason why he try to use android application, video, and powerpoint presentation, and previous studies. many problems happen in the teaching and learning process of debate. the problems are not only for the teacher but also for the students. the researcher is the teacher of english debate club in smk n 2 salatiga. from the experiences of the researcher, when he taught the students on 22 september 2015, the students were still confused with the regulations of debate. they felt difficult on speaking. some students did not understand about some technical term in debate, for example: case building and rebuttal. in addition, some students did not understand about the jobs for every position in the debate, for example: first speaker from positive or affirmative team needed to define the motion, give argument, and rebut argument. however, some students forgot to define the motion. they just gave arguments about the motion. the students and teacher had practicing debate on 22 september 2015. most students did not rebut the argument from the opponent team, for example: second speaker form negative team did not rebut the arguments from the first and second speakers of positive team because the debater did not understand or get the points from positive team. the students just gave arguments from his or her point of view. on 7, 14, and 21 january 2016, the teacher and students practiced asian parliamentary debate. in asian parliamentary debate, it used poi, but the students were difficult to give point of information (poi). when they joined in the competition, they were less to give poi. therefore, they lost in the competition. most of vocational high school students in indonesia have less speaking proficiencies. english as the foreign language in indonesia is the one reason of the problems why they feel difficult to speak english. they worry about how to produce the utterances because they do not have habit to use outside the class. they get anxiety to speak english in the class. in their daily life, they use indonesian or their mother tongue, for example: register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 206 javanese, sundanese, etc. from the students‟ problems, it is a challenge for the teacher to figure it out. the students were less active and they were confused in the debate. therefore, the teacher tries to use interactive media and fun activities in his class because it is studentcentered activities. in this era, the teacher cannot reject our technology. the teacher uses the technology as one of media in teaching. according to crawford (2013: 1) says that information communication technology (ict) is a powerful tool as it significantly extends people‟s abilities, and as a learning tool, it is particularly effective. according to esteras and fabre (2007: 48) say that at present most of the devices use in ict systems are multipurpose: a. mobile phones can be used as digital cameras or agendas. b. printers are also scanners and faxes. c. internet, a global network of computers, enable users to exchange files, send emails and surf the web to find information, take part in e-commerce, etc. the researcher assume that the teacher in traditional teaching only uses white board as a tool of learning, and the teacher explains the material. the students only listen to the teacher, and they have less activity in the class. it is teacher center. therefore, the teacher uses ict to increase the skills of the students. the students are active in the class, so students‟ center is conducted in the class by the teacher. the teacher is only a facilitator in the class. according to mustikasari (2014: 10) says that teacher must attend training or workshop session so that they find a suitable strategy of using ict in a classroom to help students to increase their achievement. it can be informed that the teacher needs to learn using ict before he uses ict in his class. to solve the problems of the researcher, he tries to use android application, video, and powerpoint presentation to teach debate in this study. according to burnette (2010: 14) says that android is an open source software toolkit for mobile phones that was created by google and the open handset alliance. according to darcey and conder (2010: 7), android is the first complete, open, and free mobile platform. it means that everyone can be developer of android, and developer can make his or her own application. therefore, from the needs of application, right now debaters have debate application to help them. in indonesia, many people have smartphone using android system. according to jose (2015: para 1-5) says that fifty five million people in indonesia used register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 207 android in 2015, and the users would increase until sixty five point two million people in 2016. it can be assumed that most of indonesian students use android phones to support his or her daily activities. many applications that can support the teacher and students in teaching and learning process. therefore, the researcher uses android application as the media and smart phone as the tool of learning. the researcher tries to know the improvement of using technology in a class for the teacher and students. the teacher always feels difficult to find motions for his students. the students need to control their times when they speak. from “debate assistant”, this application can give the motions and a time-control management to speak. according to apeiro (2015: para 1), debate assistant has been designed keeping in mind the need for an application that makes conduction of a debate significantly easier. it means that this application designs to help the debaters when they practice debate. the debaters are easy to get motions from this application, and they are easy to monitor their times. the students can learn by themselves. the teacher is not only using android application, but also he uses video and powerpoint presentation. according to bull and bell (2010: 2), a video can be recorded on a cell phone, video camera, edited with a cell phone application, and wirelessly uploaded to youtube. it means that video is a group of picture that it has animation. it is the result of camera. according to harmer (2001: 292), one of the main benefits of video-making for the students is the chance to display what they have done and get feedback on it from the students and the teachers. according to arsyad (1997: 48-49) says that the benefit of film or video can complete basic experiences for the students when they read, discus, practice and the others. therefore, video helps the teacher and students to get information of their performances, and they can get feedback from the video. the students to other students can give commentary for their performances, so the teacher can add commentary at the end of discussion. video also gives real image or animation from the information, so the students can imagine the information that the teacher gives to them. according to marcovitz (2012: xvi), powerpoint is an appropriate multimedia tool for teachers and a powerful addition to a multimedia design class. according to stephen (2006: 2), powerpoint is a presentation graphics package. it means that the users can make slide using this software. powerpoint presentations also helps the students to get details information of the materials. as cited from smith (2006: para 2), there are potential benefits of using the powerpoint presentation included: register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 208 a. engaging multiple learning styles b. increasing visual impact c. improving audience focus d. providing annotations and highlights e. analyzing and synthesizing complexities f. enriching curriculum with interdisciplinary g. increasing spontaneity and interactivity h. increasing wonder the reason why he adds video and powerpoint presentation because android application does not give detail regulation of british parliamentary debate. therefore, the students can get regulations of debate and evaluation of their performances from videos, and they can get deeper information from powerpoint presentation. all media connected each other when it applies in the class using scientific approach. video uses in observing state, powerpoint presentation uses in collecting information state, and debate assistant uses in communicating state. the teacher needs to give feedback in the teaching and learning process. according to harmer (2001: 106-109), there are two kinds to give feedback. there are feedback during accuracy work and feedback during fluency work. the teacher does not only give feedback, but also he needs to give score to the students. in this study, the researcher uses four elements of speaking from different experts. he uses accuracy, fluency, vocabulary, and pronunciation. those are used in rubric of speaking for this study. it helps the researcher to give score for the students. there are definition of accuracy, fluency, vocabulary, and pronunciation. according to nunan (2003: 55), accuracy is the extent to which the students‟ speech matches what people actually say when they use the target language. it means that when the students focus to use right grammar when they produce utterances. according to nunan (2003: 55), fluency is the extent to which speakers use the language quickly and confidently, with few hesitations or unnatural pauses, false starts, word searches, etc. it means that when the students focus to deliver the message of the conversation. the accuracy is less in fluency because the students speak quickly and confidently, and they focus on the message rather than the accuracy. according to broughton, brumfit, flavell, hill and pincas (2003: 72) say that the vocabulary of conversation is often radically different from the written language with which the student is probably more register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 209 familiar. it means that the students use their common vocabularies when they produce utterances. therefore, the students are easy in arranging ideas. according to esling and wong (1983) as quoted by nation and newton (2009: 76) say that pronunciation includes the articulation of individual sounds and the distinctive features of sounds like voicing and aspiration, voice-setting features, and stress and intonation. it means that pronunciation can be internal and external factors of the students. it is internal factors because every student has different organ of sounds. therefore, to produce utterance, some utterances produce in different features of sounds. it is external factors because the students have different mother tongue. mother tongue gives impact in production of target language. table 1 scoring of speaking no competency description scores 1 pronunciation many wrong pronunciation 20 – 34 frequent incorrect pronunciation 35 – 54 occasional errors in pronunciation 55 – 69 some errors in pronunciation 70 – 84 no errors or minor errors 85 – 100 2 grammatical accuracy no mastery of utterance construction 20 – 34 major problems in structure 35 – 54 several errors in structure 55 – 69 minor problems in structure 70 – 84 demonstrates mastery of structure (few errors) 85 – 100 3 vocabulary little knowledge of english words 20 – 34 frequent errors of word choice 35 – 54 occasional errors in word choice 55 – 69 minor errors in word choice 70 – 84 effective/appropriate word choice 85 – 100 4 fluency dominated by hesitation 20 – 34 frequent hesitation 35 – 54 occasional hesitation 55 – 69 register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 210 minor hesitation 70 – 84 no hesitation 85 – 100 there were four previous studies. the first previous study came from aclan and aziz (2015). in this previous study, it used qualitative case study design. the result of the study got debate as interactive activity that debate gave opportunity for the students to learn new vocabularies. the second previous study came from yang and che (2015). this previous study used android application as the treatment of the study. the result of the study that all 33 students improved their toeic scores showed on their post-test, of which males improved their scores from 538 to 618 and females from 483 to 518. the third previous study came from kim (2015). he had study about “using authentic videos to improve efl students‟ listening comprehension”. regarding from the first research question, the result between the preand post-tests, statistically significant differences were found in the intermediate and advanced proficiency groups. however, the students in the low proficiency group did not show any significant differences between the two tests. regarding from the second research question, the means of the post-test demonstrated a notable distinction. the result said that the students‟ listening proficiency level was a considerable variable when the teacher would use authentic video materials or not in english listening courses. regarding from the last research question, the participants generally showed positive attitudes toward using authentic video materials. analysis of the students‟ responses from the closed-ended questionnaires showed that there were no significant differences among the three groups. the respondents said that using videos were effective and interesting. the fourth previous study came from corbeil (2007). he had a study about using powerpoint presentations (ppts) to replace textbooks and blackboards for teaching grammar. regarding from the first research question, the result was no statistically significant from pretest and post-test between the ppts groups and the textbook and blackboard groups on any of the three exercises. the first exercise result, t-test was 0.67. the second exercise result, t-test was 0.40. the third exercise result, t-test was 0.13. thus compared with the score of the ttable with 5% of insignificance. regarding from the second research question, the positive register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 211 comments were expressed by the students in the experimental group. they said that ppts helped them in the process of learning because it had highlighting, color coding, different fonts, and visual effects. ppts were also easy for the students to download and print at home. from the four previous studies, the researcher saw something difference from his study. from first previous study, the kind of debate was not clear enough using in the class, so the researcher made specific on the british parliamentary debate for this study. british parliamentary debate was adopted all university in the world, so the result of this study could adopt by all school or university. in addition, the skill was vocabulary, but the researcher tried to increase the challenge into speaking skills. from second previous study, they used dr.eye. this application included mandarin, english and japanese. in this application, the students learned about only language. on the other hand, the researcher used an android application “debate assistant” to help the teacher when he taught the british parliamentary debate. this application provided the motions and the times management. from the third previous study, kim used video to improve the students listening skills, but this study used video to improve the students‟ speaking skills. from the last previous study, corbeil used the powerpoint presentations to replace textbooks and blackboards for teaching grammar. in this study, the researcher used the powerpoint presentations as the media to deliver materials about the british parliamentary debate because video and android application were not enough to explain about the british parliamentary debate. from the information given, the researcher could conclude that this study tried to retest some variables of previous studies with the different skills. this study had specific rule rather than previous studies variables. this study is different from previous studies because it uses three variables. it applies in the class using scientific approach. video uses in observing state, powerpoint presentation uses in collecting information state, and debate assistant uses in communicating state. the variables connect each other in the teaching and learning process. as a result, the researcher‟s study is difference to the previous studies. research methodology subject, research design, and cycle of classroom action research the subject of the study is the members of english debate club in smk negeri 2 salatiga. in 2015 – 2016, the members of edc came from fifth, sixth, and seventh register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 212 generations. when the researcher conducted the study, only 11 members could join in this study. one member came from fifth generation; one member came from sixth generation and nine members came from seven generation. in this study, the research design was classroom action research. there were some definitions of action research from experts. according to lodico, spaulding, and voegtle (2006: 282), action research is research conducted by practitioners in their own school setting to identify and take actions to remedy problems that occur in their practice. it means that action research comes from the problems of the teacher when he or she teaches his or her students. action research helps the teacher to evaluate and get solution of his or her problems in teaching. therefore, the teacher can improve their ways to teach the students. in the cycle of classroom action research, according to kemmis and mctaggart (1988) as quoted by hopkins (1993: 49), „action research planner‟, where a sequential program for the teachers intending to engage in action research is outlined in some detail. figure 1 model of classroom action research the researcher is the debate trainer of english debate club in smk n 2 salatiga. in this study, the researcher invited the observer from iain salatiga. he is faisal abi yusuf. the researcher planed the cycle as below. 1. cycle a. planning in planning stage, the researcher planned what action would be done. there were activities in the planning. the teacher would prepare syllabus, lesson plan, rubric, material, media, the students‟ attendance list, the students‟ scoring list, the register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 213 teacher‟s and the students‟ observational checklist. the teacher checked tools of learning in the class. to collect the score of the students, the teacher used flashcards for pre-test and post-test. to analyze the data, the teacher used the camera to take the pictures and videos. the media used in this study such as the android application, powerpoint presentation, and video. the android application was “debate assistant”, and it used in all cycles. the content of powerpoint presentation and video was different for each cycle. therefore, the preparation was prepared in order to reach the purpose of teaching and learning process. b. acting in acting stage, the researcher did his planning. he used scientific approach. in observing state, he presented a video. in questioning state, he gave opportunity for the students to give question about the video. in collecting information, he gave opportunity for the students to work in groups, and presented powerpoint presentation. in associating state, the teacher explained android application “debate assistant” and practiced to operate it. in communicating state, the students practiced the british parliamentary debate and used debate assistant in the debate. before the class finished, the teacher gave feedback, reinforcement, and motivation for the students. c. observing the observer observed the researcher how he taught his students. the researcher and observer also observed the students, and it started from pre-test until post-test. they collected the score of the students. the observer used observational checklists to observe the teacher and students. d. reflecting the researcher reflected his lesson plan, evaluated how he taught his students, and calculated scored of his students. the observer gave the data from the observation. when his lesson plan was not effective to teach, he would rebuild his lesson plan. if the score of his students were less than the passing grade (kkm), he conducted the next cycle. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 214 discussion implementation of teaching british parliamentary debate through android application, video, and powerpoint presentation 1. cycle 1 a. planning in the planning, the researcher prepared syllabus (british parliamentary debate), prepared lesson plan (british parliamentary debate), teaching materials (introduction to british parliamentary debate), and media (a youtube video, slides of powerpoint presentation, and android application). the teacher used a youtube video (introduction to british parliamentary debate). the powerpoint presentation also was about (introduction to british parliamentary debate). the teacher chose to use android application (debate assistant). this was the first meeting for the students learn about the british parliamentary debate, so the teacher prepared the materials about “introduction to british parliamentary debate”. the teacher prepared rubric (scoring of speaking). the teacher would assess the students from four aspects. there were pronunciation, grammatical accuracy, vocabulary, and fluency. the range of the score was from 20 to 100. b. implementation of the action the cycle 1 started from 19, 21, and 26 april 2016. this cycle divided into three parts. the first part, the researcher conducted pre-test on 19 april 2016. the motion was “this house would ban homework”. the researcher gave flashcards. in the flashcard included the motion and questions. in the pre-test, some students got difficulties. most of the students were difficult to say /„stju:dnt/. the written word is /student/. however, they pronounced /setadent/. some students used code mixing – indonesia and english – when they lost some words, for example: students can membawa book. (students can bring book.) some students did not understand the meaning of questions, for example: most of the students did not understand the meaning of “advantages and disadvantages”. therefore, the researcher needed to give clues of the meaning of the questions. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 215 the second part, the researcher conducted treatment. on 21 april 2016, the researcher and observer came to the class. before the class started, the researcher introduced the observer. after that, the researcher started his class. the teacher and students prayed together. the teacher checked attendance list of students. the teacher explained the topic of the meeting. they learned about the british parliamentary debate. the teacher played video about “introduction to british parliamentary debate”. the students observed the video and prepared their question about the british parliamentary debate. the video was played from beginning until ending without the teacher paused the video. in the questioning state, none of the students gave questions to the teacher. then, the teacher continued the materials. the teacher divided the students into some groups. the teacher distributed hand out of powerpoint presentation (ppt), and he displayed ppt on the screen. the title of ppt was “introduction to british parliamentary debate”. some students gave questions about british parliamentary debate. the teacher shared “debate assistant” to the students. the students installed “debate assistant” in their smart phones. the teacher explained how to use “debate assistant”. the teacher launched the motion about “this house would ban school students from having smart phones” to practice debate. the teacher divided the students into 4 groups. each group consisted two debaters. the students started case building. the teacher, observer, and students went out of the class and they started debate outside of the class. the students started their debate. at the end of debate, the teacher gave feedback and motivation to his students. the third part, the researcher conducted post-test on 26 april 2016. the motion was “this house believes motivation is more important for success than intelligence”. there was little improvement from pre-test. in the pre-test, some students got difficulties. most of students were difficult to pronounce the written word /student/, and they pronounced /setadent/. when they remembered correct pronunciation, they pronounced /„stju:dnt/. before the teacher reminded the correct pronunciation to say /„stju:dnt/ in the pre-test and treatment, the students tried to change their habit to say /setadent/. some students used code mixing – indonesia and english – when they lost some words, for example: we don‟t have in bahasa teralalu kaku to think our success. (we don’t have in bahasa indonesia too formal to think our success.) register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 216 therefore, in the cycle 1, most of the students were still adapted with the process of this study. c. observation in the cycle 1, the teacher and observer observed the teaching and learning process. the teacher prepared two observational checklist for the teacher and students. first, the result of the teacher‟s observational checklist, the teacher forgot to remind the students about previous lesson. the method of the teacher was scientific approach to teach his students. there are observing, questioning, collecting information, associating, and communicating. in observing, the teacher ordered to the students to observe the video about “introduction to british parliamentary debate”. the problem happened in questioning. the teacher gave chance to the students to give questions about the material, but none of the students gave question in questioning section. however, they gave questions in collecting information. second, the result of the students‟ observational checklist, the students watched the video, but they did not analyze it. none of the students wrote down information from the video. after they watched the video, the teacher gave opportunities to ask question. however, none of the students gave question. they were still confused with the materials. they did not get the idea after they watched video. the teacher distributed the materials, and the students discussed about the materials with their groups. after the teacher explained the powerpoint presentation, the students gave questions to the teacher. when the students practiced the british parliamentary debate, only one student gave point of information (poi). the students did not feel confident to give (poi). they were still adapted how to deliver and receive poi. d. reflection from the cycle 1, the researcher could reflect that the students were still confused with the rules of british parliamentary debate. the teacher played video without giving clues, and it made students confused about the materials. the observer suggested to the researcher to give clue or little explanation while video was played. therefore, the students could focus on video, and they could prepare their questions. the teacher ordered to the students to analyze and write down their comments or register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 217 questions whilst video was played. the researcher though that the groups consisted of four members in the discussion were not effective. the situation of the class was in the language laboratory, so the group discussion did not work well. the researcher would change into peer to peer. one group consisted two students. only one student gave point of information (poi), so the researcher and observer agreed to make regulation. the students were obliged to give two pois and received one poi minimally. the passing grade (kkm) was 72. the target of the passing grade was 85%, but only 36.36% from the students could reach the target. the students did not achieve the target of the passing grade in the pre-test and post-test of cycle 1. therefore, the researcher would conduct the cycle 2 to achieve the target of the passing grade. 2. cycle 2 a. planning the researcher planed back cycle 2. the teacher would show video about the students‟ performance in the debate. the teacher gave clue while video was played. the students needed to evaluate themselves or their friends. they could write down their comment after the video had done. they could deliver their comments about the video. therefore, the students could evaluate themselves from the video. the feedback could be from the teacher or class feedback. the researcher changed the powerpoint presentation material about poi. before the students started the discussion about poi, the teacher would divide the students into some groups. each group consisted two members. the researcher gave powerpoint presentation about poi to reinforce the students how to deliver and receive the poi. b. implementation of the action the cycle 2 started from 28 april, 3 and 5 may 2016. the cycle 2 divided into three parts. the first part, the researcher conducted pre-test on 28 april 2016. the motion was “this house believes social networking increases social problems among teenagers”. before the teacher suggested giving main utterance than supporting utterance, some students used it. it illustrated below: question : do you agree or disagree with the motion? register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 218 the student : i disagree with our motion today. i will give three point of view from first from teenagers, second from advance technology, and third from manner of teenagers. therefore, the researcher concluded that the students used their method in debate when they answered the question. it made the listener easy to catch their ideas, and it made the students easy to deliver their ideas. the second part, the researcher conducted treatment. on 3 may 2016, the researcher and observer came to the class. the teacher and students prayed together. the teacher checked attendance list of students. the teacher played the students‟ debate practice video that took from previous meeting. the students observed the video and prepared their question about the british parliamentary debate. the students wrote down their comment or question in a piece of paper. the teacher played video. sometimes, the teacher paused the video and gave the clue from video. the video finished. some students gave question to the teacher. the teacher distributed the materials and showed the slides. before the teacher explained the materials, the students discussed the materials. the teacher discussed and explained the material about poi. the teacher found a motion from debate assistant, and the motion was “this house believes that facebook is a reflection of urban loneliness”. the students started case building. after case building, they started the debate and used the android application. at the end, the teacher gave feedback, verbal, and motivation for the students. the third part, the researcher conducted post-test on 5 may 2016. the motion was “this house believes the internet brings more harm than good”. the pronunciation problem of the written word of /student/ was difficult to be corrected by the teacher. one student were difficult to pronounce /„stju:dnt/, and he said /setaden/. the teacher reminded him to say /„stju:dnt/, but he could not change him habit. he was less practice to speak english. on the other hand, his friends who said /setanden/ in the cycle 1 tried to pronounce /„stju:dnt/. when they used code switching or mixing – indonesia and english –, the students decreased their intensity, for example: … some pelajaran … oh, i mean some lesson … c. observation register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 219 in the cycle 2, the teacher and observer observed the teaching and learning process. the teacher prepared two observational checklist for the teacher and students. first, the result of the teacher‟s observational checklist, the teacher fixed some problems in the cycle 1. the teacher reminded the students about previous lesson. the method of the teacher was scientific approach to teach his students. it was same with the cycle 1. the teacher paused the video, and he gave the clue of the video. when the teacher opened question section, the students were enthusiast to give comments and questions. in the discussion, the students also gave questions about poi. at the end, the teacher forgot to give the next motion. second, the result of the students‟ observational checklist, the students watched the video, and they analyzed and took a note. after they watched the video, the teacher gave opportunities to give question. the students gave comment and question about their performance. the teacher distributed handouts about poi, and the students had discussion with their group. when the students practiced the british parliamentary debate, some of the students still read their notes while they were delivering their ideas. in the debate, the debater allowed to use note. however, the score of manner would be decrease by the adjudicators. the debaters tried to give poi, but it was given over the limited times. d. reflection the cycle 2 had done well. the teacher fixed some problems in the cycle 1. the teacher forgot to give the next motion at the end of the lesson. the teacher needed to read again the lesson plan before he taught in the class. when the students practiced the british parliamentary debate, some of the students still read their notes while they were delivering their ideas. the perceptions of the audiences and adjudicators thought that the debaters‟ speaking proficiencies were powerless. therefore, the score of manner would be decreased by the adjudicators. in the debate, the debater allowed to use note. the teacher could give suggestion to the students to make key word in their notes. therefore, the students did not read all arguments from their notes. the debaters tried to give poi, but it was given over the limited times. the debaters had 15 seconds maximally to give poi. one debater could give more than one poi. something bad happened in the cycle 2. the video recorded when the students register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 220 practiced debate was corrupted. it could not be played, evaluated, and shared with the students. from 85% target of the passing grade, 72.73% from the students achieved the target. therefore, the students did not achieve the target in cycle 2, and the researcher would continue to achieve the target in cycle 3. 3. cycle 3 a. planning the materials of the cycle 3 were difference. the video was the international debate competition “swc debate final round part 5”. the title of powerpoint presentation was “basic debating skills”. it was about manner, matter, and method. the observer suggested encouraging students to be confident with their idea, so the students were less to read their notes. they could speak their idea without using the note. the researcher thought that the students could make keyword on their notes because the regulation did not avoid the debater to use a note. therefore, the teacher did not only give the motivation but also give the solution. the students forgot that they had limited time to deliver poi. the teacher needed to remind the students about the regulation before the debate started. the researcher prepared two cameras to solve the video problems. therefore, he got complete the data. b. implementation of the action the cycle 2 started from 12 and 26 may, and 9 july 2016. this cycle divided into three parts. the first part, the researcher conducted pre-test on 12 may 2016. the motion was “this house would ban beauty contests”. the students quoted some fact from online newspaper and it made their arguments stronger, for example: from kompas.com, in sweden, vera natali suicide because she does not win in the beauty contest. the students divided their arguments into some points, for example: question : what are the bad effects of beauty contests? the student : i will peel the bad effects of beauty contest from two point of view of human right and social. the second part, the researcher conducted treatment. on 26 may 2016, the researcher and observer came to the class. the teacher started class. the teacher explained the topic of the materials. they learned about matter, manner, and method. http://idebate.org/node/18080 register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 221 before they learned matter, manner, and method, the teacher reminded previous materials. the teacher gave questions, and the students answered. the teacher played video about the real debate competition. the students needed to observe about the style and the method to deliver arguments from the video. the students needed to give commentary about it. the teacher played video. sometimes, the teacher paused the video and gave the clue from video. the teacher gave clue about the video. when the video finished, the students started to give question and comment about the video. the teacher distributed the handouts and showed the slides. the students discussed the material with their partner. the teacher discussed and explained the material about matter, manner, and method. the teacher launched the motion about “this house believes that the beauty industry does more harm than good” the students started case building. after case building, they started the debate and used the android application. at the end, the teacher gave feedback, verbal, and motivation for the students. the third part, the researcher conducted post-test on 5 may 2016. the motion was “this house would ban cosmetic surgery”. in the last cycle, the students decreased to use code mixing or switching – indonesia and english –, and they practiced to speak english without mixed. the students were difficult to pronounce the written word of /surgery/. some students said /surgery/. the correct pronunciation is /‟sɝːdʒrɪ/. the teacher gave the feedback to say /‟sɝːdʒrɪ/, but the students were still difficult to say it. they were consistent to divide their arguments in to some points. they brought their style in the debate when they answered the questions. to prove their arguments, some students quoted the fact from online newspaper. therefore, they delivered one argument, and they proved the argument with examples. then, they continued their arguments. some students used jokes, and it was like on the debate. they used jokes to make the audience interesting with their arguments. to increase their speaking proficiency, the students needed to add their vocabularies, to practice pronunciations, and to practice grammatical accuracy. however, the students were significant improve their speaking skills from cycle 1, cycle 2, and cycle 3. c. observation register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 222 in the cycle 3, the teacher and observer observed the teaching and learning process. the teacher prepared two observational checklist for the teacher and students. first, the result of the teacher‟s observational checklist, the teacher forgot to check attendance list when the class started. however, the teacher checked attendance list at the end of the class. when the teacher reminded previous material, the students forgot the previous material about poi. when the teacher gave clue, the students started reminding the materials. before the debate started, the teacher reminded to the students about the rules how to deliver and receive pois. then, the teacher reminded times to give poi only 15 seconds. the teacher mentioned to the students to make short poi. second, the result of the students‟ observational checklist, the students said that they were difficult to get the message from the video. however, the teacher paused the video and gave short explanation. therefore, the students could presume the message. actually, from the video, the students needed to analysis how the debater delivered his arguments and his style. when the students practiced debate, poi was given by the debaters. however, the debaters were still in doubt to deliver it. several of them did not give pois. d. reflection from the cycle 1 until cycle 3, some of the students did not give pois because they were confused and afraid to give pois. actually, in one team, the debaters could share their pois with their partners. the debaters wrote down their pois in sticky note, and they shared it with their partners. however, some of the students did not use this opportunity. the passing grade (kkm) was 72, and the target was 85%. 90.91% of the students could pass the passing grade. the result of the post-test in cycle 3 was more than the target of the passing grade. therefore, the students achieved the target of the passing grade, so the researcher stopped the study until cycle 3. improvement of teaching british parliamentary debate through android application, video, and powerpoint presentation at english debate club in smk n2 to improve the students’ speaking skills register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 223 in this study, the researcher and observer elaborated to collect scores of the students. then, the researcher calculated the scores from the researcher and observer. 1. cycle 1 table 2 count of passing grade of pre-test in cycle 1 criteria grade presentation >72 1 9.09% 72 0 0.00% <72 10 90.91% total 11 100.00% from the data, the researcher knew that only one student could pass the passing grade (kkm) in the pre-test in cycle 1. the passing grade of english lesson in smk n 2 salatiga was 72. the target presentation of passing grade was 85%. therefore, the target presentation of passing grade was not achieved. table 3 grade of passing grade of post-test in cycle 1 criteria grade presentation >72 4 36.36% 72 0 0.00% <72 7 63.64% total 11 100.00% from the data, there was improvement from the pre-test. the presentation of passing grade of pre-test was 9.09%, and the passing grade in post-test was 36.36%. however, the target presentation of passing grade was 85%. therefore, the target presentation of passing grade was not achieved in cycle 1. the researcher would conduct the cycle 2. = 3.15 √ √ √ = 3.15 = 1 register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 224 t-test was 1. it used the significant level of 5% and t-table with (n-1) = 10 was 2.23. from the data, the researcher could conclude that the score of t-test was lower than t-table. therefore, there was little significant improvement of the study. 2. cycle 2 table 4 grade of passing grade of pre-test in cycle 2 criteria grade presentation >72 5 45.45% 72 0 0.00% <72 6 54.55% total 11 100.00% from the data, there was little improvement from the post-test in cycle 1. from 4 students, the students who could pass the passing grade was 5 students in the pre-test of cycle 2. from the post-test in cycle 1, 36.36% of students could pass the passing grade. in the pre-test of cycle 2, the students who could pass the passing grade was 45.45%. table 5 grade of passing grade of post-test in cycle 2 criteria grade presentation >72 8 72.73% 72 0 0.00% <72 3 27.27% total 11 100.00% in post-test of cycle 2, there were 8 students who could achieve the passing grade. therefore, it was 72.73%. it improved from pre-test of cycle 2. the presentation of students in pre-test of cycle 2 who could achieve the passing grade was 45.45%. however, the target of the passing grade was 85%. therefore, the researcher would conduct the cycle 3 to achieve the target. = 1.31 √ √ √ = 1.31 register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 225 = 1 from the data in cycle 2, the researcher could conclude that t-test was 1, and t-table with (n-1) = 10 was 2.23. the significant level was 5%. therefore, the score of t-test was lower than t-table. there was little significant improvement of the study. 3. cycle 3 table 6 grade of passing grade of pre-test in cycle 3 criteria grade presentation >72 8 72.73% 72 1 9.09% <72 2 18.18% total 11 100.00% in the pre-test of cycle 3, 9 students could pass the passing grade. 72.73% students got more than 72, and one student got 72. therefore, the total of the students who could pass the passing grade was 81.82%. it closed the target of the passing grade. table 7 grade of passing grade of post-test in cycle 3 criteria grade presentation >72 9 81.82% 72 1 9.09% <72 1 9.09% total 11 100.00% the target of the passing grade was 85%. the result was more than the target of the passing grade. the result of post-test in the cycle 3 was 90.91%. 10 students could pass the passing grade. it increased from pre-test of cycle 3. there were 9 students. the target of the passing grade achieved by the students. therefore, the researcher stopped the study until cycle 3. = 0.82 √ √ √ = 0.32 = 2.56 register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 226 from the data in cycle 3, the score of t-test was 2.56. the significant level was 5% to t-table. the score of t-table with (n-1) = 10 was 2.23. the result was 2.56 > 2.23. the researcher could conclude that the score of t-test was higher than t-table. the significant difference of the study was 0.33. after the researcher repeated the cycles until three times, the researcher could conclude that teaching british parliamentary debate through android application, video, and powerpoint presentation at english debate club in smk n2 improved the students‟ speaking skills. therefore, there was a significant difference between preand post-test mean in cycle 3. it meant that teaching british parliamentary debate through android application, video, and powerpoint presentation influenced the students‟ speaking skill. conclusions implementation of teaching british parliamentary debate through android application, video, and powerpoint presentation from this study, the researcher could conclude that the implementation of teaching british parliamentary debate through android application, video, and powerpoint presentation at edc in smk was successful. the researcher got the information from cycle 1, cycle 2, and cycle 3. the researcher analyzed the speaking proficiency of the students, and they increased their speaking proficiency from cycle 1 until cycle 3. the fluency of students increased from their practice in the class. in the cycle 1, none of the students delivered their arguments with systematic ways. in cycle 2 until cycle 3, they divided their arguments into some points. they used main utterance into supporting utterance. in the supporting utterance, they gave real example from their arguments. therefore, the speaking proficiency of the students increased from time to time. improvement of teaching british parliamentary debate through android application, video, and powerpoint presentation at english debate club in smk n2 to improve the students’ speaking skills from the data, the researcher can conclude that there is significance improvement teaching british parliamentary debate through android application, video, and powerpoint register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 227 presentation at edc in smk n 2 salatiga. the researcher can prove it from data in cycle 1, cycle 2, and cycle 3. the passing grade of this study is 72. the target is 85% from 11 students who join in the study. in the cycle 1, mean of the pre-test is 68.34. on the other hand, mean of the post-test is 71.49. mean post-test is higher than pre-test. therefore, there is significance improvement. the significant level is 5% in this study. the result of t-test is 1, and t-table is 2.23. t-test is lower than t-table. therefore, there is little significant improvement of the study. the presentation of passing grade of pre-test is 9.09%, and it increases in post-test. the presentation of post-test is 36.36%. however, the target is not achieved by the students. therefore, the researcher conducts the cycle 2. in the cycle 2, mean of the pre-test is 71.89. on the other hand, mean of the post-test is 73.19. mean post-test is higher than pre-test. therefore, there is significance improvement. however, t-test was 1, and t-table is 2.23. t-test is lower than t-table. therefore, there is little significant improvement of the study. the presentation of passing grade of pre-test is 45.45%, and it increases in post-test. the presentation of post-test is 72.73%. however, the target is not achieved by the students. therefore, the researcher conducts the cycle 3. in the cycle 3, mean of the pre-test is 73.45. on the other hand, mean of the post-test is 74.27. mean post-test is higher than pre-test. therefore, there is significance improvement. the significant level is 5% in this study, and t-table with (n-1) is 2.23. the result of t-test is 2.56. t-test is higher than t-table. therefore, there is significant improvement of teaching british parliamentary debate through android application, video, and powerpoint presentation at english debate club in smk n2 to improve the students‟ speaking skills. the presentation of passing grade of pre-test is 85%, and it increases in post-test. the presentation of post-test is 90.91%. therefore, the target is achieved by the students. the presentation of the post-test is over the target 85%. therefore, the researcher stops the study until cycle 3. references aclan, e. m., and aziz, n. h. a. 2015. why and how efl students learn vocabulary in parliamentary debate class. advances in language and literacy studies, 6, 102113. http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.1p.102 http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.1p.102 register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 228 aperio. 2015. among top 100 applications for utilities on the amazon app store!. retrieved from https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=in.apeiro.debateassistant&hl=in arsyad, a. 1997. media pengajaran. jakarta: pt raja grafindo persada. broughton, g., brumfit, c., flavell, r., hill, p., and pincas, a. 2003. teaching english as a foreign language. london: routledge. bull, g. l., and bell, l. 2010. teaching with digital video. washington dc: international society for technology in education. burnette, e. 2010. hello, android introducing google’s mobile development platform. usa: the pragmatic bookshelf. corbeil, g. 2007. can powerpoint presentations effectively replace textbooks and blackboards for teaching grammar? do students find them an effective learning tool?. calico journal, 24, 631-656. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/cj.v24i3.631-656 crawford, r. 2013. the ict teacher’s handbook teaching, learning and managing ict in the secondary school. london: routledge. darcey, l. and conder, s. 2010. teach yourself android application development in 24 hours. usa: sams. esteras, s. r., and fabre, e. m. 2007. professional english in use ict. cambridge: cambridge university press. harmer, j. 2001. the practice of english language teaching. uk: longman. harvey-smith, n. 2011. the practical guide to debating world style/british parliamentary style. new york: idebate press. hopkins, d. 1993. a teacher’s guide to classroom research second edition. buchringhom: open university press. jose, a. 2015. pengguna smartphone di indonesia capai 55 juta. retrieved from http://techno.okezone.com/read/2015/09/19/57/1217340/2015-penggunasmartphone-di-indonesia-capai-55-juta kim, h. s. 2015. using authentic videos to improve efl students‟ listening comprehension. international journal of contents, 11, 15-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.5392/ijoc.2015.11.4.015 https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=in.apeiro.debateassistant&hl=in http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/cj.v24i3.631-656 http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/cj.v24i3.631-656 http://techno.okezone.com/read/2015/09/19/57/1217340/2015-pengguna-smartphone-di-indonesia-capai-55-juta http://techno.okezone.com/read/2015/09/19/57/1217340/2015-pengguna-smartphone-di-indonesia-capai-55-juta register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.204-229 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 229 lodico, m. g., spaulding, d. t., and voegtle, k. h. 2006. methods in educational research from theory to practice. usa: jossey-bass. marcovitz, d. m. 2012. powerful powerpoint for educators using visual basic for applications to make powerpoint interactive second edition. california: libraries unlimited. mustikasari, d.w. 2014. students’ awareness of characters building in writing class. salatiga: stain salatiga press. nation, i. s. p. and newton, j. 2009. teaching esl/efl listening and speaking. new york: routledge. nunan, d. 2003. practical english language teaching. singapore: mcgrawhill. smith, k. l. 2006. effective use of powerpoint. retrieved from http://fctl.ucf.edu/teachingandlearningresources/technology/powerpoint/index.p hp stephen, m. 2006. presentation with powerpoint learning made simple. london: elsevier. yang, y. j., and che, p. c. 2015. improving college students english learning with dr. eye android mid. tojet: the turkish online journal of education technology, 14, 101-109.http://www.tojet.net/articles/v14i2/14213.pdf http://fctl.ucf.edu/teachingandlearningresources/technology/powerpoint/index.php http://fctl.ucf.edu/teachingandlearningresources/technology/powerpoint/index.php microsoft word 06_register 2021 no. 1 nurjaleka et al register journal – vol 14, no 01 (2021), pp. 99-120 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.99-120 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 99 in the process of being bilingual of an indonesian child: the phenomena of code-switching, language mixing and borrowing lisda nurjaleka,1* rina supriatnaningsih2 1pendidikan bahasa jepang, fakultas bahasa dan sastra, universitas negeri semarang, sekaran, semarang 50229, indonesia *) corresponding author email: lisda_nurjaleka@mail.unnes.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i1.99-120 submission track: received: 14-03-2021 final revision: 26-05-2021 available online: 08-06-2021 copyright © 2021 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract the present study is a longitudinal study for approximately 26 months to the indonesian child and has been through her second language acquisition in japan. a longitudinal study is a research design that involved repeated observation of the same variables over long periods. the acquisition process took place for about four years. after returning to indonesia, the family wants to keep her second language and do some second language maintenance. while in her process to be bilingual, she experienced a process of code-switching and code-mixing in her daily lives using their mother tongue, indonesian, and her second language, japanese. this research focuses on how the child maintains her second language and how the bilingual process's phenomena occur through interactions in the family environment. several language transfers from the second language to the first language occur in their daily life using indonesian. this study uses an ethnographic research approach. conducting ethnographic research requires a long-term process by making detailed notes about the group's behavior and beliefs from time to time. observation and interviews are the procedures used in data collection in the field. the transfer language process is used through the code-mixing, codeswitching, and preservation process of the second language after returning home. the results saw that the child both use language systems in each language and sometimes mixed in between languages, as she has her languages. keywords: code-switching; language mixing; japanese as a second language; bilingual proces l. nurjaleka, r. supriatnaningsih register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 100 introduction a phenomenon of code-switching, language mixing, or borrowing arises concerning the bilingual context. in multilingual and bilingual environments, this typically happens in societies. many scholars studied these in terms of child bilingualism, the phenomenon of code-switching, language mixing and borrowing (yumoto, 1996); code-switching associated with language identity and globalization (hall & nilep, 2015); code-switching and borrowing focused on language contact for immigrants in australia (alvanoudi, 2018) and others. some studies estimated that nearly 70% of the world's population is bilingual and lives in a bilingual environment (trask, 1999; crystal, 2003). this scope of bilingualism is very closely linked to indonesian populations. in 2019, indonesia had approximately 1,340 ethnic groups and consists of almost 700 spoken local languages, according to bps (badan pusat statistik; central statistics agency). thus, indonesia is considered one of the countries rich in cultural diversity. almost all indonesian people are bilingual because of the number of ethnic groups and local languages. on average, they can also speak bahasa indonesia and the local language. unlike neighboring malaysia, which uses english as their second language, or the philippines. in indonesia, english has been introduced as a foreign language in schools. similarly, schools are free to include other foreign languages at the middle and intermediate stages, such as french, chinese, japanese, and others. (noprival, rafli & nurudin, 2019). bilingualism means an alternate use of two or more languages by the same person (mackey, 2000, p. 27). there are two bilingual types in terms of "learning time," which are simultaneous bilingual and sequential/successive bilingual. in this study, a bilingual indonesian child is considered a sequential bilingual process. it means that bilinguals start learning one language and then start learning another language with a time lag. according to de houwer (2009), there is a distinction between the first and second languages because the two languages are learned step by step but in the early stages of daily contact with the two languages. in bilingualism, there are two levels, the individual level and the social level, according to yamamoto (2014). the individual level is when the child experiences the acquisition of both languages personally. meanwhile, bilingualism is at the social level because bilingualism transcends social, in the process of being bilingual of an indonesian child …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 101 political, economic, and other relationships. it can then be categorized as bilingualism at the social level. immigrants transitioning to a new language, for example, are bound to be bilingual (sometimes more). some immigrant groups often maintain and pass on their native language to the next generation. study on code-switching can be seen from various perspectives such as linguistics, psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics. the linguistic perspective focuses more on finding universal grammar boundaries, while the psycholinguistic perspective focuses on how the linguistic system is stored and accessed in the cognitive system. furthermore, code-switching can also be seen from a linguistic perspective that focuses on its user's social motivation. (isurin et al., 2009). the approach can be seen from the language of interaction, according to auer (2009), about structural and functional code-switching. moreover, he argues that, for syntactic research, code-switching does not provide many interesting data. several studies on code-switching, especially in structural and grammatical aspects, are sometimes closely related to second language acquisition (sla). the approaches or perspectives are taken to become an interesting issue to examine code-switching, language mixing, and borrowing. in certain communities, multi-lingual interactions make it possible to create social diversity amid globalization's acceleration. this study seeks to review the indonesian child's process started to be bilinguals in a family in a multilingual environment in terms of bilingualism, interlingual family, and language maintenance, where phenomena such as language mixing, code-mixing, and borrowing occur while in the process. the researcher's interest in the second language maintenance process is to use observations to preserve indonesian children's language who have acquired japanese as a second language. in multilingual communities or minority communities, this phenomenon appears often occurred. however, few studies yet analyze the perspective as a tool of second language maintenance. language maintenance several studies have linked language maintenance to immigrants who live in certain countries and maintain their heritage language in the majority language community regarding language maintenance and code-switching phenomena. humans have the same ability when they lose or forget language l. nurjaleka, r. supriatnaningsih register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 102 as they learn the language, according to reilly (1988). due to this lack of an environment that supports the proper use of linguistics in using a particular language, many lose language skills. for example, in some cases, children or adults who are monolingual native speakers of another language are now monolingual english speakers. they are no longer able to use their mother tongue. referring to second language maintenance has taken place in countries such as canada. harley (1994) examined how canadian adults' second language is maintained, the french they learned in school. to maintain the language, they conduct their second language maintenance successfully with several activities. higher initial competence and the use of a second language are often positive attempts to maintain competence. as a motivation, they also carry out a fun and interesting activities to maintain the language so that motivation is maintained in the use of the language. yu (2005) examined the language maintenance and code-switching in young chinese immigrants influenced by family factors. it can be seen that the use of mandarin decreased after about 28 months in new zealand as a result of the study. some parents claim that english is used too often by their kids. despite their parents' wish for their child to maintain their native language and parental input significance. there tends to be an early stage in code-switching among children, leading to language change. in the language maintenance process of immigrants, this phenomenon of code-switching, code-mixing, and borrowing is evident because they live in a multi-lingual environment. it is possible to identify three types of contact situations closely related to code-switching, namely language maintenance, language shift, and language creation (windford, 2003). maintenance language carried out by minority groups of their native languages from generation to generation due to contact. some changes bring more strength and prestige, such as borrowing forms, constructions, or patterns from the dominant group's language. (alvanoudi, 2018) code-switching, code-mixing, and borrowing in terms of sociolinguistics according to poplack (2001), code-switching (cs) refers to the mixing by bilinguals (or multilingual) of or more languages in a discourse. often, no change in the interlocutors or topic. this kind of mixing can occur at the level of in the process of being bilingual of an indonesian child …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 103 any linguistic structure. however, it occurs within the boundaries of one sentence, constituent, or even word, which is of concern to most linguistic researchers. code-mixing refers to all cases related to two languages' lexical and grammatical features that appear in one sentence. (muysken, 2000) code-switching is discussed by linguistics scholars, including gumperz (1982), auer (1995), sebba & wootton (1998), and others. in the multilingual repertoire, meaning should not be confused with the "social meaning" of various languages because it is often believed to exist in diglossic situations. although code-switching has become a hallmark of bilingual communities worldwide, it has only become the center of attention among scholars in the last few decades. other studies have shown that bilinguals can move between languages for various reasons and contexts. the inability to find the correct word to use "to fill a linguistic need" (pulisse and bongaerts, 1994) or the greater availability of a word in another language are some of the reasons for using code-switching. myusken (2000) argues that code-switching still needs to be studied more deeply regarding social explanations. it can be concluded from some of the literacy above, which includes the terms code-switching, that in addition to code-switching, there are many cases of the juxtaposition of two languages, one of which is "mixing" both languages, dialects, etc. according to some literature, the categorization of language mixing is explained by overlapping terminology. language mixing refers to "the merging in any verbal communication of characteristics of two or more languages" (odlin, 1989). odlin (1989) also added that bilingualism is often equated with language mixing and code-switching. two separate systems are not always known to young bilinguals that mix languages (dopke, 1992; taeschner, 2012), so their language mixing is described as "unfocused mixing." some studies have also discussed borrowing transfers in australia's ethnic language, dyribal, which experienced friction due to the english exposure (reported in odlin 1989:12). another study discusses the friction that occurs due to borrowing transfers, including several variations of the swiss roman by german and the greek variations by turkish and norwegian, influenced by american english. (odlin, 1989) l. nurjaleka, r. supriatnaningsih register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 104 when two languages are interconnected, and individuals with special communicative needs try to make the language “more similar,” so to speak, fill in what is lacking in each with constructs from the other, namely by linguistic borrowing. (baker, 2018) words can be borrowed by one community and become part of another language as loanwords. several studies have also discussed children's code-switching (meisel, 1994; reyes, 2004; yu, 2005; cantone, 2007), showing that children develop bilingual communicative competence and learn to use their two languages depending on the recipient (addressee), the topic of conversation and the situation. in this study, the phenomena of code-switching, language mixing, and borrowing are seen from a sociolinguistic perspective by maintaining an indonesian child's second language. in the context of a family environment, these three sociolinguistic phenomena will also be associated with the choice of family language and language use. from previous research, it can be seen that family language policy and its use in the family context determine whether children become bilingual and maintain their heritage language. (pavlenko, 2004; dumanig, david, & shanmuganathan, 2013) however, there is very little research on the implementation of codeswitching, language mixing, and borrowing in the second language maintenance context. especially in the diaspora context, they return home to their country and maintain their second language. apart from their native language, intercultural communication and knowledge of other languages have also been essential in recent years. an effort must therefore be made to retain japanese as a second language. meanwhile, the phenomenon of code-switching, language mixing, and borrowing occurred during the process. the following research questions arise and will be the content of this paper: how are the sequential bilingual process of indonesian child? and are there any code-switching, language mixing, and borrowing in the process of being bilingual? research method maintaining a second language in a mother language society with only one parent speaking the second language is challenging for the parent and the child. in the process of being bilingual of an indonesian child …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 105 this case study explores this very situation over the twenty-sixth months, with their home language is indonesian. the child's community is the mother who speaks indonesian, japanese, and her mother language is sundanese. meanwhile, the father only communicates with her in indonesian, and his second language is english. the father only understands passively japanese, and it is at entry-level. this study took place in semarang city, central java province, indonesia. it is important to mention that the leading researcher received access to the participants as her mother. to better understand this reality's context, it is essential first to introduce the subject of this study and the interlocutors involved. moreover, we also explain where the study took place and how the data was collected. participants this study's subject is shafa, a tenth-year-old indonesian child (born of two indonesian parents in indonesian); she was an only child at the time of this study. interested in developing her second language and the child's linguistic behavior, as her mother, as the lead researcher in this study, gained access to the data we have collected. the family has been lived in japan for about four years. so, she acquired japanese naturally in a japanese community. the observation begins with the main author from may 2018 until june 2020, after the family returned home from japan, where they lived before for four years. shafa was in grade fifth of an elementary school in indonesia when the observation began. in japan, she entered a public school from the first grade until the fourth grade. she acquired her second language, japanese, in school informally. still, she also has taken a japanese language course formally supported by kanazawa's city government, a city in ishikawa prefecture of japan. the language course length was once a week for two hours for 1,5 years. she acquired her second language, japanese, in her school, and she used japanese to interact with her classmates, teachers. shafa's japanese language competency is nearly fluent as she passed the japanese language proficiency test (jlpt) level n2 and has mastered 2,000 kanji and 10.000 words equivalent with jlpt level n1. after returning home to indonesia, she takes her japanese proficiency every six months, and each year she passed the examination bar. the n1 level criteria categorize that the person l. nurjaleka, r. supriatnaningsih register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 106 has sufficient for life in japanese society. the n1 level is the highest level of the jlpt. trustworthiness, role of the researcher and ethical consideration the main and lead researcher is the mother of the subject and has been observing and collecting data using videos and fieldnote within the family. the co-author interviewed the child to deliver an objective result of the interview. to ensure the findings in this study are trustworthy, we shared the interview transcriptions with the subject to check what we had recorded and transcribed matched with their standpoints (koelsch, 2013). besides, as both a researcher and the participant's mother, collecting data by observing using videos and field notes inside the family. we also took follow-up interviews to ensure the data's validation. moreover, we sought an opinion from the child. there is no conflict of interest between the researcher and the subject. i gained access directly by observed her language behavior in daily life. the family, father, and the child are fully aware and consent to the observations and followup interview. settings we started the observation as a part of the longitudinal study after the family and the child returned home to indonesia. we focused on how the child and the family maintained the child's second language, japanese using an ethnography study approach. our primary interest was in her experiences using code-switching, language mixing, and borrowing in the familial environment. an ethnography approach uses to look from a cultural perspective to study people's lives in their communities (hammersley and atkinson, 2007; fetterman, 2010). this study's theoretical underpinnings follow a qualitative approach (tracy, sj., geist-martin, p., putnam, l.l., & mumby, d.k., 2014) using an ethnographic perspective to provide a complete view of children's code-switching, language mixing, and borrowing patterns. research context this paper's primary interest is in investigating the indonesian child and the interaction with the family members managing their way to maintain the second language. moreover, how the process into bilingual was observed. the aim is to explore the sociolinguistic phenomena of code-switching, language in the process of being bilingual of an indonesian child …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 107 mixing, and borrowing in empirical detail to the process of being bilingual and the family's aim to maintain her second language, japanese, in the home language community. we conducted fieldwork in the familial environment and her interaction with the family, focusing on bilingual interaction. observation notes, audiorecorded interactions, and interviews with children are among the data collected. to achieve the aims of this study effectively, as the main researcher and her mother, we use natural data by observing her in the field and sometimes crosschecks with follow-up interviews to the participants about her language behavior. we combine the data collection methods such as interviews, observations, and field notes to get the comprehensive data field and, as dornyei (2007) suggested, how to conduct ethnography research. johnson (1998) also emphasized that ethnography study is to "describe and interpret the culture behavior, including communicating a group's behavior." in this study, we observed a young bilingual child reveal some aspect of language behavior focusing on code-switching, language mixing, and borrowing. the primary data is taken by recording the participant and the researcher's conversation. figure 1 the field note design l. nurjaleka, r. supriatnaningsih register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 108 data analysis the collected material was carefully transcribed and noted, and then thoroughly studied and analyzed. some examples are given in this paper show s.r bilingual process patterns, and the researcher observed code-switching, language mixing, and borrowing. each activity on bilingual language behavior is recorded following: 1) whether the code-switch/language mixing complies with the equivalent limitations, the grammar category, the codeswitching/code-mixing category, and, 2) whether the code-switching or codemixing can be distinguished as an activity of this analysis based on the equivalent boundaries as poplack (1998a) described. moreover, the grammatical analysis categories are defined by zentella (1997). results and discussion in being a sequential bilingual, the child takes steps to keep both languages and use them daily. this study's leading researcher focused on observation on the phenomenon of code-switching, language mixing, and borrowing of indonesian children in the family interaction. the field notes we collected from the observation categorize that the bilingual level is still individual. it means that the use of both languages has not yet reached the social aspect. as yamamoto (2014) described, the child uses both languages personally and within the family environment. moreover, we noticed these phenomena of code-switching, language mixing, and borrowing between two languages from the beginning of our observation. meanwhile, a monolingual could not have the ability to move between these languages. language transfer and borrowing occurred in the process of second language maintenance this stage of borrowing and transferring was observed and occurred in the subject. this study's context is that the subject's first language is indonesian, and the second language is japanese. the author observed her linguistic skills in using and borrowing from the second language, which was used to explain in her first language, indonesia. in the process of being bilingual of an indonesian child …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 109 below are some of the sentences that categorize borrowing the japanese term and use in indonesian sentences. s.r. could not get a word equivalent, or she felt it difficult to translate to indonesian. example 1: “mamah nanti nihongo nouryokushiken-nya gimana?” (translation: mama, how about the nihongo nouryokushiken?) example 2: “aku rikka-nya lagi belajar itu” (translation: i think i learn that rikka.) the context of the second sentence is the use of the term “noryokushiken”, which is an official language assessment for the japanese language, known as the japanese language proficiency test (or called jlpt), and the term “noryokushiken” is more popular and general among japanese learners. so the child uses “noryokushiken” as borrowing from her second language, japanese, in the term she uses more familiar. meanwhile, in example two, shafa was talking to her mother about her homework from school. in this sentence, she borrows the japanese word, "rikka," which means "science”. this borrowing to occurred in both sentences is that the child feels more familiar and comfortable using japanese terms. the reason for the emergence of this borrowing phenomenon is that the child is more familiar with the term “rikka” in the previous school and is not familiar with the term "ipa" in his mother tongue. this reason is based on the first time the term "rikka" was acquired by the child in the second language, japanese. the term is felt more familiar, and it is a bit difficult to find an equivalent because the acquisition sequence process reversed. baker (2018) mentioned that borrowing the vocabulary is when a language or term does not get a word equivalent or is challenging to translate. in this section, the author explains how the experiences and perspectives of the child and her parents. moreover, when two languages are related, individuals who have specials communicative needs try to make the language more similar to what is lacking in a particular language, namely by borrowing linguistics. another phenomenon that occurred in this second language maintenance and being bilingual is language transfer. this language transfer mainly an influence of the mother tongue to the other languages or vice versa. l. nurjaleka, r. supriatnaningsih register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 110 according to odlin (1990), there are several differences between the transfer from the mother tongue (l1) to the second language (l2), where the influence of l1 can manifest itself as a transfer or borrowing. meanwhile, the second language (l2) influence tends to manifest itself only in borrowing. from the observation result, we can see that language transfer and borrowing were influenced by different language environments, which in this study, the child environment is her first language. it can be seen that her first language (l1) has a much stronger character and more fluently than her second language of japanese. the author found the emergence of transfer structure semantic and syntactic structure in his daily life in indonesian. an example is like the following sentence. example 3: “mamah, ini sekken-nya bisa disatuin lagi? masa gimana caranya di-fukkatsuin, gimana caranya aku gak tau”. (translation: mama, this sekken can we combined again? how we fukkatsu it? i don't know how?) from example 3 above, there is a transfer of semantic structures and syntactic structures that affect the utterance in the native language, indonesian. the syntactic structure here is in indonesian interrupted by japanese vocabulary and verbs. the word used "sekken," which means soap, and adding a suffix of "-nya" in indonesian indicates the interruption of indonesian sentences and indonesian syntactic patterns. likewise, the use of the verb "fukkatsu" in japanese is added with an indonesian affix "di-" and suffix "-in" in one sentence. according to several studies, the syntactic transfer process is also found in l2 acquisition in children (muller, 1998). if the syntactic rules differ from the two languages, the target language's syntactic expression can be affected by the second language's existing syntactic knowledge. it is resulting in a detectable syntactic transfer. so, it can be seen that children use two different languages in one utterance. syntax rules are difficult to define due to a lack of pronunciation by bilingual children of two and three words. this syntactic transfer phenomenon is found in the l2 acquisition of children and second language maintenance from the above example. from the observation to the subject in her daily life using her native language and japanese's second language. several observation categories are in the process of being bilingual of an indonesian child …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 111 seen through linguistic structures such as semantics, syntax, and grammar categories. marian & kaushanskaya (2007), in their research, explained that the phenomenon of cross-linguistic borrowing is an activity of using words from other languages openly, and language transfer means the use of semantic or syntactic structure from other languages without actively changing into that language. from the examples given above, we can see that the phenomenon of cross-linguistic borrowing occurred as in marian & kasuhanskaya's study. the syntactic rules use in example 3 are in the indonesian language. from the result, we can conclude that being bilingual makes it possible to switch between languages. changing linguistic contexts can affect the coding of nouns and verbs, resulting in different cross-language interaction patterns for the two different grammar, with verb coding being more affected by language change than by noun coding. code-switching and language mixing on the process of being bilingual we use poplack (1980) approach to categorize and differentiate between code-switching and language mixing. this code-switching is often used by someone bilingual who uses two languages in one conversation context as the norm for individual behavior. many studies say that bilinguals switch from one language to another for various reasons and contexts. the motivation for codeswitching is that sometimes there is a lack of understanding of certain vocabulary or difficulties finding the individual's right equivalent words. some of the code-switching classifications found in the data that the authors have collected described as follows: situational code-switching versus conversational code-switching gumperz (1977) categorizes code-switching into conversational codeswitching and situational code-switching. what is meant by situational variables based on topic, interlocutor, and events that trigger code-switching? this situational code transfer is an alternation between variations that change the situation to change the existing norms. below are some examples of the sentences categorized as situational codeswitching, are as follows: l. nurjaleka, r. supriatnaningsih register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 112 examples 4: “yang di sini, ocha no aji wa sukunai” (translation: this restaurant, ocha no aji wa sukunai (the taset of the tea is thin)) examples 5: “nukechattayo, keluar sendiri”  aplikasi di ipad keluar sendiri (translation: “ i missed it, it’s log out by themselves” talking about an application on the ipad is log out by themselves) examples 6: “kan sameta, dianya udah kedinginan” (translation: it’s getting cold. sameta = cold) examples 7: “itu apa? itsu tsukatta houga ii no?” (translation: “what’s that, when can it be used?”) based on the observational notes, situational code-switching fulfills certain functions, including specifying certain things, such as in example 4, when the child discusses something secret and does not want someone to know. she expressed her opinion about the different tea tastes when in the context, they were going out to the restaurant. so, she intentionally used her japanese so that no one in the surrounding knows what she said. situational code-switching also functions when the speaker wants to clarify the potential or lack of understanding of something; this can be seen from example 5. it is explained when the subject talks to her mother discussing her ipad applications that often log off independently. emphasis is done when the child has already expressed it in japanese and emphasizes his speech again by adding the same indonesian expression. as is the case with example 6, we can see the context of the food “oyakodon,” the emphasis is placed on indonesian for vocabulary that comes first in japanese. another function of situational code-switching can be seen from example 7 when the child emphasizes something in her sentence. when in indonesian, it is not enough, she adds and emphasizes her sentences again in japanese. example 7 is about soap from the biore brand that she does not know its function. from the examples above, we found that situational code-switching is a natural process that occurs in bilingual young people, partly due to pragmatic in the process of being bilingual of an indonesian child …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 113 differences and understanding of their situation. when they learn a language, children learn to express what they think and communicate with other people who have particular social situations. so it can be seen that language switching is influenced by parents or people when they are interacting. these results support grim's (2008) study on the roles of an english-french bilingual's situational code-switching. emblematic code-switching versus intimate code-switching from the collected data, we found several examples of emblematic codeswitching, such as: examples 8: “apa ya? nan dakke” (translation: what is it?.... nan dakke) example 9: “mamah, sugoi yo ma” (translation: mamah, looks it’s cool ma…) example 10: “keju oishii da mon” (translation: cheese are yummy) some markers occurred, such as a single noun that is often used in the language, for example, in english "honey," or several short expressions (such as: are you kidding, give me a break, you know, i mean, etc.). according to dumitrescu (1993), these things are often a feature of emblematic codeswitching. in this case, we found several examples, such as the sentence above in the form of short expressions that are often used and code-switched. the phrase "nan dakke" is usually an expression often used when expressing a speaker's confusion. "nan dakke" is a type of discourse marker in japanese. also, several phrases such as "sugoi yo" or "oishii da mon" are cliches often used by japanese people to say "ohh, that is great" or "it is good," also seen as being used by the child. several findings of code-switching sentences appear that the attachment of these expressions is felt to be appropriate and embedded in indonesian syntax. meanwhile, intimate code-switching, or often referred to as intrasentential code-switching, is a code-changing category or changes ultimately to another language system within the boundaries of the main constituents, such as: example 11: l. nurjaleka, r. supriatnaningsih register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 114 “tuh mah burung mah, tsukamaeta” (translation= look ma, the birds, it captured) example 12 “aksara jawa mah, maa 90% oboete iru kedo, sukoshi wakaranai tokoro mo aru” (well for javanese alphabet, i think i can remember 90% of them. however, there’s some that i still don’t know) example 13 “punya salwa ga habis, atama ga kiin suru kara” (the one that salwa has not yet dranked, she said because her head is hurt) from the examples above, we can see that the child used many intimate code-switching. there is a change of transfer from one language to another when in one utterance. the intimate code-switching does not violate the two languages' syntactic rules; it can even be seen that the two languages' surface structures mapped to one another. this study results support poplack's (2001) study stating that non-fluent bilinguals often use this type of code-switching. it does not mean the inability of a bilingual who is not fluent in expressing only one language. however, it appears that, at times, the subject deliberately combines the two systems of grammar rules and is not attracted to other rules of language. this code-switching requires high competency skills for both languages. from the author's observation, several examples of sentences like the one above are deliberate subjects combining two grammar rules without overlapping each other. we conclude that there are several models of bilingualism. we can see that code-switching and language mixing in the daily use of research subjects are bilingualism. these phenomena indicate that the child has developed a combined bilingual model system. bilingualism or language mixing or codeswitching or language transfer and borrowing are aspects of cross-linguistics in language contact situations. language mixing serves to fill linguistic needs and maximize communicative competence. language mixing also offers interesting topics concerning the bilingualism model. it introduces a mixture of grammar to discourse, which is seen in code-switching, such as grammar combinations and switching languages. the observation notes also found language mixing, which is quite broad, such as intrasentential code-mixing. meanwhile, in perspective used by auer (1998, 1999), code-mixing (or language mixing) conflicts with code-switching (or language switching) based in the process of being bilingual of an indonesian child …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 115 on structural pragmatic considerations. concerning code-mixing, the pragmatic content can be categorized as low enough where the structurally different code cannot be differentiated communicatively. in contrast, code-switching is relatively high, where the speaker shows awareness between two structurally differentiated codes. the child uses only the vocabulary it has acquired and used to communicate at that moment. language mixing is different from language switching when the language mixing process occurs without the child realizing it. conclusion this study is an ethnographic study on maintaining the second language of an indonesian child and focuses on how the child surviving her second language, japanese, in a family environment. the language transfer process such as code-switching, language mixing, and borrowing was found in her interactions with the family member. some language transfers are found from the second language to the first language or vice versa. this language maintenance process is unique from other studies due to the special specifications that arise due to the child's second language acquisition process, even though it is a relatively short time of about four years. she then returned to the activities in her native language, even though the process of acquiring her second language cannot be said to have been completed. the environment, which plays an important role in the language acquisition process, is also the key in this study. the research focuses on the conditions and family support in terms of maintaining japanese as a second language. some phenomena such as language transfer occur in adapting to the native-speaking environment and the child's efforts to maintain japanese. so that along with this maintained process, the surviving to maintain her second language were seen. we can also summarize in our interview result that family plays a vital role in her being bilingual. the family is a social organization that allows cross-cultural and cross-generational variables to emerge. phenomena in language transfer stages are also found, such as codeswitching, language mixing, and borrowing. this phenomenon commonly l. nurjaleka, r. supriatnaningsih register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 116 appears in the bilingual and second language learning processes. language transfer, either as active semantic or syntactic structures, is seen in everyday life when using "home language." it forms an idiolect or individual language that creates an interlanguage type. this cross between the first and second languages results in the two languages being tied to each other, resulting in an interlanguage. in this interlanguage stage, we found the phase of developing bilingualism. moreover, the bilingual child tends to have metalinguistic abilities, cognitive flexibility, conceptual elaboration, divergent thinking, and cognitive pluralism. therefore, code-switching, code-mixing in the form of other language patterns are not commonly found in monolingualism. acknowledgment the researchers would like to gratefully acknowledge the dean of faculty of language and art, universitas negeri semarang, and vice dean of academics for their support and grant given in finishing this research.[rgt] references alvanoudi, a. 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(1997). growing up bilingual: puertorican children in new york. l. nurjaleka, r. supriatnaningsih register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 120 the page has been intentionally left blank. microsoft word 02_register 2021 no. 1 shahid dkk register journal – vol 14, no 01 (2021), pp. 25-42 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 25 whites and browns: a contrastive study of metadiscourse in english newspaper editorials muhammad imtiaz shahid,1 hafiz muhammad qasim,2* muhammad hasnain3 1, 2, 3 department of applied linguistics, faculty of social sciences, government college university faisalabad, punjab 38000, pakistan *) corresponding author email: muhammadqasim@gcuf.edu.pk doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 submission track: received: 07-10-2020 final revision: 01-04-2021 available online: 01-06-2021 copyright © 2021 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract metadiscourse is an interesting field of inquiry which is believed to play a vital role in organizing and producing persuasive writing. it is a set of linguistic devices used to communicate attitudes and mark the structural properties of a text. the study aimed to investigate whether native and non-native varieties of english varieties are similar or different from each other from the perspective of interactional meta-discourse markers. the study as contrastive rhetoric research scrutinized a corpus of 900 newspapers editorials (450 written in native english newspapers and 450 written in non-native english newspapers). editorials were culled from 15 native english newspapers belonging to three native english countries, england, america and new zealand, and 15 non-native english newspapers belonging to three non-native english countries, pakistan, india and sri lanka. based on the model of metadiscourse given by hyland (2005), interactional metadiscoursive resources were analyzed. the frequencies of interactional metadiscourse markers in both native and nonnative varieties were counted and compared with each other. the results disclosed that there were worth-pointing differences between the native and non-native english editorialists in the use of interactional metadiscourse markers. two different varieties of english editorials showed variations particularly in the use of hedging and self-mention markers. on the whole, findings suggested that the use of interactionalmetadiscourse markers in native english editorials were more frequent than those in non-native english editorials which made their writings more appealing and convincing context. keywords: metadiscourse; native; non-native; newspaper; editorials m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. hasnain register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 26 introduction language is a part of society (moreno, 1997) and society is inextricably linked to the culture which means that a piece of writing is a reflection of culture (moreno, 1997). writings emerge out of language. that is why language and writing are said to be a cultural phenomenon (kaplan, 1996). the result of such a cultural phenomenon is that every society has its language and rhetorical norms and traditions (connor, 1996). therefore, it can be pointed out that usage of metadiscourse may vary across different cultures, languages and communities. the social view of written communication suggests that the text is a site where the writer and the reader are engaged in dialogic interactions based on shared interpretive practices. fowler (1991) considers the author and the reader to be co-creators, discussing the nature and importance of language based on more or less shared knowledge of the world, society and language. the term “metadiscourse” was coined by harris in 1959 to understand the system of language. metadiscourse is an essential tool for creating links among texts and their contexts in which they are used because metadiscourse directs readers’ attention towards certain forms of engagements and interactions. it brings into light the dialogic role of discourse by revealing authors’ understanding through the way he/she addresses readers and their needs. it is a way of looking at language use based on the fact that, as we speak or write, we monitor the possible responses of others, making decisions about the kind of effects we are having on our listeners or readers, and adjusting our language to best achieve our purposes. metadiscourse is one of the main tools that allows an author to create the meaning of a text and its social impacts on society and its readers (siddique, mahmood & iqbal, 2018). it includes works by authors and their readers on mutual understanding and engagement (hyland, 2005). authors use the methodiscourse to demonstrate the appropriate professional personality to guide and motivate their readers because the metadiscourse is an important part of persuasive writing (hyland, 1998a). therefore, persuasive writing can be considered a major object for metadiscourse research. in this regard, ansary and babaii (2009) point out that editorials play an important part in the design of readers’ ideology and position of their readers because editorialists by designing the design of their writings design the position and ideology of their readers. editorialist may inculcate the ideology for which he is working. whites and browns: a contrastive study of metadiscourse …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 27 an editorialist may persuade, motivate, change, and even manipulate others (milne, 2008). for this purpose, editorialists use metadiscourse as a strategy of manipulation and persuasion (siddique, mahmood & iqbal, 2018). ansary and babaii (2009) pointed out that editorials of the newspapers are a significant and interesting genre for the investigation of linguistic variations among different cultures because editorials are very much representative day to day and cultural issues. as a result, a cross-linguistic study on the organization of metadiscourse would yield interesting results in newspapers’ editorials. as stated earlier, the current study has used interpersonal metadiscourse model given by hayland in 2005 which is divided into two categories, interactional category and interactive category. both interactional and interactive categories of the model are given in figure 1 and 2. different markers of the model are identified and categorized based on hyland’s (2005) classification of interactional category. studying metadiscourse is a well-established research field. many researchers have conducted research using interpersonal metadiscourse model. different markers of metadiscourse have been identified and examined in several ways by different researchers in a number of contexts, including science popularizations, textbooks (crismore, 1984; hyland, 1999, 2000), student writing (crismore, markkanen & steffensen, 1993), research articles (mauranen, 1993; valero, 1996; moreno, 1997; hyland, 1998a, 1998b, 2000, 2001; mur-dueñas, 2011), and advertisement (olivera, sacristán, baño & fernández, 2001). but surprisingly little attention has been given to the genre of newspaper opinion and editorials. contrastive studies are more important than a normal investigation of metadiscourse because they analyse two fields and by comparing them give results. they are more important for the understanding of cultural and linguistic variations (mina & biria, 2017). bhatia (1993) pointed out that there are a lot of genres within one newspaper such as sports reports, opinions, editorials, news reports, and headlines etc. which make the language of a newspaper attractive. in such a wide variety of genres, an editorial is the most significant and appropriate for the analysis of metadiscourse because editorials hold writers’ opinion about political and public issues (mina & biria, 2017). m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. hasnain register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 28 figure 1 hyland’s model of interpersonal metadiscourse (2005: 49) figure 2 hyland’s model of interpersonal metadiscourse (2005: 49) a contrastive study of persian and english editorials was conducted by kuhi and mojood in 2012 based on hyland’s model (2005). it showed very interesting results. the results disclosed that english and persian editorials were different from each other because of their linguistic and cultural variations. the study pointed out that attitude markers and interactional markers were very prominent in newspapers editorials. on the whole, the results of the research commended that metadiscourse had a conclusive role in the organization of persuasive techniques in newspapers commentaries. whites and browns: a contrastive study of metadiscourse …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 29 following this tradition of contrastive research a cross-linguistic study conducted by shahid, qasim and hasnain (2020). it analyzed english and urdu newspaper editorials by using hyland’s (2005) model. the results of the study showed that both the languages were different from each other in the use of metadiscourse markers. on the whole, the study concluded that the use of interactional metadiscourse was a predominant category and attitude marker was a predominant feature in both groups. although different researches were conducted in the past by the different researchers in different genres there is a complete lack of contrastive research on newspaper editorials. there is a dire need of metadiscourse research in this field. that is why the present study intended to investigate interactional metadiscourse markers in native and non-native english editorials. objectives and hypothesis the present research is designed to find out whether the native and nonnative english varieties are similar or different from one another. it is also designed to investigate the differences and similarities between native and nonnative english editorialist in the use of interactional metadiscourse marker. it tries to find out whether both groups of editorialists use similar types of markers or not. it is based on premise that english editorialists are good at using metadiscourse markers in their editorials than non-native ones which make their writing more appealing and convincing. research method data collection two different corpora were built based on the selection of 900 (450 written in native english newspaper and 450 written in pakistani english newspaper) editorials taken from native newspapers and non-native english newspapers. to mitigate the diachronic effects on the selected sample, only editorials published in march, april and may (2019) were included in the sample. the purpose of taking data from native and non-native english editorial was that the researcher assumed native english editorialists were better in english and using metadiscourse markers in their editorials than non-native ones. table 1 and 2 shed more light on the selection procedure of data. links of newspapers were given in the reference list under the heading of newspaper. m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. hasnain register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 30 table 1 a summary of the data sample taken from native english editorials sr. no name of newspaper country no of editorials words 01 the new york time america 30 13437 02 washington post 30 15882 03 afro american 30 19428 04 state of arizona 30 21372 05 usa today 30 17610 06 the guardian england 30 23538 07 city a.m. 30 15183 08 lancashire evening post 30 14133 09 yorkshire post 30 18504 10 the bolton news 30 25788 11 the new zealand herald new zealand 30 18489 12 the press 30 24507 13 the northern advocate 30 21246 14 the southland times 30 15282 15 the nelson mail 30 13737 total 450 278136 table 2 a summary of the data sample taken from non-native english editorials sr. no name of newspaper country no of editorials words 01 dawn pakistan 30 19701 02 the news international 30 15147 03 pakistan observer 30 21270 04 the nation 30 17967 05 daily pakistan 30 26763 06 hindustan times india 30 21291 07 times of india 30 13707 08 the tribune 30 21291 09 the hindu 30 16935 10 the new india express 30 20736 11 daily news sri lanka 30 16296 12 the daily mirror 30 19623 13 sunday observer 30 14163 14 the island 30 14724 15 daily ft 30 19734 total 450 279348 whites and browns: a contrastive study of metadiscourse …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 31 data analysis data analysis was based on hyland model of metadiscourse. as already mentioned, hyland model of metadiscourse was divided into two categories interactive and interpersonal (hyland, 2005) but, in this research, only one category of this model, interactional, was investigated in both native and nonnative english editorials. it was subdivided into five major categories. for subcategories, the description is given in table 3. then frequencies of both groups were investigated using antconc 3.5.7. frequencies of different categories were calculated from both corpus and after getting the total of all markers, the results were compared with one another. table 3 interactional metadiscourse model (hyland, 2005) main categories subcategories examples hedges epistemic verbs may, can, would etc. probability adverbs about, probably, perhaps etc. epistemic expressions most, probable, typical etc. intensifier adverbs always, never, actually etc. booster intensifier adjectives true, obvious, clear etc. intensifier verbs prove, think, decide etc. attitude verbs tend, propose, suggest etc. attitude markers attitudinal adverbs fortunately, unfortunately, etc. attitudinal adjectives inappropriate, usual, unusual etc. self-mention 1st person pronoun we, me, i etc. reader pronoun you, one’s, your etc. engagement markers interjection by the way etc. directive imperatives note, note that etc. obligation modals do not, need to, must to etc. results & discussion based on the results in table 4, the frequency and percentage of boosters, engagement markers and selfmentions in the native english newspapers editorials were significantly more than their use in non-native english newspapers editorials. also, there was a significant difference in applying hedges and attitude markers between the two groups. in subsequent categories m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. hasnain register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 32 of hedges, a significant difference between the two groups was observed. nonnative english editorialists applied epistemic verbs, probability adverbs, and epistemic expressions in their editorials more frequently than the editorialists of native english newspapers. table 4 frequencies of interactional metadiscourse markers in the corpus interactional markers whites editorials f *p browns editorials f p hedges epistemic verbs 3283 21.68 4368 31.65 probability adverbs 1347 8.89 1002 7.26 epistemic expressions 390 2.57 522 3.78 total 5020 33.15 5892 42.70 boosters intensifier adverbs 984 6.50 567 4.10 intensifier adjectives 354 2.33 375 2.71 intensifier verbs 807 5.33 627 4.54 total 2145 14.16 1569 11.37 attitude markers attitude verbs 837 5.52 738 5.34 attitudinal adverbs 63 0.41 150 1.08 attitudinal adjectives 225 1.48 264 1.91 total 1125 7.43 1152 8.34 self-mentions 4827 31.88 2418 17.52 engagement markers reader pronoun 1560 10.30 513 3.71 interjection 03 0.01 03 0.02 directive imperatives 75 0.49 114 0.82 obligation modals 1509 9.96 2136 15.48 total 3147 20.78 2766 20.04 grand total 15138 100 13797 100 note: *=f✕100÷t=%, f: frequency, p: percentage a significant difference was observed in applying intensifier adverbs and verbs. native editorialists used more adverbs than non-native editorialists. in addition, no significant difference was observed in applying intensifier adjectives in two groups. whites and browns: a contrastive study of metadiscourse …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 33 table 5 the use of hedges in newspapers editorials hedges words white editorials f p brown editorials f p epistemic verb may 318 6.33 402 6.82 might 141 2.80 93 1.57 can 684 13.62 738 12.52 could 342 8.42 528 8.96 could not 36 0.71 81 1.37 would 696 13.86 723 12.27 would not 24 0.47 57 0.96 should 294 5.85 648 10.99 should not 15 0.29 87 1.47 need 219 4.36 288 4.88 must 195 3.88 339 5.75 seem 48 0.95 69 1.71 estimate 03 0.05 06 0.10 argue 24 0.47 09 0.15 clear 150 2.98 144 2.44 claim 54 1.07 66 1.12 indicate 09 0.17 18 0.30 tend to 12 0.23 09 0.15 suggest 12 0.23 36 0.61 suppose 06 0.11 00 000 assume 00 000 27 0.45 probability adverbs about 996 19.84 588 9.97 probably 48 0.95 27 0.45 perhaps 75 1.49 108 1.83 maybe 36 0.71 00 00 possibly 24 0.47 00 00 almost 99 1.97 144 2.44 relatively 06 0.11 00 00 fairly 06 0.11 06 0.10 mainly 03 0.05 36 0.61 frequently 09 0.17 12 0.20 sometimes 21 0.41 27 0.45 somewhat 09 0.17 27 0.45 generally 15 0.29 27 0.45 epistemic expressions most 288 5.73 414 7.06 probable 03 0.05 00 000 possible 78 1.55 102 1.47 apparent 09 0.17 00 000 uncertain 03 0.05 03 0.05 typical 06 0.11 00 000 in most cases 03 0.05 03 0.05 total 5019 100 5892 100 note: f: frequency, p: percentage m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. hasnain register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 34 according to the results, hedges were used in the non-native english editorials more than the native english editorials. they were in higher sequence, and all subtypes of this maker were used more frequently in the non-native english editorials as compared to the native ones. table 6 the use of boosters in newspapers editorials booster words white editorials f p brown editorials f p intensifier adverbs certainly 45 2.09 57 3.56 really 168 7.83 42 2.62 undoubtedly 00 0.00 06 0.37 always 189 8.81 81 5.06 never 156 7.27 135 8.44 definitely 18 0.83 15 0.93 obviously 21 0.97 27 1.68 clearly 84 3.91 45 2.81 totally 18 0.83 18 1.12 in fact 69 3.21 69 4.31 of course 99 4.61 48 03 actually 117 5.45 24 1.50 intensifier adjectives true 111 5.17 75 4.69 certain 45 2.09 81 5.06 it is clear that 09 0.41 18 1.12 obvious 21 0.97 27 1.68 undeniable 12 0.55 06 0.37 clear 150 6.99 144 09 evident 06 0.27 24 1.50 intensifier verbs demonstrate 12 0.55 12 0.75 indicate 09 0.41 18 1.12 show 108 5.03 111 6.94 prove 27 1.25 30 1.87 think 153 7.13 66 4.12 decide 24 1.11 33 2.06 know 276 12.86 147 9.19 find 87 4.05 135 8.44 *found 111 5.17 75 4.69 total 2145 100 1599 100 note: *= (siddique, mahmood & iqbal, 2018), f: frequency, p: percentage based on the results in table 6, there was a significant difference between native and non-native editorialists. boosters in the native english editorials were applied more than the non-native editorials of english. in the subcategory whites and browns: a contrastive study of metadiscourse …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 35 of intensifier adverbs, they were used more frequently in the native english editorials compared to the non-native editorials. table 7 the use of attitude markers in newspapers editorials note: *= (siddique, mahmood & iqbal, 2018), f: frequency, p: percentage here in table 7, there was no clear difference observed between native and non-native editorialists. the frequency of attitude markers in both varieties is almost the same. native and non-native editorialists used almost attitude markers with the same frequency. attitude marker words white editorials f p brown editorials f p attitude verbs feel/felt 132+60=192 17.06 27+33=57 5.20 believe/believed 102+60=162 14.4 48+54=102 8.85 *think/thought 153+78=231 20.53 66+87=153 13.2 presume/expect 48+06=54 4.8 15 1.30 consider 39 3.46 48 4.16 appear 09 0.8 57 4.94 sound 27 2.4 54 4.68 notice 09 0.8 60 5.20 sense 48 4.53 93 8.07 suppose 06 0.53 00 000 predict 00 000 03 0.26 estimate 03 0.26 06 0.52 tend 12 1.06 09 0.78 propose 03 0.26 03 0.26 suggest 12 1.06 36 3.12 agree 27 2.4 21 1.82 prefer 00 000 18 1.56 attitudinal adverbs usually 06 0.53 24 2.08 importantly 15 1.33 21 1.82 significantly 09 0.8 39 3.38 unfortunately 27 2.4 60 5.20 fortunately 06 0.53 06 0.52 attitudinal adjectives essential 12 1.06 27 2.34 important 120 10.66 150 13.0 interesting 21 1.86 15 1.30 usual 24 2.13 09 0.78 unusual 15 1.33 15 1.30 remarkable 12 1.06 12 1.04 desirable 00 000 03 0.26 appropriate 12 1.06 24 2.08 inappropriate 03 0.26 03 0.26 understandable 06 0.53 06 0.52 total 1125 100 1152 100 m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. hasnain register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 36 table 8 the use of self-mention in newspapers editorials self-mention words white editorials f p brown editorials f p 1st person pronoun we 1602 33.18 798 33 our 750 15.53 462 19.10 *the author 09 0.18 15 0.62 i 1758 36.42 429 17.74 mine 15 0.31 15 0.62 the writer 03 0.06 93 3.84 us 465 9.63 522 21.58 me 225 4.66 84 3.47 total 4827 100 2418 100 note: *= (siddique, mahmood & iqbal, 2018), f: frequency, p: percentage there was a clear difference in both groups as it can be seen from the above-mentioned table. self-mentions were used more in native english editorials compared to non-native english editorials. the highest difference between native and non-native was found in self-mention we. table 9 the use of engagement markers in newspaper editorials engagement marker words white editorials f p brown editorials f p reader pronoun you 1221 38.79 384 13.88 your 324 10.29 123 4.46 yourself 15 0.47 06 0.21 one's 00 000 00 000 interjection by the way 03 0.09 03 0.10 directive imperatives note that 03 0.09 27 0.97 consider 39 1.23 48 1.73 note 18 0.57 39 1.40 think about 15 0.47 00 000 obligation modals do not 48 1.71 108 3.90 have to 126 4.00 102 3.68 need to 120 3.81 159 5.74 must 195 6.19 339 12.25 should 294 9.34 648 23.42 would 696 22.11 723 26.41 wouldn’t 24 0.76 57 2.06 total 3147 100 2766 100 note: f: frequency, p: percentage whites and browns: a contrastive study of metadiscourse …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 37 according to table 9, reader pronoun and obligations were used more frequently in native english editorials than in the non-native ones. but overall there was not much difference in the two groups. on the whole, the findings of the study have pointed out that both groups of editorialists used interactional metadiscourse indicators in their editorials which show that they were conscious of the momentous part of metadiscourse markers in persuasion and manipulation (hyland, 2005). together with native and non-native newspaper, editorialists used metadiscourse markers to construct, organize and to evaluate the contents of the text. editorialists of both native and non-native english are different at different levels of interactional metadiscourse. editorialists in the two different varsities (native and nonnative) might have diverse approaches in consuming certain subtypes of metadiscourse because of their cultural modifications. the interactional metadiscourse is a resource of logical, persuasive and manipulative varieties (hyland, 2005), so, it can be found very frequently and commonly in the newspaper editorials. dafouz (2003) while pointing out the persuasive and manipulative nature of interpersonal metadiscourse (interactional in hyland’s model) stated that interpersonal metadiscourse is very important in the construction of text which appears attractive, logical and convincing to the reader. hence, the findings of the research suggest that the native and non-native english newspapers editorialists used interactional metadiscourse markers to make their writings more convincing and more appealing. findings show that the hedges and engagement markers are most frequent in both corpora. among the interactional resources, booster and attitude markers are thought to have a convincing and manipulative function. their presence in both the corpora shows that these items function as convincing and manipulative strategies in the editorials. few examples have been discussed below which are found in native and non-native editorials. sometimes they will learn by trial and error (dawn, 1 march 2019). sometimes border patrol makes large (state of arizona, 11 april 2019). this is terrorism and nothing else that nobody could and should tolerate. it must be rooted out forthwith (the daily mirror, 11 april 2019). m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. hasnain register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 38 lawmakers should insist on reading the entire report (washington post, 18 april 2019). according to the study proposed by hyland (2005), attitude pointers furnish an opening for authors to indicate an assumption of common values, attitudes and responses to substance, by this means they describe a situation that brings readers into a state where arouse the concept of consequences of the agreement. so it is considered to be tough and readers are not able to disagree. in this manner, these devices help authors in completing their foremost objectives in the credible writings i.e., encouraging their readers. few examples have been discussed below which are found in native and non-native editorials. unfortunately, this sad story doesn’t end here (hindustan time, 22 april, 2019) unfortunately, there’s plenty of evidence that the president can’t be taken at his word when he says that the report is a “complete and total exoneration” of wrongdoing (the new york time, 18 april, 2019). i sought the thoughts of a retired international journalist whose opinion is usually worthy, knowing his distaste for pilger (the new zealand harald, 17 march 2019). forced marriage is when the bride, groom (or both) don’t want to get married but are pressured into it, usually by their families (pakistan observer, 20 march 2019) the results of the research, therefore, indicate that both native and nonnative editorialists are cognizant of the convincing and manipulative power of these metadiscourse devices that is why they attach prime importance to them in their writings. as a result, one might be accomplished that frequent consumption of attitude indicators is projected as an innate representation of commentaries genre. the outcomes of the research also reveal an interesting difference between the two sets of writers in the editorial genre. there is a significant and clear difference between native and non-native editorials in the use of hedges. non-native english editorials contain fewer hedges than native english editorials which showed a weakening of arguments because hedges show a weakening of a claim through an unambiguous qualification of the writer’s promise to display uncertainty (hyland, 2005, 2007) and show that facts are presented as a judgment rather than qualified facts and figures (hyland, 1998b). hyland (1994: 241) opposes that in persuasive writing, hedges are an whites and browns: a contrastive study of metadiscourse …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 39 important means of both supporting the writer’s position and building writerreader relationships. few examples have been discussed below which are found in native and non-native editorials. it is clear that the cji ought not to have presided over the special bench that took up the matter that concerned himself (the hindu, 7 mach 2019). it is clear that through the afro and the other black press members’ amplification of racial injustices, the black community began to force the majority to recognize the entitlements they could no longer negate based upon race (afro american, 10 april 2019). the native english editorialists heavily overuse hedges by comparison with their non-native counterpart. it may be because of rhetorical conventions which are use by two sets of writers. in the nutshell, native english editorialists are found more appealing and polite to their reader than non-native english editorialists because of the fact presented thorough booster. conclusion the current research showed that frequencies metadiscourse markers were quite frequent in the native english editorials compared to non-native english newspaper editorials. findings of the study concluded that there are differences between native and non-native varieties of english in the use of interactional metadiscourse markers. frequencies of main and subcategories of interactional metadiscourse vary in different englishes as the study revealed that native editorialists used more interactional markers than their counterpart. the study also revealed that there are differences and similarities between native and non-native english regarding the use of markers. there were certain markers which were used by native but not by the non-native or vice-versa. the thing which becomes very important to point out that is the frequencies of the markers. although the markers were similar in both varieties there was a significant variation among their use. for instance, findings of the research showed that use of self-mention, hedges and boosters are different across native and non-native editorials which pointed out linguistics variations across native and non-native cultures. it can be