instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 35-38 35 theoretical perspectives of discursive phenomena: da and ethnomethodologically da indri c. sihombing department of english education, universitas lancang kuning, indonesia indrichristinan2@gmail.com article history received : 2019-06-08 revised : 2019-06-13 accepted : 2019-07-10 keywords discourse analysis interaction ethnomethodology abstract the aims of this paper try to discuss and present various theoretical perspectives of discursive phenomena, in specific the different research techniques widely known as, as well as the theories. having presented the main assumptions of the approach the paper, then discusses and analyze discursive interactions’ phenomena, technologically mediated interaction or face-to-face. by concentrating on the pragmatic aspects of discourse, an ethnomethodologically approach of discourse analysis (da), this paper may contribute important ideas and information in media interaction studies. 1. introduction a study of discourse plays a useful role in helping academia to understand the role of many discourse events within the society. the information of discourse is crucial to complete language’s theory. so many definitions of discourse analysis from experts. according to stubbs (1983) said: “any study which is not dealing with (a) single sentences, (b) contrived by the linguist, (c) out of content, may be called discourse analysis”. widdowson (2004) defined discourse analysis as the study of language patterns above the sentence and states. discourse analysis concerned with language use as a social phenomenon. so, are discourse only about the method? according to wood and kroger (2000) states that discourse analysis is not only about method; it is also a perspective on the nature of language and its relationship to central issues of the social sciences. discourse refers to the linguistics of language use as a way of understanding interactions in a social context, specifically the analysis of occurring connected speech or written discourse, dakowska (2001) in hamuddin (2012). regarding with the statement by wood and kroger, discourse analysis is a study that has an answer to questions about language and its relationship; social-interaction, communication. discourse is derived from discursus (latin as a noun) or discurrere (latin as a verb) with the meaning is run back and forth (currere). when discourse is used as the term, a metaphor is built. we might be designating what is the difference between each object of our experience. sometimes, society cannot notice the metaphorical meaning because we have forgotten the origin. at the same time, people almost use the term text as one of metaphorical expression. while ethnomethodology is the methods used by people that concerned with procedures and examining methods by members of society. it should be mentioned that when recalling the etymology we did not purpose at erudition, but at present the metaphorical nature of the term, thereby making it understandable that the context of the object study with this designation stems from its linguistic construction. for these reasons, could define that boundaries separate us from an illusion of naive representation which thinking that researchers can have direct access to reality as if the object of this study is independent of the context achieved by the term used to designate it. the purpose of this paper is to discuss and present some theoretical perspectives on the understanding the phenomena named discursively, especially the ones tending to be identified, occasionally under the generic term of discourse analysis or under the ethnomethodologically approach to discourse. after presenting some aspects of these approaches, we discuss its potential to analytically explore discursive interaction’s phenomena, both face to face and in media environments. by concentrating on the interactional aspects and pragmatic of discursive phenomena, the ethnomethodologically discourse may represent something important to the media interactions studies. in addition, some contributions from various approaches are illustrated and explained with data collected from fieldwork conducted in digital media environments (braga, 2008). to prevent misunderstandings, we remember that the discourses generated in the digital environment have the http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 35-38 36 advantage, on the one hand, comes from the media and, in another one, shows, through its studies, the diverse nature of its interactions. regardless of its specificity, the discourse generated in the digital media environment mobilizes an important part of the conversation tools people use in their spontaneous interactions. 2. method there are several definitions for discourse according to schiffrin, tannen, and hamilton (2003) in the handbook of discourse analysis, the paper believes it should be better to re-group onto 3 groups as the following: the first consists of definitions that are usually proposed by linguists with structuralism as the inspiration. accordingly, discourse is a natural language expression sequence consisting of two or more clauses or phrases. its means language is an organized expressive unitary system that has an independent meaning of its usage and makes possible signification of what the speaker says. when approaching discourse, the aims of the authors of this conception is to investigate how people apply the system of the linguistic that is innate to humankind; which process the system of linguistic so that the discourse is coherent and cohesive; and how human use it when referring to the world. thus, the essentials of this approach are the referential processes as well as the mechanisms that guarantee coherence and cohesion to the text. the second is considered by writers who have a concept of pragmatic language: discourse is made by the human from natural language. given that the authors of this conception embrace the pragmatic approach, the most studied issues in this context are also focused on this topic, especially with regard to the study of reference modalities, to the study of speech acts, to the process of cognitive involved in the constitution of meaning, with the special superiority to study the presuppositions and the implicit primarily of the importance of prejudice of speech, as long as it is not speech, but agreement on what they consider important that allows the formation of agreement and disagreement, and the debate focusing what the utterance state. and the last one is the combination of three definitions by social scientist, especially by scholars of communication, thinking that discourse is an expression or manifestation, verbal or nonverbal of a social practice. the authors who adopt this approach usually deal with the scientific discourse, for example, to refer to urban municipal planning, pictorial discourse (kruger, 2005), to designate an imageshaped organization of the era, from the style or work of the painter. each of these definitions stem from certain theoretical preconceptions and, therefore, not only delimits objects of observation, but also deals with some problems and follows particular paths of investigation. it also means that discourse is an interdisciplinary object that even within the subject can be approached from a different perspective. approaches related to the second and third perspectives, regardless of their differences, present some common characteristics of discourse. firstly, discourse is an activity that produces the effect. secondly, discourse builds a world of experience. thirdly, discourse does speech acts, such as questions, invitations, statements, requests, orders, greetings and the last, discourse analysis consistent with its inventorying, identification and systematic explanation of how they are structured. 3. result and discussion 3.1 discourse: the ethnomethodological approach the ethnomethodologically approach a phenomenological basis, by concentrating on a movement of going back to the things themselves and the consequences will of the researcher, movement that edmund husserl elected the greek term epoche, and similar to the second and third philosophies of discourse, a pragmatic inspiration, by distinguishing itself from the structuralize notions of language. as the expression ethnomethodology may incorrectly indicate that it is a study methodology, we would like to simplify its meaning. ethnomethodology is not unerringly a theory or a school, but a definite attitude or an approach of facing social reality, which first appeared in the late 1930s and spread later, mainly from the 1970s, to other regions. so, ethnomethodology concentrations in the study of significance that agents and social actors attribute to their own social practice, breaking, thus, with tendencies that consider the significance those inhabitants attribute to their action as just a malformed reflex of the structural fortitude of the social system. the core characteristics of the ethnomethodologically approach to discourse are the significance of discourse is a social activity at each of the interactional conditions established among them locally of daily life; in the interactions of discursive in which they are required, people organize knowledge and reconstruct their own world; when people talk, they do interactional acts; discourse is a unit that involves more than a participant; the units of discourse are expressions that can be constituted by verbal entities, intonation, by mimic-gestural and also by silencing; the discursive activity is commanded and regulated. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 35-38 37 3.2 discourse: rules of interaction 3.2.1 the devices in turn taking many authors of ethnomethodological dedicate most of their work to learning curves, especially turn taking; they know that the participants make rules and obey the rules in order to understand when it time to speak or listen to prevent misunderstanding. thereby preventing two phenomena susceptible to harm. the interaction itself: overlapping long speeches and long hiatuses between speeches. 3.2.2 the fixing phenomena fixed error phenomenon is a very common domain in the ethnomethodological study of verbal communications, which distinguishes cases in which mistakes are pointed out and/or corrected by the speakers. their very interesting counterpart is the fact that, initially, the participants showed a preference for the cases in which the people signaled and corrected their mistakes. this preferential organizational phenomenon, however, is more common, as it regulates other interactional devices, as a couple's organization of proximity. 3.2.3 the parts of interactional: the adjacentt pairs ethnomethodology is the adjacentt pairs that form the dialogic units of discursive interaction. the concept of preference is a logical concept, which is connected to what is preferred by the discursive communication society itself. when formulating the first pair and the two pair of adjacent, people. it is important to emphasize the notion of preference rather than ideological, which is related to what the discursive interaction organization likes it. overall, people, when generating preferential intervention, are full without hiatus, hesitation or justification, while when generating non-preferential intervention, do so after a transferable gap. "you know", "um", and the non-preferential act of their intervention. 3.2.4 the involvement strategy involvement is a facilitator of discursive interaction, making the connection and also facilitates the agreement among them. the involvement of discursive is the process responsible for the explanation of expressive states which is a part of esthetic aspects of verbal interaction. the positive effect of involvement is when it contributes to the increase of the relationships among participants and the negative one is when it provoked a disagreement among them. we can differentiate three involvement’s modalities: interpersonal involvement, self-involvement and involvement with which discourse of handling (tannen, 2007). 4. conclusion the approach of ethno methodological observes what people make when communicating or interacting each other by using language resources. ethnomethodology continues to seek to criticize its own viewpoint; to interfere at least as it does in observed phenomena; to fight against a tendency to project the world views of researchers in the observed world. this approach to consist in a perception of the study of discourses contrasting to the discourse analyses that seek to denounce, criticize and identify the discourses of others, once it is a critical attitude of the discourse of the researcher him/herself, in order to make him/her available to become amazed for the inexhaustible wealth of the discursive activity of human beings. moreover, the importance of the ethnomethodologically approach to discourse is to show briefly, about some of the regularities of the discursive activity to find out, its complementary compared to the different modalities of discourse analysis through the description. 5. acknowledgement this research was supported/partially supported by dept. of english education, fkip universitas lancang kuning. we thank our colleagues who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations/conclusions of this paper. references dakowska, m. (2001). psycholingwistyczne podstawy dydaktyki języków obcych. wydawn. nauk. pwn. garfinkel, h. (1996). studies in ethnomethodology. cambridge: polity press hamuddin, b. (2012). a comparative study of politeness strategies in economic journals. doctoral dissertation, university of malaya hamuddin, b. (2015). discourse on media: bringing hot news into elt's classroom discussion. proceedings of iselt fbs universitas negeri padang, 3, 87-95. hamuddin, b., & noor, f. n. m. (2015, august). a closer look on politeness strategies in malaysian economic journal. in 2nd international seminar on linguistics (p. 52). harding, j. (2018). qualitative data analysis: from start to finish. sage publications limited. johnstone, b. (2018). discourse analysis. john wiley & sons. jones, r. h. (2012). discourse analysis: a resource book for students. new york, ny. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 35-38 38 khosravinik, m. (2015). discourse, identity and legitimacy. john benjamins. krippendorff, k. (2018). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. sage publications. lucke, a. (1996). text and discourse analysis. new york: american educational research association. vol. 21:3-17. maxwell, j. a. (2010). essay review of jean anyon's theory and educational research: toward critical social explanation. education review//reseñas educativas. mcgregor, s.l.t. (2010). critical discourse analysis: a primer. halifax. mount saint vincent university morgan, a. (2010). discourse analysis: an overview for the neophyte researcher. journal of health and social care improvement, 1(may), 1-7. okot, m.b. (2007). text and textuality in oral performance. london. sage publications. olson, b. (2007). quantitative “versus” qualitative research: the wrong question. edmonton. university of alberta press. rodrigues. a. d., & braga, a. a. (2014). discourse analysis and ethnomethodological discourse analysis. matrizes, 8(2), 117-134. rogers, r. (2017). critical discourse analysis in education. discourse and education, 41-54. rogers, r., malancharuvil-berkes, e., mosley, m., hui, d., & joseph, g. o. g. (2005). critical discourse analysis in education: a review of the literature. review of educational research, 75(3), 365-416. sari, r., putri, s. e., herdi, h., & hamuddin, b. (2018). bridging critical discourse analysis in media discourse studies. indonesian efl journal, 4(2), 80-89. schiffrin, d., tannen, d. & hamilton, h. e. (2003). the handbook of discourse analysis. malden. oxford: victoria, blackwell publishing stubbs, m. (1983). discourse analysis: the sociolinguistic analysis of natural language (vol. 4). university of chicago press. suppes, p. (1974). the place of theory in educational research. educational researcher, 3(6), 3-10. van dijk, t. a. (2006). ideology and discourse analysis. journal of political ideologies, 11(2), 115-140. wood, l. a., & kroger, r. o. (2000). doing discourse analysis: methods for studying action in talk and text. sage. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 27-30 27 attitude towards language in sociolinguistics settings: a brief overview ahmad amin department of english education, stkip muhammadiyah barru, indonesia ahmadamin093010@gmail.com article history received : 2020-03-04 revised : 2020-03-15 accepted : 2020-04-03 keywords language language attitude language behaviour sociolinguistics abstract the use of language is a form of social interaction that occurs in various situations. social interaction will live from the activity of talking to members of the language users. language is also a means to show self-identity. through language, we can show our viewpoint, our origins and nations, our education level, even our nature. this study uses a sociolinguistic perspective to analyse the language attitude in multilingual society, as it is an interesting phenomenon to study. language behaviour and attitude towards language are the two things that are closely related, which can determine the choice of languages as well as the survival of a language. the study of sociolinguistics is addressing the phenomena of language selection as a discourse in the event of communication and demonstrating the social and cultural identity of the speech participants. community members are constantly changing variations in the use of language. 1. introduction language is one of the human characteristics that differentiate them from another creature. besides, language has a social function, either as a communication device or as a way of identifying the social group. de saussure stated that language is one of the institutions of society, which is same as other community agencies, such as marriage, inheritance, and so on (chaer & agustina, 2004). it has signalled the importance of attention to the social dimension of language. ronald wardhaugh defined language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (mesthrie, swann, deumert, & leap, 2000). the use of language is a form of social interaction that occurs in various situations. language patterns and language skills as well as language behaviours vary in the speech communities (brenzinger, 2017). social interaction will live from the activity of talking to members of the language users. the talk activity will be more successful if it is supported by other factors that also determine, such as attitude and the situation (jabeen, 2011). according to keraf (1997), as a means of communication, language is a formulation channel of our intentions. it produces our feelings and allows us to cooperate with others. it arranges several social activities, plans and directs our future. when we use language to communicate, we already have a specific purpose. we want to be understood by others and we want to convey the idea that can be accepted by others. this interest in language as used in actual contexts of communication has included consideration of the embodied way in which people communicate and gather together (mondada, 2016). language is also a means to show self-identity. through language, we can show our viewpoint, our origins and nations, our education level, even our nature. language reflects ourselves, both as a nation and a self (elyana, 2012). language is considered an important tool for communication as it is capable of affecting many people and their behaviour. however, awareness about the close relationship between language and society just emerged in the middle of this century (hudson, 1985). the linguists began to realise that studying language without associating it with the society would rule out some important and interesting aspects, perhaps even shortened the vision of the discipline of the language itself. language choice is typically born as a result of the use of language in a bilingual or multilingual society (marwa, 2014). in the selection of languages, committing a mistake in choosing a variety of language that fits with the relevant situation of communication cannot easily be avoided. the mistake can cause a loss for the participant of communication. even people with advanced level of native and foreign language can experience difficulties in multicultural contexts (derin, nursafira, yudar, gowasa, & hamuddin, 2020; kondrateva, madakina, sigal, & valeev, 2016). therefore, in this paper, the attitude towards language in sociolinguistics will be investigated. this study is expected to be useful in providing insight into the communication phenomena in the multilingual community. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 27-30 28 2. method this study used a descriptive analysis to explore the language attitude and language behaviour toward language in sociolinguistics perspective which discusses about the linguistics phenomenon as a topic the case of communication and reveals the social and cultural identity of the speaker. the researcher used several references from relevant articles and books to support the discussion further. it will also explain what is implied by attitude toward language and the language; how the relation to language selection. 3. discussion sociolinguistics put the language as part of the social system, communication system, and a part of a certain community and culture. (fatmanuraini, 2011). the use of language is a form of social interaction that occurs in various situations. the social interaction will keep continuing if there is talk activity among the users of the language. sociolinguistics is the study of the language with the social dimension (ferguson, 1999). verhoeven (2017) also added that sociolinguistic skills allow the person to deal with daily language situations. when we learn a language without referring the language to people who use it, that is equal to eliminate the possibility of finding a social explanation for the structure used (downes, 1984). from the sociolinguistic perspective, language attitude in multilingual society is an interesting phenomenon to study, because the attitude towards a language can determine the survival of the language (jabeen, 2011). language is a means to show self-identity that has a social function. mesthrie et al. (2000) stated that language has sometimes been seen as reflecting preexisting social divisions and social values. it may suggest a kind of social determinism: that people speak as they do. alternatively, language has been seen as relatively powerful, constraining its speakers' thoughts and beliefs. according to kridalaksana (2001), to understand with more detail regarding the definition of language, people can be it from two aspects, namely technical aspect and practical aspect. technically, language is a set of meaningful utterance produced by human's vocal organs. meanwhile, language in a practical aspect is a communication tool among the members of society that is a meaningful sound system that the linguistic community uses in their everyday lives. the attitude of the language is a crucial matter in relation to a language (elyana, 2012). it is because the attitude on the language can continue the language life. the topics of language attitudes, however, are not only varieties of language and their speakers, but it may also be both social and psychological problems related to language usage in life (santello, 2013). the following will discuss what is meant by attitude toward language and how the relation to language selection. the word ‘attitude’ can refer to a position of the body, feeling or opinion about something, and action towards a case or incident (dictionary). attitude is a psychological phenomenon, which is usually manifested in the form of action or behaviour (kartomiharjo, 1988). attitudes cannot be observed directly. according to anderson, attitudes can be seen through behaviour, but various studies show that what appears in behaviour does not always show the attitude. likewise, a person's attitude is not always reflected in his behaviour (fatmanuraini, 2011). attitudes are generally characterised along the psychological and behavioural lines. attitudes in other discipline (e.g. social science, cognitive psychology and social studies) have been studied and their character has been defined in various ways, due to the variety of different fields (santello, 2013). behaviour is an essential means for people for externalising knowledge from their psychological structures to their external world (uher, 2016). behaviourists view behaviour as a social, hence observable, which is therefore measurable. thus fasold (1985) describes the attitude's mentalist view as cognitive. mentalists typically describe attitude as a mental response to a particular situation. it may be interpreted at cognitive, experiential and ideational level (halliday, 2005). attitudes play a significant role in defining our view of the environment. they affect our perception of the world around us and decide how we respond to different entities around the world. considering the critical role of attitudes in our lives, it is no surprise to learn that attitude studies have a long history (oppenheim, 1998). various researchers from many different perspectives and dimensions have identified and discussed them. the following sections contain a short overview of these viewpoints. the term attitude was described in various ways and from several angles. the psychology encyclopedia describes the attitude model, based on three factors: affective, behavioural and cognitive, with minor adjustment. therefore, an emotional reaction to specific individuals is a dominant feature of attitude. attitude predicts not only behavioural patterns but also causes specific behavioural manifestations. therefore, one of these manifestations takes the form of culture (speilberger, 2004). language behaviour and attitude towards language are the two things that are closely related, which can determine the choice of languages as well as the survival of a language. . in the same way, appeals to language attitudes as an explanatory factor in change remain a wealth of sociolinguistics studies, which rely heavily on social-psychological theories and context in the development of approaches to interpersonal http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 27-30 29 communication and groups (kasstan, auer & salmons, 2018). language behaviour is the person’s mental attitude in selecting and using language (chaer & agustina, 2004). kartomiharjo (1988) stated that basically, a person is free to choose a language and use it. this freedom is a part of human rights. although a person is free to choose and use language, even more in this globalization era, we still have to realise what was reminded by kamaruddin (1989), in this globalization era we are buffeted by the compelling concept and foreign vocabulary, linguistic tools, code-switching, code-mixing, absorption, and transfer. however, we will not give up on foreign cultural domination. this whole discussion of language, culture and attitudes leads one to believe that pupils have different attitudes towards the teaching of the target language culture. cultural education has gone a long way from a target language to the recent change towards local culture education. this change requires an understanding of the native cultures of learners. this understanding occurs in multi-ethnic courses focused on cultural awareness of basic human rights and recognition (bryam, 2004). in the current situation, these strategies are especially useful when cultural intolerance rises. freeman and freeman (1998) advocate incorporating learners’ culture in the target language teaching as a way to improve learners’ attitude and boost their self-confidence. the voices that rely on the use of local culture are also getting louder. there have been efforts to create new teaching content or to adapt current literature to suit the culture of the learner. language attitude is a person’s mental position towards their own language or other’s language (kridalaksana, 2001). attitude towards language is one’s opinion or perception of a language, whether likes or not on the language, so the attitude influences the selection of the languages (modiano, 2001). lambert in fatmanuraini (2011) stated that the attitude consists of three components, namely cognitive component, affective component, and conative component. the three components will be discussed in detail. the cognitive component related to knowledge and ideas that are used in the process of thinking. affective component concerns the matter of judgment like or dislike about something. conative component concerning the behaviour or acts as a final decision. through this component, people usually try to guess how a person's attitude to the circumstances they faced. these three components generally closely relate to one another. anderson in (fatmanuraini, 2011) divided the attitude into two kinds, namely (1) linguistic attitude and (2) nonlinguistic attitude. linguistic attitude can be categorised into a positive attitude and a negative attitude. a positive attitude is the person's enthusiasm toward the use of language that is used by the society where he or she lives. on the other hands, a negative attitude is disappearance or the weakness of the speakers' enthusiasm in using their own language. non-linguistic attitude covers political attitude, religious attitude, and so on. it is the system of belief or cognition, about language, the object of language, which gives a personal tendency to react in a certain way. non-linguistic attitude also can be positive and negative. garvin dan mathiot in chaer & agustina (2004) suggested that attitude toward language contains three main characteristics, namely: a) language loyalty language loyalty in people's desire to support that language, to preserve the language, even prevent it from the influence of other languages. b) language pride language pride encourages the use of that language to make it as a marker of identity, the symbol of the identity, and unity of the people. c) awareness of the norm it tends to encourage people to use the language carefully and in courtesy. 4. conclusion the attitude of the language is essential in relation to a language because language attitudes can continue the living of a language. attitude toward language is someone's mental attitude or feelings towards the position of their own language or other's languages. the language attitude also can be defined as the opinion or perceptions of a language, whether like or not against the language, so the attitudes influence language selection. the process of attitude formation towards language is not far from the process of attitude formation in general. the attitude consists of three components, namely cognitive component, affective component, and conative component. the attitude can be divided into two kinds, namely linguistic attitude and nonlinguistic attitude. there are two categories of language attitude, positive attitude and negative attitude. attitude toward language contains three main characteristics; those are language loyalty, language pride, and awareness of the norm.linguistic perspective on the attitude towards language is that sociolinguistics views the phenomena of language selection as social facts. thus, the study of sociolinguistics is addressing the phenomena of language selection as a discourse in the event of communication and demonstrating the social and cultural identity of the speech participants. in daily interactions, community members are continually http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 27-30 30 changing variations in the use of language. in a state, applies the use of bilingual, and every individual knows more than one language. in a bilingual or multilingual society, people must choose which languages should be used. references brenzinger, m. 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(2016). challenges of multimodality: language and the body in social interaction. journal of sociolinguistics, 20(3), 336-366. oppenheim, a. n. (2000). questionnaire design, interviewing and attitude measurement. bloomsbury publishing. santello, m. (2015). bilingual idiosyncratic dimensions of language attitudes. international journal of bilingual education and bilingualism, 18(1), 1-25. speilberger, c. d. (ed.). (2004). encyclopedia of applied psychology, 1. san diego: academic press. uher, j. (2016). what is behaviour? and (when) is language behaviour? a metatheoretical definition. journal for the theory of social behaviour, 46(4), 475-501. verhoeven, l. (2017). sociolinguistics and education. the handbook of sociolinguistics, 387-404. wiley: blackwell. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 55-60 55 metaphor and simile in english context: do they know the differences? agnes s. simanjuntak universitas lancang kuning, pekanbaru, indonesia anneagnesiaelviws@gmail.com article history received : 2019-08-03 revised : 2019-08-22 accepted : 2019-08-31 keywords metaphor simile english context differences abstract the present research tries to explore and find out the students understanding on selected metaphor and simile in english context at the sixth semester of english education department in universitas lancang kuning. this descriptive quantitative research involves 38 students as it samples selected from two classes in total. this research was conducted on may, 2019. the instruments used to collect the data were test which consisted of 40 items. the result from the test revealed the understanding on these two topics are fair, metaphor (62,63) and simile (60,92). this data seems showing a clear picture that the students need to improve their knowledge on the differences between metaphor and simile. 1. introduction figurative language is a language that uses figurative words in the form of a single word or phrase that has the meaning of special repetition, arrangement or deletion of words with literal meanings. according to abrams (1981: 63), "figurative language is a deviation from what is understood by speakers of language as ordinary, or standard, significance or sequence of words, to achieve some special meaning". many people speaks using emphasis, expression or clarity. figures of speech portray mental images in words. alphabet not only describes figures figuratively, but numbers also speak or describe figuratively. it stimulates our imagination and fosters our visual and audio sides. in general, figurative language can be divided into 4 groups, namely: confirmation, comparison, opposition, and figures of speech. metaphors are one of the figures that are often used in the context of english. the main key in a metaphor is to use word choices that equate something with something else. in equating or comparing something, the metaphor uses direct comparison without being followed by comparative words like, similar, like ... like, etc. metaphor itself is widely used by the wider community, especially students, perhaps because the use of language is easier to understand. usually, metaphors are used for imaginative ways of describing something by referring to something else that has qualities to express, such as seducing someone we often hear or say statements like "oh, my love is red, rose red." in this statement, we do not interpret in the true sense but based on equality or comparison, red can be interpreted as the same love with roses. film can also attract someone's interest to follow interesting things such as advertisements that we can find on banners or electronic media. the complement of language style also can be finding in song lyrics, poetry, etc. simile is a figurative language or it can also be called a parable that compares 2 different things using conjunctions (such as or as). simile has two theories that needed, first, simile requires a general comparison theory and the two similes require differences. it was explained that there are three types of comparative assessment, namely: comparison of open, closed, simple, and closed variables. the difference between a simile comparison and an ordinary comparison is if the simile uses predictive comparisons (predictions are described as subjects) while the usual comparison uses symmetrical comparisons (subject and prediction as independent units). based on the introduction, the problems of the research were stated as follows: a) how is the students’ understanding on metaphor in english context? b) how is the students’ understanding on simile in english context? 2. method this study conducted a descriptive quantitative study to reveals and seeks for the answers. descriptive design collect information about variables without changing the environment or manipulating any variables, so they do not look at possible cause and effect. according to grove, burns and gray (2013, p, 215), descriptive designs "may be used to develop theory, identify problems with current http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 55-60 56 practice, justify current practice, make judgments or determine what others in similar situations are doing". besides that, arikunto (2013) explained that “that descriptive research has no hypothesis but only described some variable and condition naturally”. so, this research had a purpose to describe students’ understanding on metaphor and simile in english context at the sixth semester students of english education department in universitas lancang kuning, especially to the lecturers’ semantics class. moreover, according to creswell (2003, p. 18), states, quantitative research “employ strategies of inquiry such as experimental and surveys, and collect data on predetermined instruments that yield statistical data”. population of this study were the sixth semester of department of english education at faculty of education and teachers’ training in universitas lancang kuning. these students were selected due to they already taken a semantic class in the last semester. the class of them were just regular by the total students were 38. according to creswell (2005:146), “a sample is a subgroup of the target population that researcher plans to study for generalizing about the target population”. if the population is less than 100 people, the sample can be taken all of the population. the technique took the sample is chosen by total, it means, every number of population will be selected. the online test used as the main instrument in this research. the test consisted of 40 items. google form used to help in gaining the main data to reveals the linguistic phenomenon regarding metaphor and simile. the form of the test was multiple choice. the researcher use based on syllabus of semantics that consists of five choices; excellent, good, fair, poor and failed. the students able to select one of the answers in multiple choice. each choice had score to calculate the data from the test. one question value 2,5. the online test can be seen in this following link http://bit.ly/testmetaphorandsimile. this study will calculated and analyzed the data of the test by using descriptive statistics as in the formulation below: mean (x) = range (j) = xmax – xmin to strengthen of score above, the researcher would be refer to the course grade of students at semantics of department universitas lancang kuning to know the level of students’ understanding on metaphor and simile in english context. the range of score was represented by the table 2.1 below: table 2.1 the grade score of students at semantics no scale level 1 80 – 100 a: excellent 2 70 – 79 b: good 3 60 – 69 c: fair 4 50 – 59 d: poor 5 <49 e: failed 3. findings 3.1 metaphor the researcher had done try out the test for students at the eighth semester of english education department in universitas lancang kuning before doing the exact test to samples of this research. the participant of this try out is 30 students in eighth semester of english education department in universitas lancang kuning may, 20th 2019, consist of 50 questions. this is needed to measure the level of understanding on metaphor and simile in english context. before doing the test, the students in eighth semester of english education department in universitas lancang kuning had learnt the metaphor and simile in semantics major with their lecturer. the researcher tried out the test in order to check the validity and reliability of the test. the students were asked to choose the correct answer for each question. after finished the test, the researcher tabulated the score of the students’ answers to check the validity and reliability by using spss version 22 program. based on the result, the researcher saw that from 50 questions only 48 questions that have been valid. the reliable of the test was 752. it is because the test was valid and reliable. the researcher did test to sixth semester student of english education department in universitas lancang kuning on 27th may, 2019 until 18th june, 2019 to answer the first question in this research, “how is the students’ understanding on metaphor in english context?”. the researcher gave 40 questions to 38 sixth semester students of english education department in universitas lancang kuning. the researcher only gave 40 questions to the students to get the maximum score. the number of metaphor questions was 20 questions. the researcher shared the form of a test in link to the group class of students in semester 6a and 6b, then the researcher gave instructions to them to choose one of the choices they thought was right. the test consists of 2 indicators: sentences about metaphor and sentences about simile. after shared the test, the researcher tabulated and calculated the score of the test. the researcher would like to present the data and descriptive statistics from the data. the researcher used mean and range to http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ http://bit.ly/testmetaphorandsimile journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 55-60 57 calculated the total of students in each scale of the question. the description of the scores that had already been analysed can be seen in the following table. table 3.1 total scores of students mean (x) = = = 62,63 range (j) = xmax – xmin = 100-10 = 90 based on the table 3.1 above, it can be interpreted that the students’ understanding on selected metaphor in english context at sixth semester of english education department in universitas lancang kuning. the understanding of the sixth semester of english education department in universitas lancang kuning can be categorized into fair. based on table 4 above, the table showed that the total of raw score of students was 2380 with the mean was 62,63 and the range of the score was 90 with the higher score was 100 and the lowest score was 10. table 3.2 the classification of students’ understanding on metaphor in english context based on table 3.2, it showed that there were six students who got 100, two students got 95 and one student got 85. it made nine students categorized into excellent. next, there were three students each got 75 and 70. these six students were on good category. next, there were one student who got 55 and two students got 50. it made three student categorized into poor. last, there were one student each got 45, 35 and 10, seven students who got 40 and two students got 30. so that, there were twelve students on failed category. figure 3.1 frequency of the students’ understanding on metaphor from the diagram 1 above, it showed that 9 students were categorized into excellent. there were 6 students were categorized into good. 8 students were categorized into fair. 3 students were categorized into poor. 12 students were in failed category. by considering the students’ average or mean score, the students’ understand on selected metaphor in english context among sixth semester students of english education department in universitas lancang kuning was in fair category. 3.2 simile the researcher did test to sixth semester student of english education department in universitas lancang kuning on 27th may, 2019 until 18th june, 2019 to answer the second question in this research, “how is the students’ understanding on simile in http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 55-60 58 english context?” the researcher gave 40 questions to 38 sixth semester students of english education department in universitas lancang kuning. the researcher only gave 40 questions to the students to get the maximum score. the number of simile questions was 20 questions. the researcher shared the form of a test in link to the group class of students in semester 6a and 6b, then the researcher gave instructions to them to choose one of the choices they thought was right. the test consists of 2 indicators: sentences about metaphor and sentences about simile. after shared the test, the researcher tabulated and calculated the score of the test. the researcher would like to present the data and descriptive statistics from the data. the researcher used mean and range to calculated the total of students in each scale of the question. the description of the scores that had already been analysed can be seen in the following table: table 3.3 total score of similes mean ( x ) = = 60,92 range (j) =xmax – xmin = 95 – 15 = 80 based on the table 4 above, it can be interpreted that the students’ understand on simile in english context at the sixth semester of english education department in universitas lancang kuning. the understanding of the sixth semester of english education department in universitas lancang kuning can be categorized into fair. based on table 6 above, the table showed that the total of raw score of students was 2315 with the mean was 60,92 and the range of the score was 80 with the higher score was 95 and the lowest score was 15. table 3.4 the classification of students’ understanding on simile based on the table 5 above, it showed that there were five students who got 95, four students got 90 and two students each got 85 and 80. it made thirteen students categorized into excellent. next, there were one student who got 70. so, these one student were on good category. beside that, two students who got 65 and five students got 60. it made seven students categorized into fair. next, there were one student got 55 and two students who got 50. so, these three students were on poor category. last, there were four students each got 45 and 35, two students each got 40 and 25 and one student each got 30 and 15. so that, there were twelve students on failed category. figure 3.2 frequency of the students’ understanding on simile from the diagram 2 above, it showed that 13 of the students were categorized into excellent. another 1 students were categorized into good. 7 of the students = http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 55-60 59 were categorized into fair. 3 of the students were categorized into poor and 12 of the students were categorized into failed. by considering the students’ average or mean score, the students’ understand on selected simile in english context at the sixth semester students of english education department in universitas lancang kuning was in fair category. 4. findings based on the type of cross-sectional survey research designs, the findings of this research has importance to give information or an input such as evaluation for the lectures in teaching semantics especially metaphor and simile. by knowing these errors, the lecturer can use the effective and efficient ways to work on eliminating the students’ understanding on metaphor and simile. the findings of this research are hoped to increase the students’ achievement in learning semantics especially in using metaphor and simile. the findings of this research can be seen that the mean score of the students’ understanding on metaphor was 62,63 and simile was 60,92. in other words, the students’ understanding on metaphor and simile was categorized into fair. in short, this research purposes to give the additional evaluation for the semantics’ lecturer in teaching metaphor and simile at universitas lancang kuning. after all discussion above, what make this research different with all related finding is in accordance with the data analysis done during this research, the researcher found that the students’ understanding on metaphor and simile in english context was categorized into fair, willingness revealed together here was that students fulfilled taking test data. need to add samples to get accurate data one thing that can be exposed together here is students willingness in fulfilling their taking test data. 5. conclusion this study analysis seen that the the students’ understanding on metaphor and simile was categorized into fair. the data reveals the mean score of the students’ understanding on metaphor was 62,63 and simile was 60,92. with this findings the study concluded that that the students’ understanding on metaphor and simile in english context need to be improved. 6. acknowledgement the writers give their gratitude to anonymous reviewers and colleague who assisted immensely in the production of this research article, especially for their feedback and critic. references arikunto. (2013). prosedur penelitian: suatu pendekatan praktik. jakarta: rineka cipata. brown, f. b. (2018). transfiguration: poetic metaphor and the languages of religious belief. unc press books. creswell, w. jhon. (2003). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. creswell, w. jhon. (2005). educational research planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. second edition. new york: university of nebraskalincoln. delfino, m., & manca, s. (2007). the expression of social presence through the use of figurative language in a web-based learning environment. computers in human behavior, 23(5), 21902211. gibbs rw (1994). the poetics of mind. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. grove, s. k., burns, n., & gray, j. r. 2013. the practice of nursing research: appraisal, synthesis, and generation of evidence. st. louis, mo: elsevier saunders. honeck, r. p., & hoffman, r. r. (eds.). (2018). cognition and figurative language. routledge. lodge, d. (2015). the modes of modern writing: metaphor, metonymy, and the typology of modern literature. bloomsbury publishing. métraux, j. c., & furtos, j. (2011). la migration comme métaphore. la dispute. mio, j. s. (2018). metaphor, politics, and persuasion. in metaphor (pp. 127-146). psychology press. ortony a (1993). metaphor and thought. (2nd ed.). new york: cambridge university press. pollio, h. r. (2018). boundaries in humor and metaphor. in metaphor (pp. 231-253). psychology press. radman, z. (ed.). (2015). from a metaphorical point of view: a multidisciplinary approach to the cognitive content of metaphor (vol. 7). walter de gruyter gmbh & co kg. ricoeur, p. (2004). the rule of metaphor. the creation of meaning in language. routledge, london and new york. sörensen, k. (2015). metaheuristics—the metaphor exposed. international transactions in operational research, 22(1), 3-18. steen, g. (2015). developing, testing and interpreting deliberate metaphor theory. journal of pragmatics, 90, 67-72. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 55-60 60 wałaszewska, e., (2013). like in similes–are levance–theoretic view. res. lang. 11(3),323334. yan xu. (2015). implication of metaphor in language teaching. international conference on arts, design and contemporary education (icadce) yeibo, e. (2012). figurative language and stylistic function in jp clark-bekederemo's poetry. journal of language teaching & research, 3(1). http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 14-18 14 exploring local wisdom in buginese ethnics: language politeness phenomena of tau soppeng fiptar abdi alam 1 and al-muthmainnah al-muthmainnah 2 1 guidance and counseling study program, stkip muhammadiyah barru, indonesia, 28265 2 english education study program, stkip dampal selatan, indonesia fiftar.alam@stkipmb.ac.id article history received : 2020-03-06 revised : 2020-03-15 accepted : 2020-04-20 keywords local wisdom politeness linguistic politeness abstract the objectives of this research are to explore and to reveal the forms and the characteristics of linguistic politeness, politeness strategies, and the realization of local wisdom found among soppengese (tau soppeng), one particular people of buginese ethnics. this research applied ethnolinguistics viewed from pragmatics, semiotics, and politeness theories. to capture the data, this study used purposive sampling and snowball among native in soppeng regency which agrees to be a part of this study. the method used is the method of listening with free engaged, recording, documentation, elicitation technique, and interview. the results of this research show the characteristics and the forms of linguistic politeness through marked morphemes, prefix (ta), suffix pronouns (ta, ki, ni), honorific vocabularies (pung, andi, daeng), lexemes (iye, tabe, taddampengenga), maxims of politeness principles (generosity, approbation, modesty, sympathy), and four strategies of linguistic politeness (bald on record, positive, negative, off-record strategy). in addition, this study also found the realisation and the implication of local wisdom as a primary value such as ethics and language politeness, self-image, courage, solidarity, and cooperation. 1. introduction politeness behaviour is very closely related to the culture and language of an ethnic group. both cannot be separated between one another. according to fromkin, rodman, & hyams (2003), language is a reflection of culture. otherwise, culture is a value, a principle that can the truth is believed in the speakers of a language, and can be a guide in interacting and communicating. one of the ethnic cultures in indonesia is the soppeng buginese community. there is no doubt that the indonesian nation consisting of various ethnicity in this archipelago is rich in values noble personality as a value inheritance past culture. abdulrahman (2007) stated that the accumulation of these noble values symbolizes and can strengthen the identity of the indonesian people, as a multilingual country, and has a polite and highly civilized society. this legacy of noble values strengthens the brotherhood of indonesia, which is multi-ethnic. however, in this era of openness and reform, the linguistic politeness of indonesian tends to decline. that matter considered in the bugis community, including soppeng buginese. starting from that reality, this form of politeness in the language needs to be studied more in-depth and comprehensive, so that can be a material for character formation based on local wisdom. this effort is expected can trigger the strengthening of identity again and language manners, especially in the bugis community based on the culture they have. the focus of this research study are: (1) the characteristics of the form of linguistic politeness in soppeng buginese society, (2) the forms of politeness strategy represented by soppeng buginese community in interacting based on communication and situation context, (3) principle realization of local wisdom value on politeness strategies of soppeng buginese society. watts (2003) reveals that the word 'polite' comes from the english word, which is equivalent to the latin politus means smooth (polish). whereas according to cumming (2005), politeness is selfcontrol and social control. the characteristic of a person's polite behaviour is equivalent to social accuracy, or acceptance of behaviour in social interactions context. in bugis language, politeness is called pangadereng or ampe madeceng (abdulrahman, 2007). studying the phenomena of the buginese in term of the linguistic politeness is inseparable from the review of the meaning of speech related to events and speech situation, and interpretation of meaning associated with cultural norms and principles. journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 14-18 15 therefore, in this research, the meaning of siri’ culture and the cultural meaning of 3s (sipakatau = glorify each other, sipakaraja = respect each other sipakainge’ = remind each other) are seen as central values in the buginese society. in his research, achmad (2012) found that the politeness strategies applied in buginese society communication have implications for the principle of the cultural value of siri’ in the buginese community. the realization of politeness is manifested in the cultural values of sipatangngari = deliberation, sipakaraja = mutual respect, sipaku = mutual glorify (3s) on the language behaviour of buginese people. lakoff (1973) proposed a formula of linguistic politeness by basing self on pragmatic competence through two elements, namely 'be clear' and 'be polite'. firstly, the element of 'be clear' is based on the cooperation principle, which covers: a) quantity maxim: giving sufficient information as needed b) quality maxim: saying what is believed right c) relevant maxim: information conveyed is relevant d) manner maxim: not contain imprecise information secondly, the element of „be polite‟ covers: a) not impose to the interlocutor b) giving option c) showing hospitality and familiarity leech (1983) formulated the principle of politeness by focusing more on pragmatics. in his theory, two pragmatic systems are known, namely text rhetoric and interpersonal rhetoric. text rhetoric refers to the clarity principle, economy principle, and expressivity principle. while interpersonal rhetoric refers to interpersonal relationships between speech participants. in this theory, leech formulated the maxims which are aimed at the speech partners, namely tact maxim, generosity maxim, approbation maxim, agreement maxim, and sympathy maxim. the basic idea of tact maxim is that each participant must benefit themselves and maximize the advantages of others. commanding with an interrogative sentence is considered more polite than using the command line, for example, "could i interrupt you for a half-second – what was the website address?" in generosity maxim, the speakers said an utterance that minimizes profit for self. for example, “let me wash your clothes too. i have the same thing to be washed, really.” this utterance is considered polite because it minimizes the benefit for the speaker. approbation maxim is expressed by minimizing the expression of dispraise of others. a person will be considered polite if the person maximizes praise to others or the hearer. for example, "i heard your english just now; your pronunciation is very good”. modesty maxim is self-centred. this maxim means maximizing dispraise of self. for example, "i don't think i will do it well. i am still learning". this utterance is considered polite because the speaker maximizes dispraise of self. agreement maxim is emphasized that the speaker is able to develop an agreement to the speech partners. for example, "good idea, i will wait for you at the restaurant". this conversation shows that the speaker is able to build their agreement so that they will be polite to each other. in sympathy maxim, it is expected that the participant can maximize sympathy among people. antipathy toward others will be considered as impoliteness. for example, "i take pity on hearing you didn't pass the exam." studies on politeness based on leech‟s theory have been carried out by several researchers. one of the studies was carried out by eshghinejad & moini (2016) to investigate the politeness principles used in text messaging between teacher and efl students. they found that teachers used politeness principles in text messaging. results of that study also showed no significant difference between male and female efl learners in applying politeness principles in communication. another study was conducted by haryanto, weda, & nashruddin (2018). they researched to find out the politeness principles used by efl teachers during the classroom interaction, and the implication of politeness principles toward the teaching-learning process. the result of the study showed that the politeness principle creates togetherness between the teacher and the students, builds respect behaviour of the students, and creates cooperating interaction between the teacher and the students. lakoff‟s theory and leech's theory were then perfected by brown & levinson (1987). the core of the theory is to save the face of the interlocutor (facethreatening act). the speaker selects the utterances based on three social factors, namely social relations, the strength of symmetric relationships, and the scale of emphasis level. furthermore, brown & levinson (1987), in their analysis, stated that politeness involves people showing an awareness of other people's face wants. face refers to our public selfimage. brown and levinson formulated the politeness principles into five strategies, namely bald on record strategy, positive politeness strategy, negative politeness strategy, off-record strategy, and do not do the fta. moreover, research on politeness based on the theory of brown & levinson had been conducted by sulu (2015), who investigated an interaction between english learners and a native englishspeaking teacher. therefore, the study aims to see whether the effects of politeness strategies differ when students and teacher do not share the same culture and native journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 14-18 16 language. the researcher observed and tape-recorded two hours of classes. the research findings show that politeness exists in that efl classroom helps students to have positive feelings towards the lesson and motivates them to participate more in classes. nevertheless, according to mattulada (1997), the cultural practitioners view that the indonesian nation, which consists of various ethnicity is rich in values of noble personality as a value of the past inheritance. in bugis ethnic culture, the phenomenon of linguistic politeness can be observed comprehensively through the meaning of siri' culture. the great value is elaborated in three cultural subsystems, namely sipakatau, sipakaraja, sipakainge’. 2. method this research is located in soppeng regency, with the characteristic population of the bugis language of soppeng community in daily communication interaction. sample of this research includes discourse data or speech-language that has been obtained and the results of interviews about realization and value implications of cultural meanings. in collecting data, the techniques used were purposive sampling and snowball. the method used is the method of listening with free engaged, recording, documentation, elicitation technique, and interview. the data analysis technique used was componential utterance (brown & yule, 1983) that is investigating the interpretive meaning (pragmatic) and the value of utterances based on context and situation in terms of social semiotic aspects. 3. findings 3.1 the characteristics of the form of linguistic politeness among to soppeng the forms and the markers of linguistic politeness in soppeng buginese were found in two levels, namely morphology level and syntax level. in the level of morphology, it can pay close attention to the speech with the topic "ordering". ta-pattama-ni motorok-ta ko ilaleng bola-e (1) (just put your motorcycle in the house) pattama-ni motorok-mu ko ilaleng bola-e (2) (just put your motorcycle in the house) the utterances “ta-pattama-ni” (1), and “pattamani” (2), have the same meaning, namely “just put in”. the difference is that “ta-pattama-ni” begins with morpheme /ta/ = you, which is imperative as a form of linguistic politeness in the bugis language. in the other hand, "pattama-ni” without morpheme /ta/, this shows a less impolite linguistic formula. similarly, it can be observed on the use of enclitic morpheme /ta/ in “motorok-ta” (1) = your motorcycle, which is a sign of politeness. in number (2), the enclitic morpheme /mu/ in “motorok-mu” seems impolite. thus, these two morphemes can be a formula hint of linguistic politeness in buginese. the same case is found in the following utterances. aleng-a yatu colok-e, loka mattunu (3) (give me the lighter, i want to burn) taleng-a yatu colok-e, loka mattunu (4) (give me the lighter, i want to burn) another feature of the marker of linguistic politeness in buginese is the use of /iye/ in initiating an utterance. iye matei gare kasi’ di! nappa toi uwisseng (5) (pity, i hear that he's dead! i also just found out) the use of morpheme /iye/ is the realization of the cultural value of respects each other (sipakaraja). another similar example is the use of words tabe‟, and taddampengenga, which mean excuse me, and forgive me. for example, in an utterance: taddampengenga uwak, engkaro palopekku ri seddeta (6) (i'm sorry, uncle, that‟s my pen beside you) the use of morpho-phonemic /ki/ in “leppakki” from the basic word “leppang” is a marker of politeness in bugis language. if /ki/ is substituted with /ko/ becomes “leppako”, the formulation is not polite when addressed to people who are valued. leppakki and leppakko have the same meaning, namely “come on drop by”, but “leppakki” is polite utterance, while “leppakko” is impolite. in the syntactic level, the marker of linguistic politeness can be observed in an example as follows: bosi ladde’si maka cekke i-sedding, colok-mi utiwi (7) (heavy rain again, very cold, i only brought a match) taddampenge-nga daeng, de gaga tole u-tiwi. (8) (i'm sorry, brother, i don‟t bring cigarettes) pragmatically, the meaning of the expression (7) is to ask for cigarettes. the listener can understand the meaning of the utterance. then he said that he also didn't carry cigarettes (8). the form and features of linguistic formulas can be in terms of the bugis language phenomenon based on distance and social status, influence the phenomena of speech variation. oppana nappammula acara-e ro pammu? (9) (when will the event begin, pammu?) journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 14-18 17 iye, de to gaga padisenge-ku pung,kade oppannapi (10) (i also don't know when it will start, sir) from the discourse above, it is known that the speaker of (10) has a higher status than the speaker of (9). the linguistic formula in the utterance (9) is very official, using off-record strategy, or indirectly, and also use lexemes that indicate courtesy of acceptable language, namely: iye and pung. 3.2 the forms of politeness strategy represented by buginese community firstly, tact maxim that each participant said to maximize the profits of others. it can be seen in the examples (1), (4), (6), and (10). another example: iye ta-alani-mai pangelli bale-na (11) (please take money to buy fish) the second is the generosity maxim. the indicators of this maxim are expressive and assertive. the expressive utterance has an expressing function or notifies attitude a psychological, tangible statement illocution is like saying thank, praise, and express condolences. assertive speech involves the speaker at the truth of propositions expressed, for example, stating, complaining, suggest, and report, and so on. it can be listened to the following discourse: sukkuru ladde-ka apa engka-ki kasih (12) (i am very grateful because you came) iye, majjappa-jappa-ki amaure (13) (wish you always be healthy, uncle) the discourse above shows cooperation in addition to using lexeme /iye/, and enclitic pronoun /ta/. 3.3 local wisdom’s principle value paying attention to the context of realization and implications of the concept of siri‟ and the subsystems (3s), the values of these cultural principles are stated in 6 basic principles, namely: a) strengthening identity b) courage and self-image c) maintaining human dignity, existence and existence d) politeness and ethics in social interaction e) solidarity and cooperation f) the principle of honesty, responsibility, responsibility, and accountability these have an impact in the realization of the conception of fundamental values, namely the formation of values such as the value of determination, namely motivation and outlook life, the value of courage, which is value emotional temperament in maintaining pride, solidarity value, that is the value of mutual cooperation, and the value of politeness language, language skills based on buginese ethnic cultures. 4. conclusion from the results of research and discussion, researchers conclude that the first is relating to linguistic formulas, it was found in politeness markers of soppeng buginese were very varied. the forms and the markers of linguistic politeness in soppeng buginese were found in two levels, namely morphology level and syntax level. soppeng buginese linguistic politeness can be reflected based on values of siri‟ and 3s as central values, through the creation of variations or variations speech as a politeness strategy, which is influenced by factors of speech participant status, situation and context. realization of soppeng buginese linguistic politeness associated with pragmatics found in some maxims: tact maxim, generosity maxim, and modesty maxim. found on four the strategies: bald on record, positive politeness, negative politeness, off-record. the implication of local wisdom as a primary value such as ethics and language politeness, self-image, courage, solidarity, and cooperation. references abdulrahman. (2007). pelestarian kearifan lokal melalui pewarisan bahasa bugis. paper presented at the kongres internasional bahasabahasa daerah sulawesi selatan, makassar. achmad, s. (2012). strategi kesopanan berbahasa masyarakat bugis pinrang provinsi sulawesi selatan. bahasa dan seni: jurnal bahasa, sastra, seni, dan pengajarannya, 40(1). brown, & yule, g. (1983). discourse analysis. cambridge: cambridge university press. brown, p., levinson, s. c., & levinson, s. c. (1987). politeness: some universals in language usage (vol. 4). cambridge university press. cumming, l. (2005). pragmatics: a multidisciplinariy perspective. edinburgh: hewer text ltd. . eshghinejad, s., & moini, m. r. (2016). politeness strategies used in text messaging: pragmatic competence in an asymmetrical power relation of teacher–student. sage open, 6(1), 2158244016632288. fromkin, v., rodman, r., & hyams, n. (2003). an introduction to language. usa: michael rosenberg. haryanto, h., weda, s., & nashruddin, n. (2018). politeness principle and its implication in efl classroom in indonesia. xlinguage" european scientific language journal", 11(4), 90-112. journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 14-18 18 lakoff, r. (1973). the logic of politeness; or minding your ps and qs papers from the 9th regional meeting of the chicago linguistic society. chicago: chicago linguistic society, 292-305. leech, g. n. (1983). semantics 3: speech act. new york: academic principles of pragmatics. mattulada. (1997). kebudayaan bugis makassar. in koentjaraningrat (ed.), dalam manusia dan kebudayaan di indonesia. jakarta: djembatan. sulu, a. (2015). teacher‟s politeness in efl class. intenational online journal of education and teaching, 2(4), 216-221.. watts, r. j. (2003). politeness. cambridge university press. instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 89-93 89 applying possessive pronoun in writing sentences: exploring students’ ability and problems in a mixed method study syahdan syahdan 1 and eka utami putri 2 1, 2 universitas lancang kuning, pekanbaru, indonesia amyeka.black87@gmail.com , 28265 tel/fax: +6276 article history received : 2019-12-21 revised : 2019-12-21 accepted : 2019-12-29 keywords possessive pronoun writing mixed method ability problems abstract the purpose of this research was to find out the students' ability in applying possessive pronoun in writing sentences and the problems encounter it. this mixed method study employs an explanatory design to reveals it. 53 students out of 105 students from the first semester efl students from one reputable university in pekanbaru, indonesia, were invited to this study. these 53 students were selected using simple random sampling and enrolled for an essay test and interview to see the students' ability and explaining the problems. the data analysis using spss showed that the average score of students was 52.98. meanwhile for the median is 48, the mode is 20. the score of standard deviation is 27.93, variance is 780.25, and range is 84. z-score was found 41.5%, which is means higher than average and 58.5% while, students' ability was indicated below the average. it showed that the students were low ability in applying possessive pronoun in writing sentences. the study also found the common problems, i.e., (1) students still mixed up between possessive pronoun and possessive adjectives. (2) students used the wrong pattern in using a possessive pronoun. (3) students did not understand clearly about a possessive pronoun, (4) experiencing difficulties in learning possessive pronoun. 1. introduction grammar is an important aspect of english. even though grammar is not one of the skills in english but grammar determines the quality of skills produced. grammar is useful in writing aspect because grammar helps in constructing a good sentence. another reason is grammar makes the writing easily understood by the audience, in this case, the reader. therefore, the knowledge regarding how to construct sentences include grammar itself. furthermore, grammar has also some function in writing. the function of grammar is to organize the sentence pattern so the writer can get the emotions expected to express. grammar itself is a study on how to organize words becoming a sentence with meanings. one of the materials in grammar is personal pronoun. a personal pronoun is to substitute for a noun. the personal pronoun can be classified into subject pronoun, object pronoun, possessive adjectives, and possessive pronouns. there are some functions in using possessive pronoun. as explained before, possessive pronoun is a substitution for a noun in subject or object. one of the functions of using possessive pronoun is efficiency. the efficiency of possessive pronoun in a sentence is to avoid repetition. there is an indication in writing possessive pronouns that students are mixed up between possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns. another thing is in choosing whether it uses possessive adjective or possessive pronouns. dealing with this research, the researcher used a mixed method. a mixed method is a combination of two designs; quantitative and qualitative. the reason for choosing mixed method because the researcher interested to identify the ability and the students’ common problem in applying possessive pronoun. 1.1 sentences based on baskaran (2005:83) sentences can be categorized according to their communicative function or according to their structural components. it is mean each kind of sentence will have a communicative purpose. each sentence has a different function depending on the meaning behind it. sentences have a different meaning in each part of it. the meaning of the sentences is various in every single part. the sentences always have different purpose for each topic. so, sentences are a tool for communication that brings different meaning in every part. 1.2 grammar according to thornburry (2000:1), grammar is partly the study of what forms (or structures) are possible in a language. this can be interpreting that grammar is a study that learns how to construct a form in a possible language. this also means that grammar is important to make the sentence have meaning and understandable. the construction or forms is helping to make a http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 89-93 90 meaningful sentence. furthermore, baskaran (2005:58) said that the word “grammar” in linguistic can be taken to mean the entire system of describing the structure of a language from its sounds system to its meaning system or just the organization (form) of words (morphology) and arrangement of these words into sentences (syntax). it can be concluded that grammar is an organized pattern from words and arrange it into sentences that have meaning. baskaran (2005:58) stated there are four identifiable kinds of grammar, theoretical grammar, descriptive grammar, pedagogic grammar, prescriptive grammar. moreover, grammar itself is an important pattern in english. the language structure in english is coming from grammar. grammar is arranging the pattern from words until becoming a sentence. grammar plays an important role to make sentence understandable. grammar constructions make the structure become meaningful. so, grammar is a part of english that study the pattern and structure of a sentence. 1.3 pronoun pronoun is a word that used to refer to someone or something. the most common pronouns are the personal pronouns, which refer to the person or people speaking or writing (first person), the person or people being spoken to (second person), or other people or things (third person). frank (1972) “classifies pronouns into seven types. they are personal, interrogative, relative, demonstrative, reflexive, indefinite, and expletive.”. according to payne (2011:122), pronouns are referring expressions that can be thought as abbreviated versions of a determined noun phrase. this means pronouns are part of a noun phrase. as explains above, pronouns also can be directed expression. pronouns itself is an important material to determine part in a noun phrase. based on rozakis (2003:3), pronouns are a word used in place of a noun or another pronoun. it can be interpreted that pronouns can be a replacement. pronouns itself is a changing word to a noun. pronouns also can change or replacing another pronoun. leech and svartvik (2003:253) also stated that pronouns are words which can function as a whole noun phrase (e.g. in being subject or object of a clause) or as the head of a noun phrase. based on the expert above, pronouns can act as a phrase or main phrase. pronouns also can be a subject of a phrase or sentence and also an object of a phrase or sentence. it is also can stand alone in one phrase or act as the main phrase. in addition, quirk et al. (1985:335) state that pronouns are several characteristics, most of which are absent from a noun. pronouns are used as a substitution for a noun. pronouns itself is considering as an important part in writing a sentence. further, pronouns are an expression that used for a noun. pronoun itself can be a substitute or replacement for a noun or another pronoun in the sentence. pronouns also can be subject or object in a sentence. so, a pronoun is an expression to substitute the noun. 1.3.1 personal pronoun based on danesi (2006:77) personal pronoun is classified according to the person(s); the person speaking (first person); the person spoken to (second person); anyone or anything else (third person). personal pronoun is a part of pronoun that usually substitutes the subject or object in a sentence. rozakis (2003:10) also stated that personal pronoun refers to a specific person, place, object, or thing. it can be concluded that personal pronoun can refer to anything. it should not be just a person; it can be a place, object, or things. that's the reason why personal pronoun still has subcategory to explain the substitute for subject and objects. personal pronoun is a part of pronoun. personal pronoun is including many things to substitute a noun. personal pronoun can substitute place, item, and person. personal pronoun is also including possession of an item. 1.3.2 possessive pronoun based on macfayden, a possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. in other word, a possessive pronoun is substituting an object or subject of possession. possessive pronoun is a pronoun that used for marks a possession. possessive pronoun also explains the owner of the object or person. possessive pronouns are in a different state with possessive adjectives. possessive pronoun is not followed by a noun after the word. the possessive pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its," "ours," and "theirs”. 2. method the research was conducted with mixed methods research. creswell (2005: 510) stated that mixed method research is a procedure for collecting analyzing, and “mixing” both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study to understand a research problem. the researcher took explanatory research for this mixed method research. according to creswell (2005: 515), an explanatory design (also called a two-phase model) consists of first collecting quantitative data and then collecting qualitative data to help explain or elaborate on the quantitative results. it can be explained that the researcher collected the quantitative data first and follow up with qualitative data to build a stronger result. the research was conducted at the faculty of education and teachers training lancang kuning university in jl. yos sudarso rumbai. the research conducted in january 2016. the population for this research was the 1st-semester fkip unilak pekanbaru. as for the sample of this research was http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 89-93 91 simple random sampling. it means all of the students in the first semester had the same chances to be chosen as sampling. it was chosen by lottery. as for the number of samples, the researcher uses saleh (2008) table like below: table 2.1 sample based on saleh (2008) population sample <100 50% 101-500 30%-50% 501-1000 20%-30% <1000 15%-20% the population for this research is 105 students; the sample was 50% of the population. in other words, there were 53 students for the sample. there were two instruments of this research. the first one was tested. the test has been used to collect quantitative data. the second one was an interview. the interview was used to collect qualitative data. the qualitative data was used to support the result of quantitative data. the quantitative data for this instrument was tested. the test was the first instrument that researcher does in this research. the test is one of the instruments in quantitative data to answer the first research question in this research. the purpose of this test is to analyze the statistic of student ability in applying possessive pronoun. the researcher provided the students with an essay question related to possessive pronoun. the researcher asked the students to make a sentence that including possessive pronoun in it. there were 25 sentences, and each possessive pronoun has 4 items. each of the questions scored 4 points to analyze the quantitative data, and this present study applied descriptive analysis as presented at the following diagram: figure 2.1 descriptive statistics this instrument used to support the result of this research from the quantitative data. it was also to answer the second research question. an interview was an instrument that asks of some question to the students that has a function to collect the information from participants. based on creswell (205:214), a qualitative interview occurs when the researcher asks one or more participants general, open-ended questions and record their answer. the interview allows the participant to answer the question in his own words. for this research, the researcher conducted a focus group interview. focus group interview was used to collect the sharing data from some individual. according to creswell (2005:215) focus group interview is the process of collecting data through interviews with a group of people, typically four to six. it means that a focus group interview was an interview with a group consisting of four to six people and only one person that represent the others. furthermore, the next step was to display the data for explanatory data analysis. the data received from the test were analyzed by descriptive statistics. the descriptive analysis result has used to answer the first formulation of the research. for the second formulation of the research, the researcher conducted an interview to ask them about their common problem in applying possessive pronoun. the data from the interview was used to support the result from the descriptive analysis result. the last, the researcher describe both the descriptive analysis result and also the student’s common problem in applying possessive pronoun. 3. findings the researcher did the test to all of the first semesters in lancang kuning university on january 7th 2016 to find out students ability in applying possessive pronoun in writing sentences. the test was given to answer the first question in this research. the first question is “how is students’ ability in applying possessive pronoun in writing sentences at the 1st semester lancang kuning university?" in order to answer this question, the researcher gave an essay question to the sample of this research. the test consists of 25 numbers. 3.1 the ability in applying possessive pronoun according to the descriptive statistics data from the research, the finding for the whole participants (53 students) concluded that the ability of the firstsemester student in applying possessive pronoun is low. it was supported by the result of the test and in accordance with the interview. based on the presentation of data analyzing above, the finding of this research led me to infer that the students' ability in applying possessive pronoun was categorized into low. the data gained was analyzed by using descriptive statistics to find the sum, mode, median, mean, variance, standard deviation, range, z-score, and percentile rank. the sum used to find the calculation of the student's raw score. the total scores of students’ ability in applying possessive pronoun are 2808. the mode is used to find out the score that occurs the most. the mode of the student's score is 20. the median is the middle score among all of the score. descriptive statistics relative standing variability central tendency z-score percentile ranks variance standard deviation range mode mean median http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 89-93 92 median scores were got when the score is rank from top to bottom and divide it into two. the median of the score is 48. the variance indicates the dispersion of scores around them. the variance of the student's score is 780, 25. this information is a useful number when calculating the statistics to make it more advances. the standard deviation is used to look on it as an indicator of dispersion or spread of the scores. the standard deviation is 27, 93. the lower standard deviation from the mean, the smaller variant of the score will be. it means that the students’ ability is homogeneous. the range of the score is the difference between the lowest and highest scores. furthermore, the highest scores are 100, and the lowest score is 16, a range of 84 points. a percentile rank of a particular score is the percentage of participants in the distribution with scores at or below the score. it was used to determine where in a distribution of scores an individual's scores lie in comparison with other scores. to describing the percentile rank of this research, it can be seen that the highest percentile rank 100% occurs in the score 100, the second percentile rank 84, 8% occurs in the score 96, and the third 86, 9% occurs in the score 84. the data also reveals z-score is the score was zero. zero categories as average. 41, 5% of students were higher than average. 58, 5% of students were lower than average. it can be described that most of the student's ability still below average for applying possessive pronoun in writing sentences. the mean used to describe the score from the entire sample. a mean is a total score divided by the number of samples. the mean gives us the average of the score. the mean is 52, 98. it can be concluded that the students' ability in applying possessive pronoun is low. 3.2 the students’ common problems based on data from the test and supported by the interview, it can be categorized into two groups namely; first, the students' common problem in applying possessive pronoun from the test such as students still mixed up between possessive pronoun and possessive adjectives, students use the wrong pattern in using possessive pronoun, students still use subject or object pronoun. second, the students' common problem in applying possessive pronoun from the interview such as students did not understand clearly about possessive pronoun, students have difficulties in learning possessive pronoun, students rarely review the lesson about possessive pronoun at home, and students often use possessive pronoun in daily activities. 4. conclusion based on the presentation of data analyzing above, the finding of this research led me to infer that the students' ability in applying possessive pronoun was categorized into low ability. while, the students' common problem in applying possessive pronoun from the test such as students still mixed up between possessive pronoun and possessive adjectives, students use the wrong pattern in using possessive pronoun, students still use subject or object pronoun. second, the students' common problem in applying possessive pronoun from the interview such as students did not understand clearly about possessive pronoun, students have difficulties in learning possessive pronoun, students rarely review the lesson about possessive pronoun at home, and students often use possessive pronoun in daily activities. 5. acknowledgement this research was partially supported by kumon pekanbaru. we thank our colleagues from applied linguistic center fkip unilak who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations of this paper. references abbas, m. f. f., & herdi, h. (2018). investigating efl learners’ ability in generating, organizing, and elaborating ideas in an argumentative essay. j-shmic: journal of english for academic, 5(2), 39-47. baskaran, l. m. (2005). a malaysian english primer: aspects of malaysian english features. university of malaya press. brown, h. d. (2007). principles of language learning and teaching fifth edition. white plains, ny: pearson education. clark, v. l. p., & creswell, j. w. (2005). student study guide to accompany creswell's educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. merrill. danesi, m. (2006). basic american grammar and usage: an esl/efl handbook. barron's educational series. firdausi, d. h. (2014). an analysis on students' errors in using personal pronouns. handayani, r., ihsan, d., & mirizon, s. (2019). interlanguage analysis of syntactic and diction errors found in theses written by magister students. international journal of indonesian education and teaching (ijiet), 3(1), 102-116. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 89-93 93 herlinawati, h. (2014). feedback in english writing for indonesian efl students. elt-lectura, 1(1). hyland, k. (2018). metadiscourse: exploring interaction in writing. bloomsbury publishing. leech, g. n., leech, g., & svartvik, j. (2002). a communicative grammar of english. pearson education. macfayden, heather. the parts of speech. uottawa. retrieved on december 20th (2015) from http://arts.uottawa.ca/writingcentre/en/hypergr ammar/the-parts-of-speech mcarthur, t., lam-mcarthur, j., & fontaine, l. (eds.). (2018). oxford companion to the english language. oxford university press. nurhasadah. (2014). an analysis on students error in using personal pronoun. uin syarif hidayatullah. jakarta payne, t. e., & payne, t. e. (2011). understanding english grammar: a linguistic introduction. cambridge university press. popal, m. (2018). the effectiveness of recasts in improving the understanding of english possessive pronouns. prambandarie, i. a. (2008). an analysis of primary school students ability to use personal pronoun. university of sumatra utara. medan quirk et al. (1985). a comprehensive grammar of the english langauge. ny: longman, inc. rozakis, a. (2003). english grammar for the utterly confused. mcgraw-hill.thornbury, s. (2000). how to teach grammar. england: pearson esl. wijayanto, a. (2013). error analysis in the use of personal pronouns made by eleventh graders in writing. retain, 1(3). winarni, a. f. (2011). improving students' ability in using personal pronoun through contextual teaching learning. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ http://arts.uottawa.ca/writingcentre/en/hypergrammar/the-parts-of-speech http://arts.uottawa.ca/writingcentre/en/hypergrammar/the-parts-of-speech instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 68-72 68 levels of affixation in the acquisition of english morphology: a review of selected paper sikin nuratika 1, nilam cahaya fitri yanti 2, ester mayer 3 1 balai bahasa provinsi riau, indonesia 2 sma negeri 13 pekanbaru, indonesia 3 sma cendana rumbai, pekanbaru, indonesia sikin.nuratika17@gmail.com article history received : 2019-06-29 revised : 2019-08-25 accepted : 2019-08-31 keywords word formation productivity constraints affixation morphology abstract in considering word formation in language development, there appear to be two central issues which can broadly be characterized as questions relating to (i) productivity, and (ii) constraints. this paper reviews one of the renowned articles which involving the theory of level-ordering that has three levels within the lexicon, children, recognize high-frequency words than low-frequency words written by peter gordon (1989), entitled "levels of affixation in the acquisition of english morphology." this study has three untimed lexicaldecision experiments which were carried out with 5through 9-year-olds of native speakers of english and found general support for a systematic relation between productivity and level assignment. the aim of this paper is to make sure the readers would understand what the article's researcher try to explain about the word-formation such as stem, the stem which add affixes of level 1, stem which adds affixes of level 2, and stem which add affixes of level 3. moreover, this article's references are accurate (valid) and well-argued. this article is highly recommended for word formation in language development because the researcher stated that children might have a significant part in this process. therefore, this paper seen the word-formation will be rich in language development depends on how often people actively create words, for example, by combining stems and affixes in much the same way that they generate sentences. 1. introduction as good as gordon's articles before here are one of the best articles of him. gordon is from the university of pittsburgh published a research article 12-page level ordering of word-formation titled "levels of affixation in the acquisition of english morphology." the article aims to know language development through the productivity and constraint of people actively create words. first, the researcher provides information about children have productive control of a number of word-formation devices from very early in their language learning careers. for example, clark (1981, 1982) has documented that even 2-year-olds appear to use processes of derivational word-formation quite productively as evidenced by their overgeneralization errors. then, the researcher reviews the relation of productivity and constraints by using a question about why do we find darwinianism acceptable, but not *darwinismian. there are also phonological properties that might determine analyticity, in turn affecting productivity. processes such as stress shift and vowel change can have considerable consequences in making the relationship between the stem and derived from opaque (e.g., beast + bestial). in particular, gordon (1985), tyler (1986), and walsh (1984), have each proposed that ordering effects could be explained to some extent by the degree of productivity of the processes at different levels. this study illustrates the productivity of word formation by looking at the affixation of level ordering in the case of level 1, level 2 and 3 forms, the child should be better able to discover the relationship between the level 2 and level 3 forms and eventually induce a productive rule rather than level 1 form. 2. methodology this article is carried out with quantitative methods that the words used in the lexical decision task were simple (non-affixed) words chosen from the francis and kucera (1982) word count. experiment 1: subjects. 36 children consisting of twelve 5-, 7-, and 9-year-olds were included. all were native speakers of english and attended a university research school. materials and procedure. stimulus materials thus consisted of 54 words with 9 in each of the frequency ranges from in 0 to in 5. to avoid presenting too many items, children were divided into three groups, each of which received a subset of three items from each of the frequency ranges plus a set of 18 no word distractors. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 68-72 69 the researchers used cards for experiment 1. words and distracters were written on 3" x 5" cards and placed in a pile on aboard. the board resembled a colourful game board with three rectangles outlined. the cards were placed in a lower-middle rectangle. above this were two rectangles, one to the left and one to the right. one had yes and a check is written above it, and the other had no and across. children were told that the experimenter would read what was on the card and the child had to decide if it was a word or not. words would go in the yes pile and non-words in the no pile. experiment 2: subjects. ten 5-year-olds, eleven 7year-olds, and twelve 9-year-olds who had participated in experiment 1 were retested in experiment 2 in the following week. materials and procedure. the procedure was identical to experiment 1. children were simply reminded of the basic procedure. materials and procedure. the procedure was identical to experiment 1, except that was identical to experiment 1, except that there was no training. children were simply reminded of the basic procedure. subjects were divided into two groups, each receiving half of the items. of the 18 distracters, nine were nonce stems each with one of the above affixes attached to it (e.g., tostil-ness). the other nine were function words with the same set of affixes attached (e.g., than-ness). such distracters control for the possibility that children might simply respond positively to anything with a recognizable affix on it or any real word with an affix on it. all stimuli are listed in the appendix. experiment 3: subjects. 17 kindergartners (aged 4;lo to 6;2, m = 5;8), 20 second-graders (aged 7;2 to 8;4, m = 7;8), and 20 fourth-graders (aged 9;l to 10;7, m = 9;7) participated in the experiment. all children were native english speakers from a university research school. none had participated in experiments 1 or 2. exhaustive searches of francis and kucera (1982) for level 3 items with high (in 4 to 5) stem cluster frequency and low (in 0 to 1) item frequency revealed that they simply do not exist. materials and design. exhaustive searches of francis and kucera (1982) for level 3 items with high (in 4 to 5) stem cluster frequency and low (in 0 to 1) item frequency revealed that they simply do not exist. therefore, it was necessary to relax the frequency criteria for the level 3 stem cluster measure. new level 3 items included words whose stem-cluster frequencies were between in 2.4 and in 4.3 (item frequencies were still within in 0 to 1). initially, new items were chosen if the stems seemed to be words that children would probably know. all items were then submitted to a test that required that the stem appears in either hall, nagy, or linn (1984) or moe, hopkins, and rush (1982). these are word counts based on children's speech. some of the level 1 and 2 items were also replaced on this basis. 3. findings and discussion the article reflects the content of the title, the content and the abstract reflect the contents and need an additional goal. we can see the findings of this article below. experiment 1: the acceptance rates by age and frequency, demonstrate a clear frequency effect for all three age groups (min f'(5,72) = 10.4, p < .ool). baseline rates for correct responding occurred at around in 0 and in 1 frequency ranges. the ceiling was around in 4 and in 5. children's erroneous acceptance rates for nonwords. children had significantly higher acceptance rates for real words (min f'(l, 77) = 56.3, p < .ool), which was true even at the lowest frequency range (min f'(l, 35) = 13.4, p < .ool). developmentally, there was a significant effect of age (min f'(2, 88) = 7.6, p < .ool). one can see that there were no developmental changes at the higher frequency ranges. advances between 5 and 7 years appear to be primarily in the middle frequency ranges (in 2 and in 3), and between 7 and 9 years in the lower frequency ranges (in 0 and in 1). the establishment of a frequency effect with baseline and ceiling levels provides the necessary response characteristics for examining the nature of the representation of affixed forms in the next experiment. experiment 2: results revealed a strong main effect for words versus non words (min f'( 1,68) = 263.3,~ < .ool), showing a clear preference for children to accept real words and reject distracters. unlike experiment 1, there was no main effect for age by either a subject or item analysis. the effect of lexical levels was significant by subjects (f1 (2,29) = 13.9, p < .ool), but marginally failed to reach significance by items (f2(2,32) = 3.01, p = .06). in addition, the ordering of acceptance rates for levels was not completely as predicted by the model. level 2 items were accepted more often than level 3, although both were accepted more than level 1 items. experiment 3: the data points in the time represent averaged acceptance rates for affixed forms, divided by the average acceptance rates for the stems of the same items (collected from children of the same grade but in the other condition.) the curves show the predicted order of acceptance with level 1 forms considerably less well recognized than level 2 and 3 forms. analyses revealed significant effects of lexical level (min f’ (2, 48) = 6.57, p = .003), and grade (min f’ (2, 92) = 3.41, p < .os). while the level x grade interaction was significant in a subject analysis (f1 (4, 53) = 3.6, p < .ol), the item analysis was not significant (p = .4). abstract captures the number of readers of the information they should have skimmed, and the abstract of the article describes the theory of levelordering that has three levels within the lexicon, including the description of word-formation. the http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 68-72 70 research methodology although not directly expressed in the article. there is no explanation about where the research conducted. in the introduction, the researcher clearly explains all the information, for example, since -ian (level 1) must apply before -ism (level 2), it is predicted that darwinianism is acceptable but not *darwinismian. similarly, an irregular plural at level 1 may occur inside a compound at level 2 (e.g., teeth-marks). however, a regular plural at level 3 may not (cf. *claws-marks). kiparsky (1982) has noted a large number of predictions of this type that are generated by level-ordering theory and appear to meet with a good degree of success. the theory thus appears to provide an elegant explanation for many constraints on word formation that might otherwise seem quite inexplicable. in the methodology, the researcher seems to need to add more information about the type of research and technique of analysing data. it explains that the words used in the lexical decision task were simple (non-affixed) words chosen from the francis and kucera (1982) word count. here the researcher gives clear information about materials and procedure in experiment 1, 2, and 3, how many participants were involved in the study, what participants will do in the study and how the researcher conducted his research. in the findings and discussion, there are three experiments. all the experiments have good explanations and also get the point of what the researcher to find out. at the conclusion, the researcher should include conclusions from all the results of his research. then, the researcher conveys a sentence that in the contents of his research paper there appears to be some influence of the highfrequency stem even in the case of level 1 forms and certainly in the case of level 2 forms. level 3 forms appear to have response characteristics indistinguishable from those of the stem when various confounding factors are eliminated. this conclusion makes the reader understand. it was very hard to find inflected words that had the right frequency characteristics in constructing the materials. that is, the researcher is almost impossible to find words with very high-frequency stem clusters, where each of the inflected forms is not also very high in frequency. one exception is when that inflexion attaches to a category that is not normally assigned to the stem. the problem here is that the category change would require a zero-derivational process at level 1 or 2, in addition to the inflectional (level 3) process. another problem with the original materials was that they contained some words whose frequency appeared to reflect the biases of the francis and kucera (1982) word count, as opposed to actual frequencies in children's language input. therefore, based on the researcher's argument that a further experiment was carried out in order to test the hypothesis more clearly. in addition, it was possible to eliminate words where the frequencies did not appear to reflect the language that children hear. in addition to eliminating words such as incomes, it was also possible to eliminate words like a loser, which are rare in the word count, but probably less rare in children's language input. since children's knowledge of the related stems of complex forms could no longer be predicted on the basis of the frequency effect, the acceptance rates for the stems had to be assessed directly. it is here that the researcher runs into problems at both the theoretical and empirical levels. on the theoretical side, the model makes the wrong linguistic predictions is fairly crucial cases. it requires that level 1 forms only occur within frozen lexicalized items. while this does prevent level 1 forms from applying outside level 2 or 3 forms, it also has the consequence of preventing level 1 affixes from stacking outside other level 1 affixes. this is clearly violated in words such as directional-ity which contains three level 1 affixes.4 in addition, the model predicts that level 1 affixes should not be productively applied in novel cases. yet there are level 1 affixes that have very few restrictions on their application. in the findings and result, the researcher found that the initial model for the acquisition of ordering constraints was fatally flawed for both linguistic and empirical reasons. by adding the notion of merger and domain of application, the revised model tits both with the empirical data and appears to make better predictions for judgements of acceptability of complex forms. 3.1 strength there is much strength of this article. first, this study provides processes of level 1 until level 3 that clearly describe the theory of level-ordering proposes that word-formation processes are assigned to one of three levels within the lexicon. second, the language that the researcher uses in this article also clear. so, easy for readers to understand what the researcher tries to tell in his research. third, the results of this study are important because they can help teachers and students to add their knowledge about levels of affixation. fourth, this study gives more detailed results. last, this article is also supported by many theories and previous research. 3.2 weaknesses there are some weaknesses in this article. first, there is no complete explanation of the levels of affixation. second, it explained just about the theory without giving more examples for level 1 processes, level 2 processes, and level 3 processes. so, the http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 68-72 71 readers could not understand all the explanations. last, there is no explanation about the type of research and technique of analysing data. 3.3 overall judgment this study both contributes to students and especially teachers as teaching staff to have a better understand and provide a new way of innovation to make students more advanced by learning affixation. 4. conclusion this study tries its best to explore and giving a words on how peter gordon (1989), in his article “levels of affixation in the acquisition of english morphology.” this study sees that the accurate (valid) and well argued. the article focusing on three untimed lexical-decision experiments which were carried out with 5through 9-year-olds of native speakers of english and found general support for a systematic relation between productivity and level assignment. therefore, this article is highly recommended for word formation in language development because the researcher stated that children might have a significant part in this process. moreover, this paper seen the word formation will be rich in language development depends on how often people actively create words, for example, by combining stems and affixes in much the same way that they generate sentences. 5. acknowledgement this research was supported by balai bahasa provinsi riau. therefore, the authors would like to express their sincere gratitude. any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the respected institution. references allen, m. (1978). morphological investigations. unpublished doctoral dissertation, department of linguistics, university of connecticut, storm, conn. anderson, s. r. (1982). where's morphology? linguistic inquiry, 13, 571-612. aronoff, m. (1976). word formation in generative grammar. linguistic inquiry monograph, vol. 1, cambridge, ma: mit press. berko, j. (1958). the child’s learning of english morphology. word, 14, 150-177. bradley, d. c. (1979). lexical representation of derivational relation. in m. aronoff and m. l. kean (eds.). juncture. cambridge, ma: mit press. carstairs-mccarthy, a. (2017). introduction to english morphology: words and their structure. edinburgh university press. chomsky, n., & halle. m. (1968). the sound pattern of english. the hague: mouton. clark, e. v. (1981). lexical innovations: how children learn to create new words. in w. deutsch (ed.). the child's construction of language. new york: academic press. clark, e. v. (1982). the young word maker: a case study of innovation in the child’s lexicon. in e. wanner & l. r. gleitman (eds.) language acquisition: the state of the art. cambridge, england: cambridge university press. clark, e. v., & clark, h. h. (1979). when nouns surface as verbs. language, 5.5, 767-811. clark, e. v., & hecht, b. f. (1982). learning to coin agent and instrument nouns. cognition, 12, l-24. cutler, a. (1983). lexical complexity and sentence processing. in g. b. flores d'arcais and r. j. jarvella (eds.). the process of language understanding. new york: wiley. francis, w. n., & kljcera, h. (1982). frequency analysis of english usage: lexicon and grammar. boston, ma: houghton mifflin. gordon, p. (1985). level-ordering in lexical development. cognition, 21, 73-93. hall, w. s., nagy, w. e., & linn, r. (1984). spoken words: effects of the situation and social group on oral word usage and frequency. hillsdale, nj: erlbaum. jia, g., & fuse, a. (2007). acquisition of english grammatical morphology by native mandarinspeaking children and adolescents: age-related differences. journal of speech, language, and hearing research. kiparsky, p. (1982). from cyclic phonology to lexical phonology. in h. van der hulst and n. smith (eds.). the structure of phonological representations. dordrecht: foris. kiparsky, p. (1983). word-formation and the lexicon. in f. ingemann (ed.) proceedings of the 1982 mid-america linguistics conference. university of kansas, lawrence, kansas. moe, a. j., hopkins, c. j., & rush, r. t. (1982). the vocabulary of first-grade children. springfield, il: thomas. paradis, j. (2010). bilingual children's acquisition of english verb morphology: effects of language exposure, structure complexity, and task type. language learning, 60(3), 651-680. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 68-72 72 sebüktekin, h. i. (2017). turkish-english contrastive analysis: turkish morphology and corresponding english structures (vol. 84). walter de gruyter gmbh & co kg. siegel, d. (1977). topics in english morphology. unpublished doctoral dissertation, department of linguistics, mit, cambridge, ma. slobin, d. i. (ed.). (1985). the cross-linguistic study of language acquisition. vol. 1: the data. hillsdale. nj: erlbaum. taft, m. (1979). recognition of affixed words and the word frequency effect. memory and cognition, 7, 263-272. tyler, a. e. (1986). acquisition and use of english derivational morphology: an experimental investigation. unpublished phd dissertation, department of linguistics, university of iowa. walsh, l. (1984). possible words. paper presented at the m.i.t. morphology workshop, jan. 26-27, 1983, cambridge, ma. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 100-104 100 ogden and richards proposed theories: a brief overlook as a prominent reference for the current studies nelia gari 1, zulkifli zulkifli 2, wella cisilya putri 3 & lana hasanah 4 1 smk negeri 7 pekanbaru, indonesia 2, 3 u-raise academy, pekanbaru, indonesia 4 sma negeri 3 pekanbaru, indonesia neliagari00@gmail.com article history received : 2019-12-02 revised : 2019-12-04 accepted : 2019-12-27 keywords similar different contents experts perspective abstract the purpose of this article is to find out whether the ogden and richard theories are still worthy of being a reference for the current situation. this study intended to review the theories that are highly popular in the semantic environment. ogden and richard's theory is one of the most popular semantic theories in linguistics. this theory is a very simple theory related to thought/reference, symbol and referent. besides, this theory is often referred to as a triangle of meaning and a semiotic triangle. many researchers try to review the ogden and richard theory (theory triangle) based on the understanding and perspective of the researchers. this study described and compared the similarity and difference between five (5) studies on the triangle of meaning proposed by ogden and richard (1923) this study the analysis and employed a comparative study as a qualitative study in nature. this study explored five (5) articles e.g...“ogden and richards’ the meaning of meaning and early analytic philosophy, semantic triangle and linguistic sign, controversies and misunderstandings about meaning: on the reception of ogden and richards book, (the meaning of meaning), theories of semantics; merits and limitations, research on translation based on semantic triangle theory”. this study sees that the theory of from ogden and richards is still worthy of being a reference until now. the studies being used as lens seems giving their positive credits to their study. this means that ogden and richards somehow acknowledged being as a prominent study in their field until now. 1. introduction the experts poured a thousand ideas in the form of research known as "theory" unconsciously many theories have been discovered and used every day. then what is meant by theory, what is the real theory and why the theory was created? the general theory is a series of parts or called interrelated variables that present a systematic relationship about a phenomenon which can determine the relationship between variables that have a purpose to explain phenomena natural (c williams 2007). the theory according to experts is a series of ideas or variables, the definition of propositions give a picture of a phenomenon or event systematically by determining the relationship between the variable "creswell", a very well-known example theory is the theory of ogden and richard which relates to the meaning of a word that has a triangle symbol or commonly referred to as a theory of triangle. the creation of a theory is based on certain factors, one of which is: because of the curious factors or curiosity of researchers about a particular thing that is considered interesting to be studied. in this article discusses a theory that is very popular among semantics, namely the theory triangle, which is a theory that has three points of view, namely pictures, thoughts and words. many researchers or linguists who have investigated the theory, in this article found how the viewpoint of writers who have understood the ogden theory in the form of journals so that it can be concluded that each the published journals have differences in the explanation side between several journals and know the parts that are considered the same and different from the contents of the original book. this research is done so that the reader understands what ogden is and rich theory is and why the theory of the ogden and richard is called the theory triangle. the author investigates five (5) namely; ogden and richards’ the meaning of meaning and early analytic philosophy, semantic triangle and linguistic sign, controversies and misunderstandings about meaning on the reception of ogden and richard's book(the meaning of meaning), theories of semantics; merits and limitations, research on translation based on semantic triangle theory”. journals that discuss the theory of ogden and richard and make the book from theory ogden and richard as a guide to be able to identify any differences and similarities in each journal that will be taken as data as research material. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 100-104 101 therefore, the purpose of this article is to find out how the author identifies the triangle theory, are there any differences and similarities in each journal that has been read as a staple in the study. so that readers get an understanding of the ogden and richard theory. where the ogden and richard theory discusses how to interpret a language, has is a tool used for communication that is oral or written or uses an intermediary in conveying purpose and purpose. language has enormous power in daily life for which it is necessary to hold lessons about linguistics. linguistic is an education that learns about language; language has an exciting part of learning that is semantic. further, semantic is a technique used to understand the meaning, or it can also be interpreted as an education that learns the meaning of each word spoken. language can be grouped into two, namely form and meaning. semantics discusses the significance of language forms concerning linguistic contexts. words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and discourse are forms of language. the types of language have meaning. different kinds have different meanings. the development of science, technology, and art, as well as the social, cultural and economic aspects of society, has led to changes and developments in language symbols which also have an impact on changes or developments in the meaning of the language symbols. because the definition of language symbols develops, language users need to study the meaning of language symbols regularly. semantic, this is the most important part of linguistics because it is because each word must be understood and appropriately interpreted so that there is no difference in purpose in communicating. meanwhile, linguistics which are educators who learn about the language themselves also has different meanings. from every opinion expressed by linguists as well as semantics which are usually interpreted in accordance with their respective opinions, the essence of semantics is not lost. semantics have many basic theorists put forward by experts, one of them is triangular of meaning. developments in the semantic world also follow the perspective of language experts. linguistic science which is divided into parts of the semantic sciences known as semantic linguistic. 57). a prevalent concept and is often used by linguists are the concept of "thinking in the form of business, and a study of the study of meaning". the fundamental theory that received the view was ferdinand de saussure (1916), according to him, the language had a close relationship with the image (meaning) with a cell symbol of sound. as for ogden and richard, namely the relationship between symbols and instructions and references/thoughts. this theory explained there was not any direct relationship between symbols and references without intermediaries. according to ullman (1972; 57) describes the meaning is the relationship with the name/form of language. so the conclusion is that the theory refers to rational theory, the theory of semantic science is a linguistic branch which gives a foundation on the problem meaning and language. this theory studies the meaning of the semantics associated with symbols and even mind and also, and this theory is known as the triangle symbol. in this article will be discussed part of the semantics that use the ogden dam richard theory called triangular theory, this theory explains the semantic relationship and symbols, thoughts and words. the theory of ogden and richard is part of saussure's dyadic semiotics. in this theory, it establishes a direct connection between the word mind and mind and finished objects; this theory learns about how to understand the basis of language and understand symbols in literature. everyone has thoughts, and a different view also has the same idea. in this study will discuss about the differences and similarities of the triangular theory studied by several experts in 5 journals that have been published with the same subject matter but different ways or views, other than that in the article this will discuss the point of view of each expert who has examined the theory of ogden and richard. so, it can be concluded that each journal has differences and similarities in the research of ogden and richard theory. nevertheless, the meaning of the ogden and richard theory has the same goal. and the purpose of the five contents of this journal is to provide a deeper understanding of the theory of ogden and richard. 2. methodology the intention of selecting the proper steps to guide the researchers to obtain the desired data to reveals a result needed in this study. this stage is often called “the method”. it has a scientific structure "hebert bison" mentioned in his article as a technique that is generalized correctly and adequately so that it is accepted or can be used in research. the research used three months to collect its data and analyze (marchmay 2019). the data taken in writing the study came from several journals that have been successfully published by different sources in an open-access web. the research in this article was carried out in stages where the authors understood and described each journal content. which is used as research material, the author uses a qualitative method to analyze and describe each journal that is read. this research is done by comparing each journal that is read so that it can get the desired points such as differences and similarity in the journal according to the viewpoints and comprehend researchers who use book from the theory of ogden richard as a hub or guide in getting the result of their studies into more concrete findings. there are five selected journals used as research material to help in constructing the viewpoint of this study. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 100-104 102 3. result and discussion the thinking of each individual is, in fact, not always the same or the same as the others. similarly, in a study that has the same theory and the same guidelines, but the point of view and the way researchers in conveying a thing is very different. from the results of research on five (5), e.g. ogden and richards’ the meaning of meaning and early analytic philosophy, semantic triangle and linguistic sign, controversies and misunderstandings about meaning on the reception of ogden and richard's book(the meaning of meaning), theories of semantics; merits and limitations, research on translation based on semantic triangle theory”. journals that used as data it can be concluded that each journal-title that is read is very different, but the focus point in the discussion remains the same, namely the theory of ogden and richard (theory of triangle), although in the presentation of words and the different structures, the actual meaning remains the same. in this article, we will discuss the part of semantics that uses the theory of ogden and richard called triangular theory; this theory explains semantic relations and symbols, thoughts and words, the theory of ogden and richard is part of saussure's dyadic semiotics. in this theory, we establish a direct connection between the word mind and mind and matter, so this theory learns about how to understand the primary language and understanding of symbols. many researchers have reviewed the theory of the ogden and richard each journal discussed has similarities and differences in each of the researchers' perspectives. based on the research point of view of a linguist who has conducted research or has reviewed the theory of ogden and richard and published the theory in the ogden and richard book entitled "the meaning of meaning" in this book tells where the theory of ogden and richard is used to mean a language through 3 points, namely the symbol of thought/reference, symbol and referent. while in a journal titled "ogden and richards 'the meaning of meaning and early analytic philosophy here, the theory of ogden is used in two identifications which describe a meaning through psychology. the equation in both of these has its purpose, which is to interpret a word. whereas in the journal entitled "research on translation based on semantic triangle theory", in this journal discusses the ogden and rich theory in 3 personalities namely, shape, sound mark and language where the researcher believes that if the sound form is not translated then the meaning and object are not realized by good. this journal equation is the same as wanting to make sense of a language even though with different views. a journal entitled: if in the book ogden and richard there are three angles, namely thought / reference, symbol. finally, there is a referent eating in the journal "semantic triangle and linguistic sign" there are 3 points namely: object, meaning and linguistic sign and there are differences in position every corner like in the book "thought" triangle is the main thing. in contrast, in this journal "thought" is at the bottom after the object. the same equation as using the theory of theories of semantics: merits and limitations here ogden and richard’s theory is called "meaning as a triangular relationship" whereas, in the book, ogden and richard is called a triangle. still, there are similarities in each corner of the triangle. controversies and misunderstandings about meaning: on the reception of ogden and richards' book, "the meaning of meaning “in this book. ogden and richard's theory is called a semiotic theory. in this book, it is said that words, objects and thoughts have a relationship to think of an image. here the meaning conveyed is that the difference is only the most populous in the title theory. further, it is said that so that every process of references goes well, it must use an intermediary of thought or reference. the different side of the content is lexica, the author suggests that the calculation system between symbols and references. the same point of view which is listed by the author is that there is no direct relationship between words and references or references. however, the subject is still discussing the meaning of a language using the ogden symbol known as the triangle symbol. the theory of ogden and richard who studied the meaning of a word in the language has been widely reviewed by researchers, especially people who are struggling in the world of language. each stage of research when reviewing the theory of triangle meaning has a different point of view. this is caused by views or responses to each opinion have different thoughts in the delivery. but the actual meaning of the word from the theory of ogden and richard has the same purpose and the same purpose in the two articles that have been read can be concluded that each writer has a language still in the research process because there are differences of ideas or ideas but the core of the discussion remains the same. therefore a journal that also discusses the theory of ogden richard entitled "semantic triangle and linguistic sign" in this journal discusses the importance of semantics and discusses the modern components of a semantics namely; object (referent) meaning and linguistics or signs and discuss the basic concepts of semantics both modern and ancient as well as the concept of the sign in the code but this article will focus more on the ogden and richard theory which discusses the semiotic triangle where the components of the ogden and richard have three concepts basic is; object (the object here is used to obtain meaning, the second meaning and the third linguistic sign or also called with words, where the http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 100-104 103 three structures are called stoic concepts that have meaning (a thought), the second sound (the creation of a word) and the third is the object. so the difference in this journal with the book ogden and richard is found in the concept used which is called the concept of stoic. while the equation lies in the basic concept that is owned by; word, mind and object. even so, this journal is very detailed in. discusses the basic concept concepts of semantic. some experts who have examined the theory of ogden and richard have different views on the meaning of each theory issued by ogden and richard. based on the theory, it has been solved to the three elements that can be related to one another. according to the language journal source (2009) which says that "the symbol of the triangle symbol is the relationship that exists between a form, a sign with a referent that is arbitrary and conventional. “these three elements indicate the existence of direct or even indirect, this can be illustrated through the form of" triangle "concept and thought have a direct relationship to the two elements that exist. so, in essence, the relationship between words, thoughts and references have a direct relationship and not directly. figure 3.1 the semantic triangle the picture above is a picture of the symbol of the ogden and richard theory which is known as a triangle symbol which has a point of meaning in each corner. based on the picture above it can be concluded that the marker can be in the form of language sounds in the form of words, phrases, words, sentences, or text. a marker is something that is referred to by a marker in the form of lexemes, words, phrases, sentences, or text. in other words, the sign or reference is the meaning of the sign language. so language signs are always tangible forms of signs and their meanings. saussure sees the sign only from two sides, namely the marker side (the sound of language) and the marker side (something that is marked). sign language has two elements, namely markers (something that is marked) according to "ogden and richard (1923) examines language signs from three sides, namely symbols (ideas), ideas (thought or reference), and references (referents). that is depicted in the form of a triangle with the bottom side of a dotted line " according to ogden and richard, a symbol represents an idea that is in everyone's mind. the idea that is in the human mind is the meaning of a language symbol. the idea refers to a reference or referent (objects, activities, or something else). for example, if there is a symbol in the form of a buffalo lexeme, the meaning of the lexeme is the idea, namely ‘four-legged animals, grass-eaters, and those that are fleshed out’. the idea refers to the real thing (something), which is an animal in the form of a buffalo. the meaning of a language sign can be understood in terms of the origin of the meaning of the sign of language and the nature of the relationship between the symbol and its reference. an expert named "plato" explained that there was a systematic or meaningful relationship between symbols and their references. the existence of a systematic relationship between symbols and their references, supported by the similarity of sound that becomes a symbol with the show. in this study, the authors can conclude that each journal reviewed by several experts has differences in the title, language, and delivery as well as the use or application of the theory but the true meaning of the ogden richard theory is not lost that is the same way or process of interpreting a language this theory triangle is very important because with this theory the reader can easily and understand the ways and parts of the meaning of a language. this theory is very good to be used as a basic theory to interpret the meaning of words in the language. hopefully, the researchers in the future will come can provide an explanation for the different names of the theory triangle. 4. conclusion semantics is a branch of linguistics that studies a meaning. a language observer discovers a theory called triangle, based on the theory of markers and markers of the "ferdinand de saussure" sign (a concept), a sign or a symbol and a reference or object. ogden and richard said that "there is no direct relationship between the marker dam and the reference is only found in human thought that is what causes the line below the broken triangle. that is why the line that connects the marker and its reference is displayed with a dashed line, in this case, the relationship of meaning is used as the basis for grouping makes. meanings (thoughts or references) are the relationship between symbols (symbols) with references (referents). http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 100-104 104 relationships between symbols and references are indirect, while the relationship between the symbol de with references and references with references are direct. associated with that every element of conjunctions between relating with the elements of meaning involved the existence of signs, concepts, and references. the concept or reference is meaning as the relationship between the symbol and its reference. the meaning itself contains certain aspects in the form of theme, taste, tone, and mandate. markers are within the scope of language. markers are images of the form of language, and markers are the concept. the relationship between markers and signifiers is arbitrary, based on community conventions. so semantics is an education in interpreting a word, in semantics, there are several theories which are very influential on linguistics. one of them is ogden richard's theory (theory of triangle) which defines a language from three aspects, namely: thought/reference, symbol and referent. this article aims to provide information about some differences, similarities from the point of view of researchers who review the triangle theory. and it can be concluded that this theory is still worthy of being a reference in a study. 5. acknowledgement this research was partially supported by u-raise academy, indonesia. therefore, the authors would like to express their sincere gratitude. any opinions, findings, and conclusions or suggestions expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the respected institution. references amaglobeli, g. (2012). semantic triangle and linguistic sign. journal in humanities, 1(1), 37-40. campbell, b. (1967). linguistic meaning. linguistics, 5(33), 5-23. gordon, w. t. (2019). the semiotics of ck ogden. the semiotic web 1990: recent developments in theory and history, 100, 111. hanks, w. f. (2018). language and communicative practices. routledge. hidayatullah, s. (2015). apa bahasa itu? sepuluh pengertian bahasa menurut para ahli. mcelvenny, j. (2014). ogden and richards’ the meaning of meaning and early analytic philosophy. language sciences, 41, 212-221. mcelvenny, j. (2014). ogden and richards’ the meaning of meaning and early analytic philosophy. language sciences, 41, 212-221. poibeau, t. (2008, september). controversies and misunderstandings about meaning: on the reception of odgen and richards' book," the meaning of meaning". in international conference on the history of the language sciences (ichols'2008). poibeau, t. (2011). controversies and misunderstandings about meaning. regoczei, s., & hirst, g. (1990). the meaning triangle as a tool for the acquisition of abstract, conceptual knowledge. international journal of man-machine studies, 33(5), 505-520. west, d. (2005). language, thought and reality: a comparison of ferdinand de saussure's course in general linguistics with ck ogden and ia richards' the meaning of meaning. changing english, 12(2), 327-336. wicaksana, i. w. s., wulandari, l., & wirawan, s. (2005). pentingnya peranan bahasa dalam interoperabilitas informasi berbasiskan komputer karena keragaman semantik. in prosiding seminar ilmiah nasional (pesat 2005), universitas gunadarma, jakarta. xiao, j. (2015, august). research on translation based on semantic triangle theory. in international conference on materials engineering and information technology applications (meita 2015). atlantis press. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 17-22 17 exploring critical discourse analysis’s renowned studies: seeking for aims and approaches nurul fathia salma sma negeri 3 pekanbaru, indonesia nurul_tiaa@yahoo.com article history received : 2019-06-08 revised : 2019-06-12 accepted : 2019-06-23 keywords critical discourse analysis (cda) approaches aims framework abstract this paper is trying hard to linked all its resources the study conducted by renowned researchers which discuss about introduction to critical discourse analysis (cda) where includes the definitions, the manner to do critical discourse analysis guided by the established framework. based on the theories of michel foucault, “discourse analysis is focusing on power of relationships in society as expressed by means of language and practices” this study puts its stand of viewpoint. besides, there are several renowned studies to help understand the principle e.g., aims and approaches of cda. this study believed and stick to the foucauldian discourse analysis look at how the figures used language to propose their power dominance, and request obedience and honor from those subordinate to them which they are five steps are recommended based on the identification of rules in using "foucauldian discourse analysis". however this study also still a high admiration to others scholars aims and approaches used e.g. van dijk, wodak and faiclough. 1. introduction on the article of frohmann (1994) “discourse analysis is a way of approaching and thinking about a problem provide a tangible answer to problems based on scientific research, and enables us to understand the conditions behind a specific problem and make us realize that the essence of that problem, and its resolution”. indeed, “da provides a basic methodology to describes and analyze how the structure and content of the text encodes ideas and the relation among the ideas itself that are present in the text, systematically”. (hamuddin, 2012). therefore, in this article, the author will discuss about interdisciplinary approach to the study of discourse that views language as a form of social application called critical discourse analysis (cda). according to van dijk (2004) “critical discourse analysis is a type of discourse analysis research that primarily studies the way social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in social and political contexts”. moreover, this study suggested discourse analysis, more particularly written discourse analysis since we are dealing with newspaper, in collaboration with cda, to form a worthy framework and methodology could help analyses the news from the critical point of view. the idea of forming discourse analysis and critical discourse analysis in analyzing news among others discipline. ruth wodak in her terminology said (kendall: 2007) "this paper might call as "integrated interdisciplinary": integrating approaches for an object under investigation in innovative ways. this paper may find a more or less critical perspective in such diverse areas as pragmatics, conversation analysis, narrative analysis, rhetoric, stylistics, sociolinguistics, ethnography, or media analysis however using cda framework shall be the right choice to works under written da methodology." it emerged from 'critical linguistics’ be expanded on 1970s at the university of east anglia, and the terms are not often interchangeable. the major contribution of this study is called ruth wodak. besides, norman fairclough who the lancaster school of linguists was the most prominent figure of the first developing of cda. according to van dijk (1995), cda is a special approach in discourse analysis, components, and consequences of ulinnuha et al., therefore, this paper will describe the definitions of critical discourse analysis according to the experts especially teun a. van dijk. besides, the definitions and aims this study also elaborate some approach on how to implement critical discourse analysis. thus, this study believed it’s necessary to know the theoretical frameworks in cda as well. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 17-22 18 1.1 definitions and characteristic of cda the phenomena of social are linguistics, in other words, the language activity that take place on social contexts and it is a part of the processes and practices. the first time in studying cda, we have to know what discourse analysis is. according to, in semantics and discourse analysis, the meaning of discourse is a generalization of conceptual in conversation within each context of communication”. meanwhile, analysis is the process to solve a complex topic into smaller parts in order to acquire a better comprehension of it. thus, an interdisciplinary approach to the study of discourse that regarded languages as a form of social practice called critical discourse analysis (cda). it has become the general etiquette for a particular approach to the study of talk and text, appearing from critical semiotic, critical linguistic, and commonly from a socio-politically aware and the manner of opposition in enquire language, discourse and also communication. in studying a language and discourse studies, surely there are many fields, approaches, sub disciplines, and others. as well as in the case of studying cda, it is not easy to limit the specific principles, practices, goals, theories or methods of cda. however, in studying cda, it is usually characterized by the following features: cda is part of critical studies about humanities and social science for examples; in sociology, psychology, mass communication research, law literature and political science. it is usually discuss the effective about the study relevant social problems, such as those of sexism, colonialism, racism and other forms of social inequality. much work in cda is about the underlying ideologies that play a role in against inequality. besides, it focuses in the relation and also interrelated between discourse and society, such as (politics, culture, economic, social, etc.). when learning the role of discourse especially on society, cda particularly focuses on (groups) relation of power resisted by social group members through talk and text. cda commonly focuses on the strategies of manipulation, legitimation, the manufacture of consent and other discursive ways to influence the minds (indirect actions) of people in the interest of the powerful. besides, a school, a subdicipline, or field of discourse analysis does not characterized by cda, however it categorize an critical approach, position or the corner of studying talk and text explicitly. it (may) pay attention to all dimension of discourse, such as grammar (phonology, syntax, and semantics), schematics organization, strategies of pragmatic, speech acts, interaction, etc. in the other hand, it also pay attention to other dimensions like semiotic (sound, music, picture, film, videos, gesture, etc.) on communicative events. indeed, studies in cda try to formulate or sustain an overall perspective solidarity with dominated groups, e.g., by formulating strategic proposals for the enactment and development of counter-power and counter-ideologies in practices of challenge and resistance. based on the theories of michel foucault, discourse analysis is focusing on power of relationships in society as expressed by means of language and practices. besides focusing on the significance of a given discourse, the differentiator characteristic in this approach is the emphasis on the power of relationships. these are expressed through behavior and language, the relationship between language and power. so, this analysis try to comprehend how individuals envisage the world, and learn categorizations, politics, ideology, social and also personal and institutional relationships. studies used the foucauldian discourse analysis can look at how the figures used language to propose their power dominance, and request obedience and honor from those subordinate to them. in a specific example, a study may look at the language used by teachers towards students, or military officers towards conscripts. this approach could also be used to study how language is used as a form of reciprocal to those in power. 1.2 requirements for conducting cda critical discourse analysis needs to fulfill a number of requirements in order to effectively actualize its aims: first, critical discourse analysis has to be “better” than other research in order to be accepted. second, it focuses essentially on political issues and social problems, rather than on current fashions and paradigms. in other requirements i.e. empirically adequate the critical analysis of social problems is usually multidisciplinary. fourth, rather than purely describe discourse structures, critical discourse analysis make efforts to account them in terms of characteristics of social interaction and especially social structure. more particularly, critical discourse analysis concentrate on the ways discourse structures figure, ensure, legitimate, reproduce, reasonable, or challenge the links of dominance and power in society. moreover, fairclough and wodak (1997) sum up the main concepts of critical discourse analysis as follows: first, critical discourse analysis discuss socials and politics problems. second, power relations are erratic (discursive). third discourse is a form of society and culture. fourth, discourse carry out ideological works. fifth, discourse is historical, sixth, the link between society and text are mediated. seventh, critical discourse analysis is interpretative and explanatory. the last, critical discourse analysis is a form of social proceeding or action. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 17-22 19 2. method 2.1 the manners to do cda the current news either online or printed news can be utilize as a great source of learning analyzing language in use and it also present interesting material to regard. to bring current issues and hot news taken from media such as news in social media, magazine or newspaper need more than just interpretive or catching specific information by way of reading, it needs a second approach to espouse critical discourse analysis. hence we need to bring the students to more conscious and critical to the news posted in the media (papers or media social), hence we need critical discourse analysis (cda) framework. thereto, it can help the students in elt (english language teaching) classroom grow more obverse in seeing the news and through the news. thus, the students can learn to see news at least from 3 different level in discourse analysis class by using critical discourse analysis based on fairclough’s three dimensional frameworks, among others: text, discursive practice and social practice. students usually will want to know “how to do cda”. firstly, formulate the proposals for successful strategies of research. second, we need to identify which structure and strategies of talk and text to attend in order to discover patterns of manipulation “in” texts theoretically and descriptively. vice versa, focusing on major social, political problems and issues such as sexism and racism, we need to detail how such forms of inequality are expressed, enacted, legitimated, and reproduced by text and talk. kendall and wickham outline five steps in using "foucauldian discourse analysis". the first step is a simple admission that discourse is a set of statements that are organized in a systematic way. the subsequent four steps are based on the identification of rules on: how those statements are created; what can be said (written) and what cannot; how the spaces in which new statements can be raised are created; and making practices material and discursive at the same time. in brief, cda needs good theories of the role of discourse in the ratification and facsimile of resistance and social dominance. more than theories which only demand descriptive or explanatory sufficiency, however, cda which is successful must be effective: in the conclusions, recommendations and the other interference must work. these are fairly difficult criteria. in that situation, cda is not only a scientific practice, but also a scientific research programs. orientation questions for frame application, includes: is this a typical text of its type? , who produced this?; who will read it?; will everyone understand this text in the same way?; why was it produced?; in what other ways could it have been written?; what is missing from this text?; how does this text reflect the wider society?; what could we do about this text if we disagree with it? 3. result and discussion 3.1 theoretical frameworks in the aims of critical discourse analysis mentioned atop, there are many types of critical discourse analysis, and these may be analytically and theoretically quite diverse. critical analysis of news reports in the press or of lessons and teaching at school are very different from critical analysis of conversation. therefore, the typical vocabulary of many scholars in critical discourse analysis will show such ideas as "power", "dominance", "ideology", "hegemony", "gender", "class", "discrimination", "race", "interests", "institutions", "reproduction", "social order", and "social structure". in this part, the author will focus in a number of basic concepts themselves and devise a theoretical framework that critically relate with discourse, society and cognition. 3.1.1 micro vs. macro discourse, language use, communication and verbal interaction belong to the micro level of the social array. power, inequality and dominance between social groups are in particular terms that belong to a macro level of analysis. it means that critical discourse analysis should theoretically bridge the well-known “gap” between micro and macro approaches, which is of course a difference that is a sociological construct in its own right (alexander et al. 1987; knorr-cetina and cicourel 1981). there are certain ways to analyses these levels to arrive at a unified critical analysis as follows: a) members–groups: language users participate in discourse as a member of (several) social groups, organizations, or institutions; and vice versa, groups may act “by” their members. b) actions–process: social acts of individual actors are thus element of social processes and group actions, such as news making, legislation or the propagation of racism. c) context–social structure: situations of discursive interaction are similarly part or principle of social structure; for example, a press conference may be a particular practice of organizations and media institutions. that is, “local” and more “global” contexts are tightly related, and both utilize constraints on discourse. 3.1.2 power as control a central idea in most critical work on discourse is that of power, and more particularly the institutions or social power of groups. summarizing a complex social and philosophical analysis, we will define social power in the terms of control. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 17-22 20 finally, this means that those groups who control most dominant discourse also have more opportunity to control the ideas (minds) and actions of others. simplifying these very complicated relationships, the author can divorce the issue of discursive power into three basic questions for critical discourse analysis research: how can groups with more power control the public discourse? ; how does such discourse control the mind and action of groups which is less powerful? and; what are the social effect of such control, such as social dissimilarity? 3.2 power and access power which divided into two kinds are social power and power abuse. where social power is (approximately) defined as a form of control of one group to another, while power abuse further implies that the control is in the interest of the dominant group, this means that dominant social group members may exercise such control over talk and text. access is defined in terms of their (powerful) social or institutional position or function and vice versa. and discourse: patterns of discourse control and access are indeed closely associated with social power. that is, discursively implemented dominance involves preferential access to text and context taken as a basis or resource of power, comparable to such social resources as wealth, income, a good job, position, status, knowledge and education. thus, whereas ordinary people only have active access to, and control over such discourse genres as everyday conversations with family members, friends or colleagues, and more passive access to institutional. for examples: politicians have control over, e.g. governmental and parliamentary discourse, and preferential access to the mass media; scholars control academic discourse, such as lessons, textbooks, courses and scholarly publications. ;journalists have control over mass media discourse and preferential access to a host of other forms of official talk and text, such as press conferences, press releases, reports, and soon. 4. conclusion based on the description above, the authors conclude: critical discourse analysis is a particular approach in discourse analysis which focuses on the result or consequences of power abuse by dominant groups and institutions. cda opposes the abuse of power that is usually done by high officials and institutions dominant by finding and criticizing mistakes. critical discourse analysis aimed at yielding ‘emancipation and enlightenment’. critical discourse analysis search not only to explain and describe, but also to eradicate a particular kind of fantasy. even with differing construct of ideology, critical theory search to create awareness in agents of their own needs and concern. (faiclough and wodak: 2008) besides, in conducting discourse analysis we need to identify which structure and strategies of talk and text to attend in order to discover patterns of manipulation “in” texts theoretically and descriptively. in addition, the cda aims as a research program. further, cda is a type of discourse analytical research that primarily studies the way social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context. it has a concern with representations of societal issues, hidden agendas, texts that impact on people’s lives it claims therefore to take an ethical stance in addressing power imbalances, inequities, and social justice agenda to spur readers into resistant and corrective social action. 