stated that similarities and differences are because of cultural differences between native and non-native editorials. m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. hasnain register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 40 on the whole, the study indicated that metadiscourse plays a significant and vital role in the construction and organization of persuasive strategies in any text. the study indicated that interactional markers played an important role in maintaining the link between reader and writer as it is indicated through attitude markers in both varieties. the study as contrastive research took a step towards the cross-linguistic analysis of two varieties of english within the same genre. it is hoped that it would play a vital role in teaching second and foreign languages. it would be beneficial for the learners and teachers to analyze and identify linguistic variation in the english language. there is considerable potential in this area for future research. the relatively small number of the analysed editorials 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(2011). an intercultural analysis of metadiscourse features in research articles written in english and spanish. journal of pragmatics, 43(12), 3068-3079. shahid, m. i., qasim, h. m., & hasnain, m. (2020). a cross-linguistic study of metadiscourse in english and urdu newspaper editorials. corporum: journal of corpus linguistics, 3(1), 33-56. siddique, a. r., mahmood, m. a., & iqbal, j. (2018). metadiscourse analysis of pakistani english newspaper editorials: a corpus-based study. international journal of english linguistics, 8(1), 146-163. valero-garcés, c. (1996). contrastive esp rhetoric: metatext in spanish-english economics texts. english for specific purposes, 15(4), 279-294. microsoft word 07_register 2021 no. 1 afzal register journal – vol 14, no 01 (2021), pp. 121-138 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.121-138 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 121 the saudi vision 2030: reproduction of women’s empowerment in the saudi press: a corpus-based critical discourse analysis naeem afzal,1* abdulfattah omar 2 1department of english, college of science & humanities, prince sattam bin abdulaziz university, al-kharj 11942, saudi arabia, 2department of english, faculty of arts, port said university, port said, egypt *) corresponding author email: n.awan@psau.edu.sa doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i1.121-138 submission track: received: 02-04-2021 final revision: 26-05-2021 available online: 08-06-2021 copyright © 2021 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract the kingdom of saudi arabia has witnessed unprecedented reforms within the framework of the saudi vision 2030. however, despite prolific news reports related to economic, social, and political reforms associated with the saudi vision 2030, there is a general lack of studies on the ideological constructions of these reforms in the saudi press. as thus, this study seeks to explore the news representation and ideological construction of the vision 2030 reforms in the saudi press. it focuses on the reproduction of women’s empowerment in the saudi press. for this purpose, a corpus of 1578 newspaper articles, reports, stories, and editorials published in arab news and saudi gazette is designed. analysis of the data is carried out through corpusbased critical discourse analysis (cda) quantitatively and qualitatively through concordance, frequency, collocates, and dispersion. results indicated that the saudi press, under its ideological orientation, reproduced the vision 2030 as a matter of public interest. both newspapers exhibited a great inclination towards endorsing women’s empowerment as stipulated in the vision. the saudi vision’s representation of women’s empowerment was reflected and reproduced in many ways in newspapers’ articles, reports, stories, and editorials. this study was limited to the newspaper content released after the emergence of the saudi vision in 2016. further research is recommended on the influence of the saudi press on the representation of women’s rights discourse in the saudi vision 2030; it may also include the public opinion about such transformational reforms. keywords: corpus-based cda, discourse reproduction, newspaper representations, saudi vision 2030, women’s empowerment n. afzal, a. omar register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 122 introduction the kingdom of saudi arabia has witnessed rapid social, cultural, economic, and political changes within the framework of a vision (referred to as the saudi vision 2030) as an ambitious program of improvement for saudi arabia led by crown prince mohammed bin salman (alsaaidi, 2020; badran, baydoun, & hillman, 2019; burton, 2016; makhlouf, 2021). on september 26, 2017, for instance, saudi arabia's king salman bin abdul aziz issued an order to allow women to have a driver's license, following shari'a rules, for the first time in saudi history. this move comes within a series of political reforms run by the government, which reflects its commitment to human rights in the kingdom. the vision is said to change saudi arabia into a strong country with a vibrant society, a thriving economy, and an ambitious nation. the strategy of the vision has three important pillars including saudi arabia's state as the heart of the arab and muslim world, the determination to be a global investment, and making saudi arabia a trade gateway to the world. the vision has focused on various fields including social and cultural fields, religious fields, economic, and political fields. it has many goals such as making saudi arabia an investment power, staying connected to europe, asia, and africa, providing equal opportunities for all saudi citizens, increasing the number of umrah visitors, paying attention to education, health care, encouraging the private sector and giving women new roles, for instance, the right to drive. as a broader national modernization project, the vision 2030 concerning cultural and social development allows saudi citizens to enjoy a good quality of life and makes them trained for the job market. it leads to the appearance of industries, gives the chance for women to be employed, pays attention to human capital and talent promotion, gives interests to the public investment fund, increases the private sector's contribution, and attracts talents. the vision also develops the political field of saudi arabia as it initiates a program of reconstructing government levels and allows women’s participation and contribution to various fields of developments (alomair, 2018; alsuraihi, 2019; koch & tabatabai, 2020). the vision 2030 received extraordinary attention from the print, electronic and social media in the country. however, very little has been done on the representation of human rights and women’s empowerment in the saudi press. the saudi vision 2030: reproduction of women’s empowerment …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 123 in light of this argument, this study seeks to explore the role of the media in the promotion, reproduction, and representation of human rights in the light of vision 2030 employing a corpus-based critical discourse analysis approach. cda is useful to probe the relations between discourse, society, and culture by revealing the implicit agenda of media discourses (van dijk, 1995a). it refers to the investigation of social problems by placing emphasis on the manipulation of language as its vital features (van dijk, 2006; wodak 2001). in addition, cda unveils the relation between events, texts, and discursive practices in alignment with socio-political and socio-cultural aspects (fairclough, 2013; kress, 1990). the two key features of discourse, namely, production and reception and important entities of cda that exhibit the way dominance is expressed in the production of a text via the employment of rhetorical, persuasive, lexical, and syntactic choices, semantic structures, argumentations, and what impressions are carved in the minds of readers (van dijk, 1993). since its publication, the vision 2030 has attracted several scholars who investigated the document from various angles. mitchell and alfuraih (2018) analyzed the saudi arabian national transformation program 2020 and saudi vision 2030. an investigation was made to identify the associated curriculum orientations within the two documents to determine what the kingdom of saudi arabia sought to achieve and how it envisioned accomplishing these aspirations through educational developments. the study revealed that the imperative of the two visionary documents was to establish a knowledge-based economy whereas education was envisaged as a means to foster such imperatives. dahim (2018) investigated the impact of value-added tax and increase in fuel prices, implemented by saudi vision 2030, on road traffic accidents, injuries, and fatalities. the study concluded that an increase in gasoline prices contributed to short-term and intermediate-term decreases in on-road traffic accidents, injuries, and fatalities. altoaimy (2018) explored the use of twitter in the debate on women’s right to drive in the kingdom of saudi arabia. the study investigated how gender roles and the relationship between the genders were navigated in such debates. it followed a corpus-assisted discourse studies approach to analyzed arguments given by twitter users about the ksa’s ban on women drivers. n. afzal, a. omar register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 124 alharbi (2018) analyzed the saudi healthcare system’s readiness to change in the context of the vision 2030. the study concluded that high organizational readiness for change, availability of resources, and alignment of situational factors could cause members of an organization to take changeoriented initiatives that may facilitate effective implementation of the saudi healthcare transformational plan. bah (2018) investigated the feasibility of the gain in life expectancy outlined in the vision 2030 document. the study concluded that the vision is an important milestone meant to improve the population’s health and social wellbeing. it claimed that fundamental drivers of life expectancy must be addressed to achieve certain gains in life expectancy. daghestani, almunajem, alabdulkarim, alnuaim, and albassam (2018) explored the effect of the 2030 vision on the performance of the saudi stock market; changes in investors’ behavior were investigated before and after the implementation of the vision. the study revealed that investors became more cautious in planning for future income and expenses and increased their efforts. under the perception that media play an instrumental role in creating public awareness and influencing policymakers, this study explores the role of saudi arabian newspapers, arab news and saudi gazette, in representing women’s empowerment in the kingdom of saudi arabia— the area which has been largely neglected by the contemporary research studies. this study investigates how the saudi press represented the issue of women’s empowerment as stipulated in the vision 2030. the data (corpus) consist of newspaper articles, reports, stories, and editorials published by the english daily newspapers, namely, arab news and saudi gazette. the study asks the following research questions. first, how does the saudi press reproduce the women’s empowerment discourse as stipulated in the saudi vision 2030? second, how can corpus-based critical discourse analysis methods be used in the analysis of the ideological construction of women’s empowerment in the saudi press? the rest of the paper is organized as follows. part two surveys two main bodies of research. first, it gives a brief survey of media representation of human rights and newspaper discourse. second, it surveys the previous studies on the saudi vision 2030. part three defines the methodology and data the saudi vision 2030: reproduction of women’s empowerment …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 125 collection methods. part four is analysis and discussions. part five is the conclusion. media representations of human rights there is a close relationship between media and human rights. this may be due to the idea that the media constitute a central source of information about global conditions including human rights issues. it is difficult to imagine how large publics know about the violations of human rights without the presence of the media. balabanova (2014) argues that the media have been playing a crucial role in public freedoms, which represent the essence of human rights. similarly, papademas (2011) suggests that the media have an influential role in the political awareness of the public about human rights issues and forming public opinion, and reporting violations of human rights. the media, in every part of the world promote human rights such as the fight against racism, social security, workers’ rights, food and shelter for all, the right to public assembly, freedom of expression, education, marriage and family, and freedom of thought. the media in particular express the voices of oppressed peoples struggling against all forms of oppressions (ramanjaneyulu, 2015). for the media to promote human rights, however, journalists and other media practitioners operating in their country or abroad must enjoy protection to ensure the best conditions for their profession (tumber & waisbord, 2017). some factors should be considered for the successful representation of human rights issues. public access to information must be ensured through the diversity of sources and media prepared for it, allowing each individual to ascertain the facts and to form an objective opinion on events. to this end, journalists should have freedom of information and the greatest possible access to information. the media should also respond to the concerns of people and individuals, thus creating public participation in shaping the media (farrell, drywood, & hughes, 2019). this study explores how the media (newspapers) in saudi arabia represented women’s empowerment, supposed a human rights issue, in the context of vision 2030. newspaper discourse discourse involves ideologies all over the place. discourse is by nature ideological in several aspects; it encompasses beliefs and values about relations between people and groups and promotes social power and social goods (gee, n. afzal, a. omar register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 126 2012). thus, discourse involves ideologies by demonstrating the way language runs ideology by acting as a vehicle (tyson, 2006). media are deeply involved in relations of power and ideology and their depictions of different matters have repercussions (johnson & milani, 2010). mass media discourses become interesting when, due to the reason that they exercise as well as involve hidden relations of power (fairclough, 2013), media portray events through certain patterns that include cognition, making selections, presenting and interpreting events, placing emphasis and exclusions. through such patterns, discourse is usually organized (gitlin, 2003). print media are an influential mode of communication cum valuable source of information in transmitting events (cissel, 2012). newspapers use their institutional powers that may restrain the content of the news to endorse certain interpretations and de-emphasize others. newspapers’ expressions or the language used might be the words of the holders of power in a society (fairclough, 2013). the news refers to meaning construction in a news article and its making can be explored in terms of beliefs, attitudes, and strategies involved in news production. it is claimed that news values reflect social, ideological, and economic values and conform to the ideological consensus of a society or culture (van dijk, 1988). the influential print media make readers depend on newspapers due to their coverage of issues, conflicts, and controversies. the press becomes more effective if its contents serve readers’ interests (van dijk, 1995b). according to fowler (1991), newspapers’ language is meant to construct ideologies, ideas, believes and their representations shape the narrative of a particular event. to sum up, newspapers are a source of our socio-political awareness and how we sense the world by reading newspaper reports daily (fowler, 1991; van dijk, 1991). newspapers use language to construct values, beliefs, propositions, theories, ideas, and ideologies. newspapers articles written by certain journalists promote official ideology and in a style that sounds authoritative and formal. their discourse produced in a unique style commutatively facilitates a particular setting (fowler, 1991) and has a targeted readership particularly if a newspaper holds an identifiable political or social stance (douglas, 2009). newspapers contribute to a variety of language employed in the media due to their unique linguistic content (jucker, 1992). given the arguments, the study investigates how the two fowling leading english dailies in saudi arabia represented women empowerment in the county about reforms promulgated in vision 2030. the saudi vision 2030: reproduction of women’s empowerment …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 127 research methods this study adopts corpus-based critical discourse analysis to explore the representation of women’s rights in the saudi press after the emergence of the saudi vision in 2016. corpus-based critical discourse analysis is based on some tools including frequency, dispersion, concordance, and collocates that are used to make generalizations about the data. in discourse studies, corpus-based critical discourse analysis has many advantages including the use of big data, reducing researcher bias in terms of data selection, objectivity, reliability, replicability, and triangulation (baker, 2006, p. 12): “by using a corpus, we at least can place several restrictions on our cognitive biases. it becomes less easy to be selective about a single newspaper article when we are looking at hundreds of articles—hopefully, overall patterns and trends should show through”. given the nature of the data and the purposes of this study, it can be claimed that corpus-based approaches can be usefully used in conducting a critical discourse analysis quantitatively and qualitatively through a concordance, frequency, collocates, and dispersion. the descriptive findings are generated by searching for particular discourse features in a corpus—typically a collection of texts of a specific register, but possibly a single extended text, such as a textbook or a novel— using computational means. explaining the frequency, significance, and “use of these features generally involves reference to context, either the immediate cotextual environment or to other texts or other corpora of texts” (thornbury, 2010, p. 271). for this study, a corpus of 1578 news articles and editorials from 2 saudi newspapers released in english was built. data were collected from the online archive of the two newspapers (arab news and the saudi gazette) within 20172020. all the selected data were written and released after the emergence of the saudi vision 2030 in 2016. as a next step, key word in context (kwic) analysis was adopted in order to identify the lexical patterns in the corpus. the rationale is that these lexical patterns can be usefully used as predictors of the focus of texts. in order to do this, conc software was used. conc is a program developed by sil language technology for generating keyword-in-context concordances of words within n. afzal, a. omar register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 128 texts. one advantage with conc is that it permits users to limit the concordance to just those words that match a specified pattern. the two key words ‘women’ and ‘saudi vision’ were defined and their frequencies were calculated. a collocation analysis is then carried out in order to identify the themes that collocate most frequently with these two key words. finally, a qualitative analysis is developed to provide an in-depth investigation of the linguistic phenomena and patterns generated through the kwic and collocation analyses. arab news arab news has founded in 1975 by hisham and mohammed ali hafiz. it was the first newspaper that provided saudi perspective in english on a wide range of global, regional, and national forums. the daily is one of 29 publications sponsored by saudi research & publishing company (srpc). arab news is highly regarded by many sections of saudi society that included nationals and foreign residents with a diverse group of readers and large distribution. it is representative of saudi arabia’s policies and developments in society. (https://www.arabnews.com/node/51199/about-us). saudi gazette the second english language newspaper selected in this study is the saudi gazette that was established in 1978. saudi gazette is published by okaz organization for press and publication. the newspaper caters to varied sections of saudi society; it disseminates diverse points of view and focuses on the news content which of interest to both national and residents. the daily has emerged as the “true window” of saudi news to the world and beyond saudi arabia (https://saudigazette.com.sa/about-us). results & discussion the recent years have witnessed unprecedented social and political changes in the kingdom of saudi arabia. different economic, social, and political reforms were enforced in light of the emergence of the saudi vision 2030. these reforms had positive implications for women’s rights in the kingdom. the vision stressed the importance of gender equality and women’s empowerment as indicated in the following extracts (https://hrc.gov.sa/en-us/pages/vision2030.aspx): the saudi vision 2030: reproduction of women’s empowerment …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 129 • together we will continue building a better country, fulfilling our dream of prosperity and unlocking the talent, potential, and dedication of our young men and women. • our economy will provide opportunities for everyone men and women, young and old so they may contribute to the best of their abilities. • saudi women are yet another great asset. with over 50 percent of our university graduates being female, we will continue to develop their talents, invest in their productive capabilities and enable them to strengthen their future and contribute to the development of our society and economy. • we aspire to have businesses that contribute to developing our society and our country, not be geared solely towards generating profits. we expect our companies to observe their social responsibilities and contribute to creating a sustainable economy, including by creating stimulating opportunities for young men and women that can help them build their professional careers. we will encourage the businesses that follow through on this commitment to participate in our country and to address national challenges. in frequency and dispersion terms, ‘women’ is one of the most frequent terms identified in the corpora that represented the vision 2030. this indicates that it is highly stressed in the vision. it also reflects the saudi interests in women’s rights. women’s issues are central in almost all the themes of the vision including the social, economic, and political vision of the kingdom. the word ‘women’ collocates with building, contribution, development, productive capabilities, prosperity, and sustainable development. for this study, the two key terms ‘women’ and ‘saudi vision’ in the corpus were calculated using concordance analysis. this is shown below in figure 1. here are some examples: • endorsing vision 2030, youth and women are key. (saudi gazette, august 17, 2017) • the ministry is planning to increase the participation of saudi women in the labor market in line with the objectives of the kingdom’s vision 2030. (saudi gazette, september 19, 2017) n. afzal, a. omar register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 130 • empowerment of women key to saudi arabia’s progress (arab news, october 9, 2018) • within the saudi vision 2030, saudi arabia on a fast track to gender equality. (arab news, december 30, 2018) • undoubtedly, 2018 has been a landmark year for saudi arabia — but even more so for women in the kingdom, who have had a momentous 12 months enjoying newly acquired freedoms and being at the forefront of change under reforms led by crown prince mohammed bin salman. (arab news, december 30, 2018) • over the last four years, there has been a diverse shift in the demographic mix of saudi arabia’s labor market, with the increasing number of women entering the workforce at the forefront of this change. with vision 2030 now in its implementation phase, the government is carrying out its commitment to empowering women, recognizing their potential as active contributors to the economic development and modernization of the country. this falls in line with the target of increasing the employment rate among women from 22% to 30% by 2030saudi vision 2030. (saudi gazette, march 16, 2019) • female empowerment vital for kingdom’s vision 2030 reforms, says saudi human rights commission gm. (arab news, october 11, 2019) • giant gains for women under vision 2030 (arab news, june 21, 2020) • alobaidy praised the work of the saudi leadership in support of the empowerment of women, and their social, economic, and developmental efforts, which form a significant aspect of saudi vision 2030. (arab news, october 7, 2020) • women’s participation in the workforce and the wider saudi economy and having more women in leadership positions is one of the key goals of the kingdom’s vision 2030 reform strategy (arab news, october 31, 2020) • empowerment of women top priority of vision 2030, says council of saudi chambers head. (arab news, november 20, 2020) • the strategy to empower industry and increase local talent aims to activate the role of women in industrial development by the saudi vision 2030 aimed at enhancing their role in the national economy. (arab news, december 8, 2020) the saudi vision 2030: reproduction of women’s empowerment …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 131 figure 1 a frequency analysis of the key terms in the corpus it is obvious that the discourse of women’s empowerment stipulated in the saudi vision is reproduced in the saudi press as reflected in the two selected newspapers. the analysis of the corpora revealed that the saudi press (arab news and saudi gazette) played a dominant in reproducing women’s empowerment stated in the vision 2030. media can reproduce dominant ideologies (van dijk, 1988). as noticed in the case of the vision 2030 representations, it is evident that the saudi press overwhelmingly participated in promoting the vision with preferential treatment and a build a national consensus on the implantation of the vision. the print media have a long-lasting impact on readers by playing significant roles in transferring knowledge and information through several means including daily newspapers (kress, 1990). the analysis of the saudi press representation of the vision 2030 revealed that the newspapers necessitated/reproduced the importance of women’s contribution to various sectors. the choice of several lexical items demonstrated that newspapers fully backed the endorsement of women’s empowerment, for instance, objectives of the kingdom’s vision 2030, women key to saudi arabia’s progress, gender equality, at the forefront of change, female empowerment vital, giant gains, women in leadership positions, empowerment of women top priority and others. n. afzal, a. omar register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 132 in quantitative terms, the two key terms ‘women’ and ‘saudi vision’ collocate with positive concepts of reforms, employment, participation, freedom, and development. a detailed collocation analysis is shown in figure 2, collocates listed with their frequency. figure 2 a collocation analysis (collocates & frequency) newspapers play an instrumental role in taking matters of public interest and communicate with readers, arguably, with accuracy and in a balanced manner (randall, 2007). as indicated in figure 2, collocation analysis of the corpus also revealed that the newspapers positively reiterated the role of women in the kingdom’s uplift. for instance, the most common lexical collocations such as change, equal opportunities, improvement, participation, achievements, job opportunities, women's rights, implied that the two newspapers adopted a similar stance of promoting the vision 2030 goals. the two english dailies unanimously voiced their ideological beliefs, in favor of women’s rights, to engage readers. typically observing the media tradition of upholding national interests, both the newspaper circulated a common strategy of favoring all the articles of the vision 2030 that were meant to enhance women’s empowerment. newspapers serve readers’ interests through comments, news reports, and opinions, promote a shared community consciousness, and construct a political or social position (douglas, 2009). for the saudi vision 2030: reproduction of women’s empowerment …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 133 instance, on one occasion the women’s participation or inclusion in the national sectors was lexically described as gender progression. hence, the newspapers, by reproducing the vision 2030 as a matter of national concern ideologically positioned the readers through several positive connotations. thus, the two newspapers based on their ideological orientations with the country sent a positive message to the public. as noticed, the newspapers made an inclusive coverage of the vision 2030, shared their positions on all significant aspects of it, and defended all its promulgations. it is argued that whatever policy the newspapers adopt they have their unique tone of endorsing some aspects, for instance, the lexical giant gains for women used by the arab news as noticed in this study. it can be finally suggested that there is a correspondence between the saudi vision 2030 and the saudi press discourse on women’s empowerment in rejecting all forms of discrimination against women and highlighting the importance of gender equality as a requirement for sustainable development strategies. it is also apparent that the representation of women’s empowerment in the saudi press constitutes a distinct discourse genre in the sense that it is a directional, patterned, continuous, and purpose-oriented discourse that is deeply rooted in the saudi social and cultural context. this discourse genre that can be referred to as the women’s empowerment press discourse is based on a distinctive part of the saudi culture and features the economic, social, and political developments in one of the most serious transitions periods in the history of the kingdom of saudi arabia. unlike previous studies on vision 2030 (e.g., alharbi, 2018; altoaimy, 2018; bah, 2018; daghestani et al., 2018; dahim, 2018; mitchell & alfuraih, 2018), this study analyzed how women’s empowerment was reproduced in the saudi press as a matter of public and national concern, vis-à-vis vision 2030, which was largely neglected. conclusion the study has analyzed how the two english language newspapers in the county, arab news and saudi gazette, reproduced the saudi vision 2030 that aimed to change the public attitude towards women’s rights and empowerment. the corpus contained newspaper articles, reports, stories, and n. afzal, a. omar register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 134 editorials published in the selected newspapers. the newspapers inclusively covered the vision 2030, welcomed all its promulgations, and shared their positions on all transformational aspects of the vision. the newspapers based on their ideological affiliation circulated a positive message to the public and emphasized women’s rights and gains stipulated in the vision. the saudi vision’s representation of women’s empowerment is endorsed in many ways in newspapers’ articles, reports, stories, and editorials. it can be concluded that the saudi press has been influential in producing and reproducing the women’s empowerment discourse in saudi arabia in the light of the vision 2030. to its limitations, this study relied on the newspaper articles published after the emergence of the saudi vision in 2016. it is recommended that future research may be conducted by including the public views about the vision 2030 and women’s empowerment in the country. summary of the main topics covered or a re-statement of your research problem, but a synthesis of key points and, if applicable, where you recommend new areas for future research. acknowledgments the researchers would like to gratefully thank the deanship of scientific research (prince sattam bin abdulaziz university) for the support in finishing this research.[rgt] references alharbi, m. f. 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(2001). what cda is about–a summary of its history, important concepts and its developments. in r. wodak & m. meyer (eds.), methods of critical discourse analysis (pp. 1-13). london, england: sage publications. n. afzal, a. omar register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 138 the page has been intentionally left blank. dinamika pengarusutamaan gender register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021), pp. 263-282 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i2.263-282 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 263 semiotics with style and situation: multi-modal comparative analysis of cover pages of native and non-native english novels manvender kaur sarjit singh,1 muhammad imran shah,2* eram jamil,3 rabia feroz4 1 school of languages, civilization, and philosophy, college of arts and sciences, pakistan; 2 government college university faisalabad, pakistan, university utara malaysia; 3 university of sargodha sub campus bhakkar, pakistan; 3 university utara malaysia; 4 government college university faisalabad, pakistan *) corresponding author email m.imran.shah@gcuf.edu.pk doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i2.263-282 submission track: received: 28-08-2021 final revision: 01-12-2021 available online: 05-12-2021 copyright © 2021 author(s) this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract the communicative function of text can be obtained through the multimodal analysis of the text, which contains the interaction and integration of two or more semiotic resources, graphics and text. this study investigates the structure of the titles and graphics of the cover pages along with the situation of the content of title pages of english novels of modern age composed by native and non-native authors. four title pages including two modern native and two non-native english novels are randomly selected from the google search engine. followed is multimodal analysis, including jeffries’ (2016) model to analyse the structure of the text of the title (cover) pages, davy’s (2013) model to analyze the graphical features of the cover pages, and bernstein’s (2003) model to investigate the situational features presented in the cover pages of the novels. the textual, graphical and situational features present in title pages of english novels by the native authors were compared with the nonnative authors by feature identification based on multimodal approach. it has been found that the native authors have agreed with the publishers who provide information about the content of the novel in the setting of the cover page as they followed the models while composing the cover pages of the novels, whereas the non-native authors and publishers have not given enough information in the setting of the cover pages. it seems that they do http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i2.263-282 http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i2.263-282 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ m. k. s. singh, m. i. shah, e. javed, r. feroz register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 264 not follow the mentioned models thoroughly. it causes lack of readership as the readers cannot extract maximum information from the cover page. the study has opened new dimensions for the new researchers and it is also beneficial for the authors and publisher in the selection of the title pages. keywords: semiotics; graphics; situation; text; title-page introduction there is widespread consensus that the word paper refers not only to written text but also to graphic images, photographs, and artefacts. twyman's (1979) concept of graphic language as "two-dimensional, deliberate, visible communication" leads to a view of graphic language documents as "any conventional alphanumeric text" as well as "any combination of text, graphics, and/or pictures, and illustration." to reconcile the conventional text-based document with the picture as document in the digital world, twyman's concept of graphic language documents can be extended to all displays of signs and symbols. similarly, colors mirror some ideological concepts that can be visualized, reflecting meanings through images; “color projection was emphasized in ancient literature as an important aspect of life” (niazi et al, 2015, p.1). form these elements such as glyph, icons and images like drawings and photographs, the author can add more of his ideas while communicating his message through text. advertising is the technique used to bring products, “services or opinions to public notice for the purpose of convincing the public to respond in a particular way toward what is advertised” (shariq, 2020, p. 565). that product can be a title page of a book or a novel. advertisements for the title pages of novels are most effective when the graphics stand out while maintaining the relevance and clarity of the message. advertisements are the first and foremost step to make a product attractive and effective (vasiloaia, 2009). there is the frequent use of figures of speech and other typical stylistic devices such as puns, metaphors, neologisms, alliteration, assonance, or rhyme in the language of advertising. these devices are highly creative in the language of advertising and they contribute to the secondary function of advertising to entertain the recipients. many researchers (vasiloaia, 2009; culpeper et al, 2009; fomukong, 2016) have analysed the language of advertisements in various ways using different methods and data. moretti (2009) posits that titles are the best way to semiotics with style and situation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 265 go beyond the 1 percent of novels that make up the canon to catch the glimpse of the literary field as whole. bouza (2017) analyzes the title pages of eighteenth-century grammar books and associated the pragmatic function of the title page with the increasing social value of the english language. very little work before this study attempted a multimodal approach to analyze the title pages of the english novels at graphic, textual and situational level. the purpose of this study, particularly, is to analyze of title pages, which contain the interaction and integration of two or more semiotic resources, graphics and text, in order to obtain the communicative functions of the text. not only does this study investigate the style of the titles and graphics of the title pages with the situation presented in the content but it also compares these features on the title pages of native and non-native selected english novels. the present study has tried to explore the structural variations in the titles of native and non-native english novels and to highlight different graphical variation in the title pages of native and non-native english novels. literature review the underlying theory for this research investigation is very much influenced by the theoretical structure of jeffries' textual conceptual functions (tcfs) suggested in the field of linguistics. “multimodal research explores communication in all of its types, but it is especially interested in texts that involve the interaction and incorporation of two or more semiotic tools or 'modes' of communication to achieve the texts communicative functions” (o’halloran 2010, p.2). the process of understanding and making sense of qualitative data in projects that combine verbal and nonverbal types of knowledge is known as multimodal analysis (o’halloran 2010). it is a wide field of methodological research that involves the study of human movements and other nonverbal communication, as well as images, video, sound, and 3-d materials. social semiotics, interactional sociology, and sensory anthropology are three significant theoretical influences on the growth of multimodal research (dicks, 2019). each has created distinct ontologies of the object of analysis, as well as unique conceptions of key analytic phenomena, despite the fact that their bodies of work are far from clearly defined such as m. k. s. singh, m. i. shah, e. javed, r. feroz register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 266 "reflexivity," "context," and "meaning," as well as various research vocabularies. there are also variations in how "information" is described, transcribed, and analyzed, as well as how cameras are used and how the researcher "sees" the field of study. the communicative power of utterances is derived in part from the model resources they use, where speech—for example—provides attributes, or "affordances," of meaning that writing or images do not. given that language encompasses a variety of “modes” of communication, including human modes including gesture, gaze, speech, prosody, and bodily motions, as well as nonhuman material/virtual modes, (e.g., the materiality of objects, the visuality of images, the orality of soundscapes), the ways in which modes provide distinct symbolic repertoires for a wide spectrum of communication in both human and nonhuman material forms is worth exploring (dicks, 2019, p.17). jeffries (2016) uses textual conceptual functions as tools: prioritization, implying and assumption, listing, naming and description (p.109). when we choose what details to highlight in a sentence, we are prioritizing. it draws attention to a specific piece of information by concentrating on the sentence's information structure in three respects. these include putting new and relevant information at the end of the sentence, using the passive sentence's final clause elements, and putting less important information in the subordinate clause. this research looks at prioritizing from the perspective of graphology, or preferring to highlight those details with capitals and bolds. according to crystal (2003), language of title pages has a deviant graphology. stylistic considerations only come into play when we start selecting features from the language as a whole and relating them to situational variables using different quantification techniques, with the method of selection being meaningless for most other linguistic purposes (davy, 2013). the setting in which the text comes to life is referred to as the situation. during the act of speaking or writing, the context of the situation can be entirely detached from what is going on around you. if the situation is to be included in a general sociolinguistic theory, it will need to be interpreted in even more abstract terms: and to think of it as a situation type, rather than a situation, in the sense of what bernstein calls a social context. this is a semiotic structure in semiotics with style and situation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 267 nature. the community is made up of a constellation of meanings originating from the semiotic system. a slogan is a brief, memorable phrase that encapsulates the importance of a product. it reflects the brand's personality, creates a sense of liability in the brand name, and is used to send a message about the product's service. fomukong and his colleagues (2017) looked at the structural patterns of clauses and groups found in slogans posted by various businesses in bamenda, cameroon's north west region, on billboards, bar walls, and doorposts. the analysis is based on halliday's rank scale systematic approach. the results show that slogans use a variety of structures, including declarative, imperative, nonfinite verbal clause, parallel structure, nominal group, prepositional group, and adverb group, all of which work to persuade customers to buy their products in the various ways they operate (fomukong et all., 2017). research method the philosophical stance of the present study is very much influenced by the post-positivistic school as the observations based on the hypothesis conceptualized with the help of theories and models propounded by great theorists, discussed in literature review segment of the study. the data selected for this research study comprises of the title pages of modern english novels composed by native as well as non-native authors. as it is a descriptive study based on multimodal approach, the cover pages of selected novels have been focused to find out stylistics as well as semiotics features. data was collected based on english novels of modern era by native and non-native authors. the novels were particularly selected from year 1984 to 2021. first, the title pages of the modern english novels by native author were searched on google search engine. to avoid bias, we just mentioned modern novels in google search key. it showed the list of title pages of english novels. the first two title pages of english novels by native authors were selected. then, the same process was done for the collection of title pages of english novels by non-native authors as mentioned in the below list. the researcher has followed jeffries (2016), davy (2013) and bernstein’s (2003) models as a tool of research to analyze the stylistics as well as graphm. k. s. singh, m. i. shah, e. javed, r. feroz register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 268 logical features of the text and graphics of the title pages accordingly. the researcher used a qualitative descriptive approach to analyze data through qualitative and content analysis approach. first, the researcher analyzed the data through lessely jeffries’ (2016) model of textual conceptual functions to answer the first research question that is ‘’what are the structural variations in the titles of native and non-native english novels?’’ situational and contextual features of the collected data are analyzed through bernstein (2003). then the second research question—“what are the different graphical variations in the title pages?” —was answered with the help of davy’s (2013) model of stylistical analysis to analyse the graphics and pictures of the cover pages of english novels by native and non-native composers or publishers. now, in the preceding section of this chapter the individual title pages are being analyzed while following the tcf’s, semiotic, and stylistical theory propounded by jeffries, bernstein and davy respectively. results and discussion analysis of the title page of the novel ‘’the catcher in the rye’’ by ‘’j.d. sainger’’ retrieved from ‘’goodreads.com’’ according to jeffries (2016), the text on the title page appearing includes the title as well as name of the author. author composed the phrase of the title of this novel in a simple structure. the title comprises of the noun phrase and the prepositional phrase. semiotics with style and situation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 269 figure 1 the catcher in the rye rye is a proper noun whereas catcher is a common noun but the definite article with catcher making it more significant with reference to the rye and it raises curiosity among the readers who wish to explore the significance of the catcher in rye. author has used black color in the title phrase ‘’the catcher in the rye,’’ which creates suspicion that something is mysterious. according to adams (2008), the colour black conjures up images of evil, death, power, mystery, and fear. black has almost negative implications in the literature. he has bolded the first letter of the statement to emphasize its importance on the title page. the writer has used white hue for his own name, which contrasts with his character's dark tint. white is a colour of calmness that brings consolation by providing brightness to the darkness of black. all the letters are capitalized and bold, which made the text a prominent one on the title page. according to davy (2013), graphics used in this title page is a picture with different colors. there are a man, a young girl, some buildings, a tree and other people in the picture. the picture shows that the facial expression of the man m. k. s. singh, m. i. shah, e. javed, r. feroz register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 270 reveals that he is in anger and staring at the young girl. the girl is running away from the man but still looking at him backwards in an innocent way as the expression of the little girl revealing that there is some obnoxious relationship between the girl and man. the man is wearing a black coat or jacket; evil, death, power, mystery, and terror are all represented by this sign. the colour black has a negative meaning. it invites scrutiny since it readily reveals impurities (adams, 2018). the color of the man’s face and clothes are the same but the hair is dark red. it represents that the man is overwhelmed with dangerous designs like devastation, forewarning, and harassment, as the red colour symbolizes all these ideas. the man's features display rage and blood in his thoughts, indicating that his views are really heinous. the title page has a bright blue theme. blue is the main colour in every colour space model. it is the hue of the sea and the sky, and it is generally associated with peace, stability, inspiration, wisdom, and good health. it can be a soothing colour (cerrato, 2012). the girl is wearing a light blue mini frock. her face color is white, which signifies goodness, innocence, and her purity. it is the color of perfection. white is a colour associated with safety, purity, and cleanliness. unlike black (the colour of the man in the picture), white is usually associated with positivity (cerrato, 2012). she has short black hair. the background color of the title page is sky blue, which is the same as the color of the buildings shown in the pictures. all the other human beings in the picture are of white color and wearing white clothes, which is the color of peace. the tree in the picture is off black color. all the colors used in the picture are light except the hair color of the man. the situation according to bernstein (2003) shown in the picture depicts that rye is a city in new york, which is full of life. all the people are busy in their own. in this situation, the catcher is shown as a sign of threat. he has anger on his face and blood in his mind. the girl is innocent and running away from the man as it feels like the person wants to catch the girl. the size of the male’s picture in the title page is bigger than any one, which represents that author focused more on the catcher. in a bird’s eye view, the title page gives the maximum information about the content present in the text of this piece of literature. semiotics with style and situation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 271 analysis of the title page of the novel ‘’the return of the native’’ by ‘’thomas hardy’’ retrieved from ‘’goodreads.com’’ figure 2 the return of the native the text on the title page appearing includes the title as well as the name of the author. the author composed the phrase of the title of this novel in a simple phrase (jeffries, 2016). the title comprises of the noun phrase and the prepositional phrase. ‘native’ as well as ‘return’ are common nouns here but the definite article ‘the’ with both of them making them proper ones with reference to the text. ‘return’ is performing the function of abstract noun here not the verb because it is giving the meaning of coming back here in the title. the author intentionally m. k. s. singh, m. i. shah, e. javed, r. feroz register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 272 put the ‘the return’ at thematic position in the title. a noun is a grammatical form that refers to a person, creature, place, thing, or idea. subjects are nouns. every sentence has a subject, which is a word or phrase that tells us what the statement is about. prepositions link nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other words within a phrase. they show how their item is related to another word or part of a phrase in terms of time, space, or logic. the preposition ‘'of" is a basic preposition that connects the noun and the prepositional phrase. this noun phrase is memorable and piques the readers' interest. the native's return sparked some heated debate. the title of the novel and the author's name were written in white, which represents perfection, innocence, and purity (cerrato, 2012). the letters in the novel's title and author's name are all capital, bold, and the same size. graphics used in the title pages according to davy (2013) is the picture of a forest where the man and woman standing in an amours design. the publisher used black color in the background of the title page to show the depth of gloom, seriousness. he presented their love in intense circumstances and severe conditions. black color generally symbolizes the somber and severity of the situation. black is connected with evil, death, power, mystery, and terror (adams, 2008). black has both positive and negative implications. the title semiotics with style and situation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 273 page's background colour is a blend of black and white. it presents the mixed idea of love, death, separation and purity in the title page. the setting of the above title page presents that the return of natives discusses the natural intimacy with the opposite sex and associated it with nature; but the color used by the author is somber and depicts the severity of the situation. picture used in the title depicts that hardy is a nature lover. obviously, he has given certain expressions of natural scenes in the content and he also approves the same title pages relevant to his title page (bernstein, 2003). analysis of the title page of the novel ‘’salt and saffron ‘’ by ‘’kamila shamsie’’ retrieved from ‘’goodreads.com’’ figure 3 salt and saffron the phrase of the title of this novel in a simple structure. the title comprises of two noun phrases connected with a conjunction. m. k. s. singh, m. i. shah, e. javed, r. feroz register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 274 ‘salt’ and ‘saffron’ are common nouns. a generic term for a person, place, or item in a class or group is a common noun. a common noun is not capitalized unless it is the first word of a sentence or appears in a title, as the author did in the novel's title. the conjunction ‘and’ connects the two common nouns. the conjunction 'and' is a coordinating conjunction, which joins items of equal syntactic importance and grammatical rank. they have the ability to connect two separate phrases, classes, and sentences. in the given title of kamila shamsie's novel, the coordinating conjunction serves to link two noun phrases in the title that have the same grammatical rank. the title of the novel, as well as the author’s name, is written in red. in the title of the literary composition, he has employed the literary device of ‘alliteration.’ two consonant sounds, the ‘s’ sound, are repeated in alliteration, which is a literary device used to beautify the sonic effects of the text. the colour red is associated with vitality. it conjures up images of movement and excitement. it is utilized to get people's attention. it is frequently where the eye is drawn initially as a signified in the titled phrase (meghamala et al, 2016). the author capitalized the first letter of the nouns according to the definition of common noun. she put the title in bold and made the font size larger than the font size of her own name. she has capitalized all the letters of her own name but not bold. semiotics with style and situation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 275 graphics used in the title pages according to davy (2013) is the picture of a historical place where a woman wearing indian dress is standing near an artificial lake. it signifies that she is talking about a woman in her novel. that girl must have some connection with the historical places as the picture gave the information. the girl is contemplating and bowing her head before the building. the lake used in the picture of the title page represents depth, serenity, mystery and silence with calmness. the woman in the picture is wearing the dress of red and orange color. the colour orange is associated with ambition. orange is energizing, and people's reactions to it are a mix of the physical and the emotional. it concentrates our thoughts on physical comfort, such as food, warmth, shelter, and pleasure (meghamala et al, 2016, p.117). red is a colour that conjures up images of love and passion. it also conveys vitality and strength. some people are energized by the colour red, whether they are wearing it or witnessing it. this colour creates an enthralling atmosphere (niazi, ahmad & aftab, 2015). the red tint indicates that the author may be discussing the woman in the picture's love life. setting the title page according to bernstein (2003), shown is information that the author wrote the story of a girl who is living somewhere away from her family. she has her love life as the red color used in the title page indicates. the author has used all the graphical features very carefully that it is the wit of writer that he is going to associate his content with the title page in order to attract the attention of the reader in order to grab the attention of the reader. a mature readers ultimately deduces a lot of knowledge while watching or observing the mare title page of the piece of literature. analysis of the title page of the novel ‘’the women’s courtyard ‘’ by ‘’khadija mastaur’’ retrieved from ‘’goodreads.com’’ the text on the title page appearing includes the title as well as name of the author. the author composed the phrase of the title of this novel in a simple structure (jeffries, 2016). the cover comprises of the noun phrase. the author has comprised the title of a noun phrase. the noun phrase consists of a plural noun ‘women’ and common noun ‘courtyard.’ the determiner ‘the’ is used before a word to indicates that the sentence will be qualified or defined later. m. k. s. singh, m. i. shah, e. javed, r. feroz register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 276 figure 4 the women’s courtyard the author has used the apostrophe with the plural noun to show that the courtyard is owned by women. he used the plural term ‘women’ to refer to the entire group of women addressed in his text. he used white ink to create the novel's title and orange ink to write his own name. passion, intrigue, creativity, determination, attraction, and stimulation are all represented by the colour orange, which is a bright, vibrant, and warm colour. orange is often used to draw attention e.g. in traffic signs and advertising. it is the hue of the risk-taker, the extrovert, and the unconstrained, and it's a mix of energy and fun. it represents adventure, optimism, self-confidence, and friendliness in colour psychology. the colour white is associated with perfection, innocence, and purity. the author utilized the same colour scheme to approve the title phrase as well as his own name (cerrato, 2012). he has used different style to write the text on the title page. all the letters in the title of the novel are bold and large in semiotics with style and situation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 277 size. he wrote his own name in capital letters that has made the text prominent one on the title page. the graphic used in the title pages according to davy (2013) is a picture of a courtyard where a woman is standing in the balcony according to the title of the novel. author has not shown the regular boundaries. arch type boundaries, discontinuous boundaries of the courtyard like the boundaries of citadels, signifies a woman presented at the corner of a typical arch and she is not present in the middle of the courtyard, which means the courtyard in possession of the women of the apostrophe of the title. actually, contrasts the position of the women in the figure. he has used purple color for the courtyard. purple conjures up images of richness and extravagance, as well as fantasy and the realm of dreams. it facilitates spiritual growth and awareness. purple heightens people's sense of beauty and their responsiveness to more innovative thoughts physiologically. as the title of the novel shoes that the courtyard is devoted to the women, purple is typically used to represent a high grade or excellent goods. purple is a colour associated with monarchy, mysticism, and nobility. purple is better suited to items and websites aimed at women or children, as the author in the title page is a woman. the colour white is utilised on one side of the balcony to represent softness and cleanliness (cerrato, 2012). no one before this author used purple color for the graphics of the title page. he used very different colors in the title page among all the other authors. m. k. s. singh, m. i. shah, e. javed, r. feroz register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 278 setting the title page according to the bernstein (2003), the author used the graphical features according to the title of the novel. he has shown courtyard and the woman in the picture as he has mentioned both of them in the title. he has used different color in the graphics of his title page as compared to the other authors or the title pages analyzed till now. graphics of the title page reveal that the author is discussing something about women’s rights and power in his content. conclusion the primary objective of the current study was to investigate the textual, graphical and situational features present in title pages of english novels by native and non-native authors with the help of multimodal analysis propounded by jeffries (2016), davy (2013), and bernstein (2003) respectively. the secondary aim of this research was to compare the richness of graphic features of title pages of english novel by native authors as well as non-native authors. moreover, it also highlights the contextual features of the title pages, which mean the context of the title pages in which various graphic, textual and situational features are being used by the author according to the content of the novel. the text of the title composed by native composers indicates the use of various modifiers to modify the meaning of the nouns or to make their titles more attractive, wonderful and salient. they used different propositions in their titles to connect different phrases, which complete the sense and make the title more beautiful. the native authors wrote their name at the end of the title page and equally highlighted them, which shows that they have given equal importance to the titles of the novels and the authors because mature readers pay attention to the authors of the novels too. non-native authors also comprise the titles of the novels of simple structure. native authors have composed the titles in almost the same structure that supports the idea that they have followed some models or theories while composing the title but the non-native authors have shown the title in different structure. the second research objective has been pursued by analyzing the graphics of the title pages of english novels by native and non-native authors with the semiotics with style and situation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 279 help of jeffries’ (2016) model of textual conceptual functions (tcfs). the title pages of english novel were taken from both native and non-native authors and then analyzed through this model. colors play a vital role in the depiction of theme and situation of the content. while selecting a title page, a publisher must finalize those colors of the title page, which must reveal the situation as discussed in the content of the piece of literature composed by author. the title page gives the maximum information of the content. with a single bird eye view, the reader or the viewer can judge or analyze what kind of content is present in this entire document. authors should be very careful; they should follow the great linguist while selecting colors and background situation. then, they consult their publisher for the finalization of the title pages because title page plays a very important role in the popularity of the piece of literature if they want to increase the maximum readership. now as for as the third objective of this research investigation is concerned, there has been an attempt to answer with the help of the theory propounded by bernstein (2003). the maximum information that has been extracted by the readers or the viewers of the title pages, which have been portrayed by the native authors because they have given much information in the setting of the title page as the study, shows that the native authors have followed the theory while composing the title pages of the english novels. the non-native authors have not given plenty of information in the setting of the title page. it seems that they do not follow the theory while finalizing the setting of the title page. from the results of the analysis, it can be concluded that native authors put additional information in the setting of their title pages and use situational features in the title pages according to the content of the novel. they follow models based on theories of experts in the field of semiotics and graphics and stylistics while finalizing their title pages. on the other hand, non-native authors seem to not follow any theory or model while composing the setting of the title pages of their creative text because they do not use situation and context accurately and according to the content of the piece of literature. selecting features from the language, colours for text and figures as well as the theme of background scenery and relating them to situational variables using different m. k. s. singh, m. i. shah, e. javed, r. feroz register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 280 quantification techniques, with the method of selection according to the aforementioned models, is necessary to associate the information relevant to the content of the subject matter present in whole of the document. it helps empower readers’ visual intelligence to speculate more information about the piece of fiction. moreover, the publisher, as well as author, accurately selects the 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(2009). linguistic features of the language of advertising. semantic scholar: no.1, 294-98. semiotics with style and situation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 283 this page has been intentionally left blank. microsoft word 05_register 2021 no. 1 santosa register journal – vol 14, no 01 (2021), pp. 83-98 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.83-98 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 83 genre and attitude to support character development in children stories riyadi santosa,1* djatmika djatmika,2 dyah ayu nila khrisna3 1program studi sastra inggris, universitas sebelas maret, jebres, surakarta 57126, indonesia *) corresponding author email: riyadisantosa@staff.uns.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i1.83-98 submission track: received: 16-01-2021 final revision: 28-03-2021 available online: 01-05-2021 copyright © 2021 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract this paper examines how character development is analyzed through attitude, genre’s stages and phases in children stories. relying on ten children's stories purposively selected from two children's story books, the results show that all of ten stories are written as narrative with a number of absences of attitude, stages and phases of narrative genre. most stories succeed to fulfill the obligatory stages of narrative: orientation, complication, evaluation, and resolution, even others add the optional stage, coda. however, a number of stories fail to satisfy the presence of evaluation. in addition, all stories do not exploit attitude in every phase of every stage of narrative. even, a number of stories miss to exploit attitude in a number of prominent phases such as introducing character in orientation, development and peak of conflict in complication, and plan and act in resolution. besides, all ten stories do not explore all types of attitude and their sub-classifications, in which each type will contribute to holistic description of character. thus, although all stories can be considered to develop character along the obligatory stages of the narrative genre, but they still fail to build a more complexed character development through positive-negative-positive evaluation through stages and phases of the stories. keywords: character development; genre; stages; phases; attitude r. santosa, d. djatmika, d. a. n. khrisna register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 84 introduction stories, including children’s stories, depict characters and their sociopsychological values through the genres of the stories. the characters are pictured as human beings so that they are carved or marked in a number of human habits that cause the character to do something according to the carvings (o’sullivan, 2004). the characters’ deeds are derived from the moral and intellectual power they have. in this sense, the characters will always be judged to have good or bad moral and intellectual quality or what is called human traits or character values. the traits or values include key principles and values such as honesty, tolerance, trust, equility, kindness, generosity and respect for differences or others and the opposites (almerico, 2014). characters in children’s stories are often represented as human beings or animals. the quality of the characters can be accommodated by various sources of storytelling, either through direct description by the authors, interaction between one character with another, or through the assessment of other characters in the story, both the direct character's appraisal or the appraisal of goods or bad institutions related to the characters (martin & rose, 2007; martin & white, 2005). in addition, character development will also be built up through the socio-psychological development of characters in dealing with problems and solving problems. the development of characters like this can be assessed through the stages and phases of the narrative genre of the story (martin, 1992; martin and rose, 2007; rose, 2010). many studies on children's stories used to develop character in schools have been conducted. children's stories are often effective tools for introducing characters (cartledge & kiarie, 2001; santosa et al, 2007; leming, 2010; almerico, 2014). however, the research of djatmika, primasita, and priyanto (2011) shows that children still have difficulties in developing stories according to their genre. this is due to the fact that their stories fall into recount or exemplum rather than narratives. meanwhile, another djatmika’s (2012) research also shows that children still have weaknesses in exploiting grammar in developing characters. they still lack of knowledge of use of conjunction, attitudinal lexis, and metaphor. besides, research on appraisal analysis of children stories still fail to comply a holistic view since the stories are only viewed from the appraisal or evaluative language only excluding involving genre and attitude to support character development …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 85 staging and phases (fitriati et al, 2018; shiro, 2003). based on the phenomenon above, this article is written to see how characters are developed in children stories based on genre and appraisal analysis, particularly through attitude system. children's stories are often defined as a form of literary work written for the target audience of children. in addition, the children's stories can also categorized as stories written by children (djatmika et al, 2011; djatmika, 2012). generally, these children's stories are in narrative genre, but often the writer also presents the stories in recount, or even in anecdote and exemplum genres (djamika et al, 2011). as a narrative, then, the story is developed through obligatory stages, such as orientation, complications, evaluation, and resolution; and may be added by an optional stage called coda (martin, 1992; martin & rose, 2007; rose 2010) . the stages are often constructed through phases which break the stages into more detailed rhetorical functions (martin & rose, 2007, rose, 2007). breaking stories into stages and phases can often make writes too focused on the four stages but fail to produce smooth stories. the narrative must be dynamic and the story line must have a smooth interwoven story so that the reader does not feel the existence of the division during the reading (tan, 2011). the power of narratives lies in how complication and resolution are strongly built. the conflict is developed through logical and complexed events encountered between and among characters that rise to the peak. meanwhile, the solution for such a conflict is planned logically and deliberately to resolve the conflict (erdmann, 2009; segal, 2010). in these stages, the writers are challenged to exploit the appropriate use of lexicogrammar and discourse semantics, including appraisal system to instantiate the development of characters. as can be seen in the previous part, character values are carved in the characters along the story lines. this means that characters in narrative should not only be introduced but also be developed through stages are developed. what and how the characters are built must also be learnt to develop characters in narratives (widyahening & wardhani, 2016; inderawati, 2012; tyra, 2011; leming, 2010; feldman, 2014). the character development will r. santosa, d. djatmika, d. a. n. khrisna register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 86 also exploit the use language as a medium of expression (tan, 2011). the linguistic aspects that can be deployed to see such a character development process are appraisal system and narrative genres (martin & rose, 2007, rose 2007). genre is defined as the smallest cultural unit having that occurs repeatedly in a society (martin, 2014). it represents a social process which produces a social goal and governs how the social goal is achieved. the goal is realized through stages and phases. in reality, genre is realized in the context of a particular situation into a register, configurations of meaning of field, tenor, and mode. this configuration of meaning is instantiated in the use of languages, which consist of discourse semantic, lexicogrammar, and phonology/ graphology (hasan, 2014, martin, 2014; matthiessen, 2015a & b; matthiessen & khasyaf, 2014). in this context, often, genre may be similar to text type as each shows different linguistic features (tan, 2011) although they are in different semiotic layers. there are two types of written genres, namely the story genre and the factual genre (martin, 1992; santosa, 2003; rose, 2007). the former consists of four types namely, recount, anecdote, exemplum, and narrative. these texts are different to each other in accordance to the way the events are responded by the participant in the plot of the story. a recount presents events which are arranged in a chronological order. meanwhile, in anecdotes, events that occur are unusual that often make the culprit embarrassed or sad, so that s/he react affectively in an expression of negative feelings and results in humor or symphaty. on the other hand, an exemplum of the event is an incident, which is an extraordinary event that is usually undesirable. the character tends to make interpretation following the event, so that s/he can get morals behind the event. finally, a narrative begins with the introduction of characters, settings, and events, then followed by the emergence of problems. this problem is developed in an increasing manner so that at a certain point it results in an evaluation of the problem's resolution. it closes with an attempt to resolve the problem, resolution. sometimes a narrative has another optional unit named as coda in which moral of the story is presented (martin, 1992; rose, 2007). meanwhile, the factual genre consists of eight types, namely description, report, recount, procedure, explanation, exposition, discussion, and exploration. factual genre is not elaborated here because this research is only limited to the story genre. genre and attitude to support character development …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 87 in a genre, stages will also be furthered structured into phases. the phases will resemble a series of events that functionally construct the stages (martin & rose, 2007; rose, 2010). however, martin & rose’s (2007) concept of phases is less detailed that the result is operational to be used for character development in children’s stories. meanwhile, rose’s (2010) classification of phases in stories moves continuously across stages. thus, they cannot be identified to what stages they belong to. i would rather break stages more functionally according to what have been done more rigorously by literary analysts (erdmann, 2009; segal, 2010). in addition, the phases are connected with the use of attitude so that the result is more functional to analyze character development in stories. in brief, orientation introduces characters, setting, and activity. complication introduces problems, develops problems to the peak of the conflict. meanwhile, evaluation tells the main character's contemplation of the problems they face, and resolution is a series of phases of planning to solve problem, acting the plan, and resolve the problem. within the stages and phases, the register will exploit the use of language, including attitude in appraisal system (rose, 2007). attitude is a part of appraisal system which, together with graduation and engagement, realize interpersonal meaning at the discourse level. it is a part register choice realizing the configuration of meaning in field, tenor and mode. the choice involves the discourse semantic and lexicogramatical systems. in a spoken discourse the choice will also include phonological system and in a written discourse the choice may also involve graphological system (martin & white, 2005; martin & rose, 2007). attitude includes expressions of feeling (affect), evaluation towards character or behaviour (judgement), and valuation of things/social institutions (appreciation). expressions of feelings consist of expressions of inclination/disinclination, happiness/unhappiness, security/insecurity, and satisfaction/dissatisfaction. each of these expressions has more detailed sub-categories (martin, 2017; martin & rose, 2007; martin & white, 2005). judgement or character evaluation consists of two broad categories, namely self esteem and social sanctions. the former is divided into normality (fate), capability, and tenacity; whereas the later consists of two parts, namely honesty (veracity) and ethics (propriety). finally, appreciation representes three main parts: reaction, composition and valuation. reaction consists of two sub-categories: impact and quality; composition consists of a r. santosa, d. djatmika, d. a. n. khrisna register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 88 balanced and complex composition; and valuation is a matter of the usefulness of the goods (martin & rose, 2007; martin & white, 2005). the three systems of attitude—affect, judgement, and appreciation can be used to identify the character and its development in a narrative. affect can be used to identify the development of characters’ positive or negative feeling towards each other. judgement can be explored to see good or bad evaluation towards the characters, whereas appreciation can be used to explore the evaluation of characters’ things and their social institutions (rose, 2007; fitriati et al, 2018). research method this research is a discourse analysis inspired by systemic functional linguistic (sfl), especially deploying genre and appraisal analyses. this research is qualitative in nature which aims to see the development of characters in a story. the study looks closely at how the evaluative choices instantiated contribute to the establishment of stages and phases in narratives. in addition, a look into the character development is taken into account through attitude resources and their distribution in the stages and phases of the stories (tupala, 2019). two books—the special edition of kecil-kecil punya karya, published by dar mizan bandung (2011) and tangan-tangan mungil melukis langit (collection of short stories), published by mizan media utama bandung (2006) were analysed in this study. the two books were chosen due to the fact that they are written by children between year four and year six of elementary schools. of the two books ten stories were chosen purposively by looking at the completeness of the stages and phases of the genre and the completeness of the attitude system exploited in the stories (spradely, 2006). the data are in the form of attitude system, which were analysed through the stages of analyses: domain, taxonomic, componential, and cultural theme analyses. domain analysis found the context of use, particularly types of genres, stages, and phases in the stories. taxonomic analysis identified the types of attitude used in the stories, componential analysis combined the results of domain and taxonomic analyses to find the patterns of use of attitude in the stories. finally, genre and attitude to support character development …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 89 cultural theme analysis interpreted and discussed the patterns in a larger context of use (santosa, 2017). results and discussion genre, stages, and attitude of children stories it can be seen from table 1 that domain analysis shows all ten stories have completed three obligatory stages of narrative — orientation, complication, and resolution. seven of them add one more obligatory stage evaluation and four stories have an additional stage coda. this means that almost all stories have satisfied martin and rose’s (2007) and rose’s (2007) obligatory stages of narrative. the phases vary across the stages in the stories. but, for the purpose of analysis all possible phases in stages are introduced in domain analysis. orientation introduces character, setting, and activity. complication introduces, develops and raises the conflict or problems into peak. evaluation provides chances for the characters to think of the conflict. resolution starts with planning, acting, and resolving the conflict (erdmann, 2009; segal, 2010). meanwhile, taxonomic analysis in table 1 indicates that the 10 stories deploy all types of attitude that involve affect, judgement, and appreciation, including the more detailed sub-classification of each category (see martin & rose 2007). componential analysis combines domain and taxonomic analyses into a complexed matrix. the matrix of table 1 compresses the use of attitude into positive and negative categories to find out how the patterns of character development are constructed through attitude in stages and phases (tupala, 2019). finally, cultural theme analysis interprets and discusses the patterns in a wider context to find out the cultural values of the genre and attitude in children’s stories (santosa, 2017). as mentioned in literature review, characters will not only be described but also be developed through the whole stories (widyahening & wardhani, 2016; inderawati, 2012; tyra, 2011; leming, 2010; feldman, 2014). however, table 1 also shows that not all stories exploit attitude in all stages and phases. although every phase may not constitute obligatory elements of the stages, the use of attitude at all phases will contribute to the development of characters in the stories (martin & rose, 2007). stories 1, 4, 7, 8, and 9 just develop attitude in r. santosa, d. djatmika, d. a. n. khrisna register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 90 the introducing characters’ activities, while stories 2, 3 and 10 miss the setting. only story 5 builds their characters through the attitude almost in all phases of orientation: introducing characters, and activities. in complication, stories 3 and 4 do not apply attitude in developing conflict into peak, whereas stories 5 and 7 do not explore attitude in conflict development and peak. in addition, stories 6, 8, 1nd 9 do not exploit attitude in plan whereas story 10 do not construct both plan and act. finally, only stories 5, 6, 7, and 9 have coda with attitude. table 1 distribution of attitude in stages and phases in 10 stories staging phases attitude ∑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + (-) + (-) + (-) + (-) + (-) + (-) + (-) + (-) + (-) + (-) orientation character 7 6 1 -3 -2 2 -1 16 -6 setting 1 1 activity 13 -3 3 -6 6 -1 18 -16 3 7 -9 2 -1 1 -9 3 -2 6 62 -50 complication introduction 1 -9 4 -7 5 -4 8 -12 4 -1 2 -4 1 -2 18 -12 5 -2 15 -1 63 -54 development 33 -3 17 -20 1 -4 1 -3 13 -19 3 -9 6 -14 4 -1 78 -73 peak 9 -1 5 -18 3 -8 1 -3 -9 9 -3 27 -42 evaluation 2 -3 2 -3 3 4 -8 2 -1 1 -2 1 -7 15 -22 resolution plan 1 1 1 1 -2 1 4 9 -2 act 4 -2 13 -26 56 -16 8 -3 15 -7 12 -9 9 2 -3 5 -1 124 -67 resolved 11 8 -7 3 3 -3 5 -6 -5 3 2 -3 6 -1 1 42 -25 coda 2 1 1 1 5 note: 1, 2, 3…: story1, story 2, story 3 … it can also be seen in table 1 that all ten stories are started with positive or negative orientation, developed in positive and negative complication, and ended with more positive resolution. this means that in orientation, characters are portrayed in more positive attitude introducing character and activities. then, the characters are depicted in more negative rather positive attitude through introduction of conflict, development and more emphasis in peak of complication and evaluation. then, the characters make positive plans to genre and attitude to support character development …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 91 resolve the conflict. the plan is realized in more positive acts and the conflicts are resolved in positive ways before the whole stories are commented positive in coda. thus, the characters in the stories have passed through their lives, beginning from positive, negative, and resulting in positive experience in the stories. this positive-negative-positive experience has already satisfied the development of attitude in narrative genres (martin, 1992; rose, 2007; widyahening & wardhani, 2016; inderawati, 2012; tyra, 2011; leming, 2010; feldman, 2014). distribution of attitude in stages and phases due to the lack of space, this article will not be able to display all of the stories into one matrix of componential, containing genre stages, phases, and all types of attitude. for this reason, only story 5 and 10 are selected according to the less to most complete stages and phases to be displayed in this article. as mentioned earlier in the discussion of genre, stages and attitude, although the ten stories have completed the obligatory elements of narrative, they fail to satisfy the phases of the stories. besides, they also fail to explore all types of attitude in their stories. for example, story 5 do not explore the use of affect: unhappiness; satisfaction and dissatisfaction; judgement: moral sanction: veracity, and propriety; and appreciation: composition: balance and complexity; valuation. the absence of these attitude aspects varies in the 10 stories. this may be due to the writer’s maturity and experience. however, fulfilling the obligatory stages of narrative and the major phases of the stages are somethings that we should appreciate, since they still make mistakes in lexicogrammatical structures and systems in writing stories (djatmika et al, 2011; djatmika 2012; fitriati 2018; and shiro 2003). as can be seen in table 2, story 5 is constructed without attitude in introducing setting in orientation and without development of conflict and peak in complication. the absence of evaluation in setting will lessen to support the holistic picture of the character (martin, 1992; widyahening & wardhani, 2016; inderawati, 2012; tyra, 2011; leming, 2010; feldman, 2014). but it seems that the writer has the ability to evaluate characters through attitude. for example, (1) titok hestitok namanya. bocah lakilaki yang senang makan permen di luar sekolah itu, sering berhalusinasi kadangkadang. r. santosa, d. djatmika, d. a. n. khrisna register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 92 (tiktok hestitok is his name. the boy who likes to eat sweets outside school sometimes hallucinates) (2) melihat suatu bayangbayang. ihhhh... mengerikan. bahkan, gareng takut kepadanya. (he sees figures. hmmm… fearing. even, gareng fears of him). table 2 distribution of attitude in story 5 stages phases affect judgement appreci. ∑ inc/disi ha sec / in social esteem reaction + + + nor ca ten im qua orientation char 1 1 -1 -1 4 setting activity 1 1 1 1 1 5 complication intro 1 1 1 1 1 5 dev peak evaluation 1 2 3 resolution plan 1 1 act 7 2 2 1 1 -1 -1 -4 3 22 resolve -1 1 1 3, -5 11 coda 2 2 ∑ 12 6 4 4 4 1 10 7 6 54 notes: stages and phases: char: character; introduction of conflict; dev: development of conflict; attitude: inc: inclination; disi: disinclination; ha: happiness; sec: security; in: insecurity; nor: normality; ca: capacity; ten: tenacity; appreci: appreciation; im: impact; qua: quality the introduction of tiktok is started with positive but rather negative affect: happiness: cheer “… senang makan permen …” (“… likes to eat sweets…) and negative social esteem: tenacity “… kadang-kadang berhalusinasi…” (… sometimes hallucinates) in clause 1. then, it continues with titok’s friend, gareng’s, comments on his physical appearance in negative appreciation: impact “… bayang-bayang… mengerikan… (… figures … frightening) and negative affect: disinclination: fear “gareng takut takut kepadanya.” (gareng fears of him) in clause 2. after leaving setting without evaluation, the orientation continues with introducing activity. the following clauses depict the activities. (1) “enak lho, uang jajan ku habis karena untuk aku jajan permen itu!” pamer titok. (it is fun to spent my money to buy sweets,” boasted titok) genre and attitude to support character development …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 93 (2) temannya, titok terus mengajaknya membeli permen di luar sekolah sehingga ia menjadi anak yang boros sekarang. (his friend, titok, continued asking him to buy sweets outside school so he became a wasteful boy.) (3) gareng tentu tidak mau, karena ia membawa bekal. (gareng, of course, did not want it, because he brought his meal) (4) selain itu, ia menghemat uang jajan untuk membeli sepeda. (besides, he spent his money wisely to buy a bicycle.) the writer begins introducing activity with evaluating titok’ activities in positive affect: happiness: cheer “enak lo,” (it’s fun…) in clause 1. the he continues with negative affect: security: confidence: “… terus mengajak membeli permen…” (… continued asking him to buy sweets…) and negative judgement: social esteem: tenacity: “… dia menjadi anak yang boros…” (… he became a wasteful boy…) in clause 2. but the writer reevaluates it with gareng’s response in negative affect: inclination: desire “gareng tidak mau…” (gareng didn’t wanted ….) in clause 3 and positive affect: inclination: desire “ia menghemat uang jajan …” (… he spent the money wisely to …) in clause 4. thus, the absence of evaluation on introducing setting a little bit corrupt the picture of ‘outside school’. the reader will miss ‘what is it like’ or ‘what kind of place is it’. in that case, it will not support the place where the character like to be around. meanwhile, the absence of development of conflict and peak in complication will, of course, reduce the complicatedness of the developed conflicts. the conflicts or problems seem to like ‘not finished’ erdmann, 2009; segal 2010). in story 5 the complication is constructed through introduction of conflict, where tiktok’s, the antagonist, feeling and evaluation on his activity are challenged by gareng, the protagonist. for example, (1) “wah! wah! wah! pasti enak kalau ngemut permen sambil main games di komputer… (“wow! wow! wow! it must be nice to have sweets while gaming in computer…) (2) titok pun datang membawa sekantung plastik besar bewarna hitam. (tiktok came carrying a big black plastic bag) r. santosa, d. djatmika, d. a. n. khrisna register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 94 (3) “ya, ampun tiitok! kamu itu apaapaan sih? ngabisngabisin duit aja deh. itu namanya pemborosan lho, tok!” nasihat gareng. (“my dear, tiktok! what are you doing? you’re just wasting your money. that’s wasting money, tok!” advised gareng) (4) “nggak apaapa biarin! titok bisa minta uang sama mami! mami kan baik!” balas titok sambil berlalu pergi. (“i don’t care! tiktok can ask mummy for money! my mummy is kind-hearted, isn’t she?” replied tiktok while leaving). tiktok’s positive affect: happiness: cheer: disposition, “wah! wah! wah!” (“wow…”), positive security: confidence: disposition “pasti enak… (it must be nice”) in clause 1, and positive appreciation: reaction: quality “… sekantung plasktik besar berwarna hitam” (“… a big black plastic bag.”) in clause 2 are reevaluated by gareng’s positive inclination: desire “…! nasehat gareng.” (“… advised gareng) in clause 3. then, tiktok leaves gareng with negative affect: insecurity: disquiet: urge of behavior “… balas tiktok sambal berlalu pergi.” (… replied tiktok while leaving) in clause 4. leaving friend after being challenged is, of course, not enough for developing conflict in complication. this introduction of conflict needs to be advanced by the development of conflict into peak. finally, story 5 has not exploited the possibility of the presence all types of sub-attitudes. for example, story 5 just explores a number of sub types of attitude such affect: unhappiness, judgement: social sanction of veracity and propriety, and appreciation: composition and valuation. the judgement: social sanction of veracity and propriety is potential to evaluate the presence or the absence of truth and ethics in society whereas appreciation of composition and valuation can also be used to evaluate the complexity of things and institution that can also generate and raise the conflict (martin & rose, 2007; martin & white, 2005). the absence of phases and a number of attitudes can also be seen in story 10, depicted in table 3. story 10 has just missed a lot of phases in character development. for example, it does not only fail to develop the introduction of setting in orientation but it also fails to explore evaluation and plan and act in genre and attitude to support character development …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 95 resolution. even, the writer has just resolved the conflict with the only one attitude: negative affect: insecurity. besides, it has no coda introduced in the story. theoretically, although the writer has succeeded to produce the complexed complication, the writer fails to respond it with a complexed resolution. even, the writer has finished the story with one negative affect: insecurity. it can be said that the characters have not been developed through positive-negativepositive phases of character development in narratives (martin, 1992; rose, 2007). table 3 distribution of attitude in story 10 staging phase affect judgement appreciation ∑ ha sec/ins satis/di social esteem soc san reaction valu + + + no ca pro im qu orientation char 1 1 -1 3 setting activity 2 1 1 2 6 complication intro 7 1 1 1 1 1 4 16 dev 2 1 1 1 5 peak 4 2 1 2 -1 2 12 evaluation resolution plan act resolve 1 1 coda ∑ 15 3 1 3 4 1 3 4 1 7 1 43 notes: stages and phases: char: character; intro: introduction of conflict; dev: development of conflict; attitude: ha: happiness; sec: security; ins: insecurity; satis: satisfaction; di: dissatisfaction; soc san: social sanction; pro: propriety; no: normality; ca: capacity; pro: propriety; im: impact; qu: quality; valu: valuation in addition, story 10 also fail to exploit other types of attitudes such as affect: inclination and disinclination that usually are used to generate desire and fear. the affect: inclination: desire is, particularly, very important to develop the willingness to resolve the conflict, which is usually realized in evaluation or in resolution: plan (martin & rose 2007; martin & white, 2005). i can be said that story 10 also fail to exploit attitude holistically, thus, story 10 also fail to develop character through the whole story (widyahening & wardhani, 2016; inderawati, 2012; tyra, 2011; leming, 2010; feldman, 2014). r. santosa, d. djatmika, d. a. n. khrisna register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 96 conclusion based on the findings and discussion above, it can be summarized that seven children stories have fulfilled the obligatory stages of the narrative genre, involving orientation, complication, evaluation and complication. even, four of the stories have added with the optional stage, coda. meanwhile, it can also be found that three of them fail to satisfy the presence of evaluation in the stories. secondly, it can also be said that all stories fail to fulfill the whole phases of every stage in the narrative. just to mention, five stories do not fulfill introduction of character and setting; and only five stories develop introduction of character without setting in complication. thirdly, although most stories have completed phases in complication, two stories have no development and peak of conflict and two others cannot finish the peak in complication. finally, three stories fail to satisfy the plan in resolution and another story misses the plan and act and just leave one negative affect: insecurity to resolve conflict. based on the distribution of attitude in stages and phases of narrative, it can be said that all stories have not experienced through positive-negative-and positive stages of character development. it can also be said that not all types of and sub-types of attitudes are exploited to develop characters in the stories.[rgt] references almerico, g.m. (2014). building character through literacy with children’s literature. research in higher education journal, 24, 1-13. cartledge, g. & kiarie, m.w. (2001). learning social skills through literature for children and adolescents. teaching exceptional children. 34 (2) 40-47. djatmika, d. (2012). kualitas olah bahasa anak usia sekolah dasar dalam kegiatan bercerita: sebuah proses pemerolehan bahasa anak. metalingua jurnal penelitian bahasa.10 (2). djatmika, d., primasita, f. a. & priyanto, a. d. (2011). strategi meningkatkan kualitas olah bahasa untuk cerita pendek tulisan siswa sekolah dasar dengan pendekatan genre-based. jurnal ilmu bahasa dan sastra lingua. 6 (2). genre and attitude to support character development …. register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 97 erdmann, e. (2009). nationality international: detective fiction in the late twentieth century. translated by fiona fincannon. first published in: murti, et. al., investigating identities: questions of identity in contemporary international crime fiction. edited by marieke krajenbrink. rodopi.11-26. http://uni-kontanz.de/bitstream/ handle/123456789/3567. feldman, m.p. (2014). the character of innovative places: entrepreneurial strategy, economic development, and prosperity. small business economics, 43, 9–20. fitriati, s. w., solihah, y. a., & tusino. (2018). expressions of attitudes in students’ narrative writing: an appraisal analysis. lingua cultura, 12(4), 333-338. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4789. hasan, r. (2014). towards a paradigmatic description of context: systems, metafunctions, and semantics. functional linguist, 1 (9). https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s40554-014-0009-y inderawati, r. (2012). the development of literary appreciation instrument in building students’ character. sino-us english teaching, 9 (2), 937-945. leming, j. s. (2010). tell me a story: an evaluation pf a literature-based character education programme. journal of moral education, 29, 413-427. https://doi.org/10.1080/713679388 martin, j. r. (1992) english text: system and structure. john benjamin. martin, j. r. & white, p. (2005). the language of evaluation: appraisal in english. palgrave macmillan martin, j. r. & rose, d. (2007). working with discourse: meaning beyond the clause. continuum. martin, j. r. (2014). evolving systemic functional linguistics: beyond the clause. functional linguist, 1, 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/2196-419x-1-3 martin, j. r. (2017). the discourse semantics of attitudinal relations: continuing the study of lexis. russian journal of linguistics, 21(1), 22-47. https://doi.org/10.22363/2312918220172112247 matthiessen, c. m. i. m. (2015a). register in the round: registerial cartography. functional linguist, 2, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40554-015-0015-8 matthiessen, c. m. i. m. (2015b). modelling context and register: the long-term project of registerial cartography. letras, santa maria. 25 (50). 15-90. matthiessen, c. m. i. m. & khasyaf, a. k. (2014). the construal of space in different register: an exploratory study. language and science. 45. 1-27. r. santosa, d. djatmika, d. a. n. khrisna register journal – vol 14, no 1 (2021) 98 o'sullivan, sheryl, (2004). books to live by: using children's literature for character education. the reading teacher. 57 (7), 640-648. rose, david (2007). reading genre: a new wave of analysis. linguistics and the human sciences, 2 (1), 1-30. rose, david (2010). genre in the sydney school. in the routledge handbook of discourse analysis, 1-16. james paul gee and mike handford (eds. routledge. santosa, r. (2003). semiotika sosial: pandangan terhadap bahasa. pustaka eureka & jawa pos press. santosa, r., djatmika, d. & akhmerti, f. (2007). sastra anak sebagai wahana pengenalan dan pengasuhan ideologi: sebuah kajian wacana. laporan penelitian fundamental tahun ke-2. santosa, r. (2017). metode penelitian kualitatif kebahasaan. surakarta: uns press. segal, e. (2010). closure in detective fiction. poetics today. 31 (2). 153-215. https://doi.org/10.2307/40984375 shiro, m. (2003). genre and evaluation in narrative development. journal of child language, 30 (1), 165-195. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0305000902005500 spradley, j. p. (2006). metode etnografi (m. z. elizabeth, trans.). tiara wacana. tan, e. s. (2011). emotion and the structure of narrative film: film as emotion machine. routledge. tupala, m. (2019). applying quantitative appraisal analysis to the study of institutional discourse: the case of eu migration document. functional linguistics, 6(2), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40554-018-0067 tyra, c. (2011). bringing books to life: teaching character education through children’s literature. rising tide, 5, 1-16. widyahening, e. t. & wardhani, n. e. (2016). literary work and character education. international journal of language and literature. 4 (1). 176-180. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.83-100 1 authentic material and automaticity for teaching english widyastuti state institute for islamic studies (iain) salatiga widyastuti.jati@yahoo.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.83-100 english abstract this article discusses how to make students of science education in first year feel interesting in english lesson, understanding the text well and can communicate english fluency. it has been suggested that authentic material and automaticity theory not only creates a friendly and fun condition in teaching reading but helps students to study comprehensibly so they are able to understand the text, structure, vocabulary easily, read fluently and they also can communicate in english. the authentic material can make the teaching learning process fun and eliminate boring because the topics and materials can be found in internet so it will be more visually and interactive . automaticity theory can solve the problem of students who must memorize words that make them feel boring and forget the words soon. the other benefit is the students can exposure the real language being used in a real context and stimulate studens’idea, encouarage them to relate themselves with real-life experiencesthese strategies can make the students understand easily and enjoy the teaching learning process. by combining authentic material and automaticity strategies for teaching english in science education, will develop readers (students) to become fully competent and fluent. key words: authentic material, automaticity theory, teaching english indonesian abstract artikel ini membahas bagamana agar mahasiswa di tadris ipa tahun pertama tertarik dan dapat memahami teks berbahasa inggris dengan baik selain itu juga dapat berkomunikasi dalam bahasa inggris dengan lancar. authentic material dan automaticity theori tidak hanya menciptakan suasana pembelajaran membaca yang nyaman dan menyenangkan tetapi membantu mahasiswa untu belajar secara menyeluruh sehingga mereka dapat belajar bacaan, tata bahasa dan kosa kata dengan mudah selain itu mereka bisa membaca dan berkomunikasi dalam bahasa inggris dengan lancar. authentic material membuat proses belajar mengajarnya menjadi menyenangkan dan menghilangkan rasa bosan karena topik dan materinya bisa diambil di internet sehingga bisa dilihat dan lebih interaktif. authomaticity theory dapat mengatasi rasa bosan mahasiswa yang harus menghafal kosa kata sulit dan cepat lupa. keuntungan lain adalah mahasiswa dapat menggali bahasa yang sesungguhnya dalam konteks nyata ,merangsang dan mendorong ide mahasiswa ,untuk mengkaitkan dengan kehidupan nyata. dengan demikian strategi ini akan membuat mahasiswa mudah memahami dan merasa nyaman dalam proses be;ajar mengajar. dengan menggabungkan dua strategi, yaitu authentic material dan automatiy theory dalam mailto:widyastuti.jati@yahoo.com http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.873 widyastuti pembelajaran bahasa inggris di tadris ipa, akan meningkatkan kecakapan dan kelancaran mahasiswa dalam bahasa inggris. kata kunci: materi otentik, teori otomatisasi, pengajaran bahasa inggris introduction reading means different things to different people, for some it is recognizing written words, while for others it is an opportunity to teach pronunciation and practice speaking. however, reading always has purpose. the reason for reading depends very much on the purpose for reading. reading can have three main purposes, for survival, for learning or for pleasure. reading for survival is considered to be in response to our environment, to find out information. in contrast reading for learning is considered to be the type of reading done in classroom and is goal oriented, while reading for pleasure is something that does not have to be done. reading is central to the teaching and learning language. it is also one of the more difficult aspects of language to teach well. teaching reading has to be one of toughest tasks a teacher faces. we all know that reading skills are essential to students‟ success on standardized tests and college entrance exams. in their ability to communicate orally and in writing and in nearly all other areas of life. indeed there are many different teaching methods which people today purport which do not focus on solely teaching reading. there are many different ways of making reading a little more interesting. this article tries to adress the often neglected aspect of enjoying and motivating students in the process of studying reading especially in the first year students of science departement iain salatigabeside that this paper will discuss the need of teachers to teach the proper reading strategies to help the students understand the text easily. the sources of authentic materials that can be used in the classroom are infinite, but the most common are newspapers, magazines, tv programs, movies, songs and literature. one of the most useful is the internet. whereas newspapers and any other printed material date very quickly, the internet is continuously updated, more visually stimulating as well as register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.83-100 3 being interactive, therefore promoting a more active approach to reading rather than a passive one. automaticity theory of learning emphasizes the importance of training at the associative stage, where learners come to coordinate individual skills in more varied, complex tasks which display automaticity and fewer breakdowns in mental processing and overloads of working memory. the process is lengthy one, students will get eventually and are capable if given the correct support. patience is vital to the successful implementation of theory. automaticity refers to the ability to perform complex skills with minimal attention and conscious effort. automaticity is essential for higher-order thinking such as skilled reading and writing because important sub-skills must be performed accurately, quickly and effortlessly. reason for using authentic material and automaticity theory in the classroom when considering the use of authentic materials, widdowson wrote: “it has been traditionally supposed that the language presented to learners should be simplified in some way for easy access and acquisition. nowadays there are recommendations that the language presented should be authentic” (widdowson 1990:67). the use of authentic material in teaching and learning activity is not new. authentic material can include tv show, radio, news broadcast, documentaries, movies, photograph, art work, adverticement, brocure etc. authentic material focuses on helping students eliminate the feeling of failing or other negative association they may have toward learning activity. one of the important principles of communicative language teaching is that authentic language should be used in instruction whenever possible (omaggiohadley, 1993). martinez (2000) summarized several benefits of using authentic materials. 1. by using authentic material, students are exposed to real discourse, as in videos of interview with famous people where intermediate students listen for general idea. 2. using authentic materials in the classroom is once outside the “safe”, controlled language learning environment, the learner will not encounter the artificial language of the classroom but the real world and language how it is really used. widyastuti 3. keep students informed about what is happening in the world, so they have an intrinsic educational value. 4. as language changge is reflected in the materials so that students and teachers can keep abreast of such changes. 5. reading texts are ideal to teach/practice mini-skill such as scanning, eg students are given a news article and asked to look for specific information. also, teachers can have students practice some of the micro-skills of listening . eg basically students listen to news reports and they are asked to identify the name of countries, famous people etc. 6. different authentic material such as books, articles, newspaper and soon contain a wide variety of text type and language styles not easily found in conventional teaching materials. thus it can help students extend their vocabulary and help memorize them in a number of meaningful recycling. 7. authentic material can encourage learning for pleasure because they are likely to contain topic of interest to learners, especially if students are given the chance to have a say about the topics of kinds of authentic material to be used in class. 8. authentic material drawn from periodicals are always up to date and constantly being updated. (www.intelegentbusiness@pearson education 2005) as result, learners will keep high motivation and interesting in language teaching through these meaningful interaction with the material. nunan (1999). authentic material selection criteria the definition of authentic material is the materials that have been produced to fulfill some social purpose in the language community. ( peacock 1997). the purpose is to stimulate students‟idea, encouarage them to relate themselves with real-life experiences and develop topics in ways that articulate their ideas and aplicate them correctly. tomlinson & masuhara ( 2010: 400 ) states that “authentic materials are designed not to transmit declarative knowledge about the target language but rather to provide an experience of language in use. the basic consideration for selecting authentic material is trying to pick topic that are relevant and of interest to the students. providing materials that are both practical and aplicable that can help students to relate themselves with real-life experiences. http://www.intelegent/ register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.83-100 5 another aspect which need to be considered is how to make the exercise fun and aplicable to help the students think ahead and prepare themselves about the topic.the exercise provides the perfect opportunity to challenge students‟ critical thinking skills. students also gain valuable learning experience in data interpretation. it can be concluded that authentic materials bridge the gap between classroom language use and real life language use by bringing familiar linguistic situation and materials right into the classroom. when teachers use authentic materials, they are in fact helping students to make a comfortable learning to fulfill some social purpose in language community. how to choose authentic material text authentic texts have been defined as “…real-life texts, not written for pedagogic purposes” (wallace 1992:145) they are therefore written for native speakers and contain “real” language. they are “…materials that have been produced to fulfil some social purpose in the language community.” (peacock (1997). the sources of authentic materials that can be used in the classroom are infinite, but the most common are newspapers, magazines, tv programs, movies, songs and literature. one of the most useful is the internet. whereas newspapers and any other printed material date very quickly, the internet is continuously updated, more visually stimulating as well as being interactive, therefore promoting a more active approach to reading rather than a passive one. from a more practical point of view, the internet is a modern day reality, most students use it and for teachers, there is easier access to endless amounts of many different types of material. from a even more practical/economical point of view, trying to obtain authentic materials abroad can be very expensive, an english paper/magazine can cost up to 3-4 times the price that it usually is and sometimes is not very good. often by having unlimited access in the work place, looking for materials costs nothing, only time. authentic materials should be the kind of material that students will need and want to be able to read when travelling, studying abroad, or using the language in other contexts outside the classroom. authentic materials enable learners to interact with the real language widyastuti and content rather than the form. learners feel that they are learning a target language as it is used outside the classroom. when choosing materials from the various sources, it is therefore worth taking into consideration that the aim should be to understand meaning and not form, especially when using literary texts with the emphasis being on what is being said and not necessarily on the literary form or stylistics. nuttall gives three main criteria when choosing texts to be used in the classroom suitability of content, exploitability and readability. suitability of content can be considered to be the most important of the three, in that the reading material should interest the students as well as be relevant to their needs. the texts should motivate as well as. exploitability refers to how the text can be used to develop the students‟ competence as readers. a text that can not be exploited for teaching purposes has no use in the classroom. just because it is in english does not mean that it can be useful. readability is used to describe the combination of structural and lexical difficulty of a text, as well as referring to the amount of new vocabulary and any new grammatical forms present. it is important to assess the right level for the right students. the “authentic” presentation, through the use of pictures, diagrams, photographs, helps put the text into a context. this helps the reader not only understand the meaning of the text better but also how it would be used. a more “attractive” text will appeal to the student and motivate them into reading. it may seem to be a very superficial aspect but the appearance of any article is the first thing that the student notices. an “attractive” looking article is more likely to grab the reader‟s attention rather than a page full of type. very often it is so easy to just download an article from the internet and present the student a page full of impersonal print, without taking any of these factors into consideration. automaticity theory automaticity theory (at) attempts to explain how people acquire skills as a function of the automaticity of operating processes. schneider and fisk (1983) explain the mechanisms of skill acquisition in terms of contrasting automatic and controlled types of cognitive and memory processing. automatic processing is a fast, parallel, fairly effortless process which is not limited by short-term memory capacity, is not under direct subject control and performs welldeveloped skilled behaviors. automatic processing typically develops when subjects deal with register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.83-100 7 the stimulus consistently over many trials....controlled processing is characterized as a slow, generally serial, effortful, capacity limited, subject controlled processing mode that must be used to deal with novel or inconsistent information. (p. 120) schneider and fisk (1983) also show how practice changes controlled processing into automatic processing. according to them, automatic productions are modular and will develop when the component processes are consistent. this modular processing system can be hierarchical, with the same module being one part of many different skills. the assumption is that there is an upper limit to human attention span. practice, however, can make automatic productions relatively free of limited memory resources; thus there is no necessary limit to the number of automatic processes which can be active at the same time. moreover, practice makes productions autonomous, reducing direct conscious control of the subject. this is a crucial stage on which it can be said that good and poor learners divide. automaticity which has been acquired through effective, repeated practice makes it possible to process different stimuli at different stages simultaneously, as in something like a psychological and pyschomotor version of a complex production line. schneider and fisk (1983) illustrate this change of behavior in practicing a motor skill by describing the change in learning how to play the piano. at the novice level, performance is very slow, serial, and capacity limited. controlled processing is in effect at this stage and the learner must allot much of finite attention capacity to each motor task. after substantial practice, however, the learner builds up a vocabulary of playable notes by consistently repeating each note in a given phrase thousands of times. as the automatic productions develop, the performer can speed up the responses, incorporate more complicated rhythm information, and begin to have sufficient capacity freed up and made available to attend to the patterns of notes, familiar scales and chords, and then finally onto entire sections in the music. figure 1 shows the continuum of automatization adapted from whitaker (1983, p. 199) by way of comparison and contrast, anderson (1995) perceives the development of skill acquisition as the development of problem-solving operators. he divides the processes into three stages; the cognitive stage, the associative stage, and the autonomous stage. he describes the general characteristics of each stage as follows: in the cognitive stage, learners commit to memory a set of facts relevant to the skill. typically they rehearse these facts as they first perform the skill. the process is slow. the information they have learned amounts widyastuti to a set of problem-solving operators for the skill. in the associative stage, the connections among the various elements required for successful performance are strengthened. errors are detected and eliminated as well. learners, by this time, have converted the verbal knowledge once memorized into procedural knowledge. in the autonomous stage, the procedure becomes more skilled, more automated, and more rapid. in becoming so, it requires fewer and fewer attentional resources. learners also develop more complex skills in the direction of becoming more automated and requiring fewer processing resources. anderson says, "it is the procedural, not the declarative, knowledge that governs the skilled performance" (p.274) the models of skill acquisition described above show how people develop automaticity with practice, and they break down a complex process over time into understandable stages. in learning a foreign language, just as with other skill acquisition processes, we must start from an absolute beginning stage at which we have no language and must progress over time until we have acquired language proficiency. ultimately, we hope to attain the stage where we can exert control over language well enough to allocate our attention to understanding and responding to the content of messages, to actual communication. in real classroom, it is hard to see how the process of acquiring functional proficiency levels over stages is actually acknowledged. reading, grammar, key vocabulary, typical expression, and language associated with communicative situation and functions, etc. for each isolated item, explanation and opportunities for practice activities are often given. they need to free up their cognitive and memory resources by becoming fluent, automatic, and efficient at certain elements of processing in order to devote their mental resources to more involved, complex tasks of real communication and interaction. in short, they need to stick it out with some practice tasks until stages of automaticity have been reached. after practicing distinct skills until a fluency with them has been reached, learners then need to practice them in more integrative, less framed tasks. in so doing, they will also learn how to balance their attention span; their cognitive and memory resources can be more efficiently shared out to the various integrated parts of increasingly complex tasks. taking this into consideration, we need to restructure the whole curriculum to incorporate language training adapted to the associative stage of anderson's (1995) model. figure 2 demonstrates a register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.83-100 9 model which could be applied to the structuring of the formal language curriculum around the concepts of at. therefore, to talk about automaticity in foreign language reading, we need to divide elements involved in the reading act into what can be automated and what cannot. knowledge-driven operations such as intra textual perception, metacognition, and prior knowledge may work mainly as individual differences in learners' general reading skills developed. more importantly, these operations cannot be automated because they are constantly changing depending on the context and continue to require attention and effort. however, automaticity in text-driven skills may well free up memory and cognition for the type of fluent reading that requires constant attention and effort, and breakdowns in such skills can prove to be the "weakest link" in the entire reading process the use of authentic reading materials and automaticity theory in the classroom one of the main ideas of using authentic materials in the classroom is to “expose” the learner to as much real language as possible. even if the classroom is not a “real-life” situation, authentic materials do have a very important place within it. it has been argued that by taking a text out of its original context, it loses it authenticity: “as soon as texts, whatever their original purpose, are brought into classrooms for pedagogic purposes they have, arguably, lost authenticity.” (wallace 1992:79) even if true, the learner is still exposed to real discourse and not the artificial language of course textbooks, which tend not to contain any incidental or improper examples. they also tend to reflect the current eaching trend. authentic materials also give the reader the opportunity to gain real information and know what is going on in the world around them. more times than not, they have something to say, be it giving information, a review. they also produce a sense of achievement. extracting real information from a real text in a new/different language can be extremely motivating, therefore increasing students' motivation for learning by exposing them to 'real' language (guariento & morley 2001). they also reflect the changes in language use, (again something that does not occur in textbooks, which become very dated, very quickly) as well as giving the learner the proof that the language is real and not only studied in the classroom: widyastuti “authentic texts can be motivating because they are proof that the language is used for reallife purposes by real people.” (nuttall 1996:172) the wide variety of different types of text means that it is easier to find something that will interest the learner and may even encourage further reading or reading for pleasure. an advantage of taking a complete newspaper or magazine into classroom, rather than photocopies of an article, is that students can actually choose what they want to read. the more the learner reads, the better a reader he will become, not only improving his language level but also confidence. in each stage of proficiency, the learners should be given sufficient training to reach a stage where they can read the material rapidly and accurately. the content of the material should be easy and concrete at first, gradually becoming more difficult and abstract. in general, reading material that uses typical, mature written english may contain more complicated sentence structures when compared with spoken material. exposing students with graded, spoken materials in the early stage may give them opportunities to listen to texts with the basic sentence structures and help them to internalize and schematize the basic english sentence structures. though the ultimate goal of most reading practices may be to comprehend the text, syntactic feature recognition should be emphasized particularly to the l2 or fl readers whose native language structures are very different from those of the target language. otherwise, learners may depend too much on their background knowledge and so not pay enough attention to what is actually written in a text. definition of automaticity is ability to respond or react without attention or conscious effort. automaticity is defined as fast, accurate and effortless word, identification at the single word. (hook, pe and jones, s.d 2002). automaticity is essential for higher -order thinking, such as skilled reading and writing because important sub-skills must be performed accurately, quickly and effortlessly. if reading subskills are performed automatically, then higher order aspects of the task such as comprehension, can be performed effectively. when students become a truly automatic readers, they will look at a page and read on it sequence, without unnatural hesitation they will understand what those words mean on a subconscious level and won‟t even have to think about or give to much attention to them to absorb their meaning. automaticity in reading requires a great deal of practice to be thoroughly installed in memory. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.83-100 11 because the reading demands on our students are high, students with poor reading fluency can fall begin, so it is important to provide and use tools, including technology that can assist students in reading practice and improve their automaticity. samples of reading lesson the classroom activities readers process texts in two ways, either top-down or bottom-up. bottom-up processing is when the reader builds up meaning by reading word for word, letter for letter, carefully scrutinizing both vocabulary and syntax. this is often associated with poor or slow readers, but can sometimes occur when the readers own schema knowledge is inadequate. topdown processing is the opposite, where a global meaning of the text is obtained, through “clues” in the text and the reader‟s good schema knowledge. this is often associated with a good reader, who does not read word for word but quickly and efficiently. the most comprehensive description of the reading process are interactive models, “…in which every component in the reading process can interact with any other component… (alderson 2000:18)”, combining elements of both bottom-up and top down models. reading is considered to be an interactive process (a conversation between writer/reader, even though the writer is not present) and for it to occur both processes are necessary, top-down to predict the meaning and bottom-up to check it. the two are therefore complementary ways of processing a text. the sample of activity uses text for example about heart and circulation, lung, kidney, blood, brain etcthe materials were downloaded from the internet and then adapted.the researcher chooses this text with the following reasons, firstly any students find many difficulties, boring with the text, hopefully by using authentic material land automaticity theory, the students won‟t find any difficulties and boring but they will feel interesting and fun with the material. secondly, it evokes imagination and provides materials that are both practical and applicable that can help students to relate themselves with their knowledge and experiences. thirdly the exercises of the text provide perfect opportunity to challenge students‟ critical thinking skills. fourthly, there some sub-topic of heart and circulation, for examples what is blood, what are blood groups, how does the heart work and so on so it motivate students study automaticity because they will get more practice and vocabulary related to the text. and finally, students can gain valuable learning experience. widyastuti first step pre-reading (observation) the aim of this step is to get students interested and build out their impression to the topic. the question will guide the students to construct their idea related to the activity and the goal is to understand and use english in real life and automatically. it can be made more approachable byreviewing new vocabulary before reading, and then asking students to perform tasks that are within their competence, such as skimming to get the main idea or scanning for specific information, before they begin intensive reading. recycling the same words learned before in numerous different contexts may reduce their study load and will also help them recognize words in future reading encounters. the students are given occupation to read the text,the more the student reads, the better a reader he will become, not only improving his language level but also confidence because they can read automaticity. according to automaticity theory this step is in the cognitive stage, learners commit to memory a set of facts relevant to the skill. typically they rehearse these facts as they first perform the skill. the process is slow. the information they have learned amounts to a set of problem-solving operators for the skill. by practicing regularly and repeating practice every time the lecturer come, hopefully the learners will respond automatically and easily so the students won‟t feel difficulties and boring but they will feel fun with the material. to combine authentic material and automaticity theory, teacher must use variety strategies and different strategies for different text. the example of activities in prereading 1. using the title, subtitles and division within the text to predict content and organization or sequence of information. 2. pronunciation in group 3. read paragraph, it can motivate students reading fluency (the ability to read text quickly, accurately and automatically) teach new vocabulary using multisensory approach ( graphic organizer, photograph or pictures) by using lcd to create deeper understanding the “authentic” presentation, through the use of pictures, diagrams, photographs, also helps put the text into a context. this helps the reader not only understand the meaning of the text better but also how it would be used. it register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.83-100 13 will become more “attractive” step of reading that will appeal to the student and motivate them into reading. 1. reviewing vocabulary or grammatical structure 2. doing guided practice with guessing meaning from context or checking comprehension while reading. 3. describing a pictures 4. involve all students in the simulation step 2: while-reading teacher tries to encourage the students to be a flexible and active readers, the teacher alsoto promote a dialogue between reader and writer. in this step the teacher can develop the questions, clarify the content of the text, ask the students to summarize or visualize and monitor the understanding of the students. it can be done in a group. the teacher can control language learning environment and the students will get real world and language how is really used. in while-reading, in discussing the text, the items area about typically grammar points, key vocabulary, typical expressions, and the language associated with communicative situations and functions. for each item, explanation and opportunities for practice activities are given the example of activities in while-reading 1. put students in group of four or in a partner 2. ask them to discuss the answers of the questions from the text 3. ask students to skim the text to get a general sense 4. engage students in some general discussion of the topic, making a brief notes on board about main ideas 5. monitor their understanding 6. activate schema 7. do error correction 8. keep track of what students are grasping easily and what they are having trouble understanding or comprehending. 9. clarify and correct students when they give incorrect answers widyastuti review activities in this step, it is hoped that the students participate with more interest and involvement, they also gain confidence and can use their sense-making instincts or their automaticity. students need not to memorize words, because by recycling the same words learned before in numerous different contexts may reduce their study load and will also help them recognize words in future reading encounters. the other benefit of automaticity is the students have the ability to read words without decoding, it means students reading allow them to read words fluently so that they can concentrate on comprehending the text. step 3: post-reading post-reading strategies provide students away to summarize reflect and questions what they have just read. the example of post reading activities 1. assign them in different job for example summarize what they have read and draw picture or graphic organizer what they read. 2. ask students to return to the statements and to make notes from what they have discovered in their text that may confirm or change their opinion. 3. assign a relevant reading task to a small group so that students can practice using the features of the text to locate information and help them understand and remember what they read. 4. the teacher brings an english language newspaper/magazine to class and has students read the text and underline every instance of the present perfect aspect or passive tense, then copy them all in their note book. 5. the teacher uses on „inauthentic‟ text from a published course book which was contrived specifically to practice reported speech and then discuss other waysin which the speakers could have said the same thing using different language. 6. the teacher asks students to use the internet to research about the pictures that show about the function of heart, lungs, brain or kidney then create a short information about the picture. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.83-100 15 7. if the students find difficulty in understanding the text from internet, the teacher can edit or simplify the text and if the passage is too long, the teacher can shorter the text and make lexically easier by using the method of authentic material and automaticity, the students will get four skills, in receptive reading they will study text by skimming, scanning, looking at text organization (paragraphing, topic sentences), listening for gist and listening for specific information. in productive speaking the students discuss on issues arising from the text or role play based on the scenario, and use the article as model responding in writing. conclusion the use of authentic material in the classroom of science education students in iain salatiga benefiting from exposure to real language being used in real context. other aspects with proved positive when using authentic materials were that they are highly motivating, giving sense of achievement when understand and encourage further reading. for developing reading, the most useful resource is the internet, beside easily accessible. theory of automaticity derived from the word automatic, automaticity is a key importance for developing readers to become fully competent and fluent. it means being able to recognize and process information without really thinking about it in conscious level. something that human being is not born with but rather develop as they continue to learn when applied to reading. automaticity is the ability to look at words and read them aloud without thinking. automaticity is very important to students of science education because if our students achieving automaticity in reading is not only their becoming effective readers but becoming effective all -around learning. the majority students make a shift from “ learning to read” to “ reading to learn” effective reading comprehension requires not only accurate reading and fluent reading school also automatic skill that allow them to easily comprehend what they are reading. automaticity theory can improve the teaching reading process because the students are able to coordinate individual skills in more complex task, leading to independence in communicating ability. widyastuti references alderson, j.c. & urquhart, a.h. (1984) reading in a foreign language london, longman alderson, j.c. (2000) assessing reading cambridge, c.u.p. anderson, n.j. (1999) exploring second language reading – issues and strategies canada, heinle & heinle breen, m.p. (1985) authenticity in the language classroom applied linguistics 6/1 pp60-70 brumfit, c.j. & johnson, k. (1979) the communicative approach to language teaching oxford, o.u.p. carrell, p.l., devine, j. & eskey, d.e. (editors) (1988) interactive approaches to second language reading cambridge, c.u.p. fumiko yoshimura (2000) automaticity theory and efl in japan .literacy across cultures. spring/summer 4/1 goodman, k (1988) the reading process in carrell, p.l., devine, j. & eskey, d.e. (editors) (1988) interactive approaches to second language reading cambridge, c.u.p. pp1121 guariento, w. & morley, j. (2001) text and task authenticity in the efl classroom in elt journal 55(4), pp 347-353 hook.pe and jones, sd (2002) the important of automaticity and fluently for efficient reading comprehension. international dyslexia association quarterly news letter perspective, winter, 2002, vol 8, no 1 page 9 martinez, a.g. (2002) authentic materials: an overview on karen's linguistic issues http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/authenticmaterials.html nuttall, c. (1996) teaching reading skills in a foreign language (new edition) oxford, heinemann peacock, m. (1997) the effect of authentic materials on the motivation of efl learners in english language teaching journal 51, pp 2 register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.83-100 17 richard, j.c. (2001) curriculum development in language teaching cambridge c.u.p samuels, sj & flor, rt (1999) the importance of automaticity for developing expertise in reading. reading & writing quarterly, 13.107-121 senior, r (2005) authentic responses to authentic materials in english teaching professional 38, pp71 81 overview english as a second language for young learners setia rini state institute for islamic studies (iain) salatiga setiarini.setia@gmail.com abstract young learners have special charactheristics hence the teachers of english as a second language needs special strategy too. it is indicated that the increas of abilities to learn second language is started from the early age. we can imagine when the teachers do not use and apply appropriate teaching methods and strategy in teaching english for young learners. as a result, the students’ achievement does not work well. thus, except to be successful in teaching english for young learners, it is very necessary for teachers to understand the characteristics of young learners.’ learning method s will influence how a teacher makes a lesson plan according to young learners’ minds. this article tries to explain some methods of young learners in teaching english as a second language for young learners key words: english, second language, and young learner. introduction english as a second language (esl) is used by speakers with different native languages. nowadays, english has great influence and this language has been taught all over the world especially in indonesia. the academic curriculum focuses on all areas of language overview english as a second language for young learners 82 acquisition: reading, writing, speaking, listening, grammar/structure, and culture. in indonesia, english is growing rapidly and it is found in primary school. we often think of esl students as the easiest to recognize among our special populations, picturing students who characteristically enter our classrooms without a word of english. these 'pure type' esl students are, in fact, easily distinguishable: recent newcomers to the country and to the international school community, for a while they may remain silent in class as they adjust to a new school, environment and culture, unless there is a native language comrade to interact with. nevertheles, the students begin their english education in early age, it is not important purpose to make good english speaker. for that reason, the teachers of english as a second language (esl) have to know the learning strategy for young minds. in addition, the esl teachers have to know the strategy to teach speaking skill for young tongues, as we know that english words have different pronounciation with the written words. however, this article will focus primarily on speaking and listening skills. factors affecting second language acquisition exactly how a second language is acquired is still uncertain, although individual students show varying patterns, rates and styles of acquisition. for example, some students seem to "take off" and become quickly conversant in english, while others continue to struggle even after lengthy periods of exposure to the target language. setia rini 83 factors that affect second language acquisition have been divided into three basic categories. their roles in second language acquisition are not fully understood at this time, although it is certain that they do influence student learning outcomes and success in school. these three categories are : 1. learner characteristics or personal traits (izzo, 1981; kusumapowell, 1992; ramirez, 1995; sears, 1998); 2. situational or environmental factors (ramirez, 1995; sears, 1998); and 3. prior language development and competence (cummins, 1979; adamson, 1993). defining the young language learner in different socio-educational contexts, the term young learners refers to different age ranges. the european union member states working group has recently defined young learners as primary school pupils between the ages of seven and 12, and has introduced the term very young learners to refer to pre-scholars (age: three to six years). still, in some contexts even learners older than 12 are often included in the young learners’ age group, reflecting different national policies and practices in introducing children to foreign language (fl) learning. young learners young learners (yls) refer to children from the ages of four to twelve. increasingly, though, children as young as three are being formally introduced to english as a foreign language. according to sarah phillips (1993), young learners are children from the first year overview english as a second language for young learners 84 of formal schooling (five or six years old) to eleven or twelve years of age. they can be divided into two groups, younger group (6-8 years old) and older group (9-12 years old). the adult world and the child’s world are not the same. children do not always understand what adults are talking about. adults do not always understand what children are talking about. the characteristics of yls there are many factors that influence children's maturity: for example, their culture and environment (city or rural), sex, the expectations of their peers and parents. young children do not come to the language classroom with empty hand. they bring a well-established set of instincts, skills and characteristics which will help them to learn another language. we need to identify those and make the most of them. for example, children characteristics are curious, outspoken, active, inquisitive nature, and like to move around. they are skilled in being very good at interpreting meaning without necessarily understanding the individual words. children have great ability in using limited language creatively and frequently learning indirectly rather than directly. they also taking great pleasure in finding and creating fun in which they do and a ready imagination. setia rini 85 how we think of the child as a language learner ( lynne cameron: 2001) a. piagets the child is as active learner. a child’s thinking develops as gradual growth of knowledge and intellectual skills towards a final stage of formal, logical thinking. moreover, the implications for language learning: the child as sense-maker which is limited by their experience. b. vigotsky the child is social. language provides the child with a new tool, opens up new opportunities for doing things and for organizing information through the use of words as symbols. the implications for language learning: the words are a recognizable linguistic unit, so they will notice words in the new language. c. bruner children are scaffolding and routines. language is the most important tool for cognitive growth. in us, parents read bedtime stories to children as the routines, as the child gets older the type of book changes, but the basic format remains. learning a second language children learn a second language better than adults. the critical period hypothesis: children can learn a second language before puberty because their brain is still able to use the mechanisms t hat assisted first language acquisition. overview english as a second language for young learners 86 presenting the grammatical structure in a child’s context sometimes it’s difficult to see how a grammatical topic can be made humorous. visual stimuli can be very effective in teaching young children. characters are extremely helpful when presenting points of grammar for the first time. you can create your own characters to suit the english you’re teaching. use a soft toy or a puppet as a character. cameron (2001) give example of conversation with a young learner which took place between a 7 year old boy and herself in malta. there the students start learning english as a foreign language at year 5. she was visiting his english class, where the children mostly had been working on a dinosaur project, by showing her his drawing of a tyrannosaurus rex. the conversation was the following: a : what is that? p : it’s t rex a :is it big or small? p : big a :how big? ((silence)) a :this big? ((demonstrating small size with hand a few inches off the floor)) ((child shakes his head to indicate ‘no’)) a :this big? ((demonstrating a waist-high size with hand)) ((child shakes his head to indicate ‘no’)) a : this big? ((demonstrating a human size with hand)) ((child shakes his head to indicate ‘no’)) setia rini 87 a : this big? ((demonstrating as high as ceiling with hand stretched up)) ((child nods his head to indicate ‘yes’)) a :yes, it was very big! by the end of the conversation between cameron and the child, then the size of t-rex is agreed, by introducing simple phrase –it was very bigwhich may seem more like vocabulary than grammar. but it creates meaning through its use. traditional exercises in the form of mechanical drills, gap-fills, and sentence transformations all have a part to play in practicing grammar. they are useful at times when you need to calm your students down, and in the early stages of practice when you need to familiarize the children with the structure taught. cameron (2001) proposes dialogues between a student and a teacher about t-rex, has illustrated several starting points for thinking about grammar and young learners; (1) grammar is necessary to express precise meanings in discourse, (2) grammar ties closely into vocabulary in learning and using foreign language, (3) grammar learning can evolve from the learning of chunks of language, (4) talking about something meaningful with the child can be a useful way to introduce new grammar, (5) grammar can be taught without technical labels. overview english as a second language for young learners 88 several techniques for teaching english to young learner drawing and writing on the board the board is a wonderful resource, then we can use it for all sorts of things. try playing hangman to practice specific points – ing forms. crosswords can be used for practicing countable and uncountable nouns, plurals, irregular verbs. learning through stories story telling is much under-used in grammar practice. we all know that children love stories. they’ll even listen to the same story over and over again. one of the best ways to introduce the past simple is through a story – you can use well-known traditional tales. cameron (2001) proposes the language use when planning the use of a story, she makes three groupings: (1) language that children have met, (2) new language that will be useful for all children to learn from the story, (3) new language that may or may not be learnt, depending on individual children’s interest. according to white, teaching children trough stories is important because stories rely so much on words, offer a major and constant source of language experiences. children will also listen and read to find the meaning in stories. stories help children become aware of the general feel and sound of the foreign language. he added that stories introduce children to language items and sentence constructions without their necessarily having to use their productivity. the experiences of the story encourage responses through speaking and writing. it is natural to express our likes or dislikes and to setia rini 89 exchange ideas and associations related to stories we hear or read. by listening, reading, writing the stories is also learning to communicate. learning language through theme-based teaching cameron (2001) stated that children’s language learning can be learning discourse skills. she focuses on using information texts, on paper and on computer. in this study she classifies texts that can be used in theme-based teaching will include relevant songs, rhymes, videos, stories, and non-fiction informational texts, including sources accessed through the internet or on cd-rom, catalogues, leaflets and magazines and educational materials written for native speaker children. a. songs and chants every playground the world over rings out with the sound of children singing or chanting rhymes. what better way to practice grammar than allow the children to do what they do for pleasure? there are so many songs that you can use to practice grammatical structures, such as old macdonald had a farm. b. games a game is an activity with rules, a goal and an element of fun. there two kinds of games: competitive games, in which player or teams race to be the first to reach the goal, and co-operative games, in which players or teams work together towards a common goal. games help and encourage many learners to sustain their interest and work. overview english as a second language for young learners 90 games can be found to give practice in all the skill (reading, writing, listening and speaking), in all the stages of the teaching / learning. some suggested games which may be used to make the learning activities get more fun are: 1. story games: silly stories, fantasy stories, bits and pieces, domino story. 2. word games: bingo, the odd man out, missing words, dash it and hang it. 3. question and answer games: half the class nose, twenty questions, who are you, guessing and speculating games, hiding and finding, feel and think, box, picture out of focus. c. rhymes & poems rhymes and poems can both entertain and inform. here’s a traditional rhyme you could use to introduce children to the past simple: incy wincy spider climbed up the spout. down came the rain and washed poor incy out. out came the sun and dried up all the rain. incy wincy spider climbed up the spout again. here is a poem for prepositional practice: mice! mice, mice – they’re everywhere! they’re on the table and under my chair. mice, mice – at half past two i saw one sitting in my shoe. mice, mice – running along setia rini 91 my garden wall, singing a song. mice, mice – just last week i found them playing hide and seek. mice, mice – on tuesday morning, i saw one in my cupboard, yawning. mice, mice – beside my bed i felt one jump over my head! mice, mice – oh, why don’t you go and live in north peru? conclusion based on the explanation above, lynne cameron (2003) argues that the continuing growth of teaching english to young learners brings a number of challenges. starting to learn english at an earlier age may not bring automatic improvements to proficiency levels, unless teacher education and secondary language teaching both adapt to meet the challenges of the new situation. according to cameron, amongst other knowledge and skills, teachers of young learners need an awareness of how children think and learn skills and knowledge in spoken english to conduct whole lessons orally, an ability to identify children’s interests and use them for language teaching, and to be equipped to teach initial literacy in english. overview english as a second language for young learners 92 references cameron, lynne, penny mckay. bringing creative teaching into the young learner classroom. oxford. oxford university press. cameron, lynne. 2001. teaching languages to young learners. new york. oxford university press. ehrman, e. madeline, betty lou leaver, rebecca l. oxford. 2003. a brief overview of individual differences in second language learning. system 31 (2003) 313-330. www.elsevier.comlocate/system. jelena, mihaljevic djigunovic. 2012. attitudes and motivation in early foreign language learning. ceps journal 2(2012) 3, 5.55-74 urn:um:nbn:de:0111-opus-67873. microsoft word 07_register textbook register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021), pp. 283-300 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i2.283-300 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 283 textbook evaluation: a case study of punjab, pakistan muhammad imtiaz shahid,1* hafiz muhammad qasim,2 muhammad javed iqbal3 1higher education department, government of punjab, pakistan, 2 department of applied linguistics, faculty of social sciences, government college university faisalabad, pakistan, 3centre for languages and translation studies, university of gujrat, pakistan *) corresponding author email imtiazrai501@gmail.com doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i2.283-300 submission track: received: 28-08-2021 final revision: 01-12-2021 available online: 05-12-2021 copyright © 2021 author(s) this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract textbook is one of the most substantial elements of classroom learning. as a result, it is critical to conduct a textbook evaluation to improve the quality of the teaching and learning environment in the classroom. keeping in mind the very importance of the textbook evaluation, the current study evaluated a 10th-grade english textbook published by punjab curriculum and textbook board lahore, pakistan. the present study aimed to evaluate the book’s overall pedagogical worth according to teachers’ and students’ needs and demands. for this purpose, 10 teachers and 60 students were selected from different public and private schools. two different questionnaires were prepared by litz (2001) with slight variations. the teachers’ questionnaire version had 20 items, while the students’ version had 15 items. the statistical analysis was carried out using spss after the data had been collected. the study’s findings revealed that the textbook as a whole is well-designed and offers an array of useful extra materials. the book is also visually pleasing, well-organized, consistent, and orderly. overall, the positive characteristics outnumbered the negative ones by a wide margin. despite a few flaws in the book, such as the lack of a glossary and grammar, the results showed that the textbook was adequate for language learners. overall, it was considered that, despite some flaws, the textbook fulfilled the needs of students and might be a practical book in the hands of competent teacher. keywords: textbook; evaluation; english language m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. j. iqbal register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 284 introduction one of the most important instruments for classroom learning is textbook. textbooks have historically been regarded as the most important tool for applying school curricula (hutchinson & torres, 1994). textbooks play an important role in classroom instruction and student development (serasi, et al., 2021; daneshfar & abdollahi, 2018). they have an enormous influence on both teaching and learning. sheldon (1988) claims that textbooks constitute the heart and soul of any topic. a textbook comprises content carrying material to mold and modify the ideologies, values and behaviors of learners (mahmood et al., 2021). despite technological advances that allow for higher-quality teachergenerated texts, the need for textbooks continues to grow, and the publishing industry reacts by introducing new series and textbooks year after year. many learners who use a textbook, according to razmjoo (2007), feel safe, make progress and accomplish their goals. textbooks are a viable tool for selfdirected study, an appropriate instrument for teachers disseminating lessons, a repository of thoughts and actions, a reference source for learners, and a curriculum that incorporates preset educational goals, according to cunningsworth (1995). when selecting a textbook for a language class, there are several factors to take into account. according to romero (1975), an excellent english textbook should include these characteristics: a) the textbook objectives should be clear and attainable; b) it should be issued in series; c) the textbook should be visually appealing; d) lessons should be brief and well-structured; e) the material should be engaging for the pupils who will be using it; f) exercises should be kept to a minimum and short; and g) a suitable textbook could come with a teacher's guide. choosing the right textbook is a difficult task; there are a plethora of books on the market with grandiose claims made by publishers and writers. many english textbooks have numerous theoretical faults, design defects, and practical concerns (litz, 2005). they contain disconnected information that is not connected between chapters. as a result, every teacher should choose their language textbooks carefully. additionally, it is vital to examine a textbook in textbook evaluation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 285 order to determine its true value and wattage for language learners of any language. sheldon (1988) states that choosing an elt textbook is typically a significant administrative and educational decision involving significant professional, monetary, and even political involvement. as a result of a thorough examination, a school or institution's administration and teachers would indeed be able to tell the difference between all the available textbooks on the market. dickens and germaine (1992) argue that evaluation is a lively process of evaluating the applicability and adequacy of a phenomenon. as an innate predisposition in producing advancements and alterations within the teaching and learning environment, it is a beneficial tool for instructors and textbooks’ authors alike (ayu & indrawati, 2019). regardless of its importance in enhancing different parts of teaching environment, assessment is still a poorly articulated and endorsed component of many projects (hargreaves, 1989). as a result, the textbook's importance as a fundamental cornerstone of english language teaching (elt) is evident (hutchison & torres, 1994). there has been a growth in the number of global commercial english textbooks published by major publishers. this indicates a wide range of consumers' requests for a custom-designed textbook that meets their specific requirements. crawford (2002) also advocates that good course books should be critically reviewed, taking into account both their limitations and their promises. moreover, english is taught to children in public schools, private schools, and other language institutes throughout pakistan. faced with the reality that english textbooks play an essential function in acquisition of the english language (ponnusamy, sandaran & gunasegaran, 2021), the present research study looks into and evaluates one of the textbooks that is used in public and private schools of punjab, pakistan to examine how well it meets the demands of students and teachers. the purposes of the research were to find answers to the questions of knowing the extent of the textbook acceptable in terms of practical consideration (price, availability, and presentation), the extent of the textbook acceptable in terms of its layout and design, whether the textbook provide a balance of conducive and sufficient activities, whether the textbook contains m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. j. iqbal register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 286 sufficient material related to all four language skills, whether the subject and content of the textbook relevant to learners’ needs. literature review the field of textbook evaluation is well-established; many research investigations have been undertaken at various levels around the world. different academics have assessed the usefulness of numerous textbooks from diverse angles. badawi (2007) assessed the content of a 10th-grade english textbook that is provided to palestinian students in palestine. the descriptiveanalytical method was employed to perform the research investigation. to collect data, an analysis card was created. these data included conducting a textbook survey to examine the activities that met the study criteria. the findings of this study indicated that communication was the most important factor in the textbook under consideration. in the book, the relationships between groups and cultural norms were the least prominent. the researcher concluded that the distribution of standards among the various textbook units should be balanced. kirkgöz (2009) presented a review of three english textbooks used in primary schools in turkey. these are the books which are used by the turkish ministry of national education. a questionnaire was used to collect input from students and teachers. a total of 37 questions were included in the survey. students and teachers were also questioned in order to learn more about how the books were used. the analysis demonstrated the extent to which the three textbooks taught to young english students were adequate. the study offers many recommendations and suggestions for the future revisions of the textbooks which would be very helpful in meeting the needs of young students. marc and rees (2009) looked into the content of textbooks as well as how they were used by teachers. the findings of the study revealed that author depiction in textbooks is more resembling students' reading tastes rather than literary experts' choices. simultaneously, teachers are increasingly adopting textbooks that prioritize students' desires. these patterns occur as a consequence of changes in the student population rather than the instructor characteristics. textbook evaluation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 287 aqel (2009) assessed a textbook for 11th-grade students in palestine from the standpoint of a teacher. the researcher created an evaluation scale to evaluate the performance of the textbook under consideration. the study sample included 60 teachers, both male and female. to review the book, aqel created a 47-item questionnaire and examined four domains in the questionnaire. the study's findings revealed a moderate outcome; the book is skewed in favor of female educators. according to the findings, english textbooks should be changed every year. fukkink (2010) evaluated textbooks, which are taught to students in the dutch educational system, from the perspective of content analysis. the research revealed anomalies in the curriculum design. the study findings demonstrated that content standards do not correspond to teachers' requirements. it was also discovered that the textbooks do not meet the standard requirements. teachers' responsibilities have received a lot of attention in textbooks rather than strategic planning, development, educational policy, and collaboration with peers from other fields. mohammadi and abdi (2014) investigated one of iran's most prestigious textbooks. their goal was to establish whether or not the book was adequate and suitable for the students' needs. they collected data from 137 participants (105 students and 32 teachers). the information was gathered using a questionnaire created by litz (2021). there were two separate questionnaires created. the teacher's questionnaire had 40 questions, whereas the student's questionnaire had 25. they concluded that the reviewed textbook is adequate and appropriate for the pupils after assessing the facts. they also came to the conclusion that it may be a good book in general in the hands of teachers. suhirman (2018) analyzed an esp textbook and presented an evaluation of the english textbook, english for islamic learning: for college students. the impetus of this study was to check the appropriateness of the book. it dealt with the question of how well this book meets the needs of the english language students. the textbook was evaluated from the perspective of its contents, presentations, strategies, students’ needs, and interests. twenty students and one teacher contributed in this research study. questionnaire, which consisted of 10 items, was used to collect the data from the participants. after the detailed m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. j. iqbal register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 288 analysis of the data, the study concluded that although the evaluated textbook had deficiencies from different perspectives, it has satisfied the requirements and needs of the english language learners. surtikanti (2020) evaluated a newly assigned coursebook when english rings a bell. after collecting and analyzing the collected data, the researcher claimed that the textbook has shortcomings. the study findings pointed out that the textbook does not cover four basic skills of the english language. it was discovered that the book does not follow the scientific approach of teaching. according to the results of the study, the book does not offer quality contents for english language learners. rahim et al. (2021) did a research study in afghanistan to evaluate english textbooks. to analyse a 12th-grade book, the researchers utilised a mixedmethod technique. the information was gathered using a checklist that was created using a likert scale. spss was used to examine the data which was collected through checklist. the study findings revealed that the evaluated contents did not meet the objectives of a teaching program. they are incompatible with the demands of the students. the textbook includes all four skills of language acquisition, according to the research, although there is a strong emphasis on reading, grammar, and vocabulary. overall, the research found that the textbook should be changed and upgraded to satisfy the demands of students. serasi et al. (2021) conducted research based on the perception of the teacher and students in madrasah ibtidaiyyah (mi) nurul huda bengkulu city. the study aimed to assess the suitability of the book. this study used a quantitative research approach. the total population of this study was 114 students and 1 english teacher. in collecting data, researchers used a checklist as the instrument adapted from demir and ertas. the research utilized a checklist to collect data for their research study. the results of the current study revealed that both textbooks matched the criteria for good efl textbooks, which included the availability of materials based on subjects and contents, skills and sub-skills, and layout. after taking stock of literature on textbook evaluation, it is concluded that textbook evaluation is one of the most important fields of inquiry. different studies have been conducted in different parts of the world. it has become textbook evaluation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 289 apparent from the review of previous studies that textbook evaluation has very dominant and strong effects in updating the ongoing system. hence it has become very important to evaluate its suitability and appropriateness at the school level. so, this study is designed to evaluate english textbook which is taught to 10th grade in punjab, pakistan. research method participants the present study included both students and teachers as its participants. ten teachers and 60 students, who were teaching and studying 10th grade english textbooks, published by punjab curriculum and textbook board lahore, pakistan, contributed in the present research study. the respondents belong to both public and private sectors. the teachers had taught the abovesaid textbook for more than three years on average. the students were the students of 10th grade. the students varied in age from 14 to 17. they were all in high school at the time. instrument to get data from the students and teachers questionnaires were used. two questionnaires were designed by the research using litz (2001), with a slight variation keeping in mind the background and level of the participants. questions of the questionnaire were changed to the likert scale instead of the semantic differential scale to make it easy for the students. questionnaires were handed over to the participants personally, who filled and returned them to the researcher then and there. data collection and analysis both questionnaires, 01 belonging to teachers and 01 belonging to students, were administered during class time to students and teachers for the collection of the data. dimensions and sub-dimensions of the questionnaire were explained well to understand their meanings and purpose. to obtain valid results, the participants were given a choice to fill the questionnaire voluntarily. the researcher was successful in collecting all the copies of the questionnaire from students and teachers. m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. j. iqbal register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 290 table 1 dimensions of the questionnaires sr. no. dimensions (questions) no. of sub-questions teachers students 1 practical considerations 02 02 2 layout & design 03 02 3 activities 03 02 4 skills 02 02 5 language type 03 02 6 subject & content 04 03 7 conclusion 03 02 total 20 15 after the collection of the instrument, it was collected for data analysis. the copies of the questionnaires were analyzed statistically. the means of the teachers and students in every single item were calculated using spss and summarized the teachers’ and students’ views about the evaluated textbook. results & discussion practical consideration this section of the questionnaires contained 02 items, both for the teachers and students. in this part of the questionnaire, the dominant factor which forced students and teachers to choose the book was its cost. the statistics revealed that the majority of the respondents chose a (agree) or sa (strongly agree) regarding the book's price. according to litz (2001), the cost is an essential factor in choosing a textbook. regarding the accessibility of the book, teachers’ means was 3.3 and students’ means was 3.1. it may be because the book was only available in the big cities and teachers and students cannot find it easily in their hometown. according to mohammadi and abdi (2014), the availability of the textbooks affects the selection of textbooks. a textbook, for example, must be in print and widely available in order to be purchased (litz, 2001). layout and design arrangement and presentation of the contents and discussed topics are part of the design and layout of a textbook (mohammadi & abdi, 2014; litz, textbook evaluation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 291 2001). the findings of the study demonstrated that the majority of the teachers and students were pleased with the overall arrangement and designing of the 10th-grade textbook published by punjab curriculum and textbook board lahore, pakistan. the learning objectives of each unit are clear and concise. the textbook is designed according to the needs and levels of the students. it has examples and pictures to explain the complex parts, which give the book an exciting look. the vocabulary lists are very helpful for students and teacher because they provide additional aids which help students and teachers to understand the discussed content easily and accurately. table 2 summary of the responses regarding layout and design sr. no. question teachers students 3 the layout and design are appropriate and clear. * a * a 4 the textbook is organized effectively. ** sa * a note: * a = agree, ** sa= strongly agree while the general design was excellent, the statistics of data revealed that an appropriate collection of assessment quizzes or testing recommendations was not supplied. it indicates that students are not given enough chances to assess themselves. simultaneously, the textbook's general organization and structure were not only good, but also similar to several other textbooks. activities students' social interactions, according to vygotsky (1978) and long (1990), are critical to their learning. the finest sorts of activities, according to jacobs and ball (1996), are collaborative learning techniques that enable meaning negotiation and generate positive connection and individual accountability. long (1990) identified five advantages of interactive group activities, which are listed here: i) interactive group activities increase quantities of students’ language use; ii) it enhances the quality of the language users; iii) it provides more opportunities for individual instruction; iv) it m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. j. iqbal register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 292 provides a less threatening environment to students; and v) it motivates students for learning. the findings revealed that the most of the teachers among respondents were not happy with the activities and tasks of the textbook. the teachers were of the view that the textbook's activities should be revised and updated. the tasks should be more challenging and creative. students, on the other hand, were satisfied with the textbook's activities. the textbook's activities, according to participants, encouraged creative writing and independent replies. one of the possible reasons for such responses is the teaching methodology used in the school of punjab, pakistan. mostly, classrooms in punjab, pakistan, are teacher-centred. learning in such schools depends upon drilling, memorization and the audio-lingual method. when students compare the teacher-centered approach to the activities given in the textbook, they clearly prefer the textbook. a detailed examination of the textbook's activities and tasks revealed a cramming-based approach rather than engaging and strengthening the creative abilities of individual students. it does not insight their cognitive domain. according to pirzad, abadikhah and khonamri (2021), a good textbook should provide opportunities for a higher level of cognitive learning but the textbook does not provide any opportunity for higher levels of cognitive processing such as reasoning and the exchange of information. on the whole, the activities and tasks of the book should be revised according to the needs of the teachers and students. the results of the study are in line with daneshfar’s and abdollahi’s (2018) results. skills mcdonough and shaw (1997), swan (1985), and harmer (1996) three well-known elt authors, advocated for an interconnected, multi skills syllabus because it evaluates and combines multiple classes of both form and function. students are always in need of a book that covers all four language skills in a comprehensive manner (mohammadi & abdi, 2014). the study's findings revealed that the textbook under consideration covered both receptive and productive skills. receptive skills, according to litz (2001), include engagement textbook evaluation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 293 on the reader's or listener's side, whereas productive skills are concerned with language fluency. the majority of the respondents (47 respondents) agreed that the evaluated textbook maintained a reasonable match of all language skills, according to the survey results. the teachers were unanimous in their beliefs that the evaluated textbook promoted/encouraged innate pronunciation. however, most of the respondents belonging to both groups were undecided about the textbook's emphasis on skills like listening and taking notes. language type under this dimension of the questionnaires, respondents belonging to both the groups, teachers and students, were asked to rate the textbook's language whether the language written in the book is authentic or not. it also examined the day to day use of language whether the learners, after studying the language from the book, can apply it in their own situation or not. it means it evaluated the natural part of the language. other crucial criteria were whether the english language was at appropriate stage for the appropriate learners and whether the development of the new language was rational and apposite for the learners. most importantly, how and in what sequence learners are supposed to learn a new language. in short, we would want students to be able to make a discernible link or connection between what they have learned yesterday and what they are learning today. the evaluated textbook emphasises the grammatical accuracy of words and sentences, as well as the repetition or recycling of forms and functions, in terms of grammatical structures and functions. correct knowledge of grammar and functions, according to the writer, are important components of communicative ability. the means of both the questionnaires, one belonging to teachers and the other belonging to students, were a bit different in terms of the authenticity of the language. the mean of the students' questionnaire on this topic was 3.56, whereas the mean of the teachers' questionnaire was 3.35 on this point. according to the statistics of the study, the examined textbook had both m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. j. iqbal register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 294 authentic and inauthentic content (language). it might be regarded as a textbook advantage because it keeps the book from being too challenging or too easy for the students. on the whole, the current study findings are in line with mohammadi and abdi's (2014) study results. subject and content language, according to kramsch (1994) and grabowska and kwadrans (2020), is an element of culture. it means that one cannot learn a language without first learning about culture (nguyen, 2017; mcdonough & shaw, 1997). language instruction and culture are inextricably linked to each other. these criteria alone demonstrate that an authentic representation of the target language culture should be a basic criterion for elt textbooks (litz, 2001). the participants were asked about the subject relevancy and the contents of the graded textbook in this section of the questionnaires. they were questioned regarding the magnitude of its ideas and subject matter. they were also questioned on the variety of issues covered. the researcher also asked about the textbook's negative portrayal of anything or any form of stereotype. the evaluated textbook contains numerous intriguing contemporary subjects and themes in terms of subject representation and cultural substance. it covers a wide range of religious issues, customs, traditions, and recreational stories. all of these components add to the book's appeal to both teachers and students. furthermore, the findings of the study show that the textbook does not reflect any preconceptions or biases based on ethnicity, race, creed, class, or colour. it presents such characters, which are realistic in nature; even a few of them are taken from islamic history. the majority of respondents were of the view that the textbook offered a wide range of topics that were fascinating, challenging, and encouraging. this textbook broadens students' overall knowledge, understanding and experiences by introducing them to the different perspectives of another culture, according to poll respondents. most of the respondents belonging to the teachers’ group were adamant that the materials were not culturally prejudiced and did not promote any bad/negative stereotypes. despite this, the majority of the students were in accord. textbook evaluation …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 295 overall consensus in this part of the questionnaires, both the students and teachers were asked about the appropriateness of the textbook according to the needs of the institutions, raising of students’ interest, and reusing the book. table 2 summary of the responses regarding overall consensus sr. no. question teachers students 18 the textbook is appropriate for the language-learning aims of my institution. * a 19-14 the textbook raises my (students’) interest in further english language study. * a ** sa 20-15 i would choose to teach/read this textbook again. * a ** sa note: * a = agree, ** sa = strongly agree conclusion the current study looked at a 10th-grade textbook published by the punjab curriculum and textbook board in lahore and utilised in both private and public schools across punjab, pakistan. it weighed the benefits and drawbacks of the textbook in order to determine its genuine value. overall, it was found that the positive features outnumbered the negative ones by a large margin. despite several problems in the book, like the lack of a glossary list and presentation of the grammar, the teachers believed the 10th grade textbook was adequate for the achievement of educational objectives and would use it afterwards. it also piqued the interest of students in continuing their language studies. the evaluated textbook, punjab curriculum and textbook board lahore's 10th-grade textbook, is a relatively new and updated addition to the huge assortment of english language teaching (elt) resources available in the market. the textbook as a whole is well-designed, and it includes a great deal of valuable additional information. the book is also visually appealing and organised in a coherent, consistent, and orderly manner. receptive and m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. j. iqbal register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 296 productive skills, in particular, are taught through different practical learning and teaching methodologies that are congruent with several of sla's key concepts. lexical skills are further addressed using a number of dependable strategies like graphic devices, which should aid learners in assigning meaning and storing words and expressions in their permanent reminiscences. according to brown and yule (1983), it is hard to find items that will pique everyone’s interest. all in all, the evaluated textbook is appropriate for both students and teachers. this textbook can be recommended in this specific study environment, and with a few tweaks, it can be a useful textbook in the hands of both professional teachers and good students. as a result of 10th grade textbook examination, it is intended that language specialists would get a better understanding of how to implement this technique in their own situations. the study findings advocate that author(s) of the textbook should include more fundamental elements in their efl/esl textbooks while still tailoring and modifying them to the needs of learners through the use of appropriate evaluations and surveys. many of the characteristics of a truly substantial textbook are occasionally lacking in textbooks that appear to be sound on the surface. as a result, people who are making these decisions must thoroughly study all components of the text and compare them to an evaluation instrument. an evaluation checklist/survey, whether created by the researcher or adapted from another source, helps to focus this investigation and makes sure that crucial topics are not neglected (soori, kafipour & soury, 2011).[rgt] references aqel, a. r. a. q. m. 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(1978). mind in society. harvard university press. m. i. shahid, h. m. qasim, m. j. iqbal register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 300 this page has been intentionally left blank. dinamika pengarusutamaan gender register journal – vol 15, no 02 (2022), pp. 284-310 284 doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.284-310 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x fluency matters!: chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english qi sun1, ying qi wu2* faculty of languages and linguistics, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, 50603, malaysia1 school of foreign languages, hebei normal university for nationalities, chengde, china2 *) corresponding author email: yingqiwu@outlook.com doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.284-310 submission track: received: 08-07-2022 final revision: 09-11-2022 available online: 01-12-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract this research examined chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english (ce), a growing english variety in china, as well as the underlying reasons for their attitudinal responses. the corpus consisted of 905 tokens of danmus (a form of video synchronous commentary used by netizens on the internet video) that were collected from an online interview video. instead of adopting the frequently employed questionnaire survey, these unique danmus were utilized as the data resource and were analyzed via a paradigmatic approach to investigate chinese netizens’ acceptance of some potential features of ce. four netizens were invited to an interview to investigate the reasons for their danmu delivery on language attitudes. the results revealed that chinese netizens showed overwhelmingly positive attitudes towards ce, which differed significantly from earlier findings. the participants' positive evaluations of ce were based on three key parameters: the fluency and confidence in using ce as a communicative tool, the possibility of ce to mark speakers' chinese identity, and the ease of using ce in communication. the findings of the study may shed light on the increasing awareness of china english and english globalization among chinese netizens in the web-mediated context where local varieties of english are emerging. this research also hopes to provide some methodological implications in terms of research subjects and data-collection approaches for current investigations of language attitudes. this study offers some pedagogical implications of introducing english varieties, especially china english, to the english language programs in china. keywords: china english, danmus, chinese netizens, language attitudes, english language teaching mailto:yingqiwu@outlook.com http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ q. sun, y. q. wu 285 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) introduction english is now broadly utilized as a lingua franca for global communication in terms of different political, economic, cultural, and social purposes (jenkins, 2007; seidlhofer, 2011). as english is widely used, numbers of localized english varieties have emerged in various parts of the globe (bolton, 2012). english is the most popular foreign language in china in terms of the number of foreign language learners (wei & su, 2012). according to people’s daily online (2020), there are estimated to be around 400 million chinese people learning english. as english is widely learned and used in china, china english has been touted as a developing english variety arising in the setting of china and a feasible educational choice for chinese english learners to challenge the dominance of native-speaker english in china (deterding, 2006; gao et al., 2014; xu, 2010). china english (henceforth ce), the local use of english in mainland china (ma & xu, 2017), is regarded as the fastest-growing english variety worldwide (edwards, 2017). ce was initially coined in 1980 and refers to english expressions with distinct chinese features (ge, 1980). some english expressions, for instance, fengshui and paper tiger, were related to specific chinese cultures and social norms, but not existing in other english varieties. the concept of china english is getting momentum, and numerous researchers have discussed its definitions and features (kirkpatrick & xu, 2002; mckay & bokhorst-heng, 2008). early research focuses on theoretical investigations to sustain ce’s legitimacy (e.g., gao & wen, 2012; niu & wolff, 2003; wang, 2002; xie, 1995). empirical discussions have also been extended to identify ce’s characteristics with regard to pronunciation, grammar, lexis, and discourse pragmatics (e.g., bolton, 2003; gao & wen, 2012; kirkpatrick, 2007; xu, 2010; yu, 2009). these investigations have advanced the understanding of ce by articulating and formalizing specific linguistic features. this also necessitates further explorations of language attitudes towards china english. the existing explorations have mostly concentrated on chinese university students’ or teachers’ perceptions of ce (kirkpatrick & xu, 2002; hu, 2004; hu, 2005; he & li, 2009; he & zhang, 2010; wang & gao, 2015; pan et al., fluency matters!: chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english 286 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 2021). kirkpatrick and xu (2002) and hu (2004) identified chinese university students’ overwhelming support for native english, particularly american english, as pedagogical models in language teaching and learning, yet a weak identification with ce. english teachers in hu’s (2005) study appeared to be supportive of ce. despite the fact that approximately 80% of the language instructors polled preferred american english, ce was still accepted by 53% of them. he and li (2009) conducted a later survey on teachers and students, finding that they had increased support (62.6%) for incorporating "certain characteristics" of ce into the classroom. he and zhang (2010), drawing on he and li (2009), carried out a further investigation by evaluating the pronunciation and grammar of ce. they discovered that while over half of the participants (55.4%) had no difficulty speaking english with a chinese accent, 71% insisted on precisely adhering to the native speaker’s english grammar norms. wang and gao (2015) adopted mixed methods to explore the attitudes of chinese english learners and teachers towards china english features, differences, and reasons underpinning their attitudinal responses. the finding indicated that both teachers and students in china were hesitant to embrace ce as a legitimate variety, but their views on certain ce components differed. there are also recent studies deploying questionnaires and interviews to examine chinese university students' perceptions of china english and their particular linguistic identity regarding the practice of china english. the findings indicate a rising tendency in the majority of students' identification with china english, despite the fact that native english ideology continues to have huge impacts (pan et al., 2021). with technological advancements such as social networking sites and the global expansion of english, non-native english speakers now account for more than 80% of the global english communication (lee & lee, 2019). linguistically speaking, the influx of internet resources brings numerous opportunities for english language learners in many countries to process language input/output. this is mainly due to the fast exchanges of information and being of ease at with revealing the user's preferred expressive means in the network spaces (muftah, 2022). recent inquiries of web-mediated discourses have shown that the chinese experience online q. sun, y. q. wu 287 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) english practices on various social networking sites, especially with the growth of domestic sites, such as sina weibo, youku, and so forth (zhang, 2021). previous studies suggest online english users in china exhibit creative and distinctive communicative strategies by practicing the english language (zhang, 2021). these strategies display the linguistic complexity and flexibility of china english with regard to localizing english features in online discourses. china, as a prominent participant in the english-as-lingua-franca (elf) circle, will undoubtedly have an impact on nowadays and future construction of elf through the way it uses english (fang, 2017b). in other words, with the rise of china’s participation in globalization, using english with certain chinese features (e.g., china english) will influence the use of english in other social contexts. simultaneously, china has the world’s largest digital population, with 1.03 billion netizens as of 2021 (statista, 2022), and chinese netizens are more exposed to different varieties of english through the heavy use of the internet. however, as aforementioned, a prominent feature in the researches of language attitudes towards ce has been that teachers and students make up the majority of the research subjects. in other words, most of the previous studies have focused on investigating chinese teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards china english in curricular circumstances and pedagogical motivations in educational settings, which were mostly constructed by adopting conventionalized methodological measures, like questionnaire surveys. few studies have applied modern internet information resources to elicit chinese netizens’ explicit and naturalistic attitudes. as past studies have mostly concentrated on the educational mechanisms, it is necessary to investigate language attitudes towards ce among the general public in other contexts to expand the understanding of language attitudes across different contexts. drawing on the fact that more than 400 million people are practicing english for various purposes (wei & su, 2015) and that english is widely used in various fields beyond education in china (pan et al., 2021), this study henceforth aims to explore the complexity of chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english and investigate underlying reasons in the web mediated context, which was fulfilled by incorporating the analysis of danmus and interviews. fluency matters!: chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english 288 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) research method this research draws on the use of multiple data collection tools, namely the combination of both qualitative and quantitative methods. the qualitative-and-quantitative research design has been depicted as showing many advantages in that these two resources of data can complement each other (mcdonough & mcdonough, 1997). the researchers can utilize the strength of each type of data collection and minimize the weaknesses of any single research approach to obtain a more comprehensive overview of academic phenomena (gong & firdaus, 2022). first, this study used a quantitative method in the form of danmu corpus that was directly downloaded from the video website. then, interviews with danmu creators were qualitatively analyzed. data collection this study primarily approached with naturally occurring data that was composed of 3832 tokens of danmus delivered by chinese netizens in an online video. to begin with, danmu or plural danmus (chinese: 弹幕, literally: “bullet curtain”, figuratively: “barrage”) is a form of video commentary used on the internet videos consisting of scrolling user/viewer messages posted on top of the video in real time (wikipedia, 2022). in other words, danmu could be understood as a system of superimposed comments running across the screen from right to left as the video plays (zhang & cassany, 2020). these danmus are collected from a video in bilibili which is one of the most popular online video sharing and social media platforms in china. as shown in figure 1, a native english-speaking hostess (the left) is interviewing a respectable chinese transgender dancing artist, ms. jin xing (the right). the viewers who are watching the video can add synchronous comments or responses, i.e., danmus, on the screen (as indicated in figure 1 by rectangular overlay in yellow). the entire one-hour-long interview was realized in english. this video has attracted wide publicity. as of may 2022, it has been viewed 838,000 times and there are 3,832 tokens of danmus since it was uploaded in june 2019. during the interview, some distinguishing features of china english in terms of lexis, syntax, and phonology can be found in ms. jin’s q. sun, y. q. wu 289 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) english. consequently, a number of viewers used danmus to comment ms. jin xing’s english language. figure 1. danmus as the scrolling marquee comment in bilibili video delivered by chinese netizens to help readers comprehend china english, several evident features of china english utilized by ms. jin in this video have been selected and offered as examples (see table 1). table 1. demonstration of distinctive features of ce used by ms. jin category description explanation examples included in the video (in bold) occurrence time phonology chinese accent influenced by chinese phonology, ce speakers have a tendency to pronounce /θ/ and / ð/ as /s/ and /z/. (deterding, 2006; kirkpatrick, 2007) i don’t know, i think [sɪŋk] at young age. 0’47’’ lexis transliteration transliteration of chinese words and use of pinyin such as putonghua (modern standard chinese). (kirkpatrick, 2007; xu, 2010) the idea, the attitude toward life, the energy (are) very authentic, very jin xing. 12’12’’ syntax adjacent default tense use adjacent default tense as criteria to decide the tenses of a cluster of clauses uttered together. (xu, 2010) i think for the young kid i didn’t know that. then dancing come up, choose me become a dancer. so i become a dancer. 01’25’’ fluency matters!: chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english 290 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) among the total 3832 tokens of danmus, 905 danmus with apparent evaluations of china english were saved and examined to investigate those chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english. the rationale for danmu collection is that writing danmus is easy for viewers while watching videos, and the written danmus will be instantaneously overlaid onto the video and shown to writers as well as other viewers. with the use of such danmu systems, users may interact with one another much more directly and also have a real-time sharing experience (he et al., 2017). by doing so, chinese netizens’ attitudes towards ce will be more visually evident in a straightforward mode. following the danmus collection, four chinese netizens among those danmus creators were recruited and invited for interviews to identify reasons underpinning their attitudes delivered in danmus. data analysis the analysis of danmus was initially drawing on the adapted analytical model of wang and fang (2019) who have transcribed attitude-related data via a paradigmatic approach of “taxonomies and categories out of the common elements across the database” (polkinghorne, 1995: 5) through repeated reading of the data. as shown in figure 2, to begin with, the authors of this study organized themselves to view and code all 3832 danmus independently, and communicated their viewing results. this initial step enabled us to form a general understanding of all danmus and thus to eliminate those that did not involve the viewers' attitudes towards ms. jin's china english. 905 danmus with clear attitudinal judgments were chosen as the valid data after rigorous and thorough discussion and selection. next, these 905 danmus were read again to provide preliminary coding of taxonomies and categories. in this phase, the 905 danmus which showed unambiguous attitudinal judgments were divided into two macro groups, positive or negative, regarding the characteristics of china english implemented in the video. in the third reading, these danmus were coded according to the categories and taxonomies generated in the second phase while allowing micro topics/themes to arise. a fourth reading was performed after the previous three steps to analyze and verify the classification and coding. q. sun, y. q. wu 291 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) figure 2. paradigmatic approach to commentary data (adapted from wang & fang, 2019) after the danmu analysis, the interviews were conducted in mandarin according to the interviewees’ preference because the native language would enable them to respond to questions in more depth (mann, 2011). all the chinese danmus and interview data were translated into english by the first author and proofread by the second author. the selection and classification about netizens’ attitudes were finished by the two authors under rigorous discussions. this process of securing inter-rater reliability assists in achieving reliability for this study. results and discussions netizens’ attitudes: danmus analysis the analysis of danmus reveals that netizens' comments are overwhelmingly positive towards ms. jin's english, with 842 tokens of comments (93%/among 905) expressing approval or admiration for the english of ms. jin during the interview. the remaining 63 (7%) tokens of danmus showed negative attitudes towards ms. jin's english. initially, the findings indicate that the netizens might have rich and diversified mental perceptions of china english. as shown in table 2, various themes that are mainly framed in the netizens' damus are presented and will be discussed in the following sections. fluency matters!: chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english 292 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) table 2. chinese netizens’ attitudes towards ce and framed themes in danmus attitudes framed themes freq. percent. percent. category/frr. (1) (2) 1 fluency in using english 489 58% 2 using english as a communicative medium 168 19.9% positive 3 general positive comments 156 18.5% 4 awareness of elf and global englishes 13 1.5% 5 closeness to the chinese language 9 1.1% 6 comparison with standard mandarin 7 1% sub total 842 100% 93% 1 non-standardness 21 33.3% negative 2 inadequate communicative effectiveness 19 30.2% 3 discrepancy with elt classes/textbooks 12 19% 4 china english is riddled with mistakes 11 17.5% sub total 63 100% 7% total 905 100% positive attitude towards ms. jin’s english scrutiny of the reasons that netizens give to justify their positive evaluations show that the majority of chinese netizens focused on fluency (n=489/58%) when evaluating others' english. furthermore, some positive danmus convey a strong message that these netizens generally conceptualize that the function of english is attributed to a communicative medium (n=168/19.9%). it seems that the level of fluency is the most important element to consider in evaluating a speaker's english in china from the perspectives of those chinese netizens. in addition, some of the comments show positive attitudes towards ms. jin's english by simply voicing like: "her english is brilliant" without supplementary explanations (n=156/18.5%). besides the emphasis on fluency, communicative function, and general positive comments, there are also other rationales and reasons (n=29/3.6%) for positive attitudes among the 842 positive danmus. some positive-sense danmus are excerpted as follows: e.g.1 woww, her english is so fluent and natural, love it. (danmu 7) e.g.2 it’s not a big deal to have chinese accents, what really matters is that jinxing expressed herself very fluently and make her idea clearly output. english is just a tool! (danmu 43) q. sun, y. q. wu 293 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) e.g.3 it’s really great to express ideas fluently and confidently. (danmu 123) e.g.4 accent, accents! you only have accents in your mind! i am envious of this accent. fluency, and accuracy, are the heel of the language. accent judges, you are jealous. (danmu 172) e.g.5 from my point of view, it’s ok to have our own accents when speaking english fluently. (danmu 196) these instances of danmus suggest that chinese netizens seem to place a higher priority on fluency when a chinese is speaking english. fluency usually refers to adequate content of speech used by speakers to communicate as effectively as possible (harmer, 2015). it also means speaking languages quickly and confidently, with limited hesitations, unnatural pauses, etc. (baily, 2003). as indicated in example 1, the netizen showed an apparent admiration for ms. jin’s english. example 2 shows that english is merely a tool for communication, and this can be regarded in some way as chinese netizens' awareness of english as a lingua franca, which is defined as any use of english among speakers of various first languages for whom english is the communicative medium of choice and often the only option (kaur & birlik, 2021; seidlhofer, 2011). example 3 emphasizes the significance of fluency while using english since it is a significant aspect in accomplishing communicative functions in conversations (shahini & shahamirian, 2017). examples 4 and 5 are connected with the refutations of the harsh comments on ms. jin's accent in english speaking. example 4 criticizes excessive nitpicking and criticism of accents and expresses appreciation for ms. jin's unique accent. similarly, example 5 shows explicit support for possessing our accent in speaking. both highlight the focal idea that "fluency" or "fluently" is all that matters. these five excerpts suggest that many chinese netizens prefer to focus on "the interactional and transactional purposes of the talk, as well as their interlocutors as people rather than the linguistic code itself” (seidlhofer, 2011, p. 98). to put it another way, when chinese netizens experience english conversation, e.g., interview video in this study, they tend to focus more on the content of the communication rather than the level of normality of ms. jin's use of english and china english features. this is accounted by dammu 43 in example 2, many chinese fluency matters!: chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english 294 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) netizens have already formed a position that english serves as a lingua franca and a language tool for communication. e.g.6 there are more dialectal accents in english, most parts of the uk have a different accent from the so-called oxford accent, as well as ireland, northern ireland, the usa, canada, and australia, so ms. jin’s china english is very acceptable. (danmu 462) e.g.7 what is standard? old english, british accent, american accent, african accent, russian accent, asian accent, even european and american countries are multiethnic. come on, what is standard pronunciation? why can't china english become one standard? (danmu 865) e.g.8 irish english can sound like irish, american english can sound like american, and indian english can sound like indian, so why can't china english sound like chinese? (danmu 895) in this case, it can be observed that some chinese netizens have the awareness of global englishes, which is operationalized as the metamorphosis of english across borders in today’s globalized world (jenkins, 2015). these danmus justify the legitimate use of china english. the key reason these netizens believe china english is acceptable is that they believe there should not be just one type of english and that it is entirely reasonable and acceptable for chinese people to use english in a chinese way. example 6 demonstrates that people from different countries use english in various ways since english is moved over the world, it evolved to suit and accommodate specific local demands for expressions and identities (yano, 2009). example 7 argues that there are many varieties of english with different accents, even native english speakers from britain and america use different accents. therefore, this netizen questions what the definition of so called “standard english” is. from the perspective of this netizen, there isn’t a conventionalized form of standard english. actually, the concept of standard english is notoriously hard to be defined and is extremely weak indeed in speech (gupta, 2006). the netizen of example 8 believes that using china english can show a chinese identity as different people around the world form their own characteristic varieties of english. as a result, they hold the idea that china english should also be recognized as a variety of english that is particularly utilized by chinese people, which is unique in the global q. sun, y. q. wu 295 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) englishes world. interestingly, standard mandarin is also often mentioned by those netizens when they refute the criticisms of ms. jin's english with regard to her accent. they claimed that people who speak mandarin in different regions might have hometown dialectal accents, thus there is no need to foreground chinese english speaking with the chinese accent. e.g.9 hahahahahahahahahaha. this is a direct translation using chinese grammar. such grammar is very good to understand. i like it. (danmu 218) china english is also valued for its closeness to the chinese language. example 9 shows that many chinese netizens believe ms. jin's english is commendable because of the intermingling with chinese grammar, e.g., direct translation or literal translation. it creates a sense of ease for those chinese netizens to understand english words, phrases, or sentences by provoking their native-language competence. e.g.10 language is a tool for communication, so you don't have to focus too much on grammar and syntax when speaking. just express what you want to say. (danmu 884) e.g.11 those who struggle with the chinese way of using english are really poisoned by stereotypical teaching. (danmu 117) example 10 presents the idea that english is merely a communication instrument. rather than focusing on grammar, what counts is that the communicative purpose of the speaker can be readily grasped and comprehended by the interlocutor(s). considering that today's mainstream english-language-teaching practice in china still heavily emphasizes “native english” (fang & ren, 2018), example 11 argues that english teaching in china is so stereotypical by employing the appraisal markers “struggle” and “poison”, which indicates the exceedingly destructive effect of such pedagogical philosophy. in sum, the analysis of the positive danmus reveals most netizens' alignment with fluency into the use of english rather than the pursuit of standardized english and conventions. in addition, today’s chinese netizens also have the awareness of global englishes and appreciate china english as a particular english variety used by chinese people. also, there are some chinese netizens who prefer to use china english as they believe it is easier fluency matters!: chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english 296 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) for them to communicate in english, and makes them feel much more grounded because they are familiar with using english in a chinese way. in particular, china english is put forward as easily understandable and accessible to the general public. the results show that chinese netizens’ attitudes are remarkably positive towards china english, which differ from the previous findings that chinese english learners and users (e.g., teachers and students) were generally reluctant to accept ce as a legitimate variety (wang & gao, 2015). these findings further show that people’s language attitudes should be reconceptualized not as stable characteristics of language learners but as dynamic variables (csizér et al., 2010). negative attitude towards ms. jin’s english in contrast to the positive attitudes discussed above, there were danmus portraying negative attitudes towards ms. jin’s english. the danmus belonging to this category convey a strong message that some netizens were reluctant to accept different specific features of china english, particularly the phonological perspective (i.e., chinese accent). of the total 63 (7%) tokens of negative danmus, most of the which cite non-standardness (n=21/33.3%) as reasons for their criticisms on ms. jin's china english, as shown in table 2. other reasons are attributed to inadequate communicative effectiveness (n=19/30.2%), discrepancy with elt classes or textbooks (n=12/19%), and incorrectness (i.e., china english is riddled with mistakes) (n=11/17.5%). they are illustrated with danmus below: e.g.12 fluency is superficial. people with high english proficiency will know at first glance that all her english is full of bugs and too chinese style. (danmu 269) e.g.13 chinese accent, her expressions follow the chinese way of speaking, straightforward, which may affect other people's understanding. (danmu 880) e.g.14 it’s not as good as others make it out to be, the english is so chinese. it does not sound nice. (danmu 694) e.g.15 her english grammar is very problematic and there are also many china english expressions. (danmu 874) e.g.16 to be honest, the accent is heavy. the language is very china english and the pronunciation is not clear enough. (danmu 887) q. sun, y. q. wu 297 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) these danmus reveal that some chinese netizens seem to look down upon ms. jin's english, as a representative of china english. they criticize china english and the chinese way of using english. example 12 indicates that china english is riddled with mistakes and that "standard" english shouldn't be implemented in a chinese-communicative mode. examples 13 and 14 both criticize the chinese accent produced by ms. jin in this interview, citing concerns that chinese accents may cause interlocutors' misunderstanding when they may hardly identify the corresponding vocabularies. in other words, the communicativeness of china english especially chinese accents is doubted by chinese netizens. the netizens of examples 15 and 16 believe that the expressions and grammar in this video are also problematic because she is in a chinese-speaking way. in summary, the analysis of negative comments reveals that some netizens continue to place a premium on standard english ideology, particularly in their belief in and use of standard english norms and conventions when assessing linguistic features of ms. jin’s english, and regard what they learned in class as the norm. these findings substantially corroborate prior research findings that ce is widely recognized but not universally associated with chinese english users and learners (wang, 2015). interview findings according to the above danmu analysis, the interview process drew on a binary coding criterion, namely revealing positive or negative attitudes (see table 3). among the four chinese netizens, two of them expressed positive attitudes towards china english while the other two held negative attitudes. these four participants are from different backgrounds (i.e., genders, ages, occupations) and all of them have been learning and using english for many years (see demographic information in table 3). table 3. profile of the interview participants attitude name gender age occupation length of interview positive feng m 46 foreign trade salesman 28’16’’ meng f 20 university student 23’34’’ negative zhang m 33 bank employee 25’28’’ zhao f 58 english teacher 30’45’’ fluency matters!: chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english 298 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) to begin with, semi-structured interview findings indicate that both participants mr. feng and ms. meng consider that ms. jin’s english is acceptable (see interview extracts in appendix a). ms. meng deemed her use of english, featuring localized attributes, as an identity marker of herself, namely a chinese english speaker. in addition, meng's positive evaluation of ce, e.g., ms. jin’s speaking, was based on the considerably easier and flexible syntactic and grammatical constructions. from the perspective of ms. meng, following the chinese language structure seems to render her ease to form colloquial english. although english in outer circle countries is still norm dependent or exonormative which means relying on native/standard english for correctness, the comments seem to indicate that even in expanding circle countries like china, people have also begun to break away from exonormative models of english and started developing norms of their own (wang, 2015). interestingly, ms. meng has also voiced her appreciation for ms. jin’s english, which is asserted: “she is my idol and role model” because of ms. jin’s accomplishment as a popular celebrity and renowned dance artist. based on this, we hold a hypothesis that chinese netizens’ evaluations of china english may have been influenced by the speaker’s public identity and social status, and other characteristics of the individuals using china english. mr. feng has an optimistic attitude towards ms. jin’s china english because he sees english as a communicative tool for interaction among various l1s. this confirms the fact that “english is not inherently used intra-nationally among chinese speakers of english on a daily basis” (fang, 2017a, p. 22). he also emphasizes that chinese english learners should not go overboard with english standardization. according to him, the emphasis should also be connected with speakers’ confidence which is one of the most demotivating elements affecting individuals' motivation to speak in the english context (pale & wisrance, 2021). these responses, from ms. meng and mr. feng, generally suggest that ce is not a concern for participants who are more preoccupied with communication than with standards. in other words, ce would be acceptable if it fulfills the speaker's communicative purpose, but not necessarily if it realizes native english norms. in short, the fluency and confidence in using ce as a language tool, the possibilities of ce to mark speakers' chinese identity, and the much easier formation of english q. sun, y. q. wu 299 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) conversations through ce, are three major reasons leading to participants' positive evaluation of ce. on the contrary, opposite opinions were voiced by participants ms. zhao and mr. zhang who think china english, such as ms. jin’s, is not acceptable to them. ms. zhao sticks deeply to the standard english ideology in elt (see appendix a). she argued that allowing china english to be used in educational contexts, e.g., in classes and exams, would pose a dilemma for english language teachers. such disapproval of china-english expressions is owing to the lack of cohesion and coherence in authentic discoursal constructions, regarding both writing and speaking conventions. this explanation for her refusal of ce further indicates that native speakerism and chinglish remain the predominating ideologies in the english educational context in china. because native english is taken as the standardization and normalization, the english that deviates from these standardized norms is treated as an unacceptable expressive variety, e.g., chinglish, particularly by english instructors. another reason for ms. zhao's pessimism is that the exam-based syllabus is a result of the ineradicably established examination culture in today's china. students cannot receive marks on the exam papers if they utilize much china english, as ms. zhao mentioned. in consequence, the mentality of “put exams first” reigns dominance among teachers, parents, and students (pan & block, 2011). mr. zhang also expresses concerns or anxieties about communicativeness when speakers use china english, implying that "most learners of english will assume that the only meaningful goal is native like pronunciation” (walker, 2010, p. 61). generally speaking, chinese netizens' negative attitudes towards china english are concerned with native-speaker ideology, exam-based syllabus, and communicativeness. this kind of negative-attitude responses consists of two widely acknowledged agreements of english in the chinese educational context: the ideologies of native speaker standards and the china english as chinglish stigma (pan, 2011; xiong & qian, 2012). fluency matters!: chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english 300 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) conclusion & implications this study investigated chinese netizens' attitudes and perceptions towards china english (ce) and probed into the reasons underlying their attitudinal judgments. through analyzing their danmus delivered in bilibili revealing attitudes towards ms. jin xing's english, the study has so far revealed that china english is a very discussable term encompassing diversified concerns and features from the perspectives of netizens. the initial findings identified a high degree of positive evaluations of ce among chinese netizens. as in figure 3, the dominant influential factors include the participants' faith in fluency and confidence in using ce as a communicative medium to construct interactions. at the same time, for chinese netizens, china english marks their bilingual identity as chinese who can use english. those netizens' positive perceptions are also attributed with a sense of ease when they speak english following chinese-language modes (e.g., grammatical structure, lexical adaptations). besides, some chinese netizens have established an awareness of global englishes and english as a lingua franca. in fact, there has been an explosive growth in the number of english speakers in china, and this increased usage on a global level has resulted in innovations in its use as it is employed by speakers from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds and assumes distinct functions and forms in different contexts (e.g., ce used in china) (liu et al., 2021; zhang, 2021). therefore, it is no longer relevant to associate english purely with native speaking nations, rather, english is spoken by the global community today (galloway & rose, 2015). based on this, many chinese netizens believe that ce is also acceptable as one of the english varieties with unique chinese characteristics, which as well triggers their positive attitudes towards china english. whereas, it is also noted that some chinese netizens, who are caught in native english norms and concerned about ce comprehensibility (communicative effectiveness) to the western world, hold apparent negative attitudes towards china english. in particular, most efl teaching practices still consider native speaker english to be the goal of english learning and take native speaker english as standards and norms, resulting that ce, as a developing variety, has not yet been widely recognized by its speakers (wang, 2015). q. sun, y. q. wu 301 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) figure 3. china english with relevant qualities and features note: elf: english as a lingua franca the research findings have certain implications for current investigations of language attitudes. firstly, the findings show that chinese english learners' and users' language attitudes towards ce are not set in stone but changeable, which testifies that language attitudes are inherently prone to change (dragojevic, 2017). in addition, the study of linguistic attitudes should also be done on a community-wide scale rather than being limited to very restricted or highly popular representative groups such as educational communities (yan & moody, 2010). in other words, more participants among the general public are needed in language attitudes investigations. this study recommends that netizens should be served as the suitable representation of the general public and function as more valid data resources to reflect the general attitudes or perceptions. instead of being merely employed in investigating language attitudes, they can be used as research subjects in other socio-cultural phenomena. thirdly, danmus, as a real-time comment channel that can reflect netizens’ immediate attitudes, are suggested to be applied as a discourse-based approach to investigate future language attitudes, as means of the methodological implication. then, as most chinese netizens focus on fluency and confidence when evaluating english speaking in china, more efforts and attention need to be attached to how to use english fluently and confidently in english teaching contexts, which is fluency matters!: chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english 302 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) definitely beneficial to chinese students to establish linguistic confidence to transition from perennial language learners to legitimate language users (fang, 2017b). finally, we propose that discussing users' and learners' attitudinal perceptions of a target language can be an effective pedagogical device. for instance, a classroom discussion of the evaluations of china english contributes to english language instructors to increase students’ awareness of world englishes and also help them perceive themselves as legitimate language users, thus to chip away the pervasive problems of linguistic racism caused by the rigid native phantom and the 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(2021). english as a linguistic resource: localizing english in micro blogging by users of chinese. english today, 37(1), 34-41. doi:10.1017/s0266078419000324 appendix a interview excerpts participant 1: mr. feng excerpt 1 r (researcher): do you think ms. jin is using china english and do you think it’s acceptable to you? feng: definitely, that’s china english and i believe it’s quite acceptable for me. r: well, could you please explain why you accept china english? feng: i am a foreign trade salesman, mainly in charge of the overseas department and i have to deal with people from different countries every day. so i can't expect everyone to be like the english listening test, right? hahaha. after all, we are chinese, and english is a totally foreign language for us. r: so you mean that we may meet different varieties of english in real communication and then what’s the most important in using english in real communication from your point? feng: well, personally speaking, i think confidence matters most because once you speak out and express your ideas, it’s enough! participant 2: mr. zhang excerpt 2 r: do you think ms. jin is using china english? and could you explain why you doubt whether a foreigner could understand the chinese accent and structure? zhang: from my point of view, it's china english. i remember once there was a customer from canada and it was really hard for him to understand me because i speak english with a strong chinese accent. r: so do you think that china english is not a good choice when using english? zhang: agree, we need to try to imitate westerners but not in a chinese way, it’s really a trouble for communication. r: you mean that we need to try to sound like a native speaker when speaking english? why do you think so? q. sun, y. q. wu 309 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) zhang: yes, at least trying to make it. i think if you speak english with a too heavy chinese accent, you will be laughed at for being so vulgar. participant 3 mrs. zhao excerpt 3 r: do you think ms. jin is using china english? and as you mentioned that her grammar is not good, does that mean you can’t accept this kind of china english? zhao: sure, i don’t like china english, and i totally can’t accept china english. r: could you please explain why you don’t like china english? zhao: i am a teacher and i always meet students using china english. like “horse horse tiger tiger (which refers to the chinese idiom meaning “careless”); i am read a book”. all these mean zero marks in exams, which is really a headache for me. r: therefore, you mean that students’ use china english is not suggested in english classes and exams? zhao: yes, but not "suggest" but "forbid". students mustn't use china english in exams because there will be zero marks for students if they use china english instead of british or american english in the textbook. what's more, if china english is used in english teaching, how can we give marks? participant 4: miss meng excerpt 4 r: do you think ms. jin’s english is china english? could you please explain why you say ms. jin’s english makes you comfortable? meng: emm, yes, it's china english. it's really fluent and i like ms. jin very much. the confidence on her face really moves me. she is my idol and role model! r: that's to say, do you think china english is acceptable for you? do you like china english? meng: yes, i like china english because i think it’s much easier for me to learn and understand. like when writing english sentences, i prefer to use chinese grammar. r: all right, do you think learning british english is our final goal in english acquisition? fluency matters!: chinese netizens’ attitudes towards china english 310 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) meng: well, according to textbooks, probably it is, i don't know. but i am chinese, speaking china english can show my chinese nationality, it's emm, how to say, good. microsoft word 05_register adjacency register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021), pp. 243-262 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i2.243-262 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 243 the role of adjacency pairs to create politeness strategies in students’ phatic utterances ratna padmi trihartanti,1* seldie julyana septiyan2 english department, politeknik negeri bandung, jl. gegerkalong hilir, ciwaruga, bandung 40012, indonesia *) corresponding author email ratna.padmi@polban.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i2.243-262 submission track: received: 17-09-2021 final revision: 01-12-2021 available online: 05-12-2021 copyright © 2021 author(s) this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract adjacency pair is one of the language features to make utterances more polite as it creates turn-taking, which means that none of participant dominates. adjacency pairs also create functions of phatic communication as stated by padilla cruz. according to levinson, there are nine patterns of adjacency pairs, and most could be found in utterances. the data were taken from 24 students’ phatic utterances, and they were chosen because all participants are classmates. covid-19 pandemic has forced them not to meet each other for almost 2 semesters, yet they show their closeness and solidarity. after all the data were analyzed using the qualitative method, it can be concluded that there are 7 adjacency pairs: questionanswer, offer-accept, taking leave-taking leave, summons-answer, request for information-grant, request-apology, and greeting-greeting, and most of them have phatic functions of communication. using adjacency pairs employs politeness strategies and negative and positive politeness strategies from brown and levinson. negative politeness strategies found are: be conventionally indirect, question, hedge and quality-hedges, while positive politeness strategies found are: offer, promise, include both s and h in the activity, and give gifts to h. one of adjacencypairs, and phatic utterances’ functions is to maintain politeness though the students are classmates with close social distance and equal power, they perform politeness strategies to keep their social relations. the appearance of politeness strategies shows that no matter how informal utterances are, closeness and politeness must stay together. keywords: adjacency-pairs; phatic utterances; politeness; strategies r. p. trihartanti, s. j. septiyan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 244 introduction verbal communication is one medium that has been endlessly discussed since there are a lot of magic things to be dug deeper and deeper. one verbal communication discussed in the research is students’ phatic utterances as a result of the adjacency pairs use. during the covid-19 pandemic students have not met each other for more than a year, nor have they met somewhere outside campus because most of them live in different towns, yet they show their closeness and solidarity in their utterances before the online-class begins. actually what they are talking about is not something serious, even they sometimes make jokes, and they are filled with longing to do excited things together, still they maintain politeness. parts of their utterances sometimes do not share something important, and they have phatic functions. padilla cruz (2005) claimed that the phaticity of an utterance may be established by some factors and one of them is the occurrence in a particular conversational phase being part of an adjacency pair. from padilla cruz’s statement, it can be drawn that parts of students’ utterances in the present research can be called phatic utterances. phatic communion then, later it becomes phatic communication is described as ‘communication between people which is not intended to seek or convey information but has the social function of establishing or maintaining social contact’ (richard & schmidt, 2013, p. 432) here, students used adjacency pairs to show positive and negative politeness strategy. daniels and crystal (1992, p.415) define adjacency pair as a unit of conversation that contains an exchange of one turn each by two speakers’. for example, when speaker asks a question to hearer then, the latter will respond it. on the other occasion if speaker offers something, hearer may accept or refuse it in a good way. though social distance among the students is symmetric, they try to avoid face threatening acts (ftas), especially within the pandemic, they do not want to make any conflicts. by applying adjacency pairs, students try to maintain politeness. the aims of this study are to find out the types of adjacency pairs and phatic utterance functions mostly used in students’ utterances and another aim is to analyze politeness strategies found in students’ utterances. some research has discussed politeness in phatic utterances and adjacency pairs as we can see below: the role of adjacency pairs to create politeness strategies …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 245 the first is from padilla cruz (2007). in his research entitled: ‘phatic utterances and the communication of social information: a relevance – theoretic approach’, he offers an approach using relevance-theoretic that can make participant transmit and recover information about politeness in phatic utterances. by using this approach, speaker can communicate strongly and weakly at the same time. moreover, hearer also can do as the speaker does and combines it with other contextual assumptions to gain contextual effects. in his paper, cruz explains relevance theory in phatic utterances very clearly. next, maros and rosli (2017) wrote their research entitled: ‘politeness strategies in twitter updates of female english language studies malaysian undergraduates’. the research aims to contribute to the field of politeness and english language studies in twitter updates to find out the most politeness strategies used. after having been analyzed using brown & levinson’ politeness theory, the 776 tweet updates produced by the 9 female active users for 2 months, it shows that the politeness strategies appear: bald on-record (33%), positive politeness (37%), negative politeness (7%), and off-record (7%). this research also assumes that positive politeness is used because the nature of twitter encourages interpersonal communication and expression among the users. then, bagheri et al. (2017) revealed a study: ‘aha, ok, alright’ as phatic talk: an analysis on opening in multilingual and multicultural clinical consultation’. the study analyzes six phases of clinical consultation, but it more focuses on the opening phase since it is considered to be the most primary care consultation between doctors and patients. it is believed that within consultation especially in opening phase, patients feel nervous and not comfortable because of his/her diseases; therefore, it will be good if doctors start with a small ritual talk before processing to the main point, that is patients’ complaint. the phatic talk could be as opening, welcoming or greeting to break the ‘excitement’ belongs to patients so that they will feel more comfortable and create rapport between doctors and patients. in this study the use of ‘aha, ‘ok’, and ‘alright’ as phatic talks are found many times. the last, kazemi and azimifar (2019) conducted research on adjacency pairs by comparing the use of them in computer assisted language learning r. p. trihartanti, s. j. septiyan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 246 (call) to virtual classes. the result shows that there is no difference in the use of adjacency pairs in both classes compared to ordinary conversations. the most pattern of adjacency pairs appear mostly in both classes is question – answer. from the previous paper/research having been reviewed, none of them discusses adjacency pairs, politeness strategies and phatic utterances simultaneously. in this research, the writer aims to bridge the gaps by employing adjacency pairs with their functions of phatic communication, and politeness strategies. some theories are used in the present research among other is pragmatics. the term pragmatics was coined by morris, a philosopher of language (1938) in order to label the science of relation of signs to their interpreter. then, ferrara (1985, p.138, cited in locastro, 2013, p. 5) defines pragmatics as ‘the systematic study of the relation between the linguistic properties of utterances and their properties as social action’. pragmatics has been divided into two main frameworks, and one of them is the early anglo-saxon framework of pragmatic study put forth mostly by philosophers of language who were interested in utterance rather than sentence meaning (muller et al 2014, p.18 cited in blitvich & sifianou 2019, p. 3). as a branch linguistics pragmatics is viewed from different approaches to maintain and focus on the use of language in social interaction and its effect that occurs to participant (plaques & julian, 2017). phatic utterances malinowski introduced the term phatic communion which later it becomes phatic communication or phatic utterances (1923) as this: phatic utterance is considered as a small talk because it does not produce serious talk. however, it has a significant function to build social relation. it can be said that the concept of phatic utterance is ‘a type of speech in which ties of union are created by a mere exchange of words’, or more pithily as ‘speech communication used to establish social relationships’ (malinowski, 1923, p. 315). furthermore, malinowski reveals that phatic utterances have social function that might `overcome the strange, unpleasant tension caused by silence' and/ or to create an atmosphere of sociability and personal communion between people (malinowski, 1923 cited in zegarac & clark, 2014, p.12) the role of adjacency pairs to create politeness strategies …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 247 realizing the significance of phatic utterances function in social relationship, jakobson (1960) then, observes and divides it into six: emotive, connative, referential, phatic, metalingual and phoetic. those derive from malinowski’s concept of phatic communion and buhler’s three language functions: expressive, appellative and representative. jakobson claims the phatic function of language is function of language which emphasizes on the contact’s presence between speaker and hearer in communication. some linguists who have given the contribution to the development of phatic functions are: malinowski, jakobson, buhler, leech, cook, holmes, kridalaksana, coupland, richard et.al, saunders, o’ sullivan, mey, renkema, abercrombie and many more. those linguists then, wrap their ideas into twelve functions of phatic communication. the theoretical framework is sketched out in the chart below: theoretical framework of phatic communication malinowski's bühler's three language functions (1934) phatic communion (1923) expressive, appellative, representative jakobson's six language functions (1960): emotive connative referential phatic metalingual phoetic phatic communication: richards et al. (1985); leech [1983], cook [1989], holmes [1992], kridalaksana [1994, 2004], o’sullivan et al. [1994], renkema [1994], schiffrin [1994], abercrombie [1998], verschueren [1999], coupland [2000],), mey [2001], saville-troike [2003] 12 functions of phatic communication: (1) breaking the silence, (2) starting a conversation, (3) making small talk, (4) making gossip, (5) keeping talking, (6) expressing solidarity, (7) creating harmony, 8) creating comfort, (9) expressing empathy, 10) expressing friendship or camaraderie (11) expressing respect, (12) expressing politeness (jumanto, 2006; 2014, p.9) r. p. trihartanti, s. j. septiyan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 248 adjacency pairs adjacency pairs are utterances produced by two successive speakers in such a way that the second utterance is identified as related to the first one as an expected follow up (richards and schmidt, cited in shen, xia, 2010). the next definition of adjacency pairs comes from (heritage, cited in wooffitt, 2011) who defines that the term adjacency pair is a sequence of two utterances which are adjacent, produced by different speakers, ordered as a first part and second part and typed. thus, a first part requires a particular second, or range of second parts. the next definition of adjacency pairs is from yule (1996, p. 77 cited in mudra, 2018, p.4) he states that adjacency pairs are systematically produced in at two utterances by the speaker and the hearer respectively. sacks et al. (1974) identified adjacency pairs as major turn types. some patterns of adjacency pair are: greeting-greeting, question-answer, complaint-denial, request-apology, request for information-grant, offer-accept, summonsanswer, and taking leave-taking leave. in this research, the present writer only writes those found in students’ utterances. by using adjacency pairs, every participant will create turn-taking. turn taking refers to the process by which people in conversation decide who to speak next (ghilzai, 2015). the next definition of turn taking conveys that turn taking in conversation not only helps us apportion the floor, but also provides a symbolic function of helping the interactants to define their relationship (wennerstorm & siegel, 2003). turn taking also shows that participant maintains not only social interaction but also politeness. politeness politeness is a significant aspect of pragmatic competence. mills states that politeness is ‘the expression of the speakers’ willingness to minimize face threatening carried by certain threatening acts toward another’ (mills, 2003, p.6 cited in karimnia, 2018). william folley, an anthropologist mentions politeness as ‘a battery of social skills whose goal is to ensure feels affirmed in a social interaction’ (folley, 1997. p. 270 cited in kadar & haugh, 2013. p.4) the two statements cover that politeness has a significant role to make participants of utterance feel comfortable as politeness is the soul to appreciate each other. some linguists also stated their theories of politeness and among other is taken the role of adjacency pairs to create politeness strategies …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 249 from (lakoff 1975, p. 640) her notion of politeness is viewed as conversation that is conflict-free with interlocutors being able to satisfy each other’s needs and interests by means of employing politeness strategies …’. meanwhile (brown & levinson, 1987, p. 1) state that’... politeness, like formal diplomatic protocol (for which it must surely be the model), presupposes that potential for aggression as it seeks to disarm it, and makes possible communication between potentially aggressive parties’. from lakoff and brown and levinson’s theories of politeness, it can be concluded that politeness employs to mitigate confrontation occurs in utterances and to avoid ftas. brown & levinson’s theory of politeness (1987) consists of three basic notions: face, face threatening acts (ftas), and politeness strategies. face is the public self-image that every member of a society wants to claim for himself. the concept of face refers to a social representation of a person reflecting the respect, regard or confidence others have in them which person in question is conscious or aware of himself or herself (goffman, 1972, p. 5 cited in qi, 2017, p.3) theory of face from goffman, then was developed by brown & levinson (1987) by stating that there are two kinds of faces which a person has as a public, namely positive face and negative face. positive face is in which people want to be approved in a social community whereas negative face is in which people want to be appreciated. another basic notion is face threatening acts that defines as acts that infringe on the hearer’s need to maintain his/herselfesteem. if there might be a tendency to threaten someone’s positive or negative face, we can minimize it by using politeness strategies. brown & levinson (1987, p. 103-132) divide it into two, namely: negative and positive politeness. negative politeness strategies aim at hearer’s negative face wants to describe expressions of restraint, formality, and distancing. on the other hand, positive politeness strategies aim to express solidarity and familiarity. to decide which strategies that are going to choose, there is a social variable with social power (p), social distance (d) and ranking of imposition (r). negative politeness will be used if the power of participants is not equal, and the social distance is not symmetric, so the rank of imposition is mostly low. positive politeness strategies are chosen if participants have the same power, and symmetric social distance. hence, the rank of imposition is not as low as negative politeness strategies, yet they are polite. r. p. trihartanti, s. j. septiyan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 250 research method this research uses qualitative research as the result of data analysis is in descriptive forms. according to (berg & lune, 2014, p.8 cited in wang, 2018) ‘qualitative research properly seeks answers by examining various social settings and the groups or individuals who inhabit these settings’. shakouri (2014) then adds that qualitative research is concerned with non-statistical methods of inquiry and analysis of social phenomena; moreover, creswell makes those two theories of qualitative research clearer by completing that qualitative research is designed to explore grounded theory, ethnography, historical research and content analysis (creswell, 2009 cited in haradhan, 2014) from those theories, we can conclude that the most suitable method used in this research is qualitative because the data show the various social settings through students’ utterances coming from different places and the result of analyzed data does not involve complicated calculation. participants of the research are the sixth semester students of the english department, politeknik negeri bandung. they come from 2 classes and the number of them is 50, 27 students are from 3a, and 23 are from 3 b. the sixth semester students were chosen as they have known each other for 4 semesters, and surely they studied in the same classes before covid-19 pandemic occurs. they did a lot of activities in campus; hence, they experienced a lot of things together that make them close and have solidarity. the process of collecting the data started from asking the students to make utterances in pairs with free topics they chose. free topics were given as they never meet each other face to face due to pandemic. first they conducted their utterances orally and recorded theirs. the next was they typed what they had uttered, and then, the head of the class sent his classmates’ utterances via https:// drive.google.com. after all the data had been received, the present researcher downloaded and printed them out. there were 24 utterances collected. from the 24 utterances, it can be seen that the chosen topics are almost similar for examples: on line games, homework/assignments, pets, korean dramas, sharing problems, and how they miss to attend to offline lessons. the next step was reading those utterances several times each to identify types of adjacency pairs, and to find out phatic functions. after finishing it, the process of analyzing was commenced to relate the types of adjacency pairs with the politeness strategies found. the role of adjacency pairs to create politeness strategies …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 251 results and discussion from theoretical framework of phatic communication chart (jumanto, 2006; 2014, p. 9), it presents that malinowski’s phatic communication and buhler’s three language functions have inspired jakobson to develop both into: emotive, connative, referential, phatic, metalingual and phoetic. the development made by jakobson is well-known as jakobson’s six language functions. one function, that is phatic, later expanded by some linguists into phatic communication. phatic communication has 12 functions namely: breaking the silence, starting a conversation, making a small talk, making gossip, keeping talking, expressing solidarity, creating harmony, creating comfort, expressing empathy, expressing friendship, expressing respect, and expressing politeness. after analyzing the 24 students’ utterances, there are seven adjacency pair patterns created within the process of sharing the idea among them to maintain social relations. those are: greeting-greeting, taking leave-taking leave, question-answer, offer-accept, request-apology, summons-answer, and request for information grant. from parts of each pattern, some of the phatic functions come up. greeting-greeting pattern has function of phatic communication that is, starting a conversation by greeting another participant. it only found 3 times out of 24 utterances (2%). here, we can see the beginning of the utterance: h: ‘hey…’ k: ‘hey, you’? h: ‘how are you man? ‘you good’? k: ‘yeah… i am good’ the next adjacency pair found in utterances is taking leave-taking leave. this adjacency pair usually appears when both participants want to end their communication. the function of phatic utterance here is to break the silence because the speaker does not know what to say anymore. it can be found 20 times (13.6%). below is an example of the utterances: z: ‘the series are interesting and amazing.’ ‘... stay healthy’ a:’ ok… bye’ r. p. trihartanti, s. j. septiyan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 252 another adjacency pair found is question-answer, and it contains an expressing respect. this pattern found mostly among the other patterns. it is found 48 times or (32.6%), and four of them shown below: hy: ‘hey, i bought something, can you guess?’ rt: ‘i have no ideas, i am sorry’ y: ‘t***** will you save it carefully ?’ t: ‘sure…’ the function of phatic communication starts when rt says ‘sorry’ and in the second utterance it occurs when t agrees on doing something for y. this type of adjacency pair is mostly found in students’ utterances. the questionanswer pattern creates negative politeness strategies, and one of them is be conventionally indirect which is found 48 times (42.9%). according to searle ‘... for a request to be felicitous (successful), the addressee must be thought potentially able to comply with the request, the requestor must want the thing requested, and so on (searle, 1969 cited in brown & levinson, 1987, p. 132). though they are class mates, yet they maintain politeness by using indirect requests ‘can’ and ‘will’, and they are to minimize the imposition of utterance because in this strategy the speakers met opposing tensions. the two other of question-answer patterns with different negative politeness strategies, and two functions of phatic utterances are found in these utterances: creating harmony and expressing empathy. dt creates harmony by thanking ht while kp encourages ht that the pandemic will be over next semester. ht: ‘can you remember the file, tell me, will you?’ ‘thank you’ dt: ‘i will, thank you also for reminding me’ ap: ‘will we be graduated on line or offline?’ kp: ‘i think, our graduation will be online’ ap:’ come on, don’t say so. don’t you want to graduate offline?’ ‘i guess, we can be graduated offline’ kp:’ i hope so. i absolutely believe that pandemic will be over next semester’. we hope for the best’ the role of adjacency pairs to create politeness strategies …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 253 the utterances above still use question-answer adjacency pair, but they produce another negative politeness strategy that is, question, hedge. we can see it when wi uses tag-question ‘tell me, will you?’ which means ‘i wonder whether you can tell me.’ we can also dig a different negative politeness strategy from the second utterance that is quality hedges. it is found 40 times or (35.7%). the quality hedges found are: ‘i think’ and ‘i guess’ uttered by kp and ap. kp also uses a quality hedge: ‘i absolutely believe…’ according to brown and levinson (1987), quality hedges such as: ‘i think’, ‘i guess’ are used for expressing the situation when the speaker does not fully take responsibility for the truth of his utterance, or the speaker hesitates to the truth of his utterance. on the other hand, the use of ‘i absolutely believe…’ shows speaker’s commitment to the truth of his utterance (brown & levinson, 1987, p.164; coates, 2014). the next adjacency pair is offer-accept. it is used by speaker to offer something to hearer, and he accepts it. this pattern is found 28 times (19%), and it contains expressing friendship of phatic utterance function as z encourages a to be keen on watching series to forget her ex. z:’what’s wrong with you?’ a: ‘uh, i just broken with my boyfriend, and this is a terrible situation’ how could i forget him?’ z:’ try to watch movies or series then.’ ‘there are a lot of good movies and series or even korean dramas’ a:’ but i am not into korean movies and stuff’’ ‘i think i will not like it’ z: ‘you try it.’ ‘first, it is difficult for you to forget your ex, but i am sure, you will forget him soon’ from the utterance above, there is a positive politeness strategy, offer, promise. it is mostly found in offer-accept pattern of adjacency pairs. according to brown & levinson (1987) the function of this strategy is to redress the potential threat of some ftas. s might choose to emphasize his cooperation with h in different way. he could claim that (during a specific sphere or relevance) whatever h wants, s wants for him and will assist to achieve. in the utterance above, z as hearer offers a, who acts as speaker to watch movies to forget her ex, and a agrees to do that. this strategy appears 24 times or (33%). r. p. trihartanti, s. j. septiyan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 254 the next pattern of adjacency pair is summonsanswer. it is found 18 times or (12.2%) this pattern mostly happens because the internet connection is unstable, so speaker or hearer should summon his partner several times to make sure that they are still with him. this pattern has starting a conversation function of phatic communication. s: ‘f****, f****. hello… f**** can you hear me?’ f: ‘yes, s****, i can hear you’ ‘the connection sometimes is bad’ the next adjacency pair is request–apology pattern. it happens if speaker requests hearer to do something, but the latter refuses to do it by saying ‘sorry’. this pattern creates expressing empathy phatic function, and it begins when r wishes s gets better soon. r:’ i heard that s***** is sick. ‘can we make a video call with her?’ f:’no, sorry….’ i think that we can’t do it now.’ ‘someone said that she infects from c******’ r: ‘give my regards’ i hope she will be better soon’ request-apology patterns appear 12 times or (8.2%). there is also be conventionally indirect ‘can we make a video call with her’ and another negative politeness strategy is quality hedges’ i think’ that shows the speaker’s hesitation. the last pattern of adjacency pair found is request for information-grant. it will perform if speaker asks hearer to give information, and hearer provides it. it is found 18 times or (12.2%). expressing respect of phatic utterance’s function occurs when m says sorry for not going to z’s house now: m: ‘z***, do you still remember my laptop that i bought with you before pandemic?’ z: ‘of course, i remember well.’ after you bought it, you treated me meatball.’ ‘let’s do it again soon’ m: ’oh, my god, we never know that pandemic will attach us.’ there is a problem with my laptop, and i want to go there to serve it.’ z: ‘m******, do not make yourself in trouble. my neighbor is good at serving and repairing laptops’ the role of adjacency pairs to create politeness strategies …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 255 m: ‘will do’, but sorry, perhaps two months later’ ‘i do not want to make your family worried because it is still pandemic.’ the utterance above shows that m requests for information to z, and he provides it. there are 2 positive politeness strategies, and the first is include both s and h in the activity. this strategy shows an inclusive ‘we’ when s intends to involve ‘you’ and ‘me’. speaker can ask for the cooperative assumptions and redress ftas. ‘let’s in english is an inclusive ‘we’ (brown & levinson, 1987). this strategy shows up 28 times or (38.9%). another positive politeness strategy is give gifts to h. m as speaker knows that he may satisfy z’s positive-face want as hearer. in this situation m gives z gifts by showing his understanding that he will not go to z’ house now. this politeness strategy occurs 20 times or (27.8%). from the result above, we can see that some parts of the students’ utterances with the adjacency pair patterns function as phatic communication, such as: expressing respect, expressing empathy, expressing friendship, starting a conversation, and breaking the silence. from those parts of phatic utterances, it can be seen that they do not share the idea, so they are in line with malinowski’s statement that phatic communion is not used to exchange the idea, but it aims to create bonds in a social society (1923). jumanto (2014) analyzed phatic communication among english native speakers with the primary data were taken from interview. he concluded that all phatic utterances among them are in line with malinowski’s phatic communion theory, buhler’s expressive, and appellative functions of language, also jakobson’s phatic function of language theory, and halliday’s interpersonal function of language. jumanto’s research results 12 functions of phatic communication for creating ties of union. kulkarni (2014) states that phatic functions are obviously established to initiate utterances, commence communication and interaction. on the other hand, rahardi (2017) disagrees with malinowski’s theory that phatic functions are’ a mere exchange of words’. according to him, culturespecific phatic communion is different from malinowski’s theory. having applied the pragmatics and sociolinguistics theories including the theories of contexts and phatic communication, rahardi finds out that phatic functions can be employed to reveal speaker’s meaning, be it informative and other functions. r. p. trihartanti, s. j. septiyan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 256 yan (2010) conducted research on adjacency pairs found in phatic utterance. she focuses on politeness in the three patterns of adjacency pair: greetings, compliments and directives, and she tried to find out how male and female make differences in applying those adjacency pairs. yan compares how males and females express their politeness in their phatic utterances, yet the politeness strategies are not discussed as the present researchers do. meanwhile tsui (1985) only discusses the use of adjacency pairs among male and female students. she merely stresses on the least adjacency pair patterns found that is, greeting-greeting, and the mostly used is the question-answer. the finding on the use of adjacency pairs is almost similar to the present research. unlike the previous research, the present research involves adjacency pair patterns in students’ utterances. adjacency pairs are chosen because some parts of their utterances can create phatic functions as declared by padilla cruz (2005). those adjacency pairs employed by the students have phatic functions and their aims are to express respect, solidarity, and empathy. comparing to the research conducted previously, the present research does not only emphasize on either adjacency pair or phatic utterances. it strongly, focuses also on the appearance of politeness strategies both positive and negative. those strategies show that participants with equal social power, social closeness, solidarity, and familiarity remain polite in building their social relations. the results of this research are concluded on the 3 graphs below: graph 1 adjacency pairs found in students’ phatic utterances the role of adjacency pairs to create politeness strategies …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 257 graph 2 negative politeness strategies found in students’ phatic utterances graph 3 positive politeness strategies found in students’ phatic utterances conclusion from the result, it can be concluded that adjacency pairs found in the students’ utterances have certain phatic functions, and those functions build phatic utterances. some of the functions are not found such as making gossip and expressing politeness. making gossip is not found because during the pandemic it is difficult for them to do that. while, expressing politeness phatic function is not conveyed since it is discussed from different point of view. during the pandemic, students’ relationship is not as close as it was before the covid-19 spreads. hence, they try hard to make their friendship warm and polite through their phatic utterances to show their solidarity and closeness. the use of negative politeness strategies is to show respect, while positive r. p. trihartanti, s. j. septiyan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 258 politeness strategies is to express degree of solidarity, familiarity and sometimes informality. however, both politeness strategies found are to avoid face threatening acts (ftas). the appearance of politeness strategies in students’ phatic utterances using adjacency pair patterns have never been discussed in the previous research. so, it will 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(1999). phatic interpretations and phatic communication. journal of linguistics, 35(2), 321–346. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022226799007628 r. p. trihartanti, s. j. septiyan register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 262 this page has been intentionally left blank. dinamika pengarusutamaan gender register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022), pp. 109-125 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v15i1.109-125 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 109 the use of flashcards in teaching efl vocabulary in online learning raja muhammad ishtiaq khan department of common first year, al zulfi, majmaah university, kingdom of saudi arabia e-mail: r.khan@mu.edu.sa *) corresponding author email: r.khan@mu.edu.sa doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i1.109-125 submission track: received: 27-01-2022 final revision: 06-04-2022 available online: 30-04-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract the outbreak of covid-19 has altered the way language instruction is executed. vocabulary learning is an essential aspect of the language learning and teaching process that needs careful attention and consideration. teaching vocabulary becomes more critical when learners cannot attend physical classes. the present study explores the impact of flashcards in learning vocabulary in an online context. the study adopted a quasi-experimental design to gather the data. the study was carried on two performed intact groups of intermediate-level learners. a vocabulary test was used to collect the data as pre and posttests. the intervention of the flashcards was continued for seven weeks. all the learners were informed about the process of the research. the result implies that the incorporation of flashcards impacted learners' vocabulary learning during online instruction. the data analysis asserts that flashcards have helped the experimental group to develop their vocabulary. the results indicate that flashcards are beneficial in the virtual learning environment. keywords: flashcards, efl, online learning, vocabulary https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ r.m. ishtiaq khan 110 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) introduction the international community was severely impacted by the outbreak caused by the novel coronavirus (covid-19) disease, which also brought the whole world to a complete standstill in 2020. academics were forced to migrate to distance learning in such unexpected times (alkhunzain & khan, 2021). in-person instruction prompted an abhorrent chance of transmitting and infecting people. this abrupt, incredible transformation appeared with unforeseeable consequences for schools and teachers, as the whole globe continues to perceive its adverse effects. since the outbreak of the global epidemic, the kingdom of saudi arabia (ksa) has been vocal in its humanistic message (khan, ali, et al., 2021). regardless of race, identity, religious doctrine, or national origin, human safety is more important than anything else. as a result, in the first few days of the outbreak of covid-19, an instant reaction was launched to close down anything that might endanger population livelihoods and well-being, including schools, higher education institutions, and government entities (neuwirth et al., 2021). the saudi ministry of education has activated its pre-existing online learning tool, including desire to learn (d2l), blackboard (bb), and zoom platform, to manage the learning process (hakim, 2020). the objective was to establish a centralized platform for providing online teaching to students enrolled in the saudi government and public institutions (oraif & elyas, 2021). with the beginning of the new academic year, instructors managed to improve learning and proceeded to support new material. english language teaching (elt) challenges long predate the covid-19 pandemic. however, the abrupt development of entirely virtual education and the resulting modifications aggravated emerging issues. among the most regularly cited issues in elt is the motivating force of students to learn (al-ansi et al., 2021; altun & tahir, 2020; rahmawati et al., 2021; thongbunma et al., 2021). language teachers in saudi arabia have generally observed an insufficiency of student engagement (khan et al., 2018), which is most likely due to students' limited vocabulary (shahbaz & khan, 2017), but may also be due to other factors (andrade, 2022). according to previous research, virtual education contexts are more captivating and convenient to rising student encouragement (dhawan, 2020). nevertheless, online classes are "situationally sensitive" (hartnett, 2016), affected by numerous related to time constraints, test scores, and students' educational the use of flashcards in teaching efl .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 111 experience. the disease outbreak exacerbates these problems. however, many researchers have indicated that insufficient vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary retention hinder the language learning process (wright et al., 2021). flashcards are an essential tool with many advantages, so using them in vocabulary classes for young learners is a valuable method (supriatin & rizkilillah, 2018). flashcards have been appealing for starters because they contain images that keep students' minds refreshed. in addition to knowing the vocabulary, learners will acquire experience of vocabulary retention. flashcards can be used to reduce mental blocks with the help of images presented on the cards (ngarofah & sumarni, 2019). vocabulary is a core part that must be fully grasped to promote the four skills of listening, speaking, writing, and reading. so, it is vital to attain mastery in vocabulary learning, which results in overall language learning development. according to cain and oakhill (2014), vocabulary is among the most fundamental aspects of language and academic researchers' first study area. the assertion above makes the primary point that vocabulary should always be attained during learning languages. (webb, 2013) illustrated that vocabulary development is the understanding that effectively addresses the meaning of the terms and can compare each term with a synonym or a similar term in one's language. that is, word recognition skill is concerned with understanding terms and expressions. vocabulary is critical to effective language learning. it could also assist individuals in reading and understanding text effectively (p. nation, 2019). thereby, vocabulary knowledge empowers individuals to communicate their thoughts clearly in both spoken and written text. alternatively, students with a limited vocabulary have difficulties understanding the content and expressing themselves verbally and in writing (olinghouse & wilson, 2013). as a result, instructors and syllabus designers require strategies for assisting students in improving their vocabulary achievement. numerous techniques can increase students' vocabulary knowledge (khan, radzuan, et al., 2021; khan, shahbaz, et al., 2020). teachers can integrate drawings, connotations, and media into their vocabulary instruction. huang (2015) supports this by stating that technology can effectively enhance vocabulary instruction to a great extent. r.m. ishtiaq khan 112 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) numerous studies (chen & chan, 2019; li & tong, 2019; ngarofah & sumarni, 2019; pasaribu et al., 2022; razaq, 2022; supriatin & rizkilillah, 2018; yüksel et al., 2020) have been conducted on lexical items as a critical aspect of language learning; each one makes a remarkable impact in the area. according to stewart et al. (2021), vocabulary acquisition is central to acquiring language and language utilization. indeed, it gives a language an essence. vocabulary development is a necessary form of language instruction. numerous researchers concurred that there is still a dearth of research on vocabulary learning (cameron, 2002; i. nation, 2011; yaacob et al., 2019), although the most efficient way of vocabulary acquisition remains unknown (zhang et al., 2017). the absence of vocabulary was an ongoing topic in the literature efl learning context. it was frequently given little preference in language instruction and was often left to fend for itself in texts and language courses (boers, 2021; çakmak & erçetin, 2018; khan, mustafa, et al., 2020; teng & zhang, 2021). historically, vocabulary acquisition and instruction received scant attention in language education. as vu and peters (2021) stated, vocabulary training was once widely believed to be unnecessary because it could occur spontaneously; consequently, vocabulary instruction was not prevalent (schmitt et al., 2020). however, the importance of vocabulary and its role in language learning has been much more widely accepted in recent years. for instance, cetinkaya and sütçü (2018) note that the importance of vocabulary instruction has been recognized in recent years. learning through media is indeed a significant part of the educational process of the english language. it allows instructors to distribute or transfer material to students more efficiently (miftachudin, 2017; yudhiantara & nasir, 2017). mustafa et al. (2022) describe teaching with technology as allowing learners to transmit messages and evoke students' interest, feelings and thought to facilitate the educational process. gay (2022) notes that technology can effectively motivate students to learn efl vocabulary. as a result of the preceding statement, this could be deduced that media is an essential instrument for vocabulary instruction. teachers frequently employ a variety of visuals in their teaching. the efl learners find visual vocabulary application attractive (aji et al., 2021). visual media include graphics, flipcharts, and electronic flashcards. according to wong et al. (2021), a flashcard is a simple image on a piece of paper or card that serves as a visual the use of flashcards in teaching efl .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 113 reference during the teaching process. that is, digital flashcards are a type of teaching material that can assist teachers in effectively teaching vocabulary. according to experimental studies with efl learners, students who were taught vocabulary through the flashcard approach retained more language but were more engaged in the learning process because they perceived it as simple. they also have a better grasp of vocabulary than students who don't use flashcards. finding new words by using a dictionary and learning their definitions is one way to broaden vocabulary (chen & chan, 2019). however, increasing the power of a word takes time. another option is to use a vocab card or flashcard to help users learn new words. flashcards assist in learning new words as learners can have an image of the new term. at the same time, word lists and flashcards can be introduced to help learners get acquainted with new words. many of them also use flashcards to refresh their memory on previously learned terms. flashcards have several advantages: they can be carried around and studied whenever one seems to have a spare minute (li & tong, 2019; yüksel et al., 2020). additionally, they can be grouped to form words to make sense to the target audience. in an experiment by azabdaftari and mozaheb (2012), flashcards were compared to see how they affected iranian efl vocabulary learning. in an experiment by azabdaftari and mozaheb (2012), flashcards were compared to see how they affected iranian efl vocabulary learning. the study results revealed that pupils who used m-learning technology learned more vocabulary than flashcards. a multiple-choice posttest showed a significant performance advantage in favor of the experimental group over the control group. still, the difference could not be attributed to the study's experimental conditions. furthermore, there was little information about the srs's material or structure. in addition, no pretest was given to determine whether the experimental group's l2 english proficiency was higher than that of the control group. it was simply assumed that there were no considerable variations at the outset. syaifudin (2017) conducted a study to see if flashcards could help students improve their speaking abilities by assisting them to learn new vocabulary in an action research method. vocabulary cards were sent to a total of 20 participants who had difficulty speaking proficiently. the study found that flashcards could help students improve their vocabulary, improving their speaking abilities. the incorporation of cards amplified the learners' interaction with vocabulary r.m. ishtiaq khan 114 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) acquisition, which helped emerge their verbal proficiency. efl students and instructors should be conscious of the implications of media like skype, youtube, and whatsapp in assisting them in improving and developing in english as a foreign language (efl). the study's findings showed that students' speaking abilities improved significantly when mall applications were used. moreover, razaq (2022) conducted a study to determine how students can improve their vocabulary in terms of word classes. the result of the study indicated that there is a considerable improvement in the post-tests. the study observed that using flashcards improved students' vocabulary accomplishment based on the research outcomes. likewise, pasaribu et al. (2022) recently investigated the role of flashcards media in enhancing learners' vocabulary. flashcard media was chosen as a channel to boost students' vocabulary because of learners' solid background memory for pictures. since flashcard media allows students to grasp lessons quickly, they are more enthusiastic about learning english. according to the findings, students who gain knowledge while gameplay is more effective. learners were very enthusiastic about learning through the images enclosed in the flashcards presented by the authors when undertaking experiments; they started to guess what has been drawn but were also enthusiastic to check the definition. using technology can be facilitated in many distinct ways to teach vocabulary to students. learning vocabulary on a mobile phone can occur whenever and wherever the learner wishes, owing to smartphone apps' ease of use and accessibility (shahbaz & khan, 2017). according to some studies, flashcards are more efficient than word lists for helping students build their vocabulary. research shows that flashcards are used for many different purposes. all previous studies cited in the literature review indicate that these were administered to compare flashcards with conventional learning or m-learning assisted flashcards and vocabulary learning. the outbreak of covid-19 has altered the ways of language learning, and vocabulary learning is no exception. learners were instructed through many distant ways and using various online platforms. the present study compares vocabulary learning through an online venue, blackboard (bb), in routine online teaching and vocabulary cards. the use of flashcards in teaching efl .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 115 research method the study was conducted by using a quasi-experimental research design. according to cook (2015), quasi-experimental research evolves an accurate experiment design with an experimental group and a control group. the researcher used a pretest and posttest research design. the researcher instructed two groups in this study: experimental and control groups. flashcards were used to teach the experimental group, whereas the control group was educated through bb's online platform. the participants in this study were pre-intermediate students from the deanship of common first year (dcfy). to select the participants, the researcher has utilized purposive sampling. the researcher divided two preformed intact classes into experimental and control classes. a total of 64 learners were included in the study. this study's instrument is a vocabulary test that the exam committee created. before and after the intervention, the test was given to the dcfy. there were 20 questions in each pretest and posttest. the validity of the instrumentation is the first consideration. validity is defined by ary (2014) as the extent to which a measure is what it purposes to measure. furthermore, validity is a significant consideration when assessing the research's instrumentation. the validity of the tools was tested using an expert validator in this study. the flashcards were prepared in powerpoint and saved as jpg images. each card consisted of a word with its meaning and equivalent meaning in arabic, an example sentence, and a picture related to the terms. eight cards per class were sent to the experimental group twice a week for seven weeks. exact words with meaning and other illustrations were given to the control group in the same manner. moreover, the researcher used spss to assess the item validity of the test. kuder – richardson 20 was used by the researcher to determine this study's reliability. the researcher gathered the data through a vocabulary test. both pretests and posttests consisted of 20 fill-in-the-blank questions designed by the exam committee. the tests were administered to both the experimental and control groups. the goal of the vocabulary was to see how flashcards affected students' vocabulary knowledge. before administering the treatment, a pretest was used to determine the students' level of vocabulary mastery. furthermore, the posttest was administered to determine how far learners' vocabulary knowledge had improved after incorporating flashcards. r.m. ishtiaq khan 116 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) the study employed quantitative data analysis, which is a numeric examination that can be constructed using statistical techniques. the researcher used the paired sample t-test to analyze the data. the paired sample t-test is utilized to compare two data sets, pretest scores and posttest scores, to determine whether there is a notable difference between students' vocabulary knowledge. prior to analyzing the data with a t-test, the researcher determined the data's normality and homogeneity. normality tests are administered to determine not if the distribution is normal and homogeneous. the ibm spss 2 version is used to perform the normality and homogeneity tests. normality test a normality test is used to evaluate whether the obtained data is normally distributed or not. the normality test on the pretest and posttest marks is executed using the spss 22.0 software with a probability value of 0.05. homogeneity analysis is used to test whether or not the obtained data seems to have a relatively homogenous variability. the researcher conducted the test of homogeneity of variances with spss 22.0 using statistical significance (α) = 0.050 to determine the homogeneity. table 1 presents the normality analysis of the data. table 1. normality test kolmogorov-smirnova shapiro-wilk stat df sig stat df sig pre-test .106 63 .199 .969 63 .628 post-test .150 63 .087 .945 63 .239 pre-test post-test levene stat df1 df2 sig .519 1 57 .481 the significant value from the pretest is 0.628, and the considerable value from the posttest is 0.239, as shown in the table above. both the pretest and posttest values are greater than 0.05. the p<0.05 value on the pretest is 0.628, which is greater than 0.05 (0.628 > 0.05) and indicates that the data distribution is normal, after which, for the posttest score, the p<0.05 value is 0.239, which is greater than 0.05 (0.239 > 0.05) indicating that the data were normally distributed. this also implies that h0 is approved while ha is denied. as a result, both sets of data (pretest and posttest scores) can be considered as having a normal distribution of the data for the present study. again for the levene test, a test statistic or p-value 0.05 (0.481 > 0.05) greater the use of flashcards in teaching efl .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 117 than 0.05 indicates that h0 is approved and ha is denied. as a result, the data is considered homogeneous. the data has complied with the normal distribution on both the test, which indicate paired t-test is suitable to know the significant difference in the pre and posttest performance of the present study. t-statistic is a statistical method administered when the distribution of the data is normal, as determined by a normality test. furthermore, depending on the extent of the data gathering, it is administered to measure and compare marks of 2 categories, which can be coupled or independent. in simple terms, the subjects in this research were the same in both tests. table 2 paired t-test paired samples t-test mean std. deviation t-stat d.f sig pre-con – post-con -0.18 0.12 -7.12 32.00 0.00 pre-exp – post-exp -0.29 0.11 -14.81 32.00 0.00 pre-con – pre-exp -0.06 0.12 -3.14 32.00 0.01 post-con – post-exp -0.16 0.08 -09.72 32.00 0.00 the difference in average between the control group's pre-and posttreatment series was -0.18. the sd in the control group's sequence of differences between pre-and post-experiment was 0.13. for this correlation, the t-statistic was 7.12. this correlation had a p-value of 0.00. (less than 0.05). and there was a notable change in the control group's pre-and post-treatment vocabulary achievement. as a result, it was determined that there was a significantly higher than the control group's pre-and post-experiment vocabulary achievement. it was also implied that the invasion of flashcards was vital for increasing the learners' vocabulary. from the analysis of the results, it has appeared that both groups have improved their vocabulary learning. still, there is a notable difference in participants' performance who learned vocabulary with flashcards. discussion the findings of the data from control and treatment groups' pre-tests and posttests showed that the implementation of flashcards had a strong positive influence on vocabulary knowledge. this implies that the vocabulary achievement of the r.m. ishtiaq khan 118 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) participants in the treatment group differed significantly from those of participants in the control group. as a result, it is logical to argue that the flashcard assists students in improving their advancement in vocabulary acquisition. the data was further analyzed using a quantitative parametric test, notably paired samples t-test with a 5% significance level. the achieved significant (2-tailed) is 0,000. since a significance of 0.000 less than 0.05 (0.000 0.05) implies that h0 is rejected and the null hypothesis is accepted. as a result, including both means, it is possible to assert substantial differences in participants' accomplishment of vocabulary ability to comprehend, implying that instructional vocabulary knowledge with flashcards is practical. this means that learners had a positive impact of using flashcards in teaching vocabulary of dcfy. based on the data analysis and interpretations provided above, it is reasonable to infer that using flashcards helps teach vocabulary comprehension. it was discovered that flashcards influence learners' vocabulary development. the results align with the recent studies by pasaribu et al. (2022), razaq (2022), and supriatin & rizkilillah (2018). the incorporation of flashcards in the present study appeared to be highly beneficial for the advancement of vocabulary; this flashcard mechanism is helpful for the context of teaching and learning since it makes things simpler for learners to learn english, particularly to strengthen their vocabulary. additionally, these flashcards can help in enhancing the process of language learning by making it more creative. the results indicated that integrating flashcards effectively increased learners' vocabulary. students' results show that flashcards are straightforward; the description of the images and example sentences helped them perform better on the posttest. the current attempt's outcome was also partly compatible with the study conducted by azabdaftari and mozaheb (2012). they examined the impact of mlearning and flashcards on word knowledge among iranian efl learners. the results show that the participants in the treatment group outperformed the control group statistically. the findings demonstrated that incorporating flashcards into vocabulary learning is more productive than the conventional method and has the tendency to contribute the active learning as more appealing and engaging. the current study's results were also partly coherent with basal et al. (2016). during four weeks, the researchers investigated the effectiveness of flashcards as an instructional smartphone application. the participants underwent a treatment of using 40 idioms the use of flashcards in teaching efl .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 119 via flashcards, which included the idiomatic expressions, images, and definitions. the posttest results revealed that the teaching vocabulary with flashcards had helped the treatment group learner better, and their scores had significantly improved. this demonstrated the efficacy of using cards to learn vocabulary. as a result, it is possible to assert that flashcards integration effectively improves vocabulary knowledge. irrespective of the similar views in the literature, the study results are not conclusive. some experiments, such as that by dehghan et al. (2017), did not discover assistance for using flashcards in learning efl vocabulary. the study evaluated using flashcards in learning new vocabulary among 32 efl adolescent students. however, the findings agree with syaifudin's (2017) predictions, who carried out an exploratory investigation to see whether flashcards can help learners acquire their language skills by learning new vocabulary. according to the findings of the study, flashcards can improve their vocabulary. the use of cards increased the learners' engagement with vocabulary development, particularly in the online environment, which increased their learning. efl teachers and students should be aware of the significance of media such as skype, youtube, and flashcards in enhancing and maintaining their english as a foreign language skill (efl). conclusion the study examined the effects of flashcards during online learning. the result of the study indicates that the learners who used flashcards performed better than those who just studied vocabulary through an online environment. the results confirm that images or visuals can attain learners' attention and perform better if provided with media. overall, the significant point is that using flashcards vocabulary enhanced the experimental group's posttest scores, unlike the control group, which did not use flashcards. this confirms that the use of flashcards improved the language knowledge of saudi efl students more than only online class instruction. the inclusion of related images on the vocabulary cards demonstrated that the graphic components are closely associated with the vocabulary introduced in the texts. this has greatly aided learners in learning and remembering the focused words. as a result, it can be affirmed that practical consideration of words, images, and word illustrations can be helpful in the instruction of efl vocabulary. the study's findings partially support this beneficial impact of flashcards incorporation for teaching r.m. ishtiaq khan 120 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) vocabulary. as an outcome, it is reasonable to conclude that the extra content presented via flashcards aided the procedure of vocabulary knowledge, which mainly impacted the learners' vocabulary development in online learning. references aji, s. m. n., fani prastikawati, e., & yulianti, f. 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(2017). motivation, strategy, and english as a foreign language vocabulary learning: a structural equation modelling study. british journal of educational psychology, 87(1), 57-74. dinamika pengarusutamaan gender register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022), pp. 20-41 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v15i1.20-41 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 20 personal naming system of bima tribe in west nusa tenggara: usage and naming behaviour sayit abdul karim* universitas teknologi yogyakarta, indonesia *) corresponding author email: sayit.a.k@uty.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i1.20-41 submission track: received: 29-11-2021 final revision: 06-04-2022 available online: 30-04-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract the naming system in bima tribe is unique and interesting to be investigated because the naming system distinguishes one individual name from others among the community. the purpose of the present study is to describe the bimanese personal naming system in terms of its usage and naming behaviour attributed to the kempo community, one of the subdistricts within dompu regency, sumbawa island, west nusa tenggara province. a qualitative study and descriptive analysis were employed to explain the bimanese personal naming system, usage, and naming behaviour. the naming system is related to the semantic theory of personal names and references. the data were obtained from semistructured interviews with some respondents in the sub-district of kempo. in addition, previous research findings and related documentation studies were used to support the data needed. the findings revealed that the naming system of kempo community can be divided into four different ways, and they are varied in their usages. the naming system is unique as it distinguishes one individual name from others among the community and can be used as an instrument to manage their interpersonal relations among the community. moreover, the kemponese will recall their knowledge of someone's physical appearance, personal character, social relations, family background, life history records, and professions to easily recognize the person being talked about. keywords: bimanese, community, personal naming system, usage, naming behaviour http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ s.a. karim 21 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) introduction indonesia, as a multicultural nation, possesses many tribes and languages which enrich its national culture. one of the tribes in indonesia is the bima tribe, known as suku mbojo and the indigenous people of bima is called dou mbojo, who primarily inhabit the land in the eastern part sumbawa island of west nusa tenggara province (gusdian, & zuhra,2020). furthermore, dou mbojo refers to the majority of the population who occupy the sumbawa island, including bima regency, bima city, and dompu regency. meanwhile, the local language spoken by the people in bima and dompu regencies is called nggahi mbojo, a local language natively spoken by approximately 9000 speakers (arafiq, 2020, p.13). according to blust (2008), bima language is grouped in the bima-sumbaflores subgroup. the grouping is merely based on the geographical aspect (donohue & grime, 2008). bima language is used as a means of communication in daily activities within the family and community from generation to generation in bima and dompu regencies on the island of sumbawa (adawiyah, 2021; umar, 2020; erwin, wayan, & arifin, 2013). according to alek, 2019; erwin, rasna, & arifin, 2013, bima language is used in all aspects of the bimanese life, including but not limited to the event of traditional interaction, religious life, rituals, and in the field of education. apart from being a means of communication, bima language is also established as the local identity and cultural heritage among the society (hamjah, 2012; umar, 2020; rusdin, 2017; umar, 2018). it is one of the local languages existing on sumbawa island which is very unique and interesting to be investigated. bima language has been an interesting topic for many researchers for its characteristics and uniqueness (purnama & rawi, 2019; satyawati, artawa, pastika, & sutjaja, 2009; hanafi, 2001; said, 2006). one of the uniqueness of the bimanese language is the personal naming system, usage, and its naming behaviour among the kempo community within dompu regency. the naming system of people in the sub-district of kemponese has both social consequences and an instrument for the management of interpersonal personal naming system of bima tribe in west nusa tenggara... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 22 relations among the people. moreover, the name is closely identified with its owner that it soon comes to stand for its reputation. it is in line with brewer (1981), who states that the personal naming system can be a label and convey information about the social relationship among the community. possession of a name is and has been from time immemorial, the privilege of every human being. no one whether of low or high degree goes nameless once he has come into the world (ullmann, 1972). names in bima community are more than just names, they refer to a person and special entity or thing (croft, 2009; coates, 2013). the bimanese have a clear idea of the concept of a personal naming system. however, the system by which names are associated with individuals is complicated for non-bimanese speakers and the personal names uniquely label individuals. each person in bima tribe has a unique name, including the kempo community within bima regency. therefore, for the outsiders (nonbimanese), the naming system might sound strange. it is in line with alek (2019), who states that bima language is a unique language and differs from other local languages in indonesia. the unique variation of expression is used to survive their existence (alwasilah, 1985). if you happen to visit bima and dompu regencies and be around with the local people, then you will hear local people call someone named hasan becomes hasa or heso, karim becomes kari or kero, wahab becomes waha or weho, abdullah becomes dula or dole, abidin becomes bidi or bedo. while for female names like hadijah becomes dija or doji, julaeha becomes leha or lahu, maemunah becomes muna or mene. the naming system in bima language is called ou dilia kai, an addressing system of honorific to show politeness and respect to an older or a charismatic figure in the community. according to munawir, syahdan, and arifuddin (2018), politeness is a behavioral rule defined and agreed upon by a particular society leading the politeness to become a condition agreed upon by social behaviour. the honorific is used to greet and respect elders and it indicates high respect for the figures in the community (mutlak, arifuddin, & kamaludin, 2019; julaiha, 2016). according to shalima & nurnaningsih (2018); muhayyah (2017), the s.a. karim 23 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) changing of syllables in the respected name of bimanese is due to the phonological interference from bima language to the indonesian language. these personal names and the pair of terms are used differently for different people in different situations and settings. once you use inappropriate terms in addressing or referring to the bimanese, you might experience a communication gap and ruin the rest of your day. they will feel being offended when we use a pair of terms inappropriately. therefore, we need to know the correct naming system and their naming behaviour attached to the community. the language is used to communicate in certain circumstances and used differently among the communicators and a group of language communities (kridalaksana, 1984; alek 2018). the present study was inspired by the two main previous researchers, namely brewer, who conducted his study in 1981, and just who conducted his study in 1987 when they did their fieldwork in bima regency. for instance, brewer (1981), researched the bimanese personal names; meaning and use in two bimanese villages, namely rasa and sila in bima regency. meanwhile, just (1987), investigated a similar issue on bimanese personal names: view from bima town and donggo. what makes it different from the previous studies is that the researcher in the present study provides some more data on the personal naming system, including proper names, common names, and includes other research variables namely naming behaviour and the usage of personal names in detail both females and males among the people in the kempo community within dompu regency. the study of the personal naming system of bima tribe, usage, and naming behaviour, especially the personal naming system of kempo community, is necessary to be conducted for some reasons. first, the naming system of bima tribe is unique to the best of the author's knowledge and the naming system and usage can only be found in the bima ethnic groups, not in other tribes in indonesia. second, the sub-district of kempo is very rich in culture and oral traditions and has a unique naming system and behaviour but has not been widely explored by researchers. third, the results of the study will enrich the bimanese literary works, as one of the local languages in personal naming system of bima tribe in west nusa tenggara... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 24 indonesia which in turn strengthens the national language, the indonesian language. fourth, it can be used as a theoretical framework in the field of semantics, the study of meaning, and sociolinguistics, the study of language use in society. finally, it can be used as supplementary learning materials (local content) for language teachers and students, especially in bima and dompu regencies. there are numerous studies on the issue of bimanese language and culture so far, but the study on the personal naming system of kempo community is still very small in numbers. the present study describes the use of the personal naming system of bima tribe, which occupies the sub-district of kempo within dompu regency. with this consideration in mind, the researcher would like to conduct a descriptive study by focusing on the personal naming system of kempo community, usage, and naming behaviour. therefore, the main research questions are set as follows: (1) what are the personal naming systems of kempo community within dompu regency? (2) how does the kempo community utilize the naming behaviour and reference of their names in their interaction? in many systems, personal names are not only labeled individuals but also convey information about social relationships. for instance, many north american indian and australian groups derived their names from clan animals; hence personal names serve to associate individuals with their clans. moreover, the american is aware of the relationship among american surnames, family structure, and descent lines. according to ullmann (1972), names play such an important part in human relations and is so closely identified with their owner that it soon comes to stand for their reputation, good or bad. a previous study on the related issue of personal names was conducted by brewer in 1981, in two bimanese villages, namely rasa and sila in bima regency in sumbawa island, west nusa tenggara province. he conducted the study when he did his fieldwork in bima from 1973 through 1976. the research was funded by a national institute of mental health grant and conducted under the auspices of the indonesian national institute. he found out that the bimanese naming system is used to label individuals and to s.a. karim 25 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) manage their social relations. his study has a more general implication that the bimanese naming system can convey its information entirely independently of the symbols used as nyms. a similar study was conducted by just (1987), six years after brewer's fieldwork research, who provided a description and interpretation of names and naming behaviors among donggo people (dou donggo), a district of a highland ethnic group within the bima regency. he found out that there were somewhat different hierarchies of name and teknonym usage among the bima people (dou mbojo) than that proposed by brewer in 1981. for instance, first, countryman, for town-dwelling adult commoners, address, and reference by teknonym is the most formal and respectful form. second, the use of the respective form of a name rather than a teknonym in referent or address can imply that the speaker regards the person named not only with respect but with affection. third, the use of a person's given name, in either proper or common form, indicates purposeful disrespect, or extreme intimacy (but only when used in address), or an asymmetry in the social identity relationship in which the speaker is superiors, usually by dint of greater age. according to brewer (1981), in bima, as in bali, individuals can choose from among alternative names when addressing or referring to one another and the choice is made according to the purposes of the speaker. the concept of the personal name is thus deeply rooted in tradition, and in everyday life, we have no difficulty in recognizing names and distinguishing their rules in a society. among bimanese, every child is given a name at birth or within a few weeks. virtually, all dou mbojo names are drawn from arabic and are associated with gender. as brewer (1981) noted, the arabic names often violate the rules of bima language (nggahi mbojo) phonemics and in common use are modified to accommodate them. the most recent study was conducted by alek (2019). the study was aimed at finding out the patterns of greeting name variation using in belo dialect of bima language, the variations patterns constructed in the greeting of personal names, and the most vocal sound patterns used in greetings the personal names in belo dialect. the results of the study revealed that there personal naming system of bima tribe in west nusa tenggara... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 26 are four patterns of variation in greeting personal males' names and eight variations in greetings female names. furthermore, he found out that there are three ways of constructing the patterns of greeting names; they are at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of syllables. meanwhile the most often syllable vocal pairs used /e o/ for male names, and syllables /a u/ and /e o/ vowel pairs for female names. the literature review shows that the bimanese naming system may be divided into three components. the first and most basic is the system of nyms and nym modification. the term nym here is the approximate equivalent of the american concept of "given name." the second component of the naming system is the patronym-teknonym and paidonym system. these names are derived from nyms of specific relatives: a patronym from one's father, a teknonym from one's child, and a paidonym from one's grandchild. the third component is the system of titles, which are attached to indicate various social statuses (brewer, 1981). most nyms exist in three forms: a proper form, a common form, and a respected form. the proper form is the one that is considered correct in a religious or historical sense; it is also the form that is bestowed upon a child. the common form is a modification of the proper form to make it easier to use in conversation. the respect form is associated with seniority may be based on relative age, and to some extent on accomplishments (tajib, 1995). respect forms are constructed from common forms, most used in one of two regular patterns. according to brewer (1981), these two patterns take two consonants from the common form of the nym and change the vowels to distinctive patterns. these two patterns are c1/e/c2/o/ and c1/a/c2/u. thus, if someone named baka for his common name, then his respect name becomes beko. while the respected name form for halimah is lamu (derived from the common form lima and the second pattern). the teknonym and paidonym connector words such as ina (mother), ama (father), wa'i (grandmother) and ompu (grandfather) are all derived from the bimanese kin terminology. women, use the pairing term of ina and wa'i (mother of-grandmother of). however, not all men use the pair connectors of ama and ompu (father of-grandfather of). furthermore, there s.a. karim 27 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) are three other pairs of male teknonym-paidonym connectors; they are daeato, baba-babatua, and uba-ubatua (brewer, 1981). there are some other aspects of the basic naming system to be identified. the particle la is often used before the common form of a name in referring to a young child and sometimes to an adult who is much younger than the speaker. thus, a child whose name is karman might be referred to as "la karma". there are variations in the bima language system of names and teknonym that recognize certain achieved and ascribe statuses. therefore, a man who has made the hajj (pilgrimage to mecca) may take the title "haji" and a woman does the same with the title "hajah" as the first part of his/her name. the people may choose from among alternative names when addressing or referring to one another and the considerations are taken based on the communication purposes of the speakers. scrutinizing the personal naming system of bima tribe in west nusa tenggara, its usage, and naming behaviour, especially in the sub-district of kempo community within dompu regency, is worth conducting to fill in the gaps from the previous aforementioned studies, e.g., brewer (1981), who just discussed the bimanese personal names and behaviour in rasa and sila within bima city. meanwhile, just (1987) has focused his study on the personal names of bima town and donggo, while alek (2019) has focused his study on patterns and variations of greetings of belo dialect of bima language. research method a qualitative descriptive research design was used in the present study. it was used to gather some significant data or information that is needed to describe the bimanese personal naming system; its usage and the naming behaviour of kempo community. the data were obtained from a semistructured interview with fifteen (15) respondents through purposive sampling in the sub-district of kempo within dompu regency. in addition, the previous research findings and related documentation studies were also utilized to support the data needed. a semi-structured interview was used to obtain the data by making faceto-face communication. the researcher interviewed the native speaker of personal naming system of bima tribe in west nusa tenggara... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 28 bimanese language, especially in kempo community. in this case, the researcher used a recorder to record all respondents' views about the bimanese traditional expressions. in addition, note-taking was also used to write down the necessary information by summarizing the points. it was quite easy for the researcher to understand and recognize the utterances not only because he belongs to a member of the community group, but also because he is quite familiar with the socio-cultural background of his community, including the language habits of the kempo community. the samples were randomly taken from kemponese with the criteria as follows; 1) they should be the native speakers of bima language and actively use the language in their daily communication; 2) they should be at least 35 years old or more at the time of the investigation; 3) they know and use the traditional expressions in their speech community, and 4) they have the willingness to provide their time to answer the related questions on the current topic. the respondents play an important role in the process of gathering the data. the background of the respondents' education, family, and social status (in what social status they come from in the community) are several important things to be taken into consideration. therefore, the researcher took the respondents from different levels of social status in the kempo community such as farmers, civil servants, religious figures, businessmen, and teachers. concerning the age of the respondents, it is assumed that the respondents whose age is up to 35 years old have enough experience and knowledge of the bimanese language and culture. after gathering the data, the researcher analyzed the bimanese personal naming system, its usage, and naming behaviour using descriptive analysis. the data analysis was done using miles and huberman's (1994) interactive model, namely data collection, data reduction, data displaying, and concluding. s.a. karim 29 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) results & discussion personal naming system of the kempo community a personal name may be defined as a label that serves to distinguish one individual from others. among the kemponese, every new baby born is given a name within a few weeks. as most of the people in the sub-district of kempo are muslims, then their son or daughter's name is drawn from arabic and associated with gender. in general, the new baby born will be addressed mone for male and siwe for female before having their proper names. thus, if a mother gives birth of a male son, in the local language is called "ana mone" for male and "ana siwe" for female. after a few weeks, the baby is given a proper name as his or her authentic name. the kemponese naming system can be divided into three components. they are patronym in local language is called ngara aseli teknonym in local language is called ngara ou kai, and paidonym in local language is called ngara dilia kai. moreover, as a child, each person's name can include the nym of his father attached to his/her nym. thus, if mahdi is a child and is the son of muhsen, then his name becomes mahdi muhsen. if nurayu is the daughter of abdullah, her name will be nurayu abdullah. the three components of the kemponese naming system can be illustrated; for instance, if faruk has his first child, and the child has grown up to an adult, his patronym is dropped and replaced with a teknonym. if faruk's first child is a man who is given the nym ahmad, his names become faruk ama ahmad, where ama is a connector word meaning "father of." while faruk's wife-julaeha becomes julaeha ina ahmad, where ina means "mother of." in common forms, instead of the proper forms used here, these names are fero ama hama and julaeha ina hama. in practice, the teknonym is dropped when faruk, for instance, has a first grandchild. if his first grandchild is a boy whose name is abidin, then faruk's name becomes faruk ompu abidin, where ompu means "grandfather of." while faruk's wife becomes julaeha wa'i abidin, where wa'i means "the grandmother of." in common forms, instead of the proper forms used here, these names are fero ompu abidin and leha wa'i abidin. personal naming system of bima tribe in west nusa tenggara... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 30 to get a clearer idea on the naming system of the concurrent name changes from patronym to teknonym to paidonym, please consider the following table 1. table 1. the proper form and common form of kemponese event proper forms (ngara aseli) and common forms (ngara ou kai) ahmad’s name julaeha’s name faruk’s name abidin’s name birth of ahmad, the first son of faruk ahmad faruk (ahmad fero) julaeha ina ahmad (leha ina hama) faruk ama ahmad (fero ama hama) birth of abidin, first son of ahmad ahmad ama abidin (ahmad ama bidi) julaeha wa’i abidin (leha wai bidi) faruk ompu abidin (fero ompu bidi) abidin ama ahmad (bidi ama hama) table 1 shows the proper form and common form of kemponese where most nyms exist in three forms; they are proper, common, and respectful forms. faruk is the proper form becomes fero, in the common form, meanwhile, the proper form of julaeha becomes leha in the common form. in addition, faruk ahmad and ahmad faruk are the proper forms based on the religious point of view. the common form is a modification of the proper form to make it easier to use in a conversation. the respect form is associated with seniority, in terms of age and power relations. relative seniority is based on relative age and to some extent on accomplishments. for instance, a 25-year-old man should use respect forms when naming or addressing anyone older than him. all younger men should be named with a proper or common form of their nyms. but in some cases, two or more nyms have the same common form. for instance, the common form for both mu'minah and aminah is mina, while nurmala and komala is mala. the lists of components of the personal naming system, in the form of the proper form (ngara aseli, the common form (ngara ou kai), and the respect form (ngara lia kai) for both females among the kemponese community can be seen in the table 2 as follows: s.a. karim 31 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) table 2. components of female personal naming system of kemponese sex proper form (ngara aseli) common form (ngara ou kai) respect form (ngara lia kai) female / siwe aminah mina mene amnah muna nau aisyah osi sei asiah sia sei attiyah atiya tau bandi bandi bendo bunaya naya nayu cahaya cahaya hayu diana diana na dina dina nau dimu dimu damu erna erna nau fatimah tima tomi faridah farida adu hadijah dija doji hafsah hawasa sau halimah lima lomi hamidah mida madu hatijah tija taju janati janti natu julaeha leha lahu komala mala male maemunah muna mene mariamah mariama rao nurjannah jana janu nurayu nurayu rayu nurmala mala male pasa pesa sau ratnah ratana nau rugayah gaya geyo rukayah kaya keyo samsiah samsia sau suhada hada hadu sumarni marni nau table 2 shows the female naming system among the kemponese. if we observe then we can see the pattern of changing syllables in the common form of the female personal naming system. for instance, the common form of gaya becomes geyo for the respect form, and the common form of kaya becomes keyo for the respective form. it is in line with the two patterns which personal naming system of bima tribe in west nusa tenggara... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 32 were proposed by brewer (1981, p.206), namely c1/e/c2/o/ and c1/a/c2/u/. the present findings revealed that several females' naming systems follow the patterns purposed, for instance, the common form of jana becomes janu for the respect form, and the common form of mala becomes male for the respective form. the change of common form name from, for instance, gaya to respected form geyo, kaya to keyo, jana to janu and mala to male are due to the syllable vocal pairs in the rule of bimanese phonemics system. the lists of components of the personal naming system, in the form of the proper form (ngara aseli, the common form (ngara ou kai), and the respect form (ngara lia kai) for males among the kemponese community can be observed in the table 3 as follows: table 3. components of male personal naming system of kemponese sex proper form (ngara aseli) common form (ngara ou kai) respect form (ngara lia kai) male / mone abdullah dola dole abidin bidi bedo abdul azis aji ejo abubakar biko beko abdul gani gani geno abdul hamid hami hima ahmad hama hima abdul karim kari kero abdul kadir kade kedo abdul rahman abdurahma abdurahma abdul rajak raja rejo baharuddin rudi redo bunyamin yami moa dayat daya deyo farid fari fero faruk faru fero firman firma moa haris hari hero hamsah hamsa seo hasan hasa heso hermaddin madi medo ibrahim barahi boa ismail sama’i mo’i ishaka haka heko jamaluddin jama jemo jarot jaro jero junaiddin ju deo julkarnaen juka jeko kamaluddin kama kemo s.a. karim 33 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) sex proper form (ngara aseli) common form (ngara ou kai) respect form (ngara lia kai) kasman kasma moa kardin kardi deo mahmud mahmu hima muhtar muhta teo mustamin tami temo nurdin di deo patrai patarai rao rafli rafali rafali ramli ramali leo ridwan ridiwa weo safaruddin safa sefo salahuddin hudi hedo syafruddin rudi redo syahbuddin budi bedo sumardin di deo sukardin suka seko tajuddin judi jedo tamrin ri rao usman sma moa wahyuddin yudi deo zainuddin zainudi nedo tajuddin judi jedo tamrin ri rao usman sma moa wahyuddin yudi deo table 3 shows the male personal naming system among the kemponese. like what has been discussed in the female's naming system, the patterns of the male naming system remain the same. for instance, the common form of haka becomes heko for the respect form, and the common form of jama becomes jemo for the same reason. the findings also matched brewer's findings; the present findings support the previous findings of alek (2019), who states the patterns of greeting names of belo community can be at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of syllables and the most often syllable vocal pairs used /e o/ for male names, and syllables /a u/ and /e o/ vowel pairs for female names. the change of common form name from kasma to moa is a honorific title or respected name. furthermore, the data obtained from the respondents revealed that the kemponese naming systems support brewer's findings on the three components (proper form, common form, and respect form). however, the present finding is not in line with brewer's conclusion of addressing several names of bimanese, especially for the common forms. for instance, brewer personal naming system of bima tribe in west nusa tenggara... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 34 (1981) purposed the proper form of sulaiman is sulaiman. in fact, among the bimanese the use common form of sulaiman is sulaima or sulema. it contradicts the rules of bimanese phonetics where the consonant letter (n) at the end of the word is not included. the two patterns of the bimanese naming system could not be applied exactly like the one purposed by brewer: c1/e/c2/o/ and c1/a/c2/u (brewer, 1981). kemponese appears to have failed to include a consonant letter at the end of the word and to make the common form; they omit one or two consonants and add a vowel for names. for instance, the common name of mahmud is mahmu (without 'd'), kasman becomes kasma, muhtar becomes muhta, gunawan becomes gunawa, mariamah becomes mariama, faridah becomes farida, firman becomes firma, and usman becomes usma. while the common form of ridwan is ridiwa (added a vowel 'i' between the consonants 'd' and 'w'), patrai becomes patarai, ramli becomes ramali, and rafli becomes rafali. meanwhile, several names like safaruddin are simply addressed as safa, and kamaluddin becomes kama. other findings of the present study revealed that the teknonym and paidonym connector words will be attached to a man and woman who have made a pilgrimage to mecca. upon returning from mecca, they have the right to put haji for males and haja for females in front of his/her name. their status as a haji or haja is marked with a special connector word "umi' for females, and "abu" for males. other common titles are la (indicates the person is still a child-young boy), siti (indicates female), guru (firstly given to a religious person who teaches the al-quran and can also be extended to the school-teacher). if they meet the criteria, then we can address them with the aforementioned title. for instance, haji lukma, la hasa, and siti maria. the usage and naming behaviour of kemponese among the kempo community, personal names and naming systems are considered an important aspect of repertoire and should be appropriately used when conversing with them. each person has a unique name and among the villagers may share the same patronym (proper form). there might be seven men who use the proper form "ibrahim" in the neighborhood association (rt), and about five women share the name jubaedah. since there s.a. karim 35 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) are dozens of people who share the same name, then the kemponese apply a special code to distinguish and identify the intended person. they recognize the person being talked about easily from their knowledge of social relations, family background, someone's physical appearance, personal character, life history records (both positive and negative), residence location, rules, and professions as the references within the community. therefore, if someone is calling a name bedo gale, then the interlocutors most likely understand which bedo is referred to as they can identify the keyword "gale" (tall) as a reference of physical appearance. a similar case is applied to a person named sei poro. it is a modified name, describing her physic as the shortest (in local language is called poro) woman in her neighborhood. a person named hima mpeja may have to use the word "mpeja" as a referent to identify a man who is the thinnest (in local language is called mpeja-very little flash on his bones) the community. when someone calls a person named ejo buntu, then people will acknowledge that the person as they use buntu as a reference to a man who lumps his shoulder. to identify a certain person, the people in the sub-district of kempo use the personal character of the intended person. for instance, a person named hama koro is the name of a man who is very temperamental (in local language is called koro). among the kempo community, a man named 'haji tahe tenggo cence' is very well-known in the period of his life as he was fond of debating and arguing something which he is not sure about (no matter he is right or not). the past life story records are also used to identify a person in the village. for instance, when my friend talked about a man named 'hima tundu mbanta", i, as researcher recalled my mind and use 'tundu mbanta' as a reference and naming behaviour. hima used to tote a woman on his shoulder down the street when the woman refused his marriage proposal (in local language is called tundu banta). since everyone knew the story, the woman felt so embarrassed and finally, she ended up marrying hima. the place of origin of someone is also used as a reference to identify individual identity. for instance, in the community, everyone knows hima nata because he is originally from a village namely 'nata' in bima regency. a similar case is also applied to a person named hemo sambi who lives in sambi village, close to konte village in the sub-district of kempo. meanwhile, a personal naming system of bima tribe in west nusa tenggara... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 36 person named hima parsada refers to a man who runs a business of producing and delivering the bricks (in local language is called parsada) to his customers within the villages, and the similar case is also applied to hima ba, which refers to a man who is fond of playing soccer. another profession like fortune-teller is also used as a naming behaviour. for instance, in kempo there is an old man named biko moke since his profession is a fortune-teller (in local language is called moke), then people named him as biko moke. the knowledge of social relations contributes to our comprehension of the reference and usage of personal names. our presupposition and assumption are very much helping us to identify the issues. in some cases, be very careful when you give a response to and address a certain name. if there are two men whose names use the same naming behaviour 'janga', for instance, daya janga and hama janga, then we should first know their social status and background. the former may refer to a person whose profession is a chicken distributor, and the latter might be referred to as the chicken thief. therefore, we should know the appropriate usage and naming behaviour of the particular names within the community. furthermore, the present findings revealed that the meaning and usage of personal names are modified, and it is usually determined by their knowledge of social relations, family background, someone's physical appearance, personal character, life history records (both positive and negative), residence location, rules and professions within the community. regarding the naming behaviour, for instance, a woman named siti hawa becomes hawu kapunci since she has a lump on her butt. another new finding in the present study is the existence of personal names which are changed into one grandfather's name. i found out that, a man named muhlis kaimun becomes "amasey", instead of using proper form, common form, or respect form as proposed by brewer (1981) and just (1987). the reason is just because the name of muhlis kaimun's grandfather is amasey. therefore, he calls himself amasey, instead of using his proper name, muhlis kaimun. the following excerpt is his response when he was asked why he prefer amasey to muhlis kaimun: s.a. karim 37 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) "i am proud of using my grandfather's name, because his name is wellknown, and he had a good reputation during his lifetime among the community" the specific grandfather’s name is used by a very limited number of people in kempo community, and those who are not muslim do not use such a naming system. another interesting finding is that the naming systems only belong to the local people of kempo and it does not apply to the outsiders or non-bimanese although they are married to the local people of kempo. moreover, among the kempo community, the name of an outsider has remained the same. generally, the naming system for outsiders would usually be "pak, kang, mas, or kak," for males and "ibu, kak or mbak" for females in front of their original names. for instance, suharyono becomes mas yono, ayi herland becomes kang ayi, and heru jatmiko becomes pak heru. meanwhile, females' names like sakinah becomes kak sakinah, yuningsih becomes mbak yuni, astuti becomes ibu tuti, and sarah wellard becomes mbak sara. their naming system are very much influenced by the culture of their origin, e.g. west java, central, and east java. conclusion several important points to be highlighted concerning the ways of determining the naming system among the people in the sub-district of kempo are as follows. first, a new baby born is given a name within a few weeks with terms mone for male and siwe for female before giving their proper names. second, the naming system can be divided into three components; they are patronym (in local language is called ngara aseli), teknonym (in local language is called ngara ou kai), and paidonym (in local language is called ngara dilia kai). third, the title haji for male and hajah for female can be inserted in front of their name when they have made a pilgrimage to mecca. fourth, the naming system can be used in three titles, for instance in the commonest titles la (indicates the person is still a childyoung boy), siti (indicates female), guru (firstly given to a religious person who teaches the al-quran and can also be extended to the schoolteacher). furthermore, the community would recognize the naming system and usage of personal names through some naming behaviours, references, and personal naming system of bima tribe in west nusa tenggara... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 38 codes. in doing so, they may utilize several naming behaviours and references such as knowledge of someone's social and family background, physical appearance, personal character, life history records (both positive and negative), residence location, and professions of the intended person within the community. kemponese personal naming system both provides for the adequate identification of individuals and for conveying specific information of the respective people among the community. the personal naming system of bima tribe, especially among the people in the sub-district of kempo, is unique as it distinguishes one individual name from others among the kempo community and can be used as an instrument for the management of interpersonal relations among the people in the community. acknowledgments the author would like to thank the rector of universitas teknologi yogyakarta (uty) for his financial support. i would like to extend my gratitude to the respondents for their availability and willingness to involve in the data gathering process. references adawiyah, r. 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(2018). interferensi bahasa bima ke dalam bahasa indonesia: studi kasus masyarakat kampung muhajirin kota bima. transformatika: jurnal bahasa, sastra, dan pengajarannya, 2 (1), pp. 7787. doi: 10.31002/transformatika.v2i1.725. tajib, a. (1995). sejarah bima dana mbojo. raba-bima: pt. harapan. ullmann, s. (1972). semantics: an introduction to the science of meaning. london. oxford basil blackwell. umar. (2018). the formation of idiom in bima language:perspective morphology system. the 1st international conference on local languages, 755-760. retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341591227 umar. (2020). lexicon ngaha in bimanese language: a morphology perspective and semantic analysis. retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341591214. umar. (2020). semantic analysis in lexicon membawa in bimanese. international journal of linguistics and discourse. analytics, 1 (2). doi: https://doi.org/10.52232/ijolida.v1i2.14. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341591214 https://doi.org/10.52232/ijolida.v1i2.14 microsoft word 01_register portraying register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021), pp. 157-184 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i2.157-184 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 157 portraying informal digital learning of english from management, beliefs, and practices surya agung wijaya,1* abdul asib,2 suparno suparno3 1, 2, 3 english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sebelas maret, jl. ir. sutami no.36 a surakarta 57126, indonesia *) corresponding author email: saw.learning@student.uns.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v14i2.157-184 submission track: received: 01-06-2021 final revision: 01-12-2021 available online: 05-12-2021 copyright © 2021 author(s) this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract in a couple of years, massive multiplayer online role-playing games (mmorpgs) and previous works reported various informal digital learning of english (idle) activities within and around video games that could enhance student-gamer vocabulary outcomes; receptive and productive language skills; and language socialization. the lack of multidisciplinary literature reviews between idle and language policy (lp) allows this study to open discussion on both areas. the urgency of this study is the high adoption of idle framework without considering lp where the reason for student engagement from mmorpg activities can be explained. this study aims to portray idle practitioner's activities in mmorpg from language management, beliefs, and practices. following the long-term process, the data were generated from auto-ethnography and photo-elicitation that were taken from in-game and out-of-game activities. this article found three major findings. first, the management of mmorpg provoked gamers to communicate as a part of the game mission, and the guild could potentially develop top-down and bottom-up lp. second, the value of language in the community played a role in the decision-making language use from the negotiation process. third, english and mandarin dominated language practices from different interlocutors in various forms such as language in mmorpg’s context, code mixing, and abbreviation from multilingual sides giving various reading texts in contexts. the high status of english is still dominated by out-of-game language practices. there are two major implications in theory and praxis that would be discussed in this study. keywords: auto-ethnography; idle; language policy; mmorpg; multilingual environment s. a. wijaya, a. asib, s. suparno register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 158 introduction video games and language learning have gained attention from some scholars working with a console-operated video game (e.g., leppänen and piirainen-marsh (2009) with final fantasy) when the internet was still quite limited in some areas in the world. the massive innovation on mmorpg and personal computer (pc) brought discussion on pc game – world of warcraft (wow) – (li et al., 2014; zheng et al., 2015); and browser-based games – wonderland and ninerift – (peterson, 2012a & 2012b). in a decade, the mobile phone becomes as powerful as pc thanks to the juxtaposed virtual and real world, an augmented reality video game. pokémon go has changed the way of playing video games by combining exercise, traveling, and real-world gamer-togamer socialization (wu, 2019). with the contribution of mmorpg and language learning on socio-culture, second language acquisition (sla), linguistic, language learning motivation and anxiety, and cognitive aspect (lee & pass, 2014; pervolaraki et al., 2015; peterson, 2016); the endeavor of the real contribution of mmorpg on english language learning is still questionable by some scholars. some weaknesses still found enacting video games into school curricula, and students faced confusing focus on completing tasks and playing video games (reinhardt et al., 2014). however, previous work was still limited to in-game activities (as an extracurricular program). interestingly, playing mmorpg is also considered practicing english in-game and out-of-game activities called mmorpg’s information system (harviainen & vesa, 2016). in current literature, under the umbrella term of idle has theoretically been developed and implemented by lee (2017) and other scholars (e.g., lee & drajati, 2019; lee & dressman, 2017; lee & lee, 2019). however, lee’s idle works were still on the macro discussion of mmorpg and were portrayed as a part of the sample of idle itself. however, mmorpg provides various idle activities (e.g., watching youtube videos (li et al., 2014) and reading npc (nonplayer character) dialogs, storylines, updated information, tips, and tricks from video games and communities (lee & pass, 2014). the high status of english in the gaming community has been pushed student-gamers to use english as their identity to be a part of digital citizens (corredor & gaydos, 2014). therefore, portraying informal digital learning of english …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 159 monolingual student-gamers could get experience multilingual or bilingual environments. wow is reported to give a contribution to gamers’ reading skills (see zheng et al., 2015; li et al., 2014). they emphasized that gamers’ reading activities could not be limited by reading text but semiotic resources such as words, symbols, images, numbers, colors, and sounds from various in-game and out-of-game activities. moreover, with regards to browser-based games, ninerift, peterson (2012b) found gamers’ reading and writing skills are a means of socialization among gamers from a discourse perspective. social context played an important role in the conversation with various interlocutors. providing anonymity with pseudonyms and avatars could potentially decline anxiety; so gamer-to-gamer communication gives the opportunity to take risks enabling communicative competence in l2 and cross-cultural communication (anderson, 2019; lee, 2019a; peterson, 2012a). moreover, mmorpg provides various interactions including gamer-to-npc, gamer-to-game, and gamer-togamer (jabbari & eslami, 2018). where discussions on spolsky’s lp have absented from idle, the current studies on lp and l2 learning are mostly taken in-class activities. spolsky’s (2004) lp model has been adopted by some scholars in different areas, for example, family lp (gharibi & seals, 2019), academic lp (cots et al., 2014), and lp on english as medium of instruction (emi) (chen, 2019; hu & lei, 2013; rahman et al., 2019). hu and lei (2013) and rahman et al. (2019) found that language management was still on the level of preliminary level. english was not implemented in the level of language practices because students believed that they needed to draw their l2 knowledge in l1. it indicated that the admission for l2 was far from the standard of emi. therefore, students and teachers decided to use l1 more dominant for comprehension purposes although there was english only policy in the class. in contrast, research learning beyond the classroom reported how students take to use l2 for their idle purposes. the needs for discussion on interweaving lp and idle activities in mmorpg urge this study to implement spolsky’s model. therefore, this study is to explore language management, beliefs, and practices on mmorpg’s s. a. wijaya, a. asib, s. suparno register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 160 information system (harviainen & vesa, 2016). moreover, this study potentially capture gamer’s english language development – reading and writing – that appears in-game (top-down language planning from developer and guild: language options, storylines, npcs, working in a group, etc.) and out-of-game (bottom-up fandom supports: collecting and sharing additional information, practicing code-mixing, hybrid version, and abbreviated language in private and group chat, or blog) activities that operate student-gamer beliefs to the language choices and practices. roles of spolsky’s language policy portraying idle in mmorpg community mmorpg provides some significant features including (1) virtual worlds based on a theme or a narrative, (2) a text or voice chat; (3) controlled avatars, goal-based communication environment; (4) customizing many aspects of the game (modding), and (5) membership of a game-based social group (peterson, 2012a, p. 363). idle has been highlighted into receptive idle activities (ria) including (e.g., reading storyline and npc, watching youtube channel or discord about video games) and productive idle activities (pia) including (e.g., interacting with guild members in-game chat and using third-party apps to share information with other gamers) (lee & drajati, 2019; harviainen & vesa, 2016). this concept is also known as “game-enhanced” using a commercial game that does not design for learning “vernacular” that incidentally gives beneficial second language (l2) practices in the classroom (reinhardt & sykes, 2014). however, language practices in mmorpg were dominated by code mixing, linguistic form, bilingual cultural codes, hybrid codes, english-based abbreviation, and borrowing english-based expression for gaming-specific terms (corredor & gaydos, 2014; lee & pass, 2014; li et al., 2014). therefore, mmorpg studies mostly reported in the areas of cognitive sla (lee, 2020; li et al., 2014; zheng et al., 2015) and sociocultural sla (colby, 2021; corredor & gaydos, 2014; peterson, 2012a & 2012b; przymus et al., 2020). mmorpg is clustered into three main potential language learning activities called “mmorpg’s information system” (harviainen & vesa, 2016, p.202-204). as the conceptual parameters of this work, spolsky (2004) points out that lp can be distinguished into three components including language manageportraying informal digital learning of english …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 161 ment, beliefs, and practices. although they have independent components, spolsky (2004, 2009, & 2012) acknowledges those areas are interrelated. moreover, spolsky (2009) acknowledges that his theory could also be implemented in other areas – religious community, business, linguistic landscape, legal and health institutions, government, and activist groups – including mmorpg’s community. langauge management is provided in the mmorpg features that purposely attempt to modify language beliefs and practices of games (spolsky, 2004). moreover, english as the majority language practices and the most valuable language learning “in the wild” (reinhardt & sykes, 2014) is believed by gamers that could give beneficial of their gaming practices. when gamers have a positive attitude toward english, they potentially have a willingness to communicate in english with mmorpg community practices (lee, 2019a; lee & drajati, 2019). table 1 mmorpg’s information system retrieval core social information system player produce material information forms information-supplying system npcs avatars/characters/monsters items/weapons skills players’ interactions chatroom/talk guilds party (doing quest in a group) authentic materials fan fiction wikis blogs youtube videos guild social media groups third-party apps place in-game in-game out-of-game moreover, the mmorpg community could build their own lp where it is seemingly developed between mmorpg’s system information and social interaction, in which game-to-gamer (in the guild) could develop their own s. a. wijaya, a. asib, s. suparno register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 162 rules to achieve gaming goals. interestingly, sykes et al. (2010) emphasized that there are three goals – game-driven, user-driven, and contextual goals – of gamers. virtual identity has been developed by sharing information, exchanging items, practicing together, and negotiating strategies (harviainen & vesa, 2016; & sykes et al., 2010). leppänen and piirainen-marsh (2009) pointed out that gamer-to-gamer language practices recycling and modifying from language provided by retrieval core are shaped by and shaping overt language policy. moreover, they also mentioned out-of-game activity in fan fiction developing informal lp. therefore, when we see the position of lp and idle, it could portray by juxtaposing lp, idle, and mmorpg theories from interdisciplinary discussions. table 2 theoretical implementation of spolsky’s language policy in idle spolsky’s language policy benson’s four dimension of extramural idle harviainen & vesa’s mmorpg management: any (explicit or implicit) intervention formality: unstructured and no certification retrieval core social information system player produce material beliefs: value of language and language use pedagogy: naturalistic locus of control: selfdirected practices: language and language use location: out-of-class in-game and out-ofgame rooted from benson (2011), benson and chik (2011) portray video games from formality, pedagogy, locus of control, and location. first, the management from “formality” emphasizes that language learning in mmorpg is not the main purpose. implicitly, from providing enjoyment during the gameplay, knowledge of english is used to improve character development by collecting information. the developer already sets up the language choices where english as a lingua franca is provided with implicit and explicit lp targeting the global market. second, the values of language and language use portraying informal digital learning of english …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 163 are represented by “pedagogy” and “locus-of-control”. implying public pedagogy in idle, the absence of direct english language instruction indicates incidental language development from players’ created materials and expertplayers explanation. moreover, “locus-of-control” plays an important aspect in players’ decisions whether which language is used or with whom language is practiced. third, the affordances of l2 in mmorpg also depend on in-game and out-of-game “location”, for example, real-world location (e.g., internet café, at home, game centers, etc.), devices, and server (e.g. usa, uk, or asia) are crucially related to the language practices with interlocutors. therefore, lp may appear explicit or implicit related to how language is managed by policymakers and their belief system meeting how grassroots support or deny the lp and practice the language considering the value of the language (spolsky, 2004). it could not simply see from top-down and bottom-up supports. little research on the relationship between lp and idle could potentially help teachers who want to enact mmorpg in the classroom where this research comes with two research questions. 1. what are the underlying factors of language management in mmorpg? 2. how do different language practices in-game and out-of-game mmorpg affect language beliefs in the idle activities? research methods the data were taken from a guild in mmorpg called “sword art online: memory defrag” (sao md) and the guild’s whatsapp group established on october 7th, 2017. the commander and vice commander recruited the members in the guild to join the whatsapp group during quests in the mmorpg app, and members freely chose to become a member or not. there are nine members in the whatsapp group from ten guild members. one of the researchers, the first author, became an insider in this research due to gaining access from gatekeepers and experiencing mmorpg. one of our team has played this game for almost two years moving from one guild to another until he decided to stay in this guild for almost one year and got permission. the guild members come from different countries such as malaysia, singapore, hong kong, and indonesia. sao s. a. wijaya, a. asib, s. suparno register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 164 md has two versions of the game, the japan version and the global version of sao md. the data are taken from global where the language options are english, korean, and chinese with dominated japanese voice over making english with a japanese accent also known as “wasei eigo.” on the other hand, the original video game, japanese version, only provides the japanese language with some english expressions (e.g., loading). therefore, games around the world have only three options in the global version. for non-korean and chinese speakers, the only available language is english. regarding profiles from our team, the first author is a graduate student from a bilingual classroom. however, he has a little opportunity to practice intercultural communication in the english major. most of his classmates are local students with lack of overseas experience. when he joined the current guild, he faced various interlocutors and cultures. his mother tongue is javanese, bahasa indonesia as second language (l2), and english as foreign language (with more than 500 toefl scores). the data are taken from two places, sao md with two hours season per week and whatsapp group from 26th august, 2019 – 31st december, 2020. table 3 language practices in whatsapp messages status guild members level english code mixing mandarin total messages veteran commander 180-199 221 5 2 228 veteran vice commander 206-245 2237 29 37 2.303 veteran member 1 178-195 1183 6 1 1.190 veteran member 2 150-168 470 6 8 484 freeloader member 3 103-179 11 32 43 veteran member 4 147-180 505 1 506 newbie member 5 87-out 127 24 151 member 6 0 veteran researcher 128-155 279 279 total percentage 5033 (97%) 47 (1%) 104 (2%) 5184 (100%) the mmorpg data were approached by a ludo-narrative model (toh, 2015 & 2019). the data were taken from three layers such as (a) screenshots from retrieval core, (b) screenshots from gameplay interactions, and (c) portraying informal digital learning of english …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 165 transcripts and screenshots from guild whatsapp group interactions. the conversation in the sao md app is a tad difficult to be traced back and can only be captured by screenshots. due to private and public internet data and to protect participants, the data are collected from the auto-ethnographic considered to portray “personal experience to examine and/or critique as a cultural experience” (jones et al., 2013, p.22) to take language management and practices, and photo elicitation (harper, 2002) to take language beliefs. the data of sao md were collected by classifying through retrieval core and social information system (harviainen & vesa, 2016) by screenshotting 251 images. as player produce material, the data from whatsapp are screen-shot, transcribed, and translated from mandarin to indonesia with translator help followed by translating into english with the team. practicing photo elicitation by using screenshots, two other members of the research became interviewers asking about language beliefs where the questions were adopted and modified based on the context of mmorpg (jeoffrion et al., 2014; chen, 2019). to analyze the data in call context, the multimodal analysis (valencia, 2015, p.4) is used including four steps: (1) examining the relationship among the multifarious modes of communication, (2) establishing semiotic clusters to map out multimodal design in mmorpg, (3) focusing on modes of communication as units of analysis, and (4) establishing intersemiotic relationships among modes conjoined to create specific meaning. findings and discussions language management within and around mmorpg spolsky’s (2004) work clearly defines language management as “any specific efforts to modify or influence that practice by any kind of language intervention, planning, or management” (p.5). as a point of departure to see lp in the mmorpg community, he also adds that language management is not always explicit, but also implicit and comes from the language beliefs and practices of community members within and around the game. retrieval core provides various multimodalities – texts, images, symbols, numerals, sounds, movement, colors, icons, etc. – in mmorpg where gamers could make decisions based on habitual literacy activities (toh, 2019). one of the most important s. a. wijaya, a. asib, s. suparno register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 166 reading activities in mmorpg is to comprehend information within games to achieve the rewards due to developing each gamer's account. figure 1 “say something in chat” under the policy portraying informal digital learning of english …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 167 as a mobile video game, information is displayed in vertical order for touching experiences. english as a language option is also translated into visual to help gamers engaging information given by retrieval core. in line with a previous study, li et al. (2014) found reading activities in mmorpg dominated by “decoding texts, symbols, and numbers” (p. 139-140). moreover, this game explicitly allows gamers to socialize with other gamers where language practices have various languages (multilingual settings). gamers could not accomplish all daily missions without “say something in chat.” diamond cubes, rewards, are set up to trigger gamer-to-gamer socialization with no explicit intervention of various language uses although the game also restricts the language practice (see figure. 4). by pushing gamers to socialize, language practices are provoked to meet various language interlocutors. however, by standardization process, three official languages of this mmorpg played as language communication options to have a “global” profile. furthermore, spolsky (2004) points out various interventions that are potentially given by “person” or “group.” retrieval core also provides guild system or social in-game environment for gamer-to-gamer work in a group (e.g., quests could only be finished by synchronous works with only guild members to achieve the rewards) due to character development. moreover, in the guild, members are clustered into three categories – newbie, freeloader, and core members – where they could negotiate to contribute to the guild although communication among them was found in different ways (ang & zaphiris, 2010). they noted that core members, experienced players, highly spent and contributed to the guild for a very long time. they could potentially build the lp for guild purposes where they mostly helped “newbie” known as new member with the low-level player and “freeloader” recognized as a member with the high-level player without feeling belonging in the guild. therefore, language use is needed to be established by core members to communicate and accumulate various needs from different interlocutors in a multilingual context. this study found that gamers could potentially build their own new social rule systems juxtaposed from retrieval system information or a totally different system. in this guild, the written document has been made in mandarin followed by english although it does not explicitly regulate the language used in s. a. wijaya, a. asib, s. suparno register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 168 the guild. moreover, language practices in this guild were dominated by english and mandarin (see table. 3). the guild system gives a chance for gamers – editable only for the commander and vice commander – to write in the notification board that pops up when the avatar moves around the guild flag. top-down lp made by the commander or vice commander intentionally concealed gamer-to-gamer language use in the guild. moreover, mmorpg is dominated by synchronous activities and clock-driven time (harviainen & vesa, 2016) where the word “utc” has been adopted from retrieval core to mediate different time zones of gamers. therefore, this guild expected mandarin speakers that would consider at the first place as language practices and english as the second one. figure 2 guild system and policy portraying informal digital learning of english …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 169 on top of that, corredor and gaydos (2014), li et al. (2014), and pervolaraki et al. (2015) acknowledge that gamers become digitally literate from mmorpg activities (e.g., problem-solving, socializing, information seeking, and strategizing) where most of them required reading skills for (e.g., announcements; storylines; name of characters, weapons, special skills of character, and items; term conditions; and menu options). therefore, l2 language learning becomes a fundamental asset to receive and share information. by having guild in mmorpg, it comes to the notion that language management intervenes “learning the language to play the game” (sykes et al., 2010, p.129). language beliefs about idle practices in mmorpg representing language beliefs in idle practices, spolsky (2004, p.5) points out “its language beliefs or ideology – the beliefs about language and language use.” high exposure and value of english in mmorpg are the catalyst of ingame and out-of-game pia and ria (lee, 2019b & 2020). moreover, mmorpg environments within and around the game also found intervening players to study l2 to fully access information and get advantages for their account developments. one of the significant social values of mastering english is gamers getting access to better resources in multilingual contexts (corredor & gaydos, 2014). this research found gamers could not only rely on english skills; “social skill” is also not the one in multilingual contexts and intercultural communication (pervolaraki et al., 2015). with red background, it shows an identical color with chinese emblems. the second layer of the background is the ornament of golden-brown leaves. it represents the color of the sun that has a shorter appearance on the earth compared to other days. also provided is visual text with tangyuan known as glutinous rice with pink, green, and white colors combined in one bowl meaning togetherness. on top of that, white font gives contrast to the background layers, languages are adjusted from english, mandarin, and bahasa indonesia. english on the top portrays a representation of lexical items from mandarin although players who do not understand mandarin still could get the meaning making from english and visual text. in the middle as the nucleus, giving benediction in mandarin brings deeper information from the event. where 多福多寿 身体健康 s. a. wijaya, a. asib, s. suparno register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 170 祝你全家 has no translation in english and bahasa indonesia in the picture, it hopes readers have blessings and health with whole family members. written and visual texts are combined to help international readers meaning making from the information given. however, bahasa indonesia is placed on the bottom representing lower status on the global citizen. making communication among various interlocutors easier, translanguaging practices saw as a means of negotiation in meta-game and intra-game discourse (colby, 2021; przymus et al., 2020; przymus & smith, 2017). figure 3 facing intercultural communication competence portraying informal digital learning of english …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 171 the status of the researcher’s indigenous or national language in global communication is not strong enough within the community members (see table. 3). other gamers are also underperforming their indigenous or national language in the community where the guild consists of various interlocutors. catalyzing, the researcher communicated in the target language over his indigenous or national language. from the mental processes, the practice of idle was seen and believed as “save language” among other languages to reduce guild conflict. familiarity with community used specific technical english vocabulary, colloquial english expression, terms for gaming, negation process, and promoting culture to cultivate personal relationships with guild members (lee, 2019a, 2020; lee & dressman, 2017). the researchers have witnessed the fact that the high status of english in whatsapp group chat is not enough for covering l2 language learning in classroom needs. however, idle is seen as an asset for gamers to have access to a multilingual community to practice l2 language learning (corredor & gaydos, 2014). for instance, on august 9, 2019, member 3 announced that he retired from game activities because he took an english course. however, he still wanted to stay in the ingame and out-of-game guild. he wished that he could come back during his english course. however, he has become a silent reader in the whatsapp group since that day. previously, idle was reported directly to have a contribution to language learning in the classroom (lee, 2017, 2019; lee & drajati, 2019; lee & dressman, 2017; lee & lee, 2019), this research expands classroom l2 learning as a provision coming to idle and various idle strengthening other idle activities. table 4 language beliefs in multilingual environment the second author : when your friend sent this picture to celebrate “happy winter solstice” that you never celebrate before, what is your opinion about people who speak several languages are more capable of adapting to other cultures? the first author : i felt that way because i saw the figure on the vice commander that actively communicates with other members in english and mandarin. and, this picture is sent s. a. wijaya, a. asib, s. suparno register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 172 by him... he chats with all members in guild chat in sao md talking about the quest, and he also always invites the members who have free time to do guild quest in the whatsapp group… i feel he could mediate english and mandarin speakers’ needs for guild purposes… bahasa indonesia on this picture is important for me that it gives the sign of acceptance in the community. the second author : when you see this picture, what is your opinion statement said that “knowledge of english is not enough to prepare for intercultural communication?” the first author : i agree with the statement because i still feel a barrier that i create to myself in the only mandarin conversation. english may help me to reduce the gap between me and other cultures in the guild. however, it does not make me brave enough to involve in the conversation with mandarin only. i just only looked for the meaning on google translate to engage the conversation and become silent readers…i think google translate does not give me the context of the conversation…i wait for other members to replay in english then i will replay…as long as english is present in the conversation, i will join…but, if only mandarin is used during the gameplay, i will do not understand the direction of the quest and just only wait for english explanation or do nothing. language practices meeting gamer-to-gamer negotiation spolsky (2004, p.5) emphasizes, “its language practices – the habitual pattern of selecting among the varieties that make up its linguistic repertoire.” moreover, spolsky also acknowledges that language practices could not stand alone without considering language management and beliefs. where the written document on guild showing mandarin comes first on the top of guild regulation followed by english, the practice showed english dominated the conversation (see table. 