5. acknowledgement this research was supported/partially supported by dept. of english education, fkip universitas lancang kuning. we thank our colleagues who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations/conclusions of this paper. references alvesson, m., & kärreman, d. 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(2013). cultural studies, critical theory and critical discourse analysis: histories, remembering and futures. van dijk, t. a. (2015). critical discourse analysis. the handbook of discourse analysis, 466-485. wodak, r. (2011). critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis. discursive pragmatics, 50-70. wodak, r., & meyer, m. (eds.). (2015). methods of critical discourse studies. sage. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 29-34 29 critical discourse analysis (cda) on qualitative research: a review rika armayanti department of english education, universitas lancang kuning, indonesia ikaarmayantiika@gmail.com article history received : 2019-06-08 revised : 2019-06-16 accepted :2019-06-20 keywords critical discourse analysis qualitative research analysis of text human text abstract this article discusses critical discourse theory as a qualitative research theory. analytical frameworks include analysis of texts, communication and social practices in local, corporate and social levels. it has the goal of expressing and engaging in politics to discuss or deal with specific research methods, statements or values. it refers to the need to explain, understand, analyze, and criticize social life that reflects in the text using critical discourse analysis. according to lake (1996), “the authors use texts to understand their world, and at the same time, the article admits to creating actions and social relationships in everyday life, while text positions and individual buildings provide different meanings, ideas, and world versions". 1. introduction according to anyon (2009), “theory and academic research divides old-age theory by demonstrating how researchers use critical theory to assess appropriate experimental research techniques and demonstrate analytic, critical and sometimes liberal data storage and definition”. dressman (2008) said that is the theory encompasses thinking methods about academic issues and inhibits creativity among researchers, policymakers, and teachers. according to anyon (2009), “there are five types of arguments used in the theory of academic research. 1). analogous arguments (however, argue that the success of natural sciences in the use of theory is an excellent example of academic research, but that theory should be relatively useful when we move from one subject to another); 2). reconciliation of experience (the most important way to think about the role of theory is to directly override the problem of identifying the need for theory); 3). identification of complexity (appearing on the surface, as in the simplest case of experimental investigation, to prove complex in a deeper sense). 4). deweyan problem solvent (trial is an unspecified transformation that is subject to a problem determined and integrated by early problem solving); and 5). bear experiment minorities (there are no devices for recording and generalization of theory or theory). according to maxwell (2010), “lies, analysis, or interpretation theory is free.” be aware that the problem is about the theory of one being used and whether it is critical or suspicious. to understand any academic phenomenon, the phenomenon needs to look at the larger socio-economic and political scenarios that are embedded and to find theories that connect there. not only does it understand the study of individuals, situations, and studies, but also theories can be used to change them. to avoid citing the theory to support one's argument, it must be used to adapt the theory to one's study logic and to deepen one's research process. formal learning and instructional techniques are inseparable. learning theories further illustrate how learning occurs, but does not describe specific methods and activities to follow the objective learning results. for example, learning theories can explain the age that students can learn breaks, but instructional theories provide guidelines on how to implement break instruction. 1.1 cda: primary interest in qualitative research according to van dijk (2006), “cda is main interested and motivated by the idea of comprehensions social issues.” according to hamuddin (2012) in sahat (2018), the term “discourse” is a complex and mammoth-like interpretation. many previous studies mention the term discourse as very ambiguous since its introduction to modern science and the various broad interpretations of discourse.” wodak and meyer (2009) argue that critical discourse analysis emphasizes the need for interdisciplinary work to gain a sense of how to create knowledge in the organization of social organizations and how to spread knowledge. according to rogers et al. (2005), "critical theories are usually about the issues of power and justice, and to create, reproduce, or http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 29-34 30 transform social systems such as the economy, race, class, gender, religion, education, and sexual orientation.” human subjects use texts to understand their world and create different meanings, concepts, and editions of the world, at the same time, at the same time as the workers' lives, and in the form of individuals (lake: 1996). the analysis includes analysis of texts, communication and social practices at local, organizational and social levels. cda deals with the long-term analysis of the basic causes and the effects of problems. therefore, it requires an account of detailed relationships between text, discussion, society, and culture. teaching and learning policies can better understand the language and type of texts by looking at community social issues. according to mcgregor (2010), cda dares us to move our speech to an abstract view to see our words in past particular, public and political situation. therefore definitive discourse analysis is realized and expanded, and instances of social communication take a particular linguistic form (blommaert & bulcaen: 2000). cda is intended to systematically explore occasional opacity and determination between discord practices, events and texts, and broader social and cultural structures, relationships, and processes (locke: 2004). investigate how such practices, events, and texts arise and develop theories of power and theories of power formed as a theory. it is aimed at disclosing motivation and politics that are subject to a specific research method, statement, or value or argument”. the texts are moments of inter-subjectivity, that is, social and conflicting relationships between human subjects, such as writers and readers, speakers, and listeners, because their motives are self-evident or unrecognized individuals without help in another text (lake:1996). cda is a tool that helps members of the profession understand the messages they and others are sending and others understand and understand the meaning of written texts, words of the authorities are considered "self-evident truths" and the words of those who are not in power are dismissed without irrelevant, inadequate or material (mcgregor:2010). this is an unacceptable understanding because educators should also be involved in the development of teaching and learning policies. the texts also have major social institutions such as schools and offices in the departments of education, critical discourse analysis that emphasizes the analysis of such basic documents. cda is primarily in the language environment, and its success can be measured by a radical measurement of languages. language speakers can use the speaker's beliefs, positions, and ideas to represent the spoken texts, such as conversations. if we analyze the underlying meaning of the word, written or verbal messages will show meaning. analysis of underlying meanings can help teachers explain the problems, situations, and events they find themselves. using words can be controlled by the education system. critical discourse can only contribute significantly and definitively to critical social or political analysis if it can provide the role of language, language use, discourse or expression in the production of dominance and inequality (van dijk: 2006; mcgregor: 2010). the focus of the theory and practice of critical discourse analysis is on the formation and discussion of texts. cda determines the right text and the relationship between listening, speaking, reading and writing processes. thus, it provides the ability to analyze the written text critically, what we write, and what we say. mcgregor (2010) gives the written and spoken word power; critical discourse analysis is needed to explain, interpret, analyze and criticize the reflective social life. educators are mandatory about the language of learning and teaching to implement teaching and learning policies. according to rogers et al (2005), “the analyst’s first goal is to explain the relationship between certain texts, communications, and social practices; the second goal is to interpret the structure of discourse systems; and the third goal is to use explanation and definition to explain why and how social practices are formed, vary, and how they are transformed". the goals, options, and criteria for critical discourse analysis that control the theory of theory, analytic method and procedural research methods (van dijk: 2006). lake (1996) argues that critical discourse analysis can make transparent asymmetries in relationships, which texts reveal text tricks to establish, detect, define, and in some cases, enable and control readers and addresses. the discourse is socially structured and socially restricted; it includes situations, knowledge materials, and social markings and relationships between people and groups of people (wodak: 2009). lake (1996) says that the task or function of critical discourse is to say, breaking and criticizing texts as a way to disrupt common knowledge. interactive discourse analysis can be viewed as a critique of critical texts. it is intended to help understand the social issues of intermediate theory and power relations, and remain in use of written texts in all our daily and professional lives. the context of language is crucial, which treats language as a social practice. written and spoken texts must be critically and constructively analyzed. da what we do when we judge texts or conversations and the value and truth of relevant documents. da helps us to raise awareness about the hidden motives of others and thus help us solve concrete problems, by providing unequivocal answers, but by asking philosophy and cognitive questions (olson: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 29-34 31 2007). thus, it does not give full answers to a specific problem but allows us to understand the conditions behind a particular problem and the essence of that problem and its determination to assume that its assumptions are false, and that is the problem. it can be applied to any text for any text or situation. critical analysis tells us that it's going on behind our backs and deciding on others and our actions. evaluation of a particular research method, statement, or value does not argue or argue against the truth but focuses on the existence and message of texts. cda dies-close a concept that is hidden in our written text or oral speech, and we do not use it (mcgregor: 2010). it intends to systematically explore opaque relationships between adverse practices, texts and events and extensive social and cultural structures, relationships and processes. according to mcgregor (2010), “deciding discourse analysis aims to combine and affect the relationship between three critical analyses:" a) guest text. b) automatic practices larger social context for text and explanatory practices. c) power legislation and discourse production cda seems to establish a connection between texts, discourse (text production, use, and distribution), and broader social-cultural practice (fairclough: 1995). the purpose is "shadow" and analyzed transparent structural relationships, as analyzed in a language in discrimination, power, and control (blommaert & bulcaen: 2000). its other purpose does not provide specific answers, but to expand our personal horizons and to understand our flaws and to make unconnected programs or motivations as well as others. it is real and frequently expanded, and instances of social communication take partially literally. this is a resource for people who are trying to cope with the effects of alienation and deactivation of the changes imposed on them. this theory analyzes spoken or written texts as communication, discussion, dialogue or communication content. 2. method the discussion is a qualitative method developed by analytics producers (fulcher: 2010). according to locke (2004), the prophet cannot represent the world, but by specifying the world, understanding and building the world. mcgregor (2010) said that the discourse to express words. van dijk (2006) argues that cda requires an account of true multidisciplinary and complicated relationships between text, discussion, social opinion, energy, society, and culture. using critical discourse analysis, it is necessary to explain, understand, analyze, and criticize the social life reflected in the text. speech analysis can be defined as approaching and thinking about the problem. this is meaningful in the world. the definition is caused by the reading or analysis of the meaning of the text. locke (2004) argues that the argument is a coherent way of expressing the word's meaning, reflecting human symbolic systems, including speech. they describe the discourse as a concept that is an active relation to reality. the language refers to the fact that the language is in a dysfunctional relationship, referring to objects in the language that is to be presented in reality (locke: 2004). discussions and dialogues bring people the facts about teaching and learning policies to the realm of the situation on the ground. the language is a social and cultural tool, and our reality is socially and culturally constructed (fulcher: 2010). the language is the heart of critical discourse analysis. critical discourse analysis can be considered a political intervention with a socially transformational program and suitable for the study of post-racism courses in south africa. according to fulcher (2010), da can be seen as a way of understanding social interactions. furthermore, fulcher (2010) states that a discourse is a matter of text, particularly for identification, for example, a statement that reaffirms a viewpoint or that men see the weddings lag. research starts with a research question and is not a theory. the conversation or piece of text is copied and then eliminated. the searcher himself tries to identify categories, topics, ideas, views and roles in the text. identifying the shared resources that are normally shared, that is, to identify spoken sharing patterns. according to locke (2004), the discourse also refers to the methods and methods that indicate. conduct, communicate, evaluate, think, trust, speak, and read and write ways that act as the principles of specific roles of particular groups of particular groups. locke (2004) further states: a) the discourse is shaped and restricted by social structure (class, age, ethnicity, and gender) and culture b) the discourse helps shape and restrict our markings, relationships, and the system of knowledge and beliefs. c) systems are shaped and constrained by the language and the justified worlds from us and others. d) teaching and learning education policies are made up of social structures, relationships, and differences in different languages spoken in south africa. according to fairclough (1995), “language theory is an object form and is invested in language theory”. lake (1996) argues that the idea of studying http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 29-34 32 the speech in a social context will share critical discourse analysis with sociology and ethno therapy. the discourse is a complex of three elements, such as social practice, discourse practice (text production, distribution, and use), and text, and specific discourse analysis for analysis and their correlation in these dimensions (fairclough: 1995). cda of written and spoken texts works in two ways, namely, critical and constructive. the texts are based on major social institutions, such as families, schools, churches, workplaces, mass media or government. human subjects use texts to create their own meaning and to build social work and relationships in creating different world meanings, concepts and editions, in the same way, to create a place for text and individuals (lucke:1996). in confrontational events in the classroom, the discourse usually opens in uneven, competitive, and unpredictable social structures. cda begins with the acceptance of a subsequent constructor (the scientific objectivism of activists and proponents of universalism) toward the assumption that people have the singular, essential social markings or the stable cultural, social class or gender characteristics. (lucke: 1996). discourses are dynamic and cross-fertility, constantly moving and producing in daily texts. each text is a cultural speech function, social action, forces, audiences, and effects language with a specific shape and feature. all texts are made from recurring statements, such as clams, propositions, and words. based on their earlier experiences with language and texts, people make sense based on their discourse resources collection. all texts are indeed multilingual (with different meanings or meanings depending on their use in different discourses), that is, they draw from the scope of knowledge and sound. critical discourse analysis questions the possibility of a non-cytological statement or text on many sources. all texts are simply standard, shape, and texture rather than simply reflecting and building. the purpose of critical discourse analysis is to make readers and texts with listeners and manipulate them transparently (lucke: 1996). it can make transparent asymmetries in those relationships; text texts can be disclosed to which texts can be found, detect, define, and in some cases activate and control readers and addresses (fairclough: 1995). the construction of official knowledge in schools involves the inverse coverage of text and sites from educated, teachers and corporate publishers to classroom classes and informal discussion, and civil servants prepared legislature and policy letters, prepared by the educational, teachers and corporate publishers. the true speech and writing of students for formal evaluation (mcgregor: 2010). the key result is to establish itself as a form of common sense for naturalizing its own functions by appearing in daily texts. the function or function of discourse analysis is to criticize and criticize texts as a way to interrupt the mean sense. every day we make decisions about daily conversations, the effectiveness, value, and truth of the ads or textbooks. 2.1 cda: interventions according to blommaert and bulcaen (2000), “propose a three-dimensional framework to grasp and analyze the discourse: a) “discussion is the language-language features of concrete instances and text-like organizationdiscussions. b) discussion-like practice, consumed, shared, distributed and distributed in society. c) the discourse is a feature of debate-socio-practice, that is, theoretical effects and influential processes." cda is an intervention of social practices, which critically investigate. this should indicate the amendments to the proposals and specific discourses for change. the meaning of the text does not exist until it is actively used in use. in other words, the discourse can be seen as a situation in use by saying that the process is activated in the text. textualization is a reconstruction of the reader's intended message reader. the writers' observation product is text. as a descriptive habit, the discourse explores many aspects, including text, contextual, design, and methods. these methods have been developed to examine socially structured methods in classroom rooms and other educational settings. 3. result and discussion 3. 1 thematic analysis theme-specific analysis information is trying to identify meaningful categories or topics in the body (fulcher: 2010). howitt and cramer (2010) suggest that in thematic analysis, the researcher's work identifies a limited number of subjects that accurately reflect their text data. theme-specific analysis is the method of identifying, analyzing and reporting data (themes) (braun and clarke: 2006). a theme is a set of link categories that convey the same meanings and generally emerges through a corresponding analytical process, which is a qualitative model. by looking at a text, the researcher asks whether the abstraction can be aborted for many repeated things, for example, stability or blasphemy. data familiarity is important for thematic analysis. after familiarity, researchers can code his / or data. in the report results section, abstract topics have been reported and reported. themes identified in this study were analyzed, and reports and recommendations were made. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 29-34 33 3.2 print text analysis according to locke (2004), “texts can be analyzed in the following ways: please: critical discourse analysis allows binaries to reveal and compete. a) contextualization codes: reinforces power by a form of repetition. b) cohesion: a text together is meaningful, completely sewing. these tools include combinations, pronouns, exhibitors, ellipses, adverbs and repetitive words and phrases. cooperation helps establish co-operative or subordinate relationships. c) discourse organization: the largest units and paragraphs in which sentences are joined by the organization. d) thematic organization: postponing symptoms based on the explanatory structure of the editorial.” 4. conclusion in this article, researchers have examined how critical discourse analysis is conducted. researchers emphasize that critical discourse analysis is primarily localized and can be measured using its language learning standard. speech can be used to represent beliefs, positions, and ideas about who speaks about a spoken text. written or verbal messages can mean meaning when analyzing the underlying meaning of the words. analyzing the underlying meanings can mean the meaning of the problems, rules, and events that educators have. word usage can help those with control over the education system. 5. acknowledgement this research was supported/partially supported by dept. of english education, fkip universitas lancang kuning. we thank our colleagues who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations/conclusions of this paper. references anyon, j. 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(2015). methods of critical discourse studies. sage. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 105-110 105 re-visits the grand theory of geoffrey leech: seven types of meaning sandra yunira 1, siska pradina 2, mathilda sumbayak 3, nunung susilo putri 4 and tatum derin 5 1 smk negeri 5 pekanbaru. indonesia 2, 3, 4, 5 u-raise academy, pekanbaru, indonesia sandrayunira98@gmail.com article history received : 2019-12-02 revised : 2019-12-06 accepted : 2019-12-29 keywords geoffrey leech semantics meaning qualitative approach linguistics abstract meaning is the field of the study discussed in the semantic field. semantics is a branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words in languages. this present study would like to set thought and argues that the meaning of a word in language can be known with the foundation of semantic perspective. therefore, this present study focused on explaining its thought based on the seven types of meaning and their descriptions in the book of semantics by geoffrey leech: 1981. the research aims to classify and to identify seven types of meanings, and also to analyze leech’s book and three article reviews of his theory. this present study uses a qualitative approach focusing on the words, phrases, and sentences regarding the theory. the result of this research believes that there are seven types of meaning just as leech’s mentioned in his theory, namely conceptual, connotative, collocative, reflective, affective, social, and thematic. this present study also found that the seven types of meaning have variations in their descriptions which somehow liked to connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning and collocative meaning include to associative meaning. 1. introduction this present study tries to make a point by revisiting the theory proposed by geoffrey leech 1981, which explain and divided meaning into seven types. these seven types of meaning, for so long being supported and used by many studies, however at the same time it is also contradict or argue by many scholars across the discipline. therefore, this study tries to revisit the theory from several studies which support the theory in order to see their perspectives and enriching our knowledge regarding meaning. moreover, it is important to understand that to be understood by people, it is supposed to by meaningful communication; words must have a meaning. this exactly where semantic comes in, to help anyone understand words. it’s been a general knowledge have more than one meaning. in reality, the word is very helpful in our life due to its variety of meaning. word is related to the situation of human; it's not used in isolation. according to crystal (1991: 310), that "semantics is one of the branches of linguistics that studies about meaning, and is considered to be the main branch in linguistics that aims to study a meaning in language). researchers traditionally defined semantics as the study of meaning, and this is the definition we will initially adopt. crystal (1991: 100) also says that "the study of the meaning traits is an important part of semantics, but it is only partial. even more important is the study of the way words and sentences convey meaning in everyday situations of speaking and writing. (lyons (1997: 1) stated that semantics is a study that discusses meaning. semantics also has significant ties to various theories of representative meaning, including the theory of truth of meaning, the theory of coherence of meaning, and the theory of correspondence of meaning." the term semantics is widely used to refer to the study of meaning. it is also important for communication studies. however, the 'meaning' or information to be communicated can be conveyed in several ways, such as movements, images, signals, etc. language is the main tool of human communication. semantics, as a branch of linguistics, mainly deals with how 'meaning' is conveyed by the linguistic system which consists of different unit structures such as sentences, phrases, words, morphemes, etc. semantics, as the study of meaning, which connects language with various aspects of non-linguistic reality, also appeals to various disciplines such as philosophy, anthropology, psychology, communication theory etc., semantics in the broadest sense of the term can be considered to study all that communicates with language. still, some scholars would like to limit semantics to the study of logical or conceptual meaning only those aspects of meaning that are logically acceptable, leaving deviations and deviations. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 105-110 106 the meaning of the word is a field of the study discussed in semantic science. semantics is a branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words in languages. linguistics, by contrast, is the study of spoken and written languages that have systematic, rational, empirical characteristics as a description of the structure and rules of language (nurhayati, 2009:3). based on the above opinion, it can be concluded that the meaning of a word in language can be known with the foundation of semantic science. hornby (in pateda, 1989: 45) argues that meaning is what we mean or what we mean. poerwadarminta (in pateda, 1989: 45) says meaning: meaning or purpose. the big indonesian dictionary (in pateda, 2001: 82) the word meaning means: (i) meaning: it pays attention to the meaning of each word contained in the ancient writing, (ii) the meaning of the speaker or writer, (iii) the meaning given to a form language. the meaning is the relationship between language and the outside world that has been mutually agreed upon by the users of language so that it can be understood by one another (aminuddin, 1988: 53). from the limits of that understanding, it can be seen that there are three main elements included in it. first, the meaning is the result of the relationship between language and the outside world. second, relationship determination occurs because of the agreement of the users. third, authorization and meaning can be used to convey information so that they can be mutually understood. according to (leech, 1981) “semantics is the study of meaning in language. we know that language is used to express meanings that can be understood by others. but the meaning is in our minds, and we can express what is in our minds through forms of spoken and written language (also through movements, actions, etc.)” sound patterns of language are learned at the phonological level, and the organization of words and sentences is studied at the morphological and syntactic levels. these, in turn, are arranged so that we can convey meaningful messages or receive and understand messages. "how is language organized to be meaningful?" these are the questions we ask and try to answer at the semantic level. semantics is the level of linguistic analysis in which meaning is analyzed. this is the most abstract level of linguistic analysis because we cannot see or observe meaning as we can observe and record sound. the meaning is closely related to the human capacity to think logically and understand. therefore, when we try to analyze meaning, we try to analyze our own ability to think and understand our own ability to create meaning. semantics focuses on "providing a systematic explanation of the nature of meaning". geoffrey leech, in his semantic book, breaks down "meaning" in a broad sense into seven different types which give primary importance to logical or conceptual meanings. according to geoffrey leech (1981: 8), meaning can be learned as a linguistic phenomenon itself, not as something outside of language. however, the scope of linguistics that studies about meaning does not only consist of one field of science. according to leech, there are only seven types of meaning. meaning plays an important role in understanding what is communicated. as such, there are seven types of meaning, and they contribute a lot to the semantic field. the study of meaning is a new field of this century, in the future; this field of study will advance and will have a lot of value in the analysis of meaning in the field of linguistics. in general, it is classified into seven types of meaning in which five of them are identified as associative meanings. seven types of meanings are conceptual meanings, thematic meanings, and associative meanings; connotative meaning, style meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning. the definition of associative meaning is unstable in meaning and has individual experience variants (leech, 1974: 21). the associative meaning of expressions is related to the mental understanding of the individual speaker. they can be broken down into five subtypes, e.g. connotative, style, affective, reflected, and collocative meaning. 2. methodology this present study uses a qualitative approach focusing on the words, phrases, and sentences regarding the theory of geoffrey leech. this study presents to re-visits the theory of leech about seven types of meaning on his book 'semantic', and also the writer uses the reference by three article reviews of geoffrey leech. 3. results & discussion the result of this research confirmed that there are seven types of meaning based on leech's theory, namely: conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, collocative meaning, reflective meaning, affective meaning, social meaning, and thematic meaning. the new of this present study found is that the seven types of meaning have variations in their descriptions. 3.1 conceptual meaning what leech calls conceptual meaning is the same as what other scholars call 'denotative', or 'designative', or 'cognitive', or 'descriptive' meaning. and this meaning is considered a central factor in linguistic communication. it is an integral part of the essential function of a language while other types of meaning do not. leeches regard conceptual meaning as primary because it is comparable in organization and structure to the syntactical and phonological level of language. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 105-110 107 two structural principles that seem to be the basis of all linguistic patterns, namely the principle of counteractivity and the principle of the structure are also the basis of conceptual meaning. the second principle, namely structure, is the principle by which larger linguistic units are built from smaller units. in other words, it is the principles by which sentences can be analyzed into parts. here also when sentences are analyzed into their units, namely words and morphemes, and at the phonological level into phonemes (sound units), the same semantic sentence structure can also be explained. the two constituent structural principles represent the way language is organized. contractility is a paradigmatic aspect or selection or 'choice' of linguistic structure. the constituent structure is a syntagmatic or combinatoric aspect of linguistic structure 'chain'. explaining these two aspects at all levels of language organization is called phonological (sound structure), syntax (sentence structure) semantics (meaning) is the work of linguists. this is done by specifying, 'phonological representation', 'syntactic representation' and 'semantic representation' and the stage at which one level of representation can be derived from another. at the level of semantic representation, the conceptual meaning of a sentence will be explained in the form of semantic representation using abstract symbols and contrast features. this will help people to know to distinguish the meaning of certain sentences from all other possible sentences in the language. this representation will also match the meaning of the sentence with the appropriate syntactic and phonological forms. conceptual meaning refers to the logical understanding of speech and is recognized as a basic component of grammatical competence. the alternative is described as cognitive or denotative meaning (denotation) (see lyons 1981). this is a basic or universal meaning and can be represented at the lexical level, as well as the meaning of simple clauses or sentences. at the lexical level (lexeme), the conceptual meaning is represented as a series of different features. the set of relevant special features, if not described as semes or semema, depends on the given semantic field. the operand features for lexeme 'people are [human], [adult], [male]. the application of these features uses binary notation where the value of the feature is determined as one positive [+], negative [-] or neutral [∓]. consider the meaning of kiswahili: mtu 'person', mtoto 'child', mzee 'parent', kijana 'youth', mwanamke 'woman', mwanamume 'man', mvulana 'boy', msichana 'girl'. mtu → [+ human], [∓ adult], [∓ male] mtu mtoto → [+ human], [– adult], [∓ male] mtoto mzee → [+human], [+ adult], [∓ male] mzee kijana → [+ human], [∓ adult], [∓ male] kijana mke → [+ human], [+ adult], [– male] mke mume → [+ human], [+ adult], [+ male] mume mvulana → [+ human], [– adult], [+ male] mvulana msichana → [+ human], [– adult], [– male] msichana in addition to distinguishing meanings, semantic features serve as a basis for comparing and differentiating lexemes. all these lexemes share [+ human] features. otherwise, the lexeme pair compares or contrasts based on other properties as illustrated in the semantic rules represented above. the conceptual structure of a simple clause or sentence will be represented as a set of meaningful postulates. operant postulates refer to certain basic assumptions of the lexeme and are represented as semantic rules. consider the two kiswahili expressions that are appropriate. karama (x) ni mwanamume. ‘karama is a man.’ selina (y) ni mwanamke. ‘selina is a woman.’ x → a person an adult possessing the biological properties of a male y → a person an adult possessing the biological properties of a female 3.2 connotative meaning for the sake of defining precisely this type of meaning, leech's book on semantics needs to be consulted once again: "connotative meaning is the communicative value of expression based on what it refers to, exceeds and above its pure conceptual content." (leech 1981, 12) as can be seen from the definition, connotative meanings inevitably overlap with certain aspects of conceptual meanings. therefore, "reference" overlaps with elements of conceptual meaning, such as when the contrasting features of conceptual meaning become attributes of "real-world" references. but the additional attributes http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 105-110 108 expected from the reference depend on various other factors, such as age or society, and they can also depend on the individual, as claimed by leech (1981: 12). in this context, the relationship between conceptual and connotative meaning can be easily compared to the relationship between language (conceptual) and "real world" (connotative). for this reason, connotative meanings can be seen as open and unstable categories compared to conceptual meanings. (leech 1981: 12). leech said that connotative meaning is the communicative value possessed by an expression based on what if it refers to and above its pure conceptual content. this is a feature of a reference, denotatum or segment of the real world which is not included in the conceptual meaning. from various features of several references, there are constructive features or criteria that provide basic criteria for the correct use of words. the connotative meaning of leech (1981) is related to real-world experiences associated with the linguistic expressions that people use or hear. connotative meaning is a device when compared with conceptual meaning. it is also relatively unstable because it varies according to culture, historical period and individual experience. the connotative meaning is uncertain and open-ended. this is because this depends on the knowledge and trust of the speakers and may belong to the reference, real or imaginary characteristics as identified by the speaker. but conceptual meaning consists of a limited number of closed features. leech definition of connotative meaning is very different from the connotation of zgusta as a component of lexical meaning, and the use of connotative john lyon is different from denotation. the so-called leeches of social and affective meaning are included by zgusta (1971) under the connotation. lyon and others call affective or emotive, which means connotation. 3.3 affective meaning affective meaning is related to the speaker's personal feelings or attitudes. in a way that is comparable to social meaning, the affective meaning is only indirectly related to conceptual representation. leech (2003: 27-28) states that affective meaning is often explicitly conveyed through the conceptual or connotative content of the words used. for example, mcdonalds 'motto is "i'm lovin' it". the word "lovin 'it" as proof that this sentence describes the feelings of the writer and reader towards the product. 3.4 collective meaning leech (2003: 30) states that the collocative meaning consists of the association of words obtained because of the meaning of words that tend to occur in their environment. for example, the words 'beautiful and handsome'. beautiful and handsome share similarities in the meaning of "good looking", but can be distinguished by the range of nouns with which they tend to appear or unite: beautiful: girls, boys, girls, parks, flowers, colors, villages, etc. handsome → boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc. it could be that the words overlap like a handsome woman and a beautiful woman. both are acceptable, even though they have different appeal because of the collocative association of the two adjectives. this present study must mention leech's quote to clearly define the type of colocative meaning: "the meaning of the collocative consists of the associations that words acquire because of the meaning of words that tend to occur in their environment." (leech 1981, 17) to clarify his definition, he uses examples of adjectives "beautiful" and "handsome" and words usually found around them. in terms of the colloidal meaning, quasi-synonyms need to be mentioned, such as “wandering” and "walking", in which leech explains that "cows may roam, but may not walk” (1981: 17). moreover, one can only "tremble" with fear and, on the other hand, only "tremble" with excitement. (1981: 17). 3.5 associative meaning associative meaning describes the combination of six modes of language use, which refers to certain mental connections. such connections are based on the closeness of real-world experience rather than the linguistic context. the next discussion focuses on four types of associative meanings, selected based on different specific communicative properties, e.g. connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, and collocative meaning. 3.6 social meaning languages associated with social languages (1981: 14) because this is closely related to various social groups that are part of the situation, david crystal and derek davy form a collection of sociostyle variations that correspond to 3 (1969: 66): a) dialect (language of geographical area or social class) b) time (e.g. 18th-century language) c) province (legal language, science, advertising, etc. d) status (polite, colloquial, slang, etc.) e) modalities (language memoranda, lectures, talks, etc.) f) singularity (style dickens, hemingway, etc.) http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 105-110 109 therefore, words can be announced with conceptual and social meanings that are both very rare, and, to prove that, leeches add samples while comparing conceptual synonyms with different style meanings. (1981, 14). depending on the situation, social meaning can include what is called the power of illocution, which can then be interpreted as requests, apologies, challenges, etc., requested by leech. (1981: 15) 3.7 thematic meaning this type of thematic meaning provides an answer to the question: "what is communicated by the way the author shapes and organizes messages?" which can be considered part of a semantic sentence. (leeches 1981: 19) there are several examples of these events, such as examples where active and passive sentence construction is confronted, e.g. mr x donated the first prize. (active) vs. the first prize was donated by mr x. (passive) (leech 1981: 19) however, in essence, leech states that the thematic meaning is "a matter of choice between alternative grammatical constructions", for example, in the sentence "a man is here to meet you." and “there is a man here to see you". (1981: 19) in addition, emphasis by replacing one element with another or stress and intonation can also be very important when dealing with this type of meaning. (1981: 19-20). 4. conclusion some studies believed that the study of meaning in the broader sense would bring about the study of semantic in the next level. inline of it this study thinks all that is communicated by language'; will not limit their practice by learning logical or conceptual meanings and this is exactly semantic need to put side by side with broaden perspective. it doesn't take great insight to see those semantics in the previous sense, and broader can bring us once again into the emptiness from which bloomfield as the object of human knowledge or belief. this study believes every scholar can, by carefully distinguishing the types of meanings, show how they all fit in with the total combined effects of linguistic communication can bring about semantic onto more vary perspectives. the basic thought this study proposes is how people can know the right words to use with other words in a sentence into more vary used and context-based. in english, sometimes one word has a synonym with another word, but not all synonym words can be used with other words. it depends on the context of the sentence. this research has similar thought with leech that believes in nature. there are seven types of meaning based on leech's theory, and the first is conceptual meaning = logical, cognitive or connotative content. second, connotative meaning = what is communicated based on what is referenced by language. third is social meaning = what is communicated about the social state of language. the next is affective meaning = what the speaker's feelings and attitudes communicate through language. the fifth is reflected meaning = what is communicated through association with other senses from the same world. then, collective meaning = what is communicated through association with words that occur together with other words. the last one is thematic meanings = what is communicated in the way in which messages are arranged in order and emphasis. 5. acknowledgement this research was supported by smkn 5 pekanbaru. therefore, the researchers owe gratitude to their research supervisor and colleague who have given productive criticism in the production of this research study. references abdelaal, n. m. (2018). translating connotative meaning in the translation of the holy quran: problems and solutions. awej for translation & literary studies, volume2, (1). altstiel, t and grow, j. 2008. advertising strategy (creative tactics from the outside/in). singapore: seng lee press pte. ltd. bloomfield. 1933:139. language. new york: compton printing ltd. cann, ronnie. 1994. formal semantics. new york: cambridge university press. chaer, abdul. 1990. pengantar semantik bahasa indonesia. jakarta: rineka cipta djajasudarma, fatimah. 2009. semantik 2 pemahaman ilmu makna. bandung: refika aditama 2009. crystal, d. 1987. the cambridge encyclopedia of language. melbourne, australia: cambridge university press. crystal, d. 1991. a dictionary of linguistics and phonetics 3rd edition. cambridge, ma: bsil blackwell. dingxiasong. 1998. the understanding of the slogans/taglines. e-journal on-line. 23 april 2010. www.dingxiasong@sina.com dutamurty. e. n. 2013. associative meaning on www.khilafah.com. surabaya: surabaya state university. harefa, d. k., & ginting, i. (2018). associative meaning of hendihendi in giving afo in nias wedding ceremony. the episteme journal of linguistics and literature, 4(3). http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 105-110 110 hurford, james., heasley, brendan., and smith, michael. 2007. semantics a course book. second ed. new york. cambridge press. hussein, h. a. h. (2017). types of meaning exploited in advert's textuality: a semantic approach. journal of al_anbar university for language and literature, (25), 170-185. hussein, h. a. h. (2017). types of meaning exploited in advert's textuality: a semantic approach. journal of al_anbar university for language and literature, (25), 170-185. jindal, d.v and syal, pushpinder. 2002. an introduction to linguistics: language grammar and semantics. new delhi: asoke k. ghosh kridalaksana, harimukti. 2008. kamus linguistik: introduction to theoretic linguistics. jakarta: pt gramedia. leech, g. 1974. semantics. new york, u.s.a: penguin. leech, g. 1974. semantik. translated by paina partana. 2003. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. leech, geoffrey. 1981. semantics the study of meaning. second ed. great britain:penguin books. lyons, j. 1997. semantics volume i. great britain: university press, cambridge. maisel, t., & lexicology, p. s. (2018). the meaning of meaning: leech’s seven types of meaning in comparison to palmer’s and lyons’ approaches. maroon, i. (2018). a semantic analysis of lyrics expression (doctoral dissertation, universitas muhammadiyah surakarta). michaud, m. (2017). on collocative meaning. journal of semantics and efl. morley, g, d. 2000. syntax in functional grammar: an introduction to lexicogrammar in systematic linguistics. new york: continum. noor, m. and mustafa, r and muhabat, f and kazemian, b. 2015. the language of tv commercials’ slogans: a semantic analysis. pakistan: university of gujrat, punjab. vol. 1, pp 7-12 sarefah, l. 2008. the associative meaning in the headlines of the jakarta post. unpublished thesis. the state islamic university of malang. umagandhi, r., & vinothini, m. (2017). leech’s seven types of meaning in semantics. international journal of multidisciplinary research and development, 4. wangru, c. (2016). vocabulary teaching based on semantic-field. journal of education and learning, 5(3), 64-71. wheeler, a. 2003. designing brand identitiy: a complete guide to creating, building and maniatining strong brands. john wiley and sons. wiryanti, s. 2015. associative meaning of pornography in printed media advertising products: a pragmatic study. surakarta: sebelas maret university of surakarta. vol.36: 370. yusuf, n, l. 2010. a study on the associative meanings of the jakarta weekender magazine. unpublished thesis. maulana malik ibrahim state islamic university of malang http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 23-28 23 reviewing critical discourse analysis (cda) studies: ideas from chinese scholars zhan li xia 1 and budianto hamuddin 2 1, 2 applied linguistic center, universitas lancang kuning, indonesia zhan.lixia97@gmail.com article history received : 2019-06-08 revised : 2019-06-12 accepted : 2019-06-25 keywords cda chinese scholars inter-relationship review abstract this present study discusses critical discourse analysis (cda) studies made by chinese scholars. the rising of the studies in china seems started at the beginning of the 90s'. it is almost two decades since chinese scholars get involved in critical discourse analysis research. in a short time, the scholars showing their ability in critical discourse analysis by publishing many papers since it. this present library research aims at reviewing the cda studies since 1990 until the present day to see the related link between discourse, control and ideology in the relationship between personal, facts, and social-cultural development in. the studies start with several definitions, origin and some leading research in europe and america of critical discourse analysis. this present study reveals that the papers produced by chinese scholars on cda fields since the 1990s somehow mostly discuss in the area of linguistics, political, philosophy, media studies, methodological, and theoretical studies expression. the chinese scholars are floundered to produce critical discourse analysis studies with unique research to study without limits. recently the research shows that cda has been applied to the investigation of varied discourses context to disclose social reality, focusing on the inter-relationship between discourse, power and ideology. 1. introduction zellig harris was the first linguist in american structural extend studies of discourse analysis in his research paper at 1952 with title discourse analysis, and in 1979 roger fowler the expert in british linguist publish his book language and control, a book with the regulation of critical linguistics studies. norman fairclough, one of professor at lancaster university, he is a researcher in cda practical to sociolinguistic. he clarified the concept in his essay language and power. in 1999, when kristen malmkjer is listed be a complement of textual analysis and conversational lessons in linguistics of encyclopedia, studies of critical discourse analysis formally measured as a division of da (discourse analysis) and also conventional by linguistics studies. firstly we will talk about the definition of "discourse" before we start talking about cda (critical discourse analysis). professor of language at king college, guy cook (1989:156), he said discourse make bigger of language studies recognize to be significantly combined. according to fairclough (1995:18), the discourse has two fundamental parts; discourse looks by public act and, and discourse as a public structure of truth. teun v.d (1997) mentions that discourse is usually identified as a form of verbal language, what is said in public speeches, for example, or it could also refer to the design of convinced educate of thoughts, for instance, the discourse of contemporary philosophies. define of "discourse" by the expert are illustrate with clear that meaning of "discourse" is strong linkage both of linguistics studies and social factors and it does not only contain about words, written, spoken, or texts, but it about obsesses to strong relationship connecting language and the social ideology power. teun van dijk (1998-4) says, from a critical perspective, some ideologies are "better" than others when the social project involves an attempt to achieve equity. in (cda) critical discourse analysis, critical should to understood next to discourse as it is strongly connected with ideology. critical discourse analysis interpret dialogue as an ideology because they are used to characterize the systems of attention, show in language that groups and persons exercise to see themselves, passed through of filter information, and understand the meaning of some conversation extend the ideology. claim by critical discourse analysis, no matter if an ideology is good or bad, that depends on if that helps someone to think positive and set goals in others http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ mailto:zhan.lixia97@gmail.com journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 23-28 24 way or improve their ability they can change be better with good or bad ideology. but if he/she can't accept others bad ideology and he/she feel hopeless then stop to get a more because of others critical it depends on he/she opinion, that's mean he/she success because of their self-can't accept others negative ideology and selfish. more to the point of "critical", for common people is not studying about a linguist, they will ask what is different between studies of critical discourse analysis and discourse analysis? discourse analysis is more focus on the study of texts, theory, stylistics and others like that. but critical discourse analysis is focused on the relationship between language and variety of social life, interferences, and also efforts to show up the strengthness from ideology context to speaking and its mean social interaction and also social structure is two factors are emphasized by critical analysis. as a result, the people who have the strength to speak the issue maybe has a relative concept to speak until final about that issue and can affect others beginning of the issue (hamuddin, 2015). according to wodak, 2001, the definition of critical, "critical" means not taking things for granted, opening up complexity, challenging reductionism, dogmatism, being self-reflective in my research, and through these processes, making opaque structures of power relations and ideologies manifest. "critical", thus does not imply the common sense meaning of negative, rather sceptical. proposing alternatives is also part of being "critical". (wodak's definition of "critical" in resigl & wodak, 2001, chapter 2) [17]. ruth wodak is professor expert in applied of linguistics since 1991 years. she was awarded the wittgenstein prize to elite explore in 1996, which made a few years of the continuous interdisciplinary group explore possible. her research mainly located in discourse studies and critical discourse analysis (cda). together with her colleagues and phd students in vienna, she complexes the "discoursehistorical approach in cda" which is interdisciplinary, problem-oriented and analysis changes in discursive practices over time and in a variety of types. beside ruth wodak, there is others who experts in critical discourse analysis, teun a.van dijk, defined "a type of discourse analytical research that primarily studies the way social power abuse, dominance and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the social-political context” (van dijk: 1999). cda has made many processes since the 1970s in the international community. however, cda studies in china did not begin until chen (1995) [8] introduced critical linguistics in 1995. since then, academic research has attracted considerable attention in the linguistic circle, and plentiful accomplishments have been achieved. cda studies in china began in 1995 when chen introduce critical linguistics. and actually, cda has made process since 1970 in the world community. although china is late to know and studies more about cda, that does not make them to late chasing achievements, they recognized in the world with the achievements of their research in cda. in china, lan and wang, reviewed cda studies from june until december, they are analysis all research article related eleven linguistics articles, and they make their invention and findings. in total, there are 53 investigates articles that are a delegate and trustworthy give out the samples of their studies. the journey of their discovery consists of: a) begin in half of the 2005 year there are only 2 have a certain quality, interesting worlds to cda are increased in 2006, and until 2009 there are 31 articles have a certain quality, and with that’s showed domestic academic is began to interesting to studies of cda. b) academic linguistics journals are sited a mounting pressure on cda studies. there are seen by in june 2008 foreign language research established a studies column for cda, which propose cda a positive place for development. c) the figure of researches focus on critical discourse analysis study are increasing. fiftythree articles are the intervention of 49 writers. d) articles on theoretical introduction and review studies took up the overwhelming majority because critical discourse analysis studies are mostly concentrate on introduction and prestige of research in international academic society. only some article of cda analyses of exact text and discourse.5. prof. xin, the linguist who the most stand out in comparative critical analysis between english discourse studies and chinese discourse studies and this news report terms in number one newspaper in new york, the new york times and china daily, but unfortunately there is no scholars in china try to use the same way. e) the number of articles on practical research is more than articles on academic research, and this tendency continues from 2009, but if look by methodologies investigations, there are more article on theoretical research than on practical research. chinese scholars still have weakness even if they have complete big performance in studies of cda, the first reason is point and lining of cda studies in others country especially american have been comprehensive to ideology, research on racial, political discourse analysis, studies of migrant, research on media and language, bureaucratic http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 23-28 25 discourse, social life discourse, studies of institutional and others. on china, they are instead to focus and stressing of evaluation foreign studies research. some existing research at home engage legal discourse, advertising discourse and discourse of institutional, but there is also not deep enough to investigate the internal instrument of cda. the material of studies cda at home is too incomplete and late for chinese scholar, because when other worlds have walk half way to studies cda, they just need to start to know what is cda, there is the second reason weakness to learn cda for chinese scholar, even though there is argument on responsive topics of political and small issues, the resources for discussion are new and different for chinese materials. lan and wang’s chinese scholar evaluate research have presented that stress on studies of cda in china has been uneven from the research of theoretical to claim of cda studies to the examination of extract discourse in varied contexts of social. li (2004), presented his views of cda in sensible studies and teaching of language in more than a few aspects by analyzing the setting, methodology and also the process of cda studies. furthermore, the dedication of cda falsehood in discourse is a factor of social that have contribution usefully to a revolution of social-life. because of this, fairclough opines that studies of critical analysis can support social progress and there is a reason domestic scholars need to active the tool of cda studies of social life discourse to explore the connection between discourse and society. yuan (2001), showed to the public that cda of political discourse is meant to find out more about the social function of studies of discourse and factors of socio-cultural. jiang (2003), digging up very distant sources about the principles and power of connection language by analyzing news of english and sharping out the international media inundated with english news subjective and the world under enemy control audience's ideology. team of analysis studies about cda has summarized the latest trend about studies of cda in china, and that is showed to foreign language teachers to know how to drawing material about political and social leaning of news rumour about chinese topic in others foreign media group. seen from inclusive progress of china economy and speed of globalization in latest years, media group of western start to go through the domestic market of chinese. as a result, it is chinese readers need to increase their responsive able of ideology power and relations power. in another side it's a reason teaching a foreign language is not thought to be a cut off tool to teach language to our students, but more factors of social can be measured in teaching language to show our student the important of the line in political and our social life as a social human. 2. method development of cda in china from 2000-2009 years are drawing by lan and wang (2010) from the overall picture. for this part and another part that tracks details of theoretical and methodological studies and practical studies on cda in china to show to the public. cda theories theoretical and methodological is pure foreign (abroad), and like what are authors draw in the first part, studies about cda in the home especially for research cda in language put in research on cda. one scholar in china, xin (1996), comprehensive observation on the core of cda theoretical in foreign country studies at the 1980s until 1990s, and the results of finding are a tag on: a) firstly, the important of social language context, and the functional of halliday and also propose an easy way to faced cda studies. b) secondly, the finding of language and control fowler (1979), is current about the base of practices, he showed effect between ideology and discourse in social and also connection about the strengthening of control and the finding is stressing on parts of language answering "how and why". c) finally, fairclough, one scholar from abroad are stressing on process power of ideology can control and influence language aspects, and there are directed by burly society. to reach three of the plans applied studies above, xin at 1997 do study research about english discourse by looking from various aspects among others, concentrate, transformation, classification on the character of ideology-that is survived in adding up. in making a study of general cda for the english language. in the report of this issue, xin suggests using comparative technique cda in the following three factors: (1) contrast function between semantics and a few structures of semantics also phrase in the discourse of english issues. (2) i have investigated successive english news report about one issue from the same organization to check out viewpoint by another reporter. (3) investigated news report about the same issues or trends issues from other organizations to explorer different viewpoint. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 23-28 26 xin (2002), are reviews methodologies of cda studies the common methodology bring afg to be a main line and source of structure from intensity projected by thompson evaluated the research of ideas from three factors of proper social-historical and re-interpretation. at 2004, xin gives a clue to show his perspective with a few questions relating to studies of cda on the denigration on cda. cda in the function of discourse analysis studies is still in development because of prematurity; advocates have understood the curb of cda on discourse analysis studies. some of the analysis of cda studies emerges to be hard, which specify that columnists have imagined too far from studies of cda. up there, so many scholars in studies of cda have established the following few points: a) the strong point by cda of linguistics and pragmatics studies is their can more clearly and intensely in understanding discover the effect of talkative and society has crafted by discourse study. b) without deepening studies linguistics and pragmatics, analysis insincerity rationally to make clear intuitional of discourse conception. c) the analysis formation of language required to sustain and confirmed by other answers of discourse side. d) analysis needs recognition by deducing and exemplify discourse, and the step of illustration needs to be obvious for other scholars to inspect the investigate effect using the same way. e) analysis needs to be understood by themselves because the conclusion of study can be changed if there are have modification or amendment by information and background run. at 2001, one of the scholars in china, ji evaluated a few techniques of cda studies. three of the technique is following by systemic-function analysis that the one technique is known by us, and it’s the original technique and the secondly there is intertextual analysis, their technique is worth the productivity and ingenuity of studies of discourse analysis pure begin from the fad of inter-textuality — the last, historical analysis. at 2004 dai and chen, two of scholars in china, take out a related analysis and converse the control of ideas by creation reports by online. from the genesis, theories, substances and accomplishments by cda li and zhang at 2007 try to illustrate the main place. not different from others features of public or social life studies, research of cda also faced some complicated situation when investigate or research focus are modifying and so many worth and also insights from others intuitions and social group along with the transform make a new confronts by how to investigate the obtaining the critically of changes. at 2009, chinese scholar, zhang development an artificial theoretical structure to analyzed discourse on the interest of general functional linguistics studies. artificial of that mostly stress at the multimodal structure of discourse at a few stages, the following stages are: a) the first level is the perspective of ethnicity. b) the second level is the perspective of the live condition. c) third, the level of semantic study. d) fourth, formal level. e) last, substance of media level. zhang also set onward the link among structures of grammatical, the framework of discourse, figure elements of grammar (consists of member, shape, and period), pointed out that variety of non-lingual media, present plentiful discourse statement options. china scholars in theoretical and methodological of cda studies mostly track the same way with european scholars, but they are using few original theoretical and methodological from china where have been intending. chinese scholar is conformed to strange theories from european scholars to pertinent china investigate. 3. result and discussion the studies of cda has a strong foundation to apply the basic of cda practical studies and critical analysis have got benefit by different viewpoints of cda to investigate a variety of discourses among if there is, announcement, legal discourse, political discourse, medical discourse, fictional discourse, discourse of education, tv media discourse, speeches and others. in about five years later, in linguistics and media area studies, chinese scholar has completed so many efforts in investigating the critical subjects in a variety of types of discourse, planning to expose the link between influence, ideology and discourse and there is newest research findings are as follows: a) in 2009 xu and du did take the function of ideational, interpersonal, and textual as an analytical instrument of sfg to evaluate two or few information reports from reporters or tv stations to look at features of categorization, modality and transitivity. they are doing that to look and utter if ideology influences to manage the discourse and how social covering by ideology from apparently of purposing of the statement. news official is appropriate to support their benefits country and the provide party political. in http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 23-28 27 the end, if we read news from online or newspapers, we need to understand seriously news statements to knowing the supporting point of reporters. b) 2009 yang put forward that ideology of discourse aspires to get and keep the control to make up the public. he also maintained the discourse of legal in china or abroad is an application of harmony ideology through explored a link among influence, discourse and ideology and the conclusion, discourse of legal studies is area and contest of control. c) at 2009 again, yan and zhao try to analyzed structure of modalities by speech about conflict of war and harmony peace in worlds where talking by john mccain and barack obama to show function of manipulative and persuasive from modalities of legal discourse studies and this analyzed is inspired by halliday's sfg classification of modalities fowler and theory by van dijk about analyzed of ideology in modalities. findings in research demonstrate were using of modalities in legal discourse is best ideas or tactic and also to show the important of delivery point view and beliefs of speeches and also inflict their view to the listener where has goals with totally. d) next, to 2010, xie and li are famous scholars in china try to learn about speeches by the president of the us, george bus, the speeches are a purpose to influence the readers in different ways. the speeches try to control the audiences with their ideology inclination. e) zhang and liu (2011) [26] pointed out that the theoretical framework of critical linguistics needs improving to stress the features of the language. by analyzing and understand the lexicalgrammatical features of certain discourse, they summarized the basic principles of social factors and ideological elements in the discourse and concluded that ideational meaning leaves some of the information aside by employing particular grammatical patterns and interpersonal meaning realizes ideological features by employing particular lexical patterns to express implicit and explicit standpoints. f) based on research by zhang and liu at 2011, they show up that the structure of theoretical of linguistics critical must develop to more focusing on elements on language. they are doing that by understanding and explore lexical grammar and discourse studies. zhang and liu also review the fundamental standard of public aspect and ideology. g) wang, sun, and geng, at 2011 stressing in ideologies trends from reports by nyt about china. they are starting from explorer news reports about china in nyt from perspective supposed and try to understanding trending ideologies inside. they also show up that using interpersonal can change focusing and make a negative influence to make up china image in international public. geng finds nyt placed meaning of ideologies with lining in reporting the news about china with legalizes and its make bad chinese image for a long time in international public. h) inspired by the 3-d model by fairclough and lexical-grammar language by halliday, at 2012 wu exposed the link among discourse, control and ideology by harmony test discourse and social perform of tv. he is drawing is an advertisement of cosmetics or beauty tools, shown by the tv with publishing ideas about using, their life styles and also values in live with trying to persuade people who watch their ads to buy and use their product. because of that person who watches a tv need to understand what values delivered by ads tv and getting information in ads and should to be critical be careful to understanding ads. i) based on wen in 2012, is discourse can work out the strength of college students knowledge, social category, and organization. therefore, college students of discourse take a different tactic look at by states and their advantages in the link of control. and the latest trend from students college is standard of sending messages by mobile phone. j) at 2012, chen and ji try to applied studies of cda in the development of critical of students. firstly, ji argues about the important of critical reading skills, and then he recommended efforts to the student get better in reading skills. and next, chen makes a type of effective and possible to teach students from choosing from newspapers or english language magazines cda following by levels of semantics, discourse and also syntax to awaken students about important of critical reading. furthermore, findings applied about studies of cda in latest years can be confidential by two types. first types are a focus on english language discourse, contained political speeches, media advertisement, talking conference, news reports, short language and others, with aims of showed the relation between controls and ideology in discourse. second types, attempt to placed findings in first types, actually is to fixed teaching of reading the english language in china with wishes students in china can read and think critical by themselves. in all of the findings, there is still have a weakness in this aspect. i have started with that, about a few studies research reports about issues about reputed of media in western. and then there are no inclusive of cda http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 23-28 28 studies discovering discourse issue in three of linguistics outlines. and finally, studies of cda especially concentrate in language disappearing hiding ideology in discourse. 4. conclusion as a part of text-linguistics studies and also the best way to take discourse analysis studies, cda has goals to the related link between discourse, control and ideology and it's attesting is discourse helping joining of public in political efforts, support constitutional in social of realism, relation between personal, facts, and social-cultural development. according to types of cda by fairclough and sfg halliday, scholars in china in this ground is applied cda in understanding various shapes and make out many accomplishments. 5. acknowledgement this research was supported/partially supported by applied linguistic center, dept. of english education, fkip universitas lancang kuning. we thank our colleagues who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations/conclusions of this paper. references bin, x. (2000). critical linguistics and the critical analysis of english news [j]. foreign language education, 4. bin, x. i. n. (2002). on the methodology of critical discourse analysis [j]. journal of foreign languages, 6. dai, w., & chen, y. (2004). theories and methods of critical discourse analysis. foreign languages research, 4. delu, z., & xiuli, l. (2011). lexicogrammar in critical discourse analysis. journal of ocean university of china (social sciences), 2. du juan, x. l. (2009). the analysis of news from the perspective of critical discourse analysis [j]. foreign language education, 4. fairclough, n. (1992). critical language awareness [m]. london: longman, fairclough, n. (2001). language and power [m]. london: longman, fairclough, n. & clive, h. (1995). critical discourse analysis: the critical study of language [m]. london: longman, hamuddin, b. (2012). a comparative study of politeness strategies in economic journals (doctoral dissertation, university of malaya). hamuddin, b. (2015). discourse on media: bringing hot news into elt's classroom discussion. proceedings of iselt fbs universitas negeri padang, 3, 87-95. tian, h. (2001). the english and chinese political discourse: contrastive and critical analysis. journal of tianjin university of commerce, 21(6). van dijk, t. a. (1998). ideology: a multidisciplinary approach. sage. van dijk, t. a. (1999). critical discourse analysis [a]. in deborah tannen, deborah schiffrin & heidi hamilton (eds.).the handbook of discourse analysis [c]. oxford: wileyblackwell, xie, h., & li, l. (2010). critical discourse analysis of news reports. journal of shayang teachers college, 3. xin, b. (1996). language, power and ideology: critical linguistics. modern foreign languages, 1, 21-26. yan, shiqing; zhao, xia. (2009) modality in political discourse and its critical discourse analysis. journal of suzhou university (philosophy & social science). 2 yang, d. (2009). critical discourse analysis of power awareness in legal discourse. journal of ningxia university (humanities and social sciences edition). (9). http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 10-16 10 developing students’ reading comprehension using stad strategy: a classroom action research (car) at sma negeri 7 pekanbaru asmida posmauli marpaung 1, indri yanti 2, yuliana marzuki 3 1, 2 sma negeri 7 pekanbaru, indonesia 3 dinas pendidikan provinsi riau, indonesia mimialmi727@gmail.com article history received : 2019-06-09 revised : 2019-06-11 accepted : 2019-06-20 keywords reading comprehension stad model cooperative type classroom action research abstract this study tries to explore the students’ improvement on reading comprehension and their results of completeness in learning using stad type cooperative learning strategy. using classroom action research (car), this study succeeded in finding out that the average score of the class in the first cycle using stad was found reaching 51.42, while in the second cycle succeed with 74.28. the analysis of this study also reveals the percentage of student learning completeness in the first cycle test reached 21.43%, while the second cycle test managed to increase the score into 85.71%. the percentage of students' understanding in the first cycle showed only 51.42%, while in the second cycle extended into 74.28%. the analysis based on the observation sheet recorded on the first cycle reached 74.30%, while in the second cycle it increased into 91.66%. from the observation sheet for teacher, learning management in the first cycle recorded 84.17%, while in the second cycle it also increased into 90.47%. the data from observation sheet on group discussion in the first cycle managed also recorded 54.76%, while in the second cycle it showed a significant increasing into 90.47%. this study showed that students' reading comprehension has showing a significant increasing using the stad cooperative learning method in sman 7 pekanbaru. 1. introduction teaching reading is an integral part of the educational context. this means that teaching reading is positioned as a tool and functional media in educational settings. this line of thinking similar to what busri, (2002) mentioned in his paper “teaching reading is an inseparable part of language teaching. in this case teaching reading has a dual position, i.e., as a tool and functional media from language teaching”. therefore in language teaching especially reading there are vary strategies and method to gain the objectives including cooperative learning. cooperative learning is developed to achieve at least three learning objectives e.g., academic learning outcomes, acceptance of diversity, and development of social skills. many scholars argue that this learning is excellent in helping students understand difficult concepts. however, many also researchers have shown that the effectiveness structure model has been able to improve students' assessment of academic learning and norm changes related to learning outcomes. moreover, the cooperative learning method such as the student teams achievement division (stad) is one of the simples’ cooperative learning approach. teachers who use stad type learning method also refer to student group learning where every week the teacher uses verbal or text presentations. students in a selected class were divided into groups of 4-5 people, each group must be heterogeneous, consisting of men and women, coming from various ethnic groups, having high, medium and low abilities. moreover, during this time, unwittingly indonesian language learning systems in many schools have caused boredom in the learning atmosphere in class. in the sense that the learning environment that should be running conducive turns into a boring, situation, which has implications for the mastery of the material presented both for the teacher or students as well. therefore, indonesian language learning systems in many schools including sma negeri 7 in pekanbaru also get into same situation where the learning of pelajaran bahasa indonesia (henceforth: pbi) seems less satisfied. based on the learning outcomes of class xi ips 2 students are seems lower then other classes at the same level. this can be seen from their scoring test. this situation is might caused by the use of learning methods that are used by teachers. the pre research observation found that the method that is often used by teachers is lecturing approach which already considerd old though of school approach. the method seems puts the students into passive condition and the rarity of students asking questions or involving onto interactive situation. hence, this presents study-assumptions that pbi learnig situation is a boring lesson and always considered easy things that no need to study at all. the http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 10-16 11 existence of a series of problems above causes the teaching and learning process activities are not as expected, namely students cannot think creatively and independently. today various learning methods appear as choices for teachers in teaching language. still, the teachers’ creativity is compulsory things in applying the chosen learning method including a new method such as cooperative learning method i.e., student teams achievement divisions (stad). therefore, this present study intended to explore and find out whether stad can raise the students’ reading comprehension skills at sman 7 pekanbaru. this present study also intended to find out the result of completeness using stad cooperative learning method. in general, this study aims to obtain an objective descriptions of the students’ improvement on reading comprehension and their completeness of lesson learned using stad cooperative learning method. therefore, this study implemented class action research which is believed can contributed significantly and responsibled to the students improvement on the pbi’s output especially in reading comprehension at the class xi ips 2 of sma negeri 7 in pekanbaru 2. reading comprehension: an overview many researchrs believed that reading is an important thing in learning language and at the same time is a complicated one that involves many things aswell, not just reciting writing, but also involves visual activity, thinking, psycholinguistics and metacognitive, crawley and mountain, (1995), rahim, (2008), wahyuni (2002), cox (1999), burns, roe, da ross (1996), mclauhglin & allen, (2002), hubert et al., 1998. many of the researchers above also mentioned in their studies a similar thought that said as a visual process of reading is the process of translating written symbols (letters) into oral words. as a thought process, reading includes word recognition activities, literal understanding, interpretation, critical reading, and creative understanding. word recognition can be in the form of reading words using a dictionary (crawley and mountain, 1995). moreover, three terms are often used to provide the basic components of the reading process, namely recording, decoding, and meaning. syafi'ie (1999), rahim, (2008), wahyuni (2002), cox (1999), burns, roe, da ross (1996), mclauhglin & allen, (2002) mentioned almost a similar thought that in reading recording refers to words and sentences, then associates them with sounds according to the writing system used, while the decoding process refers to the process of translating graphical sequences into words. the process of recording and decoding usually takes place in the early classes which is known as the beginning reading term. the emphasis on reading at this stage is the perceptual process, which is the introduction of correspondence to the sequence of letters with the sounds of language. meanwhile the process of understanding meaning is emphasized in the next level. (syafi'ie, 1999). while, decoding is the process of interpreting print into speech by promptly matching a letter/ combination of letters (graphemes) to their sounds or phonemes and recognizing the patterns that make syllables as well as words. nevertheless, in meaning circumstances, let say, there is an area in the brain that deals with language processing and does this process automatically. decoding skills, readers must also have the skills to understand meaning. understanding of meaning takes place through various levels, ranging from literal levels of understanding to interpretive, creative and evaluative understanding. thus, it can be said that reading is a combination of perceptual and cognitive processes, as stated by crawley and mountain (1995). klein, et al. (1996) suggested that the definition of reading includes (1) reading is a process, (2) reading is strategic, (3) reading is interactive. reading is a process meant that information from text and knowledge possessed by the reader has a major role in shaping meaning. reading is also strategic. effective readers use a variety of reading strategies that are in accordance with the text and context in order to construct meaning when reading. this strategy varies according to the type of text and the purpose of reading. reading is interactive. the involvement of the reader with the text depends on the context. people who like to read a text that is useful, will meet several goals that they want to achieve, the text that someone reads must be easy to read (readable) so that interactions occur between the reader and the text (rahim, 2008: 2-3). people interpret reading in a variety of ways. this is due to the different views of these people on the reading process. furthermore, finocchiaro, m., & bonomo, m. (1973) defines reading as picking and understanding the meaning or meaning contained in written material. reading is also interpreted as an ability / skill to see written symbols and change the written symbols through phonics (a method of teaching reading, speech, spelling, based on phonetic interpretation of ordinary spelling) into / towards oral reading (oral reading). reading is a process of understanding what is implied in the express, seeing the mind in the words contained in written words. from the definition above this present study emphasized, that reading can be seen as: (1) a process, (2) reading using written media, (3) can be written or read in the heart, and (4) with the main purpose of getting a message/information/meaning written. skills or reading comprehension skills emphasized in a number of theories on how to understand reading. in giving the level of reading comprehension, experts vary in terms. according to dale, e., & tyler, r. w. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 10-16 12 (1934), reading comprehension is classified as reading the lines, reading between lines, and reading beyond the linnes. while oka (1986), classified reading comprehension into explicit reading, implied reading, and highlighted reading. tarigan classifies reading comprehension into intensive reading and extensive reading. in addition, there are also those that classify reading comprehension into explicit and implicit reading. whatever their classification of reading comprehension, in principle they distinguish between reading the visible comprehension of the text, and reading comprehension behind the text. the following is a classification of the level of reading comprehension using the term russell, mrtha l king, e.echorch, in wahyuni (2002) namely literal reading ability, critical reading skills, and creative reading skills. nevertheless, some studies also showed that many factors influence the success of reading in language classroom in many institutions. mclaughlin & allen (2002), elaborate and discuss most influence factors including the principles of reading based on their research on reading comprehension are as stated below: a) understanding is a social constructivist process, constructivist theory views understanding and structuring language as a building process. this is inline to what cox (1999) argues that children constantly build new meanings on the basis of their prior knowledge for the communication process. b) equity balance is a curriculum framework that helps development of understanding and a curriculum that gives the same position between reading and writing and recognizing the importance of the cognitive and effective dimensions of justice. literacy of meaning makes it involved in the process of reading and writing fully, even though it recognizes the importance of the strategies and skills used by expert readers and writers. c) professional (superior) reading teachers affect student learning. a superior teacher is aware of what is done well and what students need to succeed. superior teachers know the importance of each student having a literacy experience. expert teachers are teachers who make a difference in student success. d) the role of the teacher in the reading process, among others, creates experiences that introduce, maintain or expand students' abilities to understand the text. this requires the teacher to carry out learning directly, modeling, and helping to improve, facilitate, and participate in learning. e) a good reader holds a strategic role and plays an active role in the reading process. in the new paradigm, the curriculum emphasizes the strong relationship between justice and content. students learn the importance of reading, writing, and thinking critically for the effectiveness of independent learning. they learned how to use literacy as a tool to find and master the contents of the reading. legal-based strategies support the new curriculum by emphasizing the process of learning, critical thinking, and monitoring oneself. f) reading should occur in meaningful contexts. students need to familiarize themselves with the text every day in various levels of difficulty. when the level of text that is being used the teacher helps, students improve their learning experience and students receive various levels of support, depending on the goals and teaching settings. for example, if the text is a challenge, the teacher can use loud reading to provide full support to students. if the text is right for learning, students have support as needed, with teacher encouragement or responses if required. moreover, students discover the benefits of reading originating in various texts at different levels of class. students need to read daily texts from different levels. if the text level is to be used, the teacher should provide assistance to improve and broaden the student's learning experience, so students receive various levels of support depending on the goals and teaching settings. interlinking with various types of reading material will surely enhance students' understanding (hamuddin, 2016). g) development of vocabulary and learning affects reading comprehension. social constructivist theory plays an important role in the development of vocabulary. according to burns, roe, da ross (1996) it is difficult to determine the right age to learn the exact meaning of words. beginning in the process of language development, they learn to distinguish antonyms, synonyms, meanings of multiple meanings, abstract definitions, and so on. in addition, snow, griffin & burns (2007), mclauhglin & allen, (2002) has similar thought that “learning new concepts and words that encode them is an important development of understanding”. h) participation is a key factor in the understanding process. the involvement of readers transact with prints builds an understanding based on the relationship between prior knowledge and new information. mclauhglin & allen, (2002) describes the process of thinking and suggesting being part of the story in their minds. teachers can maintain and develop it by encouraging students to read for clear and tangible goals and respond in ways that are meaningful, as well as always focusing on understanding, personal relationships and readers' responses. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 10-16 13 i) reading strategies and skills can be taught. in many recet studies also demonstrated that when students experience a direct understanding strategy, the strategy increases the understanding of the text about new topics. understanding questions often arise at the level of literal understanding, assigned and then corrected, understanding is assessed but not taught (hubert et al., 1998). linking skills and strategies can make it easier for students to understand comprehension strategies that are generally more complex than comprehension skills. j) dynamic assessment informs reading reading comprehension. assessment is a collection of data, such as test scores and informal records to measure student learning outcomes, while evaluation is the interpretation and analysis of data. k) assessing student progress is important because it allows the teacher to find strengths and weaknesses, plan teaching appropriately, communicate student progress to parents, and to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching strategies. the factors and some principles above being the line of thinking of this present study which opening an assumptions that in developing studnets reading comprehensions it needs whatt might it called as an appropriate and effectif teaching strategy that covert all its necessary things of it. therefore this study believed that cooperative learning i.e. student team achievement division (stad) will be so much needed due to the uniqueness of this strategy. 3. stad cooperative learning the student team achievement division (stad) cooperative learning type developed by robert slavin and his friends at john hopkin university (in slavin, 1995) is the simplest cooperative learning, and is cooperative learning suitable for use by teachers who are just starting to use learning cooperative. stad is one of the simplest types of cooperative learning. where in this study, students placed in a learning team consisting of four people, which was a mixture according to their performance level, gender and ethnicity. the teacher presents lessons then students work in teams to ensure that all team members have mastered the lesson. finally, all students were given a quiz about the material with notes, when they quiz they should not help each other. the stad is an approach uses cooperative learning model that emphasizes activities and interactions between students to motivate each other and help each other in mastering subject matter in order to achieve maximum achievement. moreover, teachers who use stad submit new academic information to students every week using verbal or text presentations. the procedure of the study begins with a pre-action which is to identify the stad cooperative learning method and reading comprehension and then take an action consisting of 3 cycles. each cycle of action has four stages, namely: a) preparation of actions, b) implementation of actions, c) observation and evaluation, d) analysis and reflection. these four stages will be elaborate in detail as follows: 3.1 preparation of action a) prepare a learning implementation plan that refers to the syllabus of the discussion that has been made by the teacher. b) prepare teaching materials. c) preparation of instruments as observation tools. (1) a sheet of students' ability to read and understand. (2) observation sheet of problems encountered to improve reading comprehension of students. d) determination of schedule of class actions. 3.2 implementation of action the actions of each class in general are as follows: a) the teacher conveys all the objectives of the lesson to be achieved in the lesson and motivates students to learn. b) the teacher presents information to students by way of demonstrations or through reading material. c) the teacher explains to students how to form study groups and help each group to make the transition. d) the teacher guides the study groups when they do their assignments. e) the teacher evaluates the results of learning about the material that has been studied or each group. f) the teacher rewards both efforts and individual or group learning outcomes. 3.3. observation and evaluation in the implementation of the action in the first cycle, the teacher provides learning material reading comprehension by the cooperative method type stad. from the results of observations and reflections on cycle i, information was obtained that if student activities are still not optimal or they are still having difficulty adapting to group members to solve problems and are still dependent on the teacher. in other words, the cooperative implementation of the stad type still not maximal and there are many shortcomings, the teacher will fix it at the stage of implementation of action ii. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 10-16 14 3.4. reflection and analysis reflection is carried out to analyze the results of the action as an improvement material for the next action. 4. methodology the type of research used is action research, namely researchers trying to implement an action as an improvement effort to overcome the problems found. classroom action research, using a model designed by kemmis and mc taggart (in suranto, 200: 49), this model uses a self-reflection spiral system that starts from the plan, action, observation, reflection, and replanning which is the basis for a design solution to problem. figure 4.1 classroom action research cycle 5. findings 5.1 increased understanding based on the results of data analysis, information was obtained that students' understanding of material indicators of understanding sentences and understanding paragraphs had increased. the increase in discourse understanding in the first cycle was 53.37% and then increased in the second cycle to 80, 71% 27.14%. this shows that students' understanding has increased from cycle i to cycle ii. students' understanding of this indicator is obtained from the answers to the final test cycle questions. through this answer it can also be known how students can understand the intent of the problem, write down what is known and what is asked. this shows that the increase in students' understanding of learning is due to the application of the stad type cooperative method. 5.2 learning completeness from the results of data analysis, the percentage of students 'mastery learning in the first cycle was 21.43% and in the second cycle was 85.71%, meaning that the percentage of students' mastery learning had increased. in the second cycle, the percentage of students' mastery learning has reached the kkm used by bi teachers at sma 7 pekanbaru, ie 80% of students achieve a test score of 80 (scale 1-100) and the class average reaches a score of 80 (scale 1-100). student learning completeness is due, the application of the stad type cooperative method is a learning method designed in the form of group learning. by learning groups of students are expected to be more active and can work together in solving problems they face. in accordance with the opinion of nurhadi et al (2004: 47), in general the results of group work are better than active individual work, not passive individuals 6. discussion and suggestion based on the results of data analysis and discussion in this study, it was found that the application of the stad type cooperative learning method to improve understanding of sentences and understanding paragraphs had been carried out in four stages, namely: class presentations, group work, tests (quizzes) and team recognition. at the presentation stage the teacher explains the reading comprehension material by emphasizing on the stad unit. with this emphasis, students will really pay full attention during class presentations. next, at the stage of group work, before this stage is carried out, the teacher first divides students into several groups consisting of four or five students heterogeneously. moreover, at this stage students work and discuss to discuss and complete the assignments given by the teacher. in group work students have a responsibility to ensure that teammates have studied and understood the material. then, the test or quiz takes place around one or two periods after class presentations and group work. tests are used to determine student mastery individually of the material that has been studied. the test results will be an individual improvement point which is then given as a determinant of the group's predicate. furthermore, group recognition is an appreciation for group success. awards were given after each group received the title of the group according to the criteria in stad, namely the group was quite good, good, very good, and super group. therefore, this study somehow can shows that stad cooperative learning is worthed enough to try. it seems through sad students has a significant improvement score every cycle, and showing significant different comparing with their result previously when they learning pbi with the classical http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 10-16 15 teaching method. it seems the students feel interested to learn than before when they were taught by conventional method that make they sometimes feel bored in the classroom and lack of interest to attendances in teaching and learning process. stad cooperative learning seems succeed based on the quantitative scoring and contributes as the students’ reinforcement in learning reading comprehension in pbi classroom. however during this research conducted there are so many notes been recorded to improve learning environment especiall in pbi class that somehow this study need to share as a suggestion. using stad cooperative learning in teaching reading comprehension is just an example of how the cooperative learning environemnt can help the students and teacher in teaching and learning pbi. from this study point of view it would like to point some extra words as follows: a) it is better for the teacher and the students’ to use stad cooperative learning in teaching and learning activities to improve their reading comprehension. b) the teachers should be more ready and literate to know and to try the positive benefits of using cooperative learning or media in class and knowing its effects on the students. c) the researcher recommend the lecturer to use stad or other cooperative learning method as and approach or strategy as well as media support in students’ learning activity. 7. conclusion the results of data analysis in this study found that the average value of the class in the first cycle test reached 51.42, while in the second cycle reached 74.28. the percentage of student learning completeness in the first cycle test reached 21.43%, while the second cycle test reached 85.71%. the percentage of students' understanding in the first cycle reached 51.42%, while in the second cycle it reached 74.28%. for the observation sheet the activity of students in the first cycle reached 74.30%, while in the second cycle it reached 91.66%. the observation sheet for managing teacher learning in the first cycle reached 84.17%, while in the second cycle it reached 90.47%. the group discussion observation sheet in the first cycle reached 54.76%, while in the second cycle it reached 90.47%. from the observations, it shows that 75% of the success criteria. the result above shows that students' understanding of reading comprehension material has increased. from the description above, it can be concluded that the application of the stad type cooperative method can improve reading comprehension of xi ips 2 students in pekanbaru 7 high school. 8. acknowledgement this research was supported by sma negeri 7 pekanbaru. therefore, we thank our colleagues as well who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they may not agree with all of the conclusions of this paper. references arikunto, s. (2002). prosedur penelitian. jakarta: rineka cipta. arikunto, s. (2008). penelitian tindakan kelas. jakarta: bumi aksara dale, e., & tyler, r. w. (1934). a study of the factors influencing the difficulty of reading materials for adults of limited reading ability. the library quarterly, 4(3), 384-412. finocchiaro, m., & bonomo, m. (1973). the foreign language learner: a guide for teachers. new york: regents. hamuddin, b. (2016). using blog to promote english skills for efl students: the students’ perception. elt-lectura, 3(2). herlinawati, h., & abbas, m. f. f. (2017). who gains the benefits of on-task versus off-task selfassessment? higher or lower proficiency?. lectura : jurnal pendidikan, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.31849/lectura.v8i2.343 keraf, g. (1984). komposisi sebuah pengantar kemahiran bahasa. jakarta : nusa indah. lestari, s., & syaifullah, s. (2017). a narrative research: a student's strategies in reading comprehension on toefl at the eighth semester of english education department of lancang kuning. elt-lectura, 4(2). marwa, m. (2014). reasons for students’ codeswitching between informal indonesian and english in elt contexts. elt-lectura, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.31849/elt-lectura.v1i1.446 moleong, l. j. (2006). metodologi penelitian kualitatif edisi revisi, cetakan keduapuluh dua, bandung: pt. remaja rosdakarya offset. nurhadi and senduk. (2005). pembelajaran kontekstual (contextual teaching and learning/ctl) dan penerapannya dalam kbk. malang: um. oka, e. r. (1986). reading skills in underachieving children. handbook of cognitive, social, and neuropsychological aspects of learning disabilities, 2, 115. rahim, f. 2008. pengajaran membaca di sekolah dasar. jakarta: pt bumi aksara. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ https://doi.org/10.31849/lectura.v8i2.343 https://doi.org/10.31849/elt-lectura.v1i1.446 journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 10-16 16 ramlan, m. (1986). sintaksis. yogyakarta : cv. karyono sanjaya, w. (2008). strategi pembelajaran berorientasi standar proses pendidikan. jakarta: kencana. setyosari, p. (2001). rancangan pembelajaran teori dan praktek. malang: elang mas silaban, a. l., & andriani, r. (2017). using flyswatter game to improve students' vocabulary mastery at grade eigth smp dwi sejahtera pekanbaru. elt-lectura, 4(2). snow, c., griffin, p., & burns, m. s. (eds.). (2007). knowledge to support the teaching of reading: preparing teachers for a changing world. john wiley & sons. sukardi. (2003). metodologi penelitian pendidikan kompetensi dan praktiknya. jakarta: bumi aksara. surianta, m. (2008). penerapan model pemebelajaran kooperatif type stad deangan media vcd, (online), (http:/journal. diakses 23 mei 2013). syaifullah, s. (2019). the analysis of students’ability on listening comprehension of toefl testat sixth semester students of english education department lancang kuning university pekanbaru. proceeding iain batusangkar, 3(1), 313-322. wahyuni, s. (2010). evaluasi pembelajaran bahasa dan sastra indonesia. malang unisma. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 94-99 94 re-thinking bloomfield’s concepts of meaning: do meaning really as a weak point in language study? cendy lauren 1 anggi resti rahmadani 2, and farni wulandari 3 1 sma negeri 2 tambang, kampar, indonesia 2 smk negeri 3 pekanbaru, indonesia 3 smk negeri pertanian pekanbaru, indonesia laurencendy@yahoo.com article history received : 2019-12-02 revised : 2019-12-04 accepted : 2019-12-27 keywords meaning linguistic, behaviourist context of situation weak point abstract this paper aims to describe the concepts of meaning in bloomfield’s theory. the methodology used to gain data in this paper is a qualitative descriptive using documentation method. sources of data consists of words, sentences, and discourses found in the book language by bloomfield published by henry holt in new york in 1933. this research collects its data in a descriptive manner by reducing data, presentation data then drawing conclusions. the results of the analysis of this study indicate that bloomfield underlines that meaning as a weak point in language study and believed that it might well be all expressed in behaviourist terms. bloomfield also stressed the context of the situation was a very important level of linguistic analysis aside syntax, morphology, phonology, and phonetics, all of which support to linguistic meaning. this present study also found that bloomfield considered words to be ambiguous notions both in everyday speech and in linguistics. 1. introduction bloomfield's book language has long been recognized as the framework for systematic descriptive linguistic analysis. bloomfield found considerations of meaning to be important. his detractors find sense to exist outside of the individual speaker. consequently, this paper does indeed define concepts of meaning in bloomfield's theory as low in language. the book was written by linguists, who was familiarly called by the name of the questioner bloomfield, full of words explanation, linguistics and context related to social life. language by leonard bloomfield is published by h.holt, rinehart and winston in new york. the first copyright edition of the book was made in 1933 and digitized in february 2008. this book has 564 pages, and the isbn is 0226-06067-5, isbn 90-272-1892-7. nevertheless, he sought to use the principles of sense in practice. this definition deals with language relations and the connections between language and the outside world. the relations between language and the external world, concern the meaning of the language. further, it is means in relation to situations to which language references or in which language occur. language relations are connected with the lexical element (word) and with the lexical structure, whose analysis is known as lexical or structural semantics. many types of research, such as generative grammar studies omitted the relationship between language and the environment. linguists typically describe semanticization as a theoretical nature study. the merriam-webster dictionary describes semanticizes as an analysis of language meanings and phrases. semantic is historically characterized to research the meanings of words. it is the term frequently used by linguists. it means that if we want to study the importance of words, we must first study the semantic meaning of them. the words we use are considered to be part of the language understanding of an individual and part of the grammar. words may offer different meanings depending on different kinds of situation. in addition to being a linguist, bloomfield is also famous for the behavioural theory, which suggests this mechanism culminates in imitation or mimetic process. each pronounced word has a structure. for example, if a person was to call a house, the structure needed to be a house and not a hammer or angry. he uses oral language as an object of study and establishes his descriptive language. about language and structure, bloomfield discusses the principles of the structure analysis, namely the theory of decapitation. while following watson and weiss ' flow of behaviourism, bloomfield accepted a theoretical interpretation that was in line using wundt's psychological theory. then he opposed mentalism and studied the conduct or behavioural flow. this has greatly influenced american linguistics ' development. with the behavioural models, http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 94-99 95 bloomfield describes the semantic sense. as a result, other linguists who are followers do not investigate the meaning. based on the distribution of these elements in the setting where the elements are found, linguistic elements are clarified. the formation of this flow is triggered by several factors. among them, the linguists in america had the same problem at the time, namely a large number of indian languages not spoken. they want to explain in a modern and synchronous way the indian languages. the old method, traditionally or diachronically, is of little use and has doubtful effectiveness, since many are almost entirely unknown because the past of indian languages is little known. the stance of bloomfield to reject mentalism corresponds to the intellectual environment established in america at that time, namely the theory of behavioralist. the flow of structuralism is, therefore, often based on facts that are self-objective and can be matched to tested truth. nor is it shocking that there is no exposure to the problem of concept or concept. apparently, there are american linguists who are strongly influenced by bloomfield to go beyond meaning. zellig s. harris, for example, with his book structural linguistics. american structuralists ' aversion to this meaning depends on how it functions, heavily dependent on empirical data. the meaning cannot be empirically identified. unlike phonemes, morphemes and words, which can be observed and segmented. this study did a brief research on leonard bloomfield find that he was born in chicago on april 1, 1887. he graduated from harvard college at the age of 19 and continued his postgraduate studies at the university of wisconsin for two years. in 1909, bloomfield was awarded his phd by the university of chicago. leonard bloomfield (1887-1949) was a renowned american structural linguist. it has a strong influence and is still felt today. he specializes in sanskrit, tagalog, general linguistics and literature. language (1933) is his most influential book. a lot of students and supporters. c.f collected some of his research. hockett at a. a. anthology of leonard bloomfield. bloomfield uses the idea of ferdinand de saussure in the study of language as the theory of analysis, specifically, in the language structure. 2. method qualitative analysis is used to explain phenomena of what subject study encounters, e.g. behavior, perception, motivation, actions and others in a holistic way, and by means of words and languages explanations, in a specific natural sense and through the use of various natural methods. therefore, investigators used a descriptive approach in this study. descriptive research studies in the form of peoples, organizations, or other observations put into certain phenomena or populations that the investigator obtains from the subject. the goal is to clarify aspects relevant to the phenomenon observed and to describe the characteristics of the phenomenon or problem in hand. descriptive research generally does not use hypotheses (non-hypotheses) so that there is no need to formulate a hypothesis in his research. in descriptive research there are three types of methods, namely case studies or case studies, comparative causal research and correlation research, suharsimi says. investigators in this study use a case study approach to describe in detail and in-depth a history of certain objects or events. as winarno said, case studies are a research method which focuses on a case intensively and thoroughly and consists of a case-bycase unit. the data collected in this analysis is a tool for the data collection of data used to find data about items or factors in the form of notes, records, books, papers, newspapers, registry documents, meeting minutes, leggers, agendas etc. researchers collect data, records or written reports of all activities in the forum through technical documentation. in this context, the researcher attempts to obtain information on deficiencies in the nature of bloomfield's own understanding of value. the data analysis steps of the researcher are based on what sugiyono has enriched as follows: a) reduction of results. reducing data means summarizing, selecting the major things, concentrating about important issues, looking for trends and patterns with reduced data, giving the researchers a clear picture and encouraging the collection and quest for data when appropriate. b) presentation of data. the next stage is the presentation of data after the data has been reduced. and the presentation of data as a form of a short explanation, tables and the like in this analysis. c) withdrawal conclusion. the third step in quality data processing is the conclusion of the withdrawal. the qualitative research conclusions must be backed by clear and reliable evidence so that the results are fresh, relevant findings that can address the problem. the qualitative description used in this study also attempts to objectively, factually and reliably identify or depict the causes, characteristics and connections between the phenomena studied on the ethical side of social life. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 94-99 96 3. results: bloomfield’s views 3.1 meaning and linguistics the statement by bloomfield highlighted the role of meaning work in linguistics. the man utters a lot of vocal noise and makes use of the variety: he generates the types of stimuli that he produces certain vocal sounds, and his fellows make the right response, hearing these similar sounds. only put it briefly in human discourse various tones have different meanings. understanding this synchronization is understanding language with certain meanings of certain sounds. this synchronization helps man to communicate with high accuracy. (bloomfield, p.27, 1933/2001) this clear statement by bloomfield's on the topic of language learn about reflects his more comprehensive view of language study than many believe it to be. for him, meaning is a part of language study that is inseparable. linguistic study is not only concerned with the "biophysical aspect of language", sounds, and the "sound-producing movements and the resulting sound waves and the vibration of the hearer's eardrums", but also the “biosocial aspect of language”, meaning, and how “the persons in a community have been trained to produce these sounds in certain situations and to respond to them by appropriate actions” (bloomfield, 1939, p.8, quoted from belyi, 1967/1999, p. 117). people get through sound waves to each other that cause concrete behaviour. language is not only biological and physical but also social and interpersonal; it is not only a physiological but also a sociological integration of sound and sense. nevertheless, bloomfield's pursuit of objectivism in linguistic research led him to rely too heavily on "scientific knowledge" (bloomfield, 1933/2001, p.145) and "superficial interpretation of his mentalism and process discussions" (fries, 1954/1999, p.86) led to the popular belief that bloomfield avoided meaning analysis. but it is self-evident that in the book language (1933/2001) he dedicated a whole chapter to language. he not only spoke about the concept of meaning in this article but also explored various types and aspects of meaning in detail. the mentalist theory claims that the variation of human behaviour is due to the intervention of certain non-physical factors, spirit or will or mind (that) does not obey the patterns of succession (cause-and-effect sequences) of the material world; the mechanistic theory assumes that the variability of human behaviour, including speech, is only due to the fact that the human body is a very detailed one. in all sciences such as linguistics, which study other kinds of human behaviour, a worker must proceed precisely as if he held a materialistic (mechanistic) view "(ibid), so leonard bloomfield recognized and clarified the variation of human behaviour as well as of speech as part of a sequence of causal and impact. 3.2 meaning and behaviourist term now we will discuss the semantic principle of bloomfield, which is behavioural. based on the quote illustrates bloomfield's behaviourist conception of meaning: “psychology, in particular, gives us this series: to certain stimuli a a person reacts by speaking; his speech b, in turn, stimulates his hearers to certain reactions c. by a social habit which every person acquires in infancy from his elders, a-b-c is closely correlated. within this correlation, the stimuli a which cause an act of speech and the reactions c, which result from it, are very closely linked, because every person acts indiff erently as a speaker or as a hearer. we are free, therefore, without further discussion, to speak of vocal features or sounds b of stimulus reaction features a-c of speech” (1926: 154). example: we tend to imagine a situation a where someone receives stimuli, say, she feels hungry. then, she might utter something like: "i am hungry!". the actual utterance is situation b, talk to bloomfield. this utterance, then, can stimulate others to certain reactions, linguistic or non-linguistic, this is bloomfield’s c. bloomfield theory (1933) describes language as a motivation and response sequence. the external world provides an incentive, and the body responds in the form of an action that is spoken or performed. if you see a sadza plate, that's the stimulus. the response and therefore, the sense to ask or take and eat is. the theory correctly captures the notion of language and speech acts (syal and jindal, 1999). nevertheless, while the question of significance is properly addressed in speculation, it is accused of failing to clarify the sense of value (mhute, et al., 2014). it was also argued that one argument could be made, but that different actions could be taken in reaction. for instance, if you're saying "come here chipo," you're not my boss, you're preparing for dinner, you're not my boss, and you’re paying me first. the stimuli and the responses become so difficult to link unless there is some background information. it was also criticized for not explaining the meaning of a single word because it has nothing to do with stimulation and response. 3.3 meaning and context of situation the "meaning of a linguistic form" is defined as "the situation in which the speaker expresses it and its response" (bloomfield, 1933/2001, p.145). this description tends to be in line with the abovehttp://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 94-99 97 mentioned quotations and bloomfield's principal argument, namely that the meaning is sensitive events (some sensitive events in very specific circumstances that cause the speaker to utter the linguistic form and also the answer action on the part of the listener). and he chose to "discuss and explain the significance in terms of the stimulus of a speaker," because it "will usually be a simpler aspect than the response of the listener" (bloomfield, 1933/2001, p.145). by this definition of meaning, bloomfield should be understood to point out two important factors in human communication, that is to say, circumstances and participants which are crucial for generating and communicating meaning among people. his additional exposure of the two main points of the definition of meaning, however, was so closely tied to his opposition to mentalism and the pursuit of scientific objectivity that he was suspected of having misunderstood his position on the study of meaning and even of diverting its followers from a serious linguistical study of meaning. bloomfield highlighted the importance of scientific knowledge as to what means we can interpret the significance. the conditions that lead people to speak include every entity and event in their universe. to give every form of language a scientifically accurate concept of meaning, we must have a scientifically accurate understanding of everything in the world of speakers. the real scope of human knowledge in relation to current knowledge is very limited. we may accurately define the definition of speech-form, while this definition may relate to some subject of which we have scientific knowledge. the names of minerals can, for example, be defined in terms of chemistry as if we are suggesting that the common meaning of the word salt is "sodium chloride (nacl).".. (bloomfield, 1933/2001, p.145) one cannot deny that a part of the meaning of salt is absolute "sodium chloride," but it is not defined properly or adequately as such. as defined as a "crystalline compound nacl made of sodium chloride, abundant in nature and especially for the seasoning or preservation of food or in the industry" (merriam-webster dictionary), salt has not only a scientific identity but also a valuable significance. therefore, the housewife will usually not have to regard "salt" as a "sodium chloride" chemical structure to grasp what "salt" stands for and for, which may well mean that in some instances the importance of salt's practical sense overrides the significance of its scientific composition. bloomfield, firth (1957a) thought that the meaning of the term could not be fully understood in the context of the language situation. but the idea of bloomfield goes far beyond firth, who created statements of significance in terms of the situation. bloomfield described the situation as meaning. for bloomfield, meaning should be composed in the relation between speech and the preceding and following practical events. a linguistic form is "the state where the speaker utters it and the answer in the listener" (1933, p. 20). this means that the linguistic meaning is "equivalent to the total amount of human knowledge (because) situations that cause people to speak every object or thing that occurs in their universe" (1933, p.74). therefore, understanding the meaning of every kind of speech in a language requires "a scientifically accurate explanation of everything in the sense of the speaker" (1933, p.139). consequently, the meaning of language can only be clarified "if certain research, other than linguistics, has provided us with interpretations of words, and if it is not completely studied and described, the meaning of utterance is the weakest point in the analysis of languages, and remains so until human knowledge advances far beyond its present state" (1933, p.140). to date, bloomfield is clearly suggesting that linguistics be limited until science can determine the meaning and generate it in solely compiled types. bloomfield says that in the meantime "we are able to act as if science had evolved enough to understand the situations and the responses that make up the meaning of forms of speech" (1933, p.77). furthermore, bloomfield recognizes that "everything includes things not discovered by science" (1933, p.75). until science is able to define most definitions or show their continuity, bloomfield said, "we must take the basic and subtle characteristics of the language as a presupposition of linguistic studies, just as we assume it in our everyday dealings. this presupposition may be the fundamental assumption of linguistics. bloomfield agreed that this assertion is only true within limits, although its general reality is not only recognized in the language study but in all our real language use. assuming that some connection gives each form a constant sense, the principle of continuous invention collides with it (cf. de beaugrande, 1991, 4.23, p.65). 3.4 ambiguous notions of meaning bloomfield suggests that words can be regarded as the least free units (bloomfield, 1933). it means that terms should be used as the smallest unit in isolation. so it depends, of course, on whether the term is saying by isolation or separation. the words of, is, is and is not used separately. we use them in full with other phrases. bloomfield also suggested that a smaller element than the word, a unit of meaning-a morpheme, should be looked up.-berry in blackberry, for example, or –y in johnny, etc. several linguists have drawn attention in words like loved ones to the morphemes. within this word, we can identify loveand d-morphemes. in this case, the word lexeme was best defined. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 94-99 98 lexeme is a scientific concept used by linguists frequently. the words are grouped under lexeme headings in dictionaries, i.e. there are no such headings for loving and loved words in dictionaries. the main word is love, and under this heading, we will look into the word. this indicates we have interpreted the meaning of a word individually and the various elements, i.e. the plural form or simple forms from the past, must also be considered separately. the meanings of terms can be explained without dividing them into parts. but some problems can be dealt with when the components of meanings are defined. terms can have no clear meaning if we break them into pieces. bloomfield, for example, drew attention to the word cranberry. he said that the cran element has no independent meaning in this word and we cannot see it in other terms. then it's like strawberries and gooseberries to explore those words. he said that the words "straw" and "goose" have no relation. however, some contradictory points are also present. for example, in the word blackberry the word black-doesn't have any relation yet blackretains its meaning in the words blackbird and blackboard. the words greenfinch, bullfinch and chaffinch then make a fascinating trio as well. such three terms express the meaning of finch green-in the word greenfinch it describes its colour, bull-in the word bullfinch there is no relation with the word; chaffinch has no significance with the term chaffinch. such words are phonaesthetics in english because only one aspect of such words may provide information on meaning. for example, the words beginning with sl sometimes convey a "slippery" meaning. slide, slide, slither, slush, sluice, sludge, etc. some words beginning with sl-mean pejorative: slattern, slut, sly (hiyl, butter), slovenly and others. some terms that begin with sk-convey the surfaces or surface: skip, skimp, skim, skin, etc. we can also see in the meanings of the words in the dictionaries that start with sn, str, sw, tw, etc. we are assured that we will follow the same type. let us now look at the word list that ends in –ump. nearly everyone expresses some sort of roundish mass, plump, chump, rump, kump, lump, bump, stump. we can also add a number of words to this list. of course, not all words in english do not derive their meanings according to these phonological characteristics. in words, we should know there is no sequence of somaticized combinations. so this investigation leads us to convey with different elements the meanings of the same words (bloomfield, 1933). the distinction between clear words and opaque terms was created by ullman (ullman, 1962). clearly defined are transparent words as we may assess its value through the context of its pieces. opaque words are those whose significance from their context cannot be defined. for instance, words such as chopper and doorman refer to transparent words; words such as axis and porter are opaque words. if we pay attention, we can analyse that the meaning can be formed by connecting a few words. examples can be given of phraseological units, idioms, etc. let's look at a few idioms since we know that the meanings of languages cannot be predicted by the meanings of their words. for example, fly the hands off (to get angry), spill the beans (to expose a secret), red herring (false story) and so on. the definitions of the idioms, as we know, frequently vary from the meanings of the words that form them. when using the idioms in the sentence, we need to be careful. single units are thought to be idioms. yet they're not singular grammatical units semantically. for example, to form the past unlimited tense shape of the idiom "fly of the handle" we add the suffix -ed not to the last word as a single grammatical unity its past tense shape flew from the handle (not the handled fly). when we investigate, we know that semantic division often overrides word division. for example, let us use the words pretty dancer and good singer in the sentences. (1) my sister is a pretty dancer; (2) this woman is a good singer. semantically the word pretty+dancer doesn't mean "a pretty dancer," it defines the one who dances beautifully. similarly, in the term good+singer, the definition is not "the good singer," but the good singer. when we try to keep the comparison and make changes, the interpretation will be like this beautiful dance and good singing for these problems. the criteria for this are grammatical ambiguity (bloomfield, 1933). 4. discussion the general position of linguists is that the importance of language study is really a weak point. the importance is still a controversial matter. nevertheless, as mentioned above, a close examination of the above-mentioned theories and their shortcomings reveals that they concentrate on various aspects of the principle in question. in linguistic, the meaning is sound stress when people talk to someone, which the phrases have a lot of meaning, and every sound stress is also important. the definition interacts with the concept of behaviour, as people talk on the basis of their daily habits, societies, the activities. also, the term of actions provides a stimulus, and the body provides a response in the form of action either said or performed. thus, meaning depends on the situation and sometimes it creates a double sense in the thought of the person. it becomes confusing for everyone when people say they cannot clearly understand the meaning of the phrases or terms. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 94-99 99 5. conclusion the results and discussions of this paper described by the author as meaning the relationship between the sound symbol and the reference. meaning is a form of stimulus response obtained by the actor in communication in accordance with the association and learning outcomes assessed. for bloomfield, the meaning is a part of a language study that is inseparable and interconnected. in a linguistic study where meaning was given to how "people in a community were trained to produce these sounds in certain situations and to respond to them by appropriate action" (bloomfield, 1939, p. 8, cited in belyi, 1967/1999, p. 117). because many of the examples in this paper have clarified many aspects of meaning and those are then assumptions can be drawn as follows: meaning and an linguistics, meaning and context of the semantic, behaviourist word, and ambiguous notions of meaning are as a weak point in language study because when people speak and pronounce an expression, it has many meanings and makes people a weak point in language study. and the meaning of the sentence depends on the situation because sometimes people cannot understand the meaning or misinterpret it. because so, it means as a weak point in language study based on the aspects listed above. 6. acknowledgement this research was supported by sman 2 kampar. therefore, the authors would like to express their sincere gratitude. any opinions, findings, and conclusions or suggestions expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the respected institution. references belyi, vilen viktorovitch. (1999). some facts about weiss’s influence on bloomfield. in john fought (ed.), leonard bloomfield: critical assessment of leading linguists vol. 2 (pp. 115-118). london: routledge. bloomfield, l. (1930). linguistics as a science. studies in philosophy, 27(4), 553-557. bloomfield, l. (1933). language. beijing: foreign language teaching and research press. bloomfield, l. (1935). linguistic aspects of science. philosophy of science, 2(4), 499-517. bloomfield, l. (1936). language or ideas? language, 12(2), 89-95. bloomfield, l. (1939). linguistic aspects of science. international encyclopedia of unified science 1 (4). chicago: university of chicago press. bloomfield, l. (1943). meaning. monatshefte fur deutschen unterricht, 35, 101-106. bloomfield, l. (1949). linguistic aspects of science. international encyclopedia of united science i /4. chicago: university of chicago press. de beaugrande, r. (1991). linguistic theory: the discourse of fundamental works. london: group ltd. firth, j. r. (1957a). papers in linguistics 1934 – 1951. london: oup. hamuddin, b. (2016). using content analysis (ca) in seeking the opportunities for alumni of english department in newspapers. eltlectura, 3(1). lexy,, j.moleong. (2005). metodologi penelitian kualitatif. bandung : pt. remaja rodakarya. mhute, i. et al. 2014. introduction to general linguistics ii. harare: zou moleong, j.l. (2000). metodologi penelitian kualitatif. bandung : pt. remaja rodakarya. mutarcim. veysalli, f. y. (2013). the bases of linguistics. studia philologica vi. baku: mutarjim. syal, p. and jindal, d.v . an introduction to linguistics: language, grammar and semantics. new delhi: prentice hall ullman, s. (1962). semantics: an introduction to the study of meaning. oxford: basil blackwell. veysalli, f. y. (2008). the bases of structural linguistics ii. studia philologica ii. baku: wang yuanxin. (2006). theories of language and methodologies of linguistics. beijing: educational science publishing house. xiong bin. (2007). american structural linguistics and modern chinese grammar research. wuhan: central china normal university press. yin, xiujuan. (2008). probe into bloomfield’s “meaning”. journal of anhui university of technology (social sciences), 25(4): 84-85, 110. fromkin, v., rodman, r., & hyams, n. (2018). an introduction to language. cengage learning. andrews, m., frank, s., & vigliocco, g. (2014). reconciling embodied and distributional accounts of meaning in language. topics in cognitive science, 6(3), 359-370. nelson, k. (2014). concepts and meaning in language development. in biological and behavioral determinants of language development (pp. 99-126). psychology press. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 61-67 61 writing argumentative essay: how far they can go? bayu ramadhan u-raise academy, pekanbaru, indonesia bayu.rammadhan@gmail.com article history received : 2019-07-16 revised : 2019-08-22 accepted : 2019-08-31 keywords writing argumentative essay english students abstract writing is very important for everyone to share their ideas, experiences and their thoughts into the written form. this present study tries to figure out and explore the university students in writing argumentative essay. therefore, this present conducted a survey research to 21 students who produced argumentative essay from english department in universitas lancang kuning (unilak). the survey analysed the content, organization, vocabulary, grammar, mechanics in order to answer the research question. the result of the research showed that the students’ ability in argumentative essay was good regarding on the result of the test. this analysis of this present study found that the students’ ability in argumentative essay was categorise (96,55). this is means that these 21 students can go further on their academic journey regarding english when it needs an argumentative essay in written form. 1. introduction writing is one of the english language skills that must be mastered by the students besides reading, listening and speaking. writing is very important for the students because they can share their ideas, experiences and their thoughts into the written form; it is also needed because they can also transfer information and knowledge. students can write letters, notes, essays, invitations, and any other written form to give information to the other people as the reader. writing also needs time, thought, and many conscious choices to move from one first conception to public document. writing can be extremely frustrating as writers want to turn vague ideas into a full statement that they want it to mean a completed statement, they may doubt that they have anything to say, but they will find that they are frequently mistaken. in other words, writing can be concluded as a tool of communication between the writer and the reader. nowadays, most of students are not interested in writing, because writing seems difficult for them. writing is difficult because lack of vocabulary, organizing ideas, spellings, a coherent arrangement of words, clauses and sentences with the appropriate of grammar and structures. in vocabulary, students have a little vocabulary, so that they are getting difficulties in writing. it is hard for them to write since they still have lack of vocabulary. for the students who have a good motivation, it will not be a problem. however, it does not happen on the students who have low motivation. as the result, the ideas are not developed completely. this study believes its necessary to find out students’ ability in writing argumentative essay to see how far they can go i.e., to avoid misunderstanding and misinterpretation, researcher defines some terms used in this research: moreover, ability is the power to do something physical or mental. here means that ability is the student’s capacity in composing something correctly and completely. according to thompson (1993), argumentative essay is the arguments students present in support their position an argument not a simply a statement of opinion; it is an attempt to support their position with reasons. according to hyland (2003), writing is a way of sharing personal meanings and writing courses emphasizes the power of the individual to construct his or her own views on a top education and teachers training, universitas lancang kuning. according to jhonson (2008) writing is having ideas, organizing ideas and communicating ideas. in this sense, grammar, spelling and punctuation are a means to an end, but they are not ends by themselves. and jhonson (2008) added that good writing is expresses ideas efficiently and effectively. it means writing is created clear, concise and short in expressing the ideas with attention to the creation of a sense of the text properly without overlook all the rules. furthermore, zamel (2007) states that writing is a process through which meaning is created. this suggests composition instruction that recognizes the importance of generating, formulating, and refining one’s ideas. it means writing is the submission of ideas with a meaning by following the step instruction from beginning to end. so, the meaning is created looks great. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 61-67 62 according to oshima (2006) writing is important to note that writing is a process, not a product. there are four main stages in writing process: prewriting, planning, writing, revising and writing the final copy to hand in. in the writing process, after prewriting and planning is writing and revising several drafts until have produced a final copy to hand in. after write the rough draft, the next step is revises it. and then, change what you have written in order to improve it. check it over for content and organization, including unity, coherence and logic. you can change, rearrange, add or delete. all for the goal of communicating your thoughts are more clearly, more effectively and in more interesting way. the next step is to proofread your paper to check for grammar, sentence structure, spelling and punctuation. now you are ready to write the final copy to hand in. it means to produce a good writing, needs to be done with the process: prewriting, planning, writing and revising drafts, and writing the final copy hand in. in the process of writing, it’s able to follow the stages that have been defined so that we can produce a good writing with the process. writing is a complex combination of skills which is best taught by breaking down the process. the writing process involves a series of steps to follow in producing a finished piece of writing. educators have found that by focusing on the process of writing, almost everyone learns to write successfully. there is process to do writing-which many writers follow naturally. according to hyland (2003) there are ten processes in writing, there are as follow: a) selection of topic: by the teacher and/or students. b) prewriting: brainstorming, collecting data, note taking, and outlining. c) composing: getting ideas down on paper. d) response to draft: teacher/peers respond to ideas, organization, and style. e) revising: reorganizing, style, adjusting to readers, refining ideas. f) response to revisions: teacher/peers respond to ideas, organization, and style g) proofreading and editing: checking and correcting form, layout and evidence. h) evaluation: teacher evaluates progress over the process. i) publishing: by lass circulation or presentation, notice boards, website, etc. j) follow-up tasks: to address weaknesses. according to brown (2003), assessment is an ongoing process that encompasses a much wider domain. whenever a student responds to a question, offers a comment, or tries a new word structure, the teacher subconsciously make an assessment of the student’s performance. in giving scores for writing activities especially in the argumentative essay, the researcher would like to use a rubric, they are: content, organization, vocabulary, grammar and mechanics. there are some experts’ definition on argumentative essays. thompson (1993) argues that argumentative essay is the arguments students present in support their position an argument not a simply a statement of opinion; it is an attempt to support their position with reasons. this position is critical stance or thesis that take on her essay topic. they should be able to prove their thesis in one or two students in the first paragraph in their essay. they thesis states the conclusion is aim to prove. the argument they develop in the essay offers a set of reasons or evidence to support their conclusion. next, konar (2009) states that the main purposes of writing argumentative essay is to convince readers that one’s particular view opinion on a controversial issue is correct. in addition, at times one many have a second purpose for his/her argumentative essay; to persuade the audience to take some sort of action. from explanation above, it can be concluded that an argumentative essay is a piece of writing which contains about some facts and the evidence. in the argumentative essay, someone should be able to show their own argument toward the topics provided. while the main purposes of the argumentative essay is to persuade the readers or audience agree with their statement stated in the essay as well. generally, argumentative essay is a form of writing in which the writer argues for a certain idea and try to persuade readers to adopt the writer’s point of view. harvey (2003) also says that argumentative essay is the act of forming reasons, making orientations, drawing conclusions and applying them to the case in argument; the process of understanding propositions not known or admitted as true, from facts or principles known, admitted or proved true. in addition, argumentative essays present one side of an issue using evidence to convince the readers to draw the same conclusions as the writer. in short, argumentative essay has been defined as a wellstructured and well-supported point of view on a topic that supported by reasons. similar to the other essay, argumentative essay also has three essential parts. the introductory paragraph that functions as attention getter for the readers’ then body paragraph where the writer actually proves the assertion at the end of the introduction and finally the concluding paragraph. it is in line with jordan (1990) and ozagac (2004) claim an academic essay, like argumentative essay, has three essential parts. the first paragraph of an essay is an introductory paragraph. it consists of general to specific statements and a thesis statement. the http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 61-67 63 following paragraph is called body paragraph. it contains as many as paragraph as necessary to explain the controlling idea in the thesis statement in a logical sequence. the last paragraph of the essay is concluding paragraph which give the readers the conclusion or the summary of the essay and the writer’s final comments. this study presents some former researches in which the findings related to this research. those are anita (2012), yuwanti (2014), hidayati (2014), febrianita (2012), rahmatunisa (2014) and all of those researches were being reviewed on the following paragraphs. anita (2012) with the research entitled “students’ ability in writing an introductory paragraph of argumentative essay”, the data showed from 25 students, 8 students wrote the topic of young marriage, 4 students wrote the topic of death penalty in indonesia, 6 students wrote the topic of students exchange program and 7 students wrote the topic of sex education at school. from 25 students only one paper could not be analysed because the writer did not write argumentative essay but an explanation essay. two writing lecturers as the scorer and the researcher herself analysed the data by using the same criteria. from the average scores of the three scores, it was found that the ability of the students in writing general statements of an introductory paragraph of argumentative essay was good; it was about ten students (41.67%) out of 24 students. while in writing thesis statement, the ability of the students in writing thesis statement of an introductory paragraph of argumentative essay was average; it was about nine students (37.5%) out of 24 students. yuwanti (2014) had done a research entitled “error analysis on the argumentative essays written by the fourth semester students of study program of english”. in this study the researcher analysed errors in the argumentative essays written by them and the problems were: the errors found in the argumentative essay by the fourth semester students of english department of faculty of cultural studies of brawijaya university, and the types of errors found in the argumentative essay by the fourth semester students of english department students of faculty of cultural studies of brawijaya university. all kinds of errors mentioned by dulay in the surface strategy taxonomy were made by the students, but the researcher found that the error mostly made was misformation (mf) with 127 errors (44%) especially misformation of “be”. other mistakes made were omission (om) with 95 errors (33%), then addition (ad) with 57 errors (20%), and the last is misordering (md) with 9 errors (3%). it can be concluded that when producing a written work like an essay, the students focused on the content more than on grammar. misformation errors were made the most because in bahasa indonesia as the l1, the structure like ‘be’ or regular and irregular past tense verbs are not significant or not found. hidayati (2014) with a research entitled “mistakes and error analysis of cohesive features in argumentative essay of fifth semester students of english department of jambi university”. from the result of the test, the researcher found that there were four types of errors namely misformation in using antonym, misformation in using personal pronoun and misformation in using possessive pronoun and omission of additional connective or conjunction. meanwhile, the researcher found nine types of mistakes namely misformation in using personal pronoun, misformation in using possessive pronoun, misformation in using demonstrative reference, misformation in using additional conjunction, misformation in using cause effect conjunction, omission of additional conjunction, omission opposite conjunction, omission of cause effect conjunction, misformation in using noun substitution febrianita (2012) has conducted a research entitled “an analysis of parallel structure errors of sentences in students’ writing argumentative essay (study at third year english department students at stkip pgri west sumatra”. based on the research, it could be seen that the students created the error in each class of in using making parallel sentence. the first error misformation was found in the noun, verb, adjective, and adverb class in which were 47(62%) students who created error. the next was addition that found just two class of word, there are noun and verb class 15 (20%) students creating the error. the third was omission which one just two class of word that found in this type error, that are noun and verb class 8(10%) students of this error. the last was misordering which one just in adjective class. there were only 6 (8%) students who made the error. thus, the most error was created in misformation. rahmatunisa (2014) with a research entitled “problems faced by indonesian efl learners in writing argumentative essay”. it is carried out in a qualitative research design as it attempted to describe the problems and their ways out. the data were taken from university students’ writing task and interview. the participants are the second year of university indonesia students who enrol their study in english department. results of the data indicated that indonesian efl learners faced the problems in three categories, those are linguistics problems, cognitive problems, and psychological problems. mostly, students faced problems in linguistics related to the grammatical structure (23.2%), formatting words (30.2%), words classes (16.3%), error in using words (9.3%), and the use of article (21%). second, cognitive problems are related to organizing paragraph, difficulties in remaining word classes, getting lost the generic structure, making a conclusion, http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 61-67 64 and putting punctuation. last, psychological problems which included laziness, egoism, bad mood, and difficulties to start writing also faced by indonesian efl learners. data analysis also indicated the problem solving which hopefully will be beneficial for efl teachers in writing class. it is strongly recommended that the efl class should strengthen all the language skills in general and writing in particular, motivate the students to use english with the teachers, introduce pair work, peer-correction, and use dictionaries frequently etc. the difference between previous researches with this research is the focus of this research is on students’ ability in writing argumentative essay third semester of students in english department of universitas lancang kuning. the process of writing argumentative essay will be on written test from the researcher. meanwhile, this research will be focus on the students’ written test. 2. method this survey design following creswell (2012) ideas on what is survey research as “procedures in quantitative research in which investigators administer a survey to a sample or to entire population of people in order to describe the attitudes, opinions, behaviours, or characteristics of population”. based on the definition above, the researcher conducted this research to analyse students' ability in writing argumentative essay at english students in universitas lancang kuning. this research was conduct at the third semester students of english education department, faculty of education and teachers training, universitas lancang kuning for academic year 2018/2019. the researcher is chosen by who they have been studying their writing classes. consequently, they can write good quality of essay particularly in writing a good argumentative essay. in this study, the population was the third-semester students of english education department, faculty of education and teachers training, universitas lancang kuning consisting of three classes; class a consists of 21 students, class b consists of 21 students and class c consists of 12 students. so, the total of the population is 54 students. sample was selected numbers of those representing the population of the research. gay (2000) defines that sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that they represent the larger group from which they are selected. in determining the sample, the researcher conducts probability sampling technique. subjects are handpicked by the researcher on the basis of his or her own estimate of their typicality. in this case, the researcher determines to choose class b as the sample of this research after considering to the treatment that given by the lecturer while lecturing the course. the researcher believed that class b have the same treatment in learning writing course particularly about writing essay because they belong to the regular class which is taught by the same lecturer in the same day. so that, the researcher only took the sample from the regular class of the third semester students of english education department, faculty of teachers’ training and education, universitas lancang kuning. the researcher applied a writing test, to the topics that students want. the test is used when the researcher works on the inquiry of numbers using statistics in analysing the obtained data. this instrument is going to be used by the researcher to gain the data and identify the percentage and level of students’ability. here, the students were asked to write 500 words in 1-2 hours’ time allocation. to find out how students’ ability in writing argumentative essay, a writing test is used to collect the data. the students are asked to write 500 words in 1-2 hours of time allocation. the students are then asked to collect the works after testing time is finished. the instruments result submitted by students was be assessed by two qualified writing scorer based on all aspects assessment of writing. the scores gained would be then analysed by the researcher. the researcher analysed the data in a few steps. data were assessed using an assessment rubric adopted from nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012). argumentative essays that have rater values are calculated using the following formula: p = where: p = percentage x = number of frequency n = the number of students furthermore, the researcher was consulted to the lecturer teaching writing course to obtain and refer to the scoring of students’ performance. this study refers to the course syllabus. after conducting all the calculating process above, findings obtained could be then analysed to find out specifically toward the purpose of the research is. so, the finding could describe students’ ability in using prepositions of direction. 