3). among available languages from various members, english and mandarin have been chosen as language communication over their national or indigenous language(s) of guild members as a part of the guild’s identity. portraying informal digital learning of english …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 173 restriction of in-game language use the in-game chatroom has been designed with a similar interface with common messages with avatars, messaging icons, and additional information. language management clearly limits and regulates language practices under “the terms of services” where it restricts language use in the chatroom. in this case, the negotiating process between expert (vice commander) and novice (researcher) gamers appeared before conducting a guild quest in september 2019. an expert gamer explained and helped the term condition of guild quest. furthermore, previous study reported that the negotiation between them gave shortcut information for novice players rather than exploring, searching, and reading in-game and out-of-game information. collaboration is used for problem solving of quests that probably could not be finished alone (li et al., 2014). figure 4 expert and novice gamers s. a. wijaya, a. asib, s. suparno register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 174 figure 5 short cut for language practice to become a good guild member, players enhance their english communication and gameplay strategies (lee, 2020). knowledge of mmorpg from expert gamers helped novice gamers who were not familiar with the guild system. english helps facilitate the gap of knowledge for guild purposes. this mental process helped the researcher learn how to negotiate and practice his english with non-native speakers. however, the language practice was limited by the policy where the mmorpg totally blocks some vocabulary related to “offensive, inappropriate, and obscene languages.” interestingly, gamers could not express anger or naughty stuff, but mmorpg played a double standard by giving 18+ content in the characters and voiceover. furthermore, “do not share any personal information” is more optional as a warning. the researcher witnessed the fact that he could still send his phone number to join the whatsapp group from the in-game chatroom. standardized and accepting portraying informal digital learning of english …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 175 official languages, it restricted other languages. in-game artificial intelligence could tackle indigenous languages assuming as offensive, inappropriate, and obscene languages. in addition, retrieval core is supported by adding short instant messages by touching (+) button from (see figure. 5) called “fixed massage”. those messages are automatically be translated into korea or mandarin depending on the game language default. player produce material reducing mmorpg restriction guild offered third-party app over in-game chatrooms because the advantages are uncovered in-game futures such as notification, various media (e.g., video, voice notes, pictures, etc.), tagging friends (@name), and tracing back conversations. mediating for synchronous and asynchronous communication, core members gave whatsapp group space for helping, asking for help, sharing new information, and negating guild activities (ang & zaphiris, 2010). moreover, non-standard english can be practiced with less policy. where negotiating process can be done before and after the quest, they finished one quest followed by offering a new quest. tabel 5 negotiation process on player produce material [10:26 pm, 6/7/2020] vice commander: ok. who host? [10:26 pm, 6/7/2020] member 1: u? [10:26 pm, 6/7/2020] vice commander: ok. [10:27 pm, 6/7/2020] member 1: cuz i dunno which boss xd [10:39 pm, 6/7/2020] member 1: done ? [10:40 pm, 6/7/2020] vice commander: done for guild quest. [10:40 pm, 6/7/2020] commander: ok [10:41 pm, 6/7/2020] vice commander: wanna spam for treasure or just call it a day? [10:41 pm, 6/7/2020] member 1: let's end it here for tonight [10:41 pm, 6/7/2020] vice commander: ok. thank you for parties. ����� [10:41 pm, 6/7/2020] member 1: i need to spam my sao ar event xd [10:41 pm, 6/7/2020] member 1: tyfp [10:42 pm, 6/7/2020] commander: lol [10:42 pm, 6/7/2020] commander: tyfp s. a. wijaya, a. asib, s. suparno register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 176 in multilingual contexts in mmorpg, corredor & gaydos (2014) point out code mixing (see table. 3), hybrid version, and abbreviation language as natural phenomena grounded in the in-game and out-of-game negotiation process. efl gamers in monolingual environments may not face informal abbreviations, e.g. “cuz, dunno, xd, lol, and tyfp”. specific vocabulary portrayed their identity as digital citizenship where the written conversation was mostly conducted in informal ways. negotiating the quest by joking around is mostly used to reduce the intensity and conflict of interest to use guild resources. gamers also could create an abbreviation for their community; for instance, “tyfp” or “thank you for party” used in context fining the party and expressing gratitude. learning the english language that is borrowed by mmorpg (e.g., host, party, parry, etc.) and accepted by the community (e.g., mitigator for reducing incoming damage character) is also important to engage the negotiation process; for instance, “host” means a gamer who leads the quest and invite other nonor guild members to join the “party” where collaboration could only fit with three members. from language practices, it shows how status, acquisition, corpus, and attitude planning from mmorpg are accepted and operated by the speech community. moreover, the guild members build their own speech community. therefore, this study suggests similar results from previous studies (corredor & gaydos, 2014; lee, 2019a & 2020; lee & dressman, 2017; li et al., 2014; zheng et al., 2015). however, this study extends that there are policies from retrieval core, guild, or community members intervening in in-game and out-ofgame language practices, and the policy itself is not standalone but also grown up from bottom-up practices. conclusion inasmuch as spolsky (2004, 2009, 2012) points out in his work, three components portraying lp in mmorpg indicates language management (e.g., the high status of english in mmorpg has been promoted by retrieval core and social system), language beliefs (e.g., only english skill is not enough to cover intercultural communication in guild’s multilingual context), and language practices (e.g., reading and writing english are mostly conducted within and around game used for the language of information, communication, and portraying informal digital learning of english …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 177 negotiation optioning in mmorpg and guild). therefore, this study attempts to answer two research questions. the first question is about the underlying factors of language management in mmorpg. there are two majors – top-down and bottom-up – underlying factors of language management in mmorpg. as seen in the top-down policy, intervention comes from a retrieval core and socialization in the guild. mmorpg wants to create a positive environment, so some language practices are limited by the retrieval core due to gamers’ protection. moreover, the topdown policy is not crystal clear from only policymakers, but guild’s lp can come from the language available and accepted by community members, bottom-up vectors. the policy could be explicit and implicit from the guild’s name, terms, and notifications event out-of-game language practices. language practices under mmorpg’s servers are also considered as language options given by retrieval core (e.g., japan server with only japan, and global server with english, mandarin, and korea). therefore, practicing mmorpg as extramural or extracurricular idle should consider the language management and each character because the mmorpg information system would not automatically help students in the english language development (lee, 2017; benson, 2011). the second research question focuses on how different language practices in-game and out-of-game mmorpg affect language beliefs in the idle activities. most in-game and out-of-game idle activities are dominated by reading and writing activities (zheng et al., 2015; & li et al., 2014). various genre-reading opportunities could be found such as procedure text from mmorpg instruction, mission, and policy; descriptive text from guild’s regulation; and persuasive text from some mmorpg regulation of language practices. moreover, in the guild chatroom, the conversations also indicate a hybrid text. those reading opportunities also require classroom knowledge of english and unfamiliar words or languages with a digital dictionary (zheng et al., 2015). however, in-game language practices are limited; so out-of-game language practices give opportunities to expand the activities. guild group chat on the third-party app gave opportunities to read and write spoken, written, visual, multimodal texts including video, picture, emoji, and symbol. in multilingual contexts, players’ agency plays on language use and choice to access resources s. a. wijaya, a. asib, s. suparno register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 178 in the guild. furthermore, the high status of english was found as a catalyst for players to stay and play video games although idle could not cover english language skill needs for classroom emphasizing structuralist and accuracy language practices. language in the wild is more giving opportunities for language learning in context with various community discourses. idle needs classroom english language skills to comprehend the information although it is not enough to give social skills in multilingual contexts where languages are mostly practiced in hybrid, abbreviation, and code mixing. the findings also suggest that language educators, as co-collaborator of idle, could support language students by coming to popular mmorpgs among students to observe and explain how to use video games as supplementary inputs of l2. although this study was conducted in a long period from a novice into an expert player, this study is far from generalization and transferability to the mmorpg case in general. however, it still portrays a representation of idle practices on mmorpg where they use various resources in-game and out-ofgame. therefore, future studies could be expanded with more participants with various mobile mmorpgs. theoretical implication indicates spolsky’s lp can be applied in idle practices. however, it is restricted to pia’s community (e.g., private and public groups in social media and gamer community). moreover, the praxis implication shows a great promise on language learning development, especially reading and writing in a context. gamers are required to train their intercultural communication skill, critical thinking, and negotiating where they can be shaped in the long process grounded in-game and out-ofgame activities. importantly, this study demonstrates that language-learning development cannot be shaped and developed automatically by joining the idle community, but it requires support from knowledge of l2 learning in the classroom. declaration of conflict interest the authors declared that there is no potential conflict. acknowledgement the researchers would like to acknowledge lembaga pengelola dana pendidikan (lpdp) indonesia for their supports and grant given in the portraying informal digital learning of english …. register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 179 following financial support for the researchers, authorships, and/ or publication of this research.[rgt] references anderson, s. l. 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(2015). vocabulary learning in massively multiplayer online games: context and action before words. educational technology research and development, 63(5). 771-790. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-015-9387-4 s. a. wijaya, a. asib, s. suparno register journal – vol 14, no 2 (2021) 184 this page has been intentionally left blank. dinamika pengarusutamaan gender register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022), pp. 42-63 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v15i1.42-63 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 42 the comparative analysis of face-to-face, distant, and blended learning in english language teaching mykhailo podoliak* phd, associate professor, department of the ukrainian and foreign languages, stepan gzhytskyi national university of veterinary medicine and biotechnologies lviv, pekarska str. 50, lviv, ukraine, 79010 *) corresponding author email: misha.podol@gmail.com doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i1.42-63 submission track: received: 29-11-2021 final revision: 06-04-2022 available online: 30-04-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract distant and blended learning are modern educational methodologies, gaining popularity among many teachers and students worldwide. these teaching methods have become more popular owing to covid 19 and quarantine measures in education. in this article, we set the aim to compare three methods of teaching a foreign language in the university: traditional (face-to-face), distant and blended, and determine which method yields the best results. the research lasted for one semester and consisted of the following stages: initial – the preparation for experiment; educational – the usage of the selected teaching method; final – collecting results and their analysis. the research results have demonstrated that the blended approach of language teaching prove to be more effective in both the results of the tests. therefore, blended learning proved to be an effective way of teaching a foreign language in the university. keywords: traditional learning, distant learning, blended learning, english language teaching. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ m. podoliak 43 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) introduction the current world is living in an age of rapid changes. this situation is mainly caused by modern technologies developing so quickly that humans cannot keep up with these changes. however, it is essential to be up to date with new technologies because they can facilitate many processes. as a critical element of forming a wise society, teachers should be aware of the modern technologies to teach and educate good and functional future members. when looking back to the history of education, one can notice that good education was of great value once, and only a few people with specific backgrounds could afford it. today, the situation has changed and good quality education, in universities or colleges, is now available to almost everyone. the case has developed to such an extent that nowadays people do not need to go to universities; a laptop and internet access are sufficient for students to receive the necessary knowledge and degrees while sitting at home or even being in another country. this phenomenon is called distant education. distant education has developed between 18th-20th centuries in europe and north america. some scholars (hall & knox, 2009) mentioned that distant learning could be traced back to ancient greek and jewish traditions. however, there is no precise date or place as to where it started. nevertheless, it has gained popularity in universities worldwide, especially nowadays, mainly due to the covid 19 situation. with the development of technologies spreading the internet around the globe, distant education is becoming more exciting and informative. however, shachar and neumann (2010) state that scholars did not readily accept distant education primarily. nevertheless, if we compare distant programs developed 20 years ago with the current ones, we can observe a great learning and teaching methodology breakthrough. distant learning technologies started developing rapidly due to the covid 19 pandemic in the world in 2020. many students were forced to stay home and study remotely. a significant number of new methodologies and programs of distant education were developed due to the coronavirus pandemic in the world. numerous scholars have researched and are currently investigating the efficiency of distant education. they are developing new the comparative analysis of face-to-face .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 44 methodologies that are raising the effectiveness of distant education. kurniawati and noviani (2021) focused on e-learning's effectiveness within the covid-19 pandemic situation frames. teaching activities and challenges of online education were investigated by atmojo and nugroho (2020). furthermore, the adaptation of students and teachers to new teaching and learning technologies was researched by pitula and grzhyb (2021); octaberlina and muslimin (2020). sampson (2003) refers to the notion of distant education as a mode of delivery, i.e., independent learning at a distance through self-study of texts and non-contiguous communication. however, the author mentions that a student is not alone in this form of education. glenn (2001) mentions that distance learning occurs when teachers and students are separated by distance, and technology replaces traditional instructional methods. some scholars (glenn, 2001) state that distant learning can solve a significant part of the problems of life long learning. however, there are some drawbacks to distant learning. numerous scholars (hall & knox, 2009; sampson, 2003; glenn, 2001; hannay & newvine, 2006; trajanovic et al., 2007; sakar, 2009; white, 2006), who have conducted research activities and the questionnaire about the pros and cons of distant learning, found that one of the main drawbacks of distant learning, especially in foreign language teaching, is the lack of communication with the teacher. however, glenn (2001) states that distant technology facilitates interaction between teachers and students. this problem of distant learning can be solved using blended learning. blended learning is a teaching and learning methodology when distant education is combined with face-to-face education. pardede (2012) mentions that blended learning includes most often face-to-face instructions with synchronous and, or asynchronous computer technologies. according to kim (2014), this methodology, developed in the second half of the 20th century, is popular among many teachers worldwide. for example, blended learning is widely introduced into the educational system of the us. furthermore, the study performed by the us department of education (means et al., 2010) proved the efficiency of blended learning in comparison with the traditional face-to-face and sole online learning. among the benefits of blended learning in a foreign language learning, pardede (2012) mentions that more studentm. podoliak 45 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) centered learning, supports independent and collaborative learning, accommodates a variety of learning styles, ability to practice language beyond the class in a comfortable place, and time. the notion, benefits, drawbacks, and differences of distant and blended learning from other methods of education were researched by many scholars (hall & knox, 2009; yilmaz & malone, 2020; kim, 2014; thompson & whittacker, 2019; trajanovic et al., 2007; sakar, 2009; castro, 2019; white, 2006; pardede, 2012; kemaloglu & bayyurt, 2022). however, we would like to pay attention to using these two education methods in conducting foreign language classes in the university. considering the abovementioned, we decided to study the effectiveness of distance and blended learning with students while learning a foreign language, i.e., english. it should be mentioned that the research will be of great use for english language teachers in higher education institutions, especially in the covid19 pandemic situation in the world. having analyzed numerous articles on different methods of foreign language learning, it should be mentioned that there is no research that would compare the abovementioned methods in the sphere of language learning at a university. the research aims to study and compare the effectiveness of the usage of distant, blended, and traditional (face-to-face) methods of education in the english language classes at the university. therefore, the research questions can be formulated in the following way: what is the most effective way of learning a foreign language among the following methods: face to face, distant or blended? why blended method of learning a foreign language can be beneficial for students? research method sixty-eight students (3 academic groups) of the 2nd course were selected to participate in the experiment. the choice of the students was made randomly among 14 academic groups. three groups of students were willing to participate in the study. the experiment was conducted within the subject "english for professional purposes" in the educational plan. the control group consisted of 23 students studying the language using traditional learning, i.e., usual lessons with teachers with little usage of media the comparative analysis of face-to-face .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 46 and internet resources; experimental group 2 engaged 25 students studying the language using only distant learning; experimental group 3 had 20 students studying the language using blended learning. time. each group studied the english language for one semester, i.e., 16 weeks. they had three lessons per fortnight for each group, with each lesson lasting 90 minutes. therefore, students had 24 lessons or 36 academic hours. materials. students of all groups studied the same materials. grammar was taught using books by virginia evans round up five by longman; grammarway by jenny dooley and virginia evans by express publishing; hills atlas of veterinary clinical anatomy; english vocabulary in use by stuart redman by cambridge. these books were the basis of course development. however, we used other materials, handouts, websites, and presentations. in addition, we presented links to different youtube channels, where grammar was explained. it is essential to notice that students of all groups have studied using the same materials. the only difference was in the methods of presentation—the 2nd and 3rd groups—where students were using different youtube videos, prezi presentations, etc. the statistical analysis of the data was performed using the pc program rstudio version 0.99.486. the procedure of research and results. the experiment consisted of the following stages: initial – during this stage, students for the experiment were selected; the teaching materials were elaborated; a pre-test was conducted. educational – students were learning using the appropriate method. final – students were given a diagnostic test (the same as pre-test); collected data was analyzed. students were given a pre-test before the experiment to determine their english language level. the same teacher, conducting classes for all three groups, compiled the test. the test was compiled in the mode of multiplechoice and sentence translation, using professional vocabulary. groups wrote the pre-test separately. the maximum score was 12 points. the results were the following: control group – av. 6.75 points; experimental group 2 – av. 6.8 points; m. podoliak 47 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) experimental group 3 – av. 7.1 points. therefore, it is evident that all students from experimental groups had almost the same english language level, which is crucial for future experimental procedures. having completed all pre-tests, students studied their english language course for one semester or 16 weeks. the classes were conducted simultaneously for all three groups by the same teacher. this was done to avoid the dependence of the results on a teacher's personality. when the same person conducts all lessons in each group, we have precise results of the method used in teaching. therefore, the teacher had 24 classes in each group during the semester (72 classes total). the materials taught during 24 lessons were mainly concerned with improving english language usage, especially in the professional sphere. students learned professional vocabulary and terms and their correct usage in the speech. in addition, students were taught english grammatical constructions and their correct usage in the professional sphere. all materials, which were taught during 16 weeks, were included in the tests. the following skills are included in the abovementioned languagelearning course: writing: summary on a scientific article, professional correspondence, letter to a friend, complaint about something. speaking: give an opinion on reading the information, communicate with colleagues, speak on professional topics listening: watching and understanding different professional videos and speeches; reading: reading, translating, and analyzing articles with professional vocabulary; presentational: make presentations using ms powerpoint, prezi, canva, google slides; grammar: using appropriate grammar construction in different speech situations; professional: using appropriate terms and professional vocabulary in different speech situations. the comparative analysis of face-to-face .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 48 the research was conducted using an online platform for distant education as canvas. the course for experimental group 2 and experimental group 3 was developed and placed on the platform separately. the same teacher developed the online activities. the attendance rate of all groups was relatively high: control group – 81% of all lessons; experimental group 2 – 89% of all online lessons; experimental group 3 – 87% of all online and face-to-face lessons. the attendance of the experimental group 2 was measured by the participation in forum discussions, homework, and tests done. at the end of the semester, students were given diagnostic tests to determine the progress they made while using the appropriate method of education. the results were the following: control group – av. 7.34 points; experimental group 2 – av. 7.08 points; experimental group 3 – av. 9.2 points. the results of each student of three groups are presented in table 1. table 1. the results of the students' test control group traditional learning experimental group 2 distant learning experimental group 3 blended learning students * pretest 6.75 points averag e diagnosti c test 7.34 points average students * pretest 6.8 points averag e diagnosti c test 7.08 points average students * pretest 7.1 points averag e. diagnosti c test 9.95 points average 1 3 6 1 6 6 1 5 9 2 10 9 2 5 6 2 6 9 3 10 10 3 1 2 3 8 10 4 7 8 4 4 6 4 6 11 5 6,25 7 5 5 5 5 10 11 6 5 6 6 7 5 6 7 9 7 3 5 7 12 11 7 4 8 8 1,5 3 8 5 6 8 9 11 9 11 11 9 8 8 9 7 9 10 7 5 10 11 11 10 5 10 11 8 8 11 4 5 11 9 10 12 9 10 12 3 3 12 6 9 13 6 6 13 8 5 13 9 11 14 1,25 2 14 7 8 14 8 11 15 10 8 15 5 7 15 10 12 16 5 7 16 7 6 16 4 9 m. podoliak 49 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) control group traditional learning experimental group 2 distant learning experimental group 3 blended learning students * pretest 6.75 points averag e diagnosti c test 7.34 points average students * pretest 6.8 points averag e diagnosti c test 7.08 points average students * pretest 7.1 points averag e. diagnosti c test 9.95 points average 17 11 11 17 4 5 17 11 12 18 5 7 18 11 11 18 7 10 19 8 8 19 6 6 19 6 9 20 10 11 20 8 9 20 5 9 21 4 6 21 10 11 22 6 7 22 4 5 23 8,25 8 23 11 11 24 9 9 25 9 10 *note: students have not signed the permission to mention their names in publications; therefore, we have affiliated numbers for each of them. figure 1. diagram of the pre-test results figure 2. diagram of the diagnostic test results the comparative analysis of face-to-face .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 50 figure 3. the results of the pre-test of the groups the abovementioned figures do not demonstrate significant deviations in the results of the pre-test and diagnostic test (the diagonal line). all three groups are included in these figures. therefore, the diagrams show that the data is eligible for the anova test. the following pictures present the results of the statistical processing using the anova method. the results of the pre-test analysis are shown in figure 3; the results of the diagnostic test are shown in figure 4; the comparison of both the pre-test and the diagnostic test results is shown in figure 5. figure 3 demonstrates that the f value is 0.1039 and the difference in estimate std. value is within the frame of 0.35 points out of a maximum of 12. therefore, the results demonstrate that the students of all three groups had almost the same level of knowledge of the english language at the beginning of the experiment. figure 4. the results of the diagnostic test of the groups m. podoliak 51 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) figure 4 demonstrates that the f value is 10.86 and the difference in estimate std. value is 2.6022 points out of a maximum of 12. therefore, the results demonstrate that the students of all three groups had a different level of knowledge of the english language at the end of the experiment. figure 5. comparative results of the pre-test and diagnostic test figure 5 demonstrates that the f value has changed from 0.104 (pretest results) to 10.87 (diagnostic test results). therefore, we can mention that the results are significant and have changed. the next step was determining whether the pre-test and diagnostic test results were different or equal. in order to do this, we formulated two hypotheses, separately for pre-test and diagnostic test. hypothesis for pre-test: h0 – results are equal h1 – results are different the obtained results demonstrate that the f value is 0.1039 and the difference in estimate std. value is within the frame of 0.35 points out of a maximum of 12. thus, these results demonstrate that hypothesis 0 is correct—i.e., the difference in students' knowledge of all three groups at the beginning of the experiment was equal (figure 6). hypothesis for diagnostic test: h0 – results are equal h1 – results are different the obtained results demonstrate that the f value is 10.86 and the difference in estimate std. value is 2.6022 points out of a maximum of 12. thus, these results demonstrate that hypothesis 1 is correct—i.e., the the comparative analysis of face-to-face .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 52 difference in students' knowledge of all three groups at the end of the experiment was not equal (figure 7). in addition, the p-value in the diagnostic test results was less than 0.05, which demonstrates that the results are credible (p<0.05). figure 6. the comparison of the pretest result of 3 groups figure 7. the comparison of the diagnostic test result of 3 groups therefore, we can observe the changes in the students' knowledge of three groups between pre-and diagnostic tests. results & discussion the study was designed to answer the question: what is a more effective way of learning/teaching a foreign language? there are the following possible answers: traditional, distant, and blended. thus, having analyzed the obtained results after processing with the anova statistic method, we conclude that experimental group 3 (blended learning) results are the best out of all groups. therefore, blended english language learning proved more effective than traditional (face-to-face) and distant ones. according to the conducted research activities, we determined that the diagnostic test results in the control group (traditional learning) were higher than the pre-test by 8.74%. the results of experimental group 2 m. podoliak 53 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) (distant learning) were higher compared to the pre-test by 4.11%. experimental group 3 (blended learning) was higher in comparison with the pre-test by 40.14%. the percentage of the efficiency of the method was calculated according to the formula: (m2-m1)/m1*100 in which: m2 – are the results of the diagnostic test; m1 – are the results of the pre-test. the study results showed that the most effective way of learning/teaching the english language is blended with the efficiency of more than 40,14%. in addition, the data in figure 6 shows that all students from the three groups were almost equal in knowledge. meanwhile, figure 7 shows that students of experimental group 3 (blended learning) have demonstrated the best results out of all three groups. however, there are slight differences in results between distant and traditional (within the frame of 4.63%). concerning the abovementioned, glenn (2001) mentions that there is no statistically significant relationship between scores and perceptions in faceto-face groups or the distant groups. in addition, she cites some results of research activities where the results between traditional and distant education were almost the same. furthermore, shachar and neumann (2010) mentioned that in a significant part of studies, students of distant education outperformed students of face-to-face learning. however, according to, glenn (2001), sometimes traditional learning results were higher than distant. hannay and newvine (2006) showed the results of the questionnaire where students stated that learning occurs more in distant (57%) than in traditional (41%). however, as one hannay and newvine (2016) in their study can notice, the difference is insignificant. the study, performed by the us department of education has demonstrated that blended learning is more effective than the distant or traditional one (means et al., 2010). nevertheless, glenn (2001) states that students who used distant learning spent less time learning than traditional learning methods. on the contrary, the study of hannay and newvine (2006) shows that students of distant learning spent more time learning than students of traditional one. the comparative analysis of face-to-face .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 54 therefore, we cannot say that blended is a better learning method than distant or traditional because each student has his learning abilities, and each teacher has his teaching techniques and methods. however, we assume that the high results of the blended method of learning were caused due to the more frequent repetition of materials than in distant or traditional. white (2006) mentions that the development of distant language courses should include human, logistic, and institutional infrastructure. furthermore, she cites some scholars who emphasized the role of the teacher and his/her interaction within the distant language course, its design, content, equipment supply, etc. the other study by ariza and hancock (2003) states that distant learning language courses should be designed in such ways that follow constructivism philosophy, i.e., learners are seen as constructors of their knowledge through active participation in the learning process. thus, we can assume that the success of a course, whether distant, blended, or traditional, lies upon many factors that should be taken into account before developing such a course. it is worth mentioning that in blended learning we developed, the division between face-to-face and distant lessons was about half. according to pardede (2012), the course can be considered blended when the percentage of online works is within the frames of 30-79%. however, students tend to write tests during face-to-face lessons, but with the usage of canvas. therefore, they are more responsible for learning the material better and performing tests well. the other factor for blended learning was that they could communicate with the teacher in class, often raising topics they did not understand while working distant with canvas. the teacher explained and clarified grammar, vocabulary, and reading in almost every class in experimental group 3. in addition, trajanovic et al. (2007) stated the importance of training on four basic language skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening) in distant online courses. hence, it is worth saying that we tend to include the abovementioned skills in our online course. we suppose that the lower results of the traditional method of teaching and distant are caused by one method of presentation, i.e., explanation of teacher in traditional and video presentation in distant. there was a slight m. podoliak 55 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) repetition of material in these two types of learning when we compared them with blended. in addition, we tend to use video presentations alongside with pdf files when explaining grammar. it proved to be an effective way of learning, as it comes from the article by trajanovic et al. (2007), in which the authors stress the usage of a combination of video and text. we can assume that the lowest results in distant are caused mainly by lack of communication with the teacher (as was shown in the questionnaire answers). however, the teacher tried to perform synchronous and asynchronous communication with students during distant learning. furthermore, white (2006) mentions the importance of synchronous communication with the teacher in a distant language course. ekmerci (2015) showed that the more the teacher interacts with students, the better the level of satisfaction from the learning process will be. hall and knox (2009) reference the problem of communication, stating that students who do distant learning in all fields can feel isolated, lack immediate peer support, have problems in communication, etc. in addition, the authors emphasize that distant learning students most likely study part-time and therefore suffer fatigue in learning. while doing blended learning, students have to show their results to teachers during face-to-face lessons. the other paper by white (2008) cites the scholar who investigated the role of communication of teachers with students. he mentions that distant learning students lacked immediate support from the teacher and language practice. ariza and hancock (2003) also mentioned that the teacher in distant learning courses should act as a facilitator for students, providing assistance and support while presenting the content in ways that encourage engagement. in addition, we have conducted a questionnaire to receive feedback from students on the methodology of learning. the questionnaire results have shown that students from experimental group 2 and experimental group 3 were mainly satisfied with the learning method. furthermore, allen et al. (2002) showed that the level of satisfaction from learning between distant learning students and the traditional one is almost the same. the dissatisfaction in our experiment was only concerning learning materials, feedback, and the evaluation process. here we should argue as we have considered the study by hall and knox (2009) emphasizing the role of the comparative analysis of face-to-face .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 56 evaluation and material preparation in distant learning. however, unlike the study, we did not assess discussions in distant learning but only students' knowledge through tests. in addition, we compiled tests strictly according to the materials students covered during the semester. moreover, there were clear instructions on the work they should do and on the evaluation system. these two principles are one of the main in students' knowledge assessments, as from koksal (2004). in addition, ekmerci (2015) showed the importance of evaluation in distant language learning. in the study, the central part of students (75% and 85,5%) mentioned that the assignments and grading were not clear enough. concerning the course materials, it should be stated that they are of great importance. ariza and hancock (2003) mentioned that it is crucially important that learners of distant language courses understand the course content for effective learning. furthermore, sampson (2003) as a critical component in distant education mentions the accessibility to materials. considering the abovementioned, we tried to provide students of all groups with access to all necessary materials for learning. the possible cause why students can be dissatisfied with distant learning towards traditional classes is referenced in hannay and newvine’s (2006) study. the main reason for the said dissatisfaction is that distant education students did not see much difference between distant and traditional learning. sometimes, authors stated that students of distant education could be jealous of students of traditional one because of the possibility to interact and communicate with the teacher. trajanovich et al., (2007) emphasize that the distant course should be developed in such a way so that students do not feel they are out of class. it should be noted that in our experiment, students did not state the difference from the traditional class as the cause of dissatisfaction. on the contrary, one of our students' main dissatisfaction was lack of communication with the teacher. it is worth mentioning that hannay and newvine (2006) states that teachers of the distant courses are often dissatisfied with the distant teaching process. on the contrary, the teacher did not face dissatisfaction with our research since he taught all three groups. however, he mentioned that traditional learning was less time-consuming than distant and blended ones. m. podoliak 57 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) furthermore, he emphasized that blended learning required the most time of all methods used in the experiment. in the feedback on the course, students mentioned that the blended learning method has more benefits and fewer disadvantages than the distant. among the pros, students singled out for both learning methods as a comfortable and easy way of learning; the possibility of communication with peers; a new way of learning. some students mentioned that electronic devices and the internet in learning increased their interest and motivation to study. hannay and newvine (2006), states that distant learning can be more motivating for students than a traditional one. trajanovic et al. (2007) emphasize the role of the teacher while preparing materials. they mention that teachers should introduce tasks and materials that would retain interaction within limited direct contact and promote motivation in the teaching environment. moreover, some students noticed that distant learning taught them responsibility and time management since they have to decide how to do their online learning. a similar idea is stated by sampson (2003), however for distant learning, who mentions that distant teaching support students' motivation promotes learning pleasure and effectiveness. however, allen et al. (2002) showed that while assessing the quality of the educational process, students showed a higher level of satisfaction from traditional face-to-face education rather than from distant. sakar (2009) raised the critical issue that students are less likely to take it seriously if the distant course is not obligatory. the study shows that students enrolled for online courses just before exams to facilitate their preparation. therefore, while doing blended learning with experimental group 3, we decided on the tests in face-to-face classes. blended learning has more minor disadvantages in comparison with distant. students mentioned that they repeated the same material more times than traditional and distant ones while doing blended learning. in addition, after watching videos or reading textbooks, they could communicate with the teacher during face-to-face lessons. allen et al. (2002) states that some students may positively favor distant education and some traditional. the the comparative analysis of face-to-face .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 58 authors state that the link to student learning style may indicate the need to diagnose providing a course in multiple formats. furthermore, sakar (2009) has demonstrated that the online course was not enough for students to accomplish a complete learning process. the author provides the results, according to which 82,3% of students wanted to take face-to-face courses despite the published materials and online courses. therefore, blended learning can be a possible potential to satisfy more students' needs for education. compared to distant learning, one of the other cons of blended learning that students mentioned was that they could work in groups in class, communicating in the face with their peers. however, it should be mentioned that experimental group 2 did some group tasks and group learning. furthermore, hall and knox (2009) mentioned that one of the problems of distant learning students is the lack of immediate peer support. allen et al. (2002) mention the different possibilities and importance of participants' interaction in the distant course. in addition, ariza and hancock (2003) state that different types of learner-learner interaction should be thoroughly planned to address goals. one of the most significant drawbacks of distant learning towards blended was students' communication with the teacher. the majority of students from experimental group 2 mentioned that they were lack of live communication with the teacher. however, we should notice that they could write messages and have online chats. the other issue concerning communication was with speaking tasks. experimental group 3 presented almost all their speaking tasks during lessons and some in canvas, recording their answers. students from experimental group 3 mentioned that they faced some difficulties with recording their answers. however, koksal (2004) emphasizes that students' speaking skills should be tested by encouraging speaking. in addition, trajanovic et al. (2007) mentioned that speaking skills could be tested when the teacher listens to how students talk. according to the authors, the answers can be recorded and sent to chats or forums to evaluate teachers. nevertheless, when discussing their opinion of the learning process, they agreed that recording has pros and cons. the main advantage of m. podoliak 59 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) recording was the possibility to rerecord your answer multiple times, but in a live answer, only one is possible. according to the results, the answers can be recorded and sent and after the experiment, students from all three groups were asked to answer two questions. the results showed that most students choose blended learning; distant goes the second, and traditional goes last. the reasons for choosing blended learning were: an exciting and new learning experience, a suitable way of learning, and the diversity of materials. in addition, the results of the research by hannay (2006) showed that students are likely to choose distant learning (69%) towards traditional (31%). we suggest that students would opt more for blended learning despite this comparison between distant and traditional learning. furthermore, pardede (2012) mentions that blended learning allows the teacher to provide more individualized learning through the phenomenon of partial self-education. conclusion the results of the research allow us to make several conclusions. the results of the final tests, compared to pre-tests, showed that blended learning proved to be more effective in comparison with traditional and distant. blended learning offers a new and comfortable way of education, combining both distant and face-to-face. the benefits of blended learning lie in the fact that it combines the advantages of both learning methods, solves problems that occur while doing distant learning, and modernizes traditional teaching. references aksu atac, b., & er, s. 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(2008). language learning strategies in independent language learning: an overview. language learning strategies in independent settings, 3–24. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/pub_d057_blended%20learning_final_web%20only_v2.pdf https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/pub_d057_blended%20learning_final_web%20only_v2.pdf https://doi.org/hal-00190064 https://doi.org/hal-00190064 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-020-00126-7 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-020-00126-7 https://doi.org/10.1017/s0261444806003727 register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.187-203 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 187 resource based learning for teaching and learning english in digital environments muhammad nazil iqdami masters of education, the university of georgia, usa iqdami25@gmail.com abstract this paper presents a conceptual framework on the implementation of resource based learning (rbl) in english as a foreign language (efl) class. resource based learning emerges as the proponent of constructivism as well as a response to the rapid development of information and communication technology (ict) and its influence in education. digital technologies pose potential opportunities in changing the face of education. the affordances of digital technologies empower more student-centered learning and more accessible educational information. teaching english for foreign learners is dynamic and requires innovations. admittedly, most english learners in indonesia need more exposure to authentic english learning resources, and digital technologies are very potential in accommodating their needs. resource based learning sets an innovative framework and systematic approach for english educators in designing digital technology-based instructions. keywords: resource based learning, digital technologies, constructivism, english as a foreign language register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.187-203 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 188 introduction the world bank (2016) recently releases a report that the literacy rate of people in indonesia reaches 92.8%. additionally, the internet users in this vast country increase significantly as more than fifty million indonesians now have direct access to the internet (world bank, 2016).these numbers indicate that literate indonesians are catered with abundant digital information and resources of learning. the very crucial question emerges is whether or not indonesians have exploited this imposing opportunity maximally. the nature of digital technologies has changed dramatically as a wide range of learning systems now leverage information from digital world to address diverse epistemological beliefs and intended learning goals despite its unknown origin and quality (hill & hannafin, 2001).consequently, many educators and experts in various subjects, including english, have been intrigued to find ways in integrating digital technologies in teaching and learning. in english teaching and learning, more modern methods are proposed and they all seem promising. mobile-based language learning, for instance, is believed to improve english content delivery, learner-to-learner interaction, and vocabulary acquisition (bachore, 2015). similarly, virtual english learning environment empirically enhances students’ language learning autonomy(bailly, ciekanski, & guély-costa, 2013). in addition to emerging methods in english teaching and learning, a number of professional organizations have also devoted to creating mobile and desktop applications such as calico, eurocall, duolingo and iallt(chun, smith, & kern, 2016). many might highly appreciate the positive development in english teaching and learning in light of the advancement of digital technologies. on the other hand, language teachers and learners should not forget that they can rely on other forms of technology they are already familiar with(chun et al., 2016).if not careful, language teachers and learners can easily get lost in immense world of digital technologies. when that happens, opportunities afforded by digital technologies will go to waste. the penetration of digital technologies in english teaching and learning in indonesia is admittedly outperformed. despite its great number of users as reported by the world bank, register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.187-203 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 189 digital technologies are still considered as add-ons to traditional english teaching methods. according to son, robb, and charismiadji (2011), teachers’ lack of digital competency is amongst several imperative factors that inhibits teachers to develop digital technology-related english pedagogies. however, this should not be an excuse and teachers’ beliefs (richards, 1998, p. 66)in great potential of digital technologies in teaching english must be emphasized. this paper aims at exploring the concept of resource based learning (rbl) in teaching and learning english as a foreign language in digital environments. the exploration of rbl is based on three rationales. first, digital technologies democratize access to information(giroux, 2010; kellner, 2003). thus, english learners from every corner of the world have the same opportunity to obtain resources of english teaching and learning from their own desks. second, english undisputedly dominates digital contents as it is the most used language in the internet(nunan, 2003). simply put, internet users are exposed to english on so many levels. third, the use of digital information in english teaching and learning has not been properly structured. this paper begins by discussing the nature of rbl along with its supporting theories. subsequently, the examination of rbl practices in education will be presented. finally, conceptual implementation of rbl on teaching and learning english as a foreign language in digital environments will be discussed comprehensively. discussion emergence of resource based learning learning resources involve a wide range of forms. however, printed materials such as books, journals, reports, periodicals, and documents are thought of the most regular and legitimate resources(maddux & johnson, 1997). most teachers, if not all, idolize textbooks as their primary support in delivering lessons to students. as a consequence, certain textbooks become very authoritative that the only reliable knowledge is what is written in these textbooks. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.187-203 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 190 in turn, it is very easy to predict that these textbooks become very dominant and commercialized(reigeluth & squire, 1998). resource based learning (rbl) emerges as a response to offering learners with myriad sources of knowledge that were once limited prior to the advancement of digital technologies. in pre-digital environments, resources were passive, produced by certain parties, and used in congruence with very specific and formal educational goals(hannafin & hill, 2007). conversely, current digital environments have advanced both the nature of resources and information and the way our society learns(galbreath, 1997). consequently, our daily playgrounds such as homes, schools, libraries, workplaces, and public spaces become the center of learning resources. according to s. brown and smith (1996, p. 1), rbl is an approach to pedagogy in which learning resources are extensive and enable students to learn independently apart from learning mediated by teachers. this early definition posits an idea that students’ learning resources can be anything that enhances students’ independent study. in line with this definition, hill and hannafin (2001)further assert that potential learning resources include media, people, places, and ideas. at this point, the word “media” is emphasized because it encompasses not only printed materials such as books but also any devices that convey information to learners. more specifically, the word “media” is purposely used to accommodate the affordance of digital technologies. theoretically, the emergence of rbl is influenced by constructivism. constructivism theory sets a foundation for many modern approaches of teaching such as task-based learning, problem-based learning, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning, case-based learning, and many more. jean piaget (1896-1980) and lev vygotsky (1896-1934)are considered as founding fathers of constructivism(duncan, 1995). although piaget’s and vygotsky’s stresses on constructivism are epistemologically different, they share similar philosophical view that humans’ knowledge is constructed through the interactions of experiences, ideas, and society(cunningham & duffy, 1996). the grounding assumptions of constructivism include: (1) all knowledge is constructed and learning is a process of construction; (2) many world views can be constructed so that there will be multiple perspectives; (3) knowledge is context dependent register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.187-203 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 191 and it should occur in contexts to which it is relevant; (4) learning is mediated by tools and signs; and (5) learning is an inherently social-dialogical activity (cunningham, knight, & watson, 1994; savery & duffy, 1995). resource based learning is the proponent of constructivism in a way that it encourages learners to explore and construct new knowledge depending on their own needs. from the digital technologies stand point, rbl is inferred as the use and application of available assets to support varied learning needs across contexts (beswick, 1979; doiron & davies, 1998; hannafin & hill, 2007; haycock, 1991). after all, rbl is not a learning pedagogy, but instead it is an approach to a process through which epistemologically different, but grounded, learning models are enacted (hannafin & hill, 2007). thus, rbl should be positioned as an alternative approach that can be embedded into any learning models, preferably constructivism-related models. the issue brought to the table by the proponents of rbl is that information from digital technologies should be considered as integral learning resources. textbooks seem to dominate learning resources because of their congruence with established curriculum objectives (breivik, 1996). however, with the advancement of digital technologies, information in these environments is not only massive but also growing exponentially accurate(hannafin & hill, 2007). it is very promising nowadays to see that blogs, wikis, and other web 2.0 forms are growing to become an essential source of information across a wide range of learners. part of the reasons is because information in digital technologies is easy to access, share, and produce (counts, 2006). additionally, digital technologies make it possible for users to access public information such as historical documents, weather information, and government reports(hannafin & hill, 2007). this information was once impossible to access by publics because it was kept at centralized repositories that were far away from them. thus, rbl emerges as a systematic approach to help teachers and students maximally make use of the power of digital technologies to help them construct knowledge that is aligned with educational objectives. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.187-203 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 192 case of resource based learning in education many creative educators have eagerly integrated rbl in their classrooms. they perceive it as a malleable approach they can integrate within their epistemological beliefs. teachers and students begin to consider digital contents as their primary resources of learning. youtube, for instance, provides flexible and handy learning resources for everyone and everywhere (clifton & mann, 2011; duffy, 2008; lee & lehto, 2013; tan, 2013). youtube-like websites such as khan academy and laerd are very popular among mathematics and statistics learners(thompson, 2011). not to mention a tutorial website such as lynda has been subscribed by hundreds of universities worldwide to help students enhance their media-related skills(dybvik, 2008). these are all authentic evidences that digital technologies have significantly contributed to a new face of education. despite the promising power of digital technologies in education, questions related to literacy, misinterpretation, propagandizing, and integrity remain critical(brooks, 2003; harp & tremayne, 2006; mcpherson, 2006). thus, rbl emerges as an alternative to close the gap between the power of digital technologies and these questions. a number of researches on the implementation of rbl have been conducted to investigate its heuristics and implications in education. a research on the implementation of rbl in a teacher development program was conducted by yu, abrizah, and sani (2016). their research was part of programs to improve malaysian teachers’ information literacy. through rbl, they investigated how teachers conceptualized information literacy and disseminated their information literacy in classrooms. they found out that teachers’ understanding of information literacy accounted for their teaching activities and that teachers were well-prepared to implement resource-based assignments in their classrooms. another case study on the implementation of rbl was carried on by so and ching (2012) in a science class. in their study, science teachers designed their class based on components of rbl such as choices of contexts, selections of resources, tools, and scaffoldings. it was revealed that rbl significantly helped teachers design their learning environments with register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.187-203 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 193 online resources. additionally, teachers became more aware of online resources selections and students’ need for an assistance through scaffoldings. in general, rbl approach not only attracted but also motivated science students to inquire their own scientific knowledge. kononets (2015)also shared her experience when implementing rbl in an agriculture class. her research was an attempt to create e-learning resources for her students. given her elearning resources were hosted freely, she found out that rbl helped integrate the combination of traditional and more innovative forms of resources. she added that the quality of e-learning resources could be developed through collaborations as these were sharable and available online the opportunity of rbl in education is considerable. teaching and learning english as a foreign language might embrace this approach to not only achieve instructional goals but also maximally take the advantage of digital resources. the following section discusses the conceptual framework of implementing rbl in an english as a foreign language (efl) class. resource based learning and instructional design the implementation of rbl in an efl class, like any other classes, follows the principles of instructional design if rbl is to facilitate intentional learning(branch, 2008, p. 6; gagné, wager, golas, & keller, 2005, p. 1). according to hannafin and hill (2007)and butler (2012), three components need to be prepared prior to designing rbl instructions. the first component is contexts. contextsin rbl includeexternal contexts, individual contexts, and negotiated contexts. external contextsunderline learning expectations, problems, and goals that a teacher or an external agent, e.g. government, determines. in the indonesian context, learning goals have to meet the standards of national curriculum. individual contexts offer students to explore their unique needs and goals. this is where students are encouraged to set their personal goals in learning english and how they will achieve the goals. in negotiated contexts, students are given choices of general goals and they decide their own specific goals that are unique to their interests(hill, domizi, hannafin, kim, & kim, 2007). register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.187-203 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 194 the second component is tools. tools play an essential role in rbl because they are used by learners to engage with information from digital environments. tools can be used in multiple contexts and goals, and their functions vary across learning models (hannafin & hill, 2007; iiyoshi, hannafin, & wang, 2005). processing tools are instrumental in organizing cognitive loads related to learning models. in an efl class, tools such as bookmarks can support different constructivism-related learning models. searching toolsare very flexible in both directed and learner-centered learning models. teachers can assign students to search for english materials on the world wide web environments using search engines such as google, yahoo, msn, and others. manipulation tools empower students in analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information gathered from the digital environments. applications such as duolingo, british council’s learnenglish grammar, and babbelcan help students manipulate their own learning. finally, communication toolsreinforce learner-to-teacher and learner-to-learner communications in exchanging information. blogs and wikis have been used by english teachers and learners to exchange information and collaborate in grammar, reading, and writing classes. scaffolds are the third component of rbl. hannafin and hill (2007)defines scaffolding as teachers’ support to students’ learning that subsequently fades away in a continuous cycle as students’ knowledge develops. the needs for scaffolding vary among students depending on students’ aptitude, problems encountered, and learning contexts (sharma & hannafin, 2007). resource based learning recognizes four types of scaffolds. first, procedural scaffolds guide students how to apply features and functions of certain source. when a teacher introduces an english application such as duolingo, he/she needs to familiarize students with its components and functions. conceptual scaffolds are teachers’ efforts to help students in making connections between information in digital environments and pre-defined learning goals. not only does a teacher ask students to find a grammatical answer from a certain website, but also he/she needs to give an understanding why such a website is appropriate. metacognitive scaffolds help students reflect, compare, and revise their process of learning. teachers can guide students in organizing their learning episodes by asking them to create a learning checklist. the last one is strategic scaffolds, which guide students to identify, select, and evaluate information. at this register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.187-203 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 195 stage, teachers’ information literacy is very essential because they have to be able to help students identify valid and reliable english materials in immense digital environments. only after contexts, tools, and scaffolds are well-thought-out, can the design instructions of rbl in an efl class be organized appropriately. the most common generic process of instructional design includes analyze, design, develop, implement, and evaluate, generally known as addie model(a. brown & green, 2011, p. 10). designing instructions in an efl class with addie model is appropriate since it is a process that serves as a guiding framework for developing complex educational products(branch, 2008, p. 2). additionally, it is claimed that addie model is responsive to whatever established learning goals and contexts (branch, 2008, p. 4). thus, implementing rbl within the framework of addie model seems promising as it recognizes contextsin its development phases. the five addie’s phases are subsequent yet iterative (figure 1). it means that the phases are similar to product development cycles. the cycles are intertwined with evaluation becomes the center of product development process. it indicates that each phase has to be carefully developed and assessed for its quality. in addition, evaluation also becomes grounding rationale to begin a new cycle of product development. figure 1. the addie cycle adopted from branch (2008, p. 2) register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.187-203 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 196 resource based learning fits very well in addie model. the analyze phase is where rbl is implemented as the delivery system (read: teaching and learning method) in developing an efl class. once rbl is selected, the rests of addie phases will follow. as mentioned earlier, evaluation phase is very critical as it is utilized to assess the feasibility of rbl in an efl class. resource based learning for teaching and learning english as a foreign language class general procedures in implementing rbl according to campbell, flageolle, griffith, and wojcik (2002)include: (1) determine unit goals; (2) determine acceptable students’ artifacts; (3) plan the unit thoroughly; (4) gather resources from a variety of formats; (5) generate a timeline for the unit; (6) schedule research time; (7) develop a rubric to assess students’ artifacts; (8) evaluate students’ performance; and (9) evaluate the unit. practically, the implementation of rbl is an iterative process following the principle of addie (figure 2). when implementing rbl inan efl class, indonesia’s educational contexts should frame the implementation. thus, indonesia’s english curriculum, as an external context, directs the implementation of rbl. resource based learning in the efl class begins with clearly established instructional goals, which are the derivatives of english curriculum. teachers then design a standard of acceptable artifacts that students need to accomplish. the next procedure is teachers provide appropriate and enough tools that will help students gather resources from digital environments needed to complete the artifacts. during the gathering process, scaffolds should be given to keep students on track such as asking students to always follow the predetermined timeline. along with all these procedures, teachers evaluate each step carefully to avoid possible mismatch between rbl procedures, learning goals, and students’ practices. next, students’ artifacts are assessed based on the pre-determined rubrics. finally, teachers evaluate the success of rbl-based instructions and make revisions and adjustments for future implementations. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.187-203 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 197 figure 2. rbl instructions cycle in an efl class with an adaptation from branch (2008, p. 2) several important notes need to be highlighted regarding the components of rbl instructions in an efl class. due to constructivist nature of rbl, teachers need to ascertain that learning goals demonstrate higher order thinking skills and problem solving abilities (campbell et al., 2002). although learning goals are the interpretation of english curriculum, they should stimulate students to become active producers of english knowledge and skills. artifacts in rbl should be challenging but realistic for students (campbell et al., 2002). in an english speaking class, for instance, an english drama performance can be a good artifact. not only do students learn how to act, they also learn how to evaluate their pronunciations and analyze common english expressions. interestingly, students can explore abundant resources about drama in english with digital technologies. creating and following timeline is essential in rbl. a good timeline should guide students to progress through the rbl cycle systematically. it should also set realistic dates and register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.187-203 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 198 allow some time for teachers to provide assistances to students as needed. in the english drama case, for instance, the timeline should clearly determine when students gather information, synthesize information, ask for teacher’s assistances, and finally perform the drama. since the outcome of rbl instructions is artifacts, rubrics become a better option in assessing students’ learning performance than written assessments (diller & phelps, 2008; panadero & jonsson, 2013). similar to learning goals, teachers should clearly inform the rubrics used to assess students’ english learning performance in the beginning of the course meeting. rubrics contain apparent requirements of final artifacts. thus, students in the english drama case, for instance, are fully aware of expectations they need to meet if they want to complete the artifact successfully. evaluations are as instrumental as other rbl components. evaluations in rbl consist of two phases. the first phase is evaluating students’ artifacts and the second one is evaluating rbl instructions as a whole. if evaluating students’ artifacts is to measure students’ english learning performance, evaluating rbl instructions is to find out whether or not the instructions are effective, efficient, and feasible. this unit evaluation will then be used to make improvements for future implementations. finally, teachers’ role receives a special attention in rbl. unlike their role in more traditional teaching methods, teachers in rbl become coaches, facilitators, and guides as their students gather, analyze, and evaluate information from digital environments (campbell et al., 2002). instead of teaching facts, teachers empower students how to learn. in an efl class, teachers should not claim that their english knowledge is absolute and without flaws, but they should encourage students to explore and construct english facts from the digital world. additionally, teachers also need to ensure that learning does occur (beswick, 1979). conclusions resource based learning offers considerable promise for educators in the field of teaching and learning english as a foreign language (tefl). the advancement of digital technologies should be embraced as an advantage to improve students’ learning experiences. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.187-203 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 199 english teachers are no longer seen as a single authority of english facts. students need more democratized ways of learning and digital technologies can accommodate their needs. given some concerns associated with massive amount of information and its reliability, rbl emerges as an innovative catalyst that guides students in exploring information that is congruent with predetermined instructional goals. the implementation of rbl in an efl class is not without any issues. digital resources present challenges for rbl in light of teachers’ and students’ digital literacies (hannafin & hill, 2007). additionally, barnard and nash (2005) adds that only those who are information literate can locate information accurately and access information effectively. thus, for rbl to be successful, educators need to make sure that all components of rbl (contexts, tools, scaffolds) are 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thompson, c. 2011. how khan academy is changing the rules of education. wired magazine, 126, 1-5. yu, h., abrizah, a., & sani, m. k. j. a. 2016. information literacy through resource-based learning: malaysian teachers’ conception and instructional practices. malaysian journal of library & information science, 21(2016), 53-67. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.124-136 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 124 improving students’ listening skill through shadowing mukminatus zuhriyah universitas hasyim asy’ari tebuireng jombang zoehrea@gmail.com abstract listening is the first part of language skills that everyone gets when learning a language. it comes before speaking, reading, and writing. meanwhile, most of the students get difficulty to learn listening of a foreign language, especially english. that is why shadowing was applied in the listening class as one of the solutions to make the learners of english listening easy to understand what the speaker says. this collaborative classroom action research was generally to know whether or not shadowing could improve the students listening skill. it was also specifically to know: (1) the lecturer’s activities, (2) the students’ activities, and (3) the students’ responses during the implementation of shadowing in the listening class. the subjects were 18 students of the third semester of english department of education faculty of hasyim asy’ari university (unhasy) tebuireng jombang in the academic year of 2016/2017. the data were obtained from the observations got from the notes written by the collaborator and the listening test. the students’ listening skill improved after the implementation of shadowing. it could be seen in the improvement of mean score, from 74.2 in cycle one to 75 in cycle two. then, the precentage of students passing the minimum mastery criteria also improved, from 61% in cycle one to 77.8% in cycle two. thus, it can be concluded that shadowing could improve students’ listening skill. keywords: listening skill, shadowing, unhasy students introduction all the students learning english are hoped to be able to master the four english skills. among those skills, listening becomes the most important part of english skills. listening is the first stage in learning english. it is because listening comes at first before somebody speaks, reads, or writes. listening becomes a bridge when learning to speak, to read, and to write. in line with this, sevik (2012: 328) states that a person who learns a second or foreign language (fl) will first hear, then, talk, and followed by learning how to read and write. then, adelmann (2012: 514) states that a language learner needs competent listening skill when learning a language. additionally, ghanbari and hashemian (2014: 337) state that good listening comprehension has the basic part for developing other skills in foreign language learning. mailto:zoehrea@gmail.com register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.124-136 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 125 english department of education faculty of hasyim asy’ari university, tebuireng jombang, puts the listening in the first up to the fourth semester. the main objective of the listening course itself is to make the students able to understand what the native speakers say about correctly. dealing with this situation, schmidt (2016:2) found that listening is the most difficult skill to contend as a language learner. then, based on the data on the preliminary study held on september 6, 2016, most of the students of unhasy still got low score, under 75. their mean score was 70.8. the percentage of the students getting 75 was 39%. it means that they still have low listening skill. meanwhile, arono (2014: 63) says that the teacher is still lack of commitment in applying the model of teaching listening. thus, it was very demanded to help the students improve their listening skill through the appropriate teaching model to teach listening in order that they are easy to catch what the speakers tell about. an alternative for this condition was by applying shadowing in teaching and learning process of listening. the general objective of this research was to know whether shadowing could improve the listening skill in the third semester students of english department of education faculty of hasyim asy’ari university (unhasy) tebuireng jombang in the academic year of 2016/2017. meanwhile, the specific objective was to describe the lecturer’s activities, the students’ activities, and the students’ responses during the implementation of shadowing in the listening class. previous studies there are several previous studies that have been conducted by some researchers explaining about the success of shadowing to improve students’ language skills. firstly, omar and umehara (2010: 199) in their research entitled “using a shadowing technique to improve english pronunciation deficient adult japanese learners: an action research on expatriate japanese adult learners” conclude that there was the improvement on the participants’ english pronunciation, especially in their english rhythms. next, horiyama (2012: 113) in his research entitled “the development of english language skills through shadowing exercises” states that shadowing exercises improved students’ english skills and boosted their motivation and active participation in the class. other research entitled “a pilot study comparing the effects of shadowing and oral reading on oral reading rate” by osato (2014: 289) found that the effects register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.124-136 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 126 of shadowing were the improvements in both productive and receptive skills such as pronunciation, listening, and reading ability. then, the research entitled “monitoring strategy in shadowing: self-monitoring and pair-monitoring” by hamada (2015: 4) found that the selfmonitoring and pair-monitoring groups improved their phoneme perceptions and the lower proficiency learners’ listening comprehension skills of the self-monitoring group also improved. in addition, shiota (2012: 71) in his research entitled “the effectiveness of shadowing on students’ psychology in language learning” states that in the second language learning, the useful technique to solve the students’ attitude problems was shadowing. meanwhile, zakeri (2014: 21) in his research entitled “the effect of shadowing on efl learners’ oral performance in term of fluency” found that there was a great significant relationship between shadowing and the learners’ fluency. listening listening is the first thing to be learnt before somebody learns speaking, reading, and writing. in line with this, sevik (2012: 328) states that listening is the basic skill that must be learnt in the language learning process. in addition, kim and kang (2015: 175) report that many linguists and english teachers state that listening becomes the most fundamental and the most important skill among other language skills because it is a key role to study a foreign language. then, sevik (2012: 330) also states that listening is the same as reading which is a receptive skill because both listening and reading focus on receiving information from an outside source. meanwhile, murjani (2010: 2) states that listening is an active skill because listening is not only the process of hearing what the speakers say but also the process of integrating what the speakers talk about with the information in the real world. thus, it can be concluded that listening is the most fundamental and important skill which is not only a receptive skill but also an active skill to be learnt in the first language learning process. bozorgian and pillay (2013: 105) state that listening covers a complex process. listening is a process consisting of a conscious attention, reception, perception, and the assignment of meaning and response to the message (kim and kang, 2015: 42). in line with this, sarıcoban in sevix (2012: 330) argues that listening is the ability consisting of identifying and understanding what others are saying which involves understanding accent or pronunciation, grammar, and register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.124-136 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 127 vocabulary of the speaker, and grasping its meaning. furthermore, marzban and abdollahi (2013: 239) state that in the process of comprehending the spoken messages in the listening text, the listeners must integrate information from a range of sources, such as phonetics, phonological, prosodic, lexical, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic. then, yonezaki (2014: 22) argues that a person commonly experiences three stages in the listening process, such as perceiving sounds (perception), decoding sounds to recognize them as certain linguistic forms (recognition), and comprehending the meaning of the forms (comprehension). in short, it can be said that listening is the process of comprehending what the speaker talks about by the listener through three stages, which are perception, recognition, and comprehension. then, walker (2014: 172) states that the difficulties in learning listening cover three features, linguistic features, cultural features, and psychological features. the linguistic features consist of pronunciation, word boundaries, intonation, sentence and word stress. the cultural features consist of the students’ and the language cultural background and the regional accents. meanwhile, the psychological features consist of bottom-up and top-down processes, metacognition, metacognitive regulation, metacognitive knowledge, and metacognitive experience. shadowing shiota (2012: 78) states that shadowing is a training technique which is used to improve the interpreting skills. shiki, et al in zakeri (2014: 21) state that shadowing is an online repeating speech which must be done immediately. in this case, the listener immediately repeats what the speaker says without any pause. horiyama (2012: 115) explains the steps of shadowing as follows: (1) concentrating on the correct pronunciation when shadowing the listening text, (2) attending to the meaning of the listening text, and (3) reproducing the listening text by picturing it. next, kadota and tamai in hamada (2012: 7) give several steps: (1) dictation cloze, (2) mumbling, (3) parallel reading, (4) checking the understanding of the written text, (5) shadowing three times, (6) checking with the written texts for three minutes for sounds and the meanings that the listener could not understand, (7) content shadowing by concentrating on both shadowing and interpreting the meaning of the listening text, (8) dictation cloze (the same as the step 1), and (9) checking the answers. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.124-136 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 128 methodology the design of this research was a collaborative classroom action research. it was a cyclical process which consisted of four main steps: planning the action, implementing the action, observing the action, and reflecting the action. the lecturer was as the researcher in this research. she collaborated with a collaborator equipped with a semester of teaching learning planning (rps) of listening for the third semester and observation sheets containing field notes to write everything related to the lecturer’s activities, students’ activities, and students’ responses during the implementation of shadowing in listening class. two cycles were done in this research. every cycle had two meetings. then, the subjects of the research were 18 students of the third semester of english department of education faculty in the academic year of 2016/2017, hasyim asy’ari university (unhasy) tebuireng jombang. techniques of collecting data and data analysis techniques of collecting data used in this research were observation and listening test in the post-test having been held. observation was done by informing everything happening in the class on the field notes which were written by the collaborator in every meeting in the cycle. meanwhile, the post-test was done in the meeting after the cycle had finished. then, techniques of data analysis used in this research consisted of descriptive analysis and statistical analysis. the descriptive analysis consisted of the observation data which were analyzed to know the lecturer’s activities, the students’ activities, and the students’ responses during the implementation of shadowing. next, the statistical analysis was to know the improvement of the students’ listening skill and the percentage of the students passing the minimum criteria mastery. to know the improvement of the students’ listening skill, the researcher compared the mean score of pre-test, post test i, and post test ii. then, to know whether or not the improvement of the mean scores was significant, it was consulted to the computational result of spss t-test by using spss version 20. the criteria of the success of this research itself was when 75 % of the students got score 75 as the minimum mastery criteria. discussion cycle one register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.124-136 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 129 there were two meetings in cycle one. they were done in september 15 and september 22, 2016. the lecturer’s activities generally, the lecturer’s activities in meeting one and in meeting two were the same. firstly, the lecturer checked the attendance list and prepared everything needed in the listening class. then, she explained the method of shadowing that was going to be applied in the listening class. next, she did the shadowing steps as what she planned. here are the steps. a. the lecturer asked the students to shadow the sentence in the listening text as soon as they heard it and it was repeated four times b. the lecturer had the students write down what they were saying in the shadowing c. the lecturer got the students to find the meaning of the sentence that they have written in 5 minutes d. the lecturer checked the answer consisting of the written sentence and the meaning found by the students together with the entire the class. at those two meetings, the lecturer was in front of the class while playing and replaying the listening text. she did not give time limitation when the students shadowed and wrote the sentence spoken by the second person in the listening text. then, she also did nothing when knowing that her students did not shadow the sentence which the second speaker said as soon as they heard it. she let the students shadow the sentence not as soon as they heard it even though at first she instructed the students to shadow the sentence as soon as they heard it. the students’ activities in meeting one and meeting two, basically the students did what the lecturer instructed. the following are the descriptions of the students’ activities. a. the students shadowed the sentence in the listening text that they heard b. the students wrote down what they were saying in the shadowing c. the students found the meaning of the sentence that they have written in 5 minutes d. the students discussed the answer consisting of the written sentence and the meaning together with the entire the class. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.124-136 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 130 at a whole activity in meeting one, all the students did not shadow the sentence in the listening text played by the lecturer directly. they shadowed the sentence in the listening text when it was replayed in the second time. when first playing, they still paid attention carefully to the listening text while writing down the text in their papers. most of the students’ writing was still influenced by the words of the choices in their worksheet. besides, some students were laughing while shadowing the sentence. then, the students found the meaning of the sentence that they shadowed and wrote by matching it with the choices prepared in their worksheet. some of the students shadowed the sentence in the listening text played by the lecturer in the first playing in meeting two. other students still shadowed when the lecturer replayed the recording in the second turn. it was exactly the same as the activities in meeting one. they still paid attention carefully to the listening text when first playing. they did it while writing down the text in their papers. no student was laughing while shadowing the sentence in this meeting. they started to be confident to shadow the sentence of the second speaker’s saying even though they did not feel sure that what they said was correct. they also tried not to be influenced by the words of the choices prepared in their worksheet even though they heard the similar sound to the words in the choices. they did not want to be trapped anymore. the meeting after meeting two in cycle one was for post-test i. it was in september 29, 2016. the mean score of this post-test was 74.2. the students who passed the minimum mastery criteria were 61%. that is why cycle one was considered unsuccessful. the students’ responses in meeting one, the students were still not comfortable with shadowing model applied by the lecturer. it was because they were used to listening to the listening text by paying full attention carefully and writing down it in their papers without repeating it in the loud voices. most of the students were still silent when the time to shadow the listening text came. they were afraid of making mistakes because they were not sure about what they heard whether it was the same as the speaker said in the recording. besides, they complained that the speaker in the recording spoke very fast. meanwhile, the students seemed rather comfortable with shadowing model in meeting two. they tried to follow what the lecturer instructed in meeting two. it was proven by some of register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.124-136 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 131 the students who were shadowing the sentence of the second speaker’s saying in the recording in the first playing. they did it loudly while other students were busy with their papers and still paying attention to the next replaying. when the second replaying came, there were only two students who did not shadow the sentence that they heard. both of the students looked at each other. cycle two this cycle also consisted of two meetings which were done in october 6 and october 11, 2016. the lecturer’s activities as usual, the lecturer checked the attendance list and prepared everything needed in the listening class both in meeting one and meeting two. then, she explained what the students had to do in the method of shadowing that was going to be applied. she motivated the students to shadow the sentence as soon as they could catch what the speaker said in the recording. next, she did the shadowing steps as what she planned in cycle two. the steps are the followings. a. the lecturer asked the students to shadow the sentence in the listening text in 2 minutes as soon as they heard it and it was repeated four times b. the lecturer had the students write down what they were saying in the shadowing in 5 minutes after all the shadowing section finished c. the lecturer got the students to find the meaning of the sentence that they have written in 5 minutes d. the lecturer checked the answer consisting of the written sentence and the meaning found by the students together with the entire the class. in meeting one of this cycle, the lecturer was not only in front of the class to play and replay the listening text but also stand in the space room between table a and table b to notice the students’ shadowing. she had already given time limitation for the students to shadow and to write the sentence spoken by the second person in the listening text. then, she motivated her students to shadow the sentence that the second speaker said as soon as they heard it. she also asked what the students’ difficulties in shadowing the speaker’s saying. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.124-136 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 132 in meeting two, the lecturer did what she had done in meeting one. she really paid attention to the time limitation when the students shadowed and wrote the sentence spoken by the second person in the listening text. after the time to shadow finished, she replayed the recording. it was done for four times. the students’ activities in this meeting, the students did what the lecturer instructed. the following are the descriptions of the students’ activities. a. the students shadowed the sentence in the listening text that they heard in 2 minutes b. the students wrote down what they were saying in the shadowing in 5 minutes c. the students found the meaning of the sentence that they have written in 5 minutes d. the students discussed the answer consisting of the written sentence and the meaning together with the entire the class. the students’ activities were little different from those in cycle one. most of the students had already shadowed the sentence in the listening text played by the lecturer directly even though their sentence was not complete yet. when the second playing, all the students shadowed the sentence. it was done until the third and the fourth replaying. after all the shadowing activity finished, the students wrote their sentence in the paper. then, the students found the meaning of the sentence that they shadowed and wrote by matching it with the choices prepared in their worksheet. the students’ activities in meeting one were different from those in meeting one. all of the students had already shadowed the sentence in the listening text played by the lecturer directly even though their sentence was not complete yet. they shadowed it until the fourth replaying. after all the shadowing activity finished, the students wrote their sentence in the paper. then, the students found the meaning of the sentence that they shadowed and wrote by matching it with the choices prepared in their worksheet. the meeting after meeting two of cycle two was for post-test ii. it was done in october 18, 2016. the mean score of the listening test in post-test ii was 75. the percentage of the students passing the minimum mastery criteria was 77.8%. thus, it can be said that cycle two was successful. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.124-136 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 133 the students’ responses in meeting one of this cycle two, the students seemed comfortable with shadowing model applied by the lecturer. most of the students were active when the time to shadow the listening text came. they were not afraid anymore of making mistakes even though they were not sure about what they heard whether or not it was the same as the speaker said in the recording. besides, they looked so happy after shadowing together with entire the class. they could follow others’ saying when shadowing. they looked confident to tell their sentence and their finding of the meaning of the sentence they had written. the students seemed very comfortable with shadowing model in meeting two of this cycle. they followed what the lecturer instructed. it was proven by all of the students who were shadowing the sentence of the second speaker’s saying in the recording after the first playing. they did it loudly. they said the sentence and the meaning of the sentence without being asked by the lecturer. they were very happy when knowing that their answer was true. findings besides improving listening skill of the students, the researcher found that shadowing which was applied in the listening class could improve students’ vocabularies and spelling. when the students listened what the speaker said then wrote it, they often found some new words that they did not know before. nation in alqahtani (2015: 22) states that a language use can increase the knowledge of the vocabularies. the language use of this research is in the listening. this is strengthened by renukadevi (2014: 60) who argues that listening can help the learners to acquire pronunciation, word stress, vocabulary, and syntax based on what the speaker says. then, the increase of the vocabularies itself was also followed by the improvement of the students’ spelling. they could distinguish the spelling of words which had similar sounds. they did it by writing and understanding the context of what the speaker was talking about. the activities in shadowing really could enrich their vocabularies and spelling as well. meanwhile, the listening itself can improve the students’ speaking skill. in this case, the students imitated the speakers’ sayings and practiced them in their speaking. this finding is supported by sun (2009: 56) who states that listening can improve speaking. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.124-136 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 134 conclusions the followings are the conclusions based on the results of this research. 1. shadowing could improve listening skill in the third semester students of english department of education faculty of hasyim asy’ari university (unhasy) tebuireng jombang in the academic year of 2016/2017. 2. the lecturer’s activities in cycle one was as what she planned for cycle one. she still stood in front of the class while playing and replaying the listening text. she did not give the time limitation for shadowing and writing the sentence of the second speaker’s saying. she still let the students not shadow the sentence as soon as they heard it. but the lecturer’s activities had good progress in cycle two. she motivated her students to shadow as soon as they could catch the sentence of the second speaker’s saying. she also gave the time limitation for shadowing and writing the sentence of the second speaker’s saying. 3. the students’ activities got good progress from cycle one to cycle two. mostly, they shadowed the sentence in the second replaying. but all of the students shadowed the sentence as soon as they heard it in meeting two of cycle two. then, their mean score also got improvement, from 74.2 in cycle one and 75 in cycle two. meanwhile, the percentages of the students who got 75 as the minimum mastery criteria were 61% in cycle one and 77.8% in cycle two. 4. the students’ responses also were different between cycle one and cycle two. in cycle one, most of the students were still confused and silent when the model of shadowing was applied in their class. but all of them were active by shadowing directly as soon as they heard the sentence of the second speaker’s saying. besides, they looked very satisfied after the class. references adelmann, k. 2012. the art of listening in an educational perspectives listening reception in the mother tounge. journal of education inquiry, volume 3 no 4, december 2012; 513534. retrieved september 2015, from https://dspace.mah.se/bitstream/handle/2043/15340/108978_the_art_of_eduinq_vol3_no4 _dec12_513-534.pdf?sequence=2. alqahtani, m. 2015. the importance of vocabulary in language learning and how to be taught. international journal of teaching and education, volume 3 no 3, 2015; 21-34. 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in term of fluency. international journal of english language teaching vol.2, no.1(2014), pp.2126. retrieved january 2016, from www.eajournals.org/.../the-effect-of-shadowing-onefl-learners’-ora... register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.29-47 29 psychological problems and challenge in efl speaking classroom win listyaningrum arifin gadjah mada university win.listyaningrum.a@mail.ugm.ac.id doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.29-47 english abstract psychological aspect regarding to learning attitudes plays in determining learning achievement. psychological problems also involve not only to the students but also to teachers. less-confidence, speech anxiety, and low self-esteem are almost common problem in classroom, and occur on both teachers and students. students who have low of self-confidence are often hardly able to control themselves for public speaking in the classroom, e.g., governing his/ her behavior on that his/her peers think, losing belief on self, thinking that his/her friends dis-appraising, afraid of getting mistakes, etc. however, teachers who are low self-esteem and confidence also lose their performance and ability to manage their classroom optimally. low self-esteem may caused by teachers’ poor understanding on subject matter. both of psychological problems impact on dis-effectiveness of classroom activities. this paper takes accounts of some psychological problems of students and teachers in english speaking classroom and some guidelines to overcome. at the last discussion, this paper also provides some keys of how to make good classroom atmosphere. keywords: low self-esteem, low of self-confidence, anxiety, efl speaking classroom indonesian abstract aspek psikologis mengenai sikap belajar berperan dalam menentukan prestasi belajar. masalah psikologis juga mempengaruhi baik siswa maupun guru. kurang percaya diri, kecemasan berbicara, dan rendahnya harga diri hampir umum terjadi di kelas, dan terjadi pada guru dan siswa. siswa yang memiliki kepercayaan diri rendah seringkali tidak bisa mengendalikan diri untuk berbicara di depan umum di kelas, misalnya, mengatur tingkah lakunya seperti yang teman-teman harapkan, kehilangan kepercayaan pada diri sendiri, berpikir bahwa teman-temannya tidak memperhatikan, takut melakukan kesalahan, dan lain sebagainya. namun, guru yang memiliki kepercayaan diri dan harga diri yang kurang juga kehilangan performa dan kemampuan mereka dalam mengelola kelas secara optimal. harga diri yang rendah mungkin disebabkan oleh pemahaman guru yang kurang tentang materi pelajaran. kedua masalah psikologis tersebut berdampak pada keefektifan kegiatan kelas. makalah ini membahas beberapa masalah psikologis siswa dan guru di kelas bahasa inggris dan beberapa panduan untuk diatasi. pada diskusi terakhir, makalah ini juga memberikan beberapa kunci bagaimana membuat suasana kelas yang baik. kata kunci: rendahnya harga diri, rendahnya kepercayaan diri, kecemasan, kelas berbicara mailto:win.listyaningrum.a@mail.ugm.ac.id http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.873 win listyaningrum arifin introduction background of the study it is should be taken into account that to gain successful education needs self-efficacy or self-esteem. problems relate to the lack of self-efficacy doesn’t only occur on students as participant of the learning process but in some cases also occur on teacher as practitioner of teaching. at once, we might ever find a teacher which looked like low self-esteem and show in-confidence performance; these phenomena will impact on the student learning perception, motivation and outcomes. nowadays, speaking is generally perceived as the most fundamental skill to acquire. speaking in english for efl students is not an easy task and needs much effort to produce acceptable words and utterances in english. the achievement measurement for english mastery is obviously seen through speaking competence. teaching speaking in english as foreign language is perhaps the most emergent aspect of language skill, because it isn’t only to build students’ ability in producing verbal sentences, ability in producing good pronunciation, accuracy in the contact of speech and fluency but it also involves students’ mental control as fortress of performance. as the most important aspect of language skill in term of communication, speaking is precisely often the one that student cannot gain enough competence during the english classroom. in many cases teachers are aware that speaking is the most difficult one and often become the most significant failure in english classroom. the failures in english speaking classroom are not caused only by one or two aspects. teachers’ advance in speaking competence is not a guarantee that he/she can develop their students’ speaking ability. some teachers only sometime evaluate the problems in students speaking development from the students’ behavior, and the lack of supporting media. it is very rare for teachers to find out the problems relate to the speaking failure in deeper aspect which involve students’ psychology, however, psychological problems often influence on the ability, willingness and motivation of the students to achieve speaking competence. lackconfidence, shyness, and fear are often psychological problem that we often meet in speaking classroom and learners’ anxiety to speak english in the classroom is the result. the psychological factors which influence on the failure of teaching process doesn’t only occur to the students’ classroom behavior, these also may occur on some teachers. when teachers are not able enough to control the classroom, it might be influenced by their mental register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.29-47 31 and psychology. lack of confidence, less of esteem, are the common psychological problem of teacher. some factors may influence on such these phenomena, less of readiness, less of self-experiences, and poor of material understanding are examples that we often found in some teachers. this paper is to arise psychological problems relate to speaking classroom, the writer tries not to address only to the students problems but also to teachers. for both teachers and students often faced similar problems such nervous, self-confidence, self-esteem which are common become speech anxiety that influence on their speaking performance in the classroom. thus, this paper had explored to answer problems in speaking class concerning its psychological factors and challenges that had influenced for both teachers and students. juhana in 2012 had conducted research on psychological factors faced by senior high school students in tangerang, banten. his research revealed that psychological factors such as fear of making mistake, shyness, anxiety, lack of confidence and lack of motivation hinder students from speaking in english class. those factors, like fear of making mistakes, were commonly caused by their fear of being laughed at by their friends. the possible solution to overcome those psychological factors, most students believed that motivating them to be more confident to speak english is worth considering. this finding suggests that the teachers should be more aware of their students’ hindrance to speak in english class. he adds that motivating students to speak in english, to some extent, encourages them to actively participate in speaking in the class. all these suggest the importance of creating a supporting atmosphere of learning in the classroom (juhana, 2012). another research is done by ariyanti in 2016 to efl students entitled “psychological factors affecting efl students’ speaking performance”. by conducting direct observation and interviews to indonesian students at speaking class, the research showed that the students tend to feel anxious when performing their speaking because they are afraid of making mistakes. the feeling of fear of making mistakes, somehow related to the students’ lack of self-esteem in using english so that they often combine their speaking with their mother tongue. psychological barriers also appear in discussion session, where in this case some students do not want to participate because they are too, afraid of making mistakes, lack of self-esteem and motivation so they prefer to keep silent in the class. from the natural phenomenon happened in the speaking class, it can be concluded that psychological factors which hinder the students in performing their speaking are possibly caused by the feeling of win listyaningrum arifin too worried of making mistakes and the lack of self-esteem which are related to shyness and their anxiety level. by looking at this phenomenon, it is better for teacher to give their students assistance so that they can perform their english speaking better (ariyanti, 2016). research done by alessia occhipinti (2009) on her thesis entitled “foreign language anxiety in class speaking activities” in a foreign language class in universities. the findings of the research are likely to support other studies, by asserting that foreign language anxiety is a common debilitating feeling which affects students in a variety of ways. this is also frequently happening to foreign language learners in many grades from high schools to universities. particularly frequent during speaking activities, she thought that the awareness of such a feeling should be heightened and not be undervalued by teachers and learners. this could be realized through workshops or the adoption of certain teaching methodologies aimed to create a relaxed atmosphere in the classroom especially during speaking practices (e.g. communicative language teaching; natural approach). making students comfortable by avoiding activities which increase competitiveness or which threaten students’ self esteem is very important. working in small groups and discussing interesting topics are good activities that allow students to know each other and to practice the foreign language. teachers could use gentle and flexible approaches of error correction, being friendly and with a good sense of humour. thus, this research proposes strategies that can be applied to such similar environment in many parts of the world where speaking english is the subject of discussion. furthermore, this paper did not aim to make a generalization to similar speaking class. however, general phenomena sometimes occur in many situations of other speaking classes. research method this paper is a qualitative research by implementing a library research which was based on the personal observation to a speaking class. here, the researcher analyzed detail information from participants to capture the whole pictures of phenomenon happened in natural condition (creswell: 1998). this paper also documented writing or articles that also revealed similar themes on speaking class relating to the psychological condition, the challenging problems on this class, and also the coping strategies toward rising problems. the subject is students from the fourth semester of english department at state islamic institute salatiga (institut agama islam negeri) indonesia in 2016. digging information from direct observation can meet the objectivity for the research and by applying such purposive register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.29-47 33 sampling, the researcher had been assisted to obtain detail information related to the needs of the researcher (gay, mills & airasian, 2006). in qualitative study, there are several techniques which can be used by the researcher to collect the data, they are observation, field notes, interview, questionnaire, and examining records (gay, mills & airasian, 2006). meanwhile, here the researcher stated the study by doing direct observation to the participants directly while they were joining the class and performing their speaking competence after the lecturer’s instruction. they performance was based on themes instructed earlier by the lecturer. while they were delivering the speech, the researcher made field notes to support the observation in picturing the phenomenon in the speaking class. the behaviors conducted by the efl students while they were speaking were recorded and noted. in addition, the attitudes of both lecturer and the students were also noted to figure out some psychological factors and challenge while the speaking class was happening. interviews to some students, as well as to the lecturer, were also done to get a clear picture for the matter. theoretical framework psychological problems relate to the students in speaking classroom for many students, apprehension levels are highest in the first lesson, when they meet the teacher, encounter the unknown, and, in some cases, make nerve-wracking presumptions about being expected to perform instantly, remember everything, and demonstrate their lack of skill to a roomful of people. it is vital for the ultimate success of the class that such tension can be defused early, and that students can be encouraged to overcome their inhibitions. the very first class is the perfect time for the language teacher to present a fun lesson that makes few demands and prepares students to open up in front of others. most beginner students are a little uncomfortable about to speak aloud or to be singled out to answer a question in any classroom. some students are so embarrassed and self-conscious that they avoid the classroom conversation practice and participation that is essential for the development of language skills. a. low-confidence macintyre, dornyei, clement, and noels (as cited in hysook and adam r. lee 2004) suggested that self-confidence significantly contributes to the leaner’s willingness to win listyaningrum arifin communicate in a foreign language. according to them, affective factors such as motivation, personality, and intergroup climate play important role in determining. james manktelow & amy carlson categorize the differences between self-confident and low self-confident such as in the following table: a teacher may be experienced to find his/her student less of willingness and isolates among their friends. this symptom generally influenced by the lack of confidence in the individual of the students. students who are low in confidence also have low self-efficacy that is being influenced by the feeling that they are 'stupid', 'worthless', not as 'bright' as others, they do not know that everyone else is not probably better than they are. in the previous table, the psychological aspects of low self-confident may occur in speaking classroom where teacher meet the students indicate to: 1. govern his/ her behavior on that his/her peers think, lose belief on self, and think that his/her friends dis-appraising him/her presentation. 2. afraid of getting mistakes and forcing his/her self covering mistakes during presentation 3. too much extolling others 4. dismiss compliments offhandedly. “oh that was nothing really, anyone could have done it.” register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.29-47 35 hysook and adam r. lee (2004) in their conclusion of their research suggested that teachers should pay more affective domains. technically, teacher arise students’ sense of belief on self. elaine sihera (2009) stated that effective strategies to overcome student confidence should include such following elements: 1. gaining the student's trust as the teacher, the best way to gain trust is to be consistent and firm with clear boundaries, to be accessible where possible, to find opportunities to engage the student to make them feel involved and valued and to be positive more than negative. 2. setting personal routine that students can control routines provide familiarity, regularity, boundaries and frameworks which gradually boost feelings of being able to cope through repetition and presentation practice. the more something is established, repeated and becomes familiar the more it loses its mystery, the more it is learned and the more it can be controlled. for example, setting times to do their homework, ways to organize their work and not using work times for leisure are easy routines they can follow. by setting clear routines for students, they are given a sense of security, a sense of purpose and security and a base from which to gradually build their confidence. 3. encourage positive reinforcement the hallmark of positive reinforcement is affirmation and encouragement of the individual: praise and more praise for any effort. this is very important for increasing student confidence. positive reinforcement in the classroom does not mean no criticism at all, that would be unrealistic. what it means is that the quality and form of feedback to students are very important. there should always be praise before blame, with regards to all efforts. 4. discourage a perception of being only 'right' or 'wrong' very few things are totally 'right' or 'wrong' on a cultural or social level. not even deviance. it is all a question of what is 'appropriate' for a given time. hence talking in the playground might be acceptable but chatting in a classroom at a particular teaching moment becomes 'inappropriate' for obvious reasons, though it might even be allowed at another teaching time. explaining what is inappropriate to students and why it could be so takes away the need for the teacher to be 'right' or the students to be 'wrong' and educates them in how they can regulate their own behavior confidently around what is win listyaningrum arifin mutually acceptable. this approach is crucial to encourage them to experiment and use their initiative. if they won't be 'wrong' then they are free to find more appropriate responses. 5. encourage students to be themselves in such cases, encourage them to talk about their lives, their cultures and their fears. then interweave their contributions in the daily life of the classroom. this is very important because minority students are exposed from the very first day to majority culture and are expected to assimilate it. by being encouraged to be themselves they too can feel valued at the same time while undergoing integration. 6. encourage personal perspectives by encouraging students to share how they see the world, their perceptions can be used to frame the actual reality of classroom activity so that they do not feel excluded at any time. b. anxiety (shyness and fear) speech anxiety is a general term for the sense of fear that overtakes a student when he/she is called upon to speak or otherwise perform in front of the class. there are other terms to refer to it: anxiousness, nervousness, stage fright, etc. anxiety usually strikes when someone has to deliver a presentation before a group of people and it is another special case of what is commonly known as shyness. 