3. findings in this section this study discussed the result of the study to answer the main research question was “how is the students’ ability in writing argumentative essay?” the data was taken by giving the test about writing argumentative essay. the test was taken in january 2019. the researcher asked the students to write argumentative essay in their paper sheet and after that the researcher asked the rater to giving the assessment about the result of the test by using a rubric score. the rater asset the result of the http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 61-67 65 test based on the five aspects there are content, organization, vocabulary, grammar, mechanic. content is the first aspect, the rater conveys the criteria of the content on the essay of the students such as through development of topic, relevant to topic but lacks detail, inadequate the development of topic, does not show knowledge of topic. organization is the second aspect, the rater conveys the criteria of the organization on the essay of the students such as follow generic structures correctly, loosely organized but ideas stand out, incoherent ideas and lack logical sequencing, does not follow generic structures correctly. vocabulary is the third aspect, the rater convey the criteria of the vocabulary on the essay of the students such as employ accurate and effective choice of words/diction (e/es), employ accurate diction, but not effective, employ lacks accuracy of diction, but meaning not obscured, errors in applying diction or word form, and meaning obscured. grammar is the fourth aspect, the rater convey the criteria of the grammar on the essay of the students such as use correct grammar (simple present tense, adjective, subject-verb agreement, etc), several errors of tense, adjective, subject-verb agreement, etc, but meaning not obscured, major errors of tense, adjective, subject-verb agreement, etc, and meaning obscured, no mastery of sentence construction and dominated by errors. moreover, mechanics is the fourth aspect, the rater convey the criteria of the mechanics on the essay of the students such as very little errors of mechanics, few errors of mechanics, but meaning not obscured, many errors of mechanics, and meaning obscured, dominated by errors of mechanics can be seen in the table 3.1: table 3.1 the list of percentage students’ ability aspect percentage quadrant content 25,24 % 91˚ organization 12,74 % 46˚ vocabulary 25,61 % 92˚ grammar 24,58 % 88˚ mechanics 11,84 % 43˚ based on the table above we could see there were five aspects of the students’ ability in students’ ability in writing argumentative essay. the first content, the percentage of the content was 25,24% and the quadrant was 91˚. the second organization, the percentage of the organization was 12,74% and the quadrant was 46˚. the third vocabulary, the percentage of the vocabulary was 25,61% and the quadrant was 92˚. the fourth grammar, the percentage of the grammar was 24,58% and the quadrant was 88˚. and the last mechanics, the percentage of the mechanics was 11,84% and the quadrant was 43˚. 4. discussion this research has conducted research at teachers english education department faculty of education and teachers training, universitas lancang kuning pekanbaru, the participants were the third semester of the students. the researcher analysed the students’ ability in writing argumentative essay because this research purposes to answer the research question. based on the result of the research the researcher found the students’ ability in writing argumentative essay at the third semester student has very good level it can be seen from the result of the score. moreover, the table of the score can be seen the total score of the students was 96,55 it means that the students’ ability in writing argumentative essay have very good level. the rubric score has five aspects there are content, organization, vocabulary, grammar, mechanics. the score for each aspect also have very good result. for the content the average of the score was 9,75 the second for the organization the average of the score was 4,92 the third for the vocabulary the average of the score was 9,89 the fourth for the grammar the average of the score was 9,49 the fifth for the mechanics tha average of the score was 4,57. based on the result of the score, it can be concluded that the students’ ability in writing argumentative essay can be categorized in very good level. by comparing to previous researcher with this research is the focus of this research is on students’ ability in writing argumentative essay at the third semester students of fkip unilak pekanbaru. the process of writing method was been on writing test from the researcher. meanwhile, this research focused on the five aspects, content, organization, vocabulary, grammar, and mechanics. the result of this research was analysed by using scoring rubric from nababan (2012), the score was got from raters. this research also related to the findings that ever done before by anita (2012) conducted the research entitled “students’ ability in writing an introductory paragraph of argumentative essay”, from the average scores of the three scores, it was found that the ability of the students in writing general statements of an introductory paragraph of argumentative essay was good. 5. conclusion and suggestion this study reveals the students abilty in writing argumentative essay have a very good score and very good level. the assessment employ five aspects i.e., content, organization, vocabulary, grammar, and mechanics. the content (9,75), organization (4,92), vocabulary (9,89) grammar ( 9,49), mechanics (4,57). this is means that these 21 students can go further on their academic journey regarding english when it needs an argumentative essay in written form. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 61-67 66 based on the research, the researcher gives some suggestions about students’ ability in writing argumentative essay. the researcher suggests the students can learn more about how to write argumentative essay, the researcher suggests the students can learn more about five aspects in the writing such as content, organization, vocabulary, grammar, mechanics, because this aspect will help us in writing, the researcher suggests this research can be useful for the next researcher. 6. acknowledgement the writers give their gratitude to anonymous reviewers and colleague who assisted immensely in the production of this research article, especially for their feedback and critic. references anita, r. 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(2017). recognizing insufficiently supported arguments in argumentative essays. in proceedings of the 15th conference of the european chapter of the association for computational linguistics: volume 1, long papers (pp. 980-990). thompson, e.p. (1993). customs in common. london: penguin. wingate, u. (2012). ‘argument!’helping students understand what essay writing is about. journal of english for academic purposes, 11(2), 145154. yuwanti, mc. (2014). “error analysis on the argumentative essays written by the fourth semester students of study program of english”. university of brawijaya. zamel, vivian. (2007). writing: the process of discovering meaning. massachusetts/boston: tesol quurterly. newell, g. e., van der heide, j., & olsen, a. w. (2014). high school english language arts teachers' argumentative epistemologies for teaching writing. research in the teaching of english, 49(2), 95. stab, c., & gurevych, i. (2014, october). identifying argumentative discourse structures in persuasive essays. in proceedings of the 2014 conference on empirical methods in natural language processing (emnlp) (pp. 46-56). http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 39-45 39 using critical discourse analysis (cda) in media discourse studies: unmask the mass media emi sahmeni 1 and nur afifah 2 1 sdit babul huda kampar, indonesia 2 u-raise academy, pekanbaru, indonesia nurafifah@gmail.com article history received : 2019-06-08 revised : 2019-06-11 accepted :2019-05-25 keywords cda media discourse ideology and power van dijk social actors abstract the purpose of this paper is to know how cda unraveling the covert ideologies while researching the existence of power in media discourse studies. this study reviewed sixteen journal articles to examine the ways and methods to discover the social phenomenon while revealing the authentic identity of the social actors. it was found that cda has been used extensively to unmask the ideologies which classify the oppressed group while presenting a positive image for the group with the highest authority. the theory proposed by teun van dijk seems the most used theories used when it related to unmask media profiling. there are three elements in the theory of cda van djik that plays an important role in the research is macrostructure, superstructure and microstructure. this study manages to reveals that mass media play an essential role in the production of trust, prejudice and dominance over social contexts. 1. introduction the term discourse comes from sanskrit, which (etymology) has the meaning 'to say' and 'speak'. the word turns into a discourse word. thus, the word discourse can be given as words or speech. moreover, understanding discourse analysis (da) which consists of two words, namely analysis and discourse. analysis according to the indonesian dictionary (kbbi) can be seen as an investigation of an event, an explanation that is reviewed further, discussed, a breakdown of a number of points from various parts, as well as a breakdown of an event or not at least to change inter-state linkages (depdikbud, 1988: 32) . while, anton m. moeliono (1988: 334) states that discourse is sentences that are interconnected by linking propositions with one another in a relationship of meaning. discourse also has many complete forms in terms of words, sentences, paragraphs or books (kridalaksana, 1983: 208). discourse is "language above sentence or above clause". characteristics of structural descriptions in discourse have different units, categories of systematic forms or different relationships research on discourse is not enough just on the basis of the dimensions of the text alone, because this text is the work of production that must be questioned as well. further, he stated that the discourse was actually an abstract theoretical construct. discourse analysis is the study of the structure of messages in communication. more precisely, discourse analysis is a deeper understanding of the various functions (pragmatics) of language. discourse analysis (da) was born from the awareness regarding problems contained in communication which are not limited to the use of sentences or sentence parts, speech functions, more complex and has a coherent message structure. discourse analysis cannot be separated from the use of the rules of various branches of language, such as semantics, syntax, and so on. (alex sobur, 2004). discourse analysis aims to describe the rules of sentence, language, and meaning. furthermore, sinclair and coulthard (1979) reveal that the new language means when in a context, in the discourse of analysis there are at least 3 views on the first language positivism-empirical, second constructive, the third critical view. when it talks about media studies, then the third view will be a wise choice since it offers a deeper and sensitive approach in analyzing meaning through media. therefore, critical discourse analysis got its fame. figure in developing critical discourse analysis are fairclough, wodak and teun van djik. moreover, van dijk model could be the most comprehensive and often used in various media compared other researcher in the same field regarding a comprehensive analysis on how the news text is produced, both in relation to individual journalists and from the public. (eriyanto 2006: 224). the critical analysis in language studies came into existence which is commonly known as critical discourse analysis (cda), critical discourse studies has appeared .i.e., cda as a branch of discourse analysis that seeks beyond how and why discourse journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 39-45 40 cumulatively contributes to the reproduction of macrostructures and underlines the traces of cultural and ideological meaning. the term ‘critical' in discourse has been addressed in multiple ways which regard to the use of language and the reproduction of power in society. the criticality is designated specifically to the issue of power, hegemony and resistance in various fields of language. van dijk (2003) stated that cda focuses on how a social group’s mental representation is influenced by social structures. in this occasion, the theme of a discussion may influence how people emphasize the important information in a text or talk. cda is characterized as an interdisciplinary multi-methodical approach rather than an isolated discipline on its own. van dijk (2009) asserted that cda is a combination of critical theory and application rather than a critical analysis, which therefore leads to the term (critical discourse studies). van dijk (2009) and wodak and meyer (2009) sketched the aims and tenets of cda which are employed in reviewing recent cda studies: a) cda is more problem-oriented than in a particular theory or discipline because its implications are explicitly presented in layman's terms to the public. b) cda is interdisciplinary because it involves various theories, methods and practical applications in serious non-binding issues and problems in society. c) cda is considered social research because its critical research is concerned with social issues and understanding of human rights, social inequality, abuse of power, such as racism, classism, sexism, and so on. d) cda is interested in unethical issues that investigate the dominance of groups of people who experience discursive injustice. e) cda underlines spontaneous assessment as a need to enlighten the phenomenon under investigation and justifies why a certain interpretation is more effective than others. the purpose of this review is to find out how cda as a critical discourse analysis method plays a central role in uncovering hidden ideologies and examining the power of media discourse studies. the specific objective is to explore the application of the cda approach in the study. 1.1 cda theory and approach the theories proposed by van dijk presents in a variety of social theories and models used in cda, which unleash the various ideological notions. 1.1.1 macrostructure macrostructure shows the dominant, central, and important power in a mass media topic. the observed element is a thematic or a topic, on the information to be conveyed, the mass media will create topics that add to the reader's thirst for information being preached and on the topic will also see how journalists drag public opinion in their writings. as an example of the hottest topic that is being spread in indonesian society is the move of the capital city to be pros and cons, one of the mass media, namely compass, published news about the president's speech with the title “ibu kota ri pindah, jokowi tegaskan bukan salah pemprov dki” from the topic of news the reporters want the public to trust the words of jokowi from the word "affirm" but here we also see that reporters use the word "move" instead of "moved" if a look at the whole topic then put the news jokowi in the eyes of the public as a mediator instead of the perpetrators who caused the move of the capital then here will come out speculation that this has something to do with the dki provincial government but this does not fully show the purpose of the reporting purpose requires many elements that need to be seen in addition to the implicit implications contained in the topic also the choice of words to understanding the contents of the topic but a little lack of topics can give an idea on which side the communicator wants to position the public. behold van dijk's idea, which states that the writing of the topic is done following a certain mental or thought with a specific purpose. behold van dijk's idea, which states that the writing of the topic is done following a certain mental or thought with a specific purpose. 1.1.2 superstructure superstructure or schematic according to van djik is a journalist's strategy in arranging the composition of the news to achieve the flow that leads to the purpose of the news by prioritizing the pressures on the most important things such as a report that preaches about student demonstrations that students want to highlight is a demonstration anarchist, the flow that will be written by the first journalist is the loss of the demonstration, the victims of the demonstration and the actions of the participants of the demo to the point of view of the disadvantage community, the journalist will write the reasons for the demo, the trigger of the demo at the end of the news so that public opinion is more focused on the initial reporting describing the demo anarchist but different if journalists want to convey in the point of view of students who are demo then the composition of the writing begins with the initial atmosphere of the demo, the reasons for the demo, the demo message to be conveyed to the cause of the chaos journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 39-45 41 of the demo then the public opinion in the sleigh that the demo goes peacefully, but there is a person who triggers up the inevitable chaos. from a schematic point of view, the journalist has the ability to choose what, who and how a story should highlight one side that is wanted; this also applies to political reporting. journalists can choose who they want to highlight or what they want to show in their reporting. 1.1.3 microstructures more detailed microstructures in the form of semantics, syntax, stylistics, rhetoric. semantics is the study of linguistics that discusses the meaning (lyon, 1971: 1) in the study of van djik semantics intended to suppress the meaning of the text by giving detailed information on one side or making explicit and reducing information on the other hand how this is done then there are several the element that influences semantics is the background of the formation of text or news. the setting can be a justification for reporting, therefore by analyzing the setting, the meaning or purpose is easier to uncover. reflection from this setting has an ideological reflection because it illustrates that the news will be taken. the second part of the element that must be observed is the detailed discourse according to eriyanto (2011: 238) is a person's ability to control information that is important to be issued with consideration of bringing advan tages or disadvan tages to the communicator even sometimes the news tends to be excessive, the news that requires detailed discourse has an implicit element that is sometimes unnoticed by the reader but has great effect on the reader. in semantics, there are also elements of intent where these elements have in common with elements of detail, but in this element are more likely to profit will be spelt out clearly or explicitly clear and explicit and close or issue information that is implicitly detrimental. like a piece of news about a party elite, the people of this media are the figures of the party that will be reported. the news will provide information that can benefit the image of the party. the second part of the syntax is in the form of sentences, coherence, pronouns. the following example sentence form "a teacher in a private school beats his students" with the sentence "students from one private school beaten by his teacher" the use of both forms of sentences is correct but can be seen in which part of the sentence to highlight the active sentence in general position someone as the subject of the response while passive sentences place a person as an object. coherence is a relationship or interwoven words, coherence becomes an element formed from the perspective of the media whether a news is connected or separated from each other such as "an event a happened in country c has a good impact, event a happening in country b has a negative effect "to connect an event, the sentence will read" different from country c, event a has a negative effect on country b "or the opposite sentence shows the good effect of all that depends on the angle where the media want to highlight it. the pronouns are elements that can manipulate for example the use of the word "we" with "them" "we as a nation that wants peace for this country" the impression of the sentence is more friendly and solid, "they as a nation that one wants peace for this country" said "they" give distance and sense of alien to the recipient of the info and will cause negative speculation or implicit meaning in the sentence. furthermore,the fourth part of the microstructure is a structure that is how the choice of words used in media texts, the choice of words can indicate certain attitudes and ideologies such as "the israeli slaughter of palestinian children" "a corrupt apparatus "words like "slaughter" indicate a word that means an affirmation of an extreme action. finally, the microstructure element is rhetorical, namely how and in what way an event is emphasized on the text, for example, the emphasis uses the metaphor of "the silent world of a thousand languages, palestine screaming" or the use of graphic examples showing graphical graphics annually and also in graphics can include photos or images. 1.2 social theory of discourse the social theory of discourse is linguistically oriented as it purposes in examining social and political event in society. in this theory, discourse is viewed as a social practice which establishes power between a varieties of entities. actually, this leads to the rise of power and ideological practice in society which offers power in discourse and signifies a variety of world views from diverse perspectives. social analysis in van djik's view is a growing discourse in the community in this case a text must be examined using intertextual analysis so that it will be seen how the discourse is shaped and developed in public life as well as reporting on human rights violations so the need for discourse research on the law human rights and how human rights are viewed by the ends of this analysis to show the meaning that can be captured together, with the practice of discourse and the legitimacy of the formation of social power. in the social analysis, van dijk argues that there are 2 important points, the first is power, in this case, van dijk defines power as ownership of a group, the dominant attitude of a group in other groups as in the case of white groups with blacks. the second part is that access influences discourse, elite groups have greater access space than minority groups and also we can see the owners of a media more freely in accessing things that benefit them than those who do not own a media. journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 39-45 42 in the social theory of discourse, fairclough (1992) proposed 3 principles which are regarded as a social practice. “first, discourse is both constitutive and constituted. discourse is supposed to contribute to the shaping and reflection of social structures. second, social practice constructs the social identities and the social relationships between various entities and classes in society. third, social practice contributes to the system of knowledge and belief as it leads to other functions of language such as identity, relational and ideational functions. moreover, the emphasis is on the dialectical relationship, which comprises the relationship between social structure and social practice and event and semiotics (fairclough, 2009). the dialectical practice manifested sees social practice and event as contradictory due to its complex relationship. as a whole, social theory of discourse is concerned with how discourse bonds with society while focusing on the interaction patterns between participants, social goals and types of social events”. 1.3 theory of ideology the ideological theory is considered a multidisciplinary approach, which is the basic framework for organizing some ideological and consumption concepts. “ideology usually controls the thinking of social groups which then represent the basic social characteristics of groups based on their identity, purpose, norms, values, positions and resources” (van dijk, 1995). with regard to ideological consumption, cognitive and social factors are also involved in this process. van dijk (1995) proclaims that “social cognition is a system with shared sociocultural knowledge by members of a particular group, society or culture. for example, feminists share ideas or beliefs about principles such as positive acts of abortion and stereotypes by men@. therefore, these principles lead to the emergence of feminist ideology. it is felt that ideology is acquired by members of social groups through a long-term process and through other forms of social information processing (van dijk, 1995). the component in the most important ideological representation is the existence of our term against them (van dijk, 1995) the relationship between these two components is significant as our term 3l: journal of english studies southeast asia vol 21 (2): 57 68 60 associated with positive traits and they are associated with bad traits (van dijk, 1995). moreover, he mentioned also "the basic form of ideological nature that governs, monitoring and controlling social group attitudes is ideological. each ideological representation is always accompanied by the experience of a person who is called a model”. van dijk (1987) states that the model represents a personal experience such as certain information any event or action processed in short-term memory. in other words, the model parallel to cognitive functioning because they observe one's thoughts and personality knowledge it has. models are uniquely formed because they hold the ability to control the experience of a social actor (van dijk, 1995) and are also “influenced by the cognitive processes of other group members in society. in connection with this, it is felt that the model is the main unit that controls the various actions of human life as the discovery of some ideologies”. 2. method in conducting the analysis, first, an electronic database search is run in the proquest scholarly journal and google scholar database. the proquest database was chosen to search for related studies for this review as it is a reputable database and provides a variety of information covering multiple authoritative sources. most importantly, proquest has subscribed with the university to give sufficient resources for students. in addition, google scholar is used because it is easily accessible and indexed literature through various disciplines. search is limited to a ten-year period from 2005 to 2015, in choosing related studies for review. keywords such as critical discourse analysis and media are used to explore. the other criterion in choosing a related study for this review is based on the originality of data. initially, 30 related studies have been downloaded from the proquest and google scholar databases. of the 30 studies, 14 studies were eliminated in the absence of a concrete theoretical framework. only studies that apply the cda approach are included and reviewed. 16 research studies were read thoroughly, and their content was analyzed in accordance with the main theoretical framework. after analyzing the content of the selected study, the main framework used in the study was structured on three main themes. the first theme relates to the application of the cda using the fairclough analysis framework, and the second and third themes are related to the application of cda using the van dijk framework. it has been noted that within a ten-year time frame, wodak's theoretical framework in cda is rarely used in related studies because of complex analytical procedures. the appendix shows a summary of research studies by author, publication year, research objectives, methodology, data sources and findings. 3. result and discussion the study of political ideology, power, and discursive discourse has been investigated because there is an implicit connotation in every word and power behind every word in unmasking the identity of a noble character or a social leader. it is found that power is often associated with the act of controlling and limiting the contribution of participants who are not strong in society because this encounter usually occurs between the power holder and the lower class society. literally, journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 39-45 43 helpless people are not given the opportunity to comment or argue about the political issues and rationality of an event. it is perceived that ideology has the power to multiply non-critical discourse analysts in various ways in forcing a belief. in addition, it is felt that positive self-presentation and other negative presentation strategies are often used. discriminative groups are described as another negative presentation because these groups are suppressed by a dominant group that has a positive selfpresentation. the study below is organized under three main themes related to fairclough's analytical framework, ideological and ideological aspects of van dijk. the analytical framework for each study is determined by the researcher of a particular study. the analytical framework that the dominant researcher uses is the van djik model where the text structure and social analysis and ideology show indications of the implications and interests of a group in order to create a support for the position in the view of the recipient of information and the cda framework has a concern for the oppressed so that the use of cda in very discourse help researchers analyze media texts. 4. conclusion these sixteen articles have shown that mass media play an important role in the production of trust, prejudice and dominance over social contexts because mass media tends to marginalize others and misinterpret an event. it was found that since cda has gained popularity in the field of discourse studies, more and more studies have applied cda to discursively investigate texts, interactions and social contexts, to explore the relationship between language and ideology, and to examine how ideologies that dominate oppresses are less strong. with this assumption, it is clear that cda is a powerful tool in deconstructing texts as the scale of the ideological representations in question. to summarize, this review has examined various cda behaviours aimed at expressing stereotypes, prejudices, hegemony, power and ideological attitudes. the social context of representation determines the production of discourse, this is inseparable from the van dijk cda model where the three elements are factors that always emerge when making news discourse while discourse contributes to the development of the social power of bound relations which is the value of success in the power of language using theory van diik as the most used theory among these sixteen articles. this present study hopes to contribute to existing knowledge about cda research to raise awareness among new 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(2015). methods of critical discourse studies. sage. instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, agustus 2020, pp. 76-84 76 five factors influencing the students’ motivation to learn english as a foreign language: a closer look into montessori classroom environment febti mahani batubara 1, tatum derin 2, nunung susilo putri 3, & ratih saltri yudar 4 1 universitas lancang kuning, pekanbaru, indonesia 3 smu negeri 3, pekanbaru, indonesia 2, 4 u-raise academy, pekanbaru, indonesia febtibatubara0802@gmail.com article history received : 2019-08-24 revised : 2020-01-09 accepted : 2020-08-26 keywords motivation montessori method classroom environment elementary school english as a foreign language abstract good learning environment will bring out qualified students. this study focuses on the montessori method, which is an approach of education designed to train the students’ independence in learning. the study uses descriptive quantitative research design to describe the factors of montessori classroom environment on the motivation of students in royal prime montessori elementary school pekanbaru in academic year 2018/2019. the sample of study is 55 students selected from five classes. the data were collected using questionnaire and observation checklist. this study found five factors influencing the students’ motivational condition, i.e., teacher’s presence, personal attitude, montessori materials, classroom conditions and friends’ influence. this study revealed that the students taught with this method are active and cooperative during their english learning activities. 1. introduction school isn’t always the most exciting place for young kids to be, so teachers need to set the classroom environment in ways that stimulates the students’ motivation. arguably, classroom environment is the most important factor on students’ willingness to even engage with the activities set by the teacher. according to goos & sonnemenn (2017), “a good learning environment raises student expectations, encourages them to participate, and ensures that no student fly under the radar.” qualified students come from good learning environment. therefore, the factors in classroom environment greatly influence students’ motivation during learning activities. motivation is the energy that can stimulate the students’ effort to achieve a particular goal. mcinerney & liem (2008) said, “there are three things to remember about education. the first one is motivation. the second one is motivation. the third one is motivation.” the quote means to convey the necessity for teachers to make the students eager, if not enthusiastic, to learn and practice using the language they are learning. the methods that teacher apply in the class will not give or bring a significant impact on the students’ achievement if the students do not have the interest to learn (hamuddin et al., 2020; nasution, 2019). the teacher also needs to be careful from using new teaching techniques or lesson materials that might trigger the students’ anxieties (derin & hamuddin, 2019) or add too much burden on the teacher’s part (junaidi et al., 2020). classroom environment and motivation cannot be divided. a good classroom environment boosts students’ motivation while monotonous classroom environment reduces students’ motivation. the teacher needs an appropriate method that creates a comfortable and engaging classroom environment. multiple studies advocated that montessori method is an effective learning suitable for elementary students as it centres on students and ensures experiential learning, (salazar, 2014; handayani, 2014; scanlan, 2013; gokhan, 2018). montessori method develops the students independence in learning. montessori classes achieve this by implementing activities that allocate responsibilities to the students’ shoulders. various countries have established montessori classes, including the royal prime montessori school in pekanbaru, indonesia. as previous studies have indicated that the montessori method can indeed increase students’ motivation in learning activities, this present study is interested to investigate the factors behind the method’s success. 2. literature review 2.1 the nature of motivation in language learning motivation is an energy that can stimulate someone ‘enthusiasm to get the goal. motivation cannot be separated with education. it is because motivation determined student’ condition, respond and students qualified in language learning activities. according to alizadeh, mitra (2016), “motivation is http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, agustus 2020, pp. 76-84 77 an important factor for explaining the success or failure of any complex task”. the first step that teacher should do is motivate the students. it is because students without motivation is meaningless. in addition, long, chunmei., ming, zhu. & chen, liping (2013 p. 136) also states that “motivation play an important role in foreign language learning”. as we know, teach english as foreign language is not easy. it is because english is not our mother language or official language. therefore, the students need motivation to support and make them enjoy in their learning process. furthermore, many strategies of learning in language class are nothing without motivation (wekke et al : 2017). suprijono (2009) states that “motivation to learn is the process that gives the spirit of learning, direction, and persistence of behavior”. the teacher’ responsibility is increase students’ motivation during learning activities in the class. the students who do not get the motivation will easy to get bored. it is because every people need motivation in life to get their achievement especially students. 2.2 the nature language classroom environment classroom environment is a place where the teacher and students create the interaction to develop students’ ability. actually, this place help the students to get the basic knowledge such as counting, reading, writing, listening, sharing or asking something, expressing their need or feeling. this place also build students confidence, discipline, responsibility and social skill that will give the impact for students’ educational success. according to habibi, sofwan, & mukminin (2016) state that “classroom environment plays an important part of students’ educational success. classroom environment is the place to give and get knowledge and good habit”. there are some factors or aspect of classroom environment that influence students’ motivational condition in the class. teacher is the main figure in creating positive atmosphere in the class. according to rahman (2018) find that “teachers have the highest influence on a students’ motivation, followed closely by a students’ own attitudes towards learning and then parental influence”. beside it, the physical of learning environment also have significant impact towards the effective learning activity and students’ motivational condition. tanner (2000) also state that “an attractive learning environment, the way furniture is arranged, the lighting used, the ability of wall to absorb sound and floor properties have been identified to affect student achievement”. in addition, the effective learning activities is when teacher able to combine and make good interaction between the lesson, strategy to teach and media of learning. according to harjali (2017),“thus students can manage, interact, and achieve their learning objectives, facilitated by learning activities based on selected materials, strategies, and media”. 2.3 teaching english for young learners by using montessori method english is widely taught as a foreign language, in particular in indonesia (rahman, 2018). however, in many schools the way of teaching english somehow has their own uniqueness that makes its different one of them is montessori school. this school has a long tradition in using the method developed by italian physician maria montessori. this method prepare the environment where students are free to choose their own interest of learning material. this method used some apparatus such as grammar box, grammar symbol, and picture card to stimulate students desire to understand the lessons in english class. according to handayani, s (2014), “a new style of learning like montessori approach enlightens children in learning. the classroom’s style, learning while playing with tools, and interesting teachers that belong to montessori approach make children enjoy learning english language”. the steps in learning activities are: the teacher asks the students to get the materials. then, the teacher explains about the lesson by using the materials. next, the teacher asks the students to works with the material itself. moreover, the materials have self – correcting that help the students to solve the problems independently. these activities can build students motivation, confidence and analytical thinking to complete his/her works. according to dahlmeier, c (2011), “the materials have an inner aim. montessori wrote that she did not set out to teach any "subjects". instead, the child, through active involvement, will develop independence, selfconfidence, attention and critical thinking skills. in addition, sensorial activity in montessori classroom intend to growth and develop the five sense such as; visual, tactile, auditory, gustatory, and olfactory senses on each students. according to faryadi (2009), “educational learning environment such as montessori classroom using sensory methods statistically improved students’ performance as well as motivated them to learn and continue learning the english language”. the teacher should give many sensorial experiences as possible for young learner. it happened because sensorial activities can develop students’ performance, focus, and motivation to learn english. montessori classroom used sensorial material such as; color tablets (visual), sound cylinders (auditory), fabrics, rough and smooth boards (tactile), smelling and testing bottle (olfactory and gustatory sense). sensorial material in montessori classroom are carefully designed. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, agustus 2020, pp. 76-84 78 the goal of montessori is to empower students by natural development. it means allowing student to choose learning activities independently. automatically it will stimulate students desire to understand the lesson. furthermore it will build good personality like self-correction. students will learn to correct their mistakes, and learn from their errors. montessori students also learn to have responsibility to finish their own work. according to akhsanova, et al (2016), “the organization of teaching english for preschoolers using maria montessori's method significantly increases the effectiveness of english language mastering by children, contributes to the development of their personal qualities, and increases the level of motivation to learning”. 3. method the present study applied descriptive quantitative method which aims to describe factors in montessori classroom environment that influence students’ motivation and students’ responses during their learning activities. this research conducted in sd royal prime montessori school pekanbaru at the second semester from 9 to 17 may 2019 in academic year 2018/2019. this school is selected due to its long history of using montessori method in teaching english. the population of the study involved 55 students at primary 1-5 students. if the population is less than 100 people, the sample can be taken all of the population. hence, this study used total sampling technique involved 55 students selected from five classes in total, it means, every number of population will be selected. the data were collected using questionnaire and observation checklist. the questionnaire was given to answer the first research question “what factors in montessori english class that influence students’ motivational condition?”. beside it, the observation was did to answer the second research question “what were the students’ responds during learning activities in montessori english class?” 3.1 questionnaire the early step of this study were collecting data through questionnaire which started by running the questionnaire try out in order to check the validity and reliability of the questionnaire. after finished the try out, the researcher tabulated the score of the students’ answers by using spss version 22 program. then, the researcher saw that only 23 questions that have been valid and reliable. so, the researcher gave 23 questions to 55 students at royal prime montessori elementary school pekanbaru. the form of questionnaire was closed format and one type of closed format question that is likert scale that consists of four choices; absolutely agree, agree, disagree, and absolutely disagree. therefore, the students were able to select one of the choices based on their opinion or feeling in montessori english class. each choice has score to analyse the data of the questionnaire. when collecting data, the researcher explained the procedure to finish the questionnaire and help some of student to understand the question. the questionnaire consists of four indicators; teacher influence, personal attitude, montessori’s material influence, and classroom condition. the data is analysed by using spss version 22 program to obtain accurate values of the frequency, mean and standard deviation adapted from rahman (2018). 3.2 observation checklist the observation checklist was done to collect quantitative data. before collecting the data, the researcher had done check the validity of the indicators in observation checklist by using expert judgment on thursday, may 9th, 2019. the researcher discussed it with two english teachers in royal prime montessori elementary school pekanbaru. from the discussion, the teacher asked to revise the question number 10. so, the researcher revised it based on teacher’s suggestion. after that, the researcher showed the revision and asked for teacher approval. the form of observation checklist was nonparticipant observation because the researcher did not join in learning activity. this instrument also used likert scale that consist of five choices; very good, good, enough, less, and poor. so, the researcher able to select one of the choices based on the researcher observation in english learning activity. in addition, the researcher observed the students’ activities, wrote some notes, and took documentation during observation. figure 3.1 data analysis formula in collecting the data, the researcher collaborated with all of english teacher at royal prime montessori school pekanbaru. it happened because the researcher needs teachers help and information about the students. the data was analysed by using the percentage formula displayed in figure 3.1. table 3.1 the criteria of questionnaire range scale scale range score mean range (+) (-) 4 1 absolutely agree highest 4.50 – 5.00 3 2 agree high 3.50 – 4.49 2 3 disagree low 2.50 – 3.49 1 4 absolutely disagree lowest 1.00 – 2.49 (rahman, 2018) http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, agustus 2020, pp. 76-84 79 the researcher also used categories to investigate the level of each factors in influencing students motivational condition in montessori english class influence students motivational condition. the range of score is represented in table 3.1. 4. findings from the results of the questionnaire and observation, this study determined that there are five factors that influence the enthusiasm that students display in montessori classes. these five factors include the teacher’s influence, the student’s personal attitude, the montessori material, the condition of the classroom, and the influence of the students’ friends or peers. 4.1 the teacher’s influence the first factor, the teacher, has an overall mean of 3.50. the value indicates that the teacher has a high level of influence on the students’ motivation. table 4.1 the frequency, mean, and standard deviation of the teacher’s influence statements response distribution (%) mean sd aa a d ad my teacher seldom gives me the chance to express my thoughts or feelings during the lesson 0 9.1 43.6 47.3 3.38 0.652 i listen attentively when the teacher presents the material 67.3 30.9 1.8 0 3.65 0.517 i'm bored when the teacher presents the material 0 0 52.7 47.3 3.47 0.504 the majority of the students agreed that teacher gives them opportunity to express their thoughts or feelings in montessori english class (my teacher seldom gives me opportunity to express my thought or feeling in english lesson). in addition, most of them also interested to listen attentively to the teacher when teacher explain the lesson using montessori material in english class (i am interested to listen attentively when teacher presents montessori’s materials to teach english lesson). they are also enjoyed the learning activity and never bored when teacher explain the lesson using montessori material (i am bored when teacher presents montessori’s materials to teach english lesson). 4.2 personal attitude’s influence the second factor, the students’ personal attitude, has an overall mean of 3.52. the value indicates that the students have displayed eagerness in the lessons. table 4.2 the frequency, mean, and standard deviation of personal attitude statements response distribution (%) mean sd aa a d ad i'm happy learning english in montessori class 70.9 29.1 0 0 3.71 0.458 i think english is difficult 0 0 63.6 36.4 3.36 0.485 i always speak english with my teacher and friends 74.5 25.5 0 0 3.75 0.440 i'm nervous to speak english in school 0 3.6 58.2 38.2 3.35 0.552 i prefer to speak english in school 0 0 25.5 74.5 3.75 0.440 i prefer to talk with my friends than listening to the teacher during lessons 0 0 34.5 65.5 3.65 0.480 i always try to finish the assignment independently 72.7 27.3 0 0 3.73 0.449 i often give up when i cannot finish my assignment 1.8 0 74.5 23.6 3.20 0.524 i'm often confused about the conclusion of each montessori english class 0 12.7 56.4 30.9 3.18 0.641 http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, agustus 2020, pp. 76-84 80 all of students were happy learn english in montessori class (i am happy learning english in montessori class). they also think that english was not difficult for them (i think english is difficult). in addition, they were always confidence to speak english with their teacher and friends in daily (i always speak english with my teachers and friends) and (i am nervous to speak english in the school). moreover, they enjoyed to learn english in montessori class, they prefer to study and listen to the teacher rather than sleep or disturb their friends (i prefer to sleep rather than study in montessori class) and (i prefer to disturb my friends rather than listen to the teacher). moreover, all of them were enthusiast and never give up to finish their assignment in montessori english class (i always try to finish the assignment independently) and (i often give up when i cannot finish my assignment). furthermore, most of students always understood of the english lesson in montessori class (i often confuse about the conclusion of each english lesson in montessori class). 4.3 montessori materials’ influence the result of the questionnaire showed that montessori’s lesson materials have a high influence in motivating students in english montessori class by a mean of 3.608. table 4.3 the frequency, mean, and standard deviation of montessori materials’ influence statements response distribution (%) mean sd aa a d ad i enjoy use montessori’s materials in english class because it can develop my intelligence 54.5 45.5 0 0 3.55 0.503 i think montessori’s materials do not help me to understand the lesson 0 0 65.5 34.5 3.35 0.480 montessori’s materials stimulate my desire to follow teacher’s instruction 72.7 27.3 0 0 3.73 0.449 montessori’s materials always make me want to study english 76.4 23.6 0 0 3.76 0.429 montessori’s materials facilitate me to understand the lesson 67.3 30.9 1.8 0 3.65 0.517 all of students enjoy to use montessori’s materials in english class because it helped them to understand the lesson and develop their intelligence (i enjoy use montessori’s materials in english class because it can develop my intelligence). they are also agreed that montessori material can help them to understand the lesson (i think montessori’s materials do not help me to understand the lesson). beside it, most of them stated that montessori’s materials make them enthusiast to listen and follow teachers instruction (montessori’s materials stimulate my desire to follow teacher’s instruction). most of them also said that montessori’s materials are able to stimulate their desire to learn english in montessori class (montessori’s materials always make me want to study english). moreover, most of them agreed that montessori’s materials as good facilitate which help them to understand the lesson (montessori’s materials facilitate me to understand the lesson) 4.4 classroom condition’s influence the findings indicated that the condition of the classroom has a high influence in motivating students in english montessori class by a mean of 3.54. table 4.4 the frequency, mean, and standard deviation of classroom condition’s influence statements response distribution (%) mean sd aa a d ad montessori class stimulates me to express my thought or feeling in english lesson 61.8 36.4 1.8 0 3.60 0.531 i am nervous to express my thought or feeling in montessori class 0 3.6 52.7 43.6 3.40 0.564 http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, agustus 2020, pp. 76-84 81 the clean and tidy class makes me enjoy to learn 65.5 34.5 0 0 3.65 0.480 i enjoy in the class that hot and dirty 0 0 49.1 50.9 3.51 0.505 most of students agreed that they are confidence and capable to express their thought and feeling in montessori english class (montessori class stimulates me to express my thought or feeling in english lesson) moreover, they also agreed that clean and tidy class influence their condition during learning activities (the clean and tidy class makes me enjoy to learn) from the data above, we can stated that classroom condition give the contribution on students’ motivation in montessori english class. moreover, the researcher observed the primary 1-5 students learning activity in montessori english class on may, 10th -16th 2019. the researcher used nonparticipant observation because the researcher did not join in the learning activities. the researcher also used 5 scales to investigate the percentage of the students’ responses in montessori english class progression. the researcher used 10 indicators to observe students’ responds in learning activity. based on the finding, the students showed high enthusiasm to respond in the learning activities in english montessori classroom. table 4.5 the percentage of observation checklist indicators response distribution (%) note students are interest to start the lesson 98% highest students listen attentively to the teacher when teacher introduce the lesson 92% highest students are enthusiast to follow teacher’s instruction 89% highest students are enthusiast to use montessori’s material 90% highest students are able to respond teacher’s questions 90% highest students are able to make or mention other examples 85% highest students are able to finish the assignment 92% highest students are able to correct the mistakes 88% highest students will ask the teacher if they do not understand the lesson 89% highest students are able to give their own conclusion about the lesson 94% highest table 4.5 indicated that 98% of students are enthusiastic to join in english montessori class. the researcher noted that most of students responded to the teacher when teacher opened the class and asks students’ condition. for example, primary 1 student; xresponds to the teacher when teacher opens the class and asks students’ condition. the researcher also looked that only one students at primary 5 that do not respond to the teacher when teacher open the class x do not respond to the teacher when teacher open the class. he just looked at the teacher and his friends. he was also too clearly busy with himself. 92% of students are enthusiastic to listen and participate in the lessons. the researcher noted that most of students were listening and responding to the teacher when teacher opened the lesson. for example, most of primary 2 students were also able to listen and respond the teacher when teacher guide them to know what is adverb and the type of adverb. for example, x listens and responds when teacher guide them to know what is adverb and mention the type of adverb together. the researcher also saw that only some students do not really listen and respond to the teacher when teacher introduce the lesson; one students at primary 1,2,3,4 and five students at primary 5. for example one student at primary 1 do not focus when the teacher opened the lesson. he seems busy with his eraser. 89% of students are enthusiastic to listen and followed teacher’s instruction. the researcher noted that most of students were enthusiast to listen and respond teacher’s instruction. most of primary 3 students were able to listen and respond when teacher guide them to analyze the example and give the instruction to finish the assignment. for example; x listen and respond when teacher give the example and the instruction to finish the assignment. the researcher looked that only some of them do not really listen and respond teacher’s instruction; one students at primary 4 and six students at primary 5. for example, x do not listen and respond the teacher. 90% of students are enthusiast to use montessori’s materials. they were enthusiast to identify each material, make and analyse the sentence by using the materials. the researcher noted that most of students were enthusiast to listen to the teacher’s instruction about the lesson and finish their assignment by using the materials. most of primary 3 students were able to arrange and analyse the sentence by using the words inside the grammar box. they were also able to analyse part of speech in each sentence. for example; x is enthusiast to make 5 sentences by using the words inside the grammar box, place it on the grammar filler box and arrange it on the table. the researcher saw that only some of them did not listen and respond teachers’ instruction to use the materials; one student at primary 1, 4 and three students at primary 5. for example, xdo not pay attention when teacher guides them to analyse the sentences by using the symbols. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, agustus 2020, pp. 76-84 82 90% of students are enthusiast to respond teacher’s questions and instruction. the researcher noted that most of them were enthusiast to respond teacher’s questions and instruction in learning activity. most of primary 4 students were able to respond teachers question and instruction to identify each symbol, make and analyse the sentence together. for example, x responded teacher’s instruction to mention the name of each symbol, make and analyse the sentence by using the materials. the researcher also looked that only some of them did not respond to the teacher’s questions and instruction; one student at primary 4 and four students at primary 5. for example, x do not respond to the teacher question. she just paid quiet attention to the teacher. 85% of students are enthusiast to make or analyse the examples. the researcher noted that most of students at primary 4 were able to make the sentence. for example, xtries to make the sentences based on the symbol that teacher gave. the researcher saw that only some students did not try to make or analyse the examples; one student at primary 2, three primary 4 students and six primary 5 students. for example, xdo not try to analyse the example. 92% of students are able to finish the assignment. the researcher noted that most of them are able to make and analyse the sentences independently or in a group. most of primary 5 students were able to make and analyse the sentence by making a syntax tree in a group. for example, x’s group is able to make and analyse the sentence by making a syntax tree. the researcher also saw that only some students are able to finish their assignment with teacher guidance. for example, x is able to make a sentence and place it in each arrow with teacher guidance. 88% of students were able to analyse the assignment together by using the materials. they had no problem when analysed the assignment by using the materials. most of primary 2 students were able to place each word by answer the questions in each arrow. they are also able to correct their mistake when the answer is not suitable with the question. for example; xtry to analyse the sentence by place each word in each arrow. the researcher saw that only some of them did not try to analyse the assignment; one student at primary 3, 4 and four students at primary 5. they paid attention when teacher guided them to analyse the assignment but do not respond it. for example, x do not try to analyse other group’s sentences. 89% of students are confident and brave enough to ask the teacher if they are confused or do not understand the lesson. a primary 4 student, x, asked the teacher, “is it article or conjunction and what is conjunction?” almost all of them were able to create and analyse the sentences in materials. they were able to respond and follow the teacher’s instruction. the researcher also saw that only a few students were not one hundred per cent engaged in the class. 94% of students are able to give their own conclusion about the lesson. the researcher observed that most of them were able to understand and follow the lesson. they were able to identify each symbol or material. they were also able to mention some example, make the sentences, finish their assignment and analyze or discuss the assignment by using the materials with the teacher. the researcher saw that some of them needed teacher guided to understand the lesson. 5. discussion as explained previously, this research was carried out in five classes and the researcher used total sampling with 55 students as the sample. this research conducted at the primary 1-5 students in royal prime montessori elementary school pekanbaru. the purposes of this research were to investigate factors in montessori english class that influence students motivational condition and to describe how students’ responds during learning activities in montessori english class. based on the data questionnaire, it found that factors influence students motivation in montessori class were in teacher influence, personal attitude, montessori’s material and classroom influence. teacher’s way to present the lesson and manage the class will determine students’ condition and performance in learning activities. then, students’ attitude toward english class will give the impact for students’ achievement in the class. moreover, montessori material also influences students’ curiosity and enthusiast to finish the assignment or understand the lesson. when the material facilitates them easy to understand the lesson, the students will interest to be active in the class. furthermore, classroom condition influence students condition in the class. the students will happy and enjoy to join the class if the class is clean, big, and tidy. based on the data observation, it found that most of students are enthusiast to join in montessori english class. teacher’s way and material contribution makes them enthusiast to respond and listen to the teacher when teacher present the lesson by using the materials. montessori material makes the students be active in the class. the materials are able to stimulate students’ interest and curiosity to listen and follow teacher instruction and finish their assignment. it happened because the material is concrete and unique. so, the students easily to understand the lesson. the finding is almost similar with the research by adisti (2018) which showed that the application of montessori method to teach english for young learner is able to stimulate students interest and enthusiasm in http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, agustus 2020, pp. 76-84 83 learning activities. students also enjoy and become more active during learning activities. montessori values are also able to make students be responsible and more creative so the students will not bored during learning activity. the differences in this research is the impact after apply montessori method to teach english for young learner. then, related to the implementation of montessori method to teach english by handayani (2014)which had a different aim, the result from this study showed that montessori has been proven to be very effective and functional to teach english for young learner. the implementation of montessori method is to make children to be bilingual, creative, and competence individual, also to be sociable and responsible person. moreover, the finding is also similar faryadi’s (2011) whose research showed that students in montessori classroom environment were most excited to learn english in a fun way. sensory method in montessori class significantly improved students’ performance as well as motivated them to learn and continue learning the english language. 6. conclusion based on the findings of this study, the researcher concluded that the huge majority of the young learners in royal prime montessori elementary school are highly motivated in english learning activities. the montessori materials, classroom condition, the teachers, the students’ friends and personal attitude are significant factors on their overall learning motivation. references derin, t., & hamuddin, 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(2017, december). learning strategy in class management: a reflection from manado case. in iop conference series: earth and environmental science (vol. 97, no. 1, p. 012053). iop publishing http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 111-117 111 exploring brown and levinson's politeness strategies: an explanation on the nature of the politeness phenomenon putri adrian sapitri 1, aprilia chasanah 2, avivah adinda putri 3 and jessica paulima 4 1 smk negeri 5 pekanbaru, indonesia 2 smk migas teknologi riau, pekanbaru, indonesia 3, 4 sma negeri 3 pekanbaru, indonesia putriadriansapitri14@gmail.com article history received : 2019-12-02 revised : 2019-12-03 accepted : 2019-12-20 keywords politeness politeness strategy face fta abstract this study aimed at reviewing and see brown and levinson politeness strategies proposed in their book (1978) entitled "politeness: some universals in language usage" still can be used in the present situation. brown and levinson (1978) developed a theory to explain phenomena related to the politeness on verbal communication and non-verbal. this article using a content analysis approach as a qualitative. this article is interested in focusing on the types of politeness strategies put forward by brown and levinson (1978). this study sees over the past three decades; there has been a significant increase in research on politeness strategies from social and linguistic aspects showing from the many papers still found using bl framework of politeness strategies. this present study also sees politeness strategies proposed by brown and levinson still can be used in a current situation related to politeness and extended onto many discourse contexts, both verbal and non-verbal communication. 1. introduction the theory of brown and levinson in politeness extensively uses as basic research by researchers in the field of not only in linguistics but also in economic, psychology, and so on. in the last three decades, the research on politeness strategies has increased significantly in terms of social and linguistic aspects. it is evident which comes from the various papers appear on the issues in the international journals and monographs. the politeness strategy proposed by brown and levinson (1987) for oral discourse can be applied to interpret the scientific culture of scientific writing. brown and levinson developed a theory to explain phenomena related to the politeness on verbal communication and nonverbal communication. in general, people usually behave in everyday interactions because they care about their public selfimage. according to brown and levinson (1987), the act of maintaining a face in pragmatic courtesy includes actions that threaten faces and actions to save faces. following the theory of politeness, a face consists of two related elements: a positive face and a negative face. a positive face is defined only as a 'self-image' while a negative face is the desire to have freedom. besides, leech (1983) has proposed the concept of modesty itself through a set of principles. indeed, this is a way to explain how politeness operates in conversation exchange. brown and levinson's politeness theory also outlines four main types of politeness strategies that include baldness on record, negative politeness, positive politeness, and not being noted. these strategies are used to express messages to save the listener's face when facial actions are desired. in communication, there is twopart. the first of all is verbal communication, and the second is non-verbal communication (weaver, r., & hybells, s. 2007). verbal communication can be seen by way perspective of linguistics features, namely length of speech, speed of expression, loudness, etc. for example "where are you going?” its can expressed differently depending on who the speakers is, to whom them speaks, on what occasion the utterance is expressed and so on (mujiyanto, y. 2017). for another example like the word “be quiet!” this is a polite word when parents tell their children to be quiet in certain situations. but this word would be impoliteness if the children were telling their parents to be quiet. verbal communication can also be calculated from a socio-cultural perspective background such as the face, strength, status, age, gender, social distance, kinship, participant role, and discussion in the talk community. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 111-117 112 according to halliday (2003), "almost every saying have an ideational meaning, which is related to processes and things from the real world, and an interpersonal meaning, related to the role and attitude adopted and assigned by the speaker" (p. 83). the act of politeness becomes an inseparable part and is limited by socio-culture where the settings are applied. for example, level of courtesy greetings can be expressed as sayings like "good morning", "good afternoon", "hi", and "hello", whereas like indonesian, questions like "where are you going?" answer with expressions like "there". in other words, cultural differences tend to bring up different ways of expressing the act of politeness. speech rated being polite in a cultural setting can be considered rude in other settings. as a result, it is necessary to cross-cultural interlocutors to realize the differences that exist in realizing speech degree of politeness according to linguistics and socio-cultural aspects that are used as politeness action parameters. the result that is always needed to reconstruct speech in language while maintaining a degree of politeness contained in general, accurate, and acceptable language, be it original, translation, or rendering back — success in maintaining a degree of politeness of interpersonal speech in a language and restructure them in other languages. the language implies dynamic or achievement functional equality between the two languages. maintenance of politeness interpersonal speech requires maintenance socio-cultural aspects involved in production sayings in various languages. the phenomenon, culture is a homogeneous internal, even though it is different. as a result, the scholars came out with claims that the faces and the principle of politeness were general (terkourafi, 1005). in response to these arguments, the second group of scholars concentrated on the definition and existence of decency norms in all cultural differences. they believe in variations of politeness across cultures or in culture. in view of this heterogeneity, the universal nature of the concept of modesty may not be acceptable for all cultures, and the role of the recipient in evaluating politeness is also essential and significant, contrasting with the theories put forward by the first group. furthermore, politeness is no longer only refers to the strategy used between the speaker and the listener. it modified to include exchange studies in certain situations (terkourafi, 1005). thus, leech (1005) proposes his new theory namely grand strategy of politeness, in which he modified the previous courtesy theory (1983) to discuss politeness strategies and social factors that can influence their use in every act of communication in cultures other than the west. the act of politeness becomes an inseparable part and is limited by socio-culture where the settings are applied. for example, level of courtesy greetings can be expressed as sayings like "good morning", "good afternoon", "hi", and "hello", whereas like indonesian, questions like "where are you going?" answer with expressions like "there". in other words, cultural differences tend to bring up different ways of expressing the act of politeness. speech rated being polite in a cultural setting can be considered rude in other settings. as a result, it is necessary to crosscultural interlocutors to realize the differences that exist in realizing speech degree of politeness according to linguistics and socio-cultural aspects that are used as politeness action parameters. the result that is always needed to reconstruct speech in language while maintaining a degree of politeness contained in general, accurate, and acceptable language, be it original, translation, or rendering back — success in maintaining a degree of politeness of interpersonal speech in a language and restructure them in other languages. the language implies dynamic or achievement functional equality between the two languages. maintenance of politeness interpersonal speech requires maintenance sociocultural aspects involved in production sayings in various languages. the hints of politeness in the non-verbal form have used verbal theory politeness, where instructions are interpreted through coding techniques in interpretive techniques applied in verbal politeness theory reviews. the term intangible is used here to emphasize facts that politeness is a variant of meaning. thus, it concerns what is behind the form perceived by our visual senses. after the instructions are interpreted, actions for decency are presented, taken from real-life daily practices. silence, gestures, gifts, observance of norms, rules and regulation are part of the form of non-verbal communication. the purpose of this paper is to want the reader to know why politeness is an essential thing in life relations in verbal and non-verbal communication are needed. therefore, this paper focuses on exploring politeness strategies put forward by brown and levinson (1978) related to verbal and non-verbal communication. the purpose of this paper to give information that each interlocutor must maintain the speaker's self-esteem. this strategy must be used in verbal and non-verbal communication. 