1. shyness shyness is a psychological state that causes a person to feel discomfort in social situations in ways that interfere with enjoyment or that cause avoidance of social contacts altogether. shyness can vary from mild feelings to moderately uncomfortable in social circumstances to debilitating levels of anxiety that interfere in people with the process of socialization (social withdrawal). most classrooms have one or more students who struggle with making themselves heard or participating in class discussions. these students are usually called "shy" because they may speak softly, prefer to work independently or refuse to speak up at all. often these students are good with written assignments or tests, but fail in areas that require participation with classmates or presentations in front of other students. shy students are often too afraid to speak up in a public and classroom setting. so many causes may impact on this case, a student which is previously high-confidence register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.29-47 37 can be suddenly become talk less due to he/she made a mistake, it is often influences by less of mental power that prop his/her confidence. shy student can also be the result of not interacting too often with peers. this student fear too much of being asked and to answer questions inside the classroom, even more to speak in front of the class. the major behavioral components of excessive shyness in student are as follows:  difficulty talking, stammering, stuttering , blushing, shaking, sweating hands when around others  difficulty thinking of things to say to people  absence of outgoing mannerisms such as good eye contact or an easy smile 2. fear a great fear that many people have is speaking in front of a group or audience. the primary reason is that they are afraid of looking foolish in front of other people. speaking in front of others, consistently counts as one of the foremost fears of individuals. indeed, many students place speaking presentation ahead of death itself in their relative ranking of fears. it is no wonder, then, that many students tend to avoid situations where they are expected to speak or perform in front of the class, for example, a student may struggle through, or seek to avoid altogether, only to practice a little presentation in front of his/her friends. a teacher can recognize that his/her student is suspected by speech anxiety in both physical and psychological symptoms. in general, student which is suspected by speech anxiety in both physical and psychological will show the following symptoms:  trembling or shaking body and sweat profusely  their hands especially begin to feel moist  their heart rate begins to quicken  their mouths become parched  their mind begins to race  their thoughts become jumbled b.1. strategies to overcome the student’s anxiety there are useful strategies to help these young, shy or withdrawn students to be out of their shells through active teacher partnership, peer involvement. here are some strategies: win listyaningrum arifin  re-arrange seating often so they make new friends and re-shuffle again until the student befriends all of his classmates.  encourage responses from them specifically during class presentation.  give special tasks to especially shy students to make them feel important and make them responsible students.  engage in private conversations if necessary to monitor their progress and report them to the students’ parents.  exhibit the good artwork or assignment of your shy students to develop their selfworth and confidence.  give them specific roles in the classroom that will initiate interactions too among them as students.  peer involvement, teacher can ask some peers or students to become confederates and help shy children cope.  teachers, too, can create activities that require the formation of small group and cooperative learning activities. considering that shyness can sometimes be the symptom of a psychological issue or a troublesome home life, parental involvement can be the key. low self-esteem relate to the teachers’ problems fernando rubio (2007) stated that basically, self-esteem is a psychological and social phenomenon in which an individual evaluates his/her competence and own self according to some values, which may result in different emotional states, and which becomes developmentally stable but is still open to variation depending on personal circumstances and may also occur in classroom. pine and boy (1997) express “pupils feel the personal emotional structure of the teacher long before they feel the impact of the intellectual content offered by that teacher”, in the other hand, krashen and garcia (1981) state that the teacher's attitudes have a direct effect on the students' motivation, self-esteem, and anxiety level. teacher which has strong belief oh his/her individual competence will have good self-esteem and confidence for his/her attitude in the classroom, on the other way, teacher which has less belief on his/her individual competence will be low self-esteem and it also will influence on his/her classroom activity. some factors which may cause on the lack of teacher confidence can be: register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.29-47 39 1. poor understanding on subject matter it often occur in almost many teachers which do not prepare enough the subject matter, or even ignore such simple thing that considered as not important thing. 2. less of self experiences and cultural insights teacher which less self-experience and language cultural insight will looked like stupid person when he/she cannot explain how the language in accordance with the culture. 3. forget his/her position in the instructional process, a teacher has to be in harmony with the students, but it will be dangerous if the teacher is too close to his/her students and lost his/her position as instructor or classroom leader. the effect of the low self-esteem teacher according to honeyford (1982) a major limiting factor in any classroom is the teacher not only do his character, play his personality and competence in a large part in determining the atmosphere of the lesson, but the teacher also performs a key role in influencing the pupils’ view of himself and the sort of progress he/she makes. psychologically, teacher which has less self-esteem will lead his/herself into: passive teacher, he/she simply relies on the same old teaching techniques day after day, further the lack of esteem teacher also will not respect on the classroom management which is the linchpin that makes teaching and learning achievable, teacher with lass of esteem will not be able to manage the students and lead them into positive learning situation due to the less student respect on him/her. a. how to develop teacher self-esteem confidence is a key to being a successful teacher. a confident teacher generates respect among his students and inspires them to listen and learn from him. lack of confidence in a teacher is damaging not only to the career, but also to the students' ability and willingness to learn. every teacher should take the time to develop confidence. becky hawk suggests for some aspects which are considered as important thing to develop teacher confidence are as follow: 1. know the subject matter. it is important that a teacher must keep up in his/her field and stay a few steps ahead of the students. if a teacher is unsure of the subject matter or unprepared for the lessons, win listyaningrum arifin he/she will neither feel nor seem confident. thus, this is very important to carefully prepare and review each lesson in order to boost his/her own confidence and teach authoritatively. 2. step outside the box with the teaching on occasion. it is a must to demonstrate the teacher’s knowledge to students in class. he/she should go beyond simple explanations occasionally to show the competence. don't overwhelm the students, but do show them that the teacher knows more about what he/she is teaching than they do. this is also important to use creativity and don't be confined to a mundane, ordinary teaching style. 3. remember a teacher’s position. as a teacher has been hired to teach because the employer thought he/she is competent for the task. the position should give the confidence for teacher. it is important not to let students manipulate or make the teacher feels inadequate. they must respect the teacher not only for his/her knowledge, but also for his/her position's sake. 4. observe the students. work to meet their needs and keep them engaged and excited about the subject matter. 5. teacher’s appearance can have an effect on the way you feel as a teacher. this is absolutely suggested to keep up teacher’s physical appearance. if a teacher does not feel good about himself, this could have an effect on confidence as a teacher. the way to dress in a way that makes a teacher feels confident is necessary. keys to encourage reluctant learners in the speaking classroom nation (2007) suggests of these techniques based on the cognitive, affective and situational framework put forth by: 1. reduce the level of task difficulty from nation’s point of view, if students do not know enough, they will not be able to perform the task well, and this is one of the causes of students’ unwillingness to speak. the following techniques are practical in dealing with the problem: a. give students more time to do tasks this can be done by giving students more preparation time. alternatively, allow them to perform oral tasks without time pressure (ellis, 2005) by giving them enough time to plan for and perform a task at the same time. b. bring the tasks within students’ experience register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.29-47 41 according to nation (2000), teachers can create recalling and sharing-experience opportunities for students to make use of their background knowledge and experience in doing the tasks. key oral skills and strategies should be pre-taught in preparing students for communicative tasks. also, it is advisable that teachers grade the difficulty level of oral tasks to suit their students’ communicative ability. c. allow students to collaboratively solve communicative tasks (nation, 2000) when organizing pair work and group work, make sure that every student’s participation is necessary for the task to be completed. it is best if each participant has “unique, essential information” or distinctive role to play (nation, 2007). d. provide students with task guidance nation (2000) suggests providing this kind of support through repeated input, guiding questions, multiple choices, and so on. e. attend to individual students’ needs and ability in a class of heterogeneous communicative ability, the teacher should not expect every student to perform at the same level. likewise, different kinds of tasks can be devised to suite different levels. alternatively, task demands can be adjusted according to individual levels of oral competence. 2. promote positive attitudes among students students who hold positive attitudes towards language learning are less likely to suffer from language learning anxiety and more likely to participate actively in learning tasks (tsiplakides & keramida, 2010). the techniques suggested below can help the teacher build up positive attitudes among students so that they can feel free to speak in the language class. a. change students’ negative beliefs and attitudes towards mistakes teachers can discuss with students the value of language use even if it is not fluent and accurate (young, 1991; nation, 1997). meaning-focused oral activities (nation, 2007) can also be used frequently with the goal clearly stated. when students are rewarded for successfully conveying a message, they will gradually change their perceptions about mistakes and language use. the teachers' tolerance of mistakes also needs to be made clear because there is no point in trying to change students’ attitudes when the teacher still keeps them. win listyaningrum arifin b. boost students’ self-confidence this can be done by creating various opportunities for classroom success in using spoken english (oxford, 1999). a sense of success and high self-perceived communication competence can be easily achieved by students if easy tasks with clear and simple goals are used in the first place. the level of difficulty can be increased over time as students’ ability develops. general goals should be broken down into smaller, short-term goals so that even when students do not achieve the final goals they still feel a sense of achievement for completing some of the subgoals. also, students should be rewarded once they achieve one or more goals. c. lower students’ anxiety in the classroom according to young (1991), teachers can start with finding out what students are anxious about. then teachers can help them ease some of their irrational fears and teach them strategies such as self-talks and doing relaxation exercises to deal with fears. 3. build a supportive learning environment once students feel a sense of support from their teacher and peers, it is likely that they will be more willing to speak in the target language. the following are some techniques that teachers can use to create a supportive atmosphere for students. a. encourage peer support in the classroom tsui (1996:160) suggests that “allowing students to check their answers with their peers before offering them to the whole class also encourages students to speak up.” similarly, they can be allowed to have a discussion with their peers before talking to the whole class so that they will feel more confident in speaking english. b. be sensitive when assigning students into groups many students tend to talk more with their close friends. therefore, when organizing group work, the teachers should take account of and accommodate these personal traits. for example, students can be allowed to choose who they are going to work with. c. tolerate l1 use when appropriate according to nation (1997), using l1 can help learning in many cases. the teachers’ attitude to l1 use should be positive so that students are not humiliated register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.29-47 43 when they use l1 to assist l2 development. when l1 use is not necessary, the teachers should tactically lead students back to using english. d. make the classroom environment a non-threatening place (oxford, 1999) the classroom should be an environment where students are not scared of making communicative mistakes and being ambiguous in communicating. situations that make students anxious such as correcting mistakes on the spot, calling on students at random (young, 1991), calling on students without allowing them to prepare for the answers, and calling on a student simply because he/she is quiet or not concentrating should be avoided. otherwise, what the teacher gets from students is usually not desired language use but threatened faces and this will have negative effects on the students’ feelings and attitudes afterwards. e. introduce opportunities for students to speak english outside the class opportunities such as english clubs inside and outside the school should be introduced to students. the benefits of and tactics for participation should be clearly explained to them. classroom activities can also be linked to these club activities. for example, students can be asked in the class to report on their participation in the clubs or they can share their experience with their classmates. more opportunities for speaking english outside the class can also be created. for instance, students can be put into groups to do some projects and if possible, their group work should be recorded. they may also be asked to carry out and record interviews with foreigners who are visiting or living around. the solutions in this category are ranked from the most specific, day-to-day basis to the most long-term one. although short-term and long-term measures should be taken in parallel, it is believed that short-term solutions should receive priority to be completed first. this will create more opportunities for the long-term ones to be successful. discussion based on the data gained from direct observation in speaking class of forth semester students of iain salatiga, the researcher found that the students had shown similar performances. psychological factors concerning on low self confidence, low self esteem, anxiety, less concentration and the like were common features while the students were win listyaningrum arifin performing the speech. though they had prepared the material the days before and had been determined by themes, including the time duration, they performance was obviously influenced by their psychological conditions. to note, not all students were bad in the performance, there were some who were good at speaking. however, still, the psychological conditions had determined the flow of the presentations. these conditions had driven them to keep repeating the words or sentences, sometimes unintentionally inserted fillers e.g. hmm, err, etc., scratched hair, looked at the ceiling, moved/shakes the body gently, or used bahasa indonesia to intensify the lost words they had prepared. a kind of clinical interviews was then conducted to some students, surprisingly that they were afraid and ashamed of making mistakes to the lecturer. they were also anxious to what other friends perceived on them. the english using which was not to their customs was then used to make a kind of permission so that their speaking ability was not good. they excused that english through speaking was a hard skill to achieve. the lecturer’s readiness in delivering a speaking class was also important. after the speaking class, the lecturer was then interviewed to investigate the matter. the lecturer revealed the fact that for some students the themes of the subject were quite difficult. when the lecturer asked the students to explore and to elaborate the themes from daily situations, the students felt unpleased and looked worried. the lecturer stated that she was quite supportive to the students and even gave situational examples. in fact, this was a difficult task as she must prepare the information concerning the students’ records. she had to ask other colleagues about the students’ situations but these were not too useful as the students’ situation in perceiving each subject would be varied. later, she tried to create a comfort condition by inserting humor while she was teaching or commenting the students’ performance. she encouraged the students that this speaking class was ahead process to master english. however, based the interview with the lecturer, she stated that she had made an abridgement by giving mutual supports to the students. here, she did not make her position as the lecturer as the solely orientation as she thought that this was not again the day where a teacher perceived himself as the center of the universe/class. form the data, the researcher then concluded that the speaking class had been done effectively as the lecturer really understood the process of the students’ competence flows. this was a mutual relationship which was very important to engage education especially in register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.29-47 45 efl situation. the speaking aim is not merely about mastering the language but also about understanding the culture of communicative direction. of course, any psychological situation and challenge for such condition should be taken into account by implementing good strategies in dealing with problems in speaking class. conclusion psychological aspect in english classroom needs to be considered because it will impact on students affective perceptions, teachers are not demanded to enrich in their pedagogical competence, but further they have to develop psychological awareness. succeed or failure of an instructional process depends on how teacher manage and perform. the aspects which are part of learning succeed might be psychological and individual. a language teacher is demanded not only to be able in transforming knowledge of language but also have to be able to involve culture of language in language classroom, teacher attitude is also an important aspect gaining the success of learning. teachers need to adapt these techniques to suite their class situation. furthermore, many of these solutions should be implemented simultaneously so that they can supplement each other in tackling the problem from different angles, creating a better chance that the problem will successfully be solved. references ariyanti (2016). psychological factors affecting efl students’ speaking performance. asian tefl vol. 1 no.1, 2016 www.asian-tefl.com e-issn: 2503-2569, p-issn: 2527-5038 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.21462/asiantefl.v1i1.14 brown, d. (2001). principles of language learning and teaching. new york: longman. creswell, john w. (1998). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five traditions. thousand oaks, california: sage publication inc. dornyei, z. (1998). motivation in second and foreign language learning. in cai xi. (2008). affective value of cooperative learning in foreign language learning and teaching. shanghai international studies university. win listyaningrum arifin duncan sidwell, (2006). encouraging talk in the classroom, retrieved from http://www1.open.edu.cn/elt/3/ htm, [01,11, 2011] ellis, r. (2005). planning and task-based performance: theory and research. in r. ellis (ed.), planning and task performance in a second language (pp. 3-34). amsterdam: john benjamins publishing company. gay, l. r. mills, geoffrey e, & airasian, peter. (2006). educational research: competencies for analysis and applications. columbus: pearson merrill prentice hall. honey ford, r. (1982). starting teaching, london, uk: croon helm ltd. hysook and adam r. lee ( 2004). leaners’ anxiety, self-conficence and oral performance kunsan national university, concordia universty james manktelow & amy carlson. -. building self-confidence, retrieved from http://www.brickstonesquare [22. sep. 2011] juhana (2012). psychological factors that hinder students from speaking in english class (a case study in a senior high school in south tangerang, banten, indonesia). journal of education and practice. issn 2222-1735 (paper) issn 2222-288x (online) vol 3, no 12, 2012 mcintyre, p.d., dornyei, z., clement, r., & noels, k. (1998). conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a l2; situation model of l2 confidence and affiliation. modern language journal 82, 545-62 mccroskey, j.c. and richmond, v.p. (1991). quiet children and the classroom teacher. eric clearinghouse on reading and communication skills. nation, p. (1997). l1 and l2 use in the classroom: a systematic approach. tesl reporter, 30(2). 19-27. nation, i.s.p. (2000). creating, adapting and using language teaching techniques. english language institute occasional publication no. 20. victoria university of wellington. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.29-47 47 nation, i.s.p. (2007). vocabulary learning through experience tasks. victoria university of wellington: lals. nation, p. (2007). frameworks for problem solving. lecture notes for lals 516: classroom management. wellington: victoria university of wellington. occhipinti, alessia (2009). foreign language anxiety in class speaking activities. a thesis presented to the department of literature, area studies and european languages the university of oslo oxford, r.l. (1999). anxiety and the language learner: new insights. in j. arnold (ed.), affect in language learning (pp. 58-67). cambridge: cambridge university press. tsiplakides, i. and keramida, a. (2010). promoting positive attitudes in esl/efl classes. the internet tesl journal, xvi(1). http://iteslj.org/techniques/tsiplakidespositiveattitudes.html tsui, a.b.m. (1996). reticence and anxiety in second language learning. in k.m. bailey and d. nunan (eds.), voices from the language classroom: qualitative research in second language education (pp. 145-167). new york: cambridge university press. yan chuanhai & zhang meijuan. (2002). affective factors in foreign language teaching. foreign language world. young, d.j. (1991). creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: what does language anxiety research suggest? the modern language journal, 75 (iv), 42 dinamika pengarusutamaan gender register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022), pp. 1-19 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v15i1.1-19 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 1 an exploration of efl teachers’ challenges and strategies during the pandemic: a case of emergency blended synchronous education mehmet kanik,1* abbas hadizadeh2 1,2 english language teaching program, faculty of education, final international university, kyrenia, 99370, north cyprus *) corresponding author email: mehmet.kanik@final.edu.tr doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i1.1-19 submission track: received: 02-01-2022 final revision: 12-04-20222 available online: 30-04-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract with the lockdowns caused by the covid-19 pandemic, educational institutions had to make swift educational decisions such as emergency blended synchronous education without thoroughly scrutinizing its effects. this study explores the experiences of a group of seven efl teachers of a blended learning model during the pandemic in northern cyprus higher education. the study adopted a qualitative design by interviewing seven teachers on their experiences during the pandemic by particularly focusing on a blended instructional mode of education over the fall academic semester in 2020. the results of the study reveal that the study participants employed various strategies to cope with the challenges ascribed to the blended mode of delivery. the findings of the study offer some implications for second language teachers and the use of technology in second language education. keywords: efl teachers, challenges, emergency blended synchronous education, blended education http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v15i1.1-19 http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ m. kanik, a. hadizadeh 2 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) introduction since the who emergency committee announced a global emergency state in january 2020 due to increasing covid-19 cases (mcaleer, 2020; velavan & meyer, 2020), the world has encountered enormous challenges such as restriction of movement, social distancing, lockdown and quarantine as well as unprecedented economic and psychosocial consequences. the covid-19 related policies and regulations not only have impacted the livelihoods of people around the world but have also affected students’ education and teachers’ lifestyles and practices. one important change was in the delivery mode of education from on-campus to online, which has not been a very smooth process for students and teachers alike all around the world. in northern cyprus, after the identification of a few covid-19 cases in march 2020, educational institutions and organizations transitioned their academic activities to virtual platforms (covid-19 pandemic in the trnc, 2021). however, on may 11, 2020, after the last coronavirus patient was discharged from hospital and after announcing no active cases (covid19 pandemic in northern cyprus, 2021), some of the universities on the island decided to offer a blended education, giving options to the students to follow their lessons either on campus or online synchronously or asynchronously. this created a new dynamic where neither the institutions, nor the students and the teachers were prepared for. the optional instruction imposed by the pandemic has been a new experience for everyone involved in these institutions and possibly in other places around the world where the pandemic has forced institutions to make such transitions into new models of education. thus, this study attempted to explore the experiences of a group of seven english language teachers during the covid-19 pandemic in northern cyprus by focusing particularly on the emergency blended synchronous mode of education they undertook. because blended synchronous education is a recent educational model, fewer studies have investigated its use and effectiveness (raes et al. 2020). in the majority of these studies addressing the issue, the focus has been on implementations in normal circumstances and have mainly focused on students or design factors (abdelmalak & parra, 2016; bower et al., 2017; mckimmy & schmidt, 2014, 2015; zydney et al., 2019) rather than teachers, especially efl teachers. yet the emergency nature of the model implemented during the pandemic creates a new condition that has not been investigated, particularly an exploration of efl teachers’ challenges and strategies during the pandemic .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 3 within the context of this study, as the use of such technology-embedded options in a global crisis is a new phenomenon. according to a survey conducted by unesco (2021) between 15 december 2020 and 12 february 2021 with 220 university students in 64 countries, the participants’ education was affected by the covid-19 pandemic. the most noted changes were reported in the delivery mode of education from in-person to remote teaching and challenges and opportunities that students experienced as a result. like students, the role of teachers has also remarkably changed since the start of the pandemic, possibly making the task of teaching even more challenging than the faceto-face mode. barron et al. (2021) see this change of teachers’ role in two main ways. the first change has been in the form of pedagogical adaptations since traditional models of education did not meet the demands of the new mode of education in the remote learning environment where every household has become a classroom. the second change has been in the teachers’ time allotment for teaching, students’ engagement, and administrative duties. according to the same source, 83% of brazilian teachers surveyed during the pandemic did not feel ready to teach remotely, 67% felt anxious, 38% expressed tiredness, and only less than 10% felt ready and satisfied. the pandemic seems to have impacted teachers’ wellbeing, which was a topic of interest even before the pandemic. for example, mccallum et al. (2017), in their review of relevant literature, found that most of the studies investigating teachers’ wellbeing focused primarily on teacher burnout and stress and as such identified several factors that impact teachers’ wellbeing, namely resilience and self-efficacy; social-emotional competence/emotional intelligence; personal responses to their work such as burnout, fatigue, exhaustion, stress; and relational factors. there is, however, little research on efl teachers’ challenges, strategies and experiences during the pandemic. in what follows, a number of studies investigating the experiences of english language teachers will be reviewed. macintyre, gregersen and mercer (2020) view teaching as normally a challenging profession by listing several factors that trigger stressors for teachers, such as workloads, time constraints, administrative obligations, managing innovation and change, dread over losing control of the class, fear of evaluation, and several others. they also add challenges that are specific to language teachers such as “self-doubts about one’s own language ability; coping with the emotional anxieties of learners; heterogeneous proficiency in learner groups; threats to sense of self and m. kanik, a. hadizadeh 4 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) identity; energy intense teaching methodologies; intercultural components to teaching; and precarious working conditions” (p. 2-3). with the pandemic, even further challenges have been added to the list: “health concerns for self and others, changes brought on by working from home, threats to the current job and future career, new family and domestic responsibilities, and often being confined to their home” (p. 2). in another study conducted by hartshorn and mcmurry (2020) on the difficulties of esl students and teachers in the united states during the pandemic, the respondent teachers perceived a reduced importance for the role of teaching english and mentioned several challenges namely concern for their students’ wellbeing, concern for family, social and mental health, transition to online classes, employment and finances, physical health and school work. it is apparent that the language teachers experience psychological, social and physical challenges during the pandemic, which potentially influence their wellbeing (dodge et al., 2012). finaly, a study by national geographic learning english language teaching (2020, as cited in hughes, 2020) on around 6800 people, of whom 87 percent were english teachers from 123 countries during the pandemic, revealed three most cited challenges of online teaching for teachers as maintaining and engaging learners (around 80%), providing interactive lessons (66%) and using technology effectively (26%). because of the perceived challenges, countries took some actions to support teachers during the pandemic. according to a survey conducted by unesco, unicef, and the world bank (2020), for example, 90 percent of the respondents from different countries involved stated that they supported their teachers in various ways during the pandemic by providing various guidelines and workshops as well as combining high-tech and low-tech approaches to better assist their students’ learning. nevertheless, the teachers also had to face the challenges daily and handle them with their own coping strategies. focusing on psychological challenges such as increased stress felt by language teachers during the remote teaching, macintyre, gregersen and mercer (2020) worked with 634 language teachers from around the world and identified two major types of coping strategies: approach strategies and avoidant strategies. the first one, considered to be the healthier option, relies on the acknowledgment of the stressors and attempts to eliminate them. the other one is related to acts such as denial or substance use. in their study, they found that the most important stressors were workload, family health and loss of control over work an exploration of efl teachers’ challenges and strategies during the pandemic .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 5 during the pandemic. they also found that the language teachers mostly preferred approach type coping strategies such as “acceptance, followed by advanced planning, re-framing, actively doing something about the situation, and using work or other activity as a distraction” (p. 7). yi and jang (2020), on the other hand, report two efl teachers’ specific experiences in an elementary school in south korea and identified two main coping strategies employed by these teachers in this efl environment: translingual practices and collaborative teaching. they observed that these teachers used l1 and l2 as semiotic recourses and used them in a hybrid and dynamic manner to support literacy and learning. since one of the teachers was a native speaker and the other was non-native, they observed that collaborative teaching allowed them to employ various linguistic and cultural knowledge during their teaching, which seemed to the researchers as a negotiated and planned collaboration to make effective use of remote teaching. another study by atmojo and nugroho (2020) on 16 efl teachers’ activities and challenges during covid-19 pandemic in indonesia reported that the study participants carried out a series of activities in online lessons such as taking students’ attendance and scoring or grading their students’ works synchronously or asynchronously. in the process, the teachers benefitted from different applications and platforms and encountered several problems from the students and their parents. overall, as these studies demonstrate teachers and specifically second language teachers have encountered numerous challenges during the pandemic and hence have adopted different strategies to cope with the challenges. despite the difficulties faced by students and teachers alike, online learning has received a “messiah” status during the covid-19 pandemic (adedoyin & soykan, 2021). the current study focused specifically on the experiences of a group of seven english language teachers in a blended learning mode during fall 2020. common definitions of blended learning (e.g. garrison & kanuka, 2004; graham, woodfield & harrison, 2013; whittaker, 2013) focus on the combination of traditional face-to-face and computer-mediated instruction; hence in this study we used the terms blended learning interchangeably with hybrid learning or mixed-mode learning (hrastinski, 2019; o’byrne & pytash, 2015). m. kanik, a. hadizadeh 6 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) research method this research adopted a qualitative design (patton, 2015) by collecting data through both written reflections and face-to-face interviews with seven english teachers regarding their teaching practices during the pandemic in a private university in northern cyprus. the data collection took place between december 2020 and january 2021 by asking the study participants to reflect on their experiences and practices of a blended mode of education during the fall semester 2020. out of the seven respondents, we could only interview three teachers once and four others were asked to write their own reflections due to a cessation of blended education and migration to online-only instruction during the last two weeks of the semester. the interviews were designed in a semi-structured fashion to establish rapport and comfort with the participants and to obtain rich and in-depth information. for the reflections, the four respondents were asked to reflect on their experiences and practices of the emergency blended synchronous education during the fall academic semester. the data from the transcribed interviews and written reflections were transferred to a microsoft word file and each researcher independently went over the data set several times, categorizing and tagging the emerging themes (paton, 2015). subsequently, after several cycles of discussions we decided on the cohesive, overarching themes that emerged out of the data set by unanimously categorizing the themes into two groups: challenges and strategies, further divided into other subcategories (see table 1). the context of this study was a private university with a student population of around 2800 students and around 87 academics and instructors of whom 19 were working in the school of foreign languages at the time this study was conducted. after obtaining the consent to conduct the study from the ethics committee of the university in question, we approached around 15 english language instructors, following convenience sampling, of whom seven agreed to take part in our research. however, due to the lockdown implemented towards the end of the fall semester, we could only collect four reflection accounts and three interviews conducted in a semistructured manner. the study participants (teacher 1, teacher 2, … hereafter) ranged in age from 30 to 45 with varying teaching experience and were from four different nationalities, iranian, turkish, cypriote and pakistani. an exploration of efl teachers’ challenges and strategies during the pandemic .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 7 table 1 the steps of the research research phases actions taken phase 1 three interviews were conducted and 4 written reflections were collected. phase 2 interviews were transcribed. phase 3 collected data (interviews and reflections) were transferred to a microsoft word file. phase 4 the data set were analyzed for any emerging themes or patterns by each researcher independently. phase 5 the two researchers discussed the themes together several times and decided on the cohesive, overarching themes. phase 6 two main themes with sub-themes were identified and representative extracts were selected for the study. results & discussion the findings of this study revealed that the study participants encountered various challenges and had to adopt different strategies to cope with the challenges during the pandemic. the challenges identified in the study were related to four issues namely change and adaptation, classroom practices and logistics, workload, and students’ attitude and behavior; while the coping strategies involved increasing social presence, engagement with the system, and practical strategies. these findings will be discussed in details below: challenges change and adaptation since blended education was introduced in an untimely and unexpected manner, the teachers in this study were not prepared for it. thus, the first challenge was related to the change and the difficulties of adapting to the new system. this abrupt switch without adequate training resulted in a feeling of lack of self-worth or competence for the study participants since they felt inadequate while teaching via the blended model, which was also related to the disembodied presence of the online students and the novelty of the educational model. teacher 1 said, “cant think of many at the moment apart from feeling incompetent while teaching online, due to talking to the smartboard and not receiving any responses from the students.” in the m. kanik, a. hadizadeh 8 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) similar vein, teacher 4 expressed, “i felt like i was inadequate. i was techno-literate, yet there was a problem with the process itself.” thus, due to this unexpected and abrupt shift to a blended educational model as a reactive solution to a global crisis, and hence little or no training at all, the study participants had to make changes to their daily classroom routines. for example, teacher 2 confirmed this issue by saying that “teachers were asked to download and save the online attendees names and do the same for the face-to-face students. however there was no training to show teachers how to properly name and organize the online attendance properly.” this mixed model also came in with challenges in terms of adaptation; initially, the study participants migrated the content and practices of face-to-face education into the blended synchronous mode by integrating face-to-face and online instruction into a single syllabus. such challenges were highlighted in the comment made by teacher 5, who stated, “in fact, what i/we do is just integrating the syllabus of face-to-face education into online education.” teacher 4 also expressed a similar sentiment: “i cannot really say that the nature of the courses were different. we basically moved our face to face classrooms into an online platform.” as these remarks suggest, the institution, and thus teachers, simply switched to a blended mode of education without making any adjustments. however, the language teachers in this study expressed their perceived needs for adaptations and believed that in the new model adjustments and alterations needed to be made in their teaching styles, teaching strategies, and assessment and evaluation methods. teacher 5, for example, commented, “we need to adapt the syllabus according to online education requirements. …we have to change all of our teaching styles and even the course content to be able to talk about an effective online education.” this an issue also highlighted by teacher 1: “we have had to adapt mixed model teaching strategies to suit and support our students learning.” this need for adaptation was viewed as, in fact, a major change in pedagogical choices as highlighted by teacher 7: “the methods of online teaching, assessing and evaluation must be different.” an exploration of efl teachers’ challenges and strategies during the pandemic .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 9 classroom practices and logistics in addition to the challenges of adaptation and change, the instructional model in question provided several other challenges with regard to classroom practices. one of the challenges was to do with dividing their teaching between the face-to-face students and online students. they had to remember constantly that they were teaching two cohorts of students and not forgetting their online students. this was perceived as an important challenge as evident in the following remarks by teacher 4 and teacher 1, respectively: “dividing my attention into two was very challenging to be honest. i needed to make sure both students in class and online are listening to me but like really “; “teacher has to check the online students …frequently checking up on the online students during the class (to see if they have written anything in the chat box).” for these language teachers, maintaining the balance between the two cohorts and ensuring fair treatment of the both groups was another challenge. it was hard to be fair and the teachers believed that keeping that balance was somewhat not possible. the comment from teacher 7 highlighted this challenge: “the first challenge for me is to make sure that like face to face students, online ones are also involved in the activities that we are doing in the class. but unfortunately, it is almost impossible to make that balance.” a similar view was expressed by teacher 2, who admitted that they “frankly found it challenging to be completely fair with tasks/assignments to all students, online and face-to-face.” the teachers evidently felt an imbalance caused by the dynamics of the blended synchronous education. teacher 3 thought that “it significantly reduced the opportunity for online students to participate and hence the writing classes suffered as students were unable to participate in activities like planning and classroom writing tasks.” there were also logistical challenges with respect to classroom practices such as time management and the awkwardness imposed by the physical (virtual) environment. the teachers experienced difficulties in managing their classroom time as the new instructional model turned out to be time consuming: the teachers had to run the smartboard, sign into the system, sign into the online learning management system, sign into the virtual classroom platform, constantly checking the internet connectivity, camera and sound and during instruction waiting for online students’ contributions, which caused a challenge in “time management during the class” (teacher 1). this problem is also highlighted by teacher 5, who stated that “the m. kanik, a. hadizadeh 10 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) challenge is with the content, the syllabus of the course. sometimes i had some difficulties to catch up the syllabus since it takes time to collect the online students’ answers.” the study participants also stated that they experienced some challenges with the way they stood in front of the classroom traditionally facing the students, as in the new model the camera was positioned in a way that directly faced the stalls in the classroom where students sat. thus, when they stood in the front facing their students in the classroom, their virtual students would be seeing the back of their heads. while looking at the audience and making eye contact and having to have the online students behind me because of the positioning of the camera in the classroom was in my opinion the biggest cause of that. in my opinion they felt they were not really the center of attention and may have even felt shy to speak to the teacher on his back or facing the other students. (teacher 2) another problem that the study participants in the new model experienced was the reliability of the exams. the teachers were not sure if they were able to administer valid exams because of the possible factor of cheating, as indicated in the following extract: “the other challenge was the exams’ reliability. although i am sufficient with most of my students’ exam results, there are some results which i questioned (teacher 5).” since the new model was an emergency remote teaching rather than a planned online education where servers and necessary equipment and technology were optimized for such an education, technological or technical issues were inevitable, as demonstrated by the following remark by teacher 3: “the main challenges faced by my students included the availability of electronic gadgets (laptop, computer, etc.) and a good internet connection.” this was also emphasized by other teachers. i had students who emailed me about the things that they did not understand, or sometimes could not attend the courses because of electricity or internet cuts, apologizing and making up their absenteeism via emailing the classwork assignments after they watched the session. (teacher 4) workload another challenging dimension of the instructional model in question was the additional workload that the new system imposed on the study participants. some of the workload was due to extra preparation time for the classes in the form of lesson an exploration of efl teachers’ challenges and strategies during the pandemic .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 11 planning and materials that would be used in a mixed teaching environment, as indicated in the following extract: “preparing materials for both in class and for lms. … more lesson planning. …lesson and exam preparation on moodle (teacher 1).” part of this extra workload was to do with the constant communication between teachers and their students and teachers themselves. because of having a cohort of virtual students, they also had to be available virtually through various communication channels, which, for some teachers, was the “biggest challenge” (teacher 1). to emphasize this issue, teacher 1 stated, “but i can say that there were quite a few physical challenges as we were constantly texting and mailing colleges, working long hours after coming home, trying to adapt and learn a new way of teaching and to prepare lessons and so on.” students’ attitude and behavior apart from the challenges that these language teachers experienced with regard to adaptation, classroom practices and workload, some challenges were attributable to the students themselves. the teachers mentioned frequently that they had a difficult time engaging students in the class as there was a “lack of motivation” (teacher 1) and students were “unwilling to participate” (teacher 1). some also highlighted that there was a general attendance problem. the following statements depict the point better: “attendance during this semester was a bit of a challenge because of the mixed model implemented” (teacher 2). this year's student group had lack of motivation, attention and contribution. it was not easy to draw their attention. they had great difficulty to follow the courses and fulfill the requirements. … i had some students that i never saw their faces or heard their voices. (teacher 4) this perception of motivation by the study participants seems to be associated with the general laidback attitude or relaxed mood of the students observed during the pandemic. teacher 1 commented, “due to the current situation with the pandemic we are going through, i have realized that online and face-to-face students are more laidback.” this issue is also reported by teacher 7, who stated, “students are so relaxed about classroom participation and i can say that more than 80% of them do not have active participation. …this year students are not responsible. they don't take the online or hybrid way of teaching seriously.” some of the study participants also ascribed this relaxed attitude to the nature of the educational model that offered students options of either attending face to face m. kanik, a. hadizadeh 12 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) or online, or reviewing recorded lessons later which consequently led to a lower desire to attend the classes. the teachers also observed that some students took advantage of the general conditions in the pandemic not to come to the campus. the following remarks highlight this problem: “some to use it as an excuse not to come to classes” (teacher 1); “since the students had the option to attend the classes asynchronously, many chose not to join the classes during the class times” (teacher 6); “even though i tried my best to include online students and encourage them to join the discussions they usually had excuses” (teacher 4). coping strategies increasing social presence the language teachers in this study recounted a variety of coping strategies to overcome the challenges of the blended education model. these strategies mostly centered on increasing social presence, engagement with the system, and practical strategies. when it comes to increasing social presence, these teachers adopted various practices to increase their social presence. some, for example, assigned roles to students and encouraged their students to call each others’ names during interactive tasks. the following remarks demonstrate this point: i usually ask the students to come to the board, act like a teacher and get their classmates’ answers. while doing this, in each task, the student who is on the board always chooses one or two people from online. the student called their names; most of the time i had volunteer students, but i asked the students to call different names. (teacher 5) this semester i tried to integrate more student-student interaction. the reason for that is the fact that i have many times experienced the negative effects of having social walls between students in the same class. in other words getting the students mix with each other and get to know each other, at least in class, usually contributes to having a class that is more fun and where there is more ‘learning’. (teacher 2) the teachers also attempted to increase their own social presence. one way they did it was to make themselves available through multiple channels, which of course increased their workload; yet they still resorted to this strategy to make the teaching-learning more effective by engaging both the face-to-face and online students during the pandemic. teacher 2, for example, explained how she increased her presence: “personally, i tried to do my best to be able to help with any questions an exploration of efl teachers’ challenges and strategies during the pandemic .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 13 over emails, on lms or even through my mobile phone.” teacher 7 took actions to increase social presence on online communication platforms as evident in his remark: “first, i make sure that they have created a group on any of the available platforms. this way they are in connection with each other and me anytime they need help.” the study participants also changed the dynamics of their classes to increase social presence for both the face-to-face and online students. they tried to include more pair work, group work, discussion and collaborative tasks so that students would be present and interact with the others both in the physical and the virtual environment. teacher 6 commented: “since some students are in class and some online, i try to group them for their activities so that they can use the most of the experience and those who are joining the class from different platforms help each other adapt” (teacher 6). a similar course of action was taken by teacher 2, who explained, “in terms of course content, with my academic english class in particular, i applied more group work and in-class research work into my lessons and found out that it was more useful and fun for students.” engagement with the system apart from increasing social presence to maximize students’ learning or engagement in the blended model in question, the study participants also attempted to engage students with the system. these strategies varied from giving assignments through the learning management system to adding extra practice activities on the system. teacher 5 expressed: “i gave the parts that i couldn’t cover in the classroom as an assignment and some extra practices have been uploaded on lms. …the number of questions in the question bank have been added as a solution.” teacher 3, on the other hand, reminded students to be in touch with the content of the class. this is demonstrated in his comment: “i suggested them to stay updated and keep an eye on new posts/announcements/notifications on the lms, email, or whatsapp groups.” the findings of this study revealed that the new instructional blended model of education presented several challenges for the study participants in the context of the study and that the study participants also adopted different strategies to cope with the presented challenges. the challenges that teachers in this study experienced were change and adaptation, classroom practices and logistics, workload, and students’ attitude and behavior; while the coping strategies involved increasing m. kanik, a. hadizadeh 14 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) social presence, engagement with the system, and practical strategies. some of the challenges identified in this study have been previously found as possible stressors for teachers such as change and workload (e.g. macintryre, gregersen & mercer, 2020; hartshorn & mcmurry, 2020). the first set of challenges were related to the delivery mode of education from traditional face-to-face or online-only (the study participants experienced online teaching a semester before the blended education mode in the context of this study) to the blended mode, which required pedagogical adaptations and modifications by the teachers (barron et al., 2021). however, part of the challenges in this regard was due to the lack of training by the teachers and their unpreparedness for such an abrupt switch during the pandemic within a short period of time, which resulted in a feeling of inadequacy or unimportance (hartshorn & mcmurry, 2020) while teaching via the blended model. in addition to the challenges of adaptation and change, the blended mode presented several other challenges with regard to classroom practices such as time management, teachers’ physical positions in the classroom (whether facing the online or on-campus students), fair and equal treatment of both online and oncampus students as well as fair assessment or evaluation of both cohorts. apart from challenges of adaptation and classroom practices, increased workload during the pandemic was another pressing challenge the participants recounted frequently in their interview insights. the workload increased as part of extra time spent on lesson planning and material preparation and adaptations as well as increased communication between the teachers and students and teachers themselves. this finding echoes the results of kim, oxley and asbury (2021), who listed workload as a negative factor influencing teachers’ mental health and wellbeing. further, teachers’ perceptions of students’ lack of motivation and nonchalant attitude towards their study and classroom participation during this period was another challenging aspect of the blended mode of education. some of the research participants ascribed this relaxed attitude or lack of seriousness of the students to the nature of the educational model that offered students options of either attending face to face or online, or reviewing recorded lessons later, which consequently led to a lower desire to attend the classes. this flexibility in the form of options or choices offered to the students in the instructional mode in question also translated itself as stressors or anxiety for teachers hence negatively impacting the teachers’ well-being an exploration of efl teachers’ challenges and strategies during the pandemic .... register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) 15 (macintryre, gregersen & mercer, 2020). thus, flexibility should also be provided to the teachers as well by the higher education institution since flexibility and wellbeing might be mutually interdependent concepts at times. the challenges encountered by the participants of this study forced them to adopt various coping strategies such as increasing social presence, increasing engagement with the system and other practical strategies. of interest in this regard was that the teachers did not employ the coping strategies to resolve their own personal challenges, but rather to provide an effective instruction, which could indicate how new challenges influenced the pedagogical practices of the teachers in this study. in this respect, our findings deviate from the findings of previous studies (hartshorn & mcmurry, 2020; macintyre, gregersen & mercer, 2020) that identified personal factors. this could, of course, be due to the specific focus of this study on the emergency blended synchronous education. to engage students more in learning and to adequately socialize them into the new model, the teachers increased their social presence by assigning extra online interactive activities or tasks for their students. in this respect, they seemed to feel that the blended synchronous mode can lead to not being fully present anywhere, causing “disembodied presence” (nortvig, 2013, p. 347). the participants tried to achieve presence by employing more interactivity into their activities and by making themselves available through multiple channels like e-mail, text-messaging and the like. another major strategy adopted by the participants aimed to engage the students with the content and the system through online assignments, exercises, announcements, posts and feedback. the adopted strategies by the study participants in this context, although possibly intuitive rather than informed choices, are compatible with the conceptualizations of effective online education (e.g. anderson, 2008; dixson, 2010; garrison, anderson, & archer, 1999). conclusion the results of this study indicate that the teachers in this study adopted different strategies to cope with the challenges that they encountered during the blended mode of education offered in the context of this study during the pandemic. one issue with the emergency nature of the new educational model was the unpreparedness and thus unfamiliarity with the blended mode of education. this exerted increased pressure both physically and psychologically on the teachers as they had to make m. kanik, a. hadizadeh 16 register journal – vol 15, no 1 (2022) pedagogical adaptations by tailoring their materials to the needs of both online and on-campus students, by involving students more in the learning process and even trying to motivate especially online students to participate more in the classroom activities. thus, for any future decisions concerning blended synchronous education or any other novel models, adequate training needs to be provided and professional, socio-emotional support should also be made available in order to reduce teachers’ burnout or quitting the profession. further, since the blended educational model is likely to become a popular trend within the years to come, further research needs to investigate the necessary skills development and capacity building that english language teachers need especially in such models. references adedoyin, o. b., & soykan, e. 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(2021, august 20). in wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/covid-19_pandemic_in_northern_ cyprus#cite_note-23 yi, y., & jang, j. (2020). envisioning possibilities amid the covid‐19 pandemic: implications from english language teaching in south korea. tesol journal, 11(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.543 zydney, j. m., mckimm, p., lindberg, r., & schmidt, m. (2019). here or there instruction: lessons learned in implementing innovative approaches to blended synchronous learning. techtrends, 63, https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11528-018-0344-z register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 151 developing teachers’ guide to use facebook group in a blended writing course (a research and development in iain surakarta) roko patria jati graduate program of english education of fkip uns bee.ascholar@gmail.com abstract this study aimed to investigatethe existence and the quality of any teachers’ guides used for writing course in iain surakarta as well as the level of need and related criteria for development. besides, the developmental steps in developing new teachers’ guide (to use facebook group in a blended writing course) were also investigated. this research-based development (r&d) was conducted in iain surakarta by involving ten teachers and 115 students. the findings of this study were obtained through some qualitative techniques, such as interview, observation, document analysis, and focus group. as the results,it was found that among ten tertiary teachers, only one of them using teachers’ guide or book to teach in the writing course. however, nine of them stated their need on the proposed product and one stated his uncertainty. further, the related supportswere also shown by majority of the students involved. afterward, the draft was developed by considering some suggested criteria of development. after being validated by the related expert, the product was then field tested involvingthree teachers and 48 students. through the tryouts conducted, the level of feasibility on the procedure had improved significantly to 97%, 94% and 92% in the last three tryoutsdelivered by three different teachers. the tryout was terminated as suggested by the field expert and after the supervisor stated the credible justification had been reached. finally, after being revised as recommended, the teachers’ guide was ready-to-use in a blended writing course context. keywords: teachers’ guide, facebook group, blended writing course introduction technology is a main cause of rapid changes in globalization era, including in education. the new educational methods which considerably meet the challenge of rapidly growing technology are usually related to e-learning, also termed as online learning. tri, made, and boedhi, 2007: 101) mention that e-learning or electronic learning is a concept of ict-based learning especially in the usage of internet-based media. however, regardless many promising features of online instruction, certain pitfalls of online instruction have been identified regarding register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 152 its limited capability to engage learners in learning events unless the learners were self-motivated and active learners (daniels and moore, 2000). being displeased with e-learning, blended learning has recently received increased usage among academic institutions and private companies that have many opportunities associated with time and place (picciano, 2006). the major thrust of blended instruction is to overcome the shortcomings of online instruction and utilize various instructional sequencing and delivery strategies to enhance learner satisfaction while also achieving increased learning outcomes. in this case, face-to-face learning should be synchronized with e-leaning as the answer to nowadays technological challenge. in indonesia, there are several higher education institutions working on this blended learning project. it was started when indonesia ministrial of education put effort to develop distance learning in higher education through a strategic plan issued in 2005. there are several higher education institutions which were appointed to implement the piloting projects such as itb, its, ugm, ipb, ui, unri, undana, unhas, pens, dan polmal. dissemination of this project is addressed to unlam, um, uny, unp, unhalu, uncen and other institutions (renstra depdiknas, 2005: 98). blended learning is regarded by many higher education institutions as a solution for responding the new intervention and role of technology. for example, universitassebelasmaret (uns) has prepared a long term program for the period of 2009-2029 which includes management and staff preparation for ict implementation. the uns rector states that blended learning is applied in his campus by providing online course materials for structured task-based learning as well as self learning. for the progress, there are around a third of thousands of course material of 374 courses are provided online (kontak uns, 6 th february 2013: 4). according to graham, 2006: 11), blended learning at the institutional and program levels is often left to the maturity of the learner, while designers and instructors are more likely to take a role in prescribing the blend at the course and activity levels. in addition, huang, ma and zhang, 2008: 7-9) state that development of course materialsin blended learning design model is actually only one of two blended learning‟s feet. another foot which is even more important is register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 153 the design of a unit or an activity. therefore, besides designing the online materials, the teachers should more importantly get familiar with any online tools or media. this will help them in the development of blended learning process at course level as well as activity model. designing a unit of blended learning process or only a single activity of blended learning is not something restricted in indonesia. instead, the regulation of a credit unit combining faceto-face meeting, structured task, and self learning (pp no 17 tahun 2010 article 87 and kepmendiknas no 232/u/2000 article 1) is considered by some experts as a blended learning. on the other hand, other experts still require the element of online learning to refer it as a blended learning. somehow, the related regulations above have proved that the existence of sks is aimed at supporting a blended learning model, especially at the course level by teachers. however, many of them do not even really care with the significance of such regulation. a new trend of combining face-to-face and online learning or called as blended learning is actually applicable for any courses. viewed from the website original idea and its development, one of the closest courses is a writing course. writing activities in any writing courses can be facilitated by any online tools or media. the existing media have made writing processes become much simpler. writers or learners can just write something and share it online. afterward, they can easily get some comments for their writing and make revision and edit based on those comments. the challenge and opportunity then is for any writing courseteachers to develop those activities and arrange them in a unit of a course. however, the state-of-the-art condition of writing course in iain surakarta was not yet upgraded to meet the challenge of blended learning as the up-to-date context. in fact, the related parties in iain surakarta actually had their own potentials to do so.from the preliminary observation of this research, i found that the teachers were already familiar with social media and facebook has become the most popular one. there were about seven facebook groups found in association to iain surakarta. however, the contents posted there were not yet purposed for facilitating online learning activities. they were mainly posted for educational information and a little bit of course materials. those materials were not followed with related online activities. no specific activities were determined and developed to really make use of facebook group as a tool for online learning activities. to conclude, there was obviously a gap between the existing register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 154 condition and the recent context which must be connected in the development of any educational products including teachers‟ guides. objectives this research-based development was conducted for the purposes of investigating the existence as well as the quality of any teachers‟ guides used for writing course in iain surakarta. besides, the level of need and the criteria for the proposed product were also investigated from the writing course teachers and their students. in this case, the proposed product was a new teachers‟ guide to use facebook group in a blended writing course. afterward, this research was continued with the next purpose of investigating several developmental steps implemented to develop the proposed product in iain surakarta. teachers’ guide the term „teachers‟ guide‟ and „teachers‟ book‟ are interchangeably used by cunningsworth and kusel, 1991 and cunningsworth, 1995) to refer to the same educational product. according to cunningsworth, 1995: 112), a good teachers‟ book is guidelines on how to make the best use of the course, detailed plans for teaching each unit and keys to the exercises, besides a number of possible roles or functions that teachers‟ book can fulfill. from the explanation above, it can be concluded that teachers‟ guide (tg) is a guideline intended to guide certain teachers in teaching or delivering certain course. tgs usually take a role as a companion of related materials (textbook, etc); however, recent development of technology has forced tg to be guidance for using media or technology. product and process of writing traditionally, a distinction has been drawn between the learning activities which focus on products and the activities which focus on process in curriculum practice, including in teaching or learning writing. in the product oriented approach, teachers pay attention to the learners‟ final product of writing with a list of criteria including content, organization, vocabulary use, grammatical use, and mechanical considerations such as spelling and punctuation (brown, 2001: 335). process approach, on the other hand, focuses more on the various classroom activities which are believed to promote the development of skilled language use (nunan, 1991). the new emphasis on the process, however, must be seen in the prospective of a balance between process register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 155 and product. “the product is, after all, the ultimate goal; it is the reason that we go through the process of prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing” (brown, 2001: 337). therefore, in a blended writing course, the processes need to be designed on which of them fit in the typical face-to-face meeting and which fit in the typical online activity. blended learning blended learning is defined by many as a combination of two pedagogical approaches, classroom or face-to-face and e-learning (garrison and vaughan, 2008; arbaugh, desai, rau and sridhar, 2010; graham, 2006). however, some other experts are taking a broader view in that it is a mix of delivery methods and goes beyond e-learning and classrooms to accommodate the various learning needs of a diverse audience in a variety of subjects (king and mc. sporran, 2005). graham (2006: 4) explores three most commonly mentioned definitions as documented by graham, allen, and ure, they are: (1) combining instructional modalities (or delivery media); (2) combining instructional methods; and (3) combining online and face-to-face instruction. the first two positions reflect the debate on the influences of media versus method on learning. both of these positions suffer from the problem that they define bl so broadly that they encompass actually all learning systems. one would be hard-pressed to find any learning system that did not involve multiple instructional methods and multiple delivery media. thus defining blended learning in either of these two ways waters down the definition and does not get the essence of what blended learning is and why it is exciting to so many people. in other hand, the third position more accurately reflects the historical emergence of blended learning systems. in defining blended learning, graham (2006: 5) states that blended learning systems combine face-to-face instruction with computer-mediated instruction. it reflects the idea that blended learning is the combination of instruction from two historically separate models of teaching and learning: traditional face-to-face learning systems and distributed learning systems. it also emphasizes the central role of computer-based technologies in blended learning. based on several definitions above, blended learning can be defined as a combination between face-to-face learning and e-learning in order to blend the positive things of both instructional models. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 156 according to graham (2006: 10-12), blended learning occurs at one of the following 4 (four) levels: (1) activity level; (2) course level, (3) program level, or (4) institutional level. across all four levels, the nature of the blends is determined by the learner or the designer or instructor. blending at the institutional and program levels is often left to the discretion of the learner, while designers and instructors are more likely to take a role in prescribing the blend at the course and activity levels. facebook group facebook group is one of facebook‟s popular features to privately connect with specific sets of people, like family, teammates or coworkers. through this private space, members can share updates, photos or documents and message other group members. creator or admin can also select one of three privacy options for the created group (www.facebook.com/help). founded at february 4, 2004 by mark zuckerberg, facebook as a social networking site has quickly become one of the most used and visited platforms to communicate and connect. the education foundation (2013: 2) notes that there were 1.1 billion people using facebook around the world by may 2013. in realizing their mission, facebook has been working with schools, colleges, universities and other related parties to better understand how the service can be used in and out of classrooms as a tool for learning and harness its potential to improve learning outcomes for young people. meanwhile, the use of web 2.0 tools (including facebook) is becoming more widespread and has been much examined in the language learning classroom, e.g. promnitzhayashi (2011); greenhow, robelia, and hughes (2009); fontana (2009). as a result of their project, the education foundation (2013: 4) sees facebook as a vital tool for teaching and learning in the 21 st century and for making education more social. it is an essential „toolbox for educators‟ in schools, colleges, universities and other learning settings to open up, inspire and catalyze young people‟s learning. rationale many teachers have already practiced the product and process-oriented method of writing in balance. however, only few of them consider ict as the up-to-date global context influencing the context of teaching and learning. some teachers seem reluctant to move from their traditional register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 157 writing course to the new context of teaching and learning as the logical consequences. not fully online, it is a blended learning aiming to blend the positive things of both face-to-face and online learning. to realize this blended learning, certain supporting online tool is required and facebook as one of the most popular media has a great potential to be developed accordingly. like it or not, the change is right in front of teachers‟ eyes and should be responded wisely. to carefully give respond to that aggressive change, teachers had better follow the procedures of development as suggested in a research-based development. first of all, they need to investigate their students‟ needs, whether the students really need such change in educational context or not. when the answer is „yes‟, then the teacher should collect several supporting teachers‟ guides to be selected. this kind of selection has reduced the potential effort of adaptation a little bit, compared to no selection at all. furthermore, the same effort could even be reduced more if the teachers are willing to produce their own teachers‟ guide. by producing own teachers‟ guide, the learning procedure can be designed and then field-tested necessarily based on the real local context. afterall, such development will be able to improve the quality of teaching and give the best learning experience for all the students. research method in this study, the sophisticated method of r&d was used to develop a product, that is, a teachers‟ guide (tg) suggesting a procedure for having online learning in a blended writing course context. as stated by gall, joyce and borg (2003: 569), this method is an industry-based development model in which the findings of the research are used to design new products and procedures, which then are systematically field-tested, evaluated, and refined until they meet specified criteria of effectiveness, quality, or similar standard. in other words, the product produced from the process of r&d is a validated, fine-tested and ready-to-use product. procedure simplifying ten steps of r&d by borg and gall (1983: 775-776), the steps of this study consisted of: (1) studying research findings pertinent to the product to be developed; (2) developing the product based on these findings; (3) field testing it in the setting where it will be used eventually; and (4) revising to correct the deficiencies found in the field-testing stage. in register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 158 more rigorous programs of r & d, this cycle is repeated until the field-test data indicate that the product meets its behaviorally defined objectives. setting this study was conducted at institut agama islam negeri (iain) surakarta located in kartasura, sukoharjo, jawa tengah. the exploration was carried out from december 2012 until november 2013, while the developmental phase was in the odd semester of 2013/2014 academic year, starting from october 2013 until february 2014. subjects the subjects of this study are varied. they are selected purposivelyto get any relevant data to develop and validate the proposed educational product. in the exploration stage, there were ten teachers and 67 students involved; while three teachers, two experts, and 48 students participated in the developmental stage. technique of collecting data the findings of this study were obtained through some techniques such as interview, observation, document analysis, and questionnaire. in addition,i also applied focus group as a recently popular qualitative technique (wilson, 1997; morgan, 1996). technique of validating data in order to cross-check and develop the data validity or trustworthiness of this research, two triangulation techniques, i.e. sources and theories, were used by the researcher. there are four techniques of triangulation as stated by denzin in lincoln and guba (1985: 305), they are: (1) sources; (2) investigators; (3) methods; and (4) theories. besides, other techniques or strategies were also applicable such as prolonged engagement, persistent observation, member check, thick description, and audit trail. technique of analyzing data the process of qualitative data analysis was inductive and simultaneously conducted with the process of collecting data in the form of reflection through various techniques of reflection. every collected data was interacted or compared with other unit of data to cross-check or develop the validity as well as to categorize the data in accordance with the formulated problems. the analysis process was conducted by applying a model by dey (1993: 31-32) in which the data analysis is a circular process including the activities of describing, classifying, and connecting. drafting the result of exploration led the researcher in arranging or preparing a draft of new product. the arrangement of product consisted of several suggested criteria for development. in register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 159 order to make the draft theoretically credible, it was followed by some expert validation before tryout. tryout in the tryout, the executing teacher delivered teaching based on the lesson plan (sap) by making use of the developed teachers‟ guide as the guideline. the tryout was conducted five times by involving 3 teachers, 1 expert, and 48 students. as the nature of the suggested blended learning was just to enhance or improve the face-to-face (traditional) learning, it was not necessary to involve the whole class at once. instead, they were grouped into several small groups to optimize the online learning itself. monitoring and evaluation during the tryout implementation, the researcher intensively monitored and recorded the important or key points from the teacher‟s teaching, including strengths and weaknesses. besides, monitoring and recording were also referred to the students‟ response, activity, and progress or achievement. after finishing a tryout, a discussion or teacher‟s evaluation was carried out to evaluate the whole product. revision based on the evaluation, the researcher revised the draft of the product. the same revision was also applicable for the following evaluation of tryout. this process was repeated sufficiently until the draft meets the pre-determined criteria which were supported by some judgment from the expert as well as the supervisor. after being terminated, the researcher may come to the final revision of the draft. expert’s role in this research and development, the experts were involved in the process of validating the draft of teachers‟ guide (pre-use validation) and evaluating the draft. after finishing the arrangement of the first draft, the related expert of materials development was involved in the process of pre-use validation in order to evaluate the draft just before being tested (tried-out) to the field. besides, another expert of writing course was also involved to give a judgment on the feasibility of the draft after accomplishment of a tryout (in-use evaluation). the expert of register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 160 materials development involved in pre-use validation was ibu dewi rochsantiningsih from universitas sebelas maret, while the expert of writing course was bapak zainal muttaqien from iain surakarta. results exploration existence and quality of tgs for writing course in investigating the existence of teachers‟ guides for writing course in iain surakarta, i began with general questions asking about the existence of materials for language learning involving anything that can be used to facilitate the learning of a language (tomlinson, 2012: 143). starting from these general questions, the existence of teachers‟ guides could be sorted out easily. as the result of questionnaire and interview on the general question asking about the existence of tgs or other materials, all teachers or 10 respondents mentioned that they used them to support writing course. among 39 materials collected, 35 items were general materials for writing course, 1 item was identified as tgs or teachers‟ book and 3 items were other materials for teachers. the detailed distribution of materials for writing can be seen in figure 1. figure 1. language learning materials for writing course in iain surakarta from the categorization, there was one materialsorted out as teachers‟ guide or teachers‟ book. this could be initially indicated from the given title of the book. the book was entitled teacher’s big book of graphic organizers by katherine s. mcknight. on the list of books title register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 161 written on the questionnaire, there was no other tg found. in fact, some tgs were available to support the existing materials such as tg to paragraph writing (zemachand islam, 2005). the only tg used and mentioned above was employed by teacher f especially in drafting phase. compared to the usage of all materials, the percentage of using tg was only 2%. the teacher’s big book of graphic organizers (tbbgo) by mcknight (2010) basically describes one of teaching and learning tools namely “graphic organizers”. the theories underlying the existence of graphic organizer usage appear in chapter 1 titled “why are graphic organizers such important tools for teaching and learning?” the theories are presented in a brief and concise two-page-explanation, such as the multiple intelligence of gardner (1993: 2006), the adjustment of graphic organizers for all kinds of learners: forfor gifted children and students with special needs (cassidy, 1991) and for adult learners (materna, 2007), theory of mental storage by piaget (1974) and vygotsky (1962). those underlying theories are considered sufficient and provide simple but basic understanding on graphic organizers utilization. generally, this book discusses nothing on language content, but more on language skills only. however, it is believed that the learning skills closely relates to language learning skills. the skills here include brainstorming and idea generation, vocabulary development, note taking and study skills, reading comprehension and writing as well, which later is developed in graphic organizers. the skills are not exclusively elaborated but used more to explain learning goals and indicators in every use of graphic organizer. graphic organizer of power thinking (pt), as the example, provides explanation under the title stating that pt allows learners to organize ideas, terms, vocabulary, and information hierarchically into main headings and subheadings. for the implementation of teaching and learning, tbbgo provides basic foundation in chapter 1 by subheading „getting started‟. the procedures proposed by the writer are only a matter of suggestions or advices for specific instructional purposes such as modeling, individual and collaborative learning, assessments, variations, and supports for students with special needs. those general procedures are then enriched with “tips for classroom implementation” which is developed for every organizer. dealing with evaluation, tbbgo broadens teachers‟ knowledge that graphic organizers can be used as evaluation tools. finally, this 226-page book is presented in concise and brief language to ease teachers‟ understanding. overall, tbbgo has a good register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 162 quality in presenting graphic organizers as general learning tools, but not specifically as language learning tools. therefore, language teachers should give some extra effort on its adaptation or exploration for language teaching. besides the evaluation for the existing tg, i also found a related tg to use facebook for teaching and learning which was relevant to be evaluated equally. the tg was titled facebook guide for educators (fge) by the education foundation (2013). fge is a teachers‟ guide (tg) used in applying facebook as teaching and learning tool. it consists of twenty pages which come up in two sections: 1) the first main section of nine pages and four pages of appendices; and 2) the rest seven pages of cover page, title page, contents, photos and acknowledgements. the main section elaborates the introduction to facebook, the development of the book and the development of the facebook usage. this book is developed based on some case studies of the facebook utilization at schools. there is no specific discussion on language contents and skills in this guideline. further, no theories or principles as well as teaching and learning evaluation is elaborated. instead, the focus is on facebook implementation in the process of teaching and learning. this book develops the implementation separately in the main section and the appendices. in the main section, the implementation is presented on the heading entitled “facebook as a tool for teaching and learning” and “uses for facebook in and around the classroom”. meanwhile, the implementation is presented on the heading entitled “getting started with facebook” in the appendices. those three presentations do not have a focus on certain features such as facebook group, facebook page, etc. they only elaborate the facebook utilization for teaching and learning processes in broad sense. eventhough the language presented in this guide is simple; the concern is not focused on language teaching. thus, this guide is such a good product related to facebook as the learning tool but it still requires more development to be used for language teaching. need analysis of the proposed product as mentioned before, there was only one teachers‟ guide revealed (out of 39 materials) during the exploration period. in further exploration, this small number of findings remains a big gap with the teachers‟ real needs. among ten teachers, nine mentioned their demands on the register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 163 teachers‟ guide to help them in presenting blended learning and one teacher stated his uncertainty. the level of needs as shown above very much depends on the teachers‟ perceptions on the suitability of the proposed product to the expected context. in this case, technologies and blended learning are required since they are closely related to the context of globalization era. in the interview, teacher z stated: saya kira, saya yakin (mahasiswa) lebih menyukai dengan teknologi ya, karena mereka kan generasi baru jadi lebih akrab dengan teknologi. i think, i believe (that students) prefer to have technology because they are new generation so that they are more familiar with technology (ti.2). teacher t also had the same opinion about technology: kalau saya liat gelagatnya memang iya. kalau tentang teknologi mahasiswa pasti sangatsangat senang sekali. seeing their habit, they do (like technology). if it is about technology, the students must be very pleased (ti.1). supporting their teachers‟ opinions, the finding reflects high interest of the students in employing technologies for the learning process. all the confirmed students (ka, ia, aa, and as) mentioned that the writing course should integrate technology accompanied by various learning styles and practices. further, they considered blended learning as new innovation in today modern era. besides clearly stated needs on the teachers‟ guide for implementing blended learning in writing course, the teachers and students also showed their needs on the utilization of fb group in a blended learning context as suggested in the product. this can be concluded from the exploration of supports for fb group as well as supporting factors for blended learning such as facilities, related skills and experiences on technology, and institutional policy. facilities related to technological usage consist of classroom, personal and public facilities. classroom facilities come in lcd projector and internet connections. after indicating whether they really need the related product or not, then the teachers gave suggestions on the relevant criteria for product development. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 164 product development in this study, i planned to design a tg to use facebook group as an online medium in a blended writing course context. by making use of this guide, the tertiary teachers –who are supposed to be more familiar with social media, are introduced to the usage of facebook group as a learning tool and to the recent learning context with technology called blended learning. not only presenting underlying theories and principles, this guide also gives adequate concerns on language contents and teaching procedure as well as practical alternatives or models. here i preferred facebook group to any online platform such as edmodo since their active users are much higher than edmodo‟s. the familiarity of any social media is definitely influencing the effectiveness of their notifications. the more frequent the users access any social medium, the more effective that social medium will be. tryout as mentioned before, tryout was held soon after the expert validated the developed products. the procedure or learning model as suggested in teachers‟ guide (tg) was tested in several tryouts. tryout 1 was testing the procedure before having the trial as recommeded by the tg. tryout (to) 1 resulted in 22% for the level of feasibility on procedure. the fgd 1 which followed the to 1 recommended the continuation of the tryout involving the same group of students with the adjustment on learning procedure into rpc 1 hr. in the tryout 2, the level of feasibility on procedure improved into 75% and it was recommended to do the tryout 3 involving another group with the adjustment on learning procedure into rpc 1 hr+.the level of feasibility sharply increased into 97% in tryout 3. the mistake occured in tryout 3 was only from personal motivation. based on the results of the tryouts as well as their significant progress, the field expert of writing course recommended that the tryout could be terminated accordingly. he thought that the teachers‟ guide was feasible enough to be a guideline in the real situation. besides, all participants of fgd 3 also claimed the same thing about the teachers‟ guide suggesting online learning in a blended writing course context. having them consulted to the first thesis supervisor, he suggested that the tryout should be continued to involve two more teachers at least in order to increase the credibility of the practical justification. the two additional tryouts were register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 165 then conducted simultaneously during the extended period of tryout resulted in 94% and 92% of the feasibility level on the procedure. final draft in the first three tryouts, there are several differences found before and after the tryouts. the first difference is about the method‟s name. it is called as “reading, posting and commenting (rpc)”before the tryouts and later on it is added with “checking” to be “reading, posting, checking and commenting (rp2c)”. before the tryout, the time for posting and commenting is 24hoursasynchronously, the tryouts lead to different direction where the time should be flexible. it is 1hour of synchronous „prime time‟ plus additional times done asynchronously.another difference is on the teacher‟s activity where teacher keeps on checking the students‟ works from posting until the learning has finished in one-hour-prime time. this differs from the previous procedure where teacher was not demanded to play an active role of checking the students‟ works. in addition, based on the evaluation as well as the recommendations from the executing teachers of the two additional tryouts, i then made a list of revisions to be executed to finally generate a final draft of the product. besides the teacher‟s evaluation and recommendations, the researcher‟s notes on the tryouts were also considered for listing up several revisions. conclusions as the conclusion, concerning the existence of tg in iain surakarta, i found only one tg used for writing course in iain surakarta. the only tg used was about graphic organizers entitled teacher’s big book of graphic organizers by katherine s. mcknight. this tg was employed partially by teacher f to support his writing course, especially in drafting phase. in total, there were 39 materials identified as language learning materials. the most commonly used materials (35 materials) were called as general materials for writing course including textbooks/workbooks, supplements to coursebooks, etc. the rest three materials were merely designed for teachers but could not be identified as teachers‟ guide, such as methodology book, assessment book, etc. from the evaluation of the teachers‟ guide, i found that the book is not register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 166 specifically designed for teaching language but teaching in general. it brings about consequences that teachers should give more effort on its adaptation or exploration for language teaching. for the second question concerning teachers‟ needs of the proposed product, i found that it was significantly different from the investigation of the first question. even there was only one teachers‟ guide available; it does not mean that the teachers did not need such product. based on questionnaire and interview, i got a result that nine teachers considered teachers‟ guide (related to teaching with technology) as their needs and one teacher stated his uncertainty. besides, they also supported and expected to have a product to use facebook group as the learning media and blended learning as the learning context. in total, there were ten criteria advocated by the teachers for product development. lastly, in developing the product, i involved two experts with their own different jobs. the first expert, also called as material development expert, assessed and validated the product before the field tryout while the second expert gave his judgment based on the field tryout. after being validated, i tried out the product in the field to test the feasibility of the learning procedure as suggested in the product. evaluation of the tryout was facilitated through focus group discussion (fgd) which was conducted after the tryout. along with the teacher, i also determined several criteria to evaluate the tested procedure so that the level of feasibility could be assessed easily. through five times of tryout conducted, the level of feasibility on the procedure had improved significantly to 97%, 94% and 92% in the last three tryouts delivered by three different teachers. the tryout was terminated as suggested by the field expert and after the supervisor stated the credible justification had been reached. finally, after being revised as recommended, the teachers‟ guide was ready-to-use in a blended writing course context. implications and suggestions as it is concluded, there was only one teachers‟ guide available for writing course in iain surakarta. the rests were 38 materials for language learning which could not be categorized as teachers‟ guide. however, this does not mean that teachers‟ guides were no more important for teachers. instead, nine teachers (out of ten) thought that they needed teachers‟ guide for using new media or technology. thus, they would need the product if they thought that it was really helpful for them. otherwise, they would never be interested to try the new product register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 167 offered. in research-based materials development, this means a lot that any researchers should think again and again on the product they plan to develop, whether the product is really needed or not. principally, teachers‟ guide is produced to aid teachers in numerous ways but not to dictate a rigid predetermined method by which the language shall be taught and learned. however, the teachers‟ guide developed in this study suggests the implementation of a procedure only. to have more alternatives on the procedure, other researchers are encouraged to develop different procedures and follow the similar processes of research-based development. in addition to the procedure suggested in this teachers‟ guide, there is a potential implication in its implementation in which the teacher‟s effort and role can be reduced periodically following the students‟ routines on this online learning. this kind of research-based development is different from other educational research methods. the basic or applied research does not yield certain ready-to-use product. they may involve some development of educational products but only to the point where they can be used to test the hypotheses. by conducting this research and development (r&d), the proposed product was systematically researched and tried out to be a product which is ready for operational use. however, since this study was not conducted to fulfill all the developmental stages as suggested, there is a great potential for other researchers to continue this study. on the other hand, the product produced from this r&d can be simply employed for having educational research in other methods such as classroom action research and experimental research. references arbaugh, j.b., desai, a. r. b., and sridhar b.s. 2010. a review of research on online and blended learning in the management discipline: 1994-2009. organization management journal, 7. borg, w. r. and gall, m. d. 1983. educational research: an introduction. fourth edition. boston: pearson. brown, h. d. 2001. teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. second edition. new york: addison wesley longman, inc. creswell, j. w. 2009. research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. third edition. california: sage publications, inc. cunningsworth, a. 1995. choosing your coursebook. oxford: macmillan education. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 168 cunningsworth, a., and kusel, p. 1991. evaluating teachers‟ guides.elt journal volume 45/2. daniels, h. l. and moore, d. m. 2000. interaction of cognitive style and learner control in a hypermedia environment.international journal of instructional media,27(4): 1–15. dey, i. 1993. qualitative data analysis: a user-friendly guide for social scientists. new york: routledge. fontana, a. 2009. the multichronic classroom: creating an engaging environment for all students in fate vol. 30. gall, m.d., joyce p.g. and w.r. borg. 2003. educational research. boston: pearson education, inc. garrison, d.r., and n. vaughan. 2008. blended learning in higher education. san francisco: jossey-bass. graham, c.r. 2006. blended learning systems: definition, current trends, and future directions. in bonk, c.j. & graham, c.r. 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(2012). materials development for language learning and teaching.lang. teach., 45.2, 143–179. tri d., made y.s. and boedhi o. 2007. e-learning pada pendidikan jarak jauh: konsep yang mengubah metode pembelajaran di perguruan tinggi di indonesia. jurnal pendidikan terbuka dan jarak jauh, volume 8, nomor 2. register journal vol. 9, no. 2, 2016, pp.151-169 p-issn: 1979-8903 ; e-issn : 2503-040x website: http://journalregister.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/register/ 169 wilson, v. 1997. focus groups: a useful qualitative method for educational research? british educational research journal, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 209-224. zemach, d. e. and islam, c. 2005. paragraph writing: from sentence to paragraph, teacher’s guide. oxford: macmillan education. cited regulations from the government of indonesia peraturan pemerintah republik indonesia nomor 17 tahun 2010 tentang pengelolaan dan penyelenggaraan pendidikan keputusan menteri pendidikan nasional republik indonesia nomor 232/u/2000 tentang pedoman penyusunan kurikulum pendidikan tinggi dan penilaian hasil belajar mahasiswa. register journal – vol 15, no 02 (2022), pp. 222-244 doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.222-244 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 222 lecturers’ challenges and strategies in teaching maritime english online to students with low english proficiency latifa ika sari1*, ria hermina sari2 1,2politeknik ilmu pelayaran semarang, indonesia *) corresponding author email: latifa.ika@gmail.com doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.222-244 submission track: received: 01-06-2022 final revision: 16-10-2022 available online: 01-12-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract this study aimed to investigate the problems faced by esp lecturers when teaching low english proficiency students during online maritime english lessons and their strategies in dealing with the problems. a questionnaire with 6 open-ended questions was distributed to 9 maritime english lecturers from 6 different maritime polytechnics in indonesia. a follow-up interview was conducted with 4 lecturers to obtain more detailed information regarding their online teaching practices, especially the difficulties and the strategies to mitigate them. the findings of this study revealed three main problems faced by the lecturers. firstly, students were reluctant to interact and participate in class activities. secondly, students showed low motivation and interest in learning english. thirdly, the lecturers needed extra time to explain the teaching materials. to overcome the problems, the lecturers used various texts, pictures, videos, or online platforms to expose students to maritime vocabulary. they also grouped the lower proficiency students with the higher proficiency students in a collaborative activity, designed class activities based on students’ learning styles, and employed various scaffolding techniques. keywords: english for specific purposes (esp) teaching, low english proficiency, maritime english, online learning. mailto:latifa.ika@gmail.com http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ l.i. sari, r.h. sari 223 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) introduction teaching english for specific purposes (esp) has become a great challenge for many english lecturers. different from general english courses, esp teaching involves a more specific register in which the course is aimed to assist students to master english and use the language in a specific environment e.g., english in banking, english in medicine, english in aviation, etc. (mauludin, 2021). in esp teaching, classroom instructions and activities are designed based on the communication needs of students in a specific context. students are expected to have higher motivation when joining an esp course since the course is relevant to their needs. however, reality sometimes does not meet expectations. there are various problems identified during esp teaching practices that may hinder the effectiveness of the course. some of the major issues are the esp curriculum which is too general and does not cover students’ specific needs (poedjiastutie & oliver, 2017), lecturers’ limited pedagogical and content knowledge (pazoki & alemi, 2019; poedjiastutie & oliver, 2017), and irrelevant and unauthentic materials (lee, 2016). the quality of the students' input also complicates the situation in which many students with low english proficiency consider esp courses too difficult for them, and thus feel demotivated and sometimes frustrated when joining the course (belyaeva, 2015). the importance of general english proficiency in supporting esp learning has been highlighted by martinovic and poljakovic (in pazoki & alemi, 2019). they found that students’ low general english proficiency affects students’ motivation in learning esp and inhibits their active participation in the class activities. students’ low general english proficiency has caused a lot of problems in esp teaching. many esp courses have shifted from specialized language instruction toward the development of general english knowledge (belyaeva, 2015). the lower-level students perceive specialized courses with highly technical vocabulary and the discourse are too difficult for them. in other words, they are not ready to join esp courses due to their low general english proficiency. as a result, the lecturers often revert to the materials of basic english and cannot fully cover the esp materials (poedjiastutie, 2017). this situation can hamper the effectiveness of esp teaching and in the end, can fail the learning objectives. the struggle is real! lecturers’ challenges and strategies in teaching… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 224 maritime english (me) with its distinctive vocabulary and specialized expressions is a branch of esp that is used widely in the maritime industry. it covers a wide scope, ranging from the language of highly technical written genres to simplified and standardized spoken contexts. in written maritime english, various technical words and phrases related to the nautical and marine engineering fields are commonly used. for example, when describing the different parts of vessels, the movements of vessels, the repair and maintenance of engines, etc. in spoken maritime english, the range of lexical choices is more limited. the language is simplified since it usually deals with the safety and security of the ship’s operation. the spoken messages are primarily used in the “here and now” context. the use of imperative and performative in the present situation is dominant (ahmmed et al., 2020; franceschi, 2014). the globalization era has narrowed the barrier across nations, and international shipping has become very common. nowadays, there are many crews that come from different countries working together on a vessel. when working under pressure, the crews often simplify or even change the common language to fulfil their duties (demydenko, 2012). communication breakdown might happen because of difficulties in understanding each other intentions. the failure in communication due to the low english proficiency of seafarers has been considered one of the main factors contributing to maritime accidents (james et al., 2018). thus, maritime english proficiency to an agreed level is essential to ensure the safety of the ship’s operation (shi & fan, 2021). maritime english teaching then becomes significant to equip seafarers with skills to communicate effectively with people of different nationalities who speak different languages. as mandated by the international maritime organization, seafarers of all ranks must be able to conduct clear and understandable communications using english, both in written and oral form (zhang & cole, 2018). maritime education and training institutions then play a very significant role in ensuring that students can master the necessary knowledge and skills when working on board the ships (hrnić, 2021). maritime english is one of the primary subjects taught in maritime education and training institutions. in indonesia, there are several maritime l.i. sari, r.h. sari 225 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) polytechnics that provide maritime education and training for students who want to pursue a career as seafarers. all of the polytechnics employ a boarding school system that requires the students to stay in a dormitory during their studies. the students have to follow the simulation of living onboard a ship by following certain procedures and schedules. they have to obey the rules set by institutions that regulate their uniform, their interaction with other students and lecturers, their daily activities (including classroom study time, physical training time, mealtime, etc.), and many more. when the covid-19 pandemic struck, many educational institutions had to switch from face-to-face learning to emergency remote learning (choi & chung, 2021). the maritime polytechnics had to send the students back home and continued the process of study in the online learning environment. for english lecturers, this situation has brought a greater challenge (batu et al., 2021). the challenges of online language teaching and learning during the covid-19 pandemic have drawn the interest of numerous scholars in many parts of the world. in the arabic setting, hamad et al. (2021) involved 43 english instructors to complete a questionnaire aiming to explore 5 aspects of online language teaching, including the quality of teaching, students’ interaction, learning outcomes, instructors’ planning, and correction load, and macro and micro-skills. their study revealed several major problems during online language teaching, including limited student-teacher interaction, difficulties in monitoring students’ class participation and performance, and difficulties in assessing micro and macro skills. online language teaching had also given “more burden” to the teachers since they had to spend more time and energy planning a lesson and preparing teaching materials (hamad et al., 2021). gao and zhang (2020) conducted a qualitative study to investigate the lecturers’ perception of online language teaching in a chinese university by interviewing three efl lecturers. the lecturers perceived that their teaching plans were disrupted due to covid-19 pandemic and they were demanded to improve their information and communication technology (ict) literacy to survive. gao and zhang’s (2020) study also indicated the importance to understand students’ learning needs, improve lecturers’ proficiency in the struggle is real! lecturers’ challenges and strategies in teaching… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 226 conducting online teaching, and integrate traditional classroom teaching methods with online teaching practices. nugroho et al. (2021) conducted a similar study in the indonesian context. they involved 27 indonesian efl lecturers in writing a self-reflection and joining a semi-structured interview. the study showed that many lecturers were not familiar with digital platforms used in online learning. they were unable to provide quick and direct feedback to students that have caused a lack of students' motivation and engagement during online class activities (nugroho et al., 2021). in the korean context, choi and chung (2021) involved 7 efl instructors in an in-depth interview to explore the challenges and strategies of online language teaching and learning in an english language program in south korea. they reported problems with interaction and collaborative activities as the major challenges faced by the instructors. as remedies, the instructors used several strategies, such as encouraging the students to turn on the camera and asking them to use non-verbal communication cues such as thumbs up. they also instructed students to collaborate in writing a summary of their group work using google docs, etc (choi & chung, 2021). in vietnam, hung (2021) explored the difficulties of online language teaching as well as its advantages. involving 15 english lecturers, he conducted a study at the center for foreign languages, can tho university in vietnam. his study revealed 5 major difficulties faced by the lecturers, including students' and lecturers’ access to technology, maintaining students’ motivation and engagement, assessing students’ progress, lecturers’ lack of digital pedagogical competence, and increased workload and stress. however, the lecturers also admitted that online language teaching could bring advantages, including flexibility and improving autonomy, motivation, self-determination, and self-regulation among lecturers and students (hung, 2021). many studies have explored the challenges of online language teaching. however, studies regarding maritime english teaching are still rare and studies focusing on low-english proficiency students in maritime polytechnics are not yet available. low english proficiency students in this research refer to students who have a low level of general english. students’ l.i. sari, r.h. sari 227 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) general english level that affects their esp learning has been discussed by poedjiastutie and oliver (2017). however, their discussion only covered students at an indonesian university. this study aims to provide a more specific context by exploring the problems of esp teaching in maritime polytechnics by involving the lecturers’ perspectives. there are two research questions guiding the current study: 1) what are the problems faced by the english lecturers when teaching maritime english online to students with low english proficiency? 2) what strategies are used by the english lecturers to overcome the problems? research method this research employed a qualitative descriptive method. one fundamental characteristic of this research is the naturalistic data taken under real-world conditions (creswell, 2012; yin, 2011). compared to other types of qualitative research, the qualitative descriptive method is more descriptive rather than interpretive in focus. in qualitative descriptive research, data were collected and analyzed qualitatively by identifying themes or patterns (nassaji, 2015). in this research, the authors attempt to describe a phenomenon by understanding the lecturers’ opinions and perspectives regarding their teaching experience. research participants to select the research participants, the authors used the purposive sampling technique. the selection of the participants was based on the consideration that they could provide the authors with the “best” information (kumar, 2011). problems with low proficiency students in maritime polytechnics have been discussed with some of the lecturers during informal discussions. following up the discussions, the authors involved nine maritime english lecturers who teach in seven maritime polytechnics under the ministry of transportation in indonesia for the applied bachelor program. their total teaching experience ranges from 4 years to 18 years. four of them joined a follow-up interview after completing the questionnaire. the participants, their teaching experience, and their campus locations are shown in table 1. the struggle is real! lecturers’ challenges and strategies in teaching… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 228 table 1. the research participants no name gender teaching experience campus location remarks 1. sk female 6 years jakarta joined the follow-up interview 2. ah female 4 years semarang joined the follow-up interview 3. nr female 18 years barombong joined the follow-up interview 4. da female 4 years banten joined the follow-up interview 5. tr female 17 years jakarta 6. ft female 5 years semarang 7. sl female 10 years makassar 8. hn female 8 years aceh 9. sm female 10 years banten data collection the authors prepared a questionnaire using google forms, which consisted of six open-ended questions. the open-ended questionnaire was aimed to enable the participants to share their experience on their own terms within the format that facilitates the process of data analysis (seixas et al., 2018). the questionnaire was used as a self-reflection for the lecturers to explore the difficulties they faced when teaching maritime english online, especially to students with low english proficiency, and their strategies to counter the problems. the questions in the questionnaire were as follows: 1. what do you think about the english proficiency level of your students? 1. what preparation do you make before teaching? 2. how do you conduct online maritime english teaching? (synchronous/asynchronous, the duration of teaching, the delivery of the materials) 3. what teaching media do you use? to what extent the teaching media help you in teaching? 