2. method this study uses a qualitative approach to find out the modesty strategies proposed by brown & levinson. therefore, this review-based research tries to illustrate how the strategies that have been developed by brown & levinson. this research also looks at the strengths and weaknesses of the theory. this study also tries to see whether the theory still been used by current studies. this research hopes to http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 111-117 113 be able to provide a simple picture while recommending the findings or steps in the article, whether it is feasible to be replicated or not in the same study. 3. strength and weaknesses the concept of politeness in this study is primarily based on the politeness theory by brown and levinson (1978, 1987), which incorporates three basic notions: face, face-threat (fta) actions and politeness strategies. brown and levinson's 'politeness' theory was initially published in 1978. this is a theory that has caused quite a lot of controversy; although widely recognized in the literature, it also attracts a lot of criticism (e.g. matsumoto, 1988; ide, 1989). the phenomenon of 'politeness' can be identified by using brown and levinson’s theory is not only in goaloriented interactions but also in interactions that are not goal-oriented (kitamura: 1000). brown and levinson's work consists of two parts. the first part is their fundamental theory of the nature of 'politeness' and how it functions in interactions. the second part is a list of 'politeness' strategies with examples from three languages: english, tzeltal, and tamil. in the theoretical part of their work, brown and levinson introduced the ‘face’ idea to describe ‘politeness’ in the broadest sense. in other words, everyone who interacts has an interest in maintaining two types of 'face' during interaction: 'positive face' and 'negative face'. brown and levinson define 'positive faces' as positive and consistent images that people have about themselves, and their desire for approval. on the other hand, negative faces 'are" necessary claims to territory, personal protection, and the right not to be disturbed "(p. 61). utilizing the idea of 'face', 'politeness' is considered to have a dual nature: 'positive politeness' and 'negative politeness'. 'positive politeness' is expressed by satisfying 'positive faces' in two ways: 1) by showing similarities among the participants; or 1) by expressing appreciation for the other person's self-image. 'negative politeness' can also be expressed in two ways: 1) by saving 'interlocutors' (either 'negative' or 'positive') by reducing threatening facial actions (from now on referred to as fta), such as giving advice and disagreeing; or 1) by satisfying negative faces 'by showing respect for the recipient's rights that are not imposed. according to schegloff and sacks, 1973; scollon and scollon, 1981; usami, 1998 "although the theoretical part of this work seems to have the potential to be applied to various types of interactions, brown and levinson's list of 'politeness' strategies mainly includes certain types of interactions that are very limited. the examples they provide mainly consist of single sayings that have or presuppose clear communicative goals, such as asking to borrow a book or giving advice. brown and levinson tend to ignore the fact that most single utterances are only constituents of a greater exchange between two or more people who interact. first, they do not pay attention to phenomena that occur throughout the discourse, such as the return channel or the overall sequence of speech (cf. schegloff and sacks, 1973; scollon and scollon, 1981; usami, 1998). second, they ignore any interactions, such as simply enjoying a relaxed conversation, which does not involve predetermined goals. the theory of politeness suggested by brown and levinson is the most influential work in the field of interlanguage science, which is widely used (1978, 1987) (brunet, cowie, donnan, & douglas-cowie, 1011, p. 1). the theory concentrates primarily on how politeness is conveyed to protect the identity of the speaker. brown and levinson (1987) based on their goffman theory (1955, 1967), which introduced a positive face first and demonstrated importance and necessity in specific social interactions (brunet et al., 1011, p. 1). 'positive politeness' refers to what can be conveyed to satisfy the needs of the positive face of a person, whereas 'negative politeness' works in two ways. first, to save the "interlocutor of the face", it can be expressed negatively and positively. second, by respecting the needs of the negative face, it can also be expressed by showing respect for the recipient, remembering that their rights must be respected and ‘not imposed’ (kitamura, 1000, p. 1). at this point, they cooperate in any social communication for the interlocutor to defend their faces, because they need to defend everyone's faces depends on others (wijayanto, laila, prasetyarini, & susiati, 1013). therefore, brown and levinson (1987) proposed their politeness technique to shield the interlocutor's face in any social interaction as they communicate their speech behaviour. they believe that this strategy may be universal in allowing the speaker to understand the social factors in which the speaker defends others' faces by using his speech actions. when clarifying modesty strategies, the significance of social factors has prompted researchers to justify it before describing modesty strategies. brown and levinson (1987) reflect on three social factors that the speaker will consider while communicating with each other. there are 1) power, 2) social distance and 3) level of coercion. power refers to both the speaker and the listener's social status. social distance is defined as a factor indicating the degree of mutual contact between the other parties. (brown levinson, 1987). kida (1011, p. 183) said that "reverence, respect and politeness" can be conveyed by the use of different linguistic forms. brown and levinson (1987) state that politeness strategies are developed to save the "face" of the listener. the face refers to the respect a person has for http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 111-117 114 himself, and maintain "self-esteem" in public or personal situations. in this case, the speaker is usually trying to avoid other people being embarrassed or making him feel uncomfortable. politeness can be done distance or closeness socially. in formal conditions, the speaker must speak more politely to show respect to listeners. being polite depends on how the speaker uses words or clauses to convey ideas to the listener when someone interacts with other people its divided being 2 part. its verbal and non-verbal communication. in verbal communication if the language procedures someone does not comply with social and cultural norms, he will get value negative, for example, said people who are not polite, arrogant, arrogant, selfish, no civilized, even uncultured (muslich, 2006: 2). verbal behaviour is a crucial function, for example, is seen in how speakers express a command, must, or prohibition to do something to the speech partner, while nonverbal behaviour appears from physical gestures accompanying it. the successful use of politeness strategies in language creates communication effectively. for example, the politeness strategy analyzed focuses on the speaker in interactional opportunities that become available through dialogue. this focus choice increases the likelihood of analysis becoming more at the participant level, that is, it shows the speaker and listener anticipate the interpretation combined with the status received from the speaker (markus. m., 2011). another exciting area of research that can be explored will involve the comparison of online seminars with those that take place face to face, to see if and in what ways politeness strategies differ. the result is evidence of the politeness strategies used by participants in online interactions that are expected to be found in face-to-face conversations. the use of politeness strategies by teachers can be intentional because teachers, in this position of authority, may be aware of the impact of selected/structured features / structured linguistic speech on students and meaning in conversation. usually, a student may not pay attention to the use of hedges, formula expressions, special speech acts and teacher allowances for the turn-taking process to occur, but this is perhaps the most essential premise where linguistic expressions are classified as politeness strategies and used in interactions, breaks (markus. m., 2011). nevertheless, myers, in his study “politeness in the scientific text" (1989) was linked to what brown and levinson proposed in their book "politeness: some universals in language usage” (1978). myers (1989) pioneers the implementation of the politeness methods of brown and levinson (1987) in written papers and explores the presence of politeness in scientific articles. while one of the best-known books on persuasion techniques used by mullholland (1994) to reinforce insight beyond the tactics employed in the economic text by journalists. she was the first person to start compiling effective persuasion strategies in communication. in her book, mulholland (1994) provides a list of the collection of the 300 most powerful persuasive techniques used in speech or communication writing. additionally, she was focused on studying the tactics and their strong values beyond the tactics used in daily lives (hamuddin, 2012). politeness theory has various shortcomings and problems that reduce their efficiency in success interactive communication analysis. universalism, for example, is not well defined by brown and levinson's' theories. also, the model is not transparent, whether to include certain cultures as well as aspects of cross-cultural communication. besides, facial theory generally implies the problem of how to correct defining ideas about faces and is a matter of how to limit the threat effects of some speech actions and functions. this theory has the same shortcomings as those found in the 'cooperative principles' communication approach. brown and levinson (1978:68) explained that actions could damage or threaten people's faces, and they are known as face-threatening (fta) actions. fta can affect the positive or negative face of the listener or even the positive or negative face of the speaker. the speaker should pursue other techniques to reduce the likelihood of harm to the audience or the speaker's face. such tactics are known as "strategies of politeness" the idea of politeness technique has been created to avoid embarrassing others or making it awkward to save the audiences’ "names" in both verbal and non-verbal communication. eventually, intending to counteract the unwanted effects of ftas, people have developed a politeness strategy which is an easy way to remedy or mitigate the risk of hearing. with evidence from three different languages, namely english, tzeltal, and tamil, brown and levinson's theory of politeness (1978) support their findings on politeness and, most importantly, on the universality of face concepts. the following sub-sections deal, on the one hand, with the concept of politeness and universalism and, on the other hand, various critiques or modifications of one of the model elements; primarily the concepts of face, face-threatening act and the factors which affect the production and interpretation of politeness. brown and levinson said that in social interaction, they originated the notion of the goffman (1963) image. "our notion of 'face' is derived from that of goffman and from the english folk term, which ties up face notions of being embarrassed or humiliated, or 'losing face'. thus, face is something that is emotionally invested, and that can be lost, maintained or enhanced, and must be continuously attended to in interaction. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 111-117 115 in general, people cooperate (and assume each other's cooperation) in maintaining face in interaction, such cooperation is based on the mutual vulnerability of face". brown and levinson (1987:63). goffman published the article ‘on face work' in 1963, in which he first made the term 'face’. "face is a mask that changes depending on the viewer and social interaction," he says. he addresses face concerning how people present themselves and explains that our social interactions influence our entire identity. the face is divided into two groups by goffman (1963), namely positive face and negative face. he describes a positive face as the urge to be seen as the right person and a negative one as an autonomous desire. he also states that the mask is maintained by the listener, not the speaker. in communicative cases, the term is universal but is used in specific cultures. it is characterized psychologically, philosophically and symbolically as "the positive social value that an individual effectively claims for himself following the line that others have adopted during a particular contact." face generally involves mutual recognition of the interlocutors as social members of society. the face can be lost, preserved or strengthened and communicate continuously (goffman, 1963).in politeness theory, the concept of face has come to play an important role. therefore, brown and levinson (1978) have chosen it as the central notion for their study of universals in language usage and politeness phenomena, based on earlier work on the face by goffman (1963). in their research, brown and levinson (1978) described the idea of the face as "the public self-image that each individual wants to claim for themselves" and clarified the face as something emotionally engaging and that the face can be lost. it preserved or strengthened and that the relationship needs to be continuously attended to and accepted in some respects. brown and levinson (1978 and 1987) have been saying, in their study of politeness, that we are all driven by two wishes: positive face and negative face. the analysis, therefore, considers that the negative aspect relates to autonomy: freedom from coercion and fundamental claim to territories, personal protection, and the right to non-distraction, i.e. freedom of action and free imposition. 3.1 face the politeness theory of brown and levinson (1978) has become a paradigm for study on politeness strategy. the central point of brown's and levinson's theory is the idea of the face, as suggested by goffman (1967) who described the face as: "the positive social interest of an individual essentially claims for himself the line taken by others during a particular touch." the face is an image of oneself with accepted social attributes–albeit an image that others can share as if a person shows his occupation or religion with good shows for himself." (goffman 1967:5). 3.2 fta according to brown and levinson (1987, 1978), acts of facial threats may threaten the face of the speaker or the face of the audience, threatening the face, either positive or negative. fta or face threatening act involves showing expressions of thanks, condolences, promises, and non-verbal behaviours such as stumbling, falling or utterances threatening each other's intrinsic face (positive or negative). it also includes disagreement critique, requests, lousy news and demand. for example, simple demands threaten the negative face of the target because compliance with the request interferes with its will to remain independent. besides, fta is an act that threatens an interlocutor's face. brown and levinson (1987:65) proposed that when facing the need for fta, a person should either explicitly and effectively execute fta, or attempt to mitigate the effect of fta on the positive and negative face of the listener. 3.2 politeness strategies the concepts of politeness strategies are developed to prevent someone from being embarrassed or from feeling uncomfortable, to save the listener's "face". the politeness strategies of brown and levinson (1978) could be divided into four main strategies: bald-on-record, positive politeness, negative politeness and off-record politeness strategies. throughout his research, hamuddin (2012) thought that these four techniques could still be used in the current situation. 3.2.1 bald-on-record according to brown and levinson (1978:74), bald on record strategy is a direct way of saying things, without any minimization to the imposition, in a direct, clear, unambiguous and concise way. there are different kinds of bald-on-record usage in different circumstances. it is because the speaker can have different motives for their wants to do the fta with minimum efficiency. the motives fall into two classes; one is where the face threat is not minimised and therefore ignored or irrelevant, and the other is where in doing the fta bald on record, the speaker minimises face threats by implication. brown and levinson (1977:100) provide the example of a baldon-record strategy and suggest that the use of bald-onrecord direct imperatives is evident. imperatives are often smoothed with hedges or traditional signs of politeness. 3.2.2 positive politeness the second strategy is constructive politeness and is usually found in groups of friends or in situations where people of certain social circumstances are http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 111-117 116 reasonably familiar to each other. it typically tries to minimize the difference between them by demonstrating friendliness and a keen interest in wanting to follow the address (minimize fta), i.e. this technique aims to minimize the danger to the audience. positive politeness is less polite than negative politeness because the particular face violated by the fta is not necessarily corrected. brown and levinson (1978:106) note that good politeness is that the correction partly meets the desire that one desires, or that in some ways some of the redresses are close to the desire of the addressee. brown and levinson (1978), added that the dimension of insincerity in inflated expressions of consent or interest compensates by implicating that the speaker genuinely wants a right image to be improved, for example. 3.2.3 negative politeness brown and levinson (1978:129) said: "it is a remedial action directed at the negative face of the addressee, who needs unimpeded freedom of action and consideration from the addresser and differentiates between the negative and positive politeness. the negative politeness is the core of the respective compartment, just as the heart of ' families' and 'joking' is positive politeness. in addition, brown and levinson (1978:130) say that the negative politeness outputs in all forms are used in general for social “distancing”. therefore, they are likely to be used whenever a speaker or a sender wants to put a social brake on the course of interaction. 3.2.4 off-record brown and levinson (1978:216) noted that for offrecord strategy “the actor leaves it up to the addressee to decide how to interpret the act”. the off-record strategy as a communicative act which is done in such a way that a clear communicative intention cannot be attributed. in this situation, the actor leaves himself "out" by giving some defensible interpretations. in addition, brown and levinson (1978:230-232) listed one of the main strategies of non-recording and its sub-categories, giving hints, giving association clues, presupposing, understating, overstating, using tautologies, using contradictions, being ironic, using metaphors, and using a rhetorical question. the other primary technique is unclear or uncertain, and its subcategories are ambiguous, vague, overgeneralizing, hearing-displacing and incomplete. 6. conclusion this research provided an overview of brown and levinson's politeness theory (1987) discussing any flaws or strengths of this theory. it was also designed to debate the universality of politeness theory for all cultures with or against it. firstly, this lack of universality and the extension by brown and levinson's (1987) principle of courtesy to all cultures. it is clear from the many critiques aimed at brown and levinson (1987) because of their claims to be universal in their ideas and their west-oriented biases and listeners, and focus on "western individual orientation." secondly, this paper also shows that this paper suggests that the definition extends to all communicative politeness in east and west languages and can explain it. as described above, in most, if not all, languages and cultures, the theory seems reasonable and efficient. it encompasses most of the common variants that influence policy choice and has different aspects that are acceptable for most kinds of debate and circumstances. therefore, directed at the speaker and audience. previous studies have shown that politeness strategies can not only be applied in oral communication but also written communication. many of these studies are based on brown and levinson's (1978, 1987) theory to determine the nature of politeness phenomena in written communication. a theory was developed by brown and levinson (1978) to explain the nature of the phenomenon of politeness depending on spoken discourse. the central concept of the theory is an arrangement of politeness along a line from the least polite to the most polite. references brown, p., levinson, s. c., & levinson, s. c. 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(2013). politeness in interlanguage pragmatics of complaints by indonesian learners of english. english language teaching, 6(10), 188-201. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript the journal of research and innovations in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 1-9 1 terminology-based indonesian language teaching materials development: istiqlal high school context susy deliani1, edi yanto ml2, al kausar lingga3, hakim prasasti lubis4, enda tarigan5, nunung susilo putri6 1, 2, 3 universitas muslim nusantara al-wasliyah, medan, indonesia 4 smas ypk medan, 5 sma istiqlal, deli serdang, 6 universitas lancang kuning. pekanbaru susi_deliani@yahoo.com article history received : 2019-06-11 revised : 2019-06-13 accepted : 2019-06-20 keywords teaching materials terminology-based 2013 curriculum. high school abstract this ongoing study aims to share insight result in its initial stage by find out (1) types of teaching material regarding terminology-based indonesian language materials, (2) most criteria for good teaching materials, and (3) definition of most common terms regarding terminology-based indonesian language materials. the subjects of this study were content experts, indonesian language subject teachers, and students of istiqlal high school deli serdang. the procedure of this study adapted research procedures from borg and gall in its initial stages. the instruments used for data collection in this study were school documentation and internet library research. data analysis techniques applied in this study were qualitative and quantitative techniques. the results of this study indicate that: (1) teaching materials are should be designed in line with the 2013 curriculum based on printed, video and audio material, (2) the criteria should highlighted the essence of relevance, readability, and systematic (3) there are 16 related terms issues were reveals regarding language teaching material revealed in this study. 1. introduction the research on the development of teaching materials aims to describe. development of terminology-based indonesian language materials, validity of terminology-based indonesian language teaching materials, constraints faced in developing terminology-based indonesian language teaching materials teaching materials are a set of materials that are arranged systematically both written and not so as to create an environment / atmosphere that allows students to learn (ministry of national education, 2008). this definition implies the existence of a material arranged in such a way as to help students learn well. the development of teaching materials is an activity to bring up teaching materials that are by the demands of the curriculum. the development of teaching materials is intended to provide teaching materials by the characteristics of students to solve problems (ministry of national education, 2008). thus, the development of teaching materials is important to meet the scarcity of needed teaching materials (hasibuan et al., 2018). mulyasa (2006) also explained that teaching material is one part of learning resources that can be interpreted as something that contains a message of learning, both specifically intended and general that can be used for learning purposes. in other words, teaching materials are all forms of material used to help teachers/instructors in carrying out classroom learning activities. the material in question can be either written material or unwritten material. teaching materials have a systematic structure and sequence, explain the instructional objectives to be achieved, motivate students to learn, anticipate the difficulty of learning of students so that it provides guidance for students to study the material, provide a lot of training, provide summaries, and are generally oriented on individual learners (learner-oriented). usually, teaching material is independent, meaning that students can learn it independently because it is systematic and complete. 3. method the development of this teaching material uses a research and development design. the procedure of this study adapted the development research procedures presented by borg and gall (1989). this procedure includes preliminary research, planning (planning and validation), development of teaching materials, early-stage field trials, revision of teaching materials, trial use of the main field, revision of teaching materials. the subjects of this study were experts on the content of teaching materials, indonesian language teachers, and students of class x and xi istiqlal high school in 2018/2019. preliminary research was conducted to collect and identify information related to the problems encountered in learning. at the planning stage, the http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ the journal of research and innovations in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 1-9 2 things done by researchers cover the preparation of teaching materials and expert testing on a small scale. in the preparation stage of teaching materials, rpp syllabus, and teaching materials possessed by indonesian language subject teachers are collected to determine the material of teaching materials to be compiled. in the steps of gathering information, the literature is used in the preparation of teaching materials. in this step the formulation of skills and expertise and expertise related to the problem is also carried out, determining the objectives to be achieved at each stage, and if possible / needed to carry out a limited feasibility study. activities carried out at the drafting stage are compiling terminology-based indonesian language materials. matters included in teaching materials, namely the identity of teaching materials (title, chapter, basic competencies, indicators), subject matter, summary, and final evaluation of the lesson. teaching materials that have been compiled by researchers are then validated by experts. this trial was conducted to determine the validity of teaching materials that have been designed based on the rational thinking of experts. the content expert teaching materials are asked to validate the design of the teaching material contents. in this initial trial, the design of instructional materials was validated by experts, then tested to students. because of the initial field trials. so this early stage field trial is still on a limited scale, involving subjects of nine students who have diverse learning achievements. this is conducted to get more valid results because it has been represented by students who have diverse indonesian language learning achievements. in addition to students, it also involves one indonesian language subject teacher. in this step, data collection and analysis can be conducted by interview, observation and questionnaire. in the revision of teaching materials, what is done is to improve the initial product. this repair is very likely to be done more than once, according to the results shown in the limited trial, so that the main product (model) draft is obtained. this limited trial reflects all students who are the subject of this research. in this stage, the effectiveness of the teaching materials that have been prepared is also tested. this is done to determine the success rate of developing teaching materials in terms of the completeness of the subject matter contained in the teaching material. in this revision of teaching materials, the researcher made improvements/improvements to the results of the wider trial, so that the product developed was already an operational model design that was ready to be validated. data analysis techniques adjust the research procedures designed, the data of this study are qualitative data, but in the distribution, there is data retrieval or using quantitative methods, simple calculations (descriptive statistics). 4. results the development of this teaching material shows that teaching materials are systematically developed according to the latest curriculum. therefore in this initial stage this study found, the composition of teaching materials consists of theme titles, concept maps, appreciation, indicator activities, goals, independent assignments, group assignments, work, all-around language, self-employment, portfolio. the stage of expert test validation is should be based on validation. therefore, this study would like to cover up some findings based validation and recommended , in this section 4.1 types of teaching materials according to mulyasa (2006), the forms of teaching materials or learning materials include: 4.1.1 printed teaching materials print teaching materials can be displayed in various forms. if the printed teaching material is well arranged, the teaching material will bring several advantages such as those proposed by steffen peter ballstaedt, (1994) in nurdyansyah, n. (2018). namely: 1). written material usually displays a table of contents, making it easier for a teacher to show students which part is being studied. 2). the cost of procurement is relatively small. 3). written materials are quickly used and can be moved easily. 4). the arrangement offers broad convenience and creativity for individuals. 5). the written material is relatively light and can be read anywhere. 6). good teaching materials will motivate the reader to carry out activities, such as marking, taking notes, sketching. 7). written material can be enjoyed as a document of great value. 8). readers can set the tempo independently. according to bandono (2009), the preparation of printed teaching materials pay attention to the following matters:  display arrangement  easy language  test understanding  stimulants  ease of reading  instructional material there are so many types of printed teaching materials that can be used in the learning process, including handouts, modules, textbooks, student http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ the journal of research and innovations in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 1-9 3 activity sheets, models (mockups), posters and brochures. 1) handout according to andi, prastowo (2012) very concise learning material, sourced from several kinds of literature relevant to basic competencies and subject matter taught to students. in general, the handout serves to help students not need to take notes, as a companion to the educator's explanation, as reference material for students, motivating students to be more active in learning, reminders of the subject matter being taught, giving feedback and assessing learning outcomes. 2) modules module is a book written with the aim that students can learn independently without or with the guidance of the teacher, so that the module contains at least about instructions for learning (instructions for students / teachers), competencies to be achieved, content or content, supporting information, exercises, work instructions, can be in the form of worksheets (lk), evaluations, feedback on the evaluation results. learning with modules also allows students who have high speed in learning will more quickly complete one or more basic competencies compared to other students. it also increases the ability of students to learn on their own without being dependent on the presence of educators. 3) textbooks textbooks, in general, are written material that presents the knowledge or ideas of the authors which are arranged systematically based on the applicable curriculum. textbooks are useful to help educators in implementing the curriculum because it is structured based on the applicable curriculum, becomes the teacher's guide in determining teaching methods and provides opportunities for students to repeat lessons or learn new lessons. 4) student activity sheets student work sheets are sheets containing assignments that must be done by students. activity sheets are usually in the form of instructions or steps to complete a task. a task ordered in the activity sheet must be clear of the basic competencies to be achieved. lks functions to minimize the role of educators and activate the role of students, making it easier for students to understand the material provided and rich in tasks to practice. 5) model (mockup) models (mockups) are teaching materials in the form of imitation of real objects to bridge various difficulties that can be found when presenting objects or objects directly into the class so that the original nuances of the objects can still be felt by students without reducing the original structure, so that learning becomes more meaningful. 6) brochures brochures are written information material on a problem that is arranged systematically or printed which consists of only a few pages and folded without binding or printed leaflets containing brief but complete information about a company or organization (kbbi, balai pustaka, 1996 ) thus, brochures can be used as teaching materials, during the presentation of brochures derived from basic competencies that must be mastered by students. maybe brochures can be impressive teaching materials because they are attractive and practical. so that brochure sheets are not too many, then the brochure is designed to only contain one basic competency. illustrations in a brochure will add to the interest of students to use them. 7) photos / pictures photos/images have better meaning compared to writing. photos/pictures as instructional materials, of course, a good design is needed so that after finishing seeing a series of photos/images students can do something that ultimately masters one or more basic competencies. according to weidenmann in the book, lehren mit bildmedien illustrates that seeing a photo/picture has a higher meaning than reading or hearing. through reading that can be remembered only 10%, from hearing the remembered 20%, and from seeing the remembered 30%. well-designed photos/images can provide a better understanding. this teaching material in using it must be assisted with written material. written material can be in the form of instructions on how to use it and or test material. 4.1.2 listen to materials (audio) audio teaching material is one of the non-printed teaching materials which contains a system that uses audio signals directly, which can be played or played by educators to their students to help them master certain competencies. these types of audio teaching materials include radio, mp3 tapes, mp4s, sounds recorders and mobile phones. this teaching material can store sounds that can be played repeatedly to students and is usually used for language and music lessons. 4.1.3 viewing materials (audiovisual) learning material is a teaching material that combines two materials, namely visual and auditory. auditory material is intended to stimulate the sense of hearing while visual to stimulate the sense of sight. with a combination of both, educators can create a higher quality learning process. it is because students tend to be easier to remember and understand a lesson http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ the journal of research and innovations in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 1-9 4 if they do not only use one type of senses, especially if only the senses of hearing. instructional materials that listen can be able to show something that is initially impossible to see in the classroom to be seen. besides that, it can also create visual effects that allow students to strengthen the learning process. learning materials for hearing include video and film. 4.1.4 interactive teaching materials interactive teaching materials are teaching materials that combine interactive learning media (audio, video, text or graphics) to control command or natural behavior of a presentation. interactive teaching materials allow for a two-way relationship between teaching materials and users so that students will be encouraged to be more active. interactive teaching materials can be found in the form of interactive cds, which in the process of making and using cannot be separated from computer devices. therefore, interactive teaching materials also include computer-based teaching materials. 4.2 criteria for good teaching materials good and interesting teaching materials require writing that uses effective written expressions. a good written expression will be able to communicate messages, ideas, ideas, or concepts that are conveyed in teaching materials to the reader/user properly and correctly. writing expressions can also avoid misinterpretation or understanding. teaching materials given to students must be quality teaching materials. quality teaching materials can produce quality students because students consume quality teaching materials. according to furqon (2009) in good teaching materials must meet several criteria as follows: • the substance discussed must include the body figure of the competency or sub-competence that is relevant to the profile of graduate ability. • the substance discussed must be correct, complete and actual, covering the concepts of facts, procedures, terms and notations and arranged based on hierarchical / step mastery of competence. • level of readability, both in terms of language and substance difficulties, must be by the level of learning ability. • the systematics for the preparation of teaching materials must be clear, coherent, complete and easy to understand. whereas in developing teaching materials, it must have several criteria as follows: • teaching materials must be relevant to the learning objectives • teaching materials must be by the level of child development. • good material is material that is useful for students both as a development of their knowledge and the need for future assignments in the field • the material must attract and stimulate student activity • the material must be arranged in a systematic, gradual and tiered manner • materials delivered to students must be comprehensive, complete and complete. • guidelines for teachers who will direct all their activities in the learning process, as well as competency substances that should be taught/trained to their students. • guidelines for students who will direct all their activities in the learning process, as well as the substance of competence that should be learned. • tools for evaluating achievement of learning outcomes. • helping teachers in teaching and learning activities • helping students in the learning process • as learning equipment to achieve lesson objectives • to create a conducive learning atmosphere furthermore, the purpose of the preparation of teaching materials must be able to arouse students' learning passion, so that the teaching materials provided can be beneficial for students. implicitly, teaching materials must also be able to become a means of increasing knowledge about language rules for students. nevertheless, in reality, teachers need additional material to enrich students' knowledge of terminology in indonesian, including abbreviations and acronyms. the addition and enrichment of three things in strengthening the rules of the indonesian language is expected that students will be more competent in the use of rules in indonesian. 4.3 definition of terms the term is a word or phrase that is used as a name or symbol and which carefully expresses the meaning of concepts, processes, circumstances, or characteristics that are unique in the fields of science, technology, and art. the terminology is a set of principles and provisions for the formation of terms and a collection of terms that they produce. terminology studies include the formation and relation of terms to a culture. the expert in terminology is called the interpreter of the term "terminologist" and is sometimes part of the field of translation. the terms in indonesian are based on common indonesian vocabulary, cognate language vocabulary, and foreign language vocabulary. for example, democracy, capital markets, equity, electron traps. implicitly, teaching materials must also be capable. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ the journal of research and innovations in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 1-9 5 4.3.1 types of terms a) the general term is a term that originates from a particular field, which, because it is widely used, becomes an element of general vocabulary. for example, budget, power, marriage, judgment, piety. b) special terms are terms whose meanings are limited to certain fields. for example, appendectomy, bipatride, kurtosis, pleistocene. 4.3.2 good terms of formation in the term formation, it is necessary to pay attention to the requirements in the use of the following indonesian vocabulary a) the term chosen is the most appropriate word or phrase to express the intended concept, and that does not deviate from that meaning.. b) the term chosen is the shortest word or phrase among the choices available that have the same reference. c) the term chosen is a word or phrase that has a good sense (connotation). d) the term chosen is a euphonic word or phrase. e) the term chosen is a word or phrase that forms according to the rules of indonesian. 4.3.3 name and nomenclature names are words or phrases that are based on an agreement to become identification objects, people, animals, plants, places, or things. nomenclature (nomenclature) is a set of naming rules in a particular field of science, such as chemistry and biology, along with a collection of names that they produce. for example aldehyde, sodium chloride, primate, oryza sativa. 4.3.4 term formation process the term formation process is carried out through matching or translation, for example, the busway becomes a bus lane, the absorption of foreign vocabulary, for example, a camera becomes a camera and a combination of translation and absorption, for example, subdivision becomes a subdivision. a. the science and terminology concept the efforts of scholars (scientist) have and continue to produce scientific concepts, the disclosure of which is poured in terminology devices. there are terms that are already established, and there are also terms that still need to be created. the scientific concepts that have been produced by scientists and indonesian pandits naturally have an established term. however, most modern scientific concepts learned, used, and developed by actors in science and technology in indonesia come from abroad and have been symbolized by foreign language terms. also, it is possible that the activities of scientists and indonesian pandits will spark a completely new concept of science, technology and art so that the creation of new terms will be needed. b. indonesian term raw materials no single language already has a complete vocabulary and does not require an expression for its new ideas, findings, or references. english which is now considered the main international language, for example, once absorbed words and expressions from greek, latin, french, and other languages, which numbered almost three-fifths of their vocabulary. in line with that, indonesian term material is taken from various sources, especially from three important language groups, namely  indonesian, including its absorption, and malay,  allied nusantara languages, including old javanese,  foreign languages, such as english and arabic. 4.3.5 establishment of the archipelago terms the term that expresses the concept of excavation by scientists and indonesian pandits, such as bhinneka tunggal ika, batik, banjar, sawer, gunungan, and pamor, has long been widely accepted so that it can be consolidated and the results codified. 4.3.6 term matching matching foreign terms into indonesian, and if necessary to one cognate language, is carried out through translation, absorption, or a combination of translation and absorption. for the sake of uniformity, the preferred source of reference is the english term whose use is international because it has been approved by experts in their fields. writing the term absorption is done with or without spelling adjustments based on phonotactic rules, namely the sound sequence relationship permitted in indonesian. 4.3.7 translation with sensitivity sometimes efforts to match foreign terms need to be done by creating new terms. the term factoring, for example, is difficult to translate or be absorbed in its entirety. in the treasures of indonesian / malay vocabulary, there are forms of factoring and accounts that describe the transfer of debt collection rights. then, the term factoring piu-tang is designed as the equivalent of the factoring term. likewise, catering matching is a food service, and invention is a creation obtained through recording. 4.3.8 glossary absorption absorption of foreign terms to become an indonesian term is carried out based on the following things. a) foreign terms that will be absorbed increase the interrelation of foreign language and indonesian language (intertranslatability) given future needs. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ the journal of research and innovations in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 1-9 6 b) foreign terms to be absorbed make it easier to understand foreign texts by indonesian readers because they are known first. c) foreign terms to be absorbed are more concise when compared to indonesian translation. d) foreign terms that will be absorbed make it easier for interpersonal agreements if the equivalent translation is too many synonyms. e) foreign terms that will be absorbed are more suitable and appropriate because they do not contain bad connotations. the process of absorption of foreign terms, by prioritizing the visual form, is carried out in the following way. a). absorption with spelling and pronunciation adjustments for example: • camera camera • microphone microphone • systems systems b). absorption with spelling adjustments without pronunciation adjustments for example: • design design • files files • science science c). absorption without spelling adjustments, but with pronunciation adjustments for example: • bias bias • nasal nasal • radar (radio detecting and ranging) – radar d). absorption of terms without spelling and pronunciation adjustments is done if the term is also widely used in general vocabulary, the term is not written in italics (printed with upright letters). for example: • golf golf • internet internet • lifts – elevators 4.3.9 standardization and codification of terms the terms selected through consolidation, translation, absorption, and creation are standardized through codification that seeks orderliness according to the rules and customs of language use. the codification was achieved by the arrangement of the spelling system, the grammar book, and the dictionary that recorded and determined the standard form. 4.3.10 standardization and codification of terms the terms selected through consolidation, translation, absorption, and creation are standardized through codification that seeks orderliness according to the rules and customs of language use. the codification was achieved by the arrangement of the spelling system, the grammar book, and the dictionary that recorded and determined the standard form. 4.3.11 procedure and nomenclature the term arrangement is a set of rules for the formation of terms and a collection of terms that they produce. the nomenclature of the term is a set of rules naming several branches of science such as chemistry and biology along with a collection of names that they produce. 4.3.12 general terms and special terms the general term is a term originating from a particular field which is widely used as a common vocabulary element. special terms are terms whose meanings are limited to certain fields. there are several requirements for using indonesian vocabulary: a) the term chosen does not deviate from the meaning and must express the concept in question. b) the terms chosen must be short among the choices available that have the same reference. c) the term chosen has a good sense of value (connotation). d) the term chosen is as audible or euphonic. e) the terms chosen must be by the rules of indonesian that are good and correct. 4.3.13 semantic aspects of terminology a) giving new meanings that is, the word can be reduced or added to its meaning so that its application is narrower or wider. an example is the narrowing of meaning and expansion of meaning. b) the term of synonym two or more terms whose meanings are the same or similar, but the forms are different. micro-as a micro-equivalent in certain cases better than microscopic. c) the term of homonym the term homonym is two terms, or more, the same as spelling and pronunciation, but the meaning is different because the origin is different. the term homonym can be divided into: 1) homograph, the term homograph is the same term as spelling, but different pronunciation. for example terrace-core = flat floors in front of the house 2) homophones, the term homophones is the same term as pronunciation, but different in spelling. for example a bank with abang 3) polysemy, the term polysemy is a form that has a double meaning related. for examples: (cushion) head hat (stake) http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ the journal of research and innovations in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 1-9 7 4.3.14 definition of abbreviations the abbreviation is a shortened form consisting of one or more letters. while the acronym, is an abbreviation in the form of a combination of initial letters, a combination of syllables, or a combination of letters and syllables from a series of words that are treated as words. especially for the formation of an acronym, it should pay attention to the following conditions: a) the number of acronym syllables should not exceed the number of common syllables in the indonesian word. b) acronyms are formed by heeding the harmonious combination of vocals and consonants by the usual indonesian word pattern. the guideline for the formation of abbreviations and acronyms is regulated in the decree of the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia number 0543a / u / 198, september 9, 1987, concerning general guidelines for improved indonesian spelling (anonymous, 2010). 4.3.15 abbreviation in writing, abbreviations are governed by several rules as follows: a) abbreviation of the name of the person, name of the title, address, position or rank followed by a period. for example: muh. yamin suman hs. m.b. a. (master of business administration) m.sc. (master of science) s.pd. (bachelor of education) mr. (father) bro. (you) cabbage. (colonel) b) abbreviation of the official name of a government institution and state administration, body or organization, and the name of an official document consisting of the initial letters of a word written in capital letters and not followed by a period. for example: mpr (house of representatives) pgri (republic of indonesia teacher association) ktp (identity card) c) common abbreviations consisting of three letters or more followed by one point. for example: etc. (etc.) p. (page) sda. (same as above) d) common abbreviations were consisting of two letters, each letter followed by a point. for example: a.n. (on behalf of the) d.a. (by address) u.b. (for him) u.p. (for attention) e) chemical symbols, abbreviations for units of measure, measure, scale, and currency not followed by periods. for example: cu (copper) cm (centimetre) l (litre) kg (kilograms) idr (rupiah) 4.3.16 acronyms a) acronym of self-name in the form of a combination of the initial letters of the word series written entirely in capital letters. for example: abri (armed forces of the republic of indonesia) lan (institute of public administration) sim (driver's license) b) the acronym of self-name in the form of a combination of syllables or a combination of letters and syllables from the word series written in the initial letter of capital letters. for example: akabri (indonesian armed forces academy) iwapi (indonesian women's business association) sespa (administrative staff staff school) scout (praja muda karana) c) acronyms that open self-names in the form of combinations, syllables, or combinations of letters and syllables from word series are written entirely in lowercase letters. for example: election (general election) rapim (leadership meeting) missiles (missiles) ticket (proof) violation) 5 conclusions and recommendation teaching materials are a set of materials that are arranged systematically, both written and not to create an environment / atmosphere that allows students to learn (ministry of national education, 2008). this ongoing study aims to share its findings in its initial stage. the instruments used for data collection in this study were school documentation and internet library research seems helps a lot in defining and scouting the numerous data can be used. the results of this study indicate that: (1) teaching materials are should be designed in line with the 2013 curriculum based on printed, video and audio material, (2) the criteria should highlighted the essence of relevance, readability, and systematic (3) there are 16 related terms issues reveals in this study regarding language teaching material revealed in this study http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ the journal of research and innovations in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 1-9 8 therefore, the development of terminology-based indonesian language materials, validity of terminology-based indonesian language teaching materials, constraints faced in developing terminology-based indonesian language teaching materials in these series of issues can be extended to numerous issues of research after this for example in a specific context such as: (1) the development of terminology-based indonesian language materials for students in deli serdang, (2) the level of validation of terminology-based indonesian language materials for students in deli serdang, (3) students' responses related to the legibility of terminology-based indonesian language materials. the development of this teaching material shows that teaching materials are systematically developed, in line with the 2013 curriculum. the composition of teaching materials consists of theme titles, concept maps, appreciation, indicator activities, goals, independent assignments, group assignments, work, all-around language, self-employment, portfolio. the stage of expert test validation is based on validation. 6 acknowledgement this research was supported by the universitas muslim nusantara al-wasliyah under internal research scheme. therefore, the authors would like to express their sincere gratitude. however, any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the respected institution. references abbas, m. f. f. 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(2012). comparative education: a study of educational factors and traditions. routledge. hasibuan, a. m., saragih, s., & amry, z. (2018). development of learning materials based on realistic mathematics education to improve problem solving ability and student learning independence. international electronic journal of mathematics education, 14(1), 243-252. kosasij, e. (2014). jenis-jenis teks dalam mata pelajaran bahasa indonesia sma/ma/smk. bandung: yrama widya. kuraedah, s., gunawan, f., wekke, i. s., & hamuddin, b. (2018, july). learning environment construction in islamic higher education: connecting the puzzles of ideas. in iop conference series: earth and environmental science (vol. 175, no. 1, p. 012107). iop publishing. mulyasa, e. (2006). kurikulum berbasis kompetensi, konsep, karakter, dan implementasi. bandung: pt. remaja rosdakarya. nikolov, m. (ed.). (2016). assessing young learners of english: global and local perspectives. berlin: springer. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ the journal of research and innovations in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 1, april 2019, pp. 1-9 9 nurdyansyah, n. (2018). pengembangan bahan ajar modul ilmu pengetahuan alambagi siswa kelas iv sekolah dasar. universitas muhammadiyah sidoarjo. peersman, c., daelemans, w., vandekerckhove, r., vandekerckhove, b., & van vaerenbergh, l. (2016). the effects of age, gender and region on non-standard linguistic variation in online social networks. arxiv preprint arxiv:1601.02431. prastowo, a. (2012). pengembangan sumber belajar. yogyakarta: pedagogia. spolsky, b. (ed.). (2012). the cambridge handbook of language policy (p. 46). cambridge: cambridge university press. sudjana, n. (2005). metode statistika. bandung: tarsito, 168. weidenmann, b. (1991). lernen mit bildmedien: psychologische und didaktische grundlagen. beltz. wekke, i. s., yandra, a., & hamuddin, b. (2017, december). learning strategy in class management: a reflection from manado case. in iop conference series: earth and environmental science (vol. 97, no. 1, p. 012053). iop publishing. yule, g. (2016). the study of language. cambridge university press. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 46-54 46 online interactive communication via academic blogging activities among indonesian efl students shella shafira lubis 1 and budianto hamuddin 2 1, 2 universitas lancang kuning, pekanbaru. indonesia shella.sl@unilak.ac.id article history received : 2019-08-18 revised : 2019-08-25 accepted : 2019-08-31 keywords discussion online interaction communication knowledge construction language function pragmatics abstract indonesian people in the conversation using english in many ways, such as face to face and social media. the purpose of this research is to identify students' online interactive communication in their blog's comment. it focuses among students as indonesian efl students in morphology class in universitas lancang kuning (unilak). this study also eager to know what type of language function and phase of knowledge construction on students blogging activities on selected it platform classroom, i.e. morphology course. the method employ in this research is a qualitative descriptive method. this study did take the comments' blog of all students in morphology class. then this study analyzed those comments. the result of this research, students, showing some dominant type in knowledge construction, i.e., sharing and comparing of opinion in blog the present study also reveals the use of expressing and supporting opinions as the dominant types in language. 1. introduction as the world keeps moving and globalization occurs, the english language plays an essential role in many sectors, especially in communication (chopra, 2015). indonesian people start a conversation using english in many ways, such as face to face and using social media. english began to become a universal language in indonesian netters. therefore, everyone cannot deny the importance of english has been shown presently. social media helps us to have online interactive communication. online interactive communication is simultaneous or 'real-time' exchange of information over a transmission medium, such as during a telephone conversation, video conferencing, or internet relay chat sessions. indonesian people always use media online or social media to communicate with other people such as in facebook, whatsapp, blackberry messenger, line, blog and other. they can share their opinion, suggestion, asking the question, and even bullying in one forum. moreover, the touch of information technology (it) such as blog also has been used as a tool and alternative learning area in the media of english language teaching. it is already common to have a blog as language teaching. the blog is a media which lecturer use in developing students' skill in english subject. it is a simple media used by many writers in the world. this research would show to the reader, lecturer, and this study in faculty teachers training and education, universitas lancang kuning about students' online interactive communication in their blog's comment. the students are expected to be able to write online interactive communication in their blog's comments based on what is asked, such as language function and phase of knowledge contraction. students' online interactive communication in students' blog is important to be an evaluation for lecturer and students about how good their communication in the blog using english. most students are still enjoying their activity in communication using the blog. this phenomenon supports this study to take research. in these few years, blogs have been used for teaching the purpose and gain a lot of popularity. generally known as a blog, can be defined as an online diary which allows people to publish their experiences, thoughts, videos, pictures, and other on the internet for other people to read or see (wang, fix, & bock, 2005). the blog has been used as a tool and alternative learning area in the media of english language teaching. a blog offers various advantages to simplify students and lecturers process of learning in an effective way by accessing all kind of information and possibility to have a learning process in anywhere, anytime and with anyone. the effectiveness of blog's application in english language teaching (henceforth: elt) situation has been discussed and recommended in many previous this study since it has proven can improve the skill, motivation, and the willingness to learn english. it also even gives maximum benefit to the teachers, lecturers http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 46-54 47 of english, or the students of the english department in many educational institutions. noytim's research, 2010; butler, 2011 also aydan, 2014, were some studies showing and recommending the blog as one of the most suitable media for teaching english. since 2015, the used of students’ blog initiated as an alternative teaching medium in some courses at english education program (pbig) at dept. of english language education, faculty of teacher training and education (fkip) in universitas lancang kuning such as reading, writing, introduction to linguistics, semantics, error analysis, and discourse analysis. the escalation trend of blog owner or blogger, as well as the posts, increasing significantly, 208 active bloggers are listed as the students of pbig fkip unilak who use the students' blog as teaching and learning tool (hamuddin, 2016). the data shows us that blog is not only functioned as a personal journal on the virtual world with lexical, phrase, sentences, punctuation, symbol even pictures, but also as an alternative learning, where blog is chosen as one of the ways to post assignments such as article review, slideshow, and even the multimedia material, and or to be used as a tool to improve the skill in english especially writing (hamuddin, 2016, p.4). moreover, the article post is the perfect area to train the ability of writing by posting a different kind of post in english, whether academically or non-academically. the feedback in the comment section at the bottom of each article is also an option of "the perfect area" to train their ability in writing, but also this can be "an interesting place" with the whole of its content such as comments, questions, critics, and even some statements. furthermore the students are expected to be able to do online interactive communication in their blog’s comment that include language function such as compare and contrast, persuasion, asking question, expressing like and dislike, cause and effect, greeting people, summarizing and predicting and also can be use phase of knowledge contraction such as sharing information, exploring dissonance, negotiating meaning, modifying proposed synthesis and applying new knowledge well. it was the guidance on online interactive communication in their blog’s comment that must be mastered by students. 1.1 online interactive communication lin (2003), communication used technology is increasing in this era. even communication is only technologies, but some factors will come to the communicator and technology. here communicator is students. we know that communication in using technologies is very useful for students who want to increase their ability in communication. for the significance of these social tools is the most visible not only in terms of the amount of time they consume in human communication on a daily basis, but also in the level of scholarly research they help generate. in using technology to increase communication skill by interaction in media online is a realization in using technology to the educational section. education must flow to the era of this world. education is dynamics, and technology also has benefits for students to increase their skill, especially in communication. by interaction in communication using media online, we hope that students will get some topic that interest for them so they will always have interaction in media online. some factors that support in increasing students' communication. many experts in the past believed that there is no single rule in communication, but somehow in the educational section it’s exist. therefore this study intended to use blog as one of the media online that can improve student ability in communication as its role. a blog is already used in a subject in english education department, namely linguistic and semantic. the student in using blog is a base step for them to develop their communication. even in the blog student only focus on the topic that presented in their topic, but students still can to practice their communication in using many new phrases that can they use to command, suggestion or critic blog their friend. lecturer asked students to command, suggestion or critic in the blog using the command, such as must. so, communication really happens in the blog. this study found that blog can be an attractive communication when one student post a topic and another student comment after those students who posted a topic reply to the comment. the previous sentence is the plot of interactive communication in the blog. therefore, this plot will be a guide for this study to research interactive communication by media online. 1.2 blog application in elt the touch of sophisticated technology information makes the learning media to be more variation, creative, and innovative, also giving a massive impact on the learning process. aydin (2014) in the article entitled " the use of blogs in learning english as a foreign language” found 3 impacts of using the blog in the context of elt (english language teaching): first, blogging as a language learning strategy makes significant contributions to enhancing learners’ cultural knowledge and cultural awareness about the target society. more over the use of blogs enhances learners ‘cultural interactions, competencies, and exchanges. second, blogging plays an important role in developing learners' interaction and communications in the target language. third, blogs are effective tools for developing speaking, reading and writing skills. (aydin, 2014, p.252). the benefits based on aydin (2014) are: first, toward the writing activity on blog or http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 46-54 48 blogging, making it possible for the students to widen their knowledge and awareness of their culture or the new one. second, to build the ability to interact and communicate with students by using the target language. third, to make the blog as a facilitator to developing speaking, reading and writing ability. in accordance to that, noytim, 2010; guttler, 2011; aydan, 2014 have proven the effectiveness of using the blog that can maximize the benefit of it to the teachers, lecturers, and students of english all over the world. in the last four years, english education department (pbig) faculty of teacher training and education (fkip) universitas lancang kuning has tried to apply the use of students' blog as a part of elearning system in some courses. with the help of this blog application, some lecturers and students in fbig fkip unilak can post the learning materials, assignments, or information that are useful and supported their learning process. therefore, it will be easier to access information. students can learn anywhere, anytime, and the lecturers could upload various materials of teaching without being burdened by the time and place. (hamuddin, 2016, p.27). in his research, hamuddin (2017, p.19) also describes "the use of blog has given a massive impact on the learning process at pbig fkip unilak, but then every new thing will have its own risk and challenge" that should be faced by the lecturers, students, and faculty together. 1.3 phases of knowledge construction in gunawardena et al.'s (1997) model, knowledge contraction occurs in a series of successive (though not necessarily strictly sequential) phases that can be viewed as generally moving from lower to higher mental functions. in the model, learners begin by sharing, clarifying, and elaborating ideas (phase 1: sharing information). then, conflicts among them are explored (phase 2: exploring dissonance). next, learners reconcile conflicting ideas by negotiating their 446 a.f. wise, m.m. chiu author's personal copy meanings and co-constructing new knowledge propositions (phase 3: negotiating meaning). learners may then test and revise their synthesized ideas (phase 4: testing and modifying). finally, they can state and apply their new knowledge (phase 5: agreeing and applying). see table 1 for detailed descriptions and examples of each of the phases. the drive is to achieve higher phases of kc; however, successive phases build on each other. hence, all phases contribute to the knowledge contraction process (gunawardena et al. 1997). while gunawardena et al.'s (1997) model conceptualize knowledge construction as a process which occurs through learners' interactions (via their posts), previous work has not capitalized on its capacity to examine this process by analyzing patterns of knowledge contraction. past studies have often evaluated discussion quality by counting the posts in each knowledge contraction phase (e.g., marra et al. 2004; schellens et al. 2007) or by computing the discussion's average knowledge contraction phase (e.g., schellens et al. 2005). these compiled measures treat knowledge contraction as an outcome variable where more posts in higher knowledge contraction phases indicate better learning; however, the scheme was designed as a model of the process of constructing knowledge. importantly, two discussions can proceed quite differently, while having the same knowledge contraction phase counts (e.g., a sequence of posts with knowledge contraction phases 1212312123 vs 1111222233). by treating knowledge contraction as an aggregate outcome of individual contributions, prior studies failed to test a central underlying premise of the model: groups construct knowledge through a specific sequence of phases. in this study, we addressed this issue by analysing how the group proceeds through the phases of the knowledge contraction process. table 1.1 the five phases of knowledge construction no title description 1 sharing information statements of observation, opinion, agreement, clarification, example or problem definition etc. 2 exploring dissonance identification of areas of disagreement; clarification of source and extent of disagreement; providing support for one’s ideas in the face of counterarguments 3 negotiating meaning / constructing knowledge identification areas of agreement across conflicting ideas; clarification of meanings of terms; proposal and negotiation of integrating metaphors and compromise statements 4 testing / modifying proposed synthesis testing the proposed synthesis against “received facts,” cognitive schema, personal experience, collected data, and expert testimonies. 5 agreeing/applying new knowledge summarization of agreement(s); application of new knowledge; metacognitive statements of changes in knowledge or ways of thinking. 1.4 language function discussing language function and blog are really interesting for this study because, in the blog, they are also using language function. according to ludwig wittgenstein (1976) (in sandra a, 2016) thompson and elizabeth couper-kuhlen, language function is characteristic of our language that the foundation which it grows consists in steady ways of living, regular ways of acting. its function is determined above all by action, which it accompanies. for the language itself is humans' fundamental an instrument tool to share their ideas or feeling. refers to the http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 46-54 49 language as an instrument tool, this statement is also supported by sandra a. thompson and elizabeth couper-kuhlen. this expert said language is fundamental as an instrument tool. language function is influenced by external and internal grammar, cultural, social and psychological of human. language is the most important tool of communication invented by human civilization. language helps us share our thoughts and understand others. it's hard to overestimate the importance of language for our lives. every time we speak, we do it with a particular purpose. sometimes we want to deliver a message or express our feelings. language functions refer to the purposes in which we use language to communicate. we use language for a variety of formal and informal purposes, and specific grammatical structures and vocabulary are often used with each language function. in language function there is six aspects, the aspect language functions include: compare and contrast, persuasion, asking questions, expressing likes and dislikes, cause and effect, summarizing, sequencing, predicting, agreeing/disagreeing, greeting people/introductions (susan and carol: 2002). when teaching about language functions, it is important that teachers explicitly teach the vocabulary and phrases associated with each language function. for example, when teaching the language function of compare/contrast, teachers may teach the following vocabulary: both, similar, also, different, in contrast, similarly, etc. during the lesson planning and preparation stage, teachers should brainstorm the vocabulary words associated with the language function that will be taught. it is important that as students become familiar with the vocabulary associated with each language function that more advanced functional vocabulary is introduced to students. all definition of language function in this paragraph is really important for this research. a blog is a place where language function exists, and this is the reason the important thing to understand well about language function. 2. method this qualitative study employs descriptive analysis (the research employed a qualitative descriptive method as the methodology following creswell, j.w. mentioned that "qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting”. the design of this research employs descriptive research. this research design describes what exists and may help to uncover new facts or meaning. this descriptive research focuses on gathering numerical data, then generalizing it to explain a particular phenomenon and making a systemic description. the population of the research enrolled in three morphology classes 2018/2019 academic year, since it’s using a total sampling strategy. moreover, this present study, collect the corpus in student blog entries, which is taken from comments or feedback from the students' blog page. this is to ensure this study of the right information and enough data to be analysed. corpus is used by students in their interactions in their blogs. from that, this technique had been used to measure the use of the language function and phases of knowledge construction in each class by the fkip pbig unilak blogs. the follow up of the data collection was the data analysis. the starting point for analyzing the data was to categorize the text-based utterances to explore the interactive language function and phases of knowledge construction. therefore during the process of coding and tagging, utterances that made up of a single word, a phrase, a sentence, or a paragraph tagged according to the language function they were performing such as compare and contrast, persuasion, asking questions, expressing likes and dislikes, cause and effect, summarizing, sequencing, predicting, agreeing /disagreeing, greeting people/ introductions. furthermore, the data then re-coded and tagged in order to explore the co-construction on the gradual process of knowledge, i.e., sharing information, exploring dissonance, negotiating meaning/ constructing knowledge, testing modifying proposed synthesis, agreeing/applying new knowledge (gunawardena, lowe and anderson's, 1997). 3. findings 3.1 meaning as use this research, got many answers from the samples, consists of 64 students. when took the data, it attended a subject in morphology class, and then the lecturer of this subject did the teaching-learning by using the blog. based on this study experience and continue to the academic year 2018/2019, every student who studied in year 2018/2019 must know and use a blog in every meeting. after every student presented their subtopic about morphology in their blog, next, another student in the class had to comment in the blog, and then the students who got comment have to reply all the comment. in commenting their friends' blogs, students are able to bully, comment, suggestion and critic in the blog. lecturer wanted to make students familiar to technology, in this technology era. in the end of this, this study was appendices all students comment in the screenshot for this analysis. in taking the data, this study screenshot all of comments in blog which is the topic are morphology. this study analysed one by one the comments to get the best analysis in this research. in analysing, this http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 46-54 50 study divided the comment into an aspect that is analysed. in this research, this study use two aspects, aspect for knowledge construction and language function. this is an analysis of students’ comment in blog, in knowledge construction. a) sharing information “amar you can enjoy when you explain and do not nervous, i like your performance because you use indonesia language to make me understand about your topic *emoticon smile” this comment showed that the information of amar presentation is good, so this comment is share about an information about feeling of viewer to amar presentation. b) exploring dissonance “mr amar i think your performance is bad and too short. how can we understand if you just show perform like that. sorry to say, i’m not interest to listen your perform “ this comment show about an exploring a dissonance of viewer to amar presentation. c) negotiating meaning/co-constructing knowledge “please, improve your performance, because i’m very uncomfortable and disturbed, when i see your keringat bercucuran” in this comment showed negotiation meaning, because the commentator such as ask to presenter to do something. d) testing/ modifying proposed synthesis “what mean age in name your blog? do not say like your face that looks old from your age *emoticon oo i’m a little curious also” in this comment, this study saw that the commentator such as give a question to presenter to answer that question. these are analysis of language function in the comment blog: e) expressing needs and likes “amar, i like your post, but sorry i need more example especially in bound morphemes …thanks” this comment is expressing needs and likes of commentator to presenter of morphology subject. in this types showed that needs an information and like about the topic. f) describing actions “you cannot speaking with well, the words of “eeeee” “eeeee” is too much” in this comment showed that the commentator tried describe presenter’s action in the presentation. g) retelling/relating past events “lack of examples. cannot understand if in real sentence...” in this comment such as hide meaning that showed a retelling the presentation of presenter in giving a real sentences. h) making predictions “your blog is good sist, but it’s too long for the description. how about, if add some picture in your blog, i think that can make your blog is perfect *emoticon. thank you” based on this sentences, this study got that this comments such as giving a prediction to solve the problem i) expressing and supporting opinions “hi, amar i think your material is complete and good and you explained yesterday was very relaxed and not nervous, keep fighting 2ne1 or blackpink haha *emoticon” this comment is a kind of comment that showed a supporting the idea or opinion about something in expressing an opinion to the blog. in analysis of this knowledge construction comment, the this study used the indicator from a journal entitled “in support of the interaction analysis model for evaluating discourse in a virtual learning community” this journal is uploaded in 2014. this journal is from north central university. based on the data this study got a result that students usually used sharing information in knowledge construction types. there are 53 comments that used sharing information knowledge construction. this number is dominant in this knowledge construction. then in the second position of dominant is testing/ modifying proposed synthesis with total 8 comments, the next position after that is exploring dissonance and the less types knowledge construction which is use of commentator is negotiating meaning/ co-constructing knowledge with total only 1 comment for this. then, this study start to analysis the comment in language function. for analysis the language function of the comments, it use susana dutro and carol moran’s entitled rethinking english language instruction: an architectural approach, 2002. this journal showed about language function with clear and brief. in this journal, this study got that language function also use for speaking not only writing, based on these journal this study analysis all the comments to identify the comment to categories language function. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 46-54 51 this study got that in the dominant in the language function is expressing and supporting opinion, which is 29 comments. then the next is describing actions which is 20 comments. then students usually write something in expressing needs and likes to their friends. not only that, students also shown that they are usually use sentences like making predictions is four comments. the next is three comments use retelling /relating past events. the last is asking informational questions, there is no students asking informational questions. for more detailed, showed in here the table of it. the table discussed clearly with an analysis. analysis is a way which is this study use in this research to get identification in this research. analysis can help this study to identify the knowledge construction and all this study need. this research consists of analysed the dominant response or comment in blog. these are tables of knowledge construction and language function. table 3.1 knowledge contraction of students comments no user blog class (ubc) knowledge contraction si ed nm t ank 1 class a 29 2 1 4 2 class b 13 3 class c 11 total 53 2 1 4 0 notes: kc : knowledge contraction si : sharing information ed : exploring dissonance nm : negotiating meaning or co-constructing knowledge t : testing/modifying proposed synthesis ank : agreeing/applying new knowledge the indicators of knowledge construction they are divided into five categories, the first categories is sharing & comparing of opinion, consist of five indicators, they are statement of observation or opinion, statement of agreement, corroborating examples, asking and answering question to classify details of statements, definition, description or identification of a problem. this indicator which is used this study to categorize all the comment. the second categories is the discovery and exploration of dissonance or inconsistency among ideas, concepts or statement, consist of three indicators, they are identifying and stating areas of disagreement, asking and answering questions to clarify the source and extent of disagreement and restarting the participant’s position and possibly advancing arguments or considerations in its support by references to the participant’s experience, literature, formal data collected or proposal of relevant metaphor or analogy to illustrate point of view. the third categories of knowledge construction, is negotiation & co-construction, consist of five indicators negotiation of the relative weight to be assigned to arguments, identification of areas of agreement or overlap among conflicting concepts, proposal and negotiation of new statements embodying compromise, co-construction, proposals integrating or accommodating metaphors or analogies. the fourth testing/modification proposed synthesis or co-construction, consist of five indicators, they are testing the proposed synthesis against ‘received fact' as shared by the participants and/or their culture, testing against existing cognitive schema, testing against personal experience, testing against formal data collected, testing against contradictory testimony in the literature. the last category is agreement statement (application of new construction meaning), the indicators of these categories such as applications of new knowledge, metacognitive statements by the participants illustrating their (cognitive schema) has changed as a result of the interaction. table 3.2 language function of students comments no users blog class (ubc) language function enl da rpe mp aiq es 1 class a 5 19 1 12 2 class b 2 1 10 3 class c 1 3 3 7 total 8 20 3 4 0 29 notes: lf : language function enl : expressing needs and likes da : describing actions rpe : retelling/relating past events mp : making predictions aiq : asking informational questions eso : expressing and supporting opinions http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 46-54 52 the next aspect of language function, the first category is expressing needs and likes, the indicator is consist of three indicators, they are indirect/ direct object, subject/ verb agreement, pronouns. the second category is describing people, places and things, the indicator of these categories, they are nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. the next category is describing the action in describing action consist of two indicators, they are present progressive and adverbs. the next category is retelling/relating past events, the indicators of this category, they are past tense verbs and perfect aspect (present and past). the next category is making predictions, the indicators they are verbs: future tense, conditional mode. the next category is asking informational questions, the indicators they are verbs and verb phrases in question. the last category is expressing and supporting opinions, the indicators they are sentence structure and modals (will, can, may, shall). 4. discussion discussion is the main part of this research. here, this study provides the result of her analysis in the blog comment with topic morphology. this study only provides the data which contain finding type of knowledge construction and language function. the detail explanations are as follows: as classified previously, this research was conducted among english students in morphology class of faculty education and teacher training universitas lancang kuning pekanbaru, in the knowledge construction, this study got that sharing information is dominant to use in students blog comments and then in language function the majority result in the language function is expressing and supporting opinion in students blog comments. back to the related finding in the previous research, it was shown that many previous perspectives share their result to the world in their own mind. the first related finding is interaction in the apple support communities, daily interaction between a customer and the operator service of apple communities, in this community they only talk about something without enjoy because of the busy to judge each other and bore. the second related finding, entitled understanding students’ online interaction: analysis of discussion board postings in 2011. the purpose of this research was to report on the findings of a study examining students’ online interaction patterns. various data analysis methods such as descriptive and regression analyses were utilized to examine students’ evolving interaction pattern and different interaction patterns among students in the same class. the result of this research is students demonstrated considerable variability in posting behaviour, ranging from 7 to 169, with an average of 65.1 posts per person (sd= 33.6, median = 64). as with level 1 codes, but not level 2, statistically significant differences were found across students, supporting the interpreting of student heterogeneity in the rate of posting. the third related finding is entitled use of online interactive tools in an open distance learning context: health studies students' perspectives, from department of health studies, university of south africa, south africa in 2017. the purpose of this study was to determine how the discussion as an online interactive tool be used in an odl (open distance learning) institution to enhances student-to students and students-to-lecturer online interaction. this study used quantitative and descriptive in nature. in taking the data, this research consists of 410 participants, but only 87 students responded to the questionnaire and it was showed by the diagram. so, in this method, no sampling was set in this study. the fourth related finding is entitled the importance of interaction for academic success in online course with hearing, deaf and hard-of hearing students, from rochester institute of technology, university, united state. this paper separated three studies within a program of research designed to better understand the factors contributing to the academic achievement of students' online course and the interaction to online learning. in the final study, both datasets were used to determine the academic achievement of students in an online course based upon the amount of interaction that had actually occurred. the fifth related findings is entitled uses of social media on student's communication and self concepts among tatiuc students, from tati university college in 2016. in this study was carried out to examine how the tati university college (tatiuc), this study wants to see the relationship between their communications and selfconcepts. participants of this study are 2000 undergraduate students from tatiuc. the result shows that 90.5% of respondents indicate that they use some form of social media. all of these related findings are only focus on the interest of students in the discussions online forum, these all previous research did not analysis the comments with species such as language function and knowledge construction. the analysis is an important thing in english teaching which is using a blog as media online. in this research, this study analysed students' comments. this research is more important than previous research. previous research only discusses students’ interest of using media online in teaching, but in this research, this study comes with a new better result to teaching-learning in media online with specific analysis about knowledge construction and language function. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 46-54 53 4. conclusion this study analysis set its conclusions in two aspects i.e., knowledge construction and language function. share information seems the most dominant type can be found in knowledge construction and in language function students the dominant type is expressing and supporting opinions. 5. acknowledgement the writers give their gratitude to anonymous reviewers and colleague who assisted immensely in the production of this research article, especially for their feedback and critic. references aydan, l.s. 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(2010). blogging for doing english digital: student evaluations. computers and composition, 27(4), 266-283. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v5i1.11211 vol. 5, no. 1, april 2023, pp. 89-98 89 the culture gap: an analysis of source, target, and global culture representation in indonesian english teaching textbooks jismulatif jismulatif*, & syadza adila putri universitas riau, pekanbaru, indonesia 28293 jissunuri@gmail.com article history received : 2022-09-05 revised : 2023-04-21 accepted : 2023-04-28 keywords english textbooks source culture target culture international culture intercultural abstract most indonesian educators are insufficient to address the importance of educating students about other cultures. this problem emerges as a result of foreign language teachers' lack of understanding of how to incorporate culture into language acquisition, particularly in english. this research aims to investigate culture's representation and examine the culture introduced in indonesian textbooks for senior high school students who learn english as a foreign language. employing a qualitative descriptive approach with an intercultural perspective, the study systematically analyzes the cultural content and themes present in three electronic english teaching textbooks: bahasa inggris x, bahasa inggris ix, and bahasa inggris xi revised edition (2017) by kemdikbud ri. the analysis of the textbooks' contents is conducted using the framework developed by cortazzi and jin (1999), specifically focusing on source culture, target culture, and international culture. these textbooks were selected as they are widely used in indonesian senior high schools and are published by the indonesian ministry of education and culture. the findings of the study reveal that the dominance of source culture content is significant, while the representation of target culture and international culture is considerably low. furthermore, among the 19 cultural motifs categorized as big culture and little culture, the prevalence of little culture themes is most notable. the findings of this research shed light on the existing disparity and call for a more comprehensive approach to cultural education in english language learning. by acknowledging the imbalance and addressing the representation of different cultures, educators can better equip students with intercultural competence and foster a deeper understanding of diverse cultural perspectives. 1. introduction when teaching english in the classroom, most indonesian educators are insufficient to address the importance of educating students about other cultures. the ability of students to communicate effectively in english is impacted as a result of this. many students struggle to communicate in english with people from other countries. this issue arises due to teachers of foreign languages' inadequate awareness of incorporating culture into language acquisition, particularly in english (setyono & widodo, 2019). faults in the structure of the language used in communication may still be understood; however, errors in language are created by the use of the language and a lack of awareness of the cultural context in which the language is used. as a consequence of this, pupils could have trouble communicating with people from other cultures. the acquisition of a foreign language involves the development of one's linguistic skills and an awareness of the culture associated with the language being studied. because of this, it is essential for students learning english to have some familiarity with english culture. considerations for linking foreign language studies to cultural studies dated back to the 1970s and began with textbook research. the idea is that it is not enough only to teach a foreign language to equip students to face the challenges of international communication (byram & golubeva, 2020). there is a consensus among scholars that, although it is necessary to learn a language, language alone is insufficient to have intercultural competence. in other words, a person does not become interculturally competent if he does not study the culture; how can a learner adapt to other people or communicate with each other when only learning the language (block, 2013). therefore, linguists have voiced the need to make serious efforts https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v5i1.11211 mailto:jissunuri@gmail.com 90 to develop intercultural learners. the reason is that to understand a language, it is not enough to learn grammar; it is also necessary to build students' knowledge about cross-cultural because intercultural products are not natural by-products of language learning and do not just happen (jenks, 2013). in this case, textbooks, as instruments in language teaching and learning, become essential and are considered the primary input source in language classes. however, textbooks are not just a sample of language; they are also 'cultural products' that need to be considered whether the textbook contains cultural contents that are appropriate to the intended audience and is a tool to introduce a new culture to students (liddicoat & scarino 2013). according to kramsch (2014), textbooks should not only further develop students' existing cultural discourse (students' own culture) but also provide opportunities to engage with new discourses (target culture). integrating language, culture, and students has a significant role because this combination gives students more opportunities for intercultural learning to interpret the contents of textbooks more deeply and critically. to support these points, liddicoat and scarino (2013) list textbooks as a resource for intercultural language learning and other resources, such as literature, community, and the classroom. in teaching foreign languages, teachers need to ensure their students observe foreign cultures through various materials. if such meetings do not exist or occur infrequently, students will not be able to understand them and process foreign cultures and phenomena thoroughly; this results in students' understanding that they can draw wrong conclusions about the target culture (lappalainen 2011). since some efl teachers rely heavily on textbooks as the core of their teaching, textbooks should be able to serve as tools for representing various aspects of culture. in this regard, the need for a teaching culture as part of language learning and teaching has been recognized by several disciplines and approaches. one of these approaches is the intercultural approach, which focuses on understanding and accepting diversity among speakers of languages and cultures by changing people's worldviews and developing new levels of their interpretation and awareness (liddicoat & scarino 2013). linguists are becoming increasingly concerned about the cultural content of english textbooks (byram, 2010; egmen, 2016; liddicoat & scarino, 2013; mohammed, 2020). as a result, there is a pressing need to incorporate cultural awareness into the curriculum for the english language (byram, 2010; byrnes, 2010; offorma, 2016). as a result of the function that english plays, this language's status as a lingua franca and as an international language is further strengthened (gunantar, 2016). according to hamiloglu and mendi (2010), incorporating cultural materials into english classrooms has demonstrated an awareness of the target language's social function and the students' sensitivity to intercultural learning. english is a foreign language that is required to be studied as part of the curriculum for all three levels of education in indonesia, namely primary, secondary, and higher education. one of the most important subjects students need to learn is english, and professors realize this. therefore, when teaching a foreign language, teachers of that language should be conscious that they are not just imparting knowledge of grammar and vocabulary but also of listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills, as well as knowledge of other cultures. a person's ability to appreciate the distinctions between their community and persons from other communities, countries, and backgrounds, particularly contrasts in attitudes and values, is referred to as cultural awareness (frank, 2013). if a teacher takes the time to educate their students about the traditions of english-speaking countries, the number of misunderstandings in english-language conversations should decrease, if not completely disappear. as a consequence, both instructors and pupils should recognize that culture affects how individuals think and conduct themselves. according to qu and telzer (2017), individuals' development, responses, and enjoyment of particular things are influenced by having only been exposed to one dominant culture while growing up. most of the english textbooks in indonesia are made or published by the ministry of education and culture. teachers always supply english textbooks to each student. books are important for students; choosing textbooks for students entails that the textbooks used contain cultural diversity content that catalyzes student growth, not only in terms of knowledge but also in terms of developing students' intelligence and assisting them in developing their moral and spiritual lives (doró, 2013; gómez rodríguez, 2015). even though liu & laohawiriyanon (2012), alshenqeeti (2019), and alsaif (2016) demonstrated research on cultural contents in english textbooks, their research was not conducted on local and foreign cultures in indonesian english books for senior high school. whereas, it is critical to include local cultures in language learning textbooks as it increases cultural competency, improves communication skills, gives realistic learning experiences, enhances motivation, and aids in language preservation. therefore, this study aims to discover the domination of cultural contents in three indonesian english textbooks for senior high school students. to accomplish this purpose, the researcher identified and studied the contents and cultural elements in the textbooks from the intercultural perspective of english as a foreign language. this study offers a global contribution in promoting cross-cultural understanding, cultural diversity, and 91 language preservation efforts. this is especially crucial in an increasingly globalized world when many languages and cultures are on the verge of extinction. besides, this study also gives insights that english teachers understand the importance of cultural learning for efl students. in teaching english, students need to have cultural knowledge; this can help students when communicating with foreigners. learners can enhance their communication abilities by comprehending the complexities of language usage in context by incorporating local cultures into language learning textbooks. the findings of this study can become information for english language instructors to find solutions to enrich students' knowledge of foreign cultures, such as making e-modules related to foreign cultures, using film media, and searching on the internet. with less foreign cultural content in english textbooks in indonesia, it is hoped that english teachers can be more creative in increasing students' knowledge of english culture. 2. literature review culture is a fundamental aspect of human existence, encompassing various aspects of life, beliefs, social traditions, and political systems that are passed down through generations (spencer-oatey, 2012). it is widely recognized that language and culture are closely intertwined, and a comprehensive understanding of a language requires an appreciation of the associated culture. researchers have extensively explored the relationship between language and culture in the context of language learning and teaching. awayedbishara (2015) investigated the cultural content of english textbooks for arab students in israel and found that the textbooks heavily emphasized jewish cultures, contributing to the perpetuation of western and jewish dominance. illie (2019) emphasized the importance of localized english textbooks with a global cultural perspective to enhance students' intercultural competence. mckay (2003) highlighted the inclusion of cultural elements in english language teaching (elt) textbooks to expose students to various cultural practices and expand their vocabulary and knowledge within diverse cultural contexts. previous studies have also examined the representation of culture in language learning textbooks. qodriani and kardiansyah (2018) analyzed indonesian english electronic textbooks and found selective inclusion of cultural aspects to raise teachers' and students' awareness of the interdependent relationship between language and culture. mayangsari et al. (2018) focused on 8th-grade english textbooks and discovered a dominance of product and perspective dimensions, tailored to meet the needs of students in the current era. setyono and widodo (2019) investigated a nationally adopted efl textbook in indonesia and identified multicultural themes such as respect for diverse ethnic and religious groups, conflict resolution, peace, and appreciation of cultural products. putra et al. (2020) examined twelfth-grade efl textbooks and highlighted the need for a more comprehensive representation of indonesian cultures and intercultural interactions. sihombing and nguyen (2022) explored culture types presented in 10th-grade english textbooks, revealing a dominance of source culture (indonesian), followed by target culture (usa and uk), foreign cultures (india, singapore, argentina, and italy), and culturally-neutral material. considering the findings from these studies, it becomes evident that creating a solid english textbook requires a balanced representation of cultures. cortazzi and jin (1999) emphasized the integration of culturally relevant information from the target culture, source culture, and global culture. big culture encompasses topics such as geography, history, literature, and social norms, while little culture refers to aspects of daily life, including attitudes, preferences, gestures, and clothing styles (awayed-bishara, 2015; doró, 2013; lee, 2009; scarino, 2010). understanding both big culture and little culture is crucial for effective communication and intercultural competence. it equips english as a foreign language (efl) learners with the necessary skills to engage with different cultural communities. mastery of big culture topics, such as music, education, and politics, allows students to communicate with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. similarly, knowledge of little culture, including daily routines, holidays, and values, enhances learners' ability to navigate everyday interactions and understand cultural nuances (lee, 2009). the current study employed a descriptive qualitative design and a systematic analysis of cultural content and themes. the data were derived from the electronic english textbook for senior high school students in indonesia (kemdikbud ri, 2017). through content analysis, the researcher aimed to investigate the percentage of cultural content and examine the cultural elements introduced in the textbooks. the analysis was conducted from an intercultural perspective to enhance english as a foreign language learning. in conclusion, the relationship between language and culture is integral to language learning and teaching. the representation of culture in english textbooks plays a crucial role in developing 3. method this study used a descriptive qualitative design. it employed a systematic technique for analyzing cultural content and cultural themes. the data for this study was taken from electronic english textbook for senior high school 10,11, and 12 grades entitled bahasa inggris x, bahasa inggris ix, and bahasa inggris xi revised edition (2017) by kemdikbud ri. the data were chosen for study to examine whether the cultural aspects of the textbook represent the culture-related contents 92 embodied in indonesian senior high school english electronic textbooks. the data for the study was in the form of written texts and illustrations accompanying the reading passages. thus, this study used the content analysis method for two purposes, such as the purpose of descriptive (describing the structure and content of discourse) and inferential purposes (creating intent and effect conclusions wearing a discourse). the main objective of this research was to investigate the percentage of cultural content and to examine the culture introduced in indonesian textbooks for senior high school students who learn english as a foreign language. to achieve this goal, the researcher identified the contents and cultural elements in the textbooks and analyzed them from the intercultural perspective of english as a foreign language. 3.1 sample the materials analyzed in this research consisted of a series of student books used in indonesian senior high school english classrooms. specifically, the books examined were bahasa inggris x for the first year, bahasa inggris ix for the second year, and bahasa inggris xi for the third year of senior high school. these textbooks were published by the ministry of education and culture of indonesia and were selected for the study due to their widespread usage in indonesian senior high schools. additionally, the choice of these three textbooks was informed by recommendations from senior high school english teachers who regularly employed them in their classrooms. the senior high school english textbooks comprised a total of 39 chapters, each of which was structured into several components. the "writing" component included activities that focused on paragraph writing, with an emphasis on factual descriptions and the use of appropriate vocabulary and sentence structures. it also incorporated linguistic features and tasks, along with exercises for formative assessments. the "reading" component encompassed pre-reading activities, post-reading activities, the identification of main ideas in paragraphs, and the comprehension of new vocabulary. it also included exercises and formative assessments. lastly, the "speaking" component involved activities related to listening and speaking skills, such as expressing likes and dislikes, retelling events, introducing cultural information, and providing expressions for specific situations. similar to the other components, this section offered exercises and formative assessments. the selection of these textbooks was influenced by various factors, including their alignment with the latest requirements of the indonesian senior high school english curriculum (2013). this curriculum places significant emphasis on developing students' writing, reading, and speaking abilities. as a result, the chosen textbooks were deemed suitable for the research due to their relevance and usage in english classrooms across the country. figure 3.1. the three textbooks of senior high school, book for 10th grade, 11th grade, and 12th 93 3.2 data analysis cortazzi and jin's (1999) framework was utilized to conduct the study's data analysis. two points of view were considered when analyzing the cultural material for senior high school students in english textbooks. the first point of view concentrated on how the textbooks portrayed the various cultural antecedents. the second aspect addressed the disparity in how big cultures and little cultures are differentiated. in order to accomplish this, 19 themes that were constructed to investigate various characteristics of big culture and little culture were based on chen's (2004) and lee's (2009) views regarding the cultural themes that fell under big and little culture. the following is a list of the 19 topics that are relevant to both big culture (politics, economics, history, geography, literature/art, social norms, education, architecture, sports, music, movie, and science) and little culture (food, holidays, lifestyles, customs, values, hobbies, and gestures/body language). big culture (politics, economics, history, geography, literature/art, social norms, education, movie, and science). 4. results the purpose of this study is to look into how culture is presented in indonesian textbooks for senior high school students learning english as a foreign language. the data shown below demonstrate the prevalence of cultural representation in indonesian english teaching textbooks for senior high school students. 4.1 the percentage of cultural sources following this preliminary investigation, table 4.1 shows the cultural sources discovered in indonesian senior high school english textbooks. table 4.1. the percentage of cultural contents in senior high school english textbook book sources target culture international target culture source culture big culture “c” little culture “c” big culture “c” little culture “c” big culture “c” little culture “c”  english book for 10th grade 6 1 6 1 9 1  english book for 11th grade 13 0 4 0 5 2  english book for 12th grade 9 2 2 1 15 6  total 28 3 12 2 29 9 31 14 38 total of percentage 33.73% 3.61% 14.45% 2.40% 34.93% 10.84% 37.34% 16.85% 45.77% the three most important cultural sources were shown in table 4.1 which depicted the target culture, international target culture, and source culture. in the target culture, in the three books that have been analyzed, 28 cultural contents were found in the big culture and 3 cultural contents in the little culture. the total percentage is 37.34%, with big culture having a percentage of 33.73% compared to little culture's 3.61%. in the international target culture, there are 12 cultural contents in big culture and 2 cultural contents in little culture, with a total percentage of 16.85%. big culture has a percentage of 14.45% more than a little culture, which only scores 2.40%. for source culture, 29 cultural contents were obtained in big culture and 9 cultural contents in little culture. the total percentage obtained is 45.77%, with big culture getting 34.93% more than little culture, which is only 10.84%. it was discovered that the source culture made up the largest portion of the total (45.77%), but that the target culture only made up 37.34% of the total among all cultural sources. while for international target culture represented the lowest percentage of cultural content (16.85%) among all international target cultures. it was noteworthy that english book for 11st grade did not reference the little culture that both the domestic and international target cultures have adopted. to put it another way, the sources of culture that were most prevalent in senior high school english textbooks were those that referred to either indonesian culture or the students' cultures. this was because most of the information contained in english textbooks and student manuals used in senior high schools was related to various cultural origins. by incorporating these themes into english instruction, students may learn not just about the english language but also about the globe and the various cultures that make it up. 94 4.2 culture's themes the 39 chapters of the study were looked at in further detail for two cultural themes, which were indicated by the letters "big culture "c" and "little culture "c" respectively. the frequency with which 19 different cultural topics appeared in english textbooks for senior high school students is illustrated in figure 4.1. these topics include: there were 12 big culture categories that these topics fit into, and they were as follows: political, economic, historical, geographical, literary/artistic, social norms, educational, architectural, sporting, musical, and scientific themes. seven different topics were included in the cultural categories of little culture. these topics include food, holidays, lifestyles, customs, values, hobbies, and gestures/body language. the big culture categories that these topics fit into, and the percentage of each cultural themes as follows: politics (8.43%), economic (1.20%), history (15.66%), geography (8.43%), literature/artistic (19.28), social norms (7.23%), education (10.84%), architectural (2.41), sport (0%), music (6.02%), movies (2.41%) and science (1.20%). seven different topics were included in the cultural categories of little culture. the percentage of each topics are food (1.20%), holiday (12.05%), lifestyles (2.41), customs (0%), values (0%), hobbies (1.20%), and gestures/body language (0%). figure 4.1. frequency of cultural themes in senior high school english textbooks. according to figure 4.1, out of the 19 cultural themes, one under (little culture ‘c’) culture and two under (big culture ‘c’) culture made the highest three most frequent topics in senior high school english textbooks namely literature/art (19.28%), history (15.55%) and holiday (12.05%). followed by politics (8.43%), geography (8.43%), social norms (7.23%) in big culture, and music (6.02%) in little culture. for economics, architecture, movies, science, food, lifestyle and hobbies have a percentage of less than 5% and it can be said that these themes are very minimal to be found in the three english textbooks. the results of this analysis also revealed that there are some cultural themes that are not listed in the three english textbooks, such as sports in the big culture, customs, values, and gesture/body language in little culture. specifically, literature/art (big culture 'c') theme was the most frequent (19,28%), followed by the big culture's theme of "history" (15.66%) and the little culture's theme of "holiday" (12.05%). surprisingly, the popular little culture was absent under "custom, values, and gestures/body language" and under the big culture theme of "sport”. apparently, "literature/art" in the big culture dominated the cultural content. literature /art included issues such as poems (for example, the american poem 'the road not taken' by robert frost and 'dream' by langston hugest) and legenda (for example, west sumateraindonesia.' malinkundang'). to highlight the elaboration, literature and art are frequently key cultural subjects in english textbooks because they may help students grasp the cultural and historical backdrop of english-speaking nations. it is important to note that the specific literary and art cultural themes contained in english textbooks may differ based on the curriculum requirements and aims of english language teaching in a given country or area. students may widen their viewpoints, develop empathy, and appreciate the beauty and diversity of human expression through studying literature and art from diverse countries and civilizations. overall, adding cultural themes from literature and art into english education can help students become more wellrounded, knowledgeable, and culturally aware persons. 8.43% 1.20% 15.66% 8.43% 19.28% 7.23% 10.84% 2.41% 0 6.02% 2.41% 1.20% 1.20% 12.05% 2.41% 0 0 1.20% 0 frequency of cultural themes 95 5. discussion this research aims to investigate culture's presentation and examine the culture introduced in indonesian textbooks for senior high school students who learn english as a foreign language. following the findings, regarding the frequency and percentage of culture-related content in senior high school english textbooks, source culture (indonesian culture) is the primary focus in senior high school english textbooks, while target culture and international target culture are ignored. this is the case even though target culture is the primary focus of the english language. in light of this study, english teachers would better understand how crucial cultural learning is for students studying foreign languages. students who are learning english should be culturally aware as this will aid them when speaking with foreigners. the results of this study can help english language teachers find ways to increase their students' awareness of other cultures by creating e-modules on such cultures, employing cinema media, and conducting internet searches. it is envisaged that english teachers will be able to be more inventive in enhancing pupils' knowledge of english culture given that there is less foreign cultural content in indonesian english textbooks. the big culture (literature and art, history, education, politics, social norms, and geography), and the little culture (holiday), were the most dominant types of culture among the 19 themes. other cultural themes were dominated by holidays. however, suppose the authors' primary objective of the textbook was to present information about indonesian culture to improve students' writing, grammar, reading, and speaking abilities rather than developing students' intercultural skills in the context of an international setting. in that case, the reason that almost fifty percent of the cultural content was source culture is most likely why this was the case (indonesian culture). however, fifty percent of the overall analysis units were related in some way to indonesian culture, which was the culture that served as the source. this conclusion stands in stark contrast to the one obtained by liu and laohawiriyanon (2012), who investigated the 61 efl textbooks that are currently being utilized in china (jiang, 2010; wu, 2016; xiao, 2010; yuen, 2011), japan (matsuda, 2002; yamanaka, 2006), and korean (lee, 2009). it was found that 61 of the english textbooks used for the research on english as a foreign language did a significant amount of promotion for either the target culture or the cultures of englishspeaking countries. in conformity with the research data presented earlier, indonesian students may not be able to improve their communication skills with foreigners to the same extent as their counterparts in other countries because senior high school english textbooks provide an inadequate representation of both the target culture and the international target culture. align with block (2013) that said a person does not become interculturally competent if they do not study the culture. they learn the english names of taboos in indonesian society and how to avoid them, but they are not taught how to handle taboos in interactions involving the english language. for example, they learn the english names of taboos in indonesian culture as well as how to avoid them. other students are instructed on how to compose an invitation letter in english, but they are not instructed on how a native english speaker would compose such a letter. because of this, the students understand the cultures of almost all countries whose native language is english. the research shown above uncovered two unexpected patterns: one was the preponderance of the topic of "holiday" in the little culture, and the other was the absence of the other typical themes of the little culture, which included customs, values, and gestures/body language. according to the theory presented by cunningsworth (frank, 2013; gorter & cenoz, 2011; xiaole et al., 2012; liu, 2012), the concept of the 'hidden curriculum' suggests that it is possible to deduce, based on the prevalence of 'values,' that senior high school english textbooks are more concerned with instilling students with moral values and helping them develop their characters. language teaching experts have done much research on cultural content in english textbooks. liu and laohawiriyanon (2012) looked into the cultural content in chinese university students' efl listening and speaking textbooks. according to the study, more than half of the cultural information in listening and speaking textbooks could not be identified. target cultural contents predominated among the detected cultural materials in textbooks, while worldwide target culture and source cultural contents only made up a small portion. furthermore, according to alshenqeeti (2019), culture plays a significant role in efl textbooks and learners' preferences in english classes in saudi arabian public universities. using the content analysis approach, it was revealed that a balance of cultural representation was not kept. indeed, the contents were slanted toward the depiction of the target culture. the study's data analysis revealed that these participants found the source culture to be the least intriguing. the analysis also revealed that the study subject prioritized skill development, target culture, and foreign cultural training. the same study, "a variety of cultures represented in english language textbooks: a critical study at saudi university," was also carried out by alsaif (2016). the study found that while other nations from outeror expanding-circle countries look marginalized, the western culture depicted in these textbooks is primarily from innercircle nations like the united states, the united kingdom, and canada. the researcher asserted that saudi arabia's current textbooks were insufficient to meet the demands and concerns of students. 96 overall, the research on cultural content in english textbooks emphasizes the necessity of appropriate cultural content selection and presentation in language teaching materials. english textbooks should reflect cultures in a balanced and diversified manner, avoiding stereotypes or biases that may encourage unfavorable impressions or attitudes against specific groups. furthermore, english teachers should be trained to effectively integrate cultural content into their classroom instruction and to foster a supportive and inclusive learning environment that promotes intercultural communication and understanding. opoku-amankwa et al. (2011) mention that textbooks should not just strive to provide a body of knowledge. instead, they should pique students' interests, foster creativity, and active learning, and promote cultural understanding. the textbook's content should be appropriate for pupils and in line with national educational goals (faris, 2014). because culturally oriented textbooks help students build intercultural communicative ability, culture is a key factor in the production of the textbook's contents. materials about the target culture have been used in elt classes. by incorporating aspects of the culture being studied into english instruction, the goal is to foster more positive attitudes among students about language acquisition and boost student motivation (mckay & sandra, 2012). learners are more motivated when they perceive how what they are learning applies to their life. incorporating local cultures into language study texts allows students to see the practical application of their learning, which can boost motivation and engagement. second, in the context of english as a foreign language (efl) and english as a second language (esl), including elements of the target culture into language learning materials is beneficial. third, it is challenging for teachers of foreign languages to collect data from students whose cultures are distinct from their own (scarino, 2010). thus, it can be inferred that culture can motivate language learners and assist them notice similarities and differences between different cultural groups. educators should be encouraged to use various educational resources to expose their students to cultural perspectives locally and internationally. although there was a lack of information regarding the origin of the instances of "social standards," the understanding of the topic of culture (customs, values, and gesture/body language) in textbooks is frequently directly related to indonesian people and history. this is the case even though there was a lack of information regarding the origin of the instances of "social standards." for example, on the tenth of every november, as part of the celebration of heroes days, the students are given a chapter that discusses the battle of surabaya. he questioned the children on the rationale behind celebrating heroes day on that particular day and why it was chosen to recognize the sacrifice of our heroes. the students discussed it with their companions and came to a conclusion regarding the reason why the event had become so unforgettable. it is possible that the lack of other common little culture topics is contributing to the low level of intercultural interaction skills possessed by students in indonesia. because students need to be able to talk about their daily lives in order to be successful in intercultural communication, "little culture" actually has a stronger impact on daily communication that occurs across cultural boundaries than "big culture" (liu, 2012; scarino, 2010). 6. conclusions this study focused on the analysis of cultural content in indonesian textbooks for senior high school students. the analysis revealed a predominance of source culture content, while the proportion of international global culture to target culture content was significantly low. additionally, the prevalence of little culture motifs outweighed big culture motifs among the 19 cultural themes identified. the findings highlight an imbalance between source, target, and international global cultures in the english-language textbooks used in indonesian senior high schools. to address these findings, it is imperative for textbook writers and educators to create an intercultural space within the classroom that fosters the development of learners' intercultural competencies and enables effective communication across diverse backgrounds using english as the international language. english foreign language textbooks in indonesia should prioritize students' global understanding, considering the increasing globalization and the growing opportunities for indonesian students to pursue education and careers abroad. this study makes significant contributions on a global scale by promoting cross-cultural understanding, cultural diversity, and language preservation efforts. it also sheds light on the need for a more balanced and comprehensive approach to cultural content in english language textbooks, fostering students' global awareness and preparing them for a multicultural and interconnected world. 7. acknowledgement the author would like to thank the center for research and community services universitas riau for supporting the researcher in the research. we also thank marzuki, m.ed tesol, m.a; ph.d., for proofreading this article. references aldawood, a. a., & almeshari, f. 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(2011). the representation of foreign cultures in english textbooks. elt journal, 65(4), 458-466. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccq089 https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/32429155.pdf https://doi.org/10.5296/ijele.v1i1.2850 https://doi.org/10.37546/jaltjj24.2-5 https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/57.2.139 https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847697042-007 https://doi.org/10.20431/2347-3134.0801003 https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000112 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2010.01026.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2010.01026.x https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2015.1120736 https://kb.psu.ac.th/psukb/bitstream/2010/7836/1/326069.pdf https://kb.psu.ac.th/psukb/bitstream/2010/7836/1/326069.pdf https://doi.org/10.37546/jaltjj28.1-4 https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccq089 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v5i1.12276 vol. 5, no. 1, april 2023, pp. 17-31 17 enhancing efl vietnamese students’ communicative competence through selected speaking strategies nguyen huu chanh school of medicine, viet nam national university, ho chi minh, viet nam nguyenhuuchanh06@gmail.com article history received : 2022-12-17 revised : 2023-04-16 accepted : 2023-04-24 keywords communicative competence, efl students mixed-methods research speaking strategies, teaching speaking, abstract in vietnamese tertiary education, there is a growing focus on enhancing students' speaking skills through the use of speaking strategies. this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of different types of speaking strategies when employed in authentic settings. a mixed-methods research approach was employed, using a questionnaire and interview to collect data from 90 preintermediate undergraduate students at a local university. random sampling was utilized with the support of spss version 20. ten strategies were carefully designed to meet the requirements of tasks in the pre-, while-, and postspeaking phases, based on previous studies. the results showed that the use of these speaking strategies had a positive impact on efl students' communicative competence, as evidenced by their scores and feedback. moreover, teachers were found to be able to vary their speaking strategies according to the specific types of activities, with a particular strategy being implemented in a given class meeting. this research represents one of the first empirical studies investigating the roles of speaking strategies in improving students' communication skills and achieving learning autonomy in the vietnamese tertiary education context. furthermore, it is hoped that the findings will make significant contributions to the curriculum development of programs and to target no.4: quality education, as defined by the united nations, both in vietnam and globally. overall, this study highlights the importance of effective speaking strategies in efl education and provides valuable insights for educators seeking to enhance their students' communicative competence. 1. introduction with more and more attention to globalisation and localisation, the trend towards global integrationhas been one of the urgent requirements for each country and individual. to meet the demands, the ability to speak a language other than one's mother tongue is highly valued (khamkhien, 2010; alharbi, 2015; mei & masoumeh, 2017; faez & karas, 2019; liao, 2009; pabro-maquidato, 2021) and english has been the top priority within a lot of international languages to be the most widely spoken and utilized in different sectors. english is used in many countries for trade, economy, science, technology, education, and culture, leading to an increasing number of english language user (dawson et al., 2014). in many countries around the world, including vietnam, english has become an official, second or foreign subject in the national education system alongside other subjects (al-tamimi, 2014). many companies and multinational corporations, when recruiting employees, require english to ensure that their employees are capable of the general trend of the world. in order to assess language learning success to some extent, it is usually based on the ability to use words (candilas, 2021; chanh, 2021a; do, 2021) and grammar through english speaking skills since if learners speak accurately and easily, the path to success in language learning will not be far away. language learners find it challenging to communicate effectively at some points, which arises an issue that needs to be taken seriously (dörnyei, 1997a, 1997b; blau et al., 2002; pabro-maquidato, 2021). many students, regardless of being long time exposed to english, sometimes are not able to speak english effectively. to improve the above scenarios, it was necessary to engage students’ interests and the changes in teaching activities by designing interactive tasks (andrade, 2006; shin, 2008; angelini & garcćacarbonell, 2019; sayuti et al., 2020; styfanyshyn & kalymon, 2020; yusuf & mabagits, 2020). then, with an inspiring learning environment and great supports from teachers (ma, 2012), students can demonstrate https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v5i1.12276 mailto:nguyenhuuchanh06@gmail.com 18 their language proficiency confidently and to a wider audience in an inspiring learning environment with teacher support. (van, 2021; chau, 2021). reality had proved that the difficulty in learning a foreign language is that students did not have enough necessary words in a discipline-based context (chanh, 2021a, 2021b; chau, 2021; van et al., 2021). students often intend to talk about well-trodden paths and avoid exploring some unfamiliar circumstances. in order to contribute to solving the above situation, the innovation of designing tasks, including innovation in creating motivation to students, was essential (dawson et al., 2014; romero et al., 2012; kim & shin, 2014; sayuti et al., 2020; singh & han, 2010). one of them was changing tasks into interactive activities that contribute to students’ confidence and avoid root learning (chen & hwang, 2020; chien et al., 2020). within this thematic limit, some task-based activities in teaching english speaking skills had been suggested in the study. as stressed previously, tasks should be designed carefully and scientifically to attract the students’ attention; therefore, there was no question why the issue has been brought into the research field by some scholars all over the world. to begin with, a study by salehi et al. (2015) is carried out among iranian students in two levels of language proficiency. the criteria are based on three aspects, comprising the level of student autonomy, the ways they deal with difficulties in classroom settings, and students’ success in those situations. a survey is delivered to all participants to examine the types of speaking strategies they use and the level of autonomy they have during the lesson. the results showed that there was a lower rate in slow-performance students compared to high-performance ones. moreover, the former group was less autonomous than the latter one. the findings showed the suggestions in curriculum revision to enhance students’ competence since the more communicative opportunities the students can take part in, the more effectively they can achieve. then, prabawa (2016) carries out a study to investigate students’ communicative competences in terms of their personalities. students can lose their chances to perform their speaking capacity in class when they have low participation and low consequences of speaking skills. by using qualitative research, the results showed that the typical speaking strategies in indonesia higher education, the ways that students could improve their speaking skills. next, the research paper led by (chien et al., 2020a) discovered the importance of authentic english scenarios caused language barriers to english students. the reason was that they did have many opportunities to be communicated and corrected by the others. the findings showed the positive aspects of this environment in terms of the motivation of english uses, the ability to speak the english language, the fewer worryings in interacting with other students. however, the thing was that the activities need to be designed to meet each context. besides, in shedding the light on this issue, the authors of (chien et al., 2020b) carried out investigations of the utility of flipped learning on improving the student’s speaking ability by carrying out the pretest/ posttest and quasiexperimental design in 72 students. the concepts mapping was applied in listening and speaking skills and they found that it greatly influenced the ability to use the english language and students then could limit their anxiety during the process. this way was also highly encouraged to build the students’ critical thinking. however, the study did not mention the specific procedures of some typical methods used in the speaking lessons. moreover, a study by sayyora (2021) investigates the speaking strategies in esl and efl contexts since the teaching and learning in speaking lessons do not pay much attention and there are still some potential issues to address. the results showed that the combination of teacher recommendations and the application of speaking strategies plays a key role in improving students’ communicative skills. this finding replaces the traditions of repeating drills and memorizing the conversations in the past speaking lessons. in general, these studies realise some typical examples of speaking strategies used for tertiary education which creates fundamental knowledge to the current study, but the application of speaking strategies in a vietnamese context has not been clearly discovered and whether these speaking strategies are effective to help undergraduate students’ language proficiency in terms of task-based activities. these listed gaps intensify the significance of the current study which targets entailing students to be excellent users in the future. supported and developed from formerly conducted studies of the same fields, the current one hopes to be appreciated as a considerable contribution. previous studies show the necessity to utilize the useful tools to enhancing students’ language proficiency. in pre-speaking phase, cho (2007) also mentions the great benefits when applying “chatting” regarding motivations in efl context. also, in the study by pratiwi & ayu (2020), “describing a picture” was utilized to improve speaking capacity. the results from the data showed the great achievement in their overall score. barnard et al. (2003) conducted a study about the usage of “matching” through pictures and words. a model was established to show the effectiveness of the strategy. the current study also employed “jigsaw” since the great number of previous studies mentioned the usefulness of this strategy in english language learning. one of the typical papers was mengduo & 19 xiaoling (2010) who proved the effectiveness of using “jigsaw” in a specific task to improve student’s competence. the strategy works well when it is applied in efl context to encourage students’ attendance ad enthusiasm. in the while-speaking phase, shah et al. (2022) offer “interviewing” as an enjoyable way when it comes to one’s behaviour and have some implications to understand the purpose of context more effectively. alabsi (2016) mentioned the use of “role-play” in vocabulary enhancement. the participants are saudi learners who get problems with vocabulary memory. the results reveal that this strategy really encourage students to learn vocabulary in real-life situations. kalantari & hashemian (2016) had a study about “story-telling” which is totally applied in the whileand post-speaking phase. the reason why this strategy is utilized in two stages since it shows different functions in each context. “storytelling” focuses on fluency in the while-speaking phase while it concentrates on accuracy in postspeaking. the study focuses on enhance the vocabulary’s use by investigating 134 upper-beginner participants into an experimental and controlled group. the results showed that this strategy is good to apply in efl context with the great improvements in an experimental group. in the post-speaking phase, najarzadegan, et al. (2017) carried out a study about application of speeches as a strategy in language learning. the chinese students were examined in terms of multicultural interaction through oral communication. the results show strong evidence that “speeches” should be applied in efl context. another speaking strategy offered by hidayat & krismanti (2022) is picture narrating which aims to improve students’ error in a speaking lesson. with the use of qualitative and quantitative research, the study investigated 33 participants to make a story based on a number of pictures. the findings show the effectiveness of using this strategy and the common errors that they usually make in oral communication. those ten strategies were utilized in the current study to investigate the effectiveness of their applications in efl context. to fulfill the purpose of the study, the survey was seeking to answer the following research questions: 1) what kinds of speaking strategies were utilised in english speaking classroom? 2) how effective are the activities toward improving the learning environment? 3. method 3.1 research design and participants this study employed a mixed-methods research design to investigate the use of speaking strategies in vietnamese students' speaking lessons. the study was conducted at a university in thu duc city, where 90 pre-intermediate level students were selected using random sampling. the students were asked to participate in various speaking tasks designed by the teacher, with feedback collected through a questionnaire at the end of the class. the coursebook "navigate" by krantz & norton, published by oxford university press, was used as the primary textbook due to its suitability for the vietnamese context. a pilot study was conducted with 20 students to ensure the trustworthiness and reliability of the study. a prepared set of questions was used for the interviews, which were then revised based on feedback from the pilot study participants. ten speaking strategies were employed during the pre-, while-, and post-speaking phases, based on previously published papers in the literature review. the speaking strategies used were: chatting, describing a picture, matching, jigsaw, interview, role-play, storytelling, picture narrating, and speeches. 3.2 instruments since the ultimate goal of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of the activities that were applied in the authentic environments, it employed the descriptive qualitative approach by delivering questionnaire and interviewing participants based on the prepared set of questions which have been referenced from strategy inventory for language learning by oxford (1990) after the class participation, students are asked to answer the questions based on the questionnaire and the interview section is implemented to obtain the data. students had an opportunity to express their ideas about those activities. for the latter, data was calculated to show the scores students achieved after the lesson, the most noted feature students paid attention and the type of activities they felt the most interesting. besides, based on the previously published papers in the literature review, ten speaking strategies were chosen and employed in the prespeaking phase (chatting, describing a picture, matching, jigsaw), while-speaking phase (interview, role-play, storytelling), and post-speaking phase (storytelling, picture narrating, speeches). the storytelling was used in the while and post, but the focus was different, one in fluency and the other in accuracy. 3.3 data analysis procedures for the teachers, they prepared carefully the activities and then showed students how to do them. 90 students were grouped into three class meetings to ensure their availability time then gave their feedback about those tasks. students will be put into experimental and controlled group, and then, the interviewing is started when all the lesson are provided. for the textbook, “navigate” in pre 20 intermediate level was prepared. next, some speaking sections in the book were chosen to match with the types of activities since the study just illustrated the most obvious examples. then, 10 strategies were utilised among the most frequent ones. the examples were also provided to show the possibility of applying those strategies to appropriate contexts. 4. results the below part illustrated the results of conducting ten teaching strategies, comprising chatting, describing a picture, matching, jigsaw in the pre-speaking phase; interview, role-play, storytelling in the while-speaking phase; and storytelling, picture narrating, speeches in the post-speaking phase. chatting, describing a picture, matching, jigsaw, interview, role-play, storytelling, picture narrating, and speeches. 4.1 pre-speaking phase in the first phase, teachers check students’ understanding of the learned topic by preparing carefully a set of vocabulary and grammar points to present. the more exciting and thoughtful the preparation phase has, the better the next phase will go. here are some typical activities for the prespeaking phase. as illustrated, students paid more attention to the task design in jigsaw and chatting, images in matching, and interests in describing a picture. therefore, language teachers should concentrate on these features so that they achieve the learning outcomes. figure 4. 1: the distribution of students’ interests in the pre-speaking phase as stated in the above figure, participants’ interest focuses the design the most when it comes to “jigsaw” and “chatting” strategy. “images” is chosen by most of students in “matching” strategy while “describing a picture” should follow the interest. a) chatting in this activity, teacher simply posed questions relevant to the topic so that the students can answer. for example, students were asked to activate the background knowledge about running and response to the teacher about their routines to help students recall the vocabulary and grammar points about the context. before taking a look at the target book, the teacher showed the photo and author to provide more details. 21 table 4.1 chatting in the pre -speaking phase no. questions notes 1 do you ever go running? why/why not? asking students 2 why do you think some people enjoy running? 3 look at the photos. do you know the author haruki murakami? would you like to read the book? (taken from unit 1: 1.2 free time) b) describing a picture teachers let students have a look at the picture and then students use their own words or phrases to describe. for example, the below activity required students to look at a man and a map to help students think about the scenario. students might think that the map was the location of the man’s house or else as long as they could imagine the related situation to serve as first impressions in the learning process. table 4.2 describing a picture in the pre -speaking phase (taken from unit 6: 6.2 a long way home) c) matching the assignment asked students to match the names with pictures, or words with their definitions. for example, the teacher introduced the lesson by showing 4 kinds of foods in viet nam, austria, britain and morocco and their descriptions. the students’ task is to match the photos with appropriate definitions. photo description what can you see from the photo? from your imaginations, can you predict any connections in the topic “a long way home” with the photo? 22 table 4.3. matching in the pre-speaking phase (taken from unit 10: 10.1 a question of taste) d) jigsaw in this activity, students were asked to look at some scrambled sentences, then students needed to arrange them in the correct order. from the data, it showed the benefits of developing logical thinking ability and creating their interests and help them understand the lesson longer. table 4.4 jigsaw in the pre -speaking phase no. letters sentences (felix baumgarther) 1 b he was born on 20th april 1969 2 d he grew up in salzburg, austria. 3 h he began skydiving when he was 16. 4 a in 1999, he set the world record for the highest jump from a buildingpetronas towers in malaysia, then the world’s highest building. in 2003, he flew 23 miles across the english channel. for this he wore special wings on his arms. 5 e it took him seven years to prepare for the space dive. 6 g he didn’t like wearing his space suit and needed the help of s psychologist. 7 c he didn’t sleep the night before his space dive. 8 f he married his girlfriend, nicole oetl, the year after the space dive. (taken from unit 3: 3.1the man who fell to earth) 4.2 while-speaking phase this phase creates opportunities to speak with controlled practice. students can communicate with their peers about the topics suggested at the beginning. students are supported with vocabulary and are provided with a collaborative environment and the opportunity to work with others, with varying degrees of formality. here is also the stage to give students a bridge to real situations where they can present their views, role-play, tell stories, discuss, etc. photo description 1) vietnam: sometimes not cooked but fried, filled with raw vegetables, herbs and noodles, severed with sour and sweet sauce. 2) austria: chocolate cake, apricot jam, a nice bitter taste, served with thick cream. 3) britain: baked in the oven, cut them in half and cover them with strawberry and put cream on top. 4) morocco: a kind of stew, made with pieces of lamb with onions and spices, honey included, nicer with chilli sauce. 23 figure 4.2. the distribution of students’ concern in the while-speaking as can be seen, participants concentrate on word usage in three strategies offered in the while-speaking phase. besides, students also show the concern about “confidence” feature when they perform their speaking in classroom context. a) interview in this activity, students were asked to interview to achieve the information. the stories are about two people, ryu and marta, telling a story about a recent experience. students then interviewed their friends to guess about their stories. the number of participants were three to talk about these people by using suggested words .table 5. interview in the while-speaking phase (taken from unit 3: 3.4 telling and responding a story) b) role-play in this activity, students have the opportunity to make a dialogue with role-playing activities. from the data, it showed the benefits of creating the opportunity to develop their creativity, contributing to social standards for children while they are still at school, building trust, ability to speak fluently in front of crowds. no. questions nam long mai 1 2 24 table 4.6. role play in the while -speaking phase turns sentences notes r a: hi there, we’ve got a room booked in the name of rodriguez. please could we check in? c b: sorry, what was the name again? r a: rodriguez … carmen rodriguez c rodriguez … carmen rodriguez r just a second, let me check. yeah, yeah i’ve got the booking here, but i’m afraid you are a bit early. c b: oh r a: the room’s not quite ready yet. check-in’s at two o’clock c b: oh, i see, so … r a: so er, could you come back around two and your room’ll be ready then. (taken from unit 7: 7.4 checking into a hotel) c) story -telling (focusing on fluency) in this activity, students will have the opportunity to present about how give reasons to sound polite and suggest another time instead. those ideas were the ones in the previous sections or created on their own. from the data, it showed that students were skillful in developing a speech with an introduction, presentation of ideas, and an end. table 4.7. story telling in the while -speaking phase (taken from unit 4: 4.4 inviting and making arrangements) 4.3 post-speaking phase if in the while-speaking phase, students are trained to have accuracy, then at this stage, students must focus on fluency. students have opportunities to talk in their own to elaborate their ideas and share them to their friends. they are also encouraged to no. topics not es 1 you have a new flatmate. invite him/her to the cinema this weekend. 