4. what difficulties do you face during online teaching? (especially when dealing with the low english proficiency students) 5. what strategies do you use to handle the low english proficiency students? l.i. sari, r.h. sari 229 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) at the end of the questionnaire, the lecturers were requested to join a followup interview. the interview was aimed to obtain more detailed and comprehensive information regarding the participants’ online teaching experience. four lecturers agreed to join the interview, which was conducted using the zoom meeting application. the interview was semi-structured and lasted for about 15 – 20 minutes. the interviews were recorded and transcribed. data analysis in conducting the data analysis, the authors first downloaded the questionnaire results from google forms and transcribed the interview. the content analysis (ca) protocol was used as a strategy for analyzing data (leung & chung, 2019). first, the authors read the questionnaire responses and the interview transcripts several times. in this step, small chunks or phrases with meaning were generated. after that, labels or codes were given to each chunk of data. the coded chunks were compared and contrasted against each other, and similar chunks were grouped to form conceptual categories. the categories were then compared to the related theories about the phenomenon. finally, the authors summarize the findings and their implications on online esp teaching practices. results & discussion in conducting online maritime english teaching, the lecturers combined synchronous and asynchronous learning. they used various online learning platforms, such as zoom, google class room, edlink, quizizz, as well as the learning management system developed by the institution. they also used youtube to find relevant teaching materials and a whatsapp group to liaise with their students. according to the lecturers, students’ english proficiency level is varied, ranging from elementary to low-intermediate. as some of the lecturers mentioned in the questionnaire: english language proficiency of our students is varied, depending on the program. students of the regular program are quite good, but those of other programs have a very low english proficiency (nr). the struggle is real! lecturers’ challenges and strategies in teaching… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 230 in general, english proficiency level of our students is lowintermediate (tr). in my opinion, the english proficiency level of our students varies. some students are pretty good, but many others are still struggling with basic english (da). from the questionnaire, it can be concluded that the lecturers have to deal with students who have different levels of english proficiency. however, most of the students are in low proficiency levels. the problems faced by the english lecturers when teaching maritime english online to students with low english proficiency the difference in students’ ability has caused difficulty for the lecturers when conducting the teaching practices, especially when they have to deal with low english proficiency students. there are 3 (three) primary problems identified. a. students’ lack of interaction and participation. students’ lack of interaction and participation becomes the main issue reported by the lecturers. during synchronous learning using zoom, students with low english proficiency often turned off their cameras. they tried to avoid direct interaction with the lecturers and were reluctant to involve in the online class activities. as said by one of the lecturers: students with low proficiency were usually rather difficult to communicate with. they were reluctant to participate in teaching and learning activities. they just keep quiet and rarely speak up. they did not submit their assignments on time, and sometimes, did not submit the assignments at all (hn). another lecturer described her experience when asking questions to students. one of the constraints of online learning was in the class discussion process. when i asked students: do you have any l.i. sari, r.h. sari 231 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) questions regarding the materials today? they just kept silent and did not say a thing. however, when i gave them questions, they could not answer them correctly (da). some students also used poor internet connections as an excuse for not being fully able to participate in the class. this problem was mentioned by tr. students with low english proficiency were usually passive and tend to be difficult to collaborate in the learning process. some of them said that they had a poor internet connection (tr). this problem caused difficulty for the lecturers to monitor students’ attendance and performance, especially when students turned off their cameras during the video conferencing sessions. do the students sit in front of their computers and give full attention to the lecturers? or do they scroll their instagram and check their social media? this problem was mentioned by ah and da during the interview. it was difficult for me to ensure whether all of the students really follow the lesson well (ah). it was hard to make the class interactive. students sometimes did not understand the materials, but they did not want to ask questions. many were not serious when studying online because they felt that the lecturers could not supervise them directly (da). regarding students’ assignments, the lecturers reported plagiarism as the main issue. when students were given an assignment, some of them would wait for their friends to finish the assignment, copied it, and claimed it as their work. realizing this, one of the lecturers (da) said that she asked the students to hand-write their assignments instead of typing them with the hope that even though the student copied their friends' answers, at least they still could learn something. however, some the struggle is real! lecturers’ challenges and strategies in teaching… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 232 students also submitted the “wrong” tasks. da said that perhaps the students thought that she would not check all of their work, so they did not give their best effort in doing the assignments. i found it difficult when it comes to giving students assignments. perhaps some of them think that i will not check all of their work. they did not do the assignment properly. they just copied their friends’ works or they submitted unrelated documents (da). students’ lack of interaction and participation has made it difficult for the lecturers to monitor students’ real performance. the lecturers could not explore students' abilities and monitor their progress. this finding supports the study conducted by habil and lifa (2020), who investigated classroom management problems. they found that students’ behavioral problems (for example students do not follow instructions and refuse to cooperate in any way) have become one of the greatest challenges for the lecturers in managing their class. b. students’ low motivation and interest in learning english. the lecturers also reported that the low proficiency students had low motivation and interest in learning english. english is probably not their favorite subject. this problem was told by nr who has been teaching in maritime education institutions for 18 years. most of my students have low english proficiency. as we know that in our country, maritime colleges become the second option. high school graduates who are brighter and have better academic achievement usually choose more reputable universities to continue their education. if i ask my students, do you like studying english? i believe that 70% of them will answer ‘no’. if my students are sitting in front of me right now, it is not because they are willing, but because they have to (nr). l.i. sari, r.h. sari 233 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) another lecturer also mentioned the problems when dealing with lowmotivated students: it is hard for me when i have to teach a class in which the students have different english proficiency levels. the students with a higher proficiency level usually do not experience significant difficulties. however, the low english proficiency students need extra effort to keep up with their friends. but many of them have low motivation for learning. when the students encounter difficulties, they tend to give up easily (ah). many studies have highlighted the importance of motivation in foreign language learning (bower, 2019; thuan, 2021). there are several characteristics of motivated learners. they have a positive task orientation, ego-involvement, need for achievement, high aspirations, goal orientation, perseverance, and tolerance of ambiguity (mohammed, 2020). however, the low proficiency students lack those characteristics which hinder them from achieving their best performance. c. need more time to explain the teaching materials. when explaining the teaching materials to the low proficiency students, the lecturers needed extra time. they had to prepare their lessons well to make the teaching and learning activities as effective as possible. as two of the respondents mentioned in the interview: teaching students with low english proficiency is full of challenges. we need more time to explain the materials to make them understand (nr). when i explain the teaching materials, the students with higher proficiency usually can understand the materials easily. however, i need to repeat the explanation several times for students with lower proficiency levels. in an online class, it is more difficult because i cannot make sure they listen to my explanation (da). the struggle is real! lecturers’ challenges and strategies in teaching… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 234 this problem has caused a dilemma for the lecturers who have to keep up with the lesson plans. if they slow the lesson to adjust the speed of the low proficiency students, the targeted materials might not be achieved at the end of the semester. however, if they go at a normal speed, the low proficiency students might not be able to catch all the materials. several scholars have explored lecturers’ difficulties in conducting online language learning. a study conducted by aziz et al. (2021) showed that lecturers struggled with the changing curriculum, lesson preparations, giving feedback, and online marking assessments. the finding of this study indicated that time spent for preparing the lessons, giving feedback, and grading the students may also be a source of stress for the lecturers. the strategies used by the english lecturers to overcome the problems the challenges faced by the lecturers have encouraged them to find solutions to overcome the problems. some lecturers employ similar strategies, but they also have more specific strategies to be implemented in their classes. the strategies described by the lecturers are summarized as follows: a. using various texts, pictures, videos, or online platforms to expose students to the maritime vocabulary. maritime english has a very specific and technical vocabulary which might be too advanced for the students with low english proficiency. to improve students’ english proficiency, the lecturers often focused on improving students’ vocabulary. as mentioned by ah during the interview: my strategy is to focus on vocabulary because i think vocabulary is the basis of learning english. if students have already mastered adequate vocabulary, it will be easier for me to teach grammar. i must give students exposure to the vocabulary. i used various texts and videos which are related to maritime. the students need to l.i. sari, r.h. sari 235 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) read or watch the video many times to familiarize themselves with the vocabulary (ah). the current study supports the studies regarding the importance of vocabulary in language teaching and learning. vocabulary is considered a core feature of language proficiency. language learners need to understand at least 98% of the words to be able to comprehend a message without assistance (bai, 2018; bergström et al., 2021). to expose students to maritime vocabulary, there were various strategies used by the lecturers. some lecturers used youtube videos to introduce students to maritime context and vocabulary. in the digital era, the use of youtube has become popular among language lecturers. there are many studies regarding the use of youtube. most scholars reported the platform’s effectiveness due to its accessibility and authenticity (simbolon & yusnita, 2020). besides youtube, some of the lecturers also used online quiz platforms such as quizizz and game-based learning platforms such as kahoot. this research supports the findings of sartini’s study (2020). she found that the use of kahoot! as an interactive online learning platform is proven effective to improve students’ vocabulary mastery of maritime english. besides that, it can improve students’ motivation and interest in learning english and encourage students’ interaction and participation. b. considering the learning style of students in designing the teaching and learning activities. the learning style is one of the important aspects that influence the students’ learning process. every person has different preferences on how he/she receives information. how an individual acquires, retains, and retrieves information is a learning style (alhourani, 2021). when designing teaching and learning activities, lecturers are often not aware that students may have different learning styles. however, one of the lecturers mentioned that she tried to understand the characteristic of her students when designing classroom activities. the struggle is real! lecturers’ challenges and strategies in teaching… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 236 i understand that my students may have different learning styles that make them have different preferences in the class activities. for example, when i say ‘starboard is the right side of a vessel’, auditory students will understand immediately. however, visual students need pictures to help them understand the same things. so, when we introduce vocabulary to students, we have to utilize various teaching aids. using pictures and videos will help a lot (nr). the issue of students’ learning style, which affects their language learning, has drawn the interest of a number of scholars. they highlighted the significance of understanding students’ learning styles that can help the lecturers design more effective instruction and more engaging class activities (balci, 2017; payaprom & payaprom, 2020; salam et al., 2020). c. grouping lower proficiency students with higher proficiency students in a collaborative activity. students with low english proficiency often have affective barriers during the learning process. they often feel anxious and try to avoid interaction with the lecturers during class activities. when given a difficult task, they tend to give up easily. this problem was mentioned by ah during the interview. in my opinion, students with low proficiency have low resilience. when they face difficulty, they quickly say, “i cannot do this”. if only they give more effort and push themselves to the limit, i believe they can accomplish the target (ah). students with low english proficiency often realize that they have a very limited vocabulary and grammar. they also find it difficult to pronounce many words in english. thus, they tend to keep silent and become passive in class. group activity can become one of the solutions to reduce students' anxiety and boost their confidence. many scholars have revealed the benefits of group work for students. group work can create l.i. sari, r.h. sari 237 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) a more relaxed learning atmosphere and thus reduce students’ anxiety. collaborative learning can make students feel more secure and decrease their concerns about negative performance evaluation (m. c. liu et al., 2018). one of the lecturers shared her experience regarding grouping students. i implement collaborative learning in my class. i group the low proficiency students with the high proficiency students so they can collaborate and help each other. in a class discussion, a group that only consists of low proficiency students tends to be passive. on the other hand, a group that consists of high proficiency students tends to dominate (nr). in grouping the students, nr mixed the low proficiency students with the high proficiency students with the purpose that they can help each other. this is in line with studies conducted by kadir and salija (2018) and niu et al. (2018). they found that heterogenous grouping by combining students’ abilities has a better impact than homogenous grouping. in collaborative learning, students with low proficiency levels can get benefit from heterogeneous grouping. they can receive help from their friends and learn more things. in the end, it can improve their selfconfidence and reduce their anxiety. d. providing appropriate scaffolding for the students. lecturer’s scaffolding is very important in language learning, especially for low proficiency students. the students need lecturers’ assistance to help them learn new skills or concepts and accomplish their learning objectives (mahan, 2022). some lecturers shared their experience of giving scaffolding to their students. to help students understand the materials, i simplify the vocabulary based on the students’ ability. for example, i give the basic vocabulary first. after they master the vocabulary, i move to the struggle is real! lecturers’ challenges and strategies in teaching… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 238 the next level. i group the vocabulary based on the difficulty level and the frequency used in the maritime field (ah). i use repetition as the strategy to teach students with low proficiency. the theory says that students need to be exposed to new vocabulary 7 to 12 times before they can save them in their memory. i usually give various activities and tasks to students to give them exposure. i also use pictures and videos to help students understand the materials (nr). there are a number of studies regarding scaffolding in language learning. simplifying the language and using visuals help students to understand the teaching materials. the findings of this study support the studies conducted by li and zhang (2022), liu et al. (2022), and yildiz and celik (2020). they agreed that scaffolding is a beneficial tool that encourages students’ interaction and participation in the language classroom. the lecturers can select and implement the most appropriate scaffolding techniques based on the student's needs and characteristics. conclusion teaching students with low-english proficiency is very challenging for lecturers, especially during esp teaching. special attention must be given to ensure that all students can fulfil the learning objectives. this study has revealed three main problems faced by the lecturers when teaching maritime english online to students with low english proficiency: students’ lack of interaction and participation, students’ low motivation and interest in learning english, and extra time needed by the lecturers to explain the teaching materials. this study brings several pedagogical implications to maritime english teaching. firstly, lecturers need to be creative to explore the most suitable techniques and strategies implemented in their classroom. the lecturers can use various texts, pictures, videos, or online platforms to expose students to maritime vocabulary. secondly, the lecturers need to consider students’ learning styles and preferences in designing classroom activities. students l.i. sari, r.h. sari 239 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) may have different characteristics and it is important that the lecturers can design the most appropriate activities that can accommodate all students. thirdly, the lecturers can employ various scaffolding techniques to assist students’ learning. for instance, they can group lower proficiency students with higher proficiency students in a collaborative activity as one of the strategies to improve students’ motivation and reduce their anxiety. this study also highlights the importance of lecturers’ technological and pedagogical knowledge and skills in supporting their teaching practices. acknowledgments the researchers would like to extend gratitude and appreciation to the lecturers who have been willing to share their experience in teaching maritime english online as research participants. references ahmmed, r., sinha, b. s., khan, d. r., & islam, d. m. 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(2018). maritime english as a code-tailored esp: genrebased curriculum development as a way out. iberica, 35, 145–170. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.62-82 1 swearing used in richard wright’s black boy giyatmi universitas veteran bangun nusantara sukoharjo giyatmi85jimmy@gmail.com ratih wijayava universitas veteran bangun nusantara sukoharjo ratihwijayava@gmail.com nunun tri widarwati universitas veteran bangun nusantara sukoharjo nununtriwidarwati@gmail.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.62-82 english abstract this research aims at finding the types of swearing expressions and linguistic forms of english swearing used in richard wright’s black boy. this is a descriptive qualitative research since it describes the phenomena of swearing used in the novel. the data of the research are all the conversations or sentences used swearing in the novel written by richard wright namely black boy as the main data source. the method of collecting data in this research is observation and teknik lanjut catat. after all the data had been collected then they are coded using the coding system such as data number/title of novel/chapter/page/data. there is no data reduction since all the data are analyzed in this research. this research used theory triangulation. kind of swearing expressions found in this novel dealing with god and religion terms, name of animals and plants, part of body, racial terms, stupidity terms, name of occupation, sexual terms, family terms. the linguistic forms of english swearing used in this novel are word, phrase, and clause. the swearing in the form of words consists of (1) noun referring to place, person, occupation, animal, and idea (2) verb and (3) adjective. phrase consists of (1) noun phrase with swearing functioning as headword, modifier, and both headword and modifier, (2) adjective phrase with swearing functioning as modifier. swearing expression is also found in the form of sentence. keywords: taboo, swearing, and linguistic form. indonesian abstract penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menemukan jenis makian serta satuan bahasa dari makin berbahasa inggris yang digunakan dalam novel richard wright yang berjudul black boy. penelitian ini berjenis deskriptif kualitatif karena penelitian ini berusaha menjelaskan mailto:giyatmi85jimmy@gmail.com mailto:nununtriwidarwati@gmail.com http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.873 giyatmi, ratih wijayava, nunun tri widarwati fenomena makian yang terdapat pada novel black boy karya richard wright. data pada penelitian ini adalah semua kata, frasa, klausa, kalimat yang mengandung kata makian dalam percakapan di novel black boy karya richard wright yang merupakan sumber data primer dalam penelitian ini. metode pengumpulan data dalam penelitian ini adalah observasi dan teknik lanjut catat. setelah semua data terkumpul maka data diberi kode dengan system kode yang sudah ditentukan yaitu nomor data/judul novel/bab dalam novel/halaman novel/data. semua data yang ditemukan dalam penelitian ini dianalisis, sehingga tidak ada reduksi data. penelitian ini menggunakan trianggulasi teori. jenis makian yang ditemukan dalam novel ini terkait dengan nama tuhan serta istilah keagamaan, nama hewan dan tumbuhan, nama bagian tubuh, istilah rasial, istilah yang bersinonim dengan hal yang menunjukkan kebodohan, nama pekerjaan, istilah aktivitas seksual, dan istilah yang terkait dengan keluarga. sementara itu dari satuan lingual, makian dapat berbentuk kata yang terdiri dari (1) kata benda yang merujuk pada tempat, orang, pekerjaan, binatang serta idea (2) kata kerja (3) kata sifat. frase yang digunakan dalam makian pada novel ini meliputi (1) frase kata benda dengan posisi kata makian sebagai kata inti (head word), penjelas (modifier), serta berfungsi sebagai keduanya baik kata inti (head word) dan penjelas (modifier), (2) frase kata sifat dengan kata makian sebagai penjelasan (modifier). ekspresi makian juga ditemukan dalam bentuk kalimat. kata kunci: tabu, makian dan satuan lingual. introduction richard wright was one of famous american authors. he wrote some novels, short stories, poems, and non-fictions. many of his works concern with racial theme. one of his novels is black boy: a record of childhood and youth. it is considered to be a semi autobiography, because the novel tells about his early life then moved to chicago. he started his writing career and became involved with political party in that town. this novel was written in 1945 and became best seller. having read this novel, the writer found interesting language phenomenon, i.e. the use of swearing. richard wright used many swearing expressions in the novel. it is easy to find swearing expression such as damn, hell, goddamn, sonofabitch in this novel. swearing is an offensive word, usually as an expression of anger. swearing is considered to be impolite and taboo so that many people avoid it. swearing is often associated with negative emotion such as anger, disappointment. actually swearing can be related to the positive emotion. swearing can be used to express relief, happiness or even admiration. it depends on the context. swearing as one of language expressions is influenced by the context surrounded it. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.62-82 3 broadly speaking, context is the environment where the utterance or expression happens. mey (1993; 38) defines context as the surroundings, in the widest sense, that the participants in the communication process to interact, and that make the linguistics expression of their interaction intelligible. context can bring swearing expression to be positive or negative emotion. for example the word damn can mean negative when it is spoken by a who gets angry after knowing that his girlfriend had an affair with his friend. on the other hand, damn can mean positive when it is used by the speaker who finally accidentally meets his old friend with whom he have not seen yet since high school graduation. so, to sum up, context plays an important part in determining meaning of an utterance or expression. swearing is common in languages but not universal. there are some communities such as indian america, malay, and most of polynesian languages do not swear (montagu in geoffrey, 1998; 3). swearing is influenced by culture and belief of the society using the swearing. in one society maybe a certain word is not considered as swearing but in another society maybe that certain word is swearing. for example is jangkrik (cricket) which is considered as swearing in east java, indonesia but not in central java, indonesia. jangkrik (cricket) is a name of animal. there are many animals used as swearing such as dog, bitch and pig. besides, there are still many sources used as swearing expression such as part of body for instance eyes and lips (mata dan bibir in javanese society), ass (in english language). swearing can be also got from the bad behavior of someone such as silly, stupid (bodoh in indonesia). the writer is interested in the english swearing found in richard wright‟s black boy so that the writer had a research on it. the research focused on the type of swearing and linguistic forms used on swearing found in richard wright‟s black boy. previous study swearwords seem to be very interesting to study hence there are many researches dealing with swearwords. the researchers presented some previous researches dealing with swearword to complete the researchers‟ study. ririn febrima and rusdi noor rose in swearwords found in chat room yahoo messenger (2012) focus their study on kinds of swearwords used by the people in indian chat room yahoo messenger and the functions of swearwords used by the people in indian chat room yahoo messenger. this research shows giyatmi, ratih wijayava, nunun tri widarwati that there are 6 kinds of swearwords used in indian chat room yahoo messenger such as the swearwords related to (1) supernatural or internal power of gods, angels and devils (2) swearwords related to the future life (3) swearwords related to the names of ancestors and heroes (4) oaths by natural objects, forces, and phenomena (5) vulgar or obscene words (6) oaths by animals, plants, and their products. meanwhile, the swearwords used in this chat room functions as anger, joke, surprise, unbelievable, promise, convince, and disappointment. elisa nuraini, a comparative study of english and indonesian swear words on english and indonesian movie (2009) emphasizes on the linguistics form types of the swearwords employed by the characters in indonesian and english movies and the meaning of the swear words found in indonesian and english movie. the result of the study shows that the type of swearwords employed by the characters in indonesian and english movies are single word, compound word, noun phrase, verb phrase, and adjective phrase. besides, the research shows that the meanings of swearword are to express anger, to intensify, to express annoyance, to insult, to disprove one‟s statement, to express surprise and to mock. the two previous studies mentioned used chat room and movies to get the data, while this research uses novel, the black boy by richard wright to get the data. in addition this research focuses on kinds of swearing and linguistic forms found in richard wright‟s black boy. taboo taboo is closely related to swearing so that‟s why it is necessary to discuss it. taboo comes from tongan language, an austronesia language of the polynesian branch spoken in tonga (in pacific ocean). taboo was firstly introduced into english by captain cook in 1777. broadly speaking, taboo means forbidden to be said, to be used because of its contradiction to the value in the society and culture. winick (in laksana, 2009; 17) defines taboo is a prohibition, which, if violated, leads to an automatic penalty inflicted by magic and religion. frazer in (laksana, 2009; 25) classifies taboo into taboo of action, taboo of people, taboo of property, and taboo of words. furthermore, frazer classifies taboo words into taboo of parents‟ name, taboo of family, taboo of dead people, taboo of sacred person or animal, taboo of god‟s name, and taboo of certain words. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.62-82 5 in addition (wijana; 242) mentions that taboo can appear in three ways such as taboo of fear, taboo of delicacy, and taboo of property. taboo of fear refers to the forbidden of mentioning god‟s name, spirit and animal. the example of this taboo is taboo word for animal such as bear which people prefer calling it honey eater because of its totem power (geoffrey,1998; 8). when people avoid of naming something that is not worth saying such as name of disease and death, it is the implementation of taboo of delicacy. geoffrey (1998; 10) states that virtually all societies have, for instance taboo against direct reference to death: invariably preferred is some euphemism concerning journey to unknown destination, such as pass on, pass away or more uplifting variant of salvation army, promoted to the glory. taboo of property has something to do with sexual, parts of body as well as their function. swearing swearing is usually known as a word or phrase considered unacceptable in polite language, and used to express strong feeling such as anger, or to give offense. montagu (in laksana, 2001; 26) states that swearing is the act of verbally expressing the feeling aggressiveness that follows upon frustration in words possessing strong emotional association. another definition is given by crystal (1992; 61), swearing is the complex and sophisticated expression that may be found in religion, legal and formal context. at the other, there are many daily examples of taboo speech, usually profanities or obscenities that express such emotion as hatred, antagonism, frustration and surprises. to sum up, it can be said that swearing is a kind of verbal expression used to express strong emotion association such as anger, hatred, frustration, and surprises. crystal mentions the sources of swearing such as things that have something to do with sexual activity, secretion, and supernatural (1992; 61). still from crystal, swearing is classified into (1) parts of body and their functions that are considered taboo and impolite in the society such as ball and four letter words, (2) name of god, evil, holy place, hereafter life, saint people such as god, dear lord, heaven, hell, by heard of the prophet. ajib rosidi in kata makian in http://sainstory.wordpress.com/2011/12/01/kata-katamakian/, classifies swearing into (1) those which have something to do with religion and belief (2) those which have something to do with sex (3) those which have something to do http://sainstory.wordpress.com/2011/12/01/kata-kata-makian/ http://sainstory.wordpress.com/2011/12/01/kata-kata-makian/ giyatmi, ratih wijayava, nunun tri widarwati with parts of body (4) those which have something to do with function of human body (5) those which have something to do with synonymy of stupidity (6) names of animal. another article from choiron in dalam manfaat memaki (bukan kamus makian) pada http://bahasa.kompasiana.com/2011/03/26/manfaat-memaki-bukan-kamus-makian/ mentions that most of society share similarity on theme that deals with swearing such as (1) human body and its defects (2) weakness of bad attitude of person (3) human organ dealing with secretion (4) sexual activity (5) animal which are considered low and small (6) insect such as jangkrik (7) fruit such as jambu (8) bad name of family. in budiawanto (2006; 5), english swearing develops in three stages. the first is in 16 th century. in this stage, most swearing refers to euphemism for god‟s name such as god blind me, bloody by my lady. the next stage is in the 18 th century. swearing dealing with god‟s name euphemism was decreasing in this stage. england started to clean their language from such kind of swearing. most of swearing refers to the parts of body and their function such as cock, and cunt, the genital organs for male and female. the last stage is on the 20 th century, in which swearing has something to do with racial issues and sexuality, such as nigger, which means people having black skin. linguistic forms language consists of two elements i.e. form and meaning. linguistic form includes phonological units such as phonemes and syllables. on the other hand, grammatical units such as morphemes, phrases, clauses, sentences, and discourses (ramlan, 2005; 21) a. word word is the smallest of linguistic units which can occur on its own speech or writing (richard, 1985; 311) similar definition of word from crystal saying that word is the smallest unit of linguistic that can stand independently. in the written form, word is separated by spaces and in the spoken form; it is recognized by pause (crystal, 1992; xxx) to sum up, the two definitions are viewed word from the orthographical point of view. word is classified into content word and function word. content word refers to object, events, and abstract concept. content words consist of noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. on the other hand, function words are those kinds of words that are often best http://bahasa.kompasiana.com/2011/03/26/manfaat-memaki-bukan-kamus-makian/ register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.62-82 7 defined by its function (aronoff and fudeman, 2005; 40). articles, conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions are the examples of function words. b. phrase richard mentions that phrase is a group of words which form grammatical units. a phrase does not contain a finite verb and does not have a subject-predicative structure (1985; 39). based on the definition there is no finite verb and subject-predication on a phrase, however a phrase consists elements name headword and modifier. based on its headword, phrase can be classified into noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, and adverb phrase. c. clause and sentence clause is a group of words which form a grammatical unit and which contains a subject and finite verb. a clause forms a sentence of part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb (richard, 1985; 39) clause has already had a subject and predicate but clause cannot stand independently because the meaning of clause is not complete yet. research methods this is a descriptive qualitative research which observed the phenomenon of swearing found in novel entitles black boy by richard wright. the data of this research is swearing found in richard wright‟s black boy as the main source of data. the method of collecting data used is observation and teknik lanjut catat. the data found are recorded then are given codes. the coding system is data number/title of novel/chapter/page/data such as 001/bb/017/damn thing. the writer used all the data so there was no data reduction. this research is used theory triangulation. discussion a. type of swearing used on richard wright’s black boy based on the analysis, the types of swearing words used on richard wright‟s black boy are; 1. religion terms giyatmi, ratih wijayava, nunun tri widarwati swearing expression dealing with religion terms covers the euphemism of god‟s names such as god‟s name, evil, angel, hell, and heaven. no religion terms amounts 1 god‟s name such as god’s sake, god’s face, goddamn/goddamnit, christ, lord, holy 24 2 evil/devil 6 2 angel 1 3 hell 22 4 damn 11 tabel 1. swearing expression with religion terms god‟s name euphemism consists of the use of god‟s name for swearing. these swearing are used mostly when the speaker felt angry. the examples of these swearing such as found in the following data; a. “what‟s the matter, for the god’s sake?” my mother asked for me, of granny, of my brother, turning her face from one to anther (005/bb/ii/50/god‟s sake) b. “i have nothing to do with whether you go to school or not, she said. “you left the church and dead to me, dead to christ.(037/bb/v/154/christ) c. mrs. moss came down in her robe. “mama, look what richards was gonna do.” bess said, showing the can. “he was gonna eat this in his room.” “lord, boys, “mrs. moss said. you don‟t have to do that (096/bb/236/lord) d. “holy cats”, he said. he looked at us. “did you really find this here?” “oh, yes sir,” we said. (098/bb/xi/242/holy) swearing dealing with religion terms that was firstly found is the use of evil and devil. both refer to something unpleasant. however, there is also the use of angel as the swearing expression. the examples of these data are: a. “you‟re an evil. you bring nothing but trouble. (035/bb/iv/148/evil) b. “then why write it?” she asked. “because people might want to read it.” “that‟s the devil’s work,” she said and left. (057/bb/vii/185/devil c. “them bastard brats of yours ain‟t no angel!” the landlady said. (012/b/ii/angel) meanwhile, religion terms for swearing can be seen in the use of hell to swear such as in the following data: register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.62-82 9 a. “hell, i ain‟t gonna stand near you, nigger! (018/bb/iii/89/hell) b. “that ain‟t gonna do you no good. “hell, they‟ll catch you. rejection of naïve rebellion. (023/bb/iii/90/hell) 2. animal and plant terms tabel 2. swearing expression with animal and plant terms no. animal terms amount 1 bitch 2 2 pig 1 3 dog 3 4 5 6 7 hog ass rooster monkey 1 1 1 1 names of animals and plants can be used to swear too. however not all animals and plants can be used as swearing. the use is various among the culture. some of the swearing found in richard wright‟s black boy use animal and plant terms, such as; a. bitch and dog “that‟s right, you bitch, ”the young man said (046/bb/vi/164/bitch) “well, walk, you black sonofabitch” (069/bb/ix/black sonofabitch) bitch is female dog, wolf, or fox. this swearing sometimes appears in another form such as sonofabitch. in informal use, bitch means unpleasant woman. bitch and dog are used for swearing to compare the traits of the swearing addressee with those of the animals. b. pig and hog “calling the hogs” “go home, pig!” (030/bb/iii/92/hogs, pig) hog is a male pig with its sexual organ removed that is allowed to grow large so it can be eaten its meat. hog and pig usually symbolize greediness so in informal use pig and hog means greedy persons. giyatmi, ratih wijayava, nunun tri widarwati c. ass “listen, nigger,” he said to me, my ass is tough and a quarter is scarce. (101/bb/xii/250/ass) the next animal used for swearing is ass. ass is the same as donkey. it is a mammal of the horse family which is usually smaller than a horse and has longer ears. in british informal, ass means foolish or stupid person. d. rooster “i don‟t want to fight for white men. i‟m no dog or rooster” (106/bb/xii/2623/rooster) rooster is a male chicken. it is also known as cock. in slang terms both rooster and cock has another meaning. rooster and cook can mean male genital. rooster can also mean male homosexual. e. monkey “yeeeessss, siiir,” shorty sang : but first he picked up his quarter and put it into his mouth. “this monkey’s got the peanuts,” he chortled. (100/bb/xii/250/monkey) monkey and other animals like cow, baboon, ape, skunk, polecat, and shrew, has been used in a metaphorical fashion for both a disreputable and unpleasant woman. f. nut “crush that nigger‟s nut, nigger! “hit that nigger!” (109/bb/xii/265/nut) nut means a hard-shelled dry fruit or seed with a separable rind or shell and interior kernel (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nut). in slang language, nut means a person‟s head and in a vulgar use, it can mean testis. in addition, nut can also mean a person with silly and stupid behavior. 3. racism terms no racism terms amount 1 black 10 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nut register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.62-82 11 2 negroes 1 3 nigger 33 4 coloured man 1 5 white ( white people, white man 7 tabel 3. swearing expression with racism terms black boy is a novel with afro american family background in america. there was still many discriminations found in the story. there are some swearing words dealing with racism terms such as negro, nigger, black, colored man, white folk, white, white man. these swearing words have something to do with skin color. negro comes from spanish and portuguese words meaning black. the next words have the same meaning as negro is nigger and black. the following are the examples of those swearing: a. “maybe that‟s wrong with negroes,” i said. they take too much time. (078/bb/ix/205/negroes) b. “crush that nigger‟s nut, nigger! “hit that nigger!” (109/bb/xii/265/nut) c. pack up your rags, you black bastard, and get”, the landlady ordered. (015/bb/ii/74/black bastard) besides, there is some swearing having something to do with white skin, such as white, white man, white people like the following ones: a. “…. but i didn‟t want to sell betsy to white people” “why?” “because they‟re white,” i said (017/bb/ii/81/white) b. “they say a white man bit a colored man up north and that colored man bit that white man, knocked him cold, and nobody did a damn thing! urgent wish to believe in fight” (026/bb/iii/white man, colored man) 4. stupidity synonymy no stupidity synonymy amount 1 fool (fool, foolish, foolishness) 14 2 silly 1 3 lousy 1 giyatmi, ratih wijayava, nunun tri widarwati tabel 4. swearing expression with stupidity synonym there is swearing having synonymy with stupidity that is found in this novel for example fool (fool, foolish, foolishness), silly and lousy. the most used is fool. all kinds of the swearing is used for showing someone‟s stupidity. the following are the examples of swearing dealing with stupidity: a. “come on here, you little filthy fool,” my mother called (007/bb/ii/51/fool) b. “couldn‟t granny find out who her father was?” “for what, silly?” “so she could know” (009/bb/ii/57/silly) c. “that goddamn lousy bastard sonofabitching bucket! i spoke in a whisper of hate and despair. (033/bb/iii/107/lousy) 5. occupation no occupation amount 1 whore 1 2 prostitute 2 tabel 5. swearing expression with occupation sometimes people swear by using word dealing with occupation. in indonesian there is a swearing taken from the occupation name, bajingan which is actually is a name of the person whose job is driving a carriage. this phenomenon can be found in the novel such as whore and prostitute. both are addressed to women engaging in sexual activity for getting money. the examples of the use of this swearing are: a. “and what kind of whore is you?” the landlady shouted. (014/bb/ii/74/whore) b. you‟re just a common prostitute,” aunt maggie pitched (013/bb/ii/74/prostitute) 6. sexual activity no sexual activity amount 1 (f*****g) 2 tabel 6. swearing expression with sexual activity there are only two swearing dealing with sexual activity found in this novel such as f**k and f*****g. those two words are not written completely. there are some register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.62-82 13 letters blanked to hide the real words because this swearing is considered as the worst swearing. this swearing has something to do with sexual activity. the example of the swearing with sexual activity term is; a. “didn‟t you call him, pease? if you say you didn‟t, i‟ll rip your gut string loose with this fkig bar, you black granny dodger! you can‟t call a white man a liar and get away with it” (084/bb/ix/209/fk i g) b. “suck „im in his fk g piece!” (109/bb/xii/265/ fk g) 7. parts of body no parts of body amount 1 ass 1 2 piece 1 tabel 7. swearing expression with parts of body parts of body are also used in swearing. this research found two swearing using part of body in this novel, namely ass and piece. a. ass ass is derived from the word arse which means a person‟s buttocks. this swearing is usually used to show someone who is stupid and irritating. “listen, nigger,” he said to me, my ass is tough and a quarter is scare. (101/bb/xii/250/ass) b. piece piece, in this case means male genital. “suck „im in his fk g piece!” (109/bb/xii/265/ fk g) 8. family terms no family terms amount 1 bastard 2 sonofabitch tabel 8. swearing expression with family terms the swearing has something to do with family terms found in this novel is bastard and sonofabitch. giyatmi, ratih wijayava, nunun tri widarwati a. bastard bastard is used to call a child born with no married parents or an illegitimate child. there are many swearing using the word bastard, one of them is; “pack up your rag, you black bastard, and get”, the landlady ordered. (015/bb/ii/74/bastard) b. sonofabitch bitch is a female dog. this swearing is sometimes combined with the word son (the male child in the family). the following is the example of it; “that goddamn lousy bastard sonofabitching bucket! i spoke in a whisper of hate and despair. (033/bb/iii/107/sonofbiching) b. linguistic forms the most dominant linguistic forms used in swearing found in richard wright‟s black boy are words and phrases. there is also a swearing in the form of sentence. 1. word the swearing expression in word forms that are found in richard wright‟s black boys consists of noun, adjective, and verb. no parts of speech swearing words 1. noun nigger, negro, hell, whore, prostitute, pig, hog, dog, bitch, rooster, cock, monkey, angel, christ, lord, god, evil, devil, foolishness. 2. verb damn 3. adjective black, silly, fool, holy, bastard tabel 9. swearing words a. noun noun is the word identifying person, thing, place, animal, and idea. swearing words used in the novel can be classified into; 1. person such as nigger and negro. nigger is name for black people. sometimes it is called negro. the examples for noun referring to person are; a) “nigger, you mind‟s in a ditch,” amusingly moralistic. (019/bb/iii/89/nigger) register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.62-82 15 b) “get down, nigger and put up your hands!” they order 2. place such as hell. hell is a place for punishing and tormenting in the afterlife. the used of this term can be found in the following examples: a) “hell, i woulda just killed her if she hada said that to me. (021/bb/iii/90/hell) b) “hell, i ain‟t gonna stand near you, nigger (018/bb/iii/89/hell,nigger) 3. animal such as ass, rooster, cock, pig, hog, dog, bitch and monkey. rooster and cock both refer to an adult male. rooster and cock are used for referring male genital. hog and pig are similar. hog is male pig that its sexual organs have been removed and a hog is usually kept for its meat. dog and bitch both refer to an animal with four legs that are usually kept by human for pet, hunting or guarding. bitch refers to female dog. these animals are used for referring people who is unpleasant. the used of these swearing words such as; a) “that‟s right, you bitch, ”the young man said (046/bb/vi/164/bitch) b) “go home, pig!” (030/bb/iii/92/hogs, pig) c) “i don‟t want to fight for white men. i‟m no dog or rooster” (106/bb/xii/262-3/rooster) 4. idea such as foolishness. foolishness is used to show someone else stupidity. the use of it can be seen in the following example; a) quit talking foolishness! (008/bb/ii/55/foolishness) b. verb there is only one verb found in the novel. it is damn. it, however, has variation in the past form such as damned. this verb usually combined with the word god such as goddamn and goddamnit. the used of it can be found in the following examples; a) “now i‟ll be damned if i‟m going to be beaten because of your hurt feeling. (053/bb/vi/174/damned) b) it is my house and i‟ll have in it what i damn please,” the landlady said. c. adjective swearing in adjective forms found in the novel are black, fool, and foolish. those swearing function to modify noun such as the following data; a) “you‟re foolish, “my mother said. (017/bb/ii/foolish) giyatmi, ratih wijayava, nunun tri widarwati b) “aw, you‟re fool, “he said. then he smiled quickly…(106/bb/xii/fool) c) “dick, look, you‟re so black, black, black, see? (076/bb/ix/203/black) 2. phrase the next linguistic unit used in swearing expression is phrase. phrase is a group of words with headword and modifier. there are two kinds of phrases used as swearing in this novel. they are noun phrase and adjective phrase. a. noun phrase noun phrase is a phrase with noun as its headword. the modifier can be noun, adjective, article, numeral, etc. swearing in the form of noun phrase found in this novel is classified into three based on the position of the swearing. they are swearing as headword, swearing as modifier, and swearing as both headword and modifier. 1) swearing as headword. in this part, swearing words function as the headword of the phrase. the followings are some phrases in which the headword is swearing: a. “you‟re just a common prostitute”, aunt maggie pitched. (013/bb/ii/74/common prostitute) b. “you little fool! put that suitcase down!” (038/bb/v/159/little fool) c. “you‟re a lucky bastrd, cause if you‟d said that to some other white man, you might‟ve been a dead nigger now”. (070/bb/ix/200/lucky bastard, a dead nigger) the swearing words (in bold capital letters) on the sentences above all are nouns and functioning as headwords in the noun phrase. 2) swearing as modifier. in this part, swearing words function as modifier to the headword of the phrase. the followings are the examples of swearing as modifier found in the novel; a. “kill that damn thing!,” my father exploded (001/bb/i/17/damn thing) b. “you stop that, you evil gal”, she shouted. (002/bb/i/47/evil gal) c. “who on earth put such sides into your nigger head?” (043/bb/vi/162/nigger head) all the swearing words (in bold capital letters) are functioning as modifiers. they modify the headwords in the noun phrase. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.62-82 17 3) swearing as headword and modifier. in this part, swearing functions both as headword and modifier in the noun phrase. the followings are data concerning with swearing as headword and modifier; a. “pack your rugs, you black bastard and get,” the landlady ordered (015/bb/ii/74/black bastard) b. “say, what in hell are you glaring at me, you nigger bastard?” he demanded (047/bb/vi/164/nigger bastard) c. “well, walk, you black sonofabitch! (069/bb/ix/200/black sonofabitch) the noun phrases above consist of swearing both as headword and modifier. the headwords are bold typed and the modifiers are italic. b. adjective phrase this kind of phrase has adjective as its headword. the modifier for this phrase is usually adverb. the followings are the adjective phrases found in this novel; a. “what so damn funny about that?” she asked (040/bb/v/160/damn funny) b. “sometimes i get so goddamn mad i want to kill everybody,” he spat i a rage. “i like to sleep too goddamn much. i‟ll die here. or maybe they‟ll kill me” (111/bb/xiii/281/ goddamn mad, goddamn much) the above phrases have adjectives (in capital letters) as their headwords and adverbs (in bold type) as modifiers. the swearing words on the sentences are functioning as modifiers. 3. sentences the biggest linguistic unit in swearing found in this novel is sentence. the followings are the sentences with swearing: a. “ha ha ha….yeah, goddamnit they‟ll catch you (024/bb/iii/90/godamnit) b. “goddamn. i thought. it happened quicker than i had expected. (049/bb/vi/170/goddamn). the two swearing expressions found in the novel are in the form of sentence but they are written with no spaces. they should be god damn and god damn it. giyatmi, ratih wijayava, nunun tri widarwati conclusions swearing is an application of language function namely expressive or emotive function. swearing is used as an expression of feeling and emotion. based on the research about swearing found in richard wright‟s black boy, we can say that the swearing types used in the novel are various. there are eight types of swearing used in it such as swearing with religion terms and god names, animal and plant terms, racial terms, stupidity terms, occupation terms, sexual terms, parts of body, and family terms. in addition, the swearing used on the novel also comes in the form of words, phrase, and sentences. no swearing found in the form of clause. kinds of words used for swearing expression are; verb, adjective, and noun referring to people, things, places, animals, occupations, and idea. there are only two kinds of phrases used in swearing found in the novel such as noun phrase and adjective phrase. references arronof, m &fudeman, k (2005). what is morphology. oxford: blackwell publishing ltd. budiwanto, c.. (2006). an analysis of swear words in jackass the movie. skripsi fakultas sastra universitas kristen petra surabaya. choiron. (2011). manfaat memaki (bukan kamus makian). kompasiana. retrieved march 06, 2012 from http://bahasa.kompasiana.com/2011/03/26/manfaat-memaki-bukankamus-makian/ crystal, d. (2003). the cambridge encyclopedia of language. new york : the university of cambridge geoffrey, h. (1998). swearing: a social history of foul language, oaths and profanity in english. england: penguin book blackwell laksana, i.k.d (2009). tabu bahasa: salah satu cara memahami kebudayaan bali. denpasar: udayana university press http://bahasa.kompasiana.com/2011/03/26/manfaat-memaki-bukan-kamus-makian/ http://bahasa.kompasiana.com/2011/03/26/manfaat-memaki-bukan-kamus-makian/ register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, june 2017, pp.62-82 19 matthews, p. (1997). the concise oxford dictionar of linguistics. new york: oxford university perss inc mey, j.l(1993). pragmatics: an introduction. cambridge, massachusettes: blackwell publisher. moloeng j.l (2008). metodologi penelitian kualitatif edisi revisi. bandung: pt.remaja rosdakarya ramlan, m. (2005). ilmu bahasa indonesia: sintaksis. yogyakarta: cv karyono. richards, j, platt,j & weber,h (1985). longman dictionary of applied linguistics. longman group limited: england. rosidi, a. (2011). kata-kata makian. pikiran rakyat. retrieved march 06, 2012 from http://sainstory.wordpress.com/2011/12/01/kata-kata-makian wijana, i.d.p (2012). makian dalam bahasa indonesia: studi tentang bentuk dan referensinya dalam jurnal humaniora fakultas ilmu budaya ugm wright, r. (1989). black boy: a record of childhood and youth. new york: harper & row publisher http://sainstory.wordpress.com/2011/12/01/kata-kata-makian giyatmi, ratih wijayava, nunun tri widarwati register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.12-28 1 toward mobile-assisted language learning (mall): reaping mobile phone benefits in classroom activities rully agung yudhiantara uin sgd bandung rully.agung@uinsgd.ac.id ihsan abdul nasir uin sgd bandung ihsan@uinsgd.ac.id doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.12-28 english abstract mobile phone has been studied by researchers in its connection with education-related activities. this study was aimed at investigating: 1) students’ perception toward mobile phone to support classroom activities; 2) students experience in using mobile phone use to support classoom activities. this study employed qualitative method. to collect the data, two methods were used namely: questionnaire and observation. subjects participated in this study were 70 students. findings showed that students had positive perception and attitude toward mobile phone to support classroom activities. in classroom they used mobile phone to support classroom activities. reading e-books that support phonology subject, playing audio and video file to get visualization of phonological concept, operating offline dictionary to solve vocabularies were examples of classroom activities supported by mobile phone use. keywords: classroom activities, language learning, mobile phone, mobile-assisted language learning indonesian abstract kegiatan pendidikan khususnya pembelajaran bahasa dengan bantuan telepon seluler sedang banyak dikaji oleh peneliti. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menginvestigasi: 1) persepsi dan sikap mahasiswa terhadap penggunaan mobile phone untuk mendukung kegiatan belajar di kelas; 2) penggunaan mobile phone untuk keperluan mendukung kegiatan pembelajaran di kelas? penelitian ini menggunakan metode kualitatif. untuk mengumpulkan data, digunakan beberapa teknik yaitu: kuesioner dan observasi. hasil temuan menunjukan bahwa mahasiswa mempunyai persepsi yang baik terhadap penggunaan mobile phone di kelas. di kelas mahasiswa menggunakan mobile phone untuk keperluan kegiatan belajar di kelas. membaca e-book untuk keperluan mata kuliah phonology, menggunakan video dan audio untuk menonton materi pembelajaran serta menggunakan kamus offline adalah beberapa kegiatan yang menunjukan mahasiswa menggunakan mobile phone untuk keperluan belajar di kelas. kata kunci: kegiatan belajar di kelas, mobile phone, pembelajaran bahasa http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.873 rully agung yudhiantara & ihsan abdul nasir introduction education always gets benefits from information and communication technology (ict) since students and teachers are always assisted by the current technology that support their classroom activities. improvement in teaching can be achieved through ict (kee & samsudin, 2014). modern technology has provided many inventions for human life. in communication field, mobile phone has played pivotal role in shaping our life and it goes without saying that education will try to reap its benefits. internet, used to be accessed through personal computer, can be operated through mobile phone and this allows students who are mostly at their teen and youth period to go online anywhere and anytime (lenhart, 2015). compared to personal computer, mobile phone has been primarily used by teens to access internet (madden, lenhartm, duggan, cortesi, & gasser, 2013). several features are offered by mobile phone to its users and one of the features is texting. it helps people to interact anywhere and anytime for communication purposes regardless time and place. this is what teacher and students, as mobile phone users, need to explore its features in order to boost their learning process. this is likely to happen since the collaboration among teacher and student will be maintained through messaging or texting service from mobile phone (looi, seow, zhang, so, chen, & wong, 2010). in addition to communication maintenance between students and teacher as mobile phone benefit, some studies found that texting has improved students’s vocabulary and reading skill of students learning english (plester, wood, & joshi, 2009). these benefits exhibit how mobile phone supports communication and vocabulary enrichment in english learning context. in addition to texting feature, other features and function that mobile phone offers have been studied. one of the features that mobile phone offers is texting. it helps people to interact anywhere and anytime. this is what teacher and students need to boost their learning process since the collaboration will be maintained through this promising application (looi, seow, zhang, so, chen, & wong, 2010). some studies found that texting has improved students’s vocabulary and reading skill of students (plester, wood, & joshi, 2009). feature of texting helped students vocabulary and reading skill (plester, wood, & joshi, 2009). this is what teacher and students need to boost their learning process since the collaboration will be maintained through this promising application (looi, seow, zhang, so, chen, & wong, 2010). register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.12-28 3 another feature that mobile phone always advertises and boasts is camera feature. this feaature can serve as a powerful tool for educational activities in terms of reading and writing assistance (bull & thompson, 2004). since mobile phone offers camera, it helps users to record and take picture any object they need especially for learning purposes. this function has been attracting teacher and students to use it in supporting classroom activities. this is to say that camera feature can be used by the students to collect data in their learning process. in language and art faculty, camera functioned to assist reading, witing and visualizing (bull & thompson, 2004). mobile phone has also feature that entertain users to play music and video. this feature is classified as audio and video feature. for educational purposes, the feature can help students to create and explore podcast for learning. studies showed that this feature when used for podcast learning project improved students’ motivation and their higher order thinking in reading, writing and listening skill when learning english (smythe &neufeld, 2010). seizing feature of audio video for podcast project was proven to be helpful device in improving english language learners (ell) in terms of their language skills (gromik, 2012). it can be concluded that mobile phone with its features has the ability to play audio file which can be used to help english learning language. in a nutshel mobile phone which offers texting, camera, audio and video recorder has no doubt given benfit for students in learning process (thomas & munoz, 2016). in addition to the benefits that mobile phone offer mentioned earlier, there are many benefits that teacher can gain by using mobile phone for teaching and learning activities. liu (2015) found that teacher could provide differentiated learning pathways for students, offered multiple modality for students to produce their protfolio, supported students improvisation and learning creation (liu, scordio, renata, navarete, yujung, & lim, 2015). mobile phone goes beyond its basic features if teacher and students can seize its feature and function for educational purposes. mobile phone with all its supporting features has allowed teachers to personalize instruction (steel, 2012). it is the teachers with their creativity that make possible for personalizing instruction to achieve objective of instruction. the need to collaborate between students and teacher and among students can be facilitated by mobile phone since there are many applications that support the collaboration (corbeil & valdes corbeil, 2007). personalizing instruction and facilitating collaboration can be achieved by means of mobile rully agung yudhiantara & ihsan abdul nasir phone. it goes without saying that teachers and students are challenged to explore and seize mobile phone benefit for classroom activities. sha (2012) found that students got benefit from mobile phone for their learning purpose. they gained benefit by using mobile phone for learning activities because they had the opportunities to regulate their progress in learning activities. this benefit might provide additional value for student to organize their learning need (sha, looi, chen, & zhang, 2012). in the same vein, al-fahd (2009) investigated students’ readiness to use their mobile phone for learning purpose. students as the users of mobile phone showed their readiness to integrate mobile phone in classroom activities. they had positive attitude, perception and attitude in using mobile phone for mobile learning (al-fahd, 2009). since mobile phone is mobile gadget in nature, it meets the demand of students need for communication. students always carry mobile phone for their daily activities and this is the most contributing factor to integrate mobile phone for classroomrelated work. their availability and mobility really matter and they need to be explored for learning purposes (pegrum, oakley, & faulkner, 2013). studies on the effectivenes of mobile phone application for classroom activites have been well-documented. mobile phone use in classroom improved students learning process in k-12 school level (liu, scordio, renata, navarete, yujung, & lim, 2015). mobile phone use in terms of texting function has been studied. study showed that using messaging service increased classroom interactivity among teachers, students and faculty staff (markett, sanchez, weber, & tangey, 2006). mobile phone has been proven to bring benefit for students. they can access educational content or e-book and textbook through their mobile phone anywhere and anytime. it is very likely that mobile phone has the power to promote the so-called ubiquitous learning. students in university can learn anywhere and anytime as long as they bring their mobile devices that they operate and access for learning and it goes without saying that this promotes the trend of ubiquitous learning (lee, lee, & kweon, 2013). previous studies on using mobile phone in the classroom and outside classroom had been conducted. khabiri (2013) reported mobile phone use practices among iranian efl learners. the study found that mobile phone offered many promising features that can be tailored for students’ learning process (khabiri & khatibi, 2013 ). in nigeria a study conducted by oyewusi (2014) found that mobile phone was able to promote students’ reading register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.12-28 5 habit. the study suggested that mobile phone should be designed appropriately with its supporting application in order to be able to promote students’ reading habit (oyewusi & ayanlola, 2014). kee and samsudin (2014) conducted research on mobile phone use for educational activities in malaysia. the findings showed that student had positive perception and attitude toward mobile phone use for learning anytime and anywhere (kee & samsudin, 2014). however studies investigating the use of mobile phone in indonesian islamic higher education institution are still relatively rare in the literature. this study aims at filling the gap and it tries to investigate how to tailor mobile phone to support classroom activities as an effort toward mall. specifically this study seeks to explore students’ perception of mobile phone use to support classroom activities and how they engage in the mobile phones use during classroom activities. the specific research questions that guided the study are as follows: (1) what are students’ perception concerning their mobile phone to support classroom activities? (2) how do students use mobile phone to support classroom activities? methods this study is qualitative in nature and it applied case study. the method was aimed at investigating students’ perception on mobile phone use and their experience in using mobile phone to support classroom activities. to collect data, this study applied questionnaire and observation. the study involved 70 participants: 55 female students and 15 male students. they were students of english education department at uin sunan gunung djati bandung and they took phonology subject. data collection and analysis the first research question deals with students’ perception toward mobile phone use to support classroom activities. to answer research question one, this study employed questionnaire and observation. questionnaire had been prepared to investigate students perception on mobile phone. items in the questionnaire served to seek answer on the rully agung yudhiantara & ihsan abdul nasir following information: time of purchasing mobile phone; brand and product of mobile phone; function students performed when using mobile phone and apps students used to support classroom activities. observation was conducted to investigate how students engage in using mobile phone to support classroom activities. the teacher acted as researcher and he collected data through one semester. in the first meeting students were told that they will fill in questionnaire on mobile phone use. in the following meeting, teacher asked students to participate in using mobile phone for classroom activities. for this purpose, teacher had prepared and given ebook, audio and video material that can be accessed through their mobile phone. the data gathered were analysed qualitatively to answer research questions. data from questionnaire and observation were described, categorized and interpreted to answer the research questions in this study. triangulation was applied to enhance the validity and support sound conclusion in this study. discussion this study was aimed at investigating students’ perception and attitude toward mobile phone and exploring students’ experience in using mobile phone to support their classroom acitivity. there were two types of data that will be described in this section namely data from questionnaire and observation. questionnaire data will be first described in this section to investigate students perception on their mobile phone to support classroom activties. students’ perception of mobile phone there are four items constructed in the questionnaire to fill in by the students. questionnaire were designed to explore information concerning students’ purchase of their mobile phone, brand of their mobile phone, function they performed and application they used to support learning process. here are the findings gained from questionnaire: 1. when did you purchase your mobile phone? no year of purchasing number of purchasing students percentage 1 2016 44 63% 2 2015 11 16% 3 2017 5 8% register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.12-28 7 4 2010-2014 10 13% total 70 100% this data shows that students had their own mobile phone. in terms of purchasing time, there are three categories. the highest number of students purchasing time belonged to year 2016 because there were 44 students or 63% who bought their mobile phone that year. the lowest number of mobile phone purchase went to year 2017 since there were only five students or 8% bought their mobile phone that year. based on the above table it can be seen that the oldest period of mobile phone purchase happened in 2010-2014. in other words some student used their mobile phone that they had bought last four-five years ago. it goes without saying that students need and treat their mobile phone as their basic need that they need to fulfill by owning mobile phone. they belong to digital natives who are closely associated with mobile phone. 2. what brand of mobile phone did you purchase? no type of responds units percentage 1 samsung 20 28.5% 2 oppo 14 20% 3 asus 8 11.4% 4 other brands 28 40% total 70 100% this data shows that there were various brands of mobile phone that students own. coming at the top was samsung brand with 20 students or 28,5% using it. rank 2 and 3 respectively belonged to oppo and asus. several brands consituted 28 units. in this table, the ownership of mobile phone was dominated by samsung brand. it was clear that this brand was successful in indonesia to persuade youths to buy it since it offers high quality and strong brand. students have various option to buy mobile phone since there is a high competition among mobile phone manufacturers. this condition is beneficial for customers especially students. with affordable prices, they can purchase any mobile phone they want. all that students need is that the capacity and feature that they can operate to explore mobile phone. this is to say that brands of mobile phone is not their concern, function and apps do matter. 3. what function do you frequently perform when using mobile phone? rully agung yudhiantara & ihsan abdul nasir no functions students perform when using mobile phone 1 chatting (wa, line, bbm etc) 2 social media (facebook, instagram, twitter) 3 browsing 4 others (game, music, selfie...) when it comes to functions of using mobile phone, students wrote several main functions of their mobile phone namely: chatting, social media, browsing and other apps. this findings shows that mobile phone has been excessively used for communication or chatting purpose. several apps are available to support and meet their need for chatting. social media was performed by students from their mobile phone. gone are the days when social media like facebook are operated through computers. digital natives have mobile phone that can operate social media. another function is browsing. students do not need their computer in order to browse something they want to know. mobile phone has taken the role of computer in delivering information by means of browsing. students use their mobile phone to browse instead their computer. 4. what apps do you use to support learning? no apps students used to support learning 1 offline dictionary 2 e-book/ pdf material 3 other learning apps to respond the question number 4, students wrote some apps that support their learning activity. offline dictionary, ebook material and other learning apps were used to support their learning. this findings show that mobile phone is open to explore for learning purpose. students used their mobile phone to access offline dictionary in order to learn english. pdf reader was also supporting tool for students to facilitate learning. there are various book, article and files that can be run in pdf format. these file can be accessed by students from their mobile phone. how students use mobile phone to support classroom activities this data was collected to answer research question concerning students’ experience in using mobile phone for classroom-related activities during classroom observation. there were register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.12-28 9 several findings in terms of students experience in using mobile phone for classroom activities. 1. offline dictionary use the teacher prioritized this application to be investigated first from their mobile phone. he checked some students’ mobile phone to check whether or not offline dictionary installed. students, some felt proud, showed their offline dictionary installed in their mobile phone to convince the teacher concerning the application. this was important for the study since students had supporting tool available in their mobile phone to support classroom activities. since offline dictionary was installed in their mobile phone, there are many learning activities that could be facilitated. based on the observation, teacher foud out that many students had installed the apps in their mobile phone. one interesting opinion expressed by the student as can be seen in the dialog excerpt as follows: teacher: “why did you install this offline dictionary in your mobile phone?” student: “i need this offline dictionary installed in my mobile phone sir, so i can read it anywere and anytime.” to reap the benefit of offline dictionary, the teacher had designed the activity where looking up dictionary was implemented. he had some vocabularies from each unit of phonology course that required students to look up their dictionary. since those vocabularies were new and they had no previous knowledge on those vocabularies, they had to access their mobile phone to look up their offline dictionary in dealing with words they did not know. in each meeting, teacher asked students to look up dictionary everytime they encounter new word. students used their mobile phone with the instruction from teachers. on other occasion they opened dictionary for group project and individual inquiry. they were encouraged to actively use their mobile phone for vaocabulary enrichment. they found mobile phone helpful in providing tool that they need in searching for meaning of particular word during their learning activities in the classroom. 2. pdf reader app (e-book) use this application was important to make sure that the course enabled the students to access material. mobile phone can run this application to help users read files that they usually run in their computer. the teacher prepared and shared e-book and file in form of pdf that can be operated in students mobile phone. some students who had not installed pdf reader in their mobile phone, downloaded the application and installed it in theirs. rully agung yudhiantara & ihsan abdul nasir the teacher prepared and shared e-book material that can be operated in students’ mobile phone. since students’ mobile phone had pdf reader inside, it was easier for students to read and display their learning material. both students and the teacher used mobile phone to read the e-book and learning material from their mobile phone. from meeting three to last meeting, student and teacher run the application to access the file, read and discuss the file shown in their mobile phone. the teacher in many occasions suggested students to read the material outside classroom to prepare before the meeting in the classroom. in some meetings, the teacher investigated their opinion concerning the use of mobile phone in accessing their material through mobile phone. using pdf reader to access material in their phone might provided them different experiences compared to using computer. the teacher investigated students’ opinion concerning e-book that students operated through mobile phone. there were several comments that students expressed to show their support in using mobile phone to read e-book for their learning material. one of the examples can be seen from the excerpt below: teacher: “what is your opinion about using mobile phone to read e-book?” student: “this is paperless way of learning sir, mobile phone really helpful to facilitate learning. i love this sir.” this comment clearly expressed students’ support for using mobile phone in classroom activities. students viewed mobile phone as supporting tool that facilitated students in accessing material they were learning in the classroom. it was easier for student to carry mobile phone everywhere they go and they could read the material everywhere. this condition showed that mobile phone supported learning activities in the classom. in addition the teacher also suggested students to read the ebook material outside classroom. this is to promote the so called mobile-assisted language learning (mall). 3. audio video player use this third feature built in mobile phone was investigated in this study. to design the classroom activities using audio video inside mobile phone, the teacher provided students audio video file. these audio video files were supporting material and they were complementary to the course of phonology. they consisted of video explaining vowel, consonant sound and etc. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.12-28 11 the teacher prepared and shared audio and video material that support the e-book in phonology course. since students’ mobile phone has supporting apps to play audio and video, it was easier for them to play the files they got from the lecturer in phonology course. this audio video player was really important for students as an effort to understand some material that need to be visualized from phonology concept. to show how students were happy because they got visualization from the video, the dialog excerpt below can illustrate: teacher: “how helpful is the video to explain the concept?” student: “i find the concept confusing when reading e-book, but this video helps me to understand easily the concept. my mobile phone is useful to support my learning process.” it was very clear that their mobile phone was very helpful to deliver audio video file that helped students to understand the material. there were some video material that students needed to play in their mobile phone and sure they could play it in the classroom and outside classroom. the findings showed that students seized their mobile phone to support learning activities in classroom. 4. audio video recorder use this feature was useful in assisting students to produce their project in classroom. to achieve this objective, the teacher assigned students projects that showed their understanding in the subject matter. this projects should be accomplished by using their mobile phone offerring the audio video recorder. this application helped student to produce their project. students worked in group and they used their mobile phone to accomplish their project. they demonstrated in their video project concerning their knowledge and on consonant and vowel and other topics learned in several meeting. their mobile phone were capable of producing quality video to accomplish their project. even though their devices were not professional device, they could accomplish their project by using their mobile phone. one of the comment is as follow: teacher: “is mobile phone helpful to produce the project?” student: “yes it is. even though it is not professional device, it helped us to create the video project” the statement clearly supported that mobile phone supported classroom activities and learning process. students used their mobile phone to demonstrate their knowledge and undertanding about the course by creating video project by the mean of mobile phone. rully agung yudhiantara & ihsan abdul nasir the results indicated that each student had their mobile phone. it goes without saying that mobile phone ownership among youth is high. this is in line with the previous findings that students in higher education are incresingly using mobile phone to access internet (kennedy, 2014). many mass media reported the successful sale of mobile phone in indonesia. it can be concluded that youth customer is the largest customer of mobile phone. the findings in this study confirmed the previous research by lenhart (2015) that teens and youth are the largest customer of mobile phone and they have used their mobile phone to go online. since they are digital natives they need mobile phone to fulfill their need (prensky, 2001). based on the observation, the teacher knew that students spent their time mostly in using social media. there were two main functions student performed when accessing mobile phone. given the internet access, they put chatting and social media as their core function to acces mobile phone. some studies found that social media is the most frequently visited and accessed platform when using internet by teen and youth. they prefereed to use their mobile phone compared to computers when accessing social media (madden, lenhart, duggan, cortesi, & gasser, 2013). if designed appropriately, this connectivity and mobility of mobile phone and internet can promote mobile-assisted language learning (ducate & lomicka, 2013). students had installed in their gadget offline dictionary. this app was the most frequently installed app in students’ mobile phone that they usually use to support learning. it goes without saying that mobile phone has promoted the learning of vocabulary for students (nisbet & austin, 2013). other apps they use is pdf reader for operating e-book. this apps was useful app for students to read e-book and other reading materials. this findings confirmed previous studies that features in mobile phone help students learn reading, vocabulary (plester, wood, & joshi, 2009). in other words mobile phone when used approriately may build reading habit among students (oyewusi & ayanlola, 2014). from observation, students seemed to enjoy the ease and portability of mobile phone that helped them learn in classsroom. they found it more practical to use mobile phone compared to notebook in classroom activites (lenhart, 2015). mobile phone served as a learning tool in the 21st century and it call for teachers creativity to tailor mobile phone for classroom activities (kee & samsudin, 2014). register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.12-28 13 in classroom students used their mobile phone to play audio video material. without difficulties, students could access and play their files in their mobile phone. according to their opinion, it was clear that feature of audio video player in their mobile phone helped them in learning proces as the previous research had proven (smythe & neufeld, 2010). collaboration among students and teachers had been shown in this study. video project was facilitated by the use of mobile phone. in other words mobile phone helped student to produce their portfolio in order to demonstrate their achievement in learning (liu, scordio, renata, navarete, yujung, & lim, 2015). students were ready to integrate their mobile phone in classroom activities. their mobile phones were equipped with application that facilitated them to support learning in classroom. since they belong to digital natives they face no problem and difficulties to use mobile phone for classroom activities (pegrum, oakley, & faulkner, 2013) mobile phone in this study facilitated students to learn phonology. it stores files of pdf that students could access when they needed to read. in addition it helped student to understand material in video files. in other words it organized students learning need (sha, looi, chen, & zhang, 2012). it provided not only material for learning but also facilitated portfolio creation to demonstrate students understanding (liu, scordio, renata, navarete, yujung, & lim, 2015). students got benefit from mobile phone use to facilitate their learning process. their learning improved by the assistance of their mobile phone since they used mobile phone to access material by reading pdf file, playing video and creted project podcast. mobile phone improved students learning process in their classroom (liu, scordio, renata, navarete, yujung, & lim, 2015) conclusion this study discussed mobile-assisted language learning (mall) and focuses on english language. mall has emerged as the branch of global movement in conducting mobile learning which serves as an umbrella project for educational purposes. this study is important in the context of islamic higher education in indonesia for implementing mobileassisted language learning. to date, the issue of mall has not been studied exensively in indonesian islamic higher education. this study might initiates the development of mall for english learning in indonesian islamic higher education context. rully agung yudhiantara & ihsan abdul nasir the lack of research in mall should be adressed to find out new way that propose promising method in delivering english. education should respond to this emerging technology to reap the benefit they offer in supporting learning and teaching process. this study has shown that students had positive perception toward their mobile phone for supporting their classroom activities. they also showed their engagement in using mobile phone to support classroom activities and english learning activities. there were several activities that students performed in reaping benefit of mobile phone to support classroom activities and english learning. using offline dictionary, operating pdf reader, playing audio file and recording their video project using their mobile phone were the examples.the findings of this study have confirmed and supported previous research on mall in an effort to offers some brand new approach in english learning activities by the existence of mobile phone. to support their learning experience, mobile phone offers many benefit that students can gain in supporting classroom activities and english learning. it is expected that this approach and method of mobile english learning will be studied further in islamic higher education context to propose a promising solution in english learning. future studies should conduct in depth and large scale in investigating how mobile english learning implemented. with largest sample and the result might be generalizeabe. references al-fahd, f. 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(2012). review of trends from mobile learning studies: a meaanalysis. computers in education (59)2 , 817-27. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.12-28 17 dinamika pengarusutamaan gender register journal – vol 15, no 02 (2022), pp. 201-221 doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.201-221 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 201 developing thinking reading classrooms: insight from pre-service efl teachers’ lesson plans and classroom instructions dwi puji hastuti1*, diah kristina2, endang setyaningsih3 1,2,3english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sebelas maret, jl. ir. sutami no.36 a surakarta 57126, indonesia *) corresponding author email: dwipujihastuti@student.uns.ac.id doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.201-221 submission track: received: 24-06-2022 final revision: 17-10-2022 available online: 01-12-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract numerous studies have investigated the integration of critical thinking in efl classrooms and textbooks. still, relatively few have investigated the integration of critical thinking into reading lesson plans and classroom instructions. the current study adopted a qualitative case study approach to provide insight into how pre-service efl teachers infused critical thinking skills into online reading classrooms. the study also gives information on pre-service efl teachers' challenges in critical thinking integration into reading classrooms. eight pre-service efl teachers who completed all three phases of the faculty-mandated teaching practicum program participated in the study. document analysis, virtual classroom observations, and semi-structured interviews were used as data collection techniques to fulfill the research objectives. as the study framework, bloom's revised taxonomy was applied to lesson plan data to examine how critical thinking components are incorporated. virtual classroom observations illuminated the incorporation of critical thinking into reading lessons. in addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather more information regarding the challenges of integrating critical thinking skills. the present study reveals that preservice efl teachers integrated critical thinking aspects into reading online classes with a greater emphasis on lower-order cognitive than higher-order cognitive processes. it implies that pre-service efl teachers had insufficient preparation for teaching practicum programs. due to the significance of critical thinking skills for efl students, this study recommends that teacher training institutes strengthen the critical thinking abilities of pre-service efl teachers so that they are more equipped to teach and promote critical thinking in efl classrooms. keywords: classroom instructions, critical thinking, lesson plans, pre-service teachers mailto:dwipujihastuti@student.uns.ac.id http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ d.p. hastuti, d. kristina, e. setyaningsih 202 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) introduction the concept of education has undergone a substantial transition in recent years. students in this era must adapt to the 21st century's needs and acquire critical thinking abilities to participate in an ever-changing and increasingly complex world. critical thinking has been a persistent focus for schools, companies, and policymakers since it is seen as a significant life skill and a beneficial tool in the workplace (koenig, 2011). critical thinking has various definitions and a wide range of meanings. the researcher considered critical thinking an internal concept essential in a person's academic learning and social life (wilson, 2016). interpretation, analysis, evaluation, conclusion, explanation, and self-regulation are all part of critical thinking (facione, 1990). in addition, critical thinking includes critical thinking abilities and dispositions to think critically (ennis, 1996). according to ennis (1996), critical thinking is a rational, introspective thought oriented towards determining what to perceive or do. people with critical thinking abilities are capable of making well-founded choices and decisions. furthermore, critical thinking is defined as the capacity for investigating and assessing one's thoughts to improve them (paul & elder, 2009) and the ability to identify and solve problems (wineburg, 1998). it promotes students’ acceptance of information and response to it since it is a cognitive process that engages the mind and focuses on reasoning (cottrel, 2005). anderson and krathwohl (2001) reexamined and updated bloom's taxonomy's cognitive domain, known as revised bloom taxonomy. it includes a hierarchical scale of skills -remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating-which have been connected to critical thinking (ghanizadeh et al., 2020). critical thinking as an essential aspect has been promoted to be taught (abrami et al., 2008). these abilities help students identify the reasons they want to learn, determine their learning objectives based on those needs, and effectively manage their practice time. critical thinking is essential to education, including language education (wilson, 2016); various studies provide empirical findings on the benefit of incorporating critical thinking into foreign language instruction (el soufi & see, 2019; heidari,2020). critical thinking can stimulate the achievement of language abilities (yanning, 2017; wu et al., 2013; yang & gamble, 2013). critical thinking enables students to explore and evaluate topics and decide their own academic choices in language learning (nold, 2017). it also supports students in developing their developing thinking reading classrooms… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 203 cognitive abilities to select relevant and essential information and evaluate and decide the most effective approaches for reaching learning objectives (lin, 2018; zhang et al., 2020). students who strengthen their critical thinking skills improve their ability to solve problems and make decisions. thus, scholars have placed emphasis upon encouraging this form of thinking in language classrooms (zhao et al., 2016). as required in today's world, learners must communicate effectively, analyze messages, draw arguments and conclusions, and critically construct their own opinions. many studies argue that critical thinking is required for effective language learning regarding these demands. therefore, training in critical thinking should be incorporated into the elt program (bağ & gürsoy, 2021). however, there are some challenges in critical thinking integration in efl classrooms. some factors listed are time constraints, material resources, and l2 proficiency (floyd, 2011; li, 2016a; manalo & sheppard, 2016). students' insufficient mastery of english makes it hard for them to communicate their thoughts and feelings. due to the difficulties inherent in integrating critical thinking, efl teachers must construct the most effective classroom activities. planning a lesson is essential in the realm of education. lesson planning is a crucial aspect of teaching since it provides teachers with a roadmap to follow during a class. a lesson plan is an invaluable tool that embodies the teaching philosophy and learning objectives (nesari & heidari, 2014). effective lesson planning supports successful teaching and curriculum policy implementation. in addition, it is essential to comprehend the distinction between conventional and critical thinking classes. the teacher, throughout a traditional class, constantly instructs students. since reading is a complex activity, lesson plans must require teachers to choose the most effective exercises. diverse cognitive skills are needed for textual meaning extraction, and students gradually gain literacy (huang & yang, 2015). some studies have found that critical thinking integration in efl courses yielded positive effects in indonesia. critical thinking can develop higher-order thinking in students because it compels them to distinguish between fact and opinion (haryati & hidayati, 2017). in addition, mobile learning applications can improve critical thinking skills in assessing, reasoning, and drawing conclusions (agustina et al., 2022). however, challenges to incorporating essential thinking remain, including lack of clarity in the curriculum, unfriendly culture, and teaching-learning d.p. hastuti, d. kristina, e. setyaningsih 204 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) approaches to promote students' critical thinking (lamb, 2004). teachers' lack of critical literacy comprehension also contributes to highlighted factors (gustine, 2018). several studies have also shown the presence of critical thinking in efl textbooks. solihati and hikmat (2018) used content analysis to determine whether textbook assignments improve students' critical thinking skills. the study showed that textbooks provide few critical thinking exercises. aside from that, there was a lack of variety in tasks that encouraged students to think critically. in addition, the pandemic covid-19 led to a shift in teaching and learning from face-to-face learning mode to the online mode. this transition presented some daunting issues for teachers and students alike. several studies highlighted critical thinking integration in online language learning. tathahira (2020) identified several obstacles to critical thinking integration into online language learning, including the socio-cultural issue, the student's learning habits, and their experience with utilizing modern technology for learning. in addition, loo (2020) found that recognizing sentence functions in a paragraph, identifying sentence functions in connection to verbs, and completing grammar quizzes are tasks that facilitate the incorporation of critical thinking into online academic writing classes. despite a growing number of research studies on critical thinking integration in efl classrooms and textbooks, exploring critical thinking integration in online reading classes, from lesson planning to classroom instructions, has received little attention. therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine how preservice efl teachers infuse critical thinking skills into online reading classes, from lesson planning to instruction. the study also aimed to shed light on pre-service efl teachers' obstacles when infusing critical thinking into classroom instruction. research method this study utilized a case study to understand a phenomenon's context comprehensively. the present study aimed to investigate how pre-service efl teachers infuse critical thinking abilities into their online reading classes and identify obstacles in critical thinking integration. altogether, eight pre-service efl teachers, six females and two males participated in the study. the participants were recruited through the technique of convenience sampling, which includes readily available individuals who volunteer or can be quickly recruited (johnson, r. b., & christensen, 2017). the participants were students in the english education program at an developing thinking reading classrooms… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 205 islamic university in indonesia who had completed the faculty-mandated teaching program. all participants in this study are presented with pseudonyms. data collection the researchers used document analysis, virtual classroom observation, and semistructured interviews to collect data. the use of document analysis illustrated how parts of critical thinking were incorporated into reading lesson plans. this study includes ten lesson plans from eight pre-service efl teachers, as two participants created two lesson plans each. in addition, five recorded virtual classrooms were scrutinized to see whether pre-service efl teachers integrated critical thinking into classroom instructions. the virtual classrooms observation data demonstrated the instructional activities of two to three pre-service efl teachers teaching in teams. each participant was given the opportunity to teach the lesson twice with different partners in the teaching practicum program. for further investigation, semistructured interviews with eight participants attempted to elucidate the perspectives of pre-service efl teachers on the challenges of integrating critical thinking into online reading classes. this method promotes consistency and flexibility in investigating teacher perceptions and practices, as it is organized sufficiently to answer specific interview questions while allowing participants to contribute additional meanings. the interview with each participant lasted between 20-30 minutes via google meet and whatsapp. the researchers used bahasa indonesia in the interview to get precise information and reduce misunderstandings. data analysis lesson plan data, including assignments and activities, were categorized into potential themes. pre-service efl teachers' lesson plans were analyzed using revised bloom's taxonomy by anderson et al. (2001) as the research framework. the researchers took field notes during virtual classroom observation to identify tasks and activities pertinent to the research. the virtual reading classes were recorded to make it easier for the researchers to reexamine the learning processes. in addition, the researchers analyzed the interview data to gain insight into pre-service efl teachers' views on integrating critical thinking. the researchers went through data condensation, display, conclusion drawing, and verification to analyze the data (miles et al., 2014). first, the researchers listened to the recorded interview data several times while coding the data informally. second, the researchers transcribed the interview data d.p. hastuti, d. kristina, e. setyaningsih 206 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) verbatim to achieve high accuracy. then the researchers immersed themselves in the data during the condensation phase by reading and rereading the transcripts. the researchers marked participants' opinions using highlighters regarding integrating critical thinking into online reading classes. after all the data were coded and compiled, the researchers refocused the study on themes, rather than codes, by sorting the codes into probable themes and combining all the relevant coded data extracts inside the discovered themes. the classifications were then amended if errors were discovered. then, the researchers compared across sections of all categories. results & discussion this section examines how pre-service efl teachers integrated critical thinking into online reading classes. it also includes information regarding pre-service teachers' challenges in the classrooms. for each point, the most representative data are presented as evidence. critical thinking integration into reading lesson plans the analysis found that pre-service efl teachers have attempted to include critical thinking into reading lesson plans, making students the focus of the learning process. as one of the essential skills in language learning, teaching reading skills requires teachers to devise innovative and effective learning activities including tasks, questions, and activities to promote students' critical thinking skills. the lesson plans analysis was based on bloom's revised taxonomy by anderson et al. (2001). the participants used six cognitive processes in their lesson plans, ranging from the simplest, remembering, to the most difficult, creating. pre-service efl teachers used different tasks and activities based on their objectives. remembering remembering is essential for meaningful learning and problem solving, given that the knowledge gained in 'remembering' is subsequently utilized in more complex tasks (anderson et al., 2001). thus, remembering plays a crucial role in language learning. in the reading classes, teachers can incorporate 'remembering' into introductory activities such as brainstorming. the lesson plan data revealed that pre-service efl teachers integrated 'remembering' activities into online reading classes. some lesson plans involved 'remembering' activities with the teacher as the central actor in the learning procedures, for example: developing thinking reading classrooms… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 207 teacher asks students about the topic covered at the prior meeting. (pst 2/lp/il) teacher instructs students to create questions based on the topic. (pst 5/lp/il) by asking students to clarify previously covered material and generate questions based on the topic, pre-service efl teachers assisted students in recalling previously acquired information. in addition, the data indicated that pre-service efl teachers attempted to design lesson plans with students as the central focus of learning. some 'remembering' activities such as: students identify the structure of formal and informal invitation letter. (pst 4/lp/il) students match the word with the correct illustration. (pst 3/lp/il) the learning activities above enabled students to recall prior knowledge and identify specific information. students must use their minds to complete the above assignments. remembering as a cognitive process involving the use of the mind is consistent with cottrel's (2005) notion that critical thinking is a cognitive process involving the mind and focusing on arguments. understanding by 'understanding,' students can interpret the issue and construct the meaning of instructional messages, which may be spoken, written, or graphic. the 'understanding' process categories involve interpreting, illustrating, classifying, summarizing, deducing, comparing, and explaining (anderson et al., 2001). the investigation found that pre-service efl teachers employed 'understanding' activities in their lesson plans to deliver learning materials. pst 4 wrote: students comprehend the teachers' explanation about tourist destinations. (pst 4/lp/dt) activities that test students' comprehension are the first step toward more challenging work. additionally, pst 7 devised an assignment involving tasks such as comparing and contrasting two topics to test student's comprehension of the materials. students' ability to discern between two issues demonstrates their comprehension of the material. 'understanding' has become a required stage in teaching reading since students must comprehend a reading passage and frequently answer the questions following d.p. hastuti, d. kristina, e. setyaningsih 208 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) it. students' ability to participate in subsequent cognitive processes depends on their understanding level—the ability to understand and to think critically, consistent with facione (1990). applying applying is carrying out a technique in a particular context (anderson et al., 2001). two cognitive processes comprise the apply category: executing and implementing. the task of 'executing' is familiar and can be handled, whereas the process of 'implementing' is new (anderson et al., 2001). the applying process can be observed in the effort to apply knowledge to problem-solving since students are frequently confronted with various issues during the lessons. students usually use the previous information in a task that instructs them to modify, construct, or solve a problem in the applying process. from the analysis, the researchers found only a few 'applying' activities, and pst 8's lesson plan contains one of the examples. pst 8 designed various classroom activities, including student group discussions and presentations. in the discussion, students apply their knowledge to offer and accept one of the other's viewpoints, whereas when presenting their work, they attempt to provide a solution for a problem. discussion and presentation are two activities that might assist students in developing their critical thinking abilities since students select and use pertinent information when participating. it is consistent with lin's (2018) argument that learning critical thinking helps students select and apply relevant and essential information to determine the most effective ways to achieve their goals. analyzing analyzing is figuring out how various components are connected (anderson et al., 2001). differentiating, organizing, and attributing are three cognitive processes in analyzing activities (anderson et al., 2001). this process begins with examining concepts, followed by identifying and analyzing arguments. pre-service efl teachers employed some 'analyzing' activities in their lesson plans, for instance: students analyze the invitation cards to determine the structure and content. (pst 7/lp/il) students need to recognize the connections between several components to analyze the structure of a text successfully. they are required to investigate the concept first and then locate each specific item of information before arriving at an analysis. developing thinking reading classrooms… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 209 critical thinking, defined as having the ability to analyze is comparable to facione's (1990) notion. evaluating evaluating is the process of judging based on categories or criteria, which include checking and criticizing procedures (anderson et al., 2001). pre-service efl teachers had the evaluation process in their lesson plans, as demonstrated below: students evaluate their work through collaborative corrections. (pst 8/lp/dt) the activity above instructed students to complete evaluation activities as part of a collaborative learning environment. this task encouraged students to learn from each other's mistakes and improve their work through collective corrections. in addition, pst 1’s lesson plan included an activity that involved summarizing. pst 1 asked students to summarize the previously learned content. students must ensure that all significant features of the topic are included in their summary. this section contained evaluation-related content. this idea is similar to yang and gamble's (2013) arguments, which claimed that efl teachers perceive critical thinking as the ability to evaluate, summarize, discover norms and patterns, solve problems, negotiate solutions with peers, and construct evidence-based arguments. creating creating is regarded as the most advanced cognitive sub-skill. pre-service efl teachers used 'creating' tasks as the most complex activities in their learning design. 'creating' indicates whether students comprehend the lesson and can apply it to the creative activities. three cognitive processes are involved in the creative process: generating, planning, and producing (anderson et al., 2001). 'generating' entails expressing the problem and arriving at alternatives or hypotheses that match specific criteria. planning entails constructing a solution approach that fulfills the requirements of an issue, i.e., developing a plan for fixing the problem. producing entails a procedure for selecting a specific problem that fits specified criteria (anderson et al., 2001). the activity of 'creating' is presented below: students compose descriptive texts using themes such as historical locations, tourism attractions, animals, objects, and people. (pst 3/lp/dt) pst 3 asked students to produce descriptive writings on the specified topics. to engage in a creative process, students must draw on their knowledge and experience d.p. hastuti, d. kristina, e. setyaningsih 210 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) to generate, plan, and produce a new form of meaning. 'creating' comprises assembling knowledge from several sources into new patterns and offering solutions to solve problems (anderson et al., 2001). students can use the three strategies of generating, planning, and finally producing to complete a descriptive task as instructed by their teachers. the notion of critical thinking as a creative process is consistent with elder and paul's (2006) definition, which states that critical thinking is a mode of thinking about any subject, substance, or issue in which the thinker methodically analyzes, evaluates, and reconstructs the thinking to improve its quality. critical thinking integration into online reading classroom in this study, participants exercised their teaching skills through team teaching. each team teaching consisted of two to three pre-service efl teachers, who worked together in the classroom to present the lesson and accomplish the learning objectives. in their practices, they divided the responsibilities and taught in rotation. pre-service efl teachers employed several strategies to include critical thinking in online reading classes. the reading classes were conducted virtually via google meet. the researchers participated as observers and documented the learning process. documentation was prepared to allow the researchers to conduct quality assurance checks on the data and to ensure that the data gathered were accurate. during the participation in the teaching and learning activities, the researchers also kept a field note to capture genuine emotions and experiences. the recorded virtual teaching and learning process revealed that pre-service efl teachers used brainstorming, questioning, and various learning tools in online reading classes. all strategies addressed reading activities before, during, and after the lesson. brainstorming pre-service efl teachers employed brainstorming by posing questions related to previous knowledge at the beginning of the lesson. prior knowledge questions were considered lower-cognitive since they required students to recollect specified knowledge immediately. brainstorming is commonly linked to problem-solving. in reading comprehension, brainstorming allows readers to generate and share past knowledge to solve problems and achieve the objective (tran, 2017). pre-service efl teachers believed brainstorming helps investigate the students' understanding of specific topics. instead of enforcing the opinions presented in the text, brainstorming facilitates activating students' prior knowledge or schema (ghabanchi & behrooznia, developing thinking reading classrooms… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 211 2014). virtual classroom observation data revealed that pre-service teachers allowed students to state their understanding of the issues before proceeding to the main activities. participants in this study were scheduled to teach descriptive texts and invitation letters at senior high schools. pre-service efl teachers initiated the reading session with a brainstorming activity by posing questions to the student. teaching in the same team, pst 3 and pst 6, used descriptive text entitled 'historical building' to be discussed in the classrooms. pst 3 started the lesson by inquiring about students' knowledge of historic buildings. this question aimed to explore students' initial understanding of historical buildings. pst 3 also utilized this approach to introduce descriptive texts. pst 3 continued the lesson by allowing students to discuss a descriptive text, while pst 6 assisted students in responding to text-based questions. brainstorming is a component of remembering activities because, in this activity, students compile a list of pertinent facts about the topic under discussion. brainstorming techniques positively and significantly affect the participants' critical thinking and reading comprehension skills (ghabanchi & behrooznia, 2014). questioning teachers can effectively integrate critical thinking into their teaching by focusing on the quality and types of questions posed in classes. questioning is an effective method of encouraging students to think critically. higher-level inquiries and probing techniques encourage students to reason, evaluate, research, expand their views, and enhance critical thinking (zhao et al., 2016). questions that encourage critical thinking should guarantee that students are not merely repeating data but are making judgments or evaluating various alternatives (case, 2005). virtual classroom observation data showed that pre-service efl teachers posed specific questions in the reading classrooms, such as questions about factual or particular information in the text and evaluation or analysis questions. questions referring to factual or particular information in the text are questions that concern explicitly stated facts in the text and do not require students to think critically. pre-service efl teachers posed the following questions: what evidence can you find in the text about the characteristics of purna bhakti pertiwi museum? (pst 1/co/dt) where is the national monument located? (pst 2 & pst 3/co/dt) d.p. hastuti, d. kristina, e. setyaningsih 212 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) these questions indicated that pre-service efl teachers tend to emphasize subject matter expertise over developing critical thinking skills. on the other hand, preservice efl teachers might also utilize lower order thinking questions to stimulate class involvement and minimize anxiety among students with limited english competence. in addition, questions related to evaluating or analyzing appeared in the reading classroom, such as: from the text, we can infer that? (pst 3 & pst 6/co/il) which statement is true based on the text? (pst 3 & pst 6/co/il) these questions required students to analyze the detailed information presented in the text to draw a conclusion and determine the correct information. in addition, preservice efl teachers also used questioning to assess students' comprehension of the presented material. in their teaching practice, pst 3 and pst 6 asked students about their knowledge of the provided materials and allowed them to ask questions on sections they did not fully comprehend. pre-service efl teachers developed students' ability to think critically, assessed their learning, and asked follow-up questions by allowing them to raise questions. questioning allows students to negotiate meaning through engaging, thought-provoking discussions and activities (seker & kömür, 2008). using various learning materials to foster the development of critical thinking in reading lessons, pre-service efl teachers employed a variety of media, including reading passages, visuals, games, music, and youtube videos. pre-service efl teachers utilized illustrated or imagefilled texts for teaching descriptive text. they provided students with a descriptive text for discussion and exercises. in addition, pre-service efl teachers used a greater variety of text in the session on formal and informal invitation letters to teach students to distinguish between formal and informal invitation letters. the strategies adopted by pre-service efl teachers are consistent with the assertion that the learning material should be chosen with care regarding topic familiarity and language complexity to enhance students’ engagement in critical thinking (setyaningsih, 2019). student participation in their studies is increased when learning materials are engaging and varied. developing thinking reading classrooms… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 213 the virtual classroom observation data also revealed that learning tools such as graphics, games, music, and youtube videos were predominantly used for ice breaking and brainstorming. few of these were used for more critical learning tasks, such as analysis, evaluation, and creativity. pre-service efl teachers did not utilize the learning media optimally. for instance, at pst 8's second meeting, games were used to assess students' comprehension of the previous content, but they were not integrated into the main learning activities. pst 8 began the session by reviewing prior content with quizizz. she asked questions to assess how well students remembered and understood the previous materials. games and other technological applications can increase student engagement in classroom activities. therefore, preservice efl teachers should utilize these specialized tools extensively because technological media encourages students to be more active in their learning (jodoi et al., 2021). the virtual classroom observation data demonstrated that pre-service efl teachers did not execute all the activities from their lesson plans due to teaching obstacles. pre-service efl teachers faced several barriers, including students, teachers, time constraints, and technical issues. the activities that were not covered in the class were, for instance, students’ production of descriptive texts depending on the theme selected by the teacher, which were included in pst 3's lesson plan. still, this activity was not executed in classroom instruction due to time constraints. the challenges of integrating critical thinking into reading classrooms the interview data showed that critical thinking integration into online reading classes presented several challenges for the participants. pre-service efl teachers cited four challenges of incorporating critical thinking into online reading classes. factors include students' lack of motivation, lack of understanding, lack of selfconfidence, teacher's limited knowledge, time constraint, and technical issues are all identified as obstacles. students pre-service efl teachers identified that students' lack of motivation, lack of understanding, and lack of self-confidence are all the issues students must encounter. pst 1 and pst 2 believed that students' lack of motivation to share their opinions is one of the obstacles that must be faced: d.p. hastuti, d. kristina, e. setyaningsih 214 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) it is not easy to get students to think critically since they tend to be walled off. (pst 1/interview/lom 1) students are not accustomed to expressing their opinions. (pst 2/interview/lom 2) in most cases, students were constrained and hesitant to engage in critical thinking. they are not accustomed to it; therefore, they prefer silence. the connection between motivation and critical thinking development was explained by turner (1995) stated that when students are given opportunities for problem-solving, critical thinking, and individual methods, regardless of standard instructional patterns, their motivation increases and they become more strategic and effortful. the second student's factor is lack of understanding. pst 3 argued that students did not engage in essential activities of thinking due to students' competence to understand information. usually, some students did not understand the questions due to a lack of knowledge of the material. (pst 3/interview/lou 1) several aspects must be considered at this point; the ability to comprehend and communicate something is closely tied to language competency but is not immediately related to a person's critical thinking skills. critical thinking is not rooted in language proficiency (wallace, 2003). a comprehension threshold must be surpassed to engage in critical thinking. setyaningsih (2019) discovered that learners demonstrate a hint of critical thinking skills but are off-goal for various reasons. these include unfamiliarity with the covered issue, unaccustomed to critical thinking, misinterpretation of the problem, and inability to express ideas due to language barriers; for these reasons, material selection is essential for incorporating ct or cl into efl classrooms (setyaningsih, 2019). the third student factor is a lack of self-confidence. pst 8 considered lack of confidence as a possible factor impeding students’ critical thinking abilities. some students were still hesitant to answer questions and lacked the confidence to do so. (pst 8/interview/losc 1) the type of self-confidence mentioned by the participant is confidence in answering questions and expressing their critical opinions despite the possibility of unpleasant feedback. this type of confidence is pertinent to the idea of "confidence in reason" (paul & elder, 2013). however, manalo and sheppard (2016) claimed that students' developing thinking reading classrooms… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 215 critical thinking engagement might be hindered by their l2 proficiency, which can contribute as a potential factor to their unwillingness to address questions. teacher inadequate technical knowledge for integrating critical thinking abilities creates obstacles that impede the integration of critical thinking skills. due to the fact that teachers regularly face multiple challenges in the classroom, they must possess the ability to deal with them. the following excerpt supports this point: during the learning process, when students did not respond to what i explained, i felt confused, and i tried several methods without success. i had no idea what else to do. (pst 6/interview/ik) the statement above indicated that pst 6 was not well-versed in the best methods that should be implemented in the classroom in order to encourage students' critical thinking skills. as learning facilitators, teachers must possess sufficient knowledge to facilitate successful learning and increase student participation in classroom activities. the fact that teachers play a significant role in critical thinking integration is similar to gustine's (2018) statement that the incapacity of teachers to comprehend critical literacy has also become one of the impediments to critical thinking integration. regarding teachers' function as transformative intellectuals (johnson, 2006) whose learning emerges from and is supported by classroom and school experience, teachers' knowledge plays a significant role in integrating critical thinking into efl classrooms. time constraints pre-service efl teachers stated that time constraints are a barrier in their reading classes. due to online learning, pre-service efl teachers were assigned less time for teaching. the time allotted for each meeting is 40 minutes long. pst 8 claimed that it was insufficient to cover all the materials. she asserted that she had insufficient time to teach. in line with pst 8, pst 5 stated that the obstacle he found was the limited teaching time. time constraint as a barrier to critical thinking integration is in accordance with li's (2016) concept that time is a significant challenge for establishing critical thinking activities. thus, teachers must maximize time to meet learning objectives in an online reading lesson with limited time. d.p. hastuti, d. kristina, e. setyaningsih 216 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) technical issues the next issue highlighted by the participants was an unstable internet connection. pre-service efl teachers noted that unstable internet connection hindered their teaching activities and student responses. as pst 7 said below: the student’s response was not as expected because of the unstable internet connection. (pst 7/interview/ic 1) when presenting lessons, pre-service efl teachers believed that students did not respond as expected because the message was frequently not transmitted owing to network issues or disconnections. this problem affected the teaching and learning process. due to digital media used in learning activities, the consideration of acceptable learning media and the selection of digital media for learning must consider activities such as accessibility, affordability, technology, interactivity, organization, and innovation (susanty et al., 2021). therefore, teachers must prepare alternative solutions when technical issues arise in their teaching activities. rahman (2020) advised teachers to adopt well-equipped language learning platforms and educational institutions to train teachers and students to run online teachinglearning programs efficiently. conclusion this study revealed that pre-service efl teachers incorporate only a few tasks that support the higher cognitive function, such as applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating into their reading lesson plans. in addition, pre-service teachers employed a more significant portion on remembering and understanding. consequently, the cognitive activities associated with 'applying' to 'creating' must be intensified. pre-service efl teachers need to add more activities and tasks to develop students' critical thinking in reading classrooms. furthermore, pre-service efl teachers identified challenges when integrating critical thinking into online reading classes, including students' lack of motivation, comprehension, self-confidence, insufficient teacher knowledge, time constraints, and technical issues. the research findings led to various theoretical contributions for efl teachers, pre-service efl teachers, and teacher training institutions. the result of the study provides insight for efl teachers and pre-service efl teachers about the knowledge of critical thinking integration into lesson plans and reading classroom instructions. identifying critical thinking integration barriers encourages teachers to anticipate developing thinking reading classrooms… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 217 similar challenges in their instructional activities and devise solutions. additionally, the findings imply that teacher training institutions should focus on strengthening the critical thinking skills of pre-service efl teachers to integrate critical thinking skills into efl classrooms successfully. references abrami, p. c., bernard, r. m., borokhovski, e., wade, a., surkes, m. a., tamim, r., & zhang, d. 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(2016). instructional strategies for developing critical thinking in efl classrooms. english language teaching, 9(10), 14. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v9n10p14 179 the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills dewanti mulki rahma smpn 2 balikpapan jl. telagasari no 67-68, perkampungan pelajar gunung pasir, kalimantan timur. dewantimulki@yahoo.co.id abstract this study deals with the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skill (an experimental study in ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa in the academic year of 2014/2015). this research was done to answer the objectives of study, namely (1) to find out the difference of lecturing and fishbowl method in ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa in the academic year of 2014/2015, (2) to find out the significant difference of lecturing and fishbowl method in ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa in the academic year of 2014/2015. this research applied descriptive quantitative method. the objects were ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa in the academic year of 2014/2015, and the analyzing data were students’ speaking skill that was taught by fishbowl method. the sample of this research was taken 28% from population. the numbers of sample were 50 students that were divided into 2 groups. the first group was experimental group and the second group was control group. the data tested using t-test formula by comparing the mean score of pre-test and post-test from both classes. the level of significance was set equal or less than 5%. the result of this study showed that t-value 8, 511 was higher than t-table 2, 064 with the degree of freedom (df) of 24. therefore, it could be concluded that there was significant difference of t-test the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 180 between students taught by lecturing and students taught by fishbowl method. since t-value was higher than t-table, it meant that null hypothesis was rejected and alternative hypothesis was accepted. thus, it could be said that fishbowl method improved students’ speaking skill in ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa in the academic year of 2014/2015 key words: fishbowl method, improving students’ speaking skill abstrak tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah metode fishbowl untuk meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara siswa (penelitian experimental pada siswa kelas sembilan di smp n 2 ambarawa pada tahun akademi 2014/2015). penelitian ini dilakukan untuk menjawab tujuan-tujuan penelitian sebagai berikut (1) menemukan perbedaan antara metode ceramah dan metode fishbowl pada siswa kelas sembilan di smp n 2 ambarawa pada tahun akademi 2014/2015, (2) menemukan perbedaan yang signifikan antara metode ceramah dan metode fishbowl pada siswa kelas sembilan di smp n 2 ambarawa pada tahun akademi 2014/2015. penelitian ini mengaplikasikan metode gambaran quantitative. objek penelitian ini adalah siswa kelas sembilan di smp n 2 ambarawa pada tahun akademi 2014/2015, dan analisa datanya adalah kemampuan berbicara siswa yang diajarkan dengan metode fishbowl. sampel penelitian ini diambil 28% dari populasi. jumlah sampel adalah 50 siswa yang dibagi menjadi 2 kelompok. kelompok pertama adalah grup eksperimen dan kelompok ke-dua adalah grup kontrol. data diuji menggunakan rumus t-test dengan membandingkan nilai rata-rata pre-test dan post-test kedua kelas. tingkat signifikan ditetapkan sama atau kurang dari 5%. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa t-value 8,511 lebih besar dari t-table 2,064 dengan df 24. oleh karena itu, penelitian ini bisa disimpulkan bahwa ada perbedaan t-test yang signifikan antara siswa yang diajarkan menggunakan metode ceramah dan metode fishbowl. karena t-value lebih besar dari t-table, itu menunjukkan bahwa hipotesa pembatalan ditolak dan hipotesa alternative diterima. oleh karena itu bisa dikatakan bahawa metode fishbowl meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara siswa pada siswa kelas sembilan di smp n 2 ambarawa pada tahun akademi 2014/2015. kata kunci: metode fishbowl, meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara siswa dewanti mulki rahma 181 introduction the expansion of communication, information, and technologies lead people to join the global era where there are many necessities of high qualification and skills related to the ability in using some foreign languages. one of the international languages is english. english plays an important role in this era. nowadays the people of indonesia live in a world that is nearly using english in many aspects of life. brown (2007: 6) defines that language is a systematic instrument of communicating ideas or feelings by using sounds, gestures, or signs agreed. the primary function of language is for interaction and communication. english as one of the international languages in the world should be mastered by people from many countries in the world to communicate each other. they may know and understand what they speak communicatively because of english. because of this reason, english becomes the first foreign language that is taught in indonesia from elementary school up to college. speaking is one of the four basic language skills popularly known as listening, writing, reading and speaking skills. teaching english speaking is the process of giving the english lesson, from the teacher to the students based on the material from the syllabus of the certain school, in order that the students are able to absorb it and they will be able to communicate by using english orally. all those skills are supported by some components such as vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, etc. speaking skill is one thing that should be mastered by the students in the school. tarigan (1990:3-4) defines that speaking is a language skill that the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 182 is developed in child life, which is produced by listening skill, and at that period speaking skill is learned. the aforementioned factors entail us to master english, especially speaking skill successfully, so we can communicate with all of the people over the world fluently. unfortunately, there are so many factors as handicap of how people can master speaking skill successfully, such as they never practice to speak english with their friends formally or informally, afraid of making mistakes, or afraid to be laughed by others and do not feel confident, or sometime they seem do not to have ideas in their mind if they are asked to practice their speaking. english is an international language used all over the world. many people learn to master it because many aspects in modern life cannot be separated from english. nowadays we can find everything is written in english. as one of the aspects of globalization, english is now considered more and more important. the students’ inability to speak in english is caused by a number of factors. there are eight factors. they are; (1) clustering (2) redundancy (3) reduced forced (4) performance variable (5) colloquial language (6) rate of delivery (7) stress, rhythm and intonation (8) interaction. (brown: 2000:270) the students of smp n 2 ambarawa face those problems mentioned above. according to the information from the english teachers smp n 2 ambarawa, the problems are such as the new curriculum in seventh and eight levels so make an old teacher difficult to follow it and the position of ambarawa is not good enough. actually dewanti mulki rahma 183 ambarawa is not a village and it is not a city also so make the education grow up slowly. in addition, the students also want to show other student in the school or members of their family that they can speak some english. for this reason, teacher should use creative teaching methods that encourage students to take part actively in the class. the teaching learning processes have to involve not only teacher and students, but also the students and students. helping students to solve these problems, the teacher should motivate them and create the most effective way to stimulate them, so they will be interested in practicing their speaking. on the other hand, the teacher should use certain technique to stimulate students to practice their speaking, because good strategy will support them in achieving skill including english skills. teacher have to teach the material by using good method, good technique and organize teaching-learning process as good as possible, so teaching-learning process can run well. it can make student master english skill, especially in this case speaking skill successfully, because one of the teaching failures is caused by unsuitable method. there are many ways to make a fun activity in teaching speaking in the classroom. using pictures, cards, and other visual aids usually add a great joy to the class. fishbowl is one of the methods that can be applied in teaching speaking because fishbowl is one of potential activities that students can aim to arrive at a conclusion, share ideas about an event, or find solution in this activity. however, fishbowl is related by the third support that is students themselves. therefore, fishbowl is a way to make students be more confident in speaking english. the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 184 fishbowl method silberman (1996:110) defines that fishbowl is a discussion format that some students make discussion circle and other students make listener circle in around of discussion group. fishbowl is the growing structure discussion method that is very useful for the speaking class (elizabeth, et al., 2005:145). based on the above explanations the writer concludes that fishbowl method is a way to organize discussion group that contains of inside and outside circle that is useful in speaking class. this method has many variants but the underlying idea is to facilitate learning via discussion. figure ofthe arrangement of fishbowl source: http://slitoolkit.ohchr.org/data/downloads/fishbowl.pdf the inner circle is given a situation wherein participants discuss and come up with a solution, while the outer circle reserves their observation, feedback and suggestions for later. in another variant, the inner circle can dewanti mulki rahma 185 be given a task to complete, while the outer circle observes. there are many formats that you can adapt while using the fishbowl method. however, there are 2 common types of fishbowls: open format fishbowl in this format a few seats in the inner circle are left vacant for members of the outer circle to join. when this happens one member of the inner circle must voluntarily leave. the rules of the discussion have to be set by the facilitator or by the group themselves. closed format fishbowl this technique works well with larger groups. the facilitator can give the inner circle time to discuss an issue. when their time is up the outer circle can come into the inner circle and add their viewpoints. in this structure, you can have participants sitting in concentric circles giving everyone in the classroom an opportunity to contribute (elizabeth, et al., 2005:145). based on those the above explanations can be concluded that fishbowl has two formats that are usually used. they are open and closed format circle. both of them give opportunity of every student to speak and share their opinion in the fishbowl that is prepared for them. speaking speaking skill is one thing that should be mastered by the students in the school. tarigan (1990:3-4) defines that speaking is a the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 186 language skill that is developed in child life, which is produced by listening skill, and at that period speaking skill is learned. hornby (1990:1227) defines speaking is make use of words in an ordinary voice. bygate says, “speaking is a skill which deserves attention every bit as much as literary skills, in both first and second language. it is the skill which the students are frequently judge. it is also the vehicle par excellent of social solidarity, of social ranking, of professional advancement and of business”. it indicates that as one of the language skills, speaking should get the attention from teachers and learners because it plays the important role in our society. meanwhile, donough and shaw state, “there are some reasons for speaking involved expressing ideas and opinions: expressing a wish or a desire to do something: negotiating and/or solving a particular problem; or establishing and maintaining social relationships and friendship. besides, fluency, accuracy, and confidence are important goal in speaking”. therefore, as a language skill, speaking becomes an important component to master by the students as the main tool of verbal communication because it is a way to express ideas and opinions directly what we have in our minds. based on the above definitions, it can be synthesized that speaking is the process of using the urge of speech to pronounce vocal symbols in order to share the information, knowledge, idea, and opinion to the other person. moreover, speaking cannot be dissociated from listening aspect, because speaking involves speaking and listener. dewanti mulki rahma 187 teaching speaking in junior high school the subject of this research is ninth grade students at smp n 2 ambarawa. knowing the students’ characteristics is the first step that will help the teacher to help them. it will also help the teacher to prepare the students to help themselves. students should learn the best strategies to improve their own learning. the important thing is teachers have to involve the students in more indirect learning through communicative speaking activities. they also allow them to use their intellects to learn consciously where this is appropriate. they encourage their students to use their own life experience in the learning process too. as stated in school based curriculum, the purpose of the english subject in junior high schools is to develop communicative competence in spoken and written english through the development of related skills. the learners will be able to support their next study level through the ability of the english communicative competence. standard of competence and basic competency which the research focus on are the standard of content in the english subject, particularly the english speaking lesson to the ninth grade students of the first semester at smp n 2 ambarawa. it is also limited to the scope of expressing meanings in a transactional and interpersonal dialogue in the context of daily life. the standard of competence and the basic competency are presented in the table below: the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 188 the table of standard of competence and the basic competency standard competence basic competence speaking expressing meaning in a transactional and interpersonal dialogue in the context of daily life. 3.1 expressing meaning in a transactional (to get things done) and interpersonal (with social contacts) dialogue by using spoken language accurately, fluently, and appropriately in the context of daily life and including expressions of giving certainty and uncertainty 3.2 expressing meaning in a transactional (to get things done) and interpersonal (with social contacts) dialogue by using spoken language accurately, fluently, and appropriately in the context of daily life and including expressions of asking repetition, showing attention and giving amazement hypothesis ary (2007: 81) defines that the hypothesis presents the writer’s expectations about the relationship between variables within the question. a hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. it describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study. in this research, the writer puts a hypothesis that “fishbowl method and lecturing has similarities to improve students’ speaking skill in the ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa in the academic year of 2014/2015. dewanti mulki rahma 189 research methodology place and time of research place of research the research carried out at smp n 2 ambarawa. the address is in jl. kartini 1a ambarawa, kab. semarang general information of smp n 2 ambarawa junior high school 2 ambarawa is one of the best and favorite junior high school in ambarawa. the detail of this school described as follows: school name : smp negeri 2 ambarawa no. school statistic : 201032210066 school type : a school address : jalan kartini 1a ambarawa : (sub district) ambarawa : ( regency) semarang : ( province) central java phone/hp/fax : (0298) 591176 / 596760 email/web-site : smp2ambarawa@gmail.com / http://www.smpn2ambarawa.com school status : negeri the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 190 as the rsbi : sk direktir pembinaan smp, dirjen dikdasmen, kemendiknas number : 1393 / c3 / tu/2011 on 13th june 2011 class percentage that have used it : 100 % teacher percentages that are s2/s3 : 7,14 % does school have hot-spot facilities: yes, it does historical building of smp n 2 ambarawa based on smp n 2 blog, in the late 1976, ambarawa did not have any junior high school except stn and skn. besides that, there was preparation state junior high school ambarawa. in 1976, smp n 1 ungaran got 12 local dropping that was not possible in ungaran so based on reference of kdh semarang regents and approval of dandim 411 salatiga, so the building was beside turangga ceta field (pangsar jend. sudirman field ambarawa). on 1977, smp n 1 ungaran filial ambarawa that had 4 classes, there was misunderstanding from preparation state smp ambarawa. preparation state smp ambarawa thought that new building was for preparation state smp ambarawa so preparation state smp ambarawa did not receive new students. finally, there was protest from preparation state smp ambarawa’s parents. on 4th april 1977, there was a conference of preparation state smp ambarawa’s parents in kawedanan dewanti mulki rahma 191 veranda ambarawa that be presented by the chief of dikmanum kanwil central java province that was drs. darsono decided that preparation state smp ambarawa be integrated in smp n 1 ungaran filial ambarawa and also new building of smp n 1 ungaran filial ambarawa. on 7th june 1977, the government of p and k department gave 4 locals plus furniture and electric installation even though it was not on yet to the head master named imam mochtar. on 13th june 1977, there was a movement second and third grade students of preparation state smp ambarawa to a new building of smp n 1 ungaran filial ambarawa in jl. kartini 1a ambarawa. finally, on friday, 23th october 1981, that was based on decision of education and culture cabinet’s letter, number 0220/0/1981, smp n 1 ungaran filial ambarawa to be smp n 2 ambarawa. on 1982, the first alumnus was born by ka kanwil depdikbud central java province named drs. kustijo. vision and mission vision the vision of this school is “excellent in achievement, virtuous, competent and independent”. the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 192 mission the missions of this school are: realizing achieving students in academic and non-academic in national and international level. realizing students that have faith and piety, polite attitude and polite words. realizing competent and creative students realizing competent students in good and correct language realizing competent students in information technology and communication realizing discipline and responsible students method of research according to ary (2007:39) there are four different categories developed in classifying educational research: experimental, experimental ex-post facto, descriptive, and historical studies. the framework used in this research is quantitative research. it means the hypotheses of the research will be concluded through various techniques such as: collecting, describing, and analyzing data collected which are mostly on the form of numerical data. the research is also categorized as an experimental study since it attempts to give treatment to experimental group and maintain control over all factors that may dewanti mulki rahma 193 affect the result of an experiment. in other words, the experimental research attempts to investigate the influence of one or more variables to other variables. experimental research has some characteristics as follows: (1) manipulation or treatment of an independent variable; (2) other extraneous variables are controlled, and (3) effect is observed of the manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable (ary, 2007:338). this experimental research is aimed at observing whether there was the fishbowl method for teaching speaking. the technique of teaching speaking in the experimental class was fishbowl method. the b class was used for the control class and a class was used for fishbowl method. the technique of teaching speaking in the control class was a memorizing method. research subject population population is a large group to which a researcher wants to generalize his or her sample result (christensen, 2000:158) according to burke (2000: 158) population is the set of all elements. it is the large group to which a researcher wants to generalize his or her sample result. in line with burke, arikunto (2002: 108) says that population is all the individuals of that group. the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 194 the population in this research was the ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa in the academic year of 2014/2015. they were grouped into seven classes where each class consists of 25 students so the total populations were 175 students. sample a sample is a set of elements taken from a large population (christensen, 2000:158). arikunto (2002:109) states that sample is part of population being researched. burke (2002: 158) also says that sample that it is a set of elements taken from a larger population according to certain rules. it can be concluded that sample is a small portion of a population assigned according to certain rules. therefore, sample in this research is taken 28% from population. therefore, the numbers of sample are 50 students. the sample of this research came from two classes (a and b class) of ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa in the academic year of 2014/2015. the total sample in this research was 50 students. they came from middle and lower economic families. generally they had high motivation to study but they were shy to show their skill especially in speaking. they understood when someone spoke english but they did not want to use their english in speaking. they were afraid of someone who was laughing them and they were afraid to do mistakes. in this research the researcher would be the observer. dewanti mulki rahma 195 sampling sampling is the way to get sample. according to burke (2000: 183) sampling is the process of drawing sample from a population. in this research, the writer used cluster random sampling for getting sample from the population. according to burke (2000: 172), cluster random sampling is a type of sampling in which clusters (a collective type of unit that includes multiple elements) are randomly selected. in this case, a classroom is a cluster because it is a collective unit composed of many single units (students). in short, the writer selected randomly 2 clusters (2 classes) from the larger set of all clusters (7 clusters or 7 classes) in the population and included all the elements in the selected clusters as the sample of this research. by using this sampling method, each individual in population had an equal chance of being included in the sample so this sampling method could be used to produce representative samples. the writer used cluster random sampling because it had some advantages, such as: it can be used when it is difficult or impossible to select a random sample of individuals, it is often far easier to implement in schools, and it is frequently less time consuming. data collecting technique the writer used test in collecting the data. there were two kinds of test. they were: the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 196 pre test pre-test was administered before treatment that was given to know how far the students speaking skill especially for the material would be taught by the teacher in this research. pre-test of this research was on 26th august 2014. the test consisted of oral test. the teacher asked the students to introduce and to tell about their hobby. the teacher gave for about five minutes to prepare and after the students were ready, they must come in front of class to speak. at that time, the researcher gave point for them. post-test the teacher gave the posttest to the students after giving the treatments. the next type of the posttest was also in the form of oral production test. the experimental group did post-test on 6th september 2014 at 8.20-09.00 wib. the test was administered to investigate whether the fishbowl method could improve the students’ speaking skill. the teacher asked the students to discuss about the topic with their friends and after that they had to give opinion about that topic. the control group was also did post-test. the post-test was on 6th september 2014 at 9.20-10.00 wib. in post-test, the teacher asked the students to make conversation for two people, after that the students had to memorize the conversation. if the students had memorized, they had to come in front of the class to practice. at that time, the researcher gave point for them. dewanti mulki rahma 197 research instrument the instrument of this research was oral production test. the items of the test were a topic discussion. the teacher gave a topic and the students discussed it. the writer and teacher monitored the students’ utterance. there were five components used to analyze speech performance. they were grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. table of scoring rubrics content 5 points 4 points 3 point 2 point 1 point fluency quick, fluently, continuous with no hesitation and clear fluently, occasiona l hesitation fluently enough, several unnatural hesitations and searching for words fluently not good enough, many unnatural hesitation no specific fluency descriptio n, not complete utterances pronunciati on pronunciation is excellent like native speaker errors in pronuncia tion are quite rare require guessing at meaning, accent may be obviously foreign pronunciatio n has many problems errors in pronuncia tion are frequent but can be understoo d by native speaker vocabulary very good; use appropriate and new words good, appropriat e vocabular y and response good enough, rarely have to look for a word no enough vocabulary or incorrect use very little vocabular y vocabula ry repeated the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 198 grammar excellent; no grammatical errors good; two or fewer grammati cal errors good enough; listener understand enough many problems like in verb forms errors in basic structures errors in grammar are frequent but speaker can be understoo d by native speaker comprehen sion understanding the concept very good understan ding the concept good understan ding the concept good enough no enough understandin g the concept confusin g in understan ding the concept data respondents table of experimental group no m/f nis complete name 1 f 10692 adelia'|asya virginia 2 f 10678 annaba’ ramadhani 3 l 10668 arsyalhaad kautsar g 4 f 10705 chintya dewi safira 5 f 10717 dea ayu fahrunnisya 6 f 10707 diah ayu lestari 7 f 10725 diana agustina rahman 8 f 10709 dinda larasati 9 f 10741 faras fauziyah raharani 10 l 10831 i made wisnu bakti saputra 11 l 10757 ibnu irsyady 12 f 10760 ika sakti octaviarani 13 f 10758 ika sakti octaviarini 14 f 10832 nanda tasya surya puspita 15 f 10835 niken widyastuti dewanti mulki rahma 199 16 m 10781 noviandi dwi pamungkas 17 m 10792 raka rizky firdausy 18 m 10793 reyhan gesang almuazam 19 f 10803 sandra kila rahmayanti 20 f 10810 shafira rahmadanti 21 f 10817 willies meliana 22 f 10819 winar wahyu w. 23 f 10837 yosephine fianti feprianingsih 24 f 10825 yuanita aulyning tyas 25 f 10827 zineine avien ryanar p table of control group no m/f nis complete name 1 m 10681 achmad arif fani 2 f 10659 adinda putri sholiha 3 m 10664 aditya satria pandu .n. 4 f 10665 agnes larasati milenia .p 5 m 10676 agung herbudi nugroho 6 f 10661 agustina wulansari 7 m 10670 ahmad b.a 8 m 10687 ahmad khoirul insani 9 f 10682 ainaya shafa malikha 10 f 10666 aisyah dhila puspita sari 11 f 10671 ajeng pratiwi putri 12 m 10688 alif bagus pratama 13 m 10662 alifian tirta nata 14 m 10672 alvian d.d 15 f 10673 amelliyana 16 f 10683 an nisa wijayanty 17 f 10674 ananda larasati the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 200 18 f 10677 anesti nila krisna 19 m 10689 angger rizky alifa 20 m 10667 anggit aji prasetyo 21 f 10663 anisa utamiyanti tri .r 22 f 10679 annisa rosalin anindhita 23 m 10685 ardi firmansyah 24 f 10680 arlista alimatul mufidah data analysis the name of analysis technique of this research was quantitative. the data from the oral test was arranged from the highest until the lowest one. the data from the pre-test and post-test was analyzed to find out whether the result of the tests are similar or different. data analysis was done on 7th september 2014. to compare the result of the data from pre-test and post-test with the same subject, the writer used the repeated measures t-test, and the data was calculated using the product moment formula, as follow: mean pre-test of experiment group x1 = pre-test of control group dewanti mulki rahma 201 x2 = post-test of experiment group y1 = post-test of control group y2 = standard deviation (sdd) sdd = ∑d = x-y ∑d2 = (x-y)2 sdd = standard deviation x = pre test y = post test n = total of respondents standard error of mean difference (semd) semd = sdd the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 202 semd = standard error of mean difference sdd = standard deviation n = total of respondents t-value (to) to = md semd the formula of md is as follow: md = ∑ d n discussion in this section, the writer analyzed the data which had been collected and then described result of this research. in the first meeting of two groups, the teacher gave a pre-test for respondents. they could do the test well. in the second meeting (learning process), control group was taught with a usual method that was lecturing, almost of respondents did not pay attention to the teacher’s explanation. they felt bored because teacher used traditional method to explain the material more over when they had to do the assignment. most of respondents spoke themselves when they had finished the assignment and they did not pay attention to dewanti mulki rahma 203 other respondents. on the other hand, experiment group was taught by fishbowl method. they were more enthusiastic and more interesting in learning process. most of students tried to think about theme and material to face their friend’s opinion. they really gave attention to other respondents’ speaking. in the last meeting, after treatment was given, respondents of experiment group were easier to speak than control group in doing post-test. it happened because fishbowl method could be seen as an active method in class. respondents were active to speak, so, it made them get higher score in posttest than control group. result of the research could be seen as the table follows: table of result of calculating research no result experiment group control group 1 mean of  pre-test  post-test 3,8 4,84 3,56 3,8 2 standard deviation 0,5987 0,6499 3 t-table vs t-test 2, 0639 <8,5106 2, 0639 >1,8141 based on table 4.31, “tt” standard of significant 5% with df = 24, got 2, 0639 from the above result, the writer gave interpretation that ttable(tt) was smaller than tvalue (to) of experiment group and ttable(tt) was bigger than tvalue (to) of control group. based on paired of sample statistic and the above sample test, the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 204 result of this research indicated that null hypothesis was rejected and alternative hypothesis was accepted. based on the above calculation, research of experimental group showed that tt is 2, 0639 and to is 8, 5106, significant difference of this research was 6, 4467. it meant that towas greater than tt. the writer could conclude that fishbowl method improved students’ speaking skill from significant level 5% to tt. research of control group showed that tt was 2, 0639 and to was 1, 8141. the significant difference of research was 0, 2498. it meant that tt was greater than to, and it did not improve students speaking skill from significant level 5% to tt. the result of research showed that null hypothesis (ho) was rejected and alternative hypothesis (ha) was accepted, so the writer tried to make improvement in students’ speaking skill in control group. the writer asked teacher to teach control group using fishbowl method. the teacher taught control group using fishbowl method on october 18th 2014. the students also did post-test again to see significant improvement of them. post-test was on october 22th 2014. respondents of control group were easier to speak in doing post-test after the treatment was accepted. it happened because fishbowl method could be seen as an active method in class. respondents were also active to speak, so, it made them get higher score in post-test. result of the research could be seen as table followed: dewanti mulki rahma 205 table of result of calculating research control group no result lecturing fishbowl method 1 mean of  pre-test  post-test 3,56 3,8 3, 8 3, 96 2 standard deviation 0,6499 0, 5657 3 t-table vs t-test 2, 0639 >1,8141 2, 0639 <3,463 based on the above calculation, research of control group showed that tt was 2, 0639 and to was 3, 463, significant difference of this research was 1, 3991. it meant that towas greater than tt. the writer could conclude that fishbowl method improved students’ speaking skill from significant level 5% to tt. from the research finding, it could be concluded that using fishbowl method could motivate students to improve language learning. briefly, speaking skill of the experiment group had proven that fishbowl method could be useful method in improving students’ speaking skill. in addition, the positive finding of this research was in line with definition of fishbowl method that “fishbowl is the growing structure discussion method that is very useful for the speaking class” (elizabeth, et al., 2005:145). based on above statement, fishbowl was very useful for the speaking class and from this research, the writer could find that fishbowl method improved students’ speaking skill and made class more active than others. the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 206 conclusion the writer presents the conclusion of this research which is entitled “the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skill (an experimental study in ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa in the academic year of 2014/2015)”, after conducting the research, presenting the data, analyzing the data and discussing the result in this chapter. based on the analyzing data in previous chapter can be concluded as follow: it can be seen from the calculation of mean between pre-test and post-test of control group that was taught by lecturing in ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa, in the academic year of 2014/2015. the mean of pre-test of students was 3, 56. it was smaller than the mean of post-test. the mean of post-test of the students was 3, 8. the mean of post-test of the students was higher than the mean of pre-test of the students that were taught by lecturing. the difference of mean between pre-test and post-test of students that were taught by fishbowl method was 0, 24. it can also be observed that the calculation of mean between pre-test and post-test of students that were taught by fishbowl method in ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa, in the academic year of 2014/2015. the mean of pre-test of students was 3, 8. it was smaller than the mean of post-test. the mean of post-test of the students was 4, 84. the mean of post-test of the students was higher than the mean of pre-test of the students that were taught by fishbowl method. the difference of mean between pre-test and post-test of students that were taught by fishbowl method was 1, 04. fishbowl method and lecturing dewanti mulki rahma 207 were difference because mean of fishbowl method is higher than mean of lecturing. from above analysis, it can be comprehended that the calculation of t-test of control group that was taught by lecturing in ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa, in the academic year of 2014/2015. the hypothesis was tested by using t-test formula by comparing the scores of pre-test and post-test. the result was 1, 814 in t-test of control group. meanwhile, the critical value for rejecting the null hypothesis at level of significance 5% with degree of freedom (df) 24 was 2, 064. the significant difference of t-test and t-table was 0, 25. it meant that t-value was smaller than critical value (2, 064 >1, 8141). the result showed that there was not significant of t-test of students that was taught by lecturing in ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa, in the academic year of 2014/2015. the fishbowl method improved students’ speaking skill in ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa, in the academic year of 2014/2015. the hypothesis was tested by using t-test formula by comparing the scores of pre-test and post-test. the result was 8, 511 in t-test for experimental group. meanwhile, the critical value for rejecting the null hypothesis at level of significance 5% with degree of freedom (df) 24 was 2, 064. the significant difference of t-test and t-table was 6, 447. it meant that t-value was higher than critical value (8, 511 ≥ 2,064). the result showed that it was very significant in t-test of students that was taught by fishbowl method in ninth grade students of smp n 2 ambarawa, in the academic year of 2014/2015. the fishbowl method is very significant because t-test of fishbowl method is higher than t-table. the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 208 references arikunto, suharsimi. 2002. prosedurpenelitiansuatupendekatanpraktik. jakarta :rinekacipta. ary, donald et al. 2007. introduction to research in education. new york: cbs college publishing. barkley, elizabeth f. et al. 2005. collaborative learning techniques: a handbook for college faculty . usa: jossey -bass. brown, h, douglas. 2000. teaching by principles, an interactive approach tolanguage pedagogy. new york: addison wesley longman. brown, h, douglas. 2007. prinsippembelajarandanpengajaranbahasa. jakarta: pearson education,inc christensen,larry b. 2000. experimental methodology. london: allyn and bacon inc. hornby. 1990.oxford advanced learners’ dictionary johnson, burke. 2000. educational research: quantitative and qualitative approaches. usa: a pearson education company. johnson, burke. 2002. educational research: quantitative and qualitative approaches. second edition. usa: a pearson education company. dewanti mulki rahma 209 silberman, mel. 1996. active learning: 101 strategies to teach any subject. u.k. a pearson education company. tarigan, henry guntur. 1990. berbicara sebagai suatu ketrampilan berbahasa. bandung: angkasa _____. fishbowl method of instruction.instructional technique-group 4.retrieved sunday, ‎ 20th‎ july ‎ 2014, ‏ ‎ 8:30:49 pmhttp://slitoolkit.ohchr.org/data/downloads/fishbowl.pdf the fishbowl method to improve the students’ speaking skills 210 register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.101-121 1 students’ perceptions of the use of blogs in english language learning miftachudin iain salatiga miftac4@gmail.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.101-121 english abstract this study aims to provide understanding about students‟ perceptions of the benefits of blogs in english language learning and their challenges in authoring blogs. in addition, this study explores the benefits of blogs in english language learning. furthermore, it investigates the challenges in authoring blogs that potentially define the gaps between students‟ perceptions and blogging practice in english language learning. this study involves three undergraduate students at the state institute for islamic studies (iain) salatiga. it is conducted by using two stages of semi-structured interviews through skype. the findings from the data analysis outline that the students perceive blogs as a beneficial application for english language learning in the areas of writing, reading and communication. however, they also admit that challenges remain in authoring blogs, such as performance fluctuation, self-confidence and aspects of technology. from the findings, there is a suggestion to formulate strategies in order to counteract the challenges. thus, the use of blogs improves the quality of english language learning in any future practice. keywords : students‟ perceptions, english language learning, benefits of blogs, challenges in authoring blogs. indonesian abstract penelitian ini bertujuan untuk memahami persepsi mahasiswa mengenai manfaat blogs dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris sekaligus tantangan mereka dalam menggunakan blogs. tidak seperti website pada umumnya, blogs merupakan aplikasi yang gratis dan sederhana yang bisa digunakan siswa walaupun mereka tidak memiliki kemampuan bahasa komputer. blog bisa disebut sebagai sebuah lingkungan pembelajaran bahasa inggris asli yang di dalamnya memungkinkan kegiatan refleksi dan kolaborasi. selain itu, penelitian ini mengeksplorasi manfaat blogs dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris. kemudian juga, dalam studi ini mencoba untuk menginvestigasi tantangan-tantangan dalam menggunakan blogs yang kemungkinan dapat bermanfaat untuk memahami perbedaan antara persepsi siswa dengan praktek penggunaan blog dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris. subjek penelitian ini adalah tiga mahasiswa s1 di iain salatiga. penelitian ini dilaksanakan dengan menggunakan dua sesi semi-structured interviews melalui skype. temuan dari analisa data menyebutkan bahwa siswa menganggap blogs sebagai aplikasi yang bermanfaat untuk pembelajaran bahasa inggris dalam bidang menulis, membaca, dan komunikasi. akan tetapi mereka juga mengungkapkan bahwa terdapat tantangan dalam menggunakan blogs seperti fluktuasi kerja,kepercayaan diri dan aspek teknologi. dari temuan tersebut kemudian memunculkan saran untuk memformulasikan strategi untuk mengatasi tantangan-tantangan tersebut. sehingga penggunaan blogs akanmeningkatkan kualitas pembalajaran bahasa inggris di kemudian hari. mailto:miftac4@gmail.com http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.873 miftachudin kata kunci : persepsi siswa, pembelajaran bahasa inggris, manfaat blogs, tantangan dalam menggunakan blogs. introduction people have been familiar with blogs or weblogs since the emergence of the world wide web (winer, cited in campbell, 2004). blogs are online writing spaces that can be edited immediately and published publicly through web browsers (zhang, 2009). they work as online journals in which blog developers can update any day-to-day life experiences independently (oravec, 2002). however, according to blood (2000), the vast use of blogs started around 1999 because the platform was developed to aid web users in some areas. the first point is that users do not need any advanced knowledge of coding, html and ftp in order to be pertinent blog developers (lohnes cited in ducate & lomicka, 2003). furthermore, users can customise blogs with little difficulty even though they may have very little knowledge of computer language. the second point is that blogs provide free domain and hosting unlike standard websites (campbell, 2004). as a result, this makes blogs more accessible to everyone. in educational realms, blogs are popular amongst teachers and students, especially in the field of english language learning (noytim, 2010). teachers and students have become more interested in using blogs because blogging activities focus on sharing plain text and commenting on each other posts (oravec, 2002). developing personal blogs is motivating for students since they can publish the contents based on their interests. in such situations, blogs elevate learners’ interest and ownership because they are independent in authoring and searching for information for their updates (ferdig & trammell, 2004). moreover, students can upload any form of data such as audio-video files, hyperlinks, pictorial data, colour and text data on blogs (kress, 2003; smith & baber, 2005; du & wagner, 2007). the use of blogs is relatively new in education realms and english language learning (zhang, 2009). there is still little research that focuses on the topic of using blogs in both fields; education and english language learning. experts in the field of blog technology only provide reports on the function and use of blogs but neglect the benefits of blogs for education (du & wagner, 2007). in english language learning, the incorporation of blogs into course design can actually lead to effective language learning (wu, 2005). therefore, the study specifically explores the benefits of blogs for english language learning as well as the challenges in authoring blogs. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.101-121 3 aims this study aims to help english language educators gain understanding of the benefits of blogs in english language learning derived from students’ perceptions and about the gaps between students’ perceptions and blogging practice in english language learning. in the long run, the future practice of blogs in english language learning will be more effective. in line with that, there are two objectives in this study. the first objective is to determine the benefits of blogs in english language learning to encourage more students to use blogs as an extension of learning outside class. the second objective is to define the challenges in authoring blogs in order to trigger awareness prior to the implementation of blogs in english language learning theoretical framework empowering learners‟ independence in english language learning empowering learners’ independence is the focus issue in education (kenny, 1993). being independent in learners’ contexts means learners take control of their own learning, gain more responsibility for any decisions in learning aspects and develop strategies for learning (sherrin, 1997). little (1994) says that the principle of learners’ independence also takes place in foreign language learning. language development is an internal process in which learners need to take account themselves. therefore, language instructors should not intensively fill learners’ time and space during the process of thinking. however, pinkman (2005) suggests that language instructors need to stimulate and facilitate learners to be independent. as a means of doing this, language instructors can encourage learners to create a new learning environment. accordingly, learners need to maintain this environment as a learning extension out of the class. the student-centered approach in english language learning the idea of learners’ independence is incorporated in the student-centered approach that facilitates learners to take responsibility in learning. according to pinkman (2005, p. 12),“once learners take responsibility for their learning, they will be more able to capitalize on learning environments both in and out of the classroom, hopefully making them life-long and efficient learners”. miftachudin moreover, a student-centered approach is defined “as a broad teaching approach that includes substituting active learning for lectures, holding students responsible for their learning, and using self-paced and/or cooperative (team based) learning” (felder & brent, 1996, p. 43). such approaches improve learning motivation, enhance learners’ appreciation of learning subjects, bring deeper insights and promote more knowledge retention (bonwell & eisen, 1991). on the other hand, a teacher-centered approach has less impact on the development of students’ independence in english language learning. in a teacher-centered approach, students mostly rely on learning input from language instructors which means the instructors actually feed information to students (clasen & bowman, 1974). the instructors are in control of all aspects of the learning process such as learning targets, language materials and exercises, or learning orientations. consequently, “…this approach appears to minimize continuity in the knowledge acquisition process, reduces reinforcement, and therefore reduces the lasting effect of learning” (du & wagner, 2007, p. 1). blogs and english language learning technology possesses lots of advantages in facilitating and complementing english language learning. it is a motivating tool (ferdig & trammell, 2004; zang, 2009). it allows learners to independently learn, based on their personal interests, develop their own learning strategies and adjust the pace of learning (blin, 1999). to gain the advantages offered by technology in english language learning, pinkman (2004) points out computer assisted language learning (call) as the area with the most potential. specifically, pinkman considers blogs as a type of call, applications that can potentially facilitate english language learning in an authentic, reflective and collaborative environment beyond the classroom. blogs can be used not only to enhance but also to complement language learning in efl classrooms (ding, 2008; cashion & palmieri, 2002). ding (2008) claims that the quality of education can be improved by using blogs. in his research, he finds that through blogging, learners increase their learning interest and initiative in english language learning. du & register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.101-121 5 wagner (2007) argue that students’ individual english language learning and course achievements are significantly affected by using blog projects. furthermore, blogs are popular not only in the field of education but more specifically in that of english language learning (noytim, 2010). blogs are significantly used inside and outside the efl classrooms (pinkman, 2005). in efl classrooms, blogs can be utilized as a medium of personal written expression, communication and as a forum of discussion and build relationships in an authentic cyberspace community (wu, 2005; pinkman, 2005; campbell, 2003). they can be utilized to elevate learners’ motivation and ownership in english language learning because learners have autonomy in organizing the contents (ferdig & trammell, 2004). miftachudin the types of blogs in english language learning the types of blogs are diverse including tutor blogs, class blogs and learner blogs which can be integrated into english foreign language (efl) class activities (campbell, 2003). however, from these three kinds of blogs, students independently take advantage of the use of learner blogs. learner blogs can be personally or collaboratively managed by students (oravec, 2002) which is beneficial for students in english language learning (ding, 2008). ding (2008, p.33) states “freedom should be given to students to establish blogs with their own personality. individual blogging can help students express their distinct individuality in the learning process, stimulating their interest and activating their initiative for the english language learning”. thus, at this point, the term ‘blogs’ is interchangeable with that of ‘learner blogs’ as the focus of the discussion in this study. research methods the research approach this research is a small-scale study conducted using a qualitative approach. the focus of this research is to explore the students’ perceptions around the topic of the use of blogs in english language learning. the exploration will lead to the phenomena and significant description related to research questions. accordingly, the result of this qualitative research will be a salient gauge to argue and affirm those phenomena. there are two reasons deploying qualitative approach in this research. firstly, creswell (2008) defined that qualitative research as: “a type of educational research in which the researcher relies on the views of participants; asks broad, general questions; collects data consisting largely of words (or text) from participants; describes and analyses these words for themes; or conducts the inquiry in a subjective, biased manner” (p. 46). in line with that, this study intends to have an exploration that relies on the students’ views. in the first run, the general questions are asked to collate the text data. then, the data is analyzed to find out the themes. from that rationale, this study can justify that qualitative approach is appropriate for the research study. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.101-121 7 secondly, creswell (2008) and coombes (2001) state that qualitative research typically involves small scale population such as an individual or a few individuals in the process of data collection. in this research, the writer only involves three respondents who are thoroughly investigated. the writer felt, in this light, that three students would be sufficient to address the research questions. the context state institute for islamic studies (iain) salatiga launched the intensive english program in 2010. this program consisted of additional english classes for students who lived in campus accommodation in salatiga. female and male students were separated into different accommodation and english classes. related to this research, the context focuses on the english classes which are conducted in female campus accommodation at the end of even semester of the academic year 2014-2015. as a pioneering program, it was not graded like other programs on a regular basis. its objectives were to enhance students’ language skills, involve them in a convenient language environment and give them more experience in using language. moreover, these objectives were related to the diversity of class population. the students of the intensive english program came not only from english schools but also from others schools such as islamic studies, elementary education, islamic economics, arabic and islamic law. the population and the participants of the 30 students observed, ten students made use of blogs outside of the class. however, only 3 students accepted the request to be participants in this research. those three students are outlined in the following section. the participants of this research are three undergraduate students of the intensive english program in the state institute for islamic studies (iain) salatiga. in turn, the tables will describe the participants in a brief description. miftachudin table 1: the personal identification of respondents no name university major blogging starting date blog providers 1 respondent 1 english 2008  blogger.com 2009  wordpress.com 2011  shvoong.com 2 respondent 2 english 2010  blogger.com 2011  shvoong.com 3 respondent 3 islamic studies 2008  blogger.com 2008  wordpress.com 2011  shvoong.com table 2: the observation of learners’ blog participants articles indonesian english total respondent 1 87 5 92 respondent 2 8 3 11 respondent 3 40 0 40 the first participant is studying english and has had experience in authoring blogs since 2008. initially, she made use of blogspot from blogger.com in 2008. however, she never posts any articles on it. in the following year, she used wordpress from worpress.com. in this blog, she only posted several articles. eventually, she signed up to shvoong from shvoong.com in 2011. in this blog, she has posted a lot of articles. however, she has not updated this blog since 2012. the second participant is also studying english. she started her first attempt in authoring a blog in 2010. in that year, she used blogspot from blogger.com. she admitted that she never updated anything in this blog. in 2011, she made use shvoong from shvoong.com. she has posted several articles. nevertheless, she has not posted any new articles since 2012. the third participant comes from islamic studies. she used blogspot from blogger.com and wordpress from wordpress.com in 2008. however, she neither posted on nor maintained these blogs. in the following year, she made use shvoong from shvoong.com. initially, she wrote many articles in this blog. nonetheless, she has failed to write a post since 2012. data generation tools this research occupies semi-structured interview to collate the data. based on several studies, a semi-structured interview is an appropriate device in qualitative research through which to carry out in-depth exploration of specific social phenomena. creswell (2008) asserts that the register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.101-121 9 semi structured interview can be used as one of the forms of data in qualitative research. in qualitative research, he argues that researchers can use broad and general questions to generate responses from the participants. “unlike the structure interview, the interviewer is expected to adapt, modify and add to the prepared questions if the flow of the interview talk suggests it” (cousin, 2009, p.72). the semi-structured interview is conducted through synchronous computer mediated communication (cmc) skype software. mann & stewart (2000) suggested that cmc can be employed in case the respondents are dispersed geographically and cannot be contacted face to face. although mann & stewart (2000) were questioning whether synchronous communication was equal to face to face communication, the interview keep using skype as the tools. in the context of iain salatiga, skype is free and an appropriate technology for the participants. moreover, they have access to the use of laptops and free internet in the campus accommodation or around the university. thus, the use of skype is pertinent for this research. research procedures the research procedure consists of three steps; data preparation, data collection and data processing. the definition of these three steps are respectively explained in the following. data preparation data preparation was the preliminary stage in which the writer constructed the interview questions. at first, three mini tour questions are raised as the opening session to identify the participants. in addition, the writer made outlines for semi-structured interview questions based on the literature review and students’ blog observation. by so doing, there are five general questions related to the benefits of blogs as the first stage of the interview session. probing questions might take place to follow up the participants’ responses. the probing questions were the initial sets that they might be modified during the interview to extract more information. further, the writer also prepared seven questions to explore students’ challenges in authoring blogs as the second stage of the session. miftachudin data collection the data are collected through two stages of semi-structured interviews. whilst the interview proceeded, the conversation was audio recorded, verbatim by using a digital recorder. in the first stage, the writer wanted to explore the first question of the research about students’ perceptions of the benefits of blogs in english language learning. the stage consisted of five general questions and several probing questions that are asked during the interview to extract further information. simultaneously, the second stage of the interview session is conducted. the objective of this stage was to explore students’ challenges in authoring blogs. the writer felt that gaining insights into those challenges would help him understand what gaps there are between learners’ perceptions of the benefits of blogs and their blogging practice in english language learning. overall, the second stage of the interview consisted of seven questions. data processing the data from the interview was in the form of audio recording. from ethical considerations, the respondents agreed to use indonesian as the instruction language in communication and interview. therefore, the data was not only transcribed but also translated into english before the process of analysis. based on coombes (2001) explanation, qualitative data is presented mostly in the form of tabulation. therefore, the writer decided to collate data in tabulated form so that it could be more easily analyzed. repetition, filler or idioms were excluded. the writer only translated some parts of the data called extracts. those extracts were selected and tabulated into a computer file by using microsoft word. coombes (2001) asserts that a word processor is relevant software to produce documents for any research. in addition, data reduction is allowed before the data presentation (miles and huberman, 1994). however, punch (2009) suggests that the deducted data must still be significant and the main components can be used for the analysis. the data in the second stage of semi structured interview was also treated as the first one. it was transcribed and translated excluding the repetition, filler or idioms. eventually, it was register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.101-121 11 presented in the tabulation by using the same word processor application before the analysis proceeded. discussion in this section, the writer discusses the findings including three benefits of blogs in english language learning and three challenges in authoring blogs. in the discussion, the writer also correlates the findings with past studies that have been published. eventually, the conjunction between the findings and the past studies will give reliable answers to the research questions. benefits writing campbell (2003) says that the idea of blogs is to promote learner writing practice. moreover, blogs facilitate learners to have a purpose in writing (zhang, 2009). those ideas are in line with the findings of this study. in this study, respondents 1 and 2 have the same perception and practice of blogs for writing in english. however, respondent 3 only perceives that blogs facilitate her to write in english as she is not confident to write in english. respondents 1 and 2 focus was to generate an income as their initial purpose for writing blogs. however, in the process, they realized that generating an income from writing blogs was not easy to do. consequently, they changed their focus from seeking income to selfactualization. on the contrary, respondent 3 has set writing as a major purpose of authoring blogs since she set up blogs. she finds that blogs are another media to facilitate her hobby of writing. learners can author and manage their blogs independently or collaboratively to update any thoughts, words and opinions (oravec, 2002). they may write anything they desire based on their own interest that leads learners to independently direct their learning (ferdig & trammell, 2004). in addition, ferdig & trammell assert that blogs work as an online journal in which learners are capable of updating any life-experience. in this research, the respondents use and manage their blogs independently. they concur that blog facilitates independent writing practice. in addition, they can upload anything based on their preferences. miftachudin respondent 1 confirms that she can independently articulate her opinions without being frightened that anyone will reject her writing. meanwhile, respondent 3 applies her independence in authoring blogs into various types of writing such as short stories, diaries, life experiences, summaries of learning materials and abstracts. furthermore, respondent 2 takes advantage of blogs not only as a space for independent self-expression but also that for knowledge sharing. bernstein (2004) confirms that blogs facilitate the development of writing skills through frequent writing. two respondents; 1 and 3 explicitly perceive that frequent writing by using blogs promotes their writing development. respondent 2 is the only participant that implicitly mentions development of writing skills through frequent writing. she says that she can improve her writing skills in english because she has more words to write. through frequent writing, respondent 3 thinks that she can develop her grammar. in addition, she was capable of revising her writing by using blogs. similarly, respondent 1 also can revise the errors that she may have in her writing. therefore she recognizes the progress of her writing skills gradually. reading pinkman (2005) makes a claim based on his research that blogs potentially enhance learners’ reading comprehension. moreover, campbell (2003) says that english as a second language (esl) learners mostly take advantage of blogs in reading and writing classes. their claims emerge in the finding of this research. the respondents agree that blogs have facilitated reading activities. in different terms, they perceive blogs as a beneficial medium that lead them to read more. respondent 1 and 2 mostly read blogs to support their assignment as they major in english school. they use information from blogs to generate or refer to ideas in their assignments. on the other hand, respondent 3 reads blogs as references for her creative writing because she is majoring in islamic studies and never has any assignments in english. overall, the respondents concur that reading blogs is a salient method to promote further reading. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.101-121 13 in authoring blog posts, learners experience meaningful learning through website exploration (zhang, 2009; campbell, 2004). in line with that, blood (2002) sorts out three chronological steps in authoring blogs including scouring, filtering and posting. during the scouring process, learners need to find the relevant sites to support their opinions or generate ideas per se. they may occupy search engines to surf thoroughly. surfing related information can be performed in english. thus, it will empower students’ reading comprehension, increase vocabulary retention and develop more insight on certain topics (ducate & lomicka, 2005; pinkman, 2005). in this study, the findings affirm the points of website exploration, scouring and filtering processes, vocabulary development and gaining more insight on certain topics. respondent 3 needs to explore and find trusted resources containing relevant information. therefore, she can rely on the information and refer it into her own writing. during the exploration, she does not only gain from the related information but also knowledge of writing structure and diction. through blog exploration, respondent 1 and respondent 2 learn how to be critical readers to compile appropriate information for their assignments or their blog posts. moreover, respondent 2 finds new vocabulary and various writing styles from blog exploration. the new vocabulary significantly assists her in reading other blogs. meanwhile, writing styles guide her in constructing her own writing. communication blogs belong to computer mediated communication (cmc) applications which can be used in asynchronous communication (murray & hourigan, 2008). moreover, blogs serve as convenient media for conversation in which interaction and sharing of learning experiences take place (du & wagner, 2007). blogs can be alternative media to have authentic interactions with online community (wu, 2005; ding, 2008). in english language learning, blogs have involved student interaction not only with information systems but also with other global audiences (oravec, 2002; noytim 2010). in line with that, the respondents in this study perceive that they can use blogs as a medium to communicate and interact with people online. the comment feature is a salient tool which makes blogging more communicative and interactive (wilder & merritt, 2004; pinkman, 2005). the communication and the interaction miftachudin also take place when the respondents in this study develop their blogs. by using comment features, they communicate and build mutual interaction. respondent 1 has formulated a strategy to build interaction by using comment features. firstly, she visits other people’s blogs. afterwards, she writes comments that may trigger the blog developers to visit her blogs. meanwhile, respondent 3 sometimes has her friend comment on her newest blog posts about the next day’s presentation materials. therefore, she can refine the materials in advance. by this kind of interaction, she has peer-assisted learning that may be useful in developing her language skills if she writes in english. on the other hand, respondent 2 is the person who has the least experience in using comments features for interaction. she has only had one comment so far but she replied directly to it. in general, she affirms that she can use comment features for interaction. in education, feldman (2001) suggests that learners can take advantage of the vast use of urls to improve learning, interaction and communication skills. in line with that, all respondents conclude that sharing links is another way of building interaction. respondent 1 never leaves the incoming comments without any replies. if she gets halted, she tries to provide book titles or some links for references. likewise, respondent 2 and 3 mostly share their blog update links with their friends on facebook. in addition, respondent 3 tags, therefore the links reach more people to read and comment. in a blog project, pinkman (2005) found that out of 15 students observed, eight students enjoyed the experience of interaction in blogging with fellow students and respectively had peer-assisted learning. similarly, the findings in this study also reveal the identical phenomena. the respondents’ reactions are varied toward interaction in blogging. respondent 1 explains that she will be pleased if she gets appropriate feedback to her blog posts. she believes that the blog readers are specific. the readers must be people who really need certain information or have subscribed to her blogs. thus, they will put appropriate comments. on the other hand, respondent 3 is very excited at finding out that people notice her blog posts. she is eager to read and reply to the comments. meanwhile, respondent 2 has a neutral stance towards commenting activities. she does not mention her feelings in particular. however, she states that ‘this is my obligation to answer what people ask’. register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.101-121 15 challenges performance fluctuation wu (2005) finds that learners’ beliefs and actions in posting articles is not congruent. in his research, 85 % of respondents agree that the idea of posting english articles is good to be implemented in their blogs. however, the quantity of blogs is disappointing. the learners posted less than eight articles in one semester. in fact, the action of posting more articles cannot be performed although the majority of learners believe in the idea. the result from wu’s (2005) research seems to be identical with the findings in this study. the respondents believe that blogs have benefits in language learning. however, they are inconsistent in using and maintaining blogs. the respondents have signed up to several blogs providers such as blogspot, wordpress, shvoong. however, they did not use and maintain them well. respondent 1 has used blogspot and wordpress since 2008. afterwards, she never used blogspot. similarly, she tried to use wordpress in 2009 but she just uploaded several articles. respondent 3 uses blogspot and wordpress but has not posted anything. finally, the respondents have used shvoong since 2011 but they have not maintained their blogging activity. du & wagner (2007) and noytim (2010) mention that time constraints are a reasonable explanation for the continuity of authoring blogs. they find that the learners have to deal with many assignments during the current semester. similarly, from his research, pinkman (2005) finds out that two out of 10 learners responded that they will keep posting in their blogs unless the time was unavailable. this pattern also happens in the context of this study. the respondents point out that time constraints have caused their performance fluctuation. respondent 1 explains that she does not have much time after her regular classes end because she has to follow her schedule. respondent 2 and 3 state the common reason that they are busy with their assignments during the week. du & wagner (2007) and pinkman (2005) assert that learners are not accustomed to the learner-centred environment that requires individual active involvement beyond the classroom. in this kind of learning environment, learners need to have motivation and miftachudin confidence to present their knowledge, review other learners’ practice and find related sources. as learners gain the whole control of blog post configuration, the issues of personal independence and motivation are crucial for learners’ persistence in authoring blogs. in line with that, the respondents from this study show the personal independence and motivation which affect their persistence and development of english writing skills. respondent 1 says that she will write if she is in a good mood. similarly, respondent 2 states that ‘i am a moody person. i will write if i want to’. although respondent 3 conveys that she loves writing, she keeps mentioning that she cannot change her mood. she says ‘surprisingly, now i have my own laptop. still, i cannot focus to develop my blogs’. their mood also affects the development in english writing skills. two respondents; respondent 1 and 2 predominantly write in indonesian. while, respondent 3 writes only in indonesian. their excuse is that they are indonesian natives therefore it is easier to write in indonesian. however, in some statements, they explain that the process of writing in english is more complicated. thus they post more indonesian articles than english ones. self-confidence zhang (2009) asserts that learners challenged the lack of self-confidence in writing their ideas in english. he exemplifies this in discussing the case of the best writer in his project who was not confident at all about his skills in writing. in addition, he also felt uncertain about his comments to his classmates’ writing although several students were excited about his advice. those facts also appear in the findings of this study. however, two respondents; respondent 1 and 3 experienced the challenge of self-confidence to write in english. respondent 1 felt insecure with her english. she is afraid of making mistakes in english writing. likewise, respondent 3 faces the typical challenge. she finds herself not confident with her grammar. wu (2005) finds that her learners confronted the challenge of self-confidence in inviting, reading and commenting on each other blogs. from the feedback responses, those learners admit that “it‟s quite a shame to ask someone to read my blog‟, „i didn‟t post a lot articles‟, register journal, language & language teaching journals vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp.101-121 17 „i don‟t have enough confidence to share my ideas with my friends‟, „what i write is too personal, so i don‟t want to share with them‟, „i would like to keep my privacy, for i may post some articles that mention my classmates‟, and „i think that articles i posted were not good enough”(p. 428). in this study, the respondents also admit that they had identical challenges mentioned by wu. respondent 1 does not share her blog posts because she has no new updates. in addition, she is concerned about comments that are irrelevant to the contents of her blog posts. if she posts personal opinions, she prefers that people read them without commenting. similarly, respondent 3 will share her updates if she knows the topics well. from respondent 2 point of view, she will share her blog posts if she is competent in the topic areas written. aspects of technology in the case of lack of technological competence, pinkman (2005) asserts that some learners experience the complication of understanding the application of blog software. the case relates to the difficulty in uploading images onto learners’ blog posts, typing practice or understanding the instruction language in english. in the context of this study, the respondents do not mention that they have a problem in uploading images or typing. however, respondent 1 faces the challenge in understanding the instruction language in english. thus, she cannot configure her blogs. respondent 1 partly has a problem in understanding the instruction language of blogs although she has used blogs since 2008. in addition, respondent 2 and 3 concede that they do not fully have salient knowledge in information technology (it). respondent 2 never configures her blogs because she has never learnt how to do that. she said ‘i set nothing up. i just write, check and post the articles’. in line with that, respondent 3 concurs that she has her blogs configured. in terms of limitation of internet access, ding (2008) points out that personal computer availability significantly affects access in blogging. learners can utilise university computer labs. instead they may use any computers in commercial internet cafés outside the university facilities. however, these facilities have less influence in free blogging rather than personal miftachudin computers that are used by students in their spare time. in the findings, only respondent 1 cannot afford to buy a laptop. therefore, she has a problem in developing her blogs. for the rest of the respondents, they do not have such a problem. conclusions summary of the findings this study has found three benefits of blogs in english language learning and three challenges in authoring blogs. the respondents identically perceive that blogs have three benefits in english language learning. the first benefit is in the area of writing. all respondents share the same perception of using blogs for writing. although two respondents initially have different purposes in authoring blogs, they finally changed their focus in using blogs for writing. then, the second benefit is in the area of reading. the respondents agree that blogs have facilitated reading activities. they perceive blogs as a beneficial medium that leads them to read more. finally, the third benefit is in the area of communication. the respondents perceive that they can use blogs as a medium to communicate and interact with people online. on the other hand, the students find three challenges in authoring blogs. the first challenge is performance fluctuation. the respondents believe that blogs have benefits in english language learning. however, they are inconsistent in using and maintaining blogs. the second issue is self-confidence. they do not have enough confidence to share their writing and to write in english. the last problem is in relation to technology. they mentioned that they had problems in understanding language instruction, laptop ownership and blog configuration. further work for further research, there is a need to formulate strategies in how to counteract the challenges in authoring blogs. those strategies are important guidelines for the continuity of implementation of blogs in my classroom. the 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(2009). the application of blog in english writing. journal of cambridge studies, 4(1), p. 64-72. http://people.chu.edu.tw/~wswu/publications/papers/book_chapters/01.pdf register journal – vol 15, no 02 (2022), pp. 245-263 doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.245-263 p-issn: 1979-8903; e-issn: 2503-040x 245 an investigation of the integration of inter-semiotic complementarity in iraqi efl textbook riyadh sarhan jabur al jebouri1*, wafaa mokhlos faisal2 1,2dept.of english, faculty of education, university of kuaf, kufa, najafiraq, college of education for human science, babylon universityiraq *) corresponding author email: riyadhs.jabr@uokufa.edu.iq doi: 10.18326/rgt.v15i2.245-263 submission track: received: 30-07-2022 final revision: 06-11-2022 available online: 01-12-2022 copyright © 2022 authors this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike 4.0 international license. abstract nowadays, multimodal texts are widely used in the media, schools, and daily life. there have been several studies on nonverbal semiotics in multi-semiotic texts. this study examines the complementarity of verbal and visual semiotic modes in an iraqi efl textbook. royce's (2007) inter-semiotic complementarity and kress van leeuwen's (1996) structure of information value were used to analyse an iraqi efl textbook titled english for iraq (garnet, 2017). according to the analysis, the entire textbook is not built on a page-by-page path that allows linear and nonlinear reading. although the information layout varies from page to page, the overall structure of the textbook image allows for a linear reading path from start to finish. texts in multimodal efl are required. this study investigated the relationship between verbal text and image in terms of address, social distance, and participation because multimodality conveys teachers' perspectives on language learning (the extent to which the reader engages with what is represented). this study's sample includes analytical units. each verbal and visual sample text-image relationship was determined, and the participation and address levels were comparable. we discovered that social distance favors divergence over convergence in english education and learning. young students select, design, and employ multimodal textbook materials. keywords: multimodality, inter-semiotic complementarity, semiotics’ mode, efl, school textbooks mailto:riyadhs.jabr@uokufa.edu.iq http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v14i1.25-42 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ r.s.j. al jebouri, w.m. faisal 246 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) introduction the classical intellectuals of the fourth-century b.c.c. emphasized the possible influences of voice, gesture, and expression on the art of the speechmaking, which is when the multimedia concept was proposed. humans have employed visual, aural, kinaesthetic, and other senses to create and receive literature. people have made meaning from ancient narratives to modern web browsers through visuals, sounds, gestures, and touch (eisenmann & summer, 2020). because demands and aspirations are given to resources, technology, and internet access, cultural ideas and values influence textual production and consumption. multimedia discourse has earned great interest since o'toole and michael (1994), kress and van leeuwen (2006), and others began using the term. research topics include academic discourse, such as mathematical discourse (nhat, 2017; o'halloran, 2004) or textbooks (unsworth, cope, & nicholls, 2019), as well as speech for entertainment, such as music videos and graphic novels, or advertisements, to name a few (rajendra, 2015). students with varying levels of education will benefit most from this type of research using illustrated books. english textbooks in educational institutions include text and visual images. both of them have been used to construct meaning. as kress and van leeuwen (2006, p. 2) explain, "visual structures realize meanings as linguistic structures do also, and thereby point to different interpretations of experience and different forms of social interaction." this means that applying visual images to language teaching material has a different experience for students because they may connect it with their experiences (nurul hidayati et al., 2020). some inter-semiotic studies have focused on textbooks for students' universities. wignell (2011) revealed that science authors use evaluative language in textbooks for university writing. liu and qu (2014) state that the efl textbook series for chinese college students are similar because their representative multimodal texts are visually coherent for inter-semiotic semantic relations. these previous studies are insightful, but they focus on efl textbooks. recent research aims to fill this gap by investigating how inter-semiotic contributes to meaning-making in elt textbooks used by foreign language learners. each of these resources intersemiotically contributes to the construction of meaning through the meaning potentials of an investigation of the integration of inter-semiotic complementarity… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 247 that resource (nurul hidayati et al., 2020; o'halloran, 2011). for this purpose, visual images offer text to show how visual images and languages may contribute to the processing of meaning-making. multimodal literacy has gained more attention among literacy educators, researchers, and curriculum authorities (damayanti, 2014; hermawan & sukyadi, 2017; unsworth et al., 2019). as students' interactions with multimodal texts in recent years are increasingly pervasive, the focus of literacy in school can no longer be limited to the reading and writing of printed texts such as school textbooks. the current study is an attempt to justify and answer the question; what kinds of reading path patterns are used to track the flow of knowledge deriving from the language and image resources in iraqi efl textbooks and their potential for practical use in efl classrooms? as an alternative, students need support in making meanings from multimodal texts that integrate images and language (e.g., picture books) and from online and virtual settings (e.g., social media, websites, and wikis). in teaching english as a foreign language, picture books have been widely used to assist with children's language learning. images, typically rich in picture books, are usually used to help students identify new lexical items as they provide context to create meaning (lee, 2015; mourão, 2016; sun, 2015). while images tend to be treated as an 'addition' to words, meaning-making in picture books depends on pictures and words (unsworth ,2006). using picture books in efl classrooms, thus, entails the necessity for efl teachers to be concerned with developing their own and their students' multimodal literacy. multimodal textbooks require skills in interpreting visual and verbal meanings. using multimodal textbooks in efl classrooms requires teachers and students to develop multimodal literacy. in response to the need for developing multimodal literacy, the study investigates reading path patterns to track the flow of knowledge deriving from the language and image resources in iraqi efl textbooks, as well as their potential for practical use in efl classrooms (grunbaum, 2021; reynolds, 2015). the current study is based on two sfl concepts: inter-semiotic complementarity by royce (2007b) and compositional meanings in visual design by kress and van leeuwen (2006). these conceptual theories relate to the study's primary objective, mapping a children's book's reading path. the r.s.j. al jebouri, w.m. faisal 248 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) reading path is the order and direction in which the reader approaches the text or images on the page (o'halloran, marissa, podlasov, & tan, 2013). the reading path is then divided into linear and non-linear paths. a linear reading path involves sequentially reading the text. in western societies, linear texts are usually read from left to right and top-to-bottom. unidirectional or closed text is linear. the author of the page determines the reading path. a typical example of a linear text is a newspaper article without pictures. in non-linear reading, the reader engages with the text non-linearly and non-sequentially. multidirectional or open text is non-linear text in which the reader chooses a reading path. websites are examples of non-linear texts. pictures in the textbooks sit between linear and non-linear texts because texts and images co-create meaning. most authors decide how to read a story's words, but their readers can interact with the pictures. inter-semiotic complementarity multimodal textbooks use language and images to communicate. it is essential to understand both sources by comparing them. the study uses inter-semiotic complementarity (royce, 2007b) to understand languageimage relationships. royce (2007b) offers inter-semiotic complementarity as a multimodal analysis framework to help efl teachers develop their students' multimodal literacies and design a pedagogical metalanguage to aid learning. this framework extends halliday's sfl theory, which emphasizes the role of social contexts in constructing and interpreting meaning (halliday & hasan, 1985; halliday & matthiessen, 2014). meaning resources in sfl theory are ideational, interpersonal, and textual. the ideational metafunction represents our world experience (doing, thinking, relating, etc.) involving processes, participants, and circumstances. interpersonal meaning expresses our attitudes and opinions. textual meaning creates a coherent, cohesive text in context. royce (2007b, p. 66) refers to visual metafunctions as ideationalrepresentational, interpersonal, and textual-compositional. royce (2007b) suggests that focusing on ideational inter-semiotic complementarity may help efl learners extract informational content from english language learning materials. this paper examines the idea of inter-semiotic complementarity in a multimodal textbook using royce's (2007b) an investigation of the integration of inter-semiotic complementarity… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 249 framework. ideational inter-semiotic analysis begins with identifying verbal meanings; each clause is analyzed in terms of its transitivity features, which include processes, participants, and circumstances (additional information related to where, when, and how). the next step is to identify the represented participants' visual message elements (vmes), activities, circumstances, and attributes. vmes are then grouped into lexical inventories and compared to verbal items for similar or differentiated meanings. understanding frameworks is also needed to evaluate a textbook using multimodal text analysis. this area has influential figures. kress and van leeuwen's (2006, 2021) grammar of visual design and royce's inter-semiotic complementarity were used in this study (1998, 2002, and 2007). these two frameworks cover ideational, interpersonal, and textual metafunctions under halliday's systemic functional linguistics (halliday, 1994; halliday & matthienssen, 2004, 2014). in this regard, the ideational metafunction concerns "reality, events, and experiences," the interpersonal metafunction concerns entrenching and keeping social rapports, and the textual metafunction concerns the organization of discourse through which "information flow" is managed and kept. visual meanings and their relationships to verbal meanings are also elaborated under the notion of inter-semiotic complementarity, which in this regard is focused on the ideational metafunction. royce (2007) posits that visual message elements (henceforth vmes) capture the visual components that "carry semantic qualities, and these semantic properties or meanings may be realized in a number of visual ways." once vmes have been derived, they can be compared to the meanings expressed by textual semiotics. identity, activity, context, and attributes can be used to code both the vmes and the textual meanings: identification: represented participants, such as who or what is in the visual frame. activity: actions that were taking place. circumstances: the context of a situation, such as where, who, and how. attributes: the qualities and characteristics of the participants (royce, 2015). royce (2007b) recommends using halliday and hasan's analysis of cohesion in a text, such as repetition (r), synonymy (s), antonymy (a), r.s.j. al jebouri, w.m. faisal 250 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) hyponymy (h), meronymy (m), and collocation (c). visual ideational meanings are also analyzed using kress and van leeuwen's (2006) narrative representation. it is used to examine how images represent our experiences of the world by identifying lines or "vectors" that emanate from participants or other elements in the image. compositional meaning kress and van leeuwen (2006) developed the fundamental concept of conceptualizing compositions in a static or page-based multimodal image. as a page-based multimodal text's overall composition, the representational and interactive elements relate to each other and integrate into a meaningful whole through compositional patterns (kress & van leeuwen, 2006). three interrelated systems connect these functions: information value, salience, and framing. the information value of a page focuses on the value of the various sections of the page. image salience refers to an image's ability to stand out visually. for example, a frame's presence or absence could disconnect or connect an image to its surroundings. table 1. the inter-semiotic analysis framework by royce, 2006. verbal meanings semantic relationships visual message elements (vmes) lexical elements which relate to the visual meanings. these lexical items arise according to: process: what action is taking place, events, states, types of behaviours participant: who or what is involved in any activity or process circumstances: where, who with, and by what means are the activities being carried out attributes: what are the qualities and characteristics of the participants various lexico-semantic ways of relating the experiential and logical content or subject matter represented or projected in both visual and verbal modes through the intersemiotic sense relation of: repetition: identical experiential meaning synonymy: the same or similar experiential meaning antonymy: opposite experiential meaning meronymy: the relation between the part and whole of something hyponymy: the relation between a general class of something and its sub-classes collocation: an expectancy or high probability to co-occur in a field or subject area variations occur according to the coding orientation. activity (process): what action circumstances: where, who with, by what means identification (participant): who or what attributes: the qualities and characteristics an investigation of the integration of inter-semiotic complementarity… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 251 research method the selection of images from the iraqi efl textbook the primary data for this study are a sample of pages from iraqi efl textbooks published by garnet education in 2017. the garnet education is a uk-based independent elt publisher with decades of experience. garnet education, which focuses on english for specific purposes and english for academic purposes, works extensively with the iraqi ministry of education to design efl textbooks for the iraqi schooling system. the story's central plot revolves around a variety of everyday concerns. as life skills topics, "cultural" practices vary from place to place. the attire and demeanor of the people in the various locations, topics, and his home country illustrate this contrast. for example the japanese do not practice customs such as greeting visitors with politeness, marching, singing or eating with finesse, while the iraqi culture shows the opposite as a part of their heredity customs. they are transforming from inappropriate figures into a moral message emphasizing the importance of inner qualities over outer ones, time, and technology. one of the figures can acquire a deeper understanding of the moral message conveyed by the images by examining the images and the accompanying text (christie & derewianka, 2008; painter, unsworth, 2006). students can learn to comprehend multimodal texts by recognizing characters and plot structures in written texts. additionally, they can do so by analyzing visual representations and presentation order. even though the written texts describe a photograph of an outsider, the visual details make the photograph appear even more out of place. data collection a qualitative, descriptive sf-mda study was conducted. it was deemed a suitable approach because, according to o'halloran and fei (2014), it can be adopted to analyze multimodal texts ranging from two dimensions, such as printed or digital text, to three dimensions, such as arts, texts or gestures, and time-based texts, including music, film, television, etc. (knox, 2013). the systemic functional-multimodal discourse analysis (sf-mda) henceforth sfmda can also be used to understand the meaning systems of image and verbal texts and a text's social functions (jewitt, bezemer, & o'halloran, 2016). in r.s.j. al jebouri, w.m. faisal 252 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) this study, the two modes' interpersonal meanings were compared. also, several frameworks were used to interpret the interpersonal meanings of visual and verbal texts and their interrelationships. in this case, they were halliday (1994) and halliday & matthiessen’s (2004, 2014) interpersonal metafunction of systemic functional linguistics, kress and van leeuwen's (2006, 2021) interactive meanings of visual design grammar, and royce's (1998, 2007) intersemiotic complementarity. the examined artefact is a multimodal text in the form of a discussion accompanied by an image from an iraqi efl textbook titled english for iraq: student's book for six preparatory school students (garnet, 2014). the textbook was chosen because it is used in preparatory schools in northern iraq (except in the kurdistan region). it was also designed and introduced by a reputable publisher with credible and reliable authors; one of them even had global teaching experience and it included artefacts in the form of discussion, covering not only verbal texts but also images, which is another reason why textbook selection should be scrutinized. the identification of the design of each image was required to select the analyzed pages even though the study did not focus on genre analysis, and the data sets comprise two spreads (a double-page) and a page representing the orientation and complication stages of the story. these stages were selected as they provide rich analysis and valuable development for investigating the reading path patterns. due to the copyright issue, this paper does not supplement the corresponding multimodal textbook pages. instead, graphs and black and white sketches of the pages or spreads are supplied to visualize the mapping and visual analysis. the three data sets are displayed in figures 1–3. figure 1 illustrates a spread that introduces the story's characters. figure 3 displays a page that focuses on the characters' activity. figure 3 illustrates another extent that presents an attempted solution made by the story's main characters. in different shots there is plenty of information that needs to be clarified by both the teacher and the students. clearly, this depends on how much knowledge there is and how each part of the educational situation is cultivated about english language. an investigation of the integration of inter-semiotic complementarity… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 253 figure 1. an image presenting the different stages of the main characters of reading part of unit 2. adopted from iraqi efl textbook for preparatory school. figure 2. here is the image and the text are complete each other as the text describing what happening with the above shots for a student called sami who is describing his school work. r.s.j. al jebouri, w.m. faisal 254 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) figure 3. an image of three shots about special school types which is unfamiliar in the iraqi context. procedures and data analysis the understanding process of the contents of images of study is constructed by two factors—the layout of the language and image content and the interrelationship between the meanings of language and image on specific pages or spreads. both accounts contribute to the overall construction of the narrative's reading path. before a detailed analysis of how the information value is organized and how each page's language and image elements work together, a general observation was made about how the school topic was chosen on the spot. the study combines two fundamental methodologies: the structure of information value proposed by kress and van leeuwen (2021) and the inter-semiotic complementarity proposed by royce (2007a, 2007b). to unpack the information value and complementarity relations between inter-semiotics, kress and van leeuwen (2006) explain how the placements of elements (participants and syntagms that relate them to each other and the viewer) provide them with the specific informational values associated with the various 'zones' of the image: left and right sides, top and bottom margins, and center and margin. second, the relationship between the language and images in the multimodal textbook is examined. royce's (2007b) research identifies these an investigation of the integration of inter-semiotic complementarity… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 255 connections as cohesive mechanisms realized through repetition (r), synonymy (s), antonymy (a), hyponymy (h), meronymy (m), and metonymy (m). there is a collocation (c) between language and image resources on the same page. after the analysis, the image in the textbook's overall reading path map will be created. in addition, classroom applications of this reading map's pedagogical implications are formulated. results & discussion the inter-semiotic complementarity analysis in this paper focuses on the stages in which the contrast between the characters in denise's family and friends is established to build and release the tension encountered by the main characters. denise's story introduces the characters regarding their identities, locations, and activities. in figure 2, the identity of the characters is introduced on a double-page spread that depicts a single visual element spanning the two pages and one separated textual element on each page. the texts are annotated in the figure as text a and b. the verbal texts identify the single girl as' denise 'and the other five as' her companions. ' on the left page, the five girls are shown looking away from denise. on the right page, they are shown looking at her. in terms of verbal elements, each clause in the textbooks (texts a, b1, and b2) was analyzed to identify the represented meanings. figure 5 presents the analysis of the first data set as follows. table 2. an introductory analysis of verbal element in the first page text 1 her companions were unnamed goodly, lovely, angel, neatly, and perfect denise process: identifying anonymously value text b1 her name was denise denise process: identifying but unknown to the student value text b2 unknown was an odd person (at the image) might be identified later carrier process: attributive attribute r.s.j. al jebouri, w.m. faisal 256 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) the analysis shows that each clause in the text blocks construes the identification of the represented participants. interestingly, the identifying clauses in texts a and b1 name the characters with referents that reflect their qualities. for example, each of the five shots is unnamed with proper nouns with excellent features such as ‘lovely’ and ’perfect.’ on the other hand, the 'different' quality of the girl in the shots from other people is not only identified by her appearance but also by the classifying attribute of being ‘unknown.’ turning to visual elements, this spread of meaning includes two main participants, a group of three shots, and the image itself. table 3. summarises the analysis of visual meanings that focuses on the introduction to characters elements visual realisations visual transitivity roles visual message elements (vmes) identification a schoolgirl reactor girl’s friends and family attribute solid-colored bow ties, false collar, curly hair family values identification a family phenomenon actor the mom attribute plaid bow tie, yellow flowery shirt, colored t-shirt, dark skin and wide eyes an outsider, happy identification a classroom, and a teacher goal classroom context activity learning in a group non-transactional action process majority activity be a teacher, dreaming transactionalaction process comfort circumstance working in the farm, learning, and dreaming to be a successful teacher manner superior a group of people to schoolgirls' vector reveals transactional reaction processes. however, even though all the girls' bodies are pointing in the same general direction as the teacher and most of their eyes are closed and chins raised, a transactional reaction process can be seen proceeding from one particular girl's gaze and the beaks of two people in the group's an investigation of the integration of inter-semiotic complementarity… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 257 center. people in the picture (reactors) who see the phenomenon (denise) as the undesirable other are having an exchange in this shot. while the little girl is assigned as a phenomenon, she is also an actor in an active process; that is, she works and studies. the main characters, the girl and her mother, are also contrasted by their attributes. her uniformed, solidcolored bow ties and false collars make it easy for her co-workers to blend in with the background. all of them appear refined and conservative in this context. on the other hand, the girl with curly hair and a flowery hawaiian shirt represents formality and simplicity, which are at odds with the landscape's dominant environment of everyday life procedures. bringing the verbal and visual elements together, the analysis of ideational-inter-semiotic complementarity indicates that the introduction page in this story provides more information than merely naming the characters. table 4 displays the inter-semiotic complementarity of the introduction to characters. table 4. inter-semiotic complementarity of introduction to characters text sources message elements vmes a group of people conservativ e values superior, majority a girl outsider comfort, happiness text a denise’s family and colleagues goodly, lovely, angel, neatly, and perfect text b1 her name denise the girl text b2 the girl odd complementari ty notes: synonymy collocation synonym y synonym y bringing the verbal and visual elements together, the analysis of ideational-inter-semiotic complementarity indicates that the introduction page in this story provides more information than merely naming the characters. table 5 displays the inter-semiotic complementarity of the introduction to characters. r.s.j. al jebouri, w.m. faisal 258 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) table 5. representational meaning of characters’ activity elements visual realisations visual transitivity roles visual message elements identification a school girl wearing a blue shirt with curly hair participant: actor school girl identification a school countryside girl who dresses in a uniform way with other people. she is being acted upon by a girl with blue shirt and almost fall into the sea. participant: goal one of another group a friend identification four students sitting in a row; three on the left-hand side and no one on the right. in between, there is a messenger slapping on another person back. participant: reacter phenomenon tacky’s four other friends the girl and her friend activity telling a the girl’s back actional process slapping on one’s back activity wide-open mouth verbal process saying loudly activity group of students with rolling eyes watching a the guru, slapping on another person’s back reactional process demeaning reactions from the girls colleagues circumstanc e on farm and school background, positioned in the center of the image circumstance: locative in school context the image depicting the characters' activities has denise and one of her friends in the center, as in table 5. an almost-bending girl is caused by the girl's lashing out at one of its backs. the girl creates a transactional action process by drawing a line from his limb to the back of the girl—a phenomenon based on how the other girls were observing this event. the rolled eyes of the girls can also be interpreted as a disapproving look. although there is no speech bubble, the girl's mouth is wide open, indicating a verbal process (painter et al., 2013). complementary processes in the image and the verbal texts have a direct correlation. based on those mentioned above, visual and verbal meanings, a degree of interaction between the modes was discovered. first, the visual image is thought to interact cohesively with the verbal text regarding mood. in this an investigation of the integration of inter-semiotic complementarity… register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) 259 case, the producers or authors indirectly show the visual image created by the represented people, implying that they are viewed as a unit of thought. this conforms to the verbal text in passages where the viewers/readers are not directly addressed, as indicated by using the second personal pronoun, you. there were a few you-s in the passages. they are talking about the people in the scene, like denise or sami, or the person telling the story in the meade school picture. furthermore, the instruction outside the image box states, "read and listen" to the audio to test your ideas, emphasizing the importance of using the visual image as an object to consider. the function of the visual image as an informational object to be evaluated by readers/viewers interacts cohesively with the presence of inter-semiotic complementarity tools such as a synonym for repetition and an antonym expressing the opposite idea. as a result, different modality indicators must be considered, as each has unique values and functions. furthermore, when the modality markers would, 'll," could, couldn't, and can't are combined, the marker should indicate obligation. the modality marker will indicate the inclination. the passages' evaluative words, such as surprised (affect, passion: security), excited, wanted to play (judgment: capacity), and good idea (appreciation: +reaction), also indicate whether the visual image functions as an object or piece of information (jauhara et al., 2021). furthermore, these evaluative words interact coherently with the individuals depicted in the image's facial expressions. for example, they are indicated in this case by the emoter—a term coined by martin and white (2005). sami's facial expression differs from denis'; he is depicted with his mouth open, indicating a smile and enthusiasm (chen, 2009), and in the verbal text, he is the one who initiates and speaks, whereas denis is delighted to join the other girls at school. denis is not participating in school groups because she is experiencing the emotions mentioned above and has sad facial expressions. also, the use of declarative mood and modal operators ranging from moderate to vigorous is consistent with the mode and validity shown by the visual image, with full-color saturations showing a realistic portrayal (kress & van leeuwen, 2006, 2021). r.s.j. al jebouri, w.m. faisal 260 register journal – vol 15, no 2 (2022) conclusion the post-2003 environment in iraq has promoted sustainable development, including education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles: human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and nonviolence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity, and the contribution of culture to sustainable development. teachers and students concur that the efl textbooks english for iraq are excellent in various respects, including layout and design, social and cultural context, subject and content, language type, skills, objectives, and illustrations. the language and image interplay and the flow of information value in multimodal textbook influenced the reading path. as a result, multimodal textbook readers can read the texts in a linear or non-linear fashion. non-linear and linear reading paths can be found in the observed textbook's images. if this combination is used, readers can access the multimodal textbooks’ semiotic resources via linear and non-linear reading paths. these textbooks may be designed by their authors with a linear reading path in mind, but the reader's choice of how to approach them is entirely up for grabs. it is a preliminary investigation into the theoretical foundations of reading maps. the study's primary data source was a single textbook, which has its limitations. data can be gathered from the available english as a foreign language (efl) textbooks. in order to do this, it examines the textbook's content and how words and images are connected. students and teachers in the classroom as readers could benefit from more research. it is also possible to expand the study by understanding composition and inter-semiotic complementarity in iraqi efl school textbooks. references chen, y. 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