2 you are on holiday in the usa and are staying with some friends for a week. invite them out for dinner to say thank you for letting you stay. 3 a colleague from abroad is coming to your town on a business. you have not met him/her before. invite him/her on a tour of the town. 4 it’s your birthday next week. ask your classmate to come to your house for a party. 25 reflect on what they have done in the process of a speaking lesson figure 4.3. the distribution of students’ score in the postspeaking for the students’ score, the students score “5-<7” prefer “picture narrating” in the post-speaking phase which is the same as those who are below 5. for students in “7-<8” range, the score focuses on speeches while “story-telling” is on “8-10” range a) story telling in this activity, students became storytellers about a prepared story in advance. this activity was divided into 4 teams, each team presented a story. from the data, it showed that students increased confidence in communication and strengthened their english intellectual ability while presenting on an issue, helping them to deepen their thinking about an issue. table 8. story telling in the post -speaking phase (taken from unit 3: 3.1 past simple) b) picture narrating in this activity, students were asked to talk about a type of job they would do in the future based on the practice in the while-speaking stage. from the data, it showed that students had a more general view of presenting a problem so that they can connect ideas with other sentences and paragraphs in the same context and created conditions for students to have time to practice speaking english. no. question answers 1. we are going to talk about james cameron … 26 table 4.9 picture narrating in the post -speaking phase (people) (time) (scenery) (walking) (on a train) (objects) (convenience) (days off) (acquaintances) (taken from unit 8: 8.4 asking for clarification) c) speeches in this activity, students worked in pairs, asked and answered in advance about the problems and solutions why animals were in danger. students then presented to the class about these issues. from the data, it showed that students created conditions for students to practice reading for main ideas and skimming to find ideas for making reports and improved public speaking skills. table 4.10. speeches in the post -speaking phase descriptions notes i am going to talk about my future job… … … (taken from unit 12: 12.1 working environment) 5. discussion after having data collection and analysis, the study employed 10 teaching strategies, including chatting, describing a picture, matching, jigsaw in the pre-speaking; interview, role-play, storytelling in the while speaking; and storytelling, picture narrating, speeches in the post speaking. in fact, these strategies have greatly contributed to motivate students to enhance their speaking performance. moreover, the result showed that students had difficulties in their communicative competences and it is important to find more solutions as stated in the studies of blau, hall, & sparks (2002), dörnyei, 1997a, 1997b; pabromaquidato, 2021). besides, students in speaking lessons fail to produce their sentences accurately and fluently. in this case, the usage of speaking strategies has become a predominant tool to enhance students’ communicative competence. the current study serves as a primary supplement to make students more interactive in the classroom as the previous published papers have addressed (andrade, 2006; angelini & 27 garcća-carbonell, 2019; sayuti et al., 2020; shin, 2008; styfanyshyn & kalymon, 2020; yusuf & mabagits, 2020). it is true from ma (2012), van (2021), and chau (2021) that students’ achievements are obtained from the environment in combination of teacher’s support and one of the most important features is the speaking strategies in each speaking lesson. specifically, in the pre-speaking phase, the results show the effectiveness of utilizing these strategies in efl classroom which was similar to the previous findings of cho (2007), pratiwi & ayu (2020), barnard et al. (2003) and mengduo & xiaoling (2010). especially, images and design were the two most interesting features that students concerned about. hence, it is recommended that these two characteristics should be aware so that teachers could increase the quality of a speaking lesson. besides, in the while-speaking phase, the result of current study agreed with the previous studies, including shah et al. (2022), alabsi (2016), kalantari & hashemian (2016), that the effectiveness of applying four speaking strategies. what is more, one point should be noted that the expression of ideas and word utility were the other two factors that affect the overall students’ performance. in other words, students agreed on the great contribution of all 10 teaching strategies in the whole process of a speaking lesson, but they still worried about the moments when they occasionally feel nervous with expressing ideas in their mind. this worrying put the researcher a motivation to have further study about how to improve the students’ performance. in addition, of 90 students investigated, the result showed the score range from 5 8 accounted for two-thirds of the overall score. this finding, in the post-speaking phase, is one of the new findings compared to kalantari & hashemian (2016), najarzadegan, dabaghi & eslami-rasekh (2017), and hidayat & krismanti (2022) and it conveys two main meanings. firstly, it is accepted and recommended to utilise these teaching strategies in the learning environment since the highly positive feedback and results were expressed in the figures. secondly, teachers can vary their teaching activities, from time to time, since one could be implemented in a particular class meeting. in addition, the results from the interview also showed some major findings from students’ perspectives about improve communicative competences. to begin with, the current study also found the same results from chanh (2021a; 2021b), chau (2021); van et al. (2021) that many students have difficulties in specialized terms and referred to follows their own topics. they feel confident in their comfort zones which they can control their vocabulary and grammar effectively. although they are able to produce more ideas with appropriate grammar, they still do not want to do that. this causes a lot of unseen resistance for language learners when they want to move further in language proficiency. moreover, most students in the survey agreed that they worry about failure. in all phases of a speaking lesson, they worry about their mistakes when they produce words and sentences which causes the feeling of being shy to the teacher and other students. what is more, students usually think of the easiest way to handle over. they use simple words and simple structures in their talk and it was more convenient for them to come up with the speaking tasks. the problem is that the more they follow this mindset, the more they do not have any more progress in higher level of language proficiency. from these findings, the current study agrees with the previous studies from singh & han (2010), romero et al. (2012); dawson et al. (2014), kim & shin (2014), and sayuti et al. (2020) that it is important to create interesting lessons so that students can perform their creativity and train their english language proficency. in addition, from the questionnaire, students were also asked about their perspectives to improve learning results, some students mentioned the way the teachers delivered the lesson, which means how the teachers explained the activities to them. students thought that the points were really important because students could work individually and in groups effectively. “it would be better if teachers should explain the rules of the exercise and ask us to prepare at home.” or “students should learn how to organise ideas logically beforehand”. or “i have no ideas about that since that was fine with me”. from those activities, students felt so nervous when they are required to stand in front of the class and present their opinions. this problem occurred here because of different reasons. firstly, they were ashamed of other students in the class and most of whom were average and low-performance in speaking a foreign language. secondly, speaking activities were usually done in pairs or groups, so the class was easily noisy and not concentrated. thirdly, teachers did not cover all students, so some students took advantage of the opportunity to speak vietnamese or work on their own. finally, teachers could not detect and correct all errors of students with the large-class size and limited time. in order to conduct the speaking strategies more effective, the process of developing speaking skills requires careful preparation. this includes the suitable types of activities that take place before, during, and after a speaking lesson. before performed in classes, it is necessary to determine what the required content should be communicated to the students, where to spend more time, how to best convey the ideas to the students, and the procedure of doing it so that students are able to understand fully and apply the target language. during the lesson, vietnamese language teachers need to recognize and know how to handle arising situations, adjust their voices, and express topics clearly with vocabulary appropriate to students’ abilities. gestures and facial expressions are also very important. what is more, speaking tasks can be 28 implemented individually or, in pairs or groups. in a pair-work activity, the teachers should keep clear explanations beforehand so that all the requirements are met then. in groupwork, the teachers need to set up the kick-off meeting and, at the same time, provide detailed guideline of the tasks to the groups. therefore, the rules are also important and strictly followed. after the speaking lesson, teachers need to allow students to express their ideas about the lesson, explain any arising problems or confusion for students. therefore, it requires teachers to have good pedagogical strategies, be proactive in creativity, and always improve practice strategies in many different forms, with many different types of exercises suitable for each lesson content to inspire excitement and encouragement all students to practice enthusiastically. regarding the current social-cultural context, students are in need to develop and fulfil physically and mentally. hence, speaking performance proceeds further steps in their career success (alharbi, 2015; faez & karas, 2019; khamkhien, 2010). learning english today needs innovation to create fundamental conditions for students to gradually get used to and love a new language which was the same as the studies of styfanyshyn & kalymon (2020); yusuf & mabagits (2020); angelini & garcća-carbonell (2019) and pabro-maquidato (2021). from the findings, students need to develop and fulfil themselves. in parallel with the efforts from the students, the integral responsibility of the teachers in classroom management becomes more and more important which was found similarly in ma (2012). moreover, the current study has also served as clear fundamental knowledge compared with findings from salehi et al. (2015), prabawa (2016), (chien et al., 2020a, 2020b), and sayyora (2021) in which the types of speaking strategies and their effectiveness into efl classroom environments. the above task-based activities have made a positive contribution, creating a transformation for future generations, so they should be continuously encouraged to apply in an authentic environment. all these activities have their advantages and disadvantages, so depending on the conditions of each class, there should be appropriate task-based activities of teaching speaking skills. when applying the above task-based activities in the textbook to enhance students’ knowledge, students are able to improve their classroom interactions and intellectual development by taking part in and discussing the lesson to achieve the learning outcomes. these findings are significant because of satisfying the current needs: students are required to achieve content knowledge and linguistic features as well. (rose et al., 2019). even in the teaching process, language teachers are able to enhance their teaching strategies to meet students’ needs and level (van, 2021; chau, 2021). therefore, they would have more spirit of learning motivation by performing manipulations with activities that flexibly apply techniques to contribute to inspiration and passion for language learning. to sum up, the current study has already addressed the current issues in a speaking lesson which ten teaching strategies are useful ones to apply into classroom environment. these strategies can be changed in accordance with the context so that students can learn with their motivation. although the study has been implemented with 90 students which quite ensures the minimum requirements for the overall results, the time constraint is also another problem. however, it is hoped to contribute a better way to improve english teaching and learning in vietnamese and global contexts. 6. conclusions by providing the speaking strategies and their effectiveness of applying them into efl contexts, the current study has served as a primary supplement to help students to be fluent in communication skills in which they feel more motivation both in the controlled and uncontrolled settings. from the survey, the most important feature is that language teachers need to enhance students’ interests by delivering some mentioned task-based activities so that they are not so much under pressure when attending a language class. besides, this study also augments students’ autonomy to be more responsible of their own learning. this leads to enhance independent learning skills to promote life-long learning in target no.4. quality education of united nations sustainable development goals. students will have necessary skills to work in real-life situations in a vietnamese and multicultural environment. moreover, they can understand the critical thoughts from cross-cultural perspectives which are mainly transferred via communication platforms. 7. acknowledgement the writer would like to express sincere thanks to reviewers who always gives me suggestions to improve my manuscript. references alabsi, t. a. 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(2020). effective technics to improve english language speaking skills. опыт и перспективы обучения иностранным языкам в евразийском образовательном пространстве, 5, 62-69. yusuf, k., & mabagits, s. (2020). does activeness in organization improve english speaking skill?: university students’ perspective. leksika: jurnal bahasa, sastra dan pengajarannya, 14(2), 73-77. http://dx.doi.org/10.30595/lks.v14i2.7383 http://dx.doi.org/10.30595/lks.v14i2.7383 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 73-82 73 integrating social constructivism and personal construct psychology approaches: a discourse perspective fella yorlanda u-raise academy, pekanbaru, indonesia fyorlanda@gmail.com article history received : 2019-06-29 revised : 2019-08-25 accepted : 2019-08-31 keywords depth psychology discourse psychology social constructivism personal construct psychology abstract this paper outlines the key features of discourse and psychological construct psychology (pcp) in the past decades. this library research constructs its 59 related studies have been downloaded from the google scholar databases. the analysis in this study sees the crossroads between social constructivism and personal construct psychology (pcp) are increasingly being employs during the past decades. this convention is not only appropriate but seems to need each other. when construction sees cognition not as a person by any means leading to "behind" behaviour, but the configuration of the mind and sense that occur in action, the social context of the act that arises as an interest. at the same time, how cultural ideas or practices or "discourses" manifested in individuals and their actions, is very important. therefore this study jump into conclusions that the discourse of psychology offers an opportunity to develop a coherent mix of social constituent ideas around the discourse, with pcp. 1. introduction from years to years there are lip services that are paid to the psychologist's need to take into account the 'so-official context' of behaviour. in practice, there has been a lack of theoretical and methodological suggestions for achieving this commendable goal. in this paper, it is suggested that we may imagine ourselves both as social and individual, as physicists who regard light as simultaneous waves and particles. what we see depends on how and why we see it. a big-picture needs a high vision, and strong theory can provide this. one of the consequences of this view is that we are allowed to see that people composed of different and sometimes contradictory elements are determined by various cultural demands, their experiences made through particular social life. in short, we mould ourselves living from social resources discourse around us. vivien burr (1995, 2003) has been at the forefront in providing the discourse of terrorizing, socialconstructed accounts to understand psychological phenomena. as he notes, the danger in shifting in understanding is that of scope for interpersonal interference may appear minimized, and it may seem that people are becoming a tool of language and social practice, lacking institutions. this is the reason why psychological theorists should be fully aware of some of the things to say about the reciprocity process in which social forces make the individual experience and become a habit, but are modified and altered by individual actions. this brings us to the psychology of building a personal george kelly (1955). it is said that kelly's personality account is suitable to add to the discourse approach. i call this theoretical account as an integrated 'discourse of psychology '. this dictates discursive practice and the individual 'interpret' (sense of manufacture) as different aspects of the same phenomenon. here is the development of this idea. both elements are founded on the use of language. 2. methodology this library research constructs its 70 related studies have been downloaded from the google scholar databases. the google scholar database was chosen to search for related studies for this review as it is a free and wide database and provides a variety of information covering multiple authoritative sources. it is easily accessible and indexed literature through various disciplines. search is limited to a twenty-year period from 1998 to 2018, in choosing related studies for review. keywords such as discourse and personal construct approaches are used to explore. of the 70 studies, 11 studies were eliminated in the absence of a novelty. 3. findings and discussion some of the important findings that this study needs to share as it reveals in this study. 3.1 language and discourse a major shift in foodstuff psychological investigations has occurred for twenty years. this shift challenges assumptions that are held both inside and outside of psychology, about the nature of people, and the right focus to learn them. above all, this shift is characterized by a focus on language and meaning. therefore, a study that linked with language and meaning were needed to help us understand this http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 73-82 74 discourse. integrating discourse and personal construct approaches can be seen from social constructivism and personal construct psychology (pcp). however, this study decided to see this as only a discourse or discursive practice. discourse can be referred to as the pattern of speech and how the language, dialect, and statements received are used in a particular society. discourse as the subject the study views the discourse between people who share the same speech convention. in addition, the discourse refers to the linguistic use of language as a way of understanding interactions in social contexts, in particular, the analysis occurring connected speech or written discourse "dakowska (2001) in hamuddin (2012). further, “as part of this shift, language is seen as not only representing the world, or functioning as a mirror that reflects the meaning people have in their minds” (davies and harre, 199 0). conversely, the social condition of circumstances in which it is possible to have a general meaning that could be conveyed in the language gives rise to the most likely form of speech or writing. the forms of language, in turn, rising the meaning and understanding available to people to use, so "what we can know is what can be said," (walker, 1988, p.74). further, in this view, “psychological phenomena are not things 'in' somebody that psychologists can find or express, but are created by the actual language used to describe them, and the meanings that become attached to that use” (shotter, 1993). “this phenomenon has the reality of society, and it is a mistake to believe that they have their origins in the heads of individuals” (burman and parker, 1993). the centre for this argument is the notion that our speech and writing are built from existing cultural resources that only make sense in an interpersonal context. these resources are sometimes referred to as 'discourse'. one does not create those resources; they borrow and refashioned for their own purposes in every instantiation of language use (marmandatory and raabe, 1993). foucault (1972, 1977, 1980, 1981) studied the ways in which, and under what conditions, various forms of knowledge emerged historically from the practice of so-official and cultural settings. he argues that meaning and knowledge are not universal, circumstances, and 'real', but always local, constructed and contested. for foucault, knowledge is the product of the real social formations located within, and in-evitable linked to, the network of power relations. foucault proposes that discourse includes both symbolic application of meaning in the text of the text in action and the conventions and relationships that make up the human life forms in which this interaction takes place (what we might also call 'culture'). he argues that discourse can be treated as "systematic practice of shaping the objects they speak" (1972, p.49). this definition has some important consequences. it's a layer that objects like 'self' do not exist independently of the way in which they talk about in the language. indeed they only come to exist as objects when they are given existence through discourses. furthermore, the emphasis on discourse as a practice implies that the discourse itself does not have some high reality. it is not an object, but a process related to human action. the discursive practice is the use of sign systems directed at or multiple human interactions. any use of the language itself is a form of action realized. this account connects behaviour, language and meaning in an interesting way. for discourse abounds in our social world. one of the experiences of things like gender, race, class and identity through the average is available in discourse (davies and harre, 1990). so the subjective experience itself is generated through the construction of possible realities, media created by the available discourses. the discourse of deciding things about the way the world is, and the things that are then brought to be given as terms and concepts of discourse used in the language. for example, the idea of human essence is more or less fixed, human nature, determined in many efficient and modern discourses. but discourse not only describes the phenomenon. they bring them into the vision (parker, 1992a). in this way discourse the constitutive experience. the discourse "permits and provokes the phenomenon we call cognition, and which we learn, in contemporary western culture, to channel into a single mind," (parker, 1992a, p.92). they have historically evolved and made important parts of the cultural sense, as well as the arrangement of the operation of miscellaneous institutions including law, academia, politics, and popular culture. as davies and harre put it: "to know nothing is to know in terms of one or more discourses" (1990, p.45). in psychology, an established approach to discourses "demands a shift in the topic of a measured behaviour with the dynamics of meaning," (parker, 1992a, p.69). it is compatible with psychology as a discipline dedicated to understanding human meaning and action, through which it is concerned with "the diversity of discourse we live and shaped by, use and use by" (mair, 1989b, page 2). 3.2 social construction the approach of discourse to embrace, and contribute, the broader canvas of social constructivism. it is a dedicated movement with many origins and one that has had an influence on psychology (ger gene, 1985; burr, 1995). a social constructionist states that all the so-called social reality constructs, 'imaginary', contested, and lies in certain historical conditions. the assumption of a stable and good reality is formed outside of http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 73-82 75 appearance (which can be felt through the abstract set of principles or by expressing the 'true' inner soul) must instead be replaced by that of "vaguely, only partially determined, stable, open to further specifications as a result of human, communicative activity "(shotter, 1993, p.179). the focus is lacking on understanding how a person comes to operate in and knows, the real outer world around them. instead, the emphasis is placed on how people relate to others and to their world, and then how that creates the reality. for burr, constructive social critics also extend to reveal that psychological theorizing does not describe reality, but partial in becoming just one way to see the world among many, and reflects personal interests (burr, 1995 & 2003). 3.3 subjectivity sampson (1989) argues that we do not start with two independent entities, individuals and societies, which are formed and set apart from each other and interact as if they were the other external ones. instead, "society is and inhabits the essence of whatever passes for personality" (sampson, 1988, p.4). in this case, each self presupposes a 'world' (mair, 1989a). discourse approach allows for the deconstruction of the modernist divide between individual and society. beyond psychology, for example in society and political science, attempts have been made to marry socially with individuals, usually with the aid of psychoanalysis. the concept of 'subjectivity' is central to this. this is a special notion that is not understood only as of the opposite of objectivity. rather, it is identical to the subjective ‘experience’ but with a certain slope: the experience formed in the language by discourse. this will be used to indicate that 'objects' such as selfhood and individuality are built into a network of meanings. what a person is taken to be, and the quality and capacity owed to people, depends on the language used to describe them, and what might be said within the boundaries of the discourse. so "the subject, sense of self, is a location built within the expressive sphere that finds sound through cluster attributes and responsibilities assigned to it as various objects" (parker, 1992a, p.9). an 'individual' is an entity formed through or marked with, a variety of discursive practices in which he is given space to participate. the result can be considered as the way things seem to be somebody in relation to the discursive context. such concepts go a long way to bridge the psychological split of individual societies, through the understanding of society as organized, 'giving birth' and given the realization by discourse, and at the same time through seeing their individual and psychological world as located 'claims' of identity are allowed to, and built-in, many shared life discourses. 3.4 fragmentation in the twentieth century, psychoanalysis has been in pairs of great criticisms of ideas developed as coherent, unified, and unfounded. it has been suggested that people are shared internally between different aspects of personality: between conscious and unconscious, and between competing impulses. with the discourse approach, rational idea, independent unity is also questioned, through the study of subjectivity fragments operating through different discourses. internal conflict is not regarded as a sign of dissonance or am-bivalence in the emotional and cognitive apparatus of the individual, but the normal (and therefore psychological) discursive process. the complete framework in articulating issues. the point of fragmentation means that subjectivity is multiple, it refers to some discourse. this is sometimes referred to as 'divided subject' (henriques, et al, 1984). our identity is both continuous and discontinuous, in that we have a "great survival" (davies and harre, 1990, p.47). 3.5 positioning another valuable tool that arises from an approach based on discourse and subjectivity is that of 'position'. as the top subjectivity discussion is suggested, while discourse is 'about' objects, it also 'contains' the subject (parker, 1992a). that is, discourse makes available space or 'positions' where a particular type of self may be a step. the idea of 'positioning' gives recognition to the ways in which people are living with discursive practices. subjectivity is generated through the use of discourse from a particular position. this is a far more useful concept than the more static idea of 'role' (davies and harre, 1990). this is the position with the discourse that produces the so-called experience. the position of 'psychotherapist' and 'client' governs the relationship in which sound utterances of particular ways. similarly, the position of 'research psychologist' and 'experimental subject' writes two persons in discourse and conferring on them a different and relatively specific function and power. the positioning concept "recognizes both the cultural power of discourse available to frame our experience and limit our behaviour while allowing space for people to actively engage with people of discourse and employ them in social situations" (burr, 2003, p.113). positioning, in turn, highlights the idea of fragmentation and what has come to be called a 'divided subject'. fragmentation can be understood as a result of conflicts between different discursive positions that can be drawn at different times. alternatively, the subject may be in a position (or use language) meaning simultaneously in a number of some potentially contradictory ways, depending on the various factors including other involved social actors and the particular context. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 73-82 76 3.5 ideology a 'productive' discourse. that is, they create the possibility of action and become. but they too exclude possibilities. they limit the way to represent and understand the social world, thereby blocking the view of things in an alternative way. they enable and limit, facilitate and limit what can be said, by whom, where and when (parker, 1992a; howarth, 2001). this limiting and enabling function of discursive practice means that discourse can be adapted for the effects of power relations. the contemporary social theory uses the term 'ideology' to refer to that relationship. according to althusser (196 8), "ideology discourse 'interpolates' or the subjects 'call' to position so as to achieve a certain effect of power " . in other words, an ideology builds a series of social positions that provide ways of giving meaning and representing reality. it thus offers a believable way of making sense of the experience. ideology then becomes a label that identifies councils of meaning from meaning in a certain social context (thom, 1984). proces legitimisation, rationalisation, naturalization and justification are central to ideological means of work (historical silence and marginalization of women's experiences are examples). ideology is thus tied to social institutions, as "institutions are not only social life structures, they also limit what can be said, who can say that”. ideology is not just about ideas or beliefs. it concernss the material life, practical and moral behaviour, and the existence of the body. as a series of relationships, ideology encourages social production and reproduction through the combined effects of the pre-existing circulation of discourses ('stories' of the world) with the exercise of power. ideology allows certain groups to tell their narratives about the past to justification now (said, 1993) while preventing other institutions from making history. the depiction of ideology may give the impression that human beings have limited agency, that we all just 'experience' to a position in a rigid system in which we (e.g.) recognize ourselves, just waiting there is no room for freedom. there is indeed controversy here, and the tension between the construct approach and social constructionism on the subject (warren, 2005). however, some of the most insightful ideological discussions can be found in the work of leading cleric bob connell (connell, 1987, 1993, 1995, 2002). writing in a gender context, connell has outlined hegemonic views ideology, in which the individual is subject to "emergent sets of pressures and possibilities in which the actual diversity of personality is composed" (connell, 1987, p.224). the practice of social ideology and individual experience (different views across a set of processes) are potentially transformative. as connell notes in discussing masculinity, one cannot become masculine in a certain way without "influencing the condition in which that form of masculinity arises; whether to reproduce them, intensify them, or subvert them "(1993, p.302). from this attitude, it is well-held that the subjects are 'used' discourse, and the discourse plays itself through the actions and inner world of individuals who identify themselves through the meaning of paragraphs, ideas and ideals. in other words, one is positioned in the discourse both by self, but also through the operation of power. parker reveals this when he revises a marx dictum: "'make' people of discourse, but not in their own discursive conditions" (1992a, p.32). ideological considerations allow us to examine psychological phenomena not in terms of truthseeking, but as a set of 'truths' held in place by language and power. adding the ideology to the discourse of oeuvre psychology permits, more than anything else, understands that power relations get into the construction of what it means to be human in the first place, and into the possibilities of an imaginable world. 3.6 personality theory finally, as noted in the introduction, the discourse approach requires a 'compatible people' model with it (parker, 1990). without such a model, there is a danger that discourse accounts will tell us nothing about the uniqueness of human experience, or about the scope and degrees of their freedom. to "say that people negotiator positions, or that their subjectivity is formed by discourse say nothing about how these processes are supposed to operate" (burr, 2003, p.180). we need to explain and understand this very real phenomenon. the model of the theorist generally employed to describe the discourse approach has been influenced by psychoanalysis. there are several reasons for this. first, the subject's psychoanalysis is divided and fragmented and immediately draws into discursive accounts of subjectivity (henriques et al., 1984). second, poststructuralist and social constructionist traditions from which the study of psychological discourse have partially emerged, maintaining a loyal appeal with psychoanalysis, particularly of the lacanian variety. in many cases, psycho-analogy deprivation seems to have been done with little examination of the weakness of this step, or other possibilities (burr, 2003). an alternative does exist in the form of personal build psychology. 3.7 constructivist there are some recent explorations of how personal building psychology can be used to enhance an understanding of the social construction of knowledge and reality (butt and burr, 1994; warren, 2004). in particular, harre and gillett (1994) have http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 73-82 77 sketched out kelly's reading of connecting personal construct thinking with discourse approaches in psychology; what follows interesting and expanding their accounts. in keeping with the psychological discourse approach, kelly believes that social psychology needs to be interpersonal psychology under the standings (kenny, 1984). the construction of the emerging world is not through processing in the abstract and detached of the independent individual; they are the result of our interaction with the world, and we meet with around social structures and relationships. in this sense, such as the dialectic between subjectivity and discourse, there is a relapses relationship between people and events "not rigid or destructive force a person's perspective event, not flooding too passively of the person with the event" (epting and amerikaner 1980 .58). from here, there are some striking direct connections between psychology informed by discourse theory and personal construct theory. in the second, that means the decision is central. the construction metaphor is also common for both personal constructs and discourse approaches. it is a lesson that kelly is even considered to use the term 'reconstruction' rather than therapy to describe what she is trying to do clinically (fransella, 1985). furthermore, kelly 'seemed to be close to under psychology standing covenant with the perspective of emphasizing discourses the built-in nature and contingent meaning, whereby people see themselves as if they were ‘really' the way the discourse describes them. 3.8 link construction and discourse construction, such as discourse, create and limit new experiences. they determine what will be perceived as reality. they bring the phenomenon into being. indeed construction can be seen as an effect or artefact of discourse. people make a 'private' discrimination state between the features of an event, but the category-cuts they use and criteria to distinguish both are thoroughly discursive and thoroughly idiosyncratic. so it is a means to validate constructs. someone "depends on and robs them of the available things in the discourse," (harre and gillet, 1994, p.140). kelly himself admits that the influence of cultivation exists in one's construction system and 'limits the type of evidence in his [sic] exile,' (kelly, 1955, p.693). the resources for constructing a system of constructs are therefore always pre-existent, and carrying the meanings and outward effects of what these individuals mean by 'deprivation' of them. similarly, psychological phenomena, being discursive, are connected to meanings and effects that go beyond the immediate occurrence of such phenomena. to construe yourself as 'depressed' does not provide insight into the 'right' state of a person's soul; it demonstrates the consciousness of the (relatively obscure) resources written in the contemporary discourse of mental illness, which is used to interpret, impose and thus bring existence to a person's form of existence manifested. this view defies two conventional psychological assumptions: that there is a 'real' phenomenon (such as depression) to be recognized in people, and that there is a sure way to represent this phenomenon (e.g., through an 'accurate' model of depression). this assumption is replaced by the idea that all phenomena exist only insofar as they are brought into existence through discursive practices (i.e., through construing). this 'bringing forth' in the context of interactions thus constitutes both phenomena and their representations. depression becomes the result of a network of people's meaning structures about themselves and the world (rowe, 2004). kelly suggests that to interpret is to hear whispers of themes that resonate around us over and over. in other words, 'people personify themselves with socially embedded meanings' (hoshmond, 1993, p.181). the psychological similarity to others is seen in terms of the general way of interpreting the world, which results from the common pool of discursive resources available. reality is created by and through the practice of conversation (and therefore discursive) that people engage you in and do (mair, 1989a; shotter, 1993). from here it is possible to distinguish that "selflocation in discourse is the key to understanding construction and through their personality. people adopt or commit to a particular position in the discourse that they ... inhabit” (harre and gillet, 1994, p.140). it directs attention to meaning or images in which people interpret their own identity. in such an approach, the study of the mind can be seen as a way of understanding the phenomenon that arises when the discourse is represented in an individual positioned (and position of self) in relation to their discourse. the uniqueness of man is recorded, that every individual has a special or 'private' order of construction, with the discourse still inhabiting the heart of a self-defining construction conceived of one's 'essence'. the discourse of people views does not then need to find a different set of inner processes to explain the uniqueness of every human being, as each human being is unique in a way directly relevant to the psychological explanation. "every human individual stands at a unique intersection point of discourse and human relations" (harre and gillet, 1994, p.132-3). in short, people are 'coherent' entities for the former tents that they adopt various positions in different disc-entities and thus fashion for themselves a unique system of personal construction (butt and http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 73-82 78 burr, 1994). the human understanding of self and the world thus involves the fluent in the discourse. this echo (1980) wittgenstein's conception of knowledge is not as the accuracy of representation, but the problem of knowing one's way about. self-knowledge becomes not so much deep-seated product probing of the soul, as a result of skill with discourse, know-how, understanding of what determines oneself (gergen, 1989). determine oneself (gergen, 1989). it is also a con-firm why discourse is the right matter subject for psychology: "a lower conception of man and psychology ... fails to display the richness of the human mind and personality, which draws on the meaning and value specified in the discursive context "(harre and gillet, 1994. p.143). 3.9 back to ideology we can only ever learn what our construction system allows us to see in the events (kenny, 1984). it provides a clear relationship with ideological operations. this helps in understanding how ideologies inhabit the essence of subjectivity by the things described in one way rather than in other ways. this is the under-emphasised part of harre and gillett's account. kelly thinks that where one places yourself along the dimension of the construct is not as important as the fact that the construct has grown in the first place. constructs come from discourses that can achieve certain ideological effects and are often sustained by ideological support. experience is related to ideology because the discourse directly interprets along a certain line. in this case, people who are not so much 'dominated' by ideological forces, but discourse enters into the psychology of personal construction in other ways related to ideology. kelly suggests that cultural orders and preferences are often construction validators. so not only does discourse provide resources for construing, but they are also a meaning in relation that anticipation is tested. for former tents whose ideology promotes social arrangements as 'normal' or 'natural', validate certain kinds of experiences and not others. hence the contribution to the maintenance of a constructive system that at least partially serves ideological purposes. 3.10 positioning the notion of 'positioning' has found some elaboration in the context of personal construct theory. salmon argues that the placement of people in relation to their world is the fundamental means by which they are defined: "if we see people as their incarnation experience, and as taking an attitude toward their lives, we can, i think, achieve a better understanding of what they do, because that is our position on our lives that governs the kind of post responsibility engagement for us "(1985, p. 181). another way of saying this is that reality is built by 'translating' discourses into personal terms. in this way, good people are positioned and position themselves in discursive space (burr, 2003). it is possible to read in kelly the implicit view of his position when he says that "the use of constructs is a matter of choosing the door booth through which it passes" (1955, p.66). so we still need personal psychology, as the character and form of 'translation' allegedly unpredictable or predictable (again drawing on arguments for personal agents in the form of ideological hegemonic). 3.11 threat in building a personal theory of something defined as 'threatened' if it "makes us aware at some level of change is imminent in the way in which we see ourselves" (fransella, 1983, p.92). this happens "every time we look at some level of consciousness, a change is imminent in some central personal commitment, in some cherished view of ourselves" (fransella, 1983, p.92). in other words, the changes threatened when bringing awareness of the need to recons true our identity in some radical way. this awareness may be explicit but also at the very edge of the bottom up. it applies a strong account of strengthening identity and concepts such as gender, and adherence to construction certain personally discursive position. the clear implication of some form of change can be threatening to our core construction and threatened in the very ways and means by which we understand the world (viney, 1993). our familiar identity and world-known tend to be protected so that it remains 'story' about ourselves we are now safe. in turn, we feel better able to manage life often shifting and unstable. kelly theory is free of postulations about the drive, impulse and energy in (kenny, 1984). people are not moved by the force in relation to which they are fitted if. they are driven by their own way of interpreting events and objects. people constantly in this process of movement. the 'motivation' want to anticipate events as part of the making sense just to explain that the subject will adopt and maintain at least some subjects’ positions. kelly notion of ‘threat’ because it can help explain the persistent adherence to a certain position, and regularized the use of a particular discourse. in the self through social practice, one enter into a relationship with discourse "can act as powerful as a motive, defence, identification, commitment and fear" (connell, 1987, p.223). it is this feature that 'fix' we as subjects in the context of the threat associated with radical alternative consciousness and the possibility of change. there is security in limiting ourselves and accommodating to the world of pre-existing ideological and created us. so the power inserts itself into subjectivity, through the influence of sustainable destinations and the world anticipates a person's place in it. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 73-82 79 3.12 fragmentation and subjectivity account follow from this fragmentation. indeed, one of the statements that kelly offered as part of the formalization of the theory, the 'fragmentation fair', marking a clear relationship to the 'divided the subject'. it states: a person may successively using the various subsystems of the inferential construction compatible with each other (kelly, 1955). or, in terms of discourse, one may, at different times, or even at the same time, be located in opposing positions in the social space, so that "each of themselves that may be internally contradictory or conflicting with other possible themselves located in a different storyline "(davies and harre, 1990, p.58-9). in terms of the theory of subjectivity, it is clear that the idea of kelly the person does not refer to the entities understood in isolation, but to the individual hypotheses about how being in connection with others. construction postulation this underlines the central role, in stressing that we know ourselves with a sense of social space we occupy in relation to other institutions. this is entirely consistent with the view that "our subjective experience of ourselves, become child-per-we take ourselves to be, by their various subject positions ... that we take the discourse" (burr, 2003, p. 120), 3.13 linking discourse to construct this study seen some of the researchers have proposed that the discursive practices can be seen as a resource for the ongoing elaboration of the construction system. at the same time, people were positioned or shaped in a particular way by people practices. build a personal approach involving understanding from their perspective, concerned with meaning and their construction. it is important, also, to the discourse of psychology (shotter, 1990), and install a personal construct theory in psychology discourse account balances tendencies towards abstraction in analysing the operation of discourse. personal construct theory thus adding components to understanding successful human capable psychologist discourse. it helps to understand that the changes (which are always both personal and soofficial) appear as a recursive process that involves the reconstruction of the system of meaning in the discourse of change available through evolving material and cultural conditions. this is the kind of account 'structuration' social relationships (gidnest, 1984; cash 1996) in which the good that reproduces and transform social structures whenever the instantiates some aspects of the structures. one of them is the second created by the social order, and create it. in this connection, it is possible to understand experience as mediated by the meaning provided through discourse, and the product of one's way to build a particular meeting. after all, what one is the result of the fact that they have a set of cumulative experience than others (scholes, 1987)? in this case, we are creatures always 'in motion'. the combination of discourse and construction also helps to imagine that the two are one, and what as 'psychological', is an achievement and accomplishment carry through simulant continuous process of public and private construction. it makes clear that "the power relations of society become constitutive principle dynamics personality through adopted as a personal project, acknowledged or not" (connell, 1987, p.215). 3.14 limitations and tension even so, things are a bit more complicated than has so far been described. a difficult problem concerns status 'verb constructions'. if the overall meaning of the discursive, what is the status of construct that is functional but not written in language? can 'discursive resources' including an extra-linguistic entity, or can be written in the body of discourse? in fact, foucault tries to make precisely that last point: "power relations material can penetrate the body deeply, without depending on mediation representation of the subject itself" (foucault, 1980, pp, 186). so maybe the theory of discourse can learn from personal construct approach here. if you think the verdict may include somatic and physiological dimensions, then, given the desire to holds that discourse is the stuff of sense-making, it might pay to have an understanding of discourse as encompass-ing these dimensions, as embodied creatures (butt, 1998). it would still be possible to see discourse as historical and contingent, and to maintain that fear of dimensions in the meaning-making procedure is in the final instance linguistic companies. all of these provide a strong reminder that interprets not only a 'cognitive' while maintaining the notion that psychological reality of giving birth in the language as an experience is created through our discursive conversation practice. kelly also illuminates here. he said preverbal build "is one that continues to be used despite not having a consistent word symbols" (1955, p.564). so the verb construction may exist in the shift, playful relationship with language, and gave birth to the couple and a variety of ways. one disadvantage alleged personal construct theory is that it fails to specify the conditions under which one constructs 'adopted' or made than others (hall and lindzey, 1978). similarly, who could ask under what conditions a discourse chosen and not others. but maybe we have to stand in the room would have. this could be considered as space where freedom exists. this introduces uncertainty into a radical evolution of subjectivity (and therefore an http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 73-82 80 openness to the possibility of social change), and also acknowledge that it is impossible to understand human life with a perfect cause and effect precision. curiously, this same type of argument was recently made in respect of neuroscience (horgan, 1999). 4. conclusion after reviewing these 59 articles this study sees the crossroads between social constructivism and personal construct psychology (pcp) are increasingly being employs during the past decades. this convention is not only appropriate but seems to need each other. discourse making positions and resources to interpret, the negotiating power of different effects at different positions in which interpreting takes place. at the same time, how cultural ideas or practices or "discourses" manifested in individuals and their actions, is very important. therefore this study jump into conclusions that the discourse of psychology offers an opportunity to develop a coherent mix of social constituent ideas around the discourse, with pcp. 5. acknowledgement this research was supported by the lppm universitas lancang kuning, pekanbaru. therefore, the authors would like to express their sincere gratitude. any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the respected institution. references althusser, l. 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(2004). construing constructionism: some reflections on the tension between pcp and social constructionism. personal construct theory & prac-tice, 1, 34-44. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 2, august 2019, pp. 73-82 82 wetherell, m. & potter, j. (1992). mapping the language of racism: discourse and the legitimation of exploitation. london: harvester wheatsheaf. wittgenstein, l. (1980). remarks on the philosophy of psychology (vol.1). oxford: basil blackwell. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i3.10779 vol. 4, no. 3, december 2022, pp. 276-289 276 bridging the gaps between knowledge and needs: sociolinguistics materials based on project-based learning hijril ismail universitas muhammadiyah mataram, mataram, indonesia hijrilismail@yahoo.com article history received : 2022-07-27 revised : 2022-12-09 accepted : 2022-12-18 keywords teaching material sociolinguistics project-based learning need analysis elt challenges abstract sociolinguistics can help people better understand the use of english in specific social environments. still, there have been limited studies on the crucial aspects of teaching and learning sociolinguistics to gain optimum learning outcomes. this present research aims to analyse models of efl sociolinguistics materials based on project-based learning required by students and lecturers. a quantitative method was applied in this study, employing a questionnaire and structured interview to collect data from 57 students and three instructors of the english education program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah mataram. the results revealed that students and lectures required teaching materials with clear objectives embodied in 11 topics, from language variations to language and ideology completed with evaluations after each topic, exercises for individuals or groups, and project-based learning, which can be employed in teaching efl sociolinguistics. therefore, designing a model of teaching materials for efl sociolinguistics based on project-based learning is necessary to load these findings. the findings of this study are useful for educators and stakeholders who want to design efl sociolinguistics teaching materials. this study has the potential to bridge the gap by providing knowledge about the needs of students and educators as well as recommendations for follow-up in designing efl sociolinguistics teaching materials. 1. introduction sociolinguistics is a branch of linguistics course which aims to develop students' linguistic awareness and disseminate knowledge related to the use of language in society. saputra et al. (2019) define sociolinguistics as a branch of linguistics that specifically examines language use in society, called initially the sociology of language or language in society. sociolinguistics is a term generally employed to study the relationship between language and society (faizin, 2015; george yule, 2006; mairi, 2017). also, sociolinguistics mastery refers to the capability of harnessing the science of studying the speaking community as well as the aims and function of language (bayyurt, 2013). mujiono & herawati (2021) point out that sociolinguistics competencies determine the ability of efl lecturers to select language variations, such as standard, official, casual and familiar, student context, and to use appropriate variations and registers. as implied in the definition, sociolinguistics study is extensive because the use of language in society can include the use of language in a different community (urban community, rural community, government offices, and others), sectors (economy, education, politics, art, film, and others), and professions (farmers, fishermen, and others). considering this vast range of scopes, the researcher will limit the sociolinguistics study topics in this research on 11 topics, namely 1) varieties of language (alhamami, 2020; clements, 2018; gelek, 2017; yule, 2006; tamargo et al., 2019; hornberger & mckay, 2010; khizhnyak & annenkova, 2021; murchadha & flynn, 2018; subhan, 2004; vari & tamburelli, 2020; wardhaugh & fuller, 2015); 2) dialects, sociolects, idiolects, and registers (subhan, 2004; wardhaugh & fuller, 2015), 3) standard and non-standard varieties (subhan, 2004; wardhaugh & fuller, 2015), 4) varieties of english (bruyèl-olmedo & juan-garau, 2020; heller et al., 2017; lee, 2022; ozyumenko, 2020; proshina & nelson, 2020; subhan, 2004), 5) code-switching (ellison & si, 2021; tamargo et al., 2019; liu, 2021; https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i3.10779 277 muthusamy et al., 2020; subhan, 2004), 6) codemixing (ramzan et al., 2021; subhan, 2004; tarihoran et al., 2022; tramutoli, 2021), 7) bilingualism, multilingualism, and diglossia (subhan, 2004; wardhaugh & fuller, 2015), 8) verbal and non-verbal communication (subhan, 2004; wardhaugh & fuller, 2015), 9) speech act (subhan, 2004; pourmousavi & mohamadi zenouzagh, 2020), 10) language planning (subhan, 2004; wardhaugh & fuller, 2015), and 11) language and identity (subhan, 2004; wardhaugh & fuller, 2015), and language and ideology (subhan, 2004; wardhaugh & fuller, 2015). these 11 topics have become the priority topics taught by linguists worldwide when teaching sociolinguistics to their students. therefore, these topics will be included in designing efl sociolinguistics teaching material. teaching materials are any resources used in the language learning process (tomlinson, 2013), including texts, exercises, assignments, and other activities distributed to students (harwood, 2010; ismail et al., 2021) that are presented in printed materials, live performances, and use of information and technology communication to facilitate linguistics, visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning processes (ismail et al., 2021). teaching materials, whether designed by the instructors or institutions, are a key component in language learning (richard, 2001), and what constitute as good teaching materials are the ones that can improve student learning outcomes (wainwright, 2006). for this reason, the researcher will identify the needs of students and educators for teaching materials that can increase their sociolinguistics understanding by applying a projectbased learning model. project-based learning (pjbl) is a student-centred learning model in which students acquire knowledge and skills through project design, development, and completion (shuhailo & derkach, 2021). according to al-busaidi & al-seyabi (2021), pjbl aims to help students gain a deep understanding of knowledge and skills and increase their motivation to learn through finding problems, planning, and investigating. pjbl has been recognised as effective and fruitful in 21stcentury education (pham, 2018). many researchers revealed that the implementation of pjbl can improve students’ learning outcomes, such as increase their learning motivation (duke et al., 2020), contribute to students’ increased level of independence (fried-booth, 2002; al-busaidi & alseyabi, 2021), increase students’ evaluation skills for presentation and reduce their communication anxiety (pham, 2018), acquire new competencies, improve teamwork experience, and develop creativity (shuhailo & derkach, 2021). however, some researchers have not discovered the impact of pjbl in efl sociolinguistics, meaning a knowledge gap to fill becomes the centre of this present study. the outcomes of this research are expected to offer the added value of formulating teaching materials for efl teachers and contribute more nuance for researchers of sociolinguistic efl to conduct further investigations. 2. literature review 2.1 need analysis need analysis is the activities involved in gathering information that will serve as the foundation for developing a curriculum that meets the learning requirements of a particular study group (brown, 1995). hutchinson and waters (1987) pointed out the need analysis based on “necessities” and “wants” to identify between what the learners have to know and what they feel they need to know. the focus here is on the “lack” that represents the gap between the necessitated proficiency in the target situation and the existing proficiency of the learners. witkin and altschuld (1995) state that needs analysis is a systematic set of procedures carried out to set priorities and make decisions about programs or organisational improvement and allocation of resources. the priorities are based on the identified needs. gass (2012) mentions that need analysis is the basis of training and aid development programs. based on the explanation above, need analysis is a set of activities undertaken to collect information as the foundation of designing teaching materials. therefore, this study is focused on analysing the need for teaching materials. 2.2 teaching materials three commonly interchangeable terms for teaching materials are instructional materials (dick, w., carey, l., dan carey, 2009), learning materials (butcher, c., davies, c., dan highton, 2006), and teaching materials (richard, 2001). teaching materials are considered a key component in the efl sociolinguistics learning process, regardless of who designs them: the lecturers who teach courses or the institutions which is the learning foundation for students in either face-to-face classroom learning, online learning, and blended learning. teaching materials are considered a key component in language learning (richard, 2001), which can improve student learning outcomes (wainwright, 2006). cunningsworth (1995) described six roles of teaching materials in language learning: 1) sources of teaching materials for materials, 2) sources of activities for students, 3) sources of student references, 4) sources to provide stimulation and ideas for learning activities in the classroom, 5) syllabus that reflects learning objectives, and 6) support for inexperienced and less confident educators. the designer or teaching materials should consider six elements (richard, 2001): 1) simple to complex structure, 2) chronology, 3) needs, 4) prerequisite learning, 5) whole to part or part to whole, and 6) spiral sequencing. meanwhile, tomlinson (2013) highlighted eight steps in developing teaching 278 materials: text collection, text assessment, text experiment, readiness activities, experience-related activities, response intake activities, development activities, and input response activities. furthermore, jolly and bolitho (2011) suggest seven steps that need to be developed in the development of teaching materials, namely 1) identification of material needs, 2) exploring problems in the proper needs of skills or what language elements are needed by students, 3) realising the context of new material with include ideas, contexts or texts that match the material, 4) pedagogic realisation, namely by including the exercises needed in learning, 5) physical products of teaching materials that include material arrangement, size type, visuals, and others, 6) students use the material, and 7) evaluate the material according to the objectives. in evaluating teaching materials that have been designed, it includes 14 things (tomlinson, 2013), namely 1) clarity of instructions, 2) clarity of layout, 3) comprehensibility of texts, 4) credibility of tasks, 5) achievability of the task, 6) achievement of performance objectives, 7) potential for localisation, 8) particularity of the materials, 9) teach the ability of the materials, 10) flexibilities materials, 11) appeal of the material, 12 motivation power of the material, 13) impact of the material and 14) effectiveness in facilitating short-term learning. the teaching material in this study is a set of materials, exercises, and evaluation methods employed to facilitate the efl sociolinguistics teaching and learning process. 2.3 sociolinguistics sociolinguistics is a branch of linguistics that specifically examines the use of language in society which was initially called the sociology of language or language in society (saputra et al., 2019) which probes into the use of language in society and the organisation of social behaviour that includes attitudes, views, and tendencies of a group of people in using language (subhan, 2004). sociolinguistics studies the purpose and function of language in society (bayyurt, 2013) and the relationship between language and society (mairi, 2017; faizin, 2015; yule, 2006). sociolinguistics has been subjected to much research. albirini & chakrani (2017) carried out research entitled switching codes and registers: an analysis of heritage arabic speakers' sociolinguistics competence. english in the linguistic landscape of jordanian shopping malls: sociolinguistics variation and translanguaging (alomoush & al-naimat, 2020). unnatural bedfellows? the sociolinguistics analysis of variation and language documentation (meyerhoff, 2019). “that spelling tho”: a sociolinguistics study of the non-standard form of thought in a corpus of reddit comments (flesch, 2018). the effectiveness of elearning-based sociolinguistics instruction on efl university students’ sociolinguistics competence (mujiono & herawati, 2021). developing sociolinguistics competence through an intercultural online exchange (ritchie, 2011). the impact of social media on the sociolinguistics practices of the peripheral post-socialist contexts (tankosić & dovchin, 2021). a sociolinguistics perspective on the increasing relevance of the english language: a study conducted among youngsters (tankosić & dovchin, 2021). code mixing in arabic conversation of college students: a sociolinguistics study of attitudes to switching to english (al-ahdal, 2020). multilingualism: an insufficient answer to sociolinguistics inequalities (duchêne, 2020), a case study in historical sociolinguistics beyond europe: reconstructing patterns of multilingualism in a linguistics community in siberia (khanina & meyerhoff, 2018). sociolinguistic in the study is a branch of linguistics that studies how language is used in society and how society applies language. in addition, in efl sociolinguistics teaching and learning process will be utilised as a project-based learning model. 2.4 project-based learning project-based learning (pjbl) is a learning model supported by constructivist learning theory in which students can build their knowledge in the context of their own experiences. pjbl is a student-centred learning model that allows students to acquire knowledge and skills through designing and conducting a project to completion (shuhailo & derkach, 2021) to increase their learning motivation through problem-solving (al-busaidi & al-seyabi, 2021) and develop intellectual and social abilities (kettanun, 2015). in short, pbjl requires students to actively participate in the learning process and build rapport in all six levels of bloom's taxonomy, namely knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (moylan, 2008). learning with pjbl involves connecting with the problem, setting up the structure, visiting the problem, revisiting the problem, producing a product/performance, and evaluating performance and the problem (delisle, 1997). pjbl may also include scheduling and project monitoring. the more detailed structure of pjbl is explained by alan and stoller (2005). to begin with, students and an educator agree on a topic for the project and determine the final outcome. then, they structure the project. the educator prepares students for the language demands for gathering information, compiling, and analysing data, and the students comply accordingly. lastly, the educator prepares students for language demands for a culminating activity, and then the students present the final product and evaluate the project. several researchers have reported multiple benefits of that pjbl that include developing data collection and presentation skills, higher order thinking skills, 279 personal learning styles, independent learning (orevi & dannon, 1999), students motivation and satisfaction (frank et al., 2003; kamp, 2012), building students’ knowledge through active learning, interacting with the environment. the pbjl improves independent and collaborative working (thomas, 2000), which allows students to solve problems more easily (krajcik et al., 1999; rodríguez et al., 2015). in addition, pjbl encourages students to connect new learning to their past performances (moylan, 2008) and improve their real-world skills, such as research and communication (ilhan, 2014). at last, applied pjbl provides students to learn better in a non-traditional method. therefore, pjbl can be adopted in teaching and learning, particularly in efl sociolinguistics. 3. method this research employed a quantitative method to collect data from 60 respondents in the english education program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah mataram. the respondents consisted of 30 students of the current sociolinguistics course, 27 students of the previous sociolinguistic course, and three lecturers of sociolinguistics courses. the students were selected through disproportionate stratified random sampling, as explained by (sugiyono, 2009). the instruments to collect data were a questionnaire and a structured interview. the questionnaire was the first instrument to collect data because, as recommended by long (2005), the questionnaire allows for increasing the validity of results. the instrument consisted of 30 questions that focused on five variables: the purpose of sociolinguistics teaching material, topics of sociolinguistics teaching materials, sociolinguistics exercises, learning evaluation, and pjbl. the analysis and interpreted data were carried out by summing and calculating the average number of each variable. the participants were asked to score 1 to 4 for each item where 1= not needed, 2 = less needed, 3 = needed, and 4 = very needed. then, the data were analysed to determine each question's percentage score and categorised all items as not needed, less needed, needed, and very needed. then, structured, direct interviews were conducted with the participants to probe deeper into findings revealed from the results of the questionnaires, to gain more detailed information and to clarify any potential ambiguity or misunderstood questions. 4. result this section presents the findings related to the form of the efl sociolinguistics teaching material models needed by students and educators illustrated in the questionnaire. five variables contained in the questionnaire items were the purpose of sociolinguistic teaching material (five items), the topics of sociolinguistic teaching materials (11 items), sociolinguistics exercises (five items), learning evaluation (four statements, and pjbl (six items). 4.1 the purpose of sociolinguistics teaching material chart 4.1. the purpose of sociolinguistics teaching materials 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 very needed needed less needed not needed students comprehend the concept of sociolinguistics students comprehend how to use english in society students comprehend and analyze sociolinguistic concepts students comprehend the variety of english. students comprehend and have the ability to conduct research on sociolinguistics 280 chart 4.1 shows that most participants agreed that all five purposes of sociolinguistics materials were either very needed or needed. the most needed purpose was understanding the concept of sociolinguistics, in which 91.7 % of the respondents answered that it was very needed and only 8.3% needed it. the second most needed purpose is to comprehend how to use english in society (83.3% and 16.7 %), followed by comprehending and analysing sociolinguistics concepts (66.7% and 33.3%), comprehending the variety of english (75% and 25%), and at last able to conduct research on sociolinguistics (50% and 50%). in other words, chart 4.1 shows that all respondents stated they needed a better understanding of the implementation of all five purposes of sociolinguistics materials, enabling them to ace the efl sociolinguistics course. further investigations of students of the previous sociolinguistics course revealed that their lecturers had not been fully attentive to these purposes in their teaching. 4.2 topics of sociolinguistic teaching materials chart 4.2. topics of sociolinguistics teaching material chart 4.2 illustrates 11 topics covered in the questionnaire and the proportion of answers given by the respondents. it is clear that the top five most needed topics are variety of language (93.3%); dialect, sociolect, idiolect, and register (91.7%); language planning (70%); verbal and non-verbal communication (57.3%), and standard and nonstandard varieties (55%). meanwhile, the top three needed skills are codemixing (63.3%), codeswitching (61.7%), and standard and non-standard varieties (45%). the other topics are still regarded as very needed or needed, but with less percentage. in addition, none of the respondents answered 'less needed' nor 'not needed' in chart 2, which indicates the importance of all topics covered in sociolinguistics. 4.3 sociolinguistics exercises 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 very needed needed less needed not needed variety of language dialect, sociolect, idiolect, and register standard and non-standard varieties codeswitching codemixing bilingualism, multilingualism, and diglossia verbal and non-verbal communication speech acts (speech act) language planning language and identity language and ideology 281 chart 4.3. exercises in chart 4.3, the respondents’ answers to five items related to the nature of exercises given in sociolinguistics courses are captured. the chart shows that the four most needed types of exercise are finding wide varieties of english (80%), analysing dialect, sociolect, idiolect, and register (78.3%), analysing standard and non-standard languages (55%), and conducting tasks individually and in groups (50%). meanwhile, the lowest percentage is analysing codemixing and codeswitching in the 'needed' category by 28.23%. 4.4 learning evaluation chart 4.4. leaning evaluation 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 very needed needed less needed not needed the type of exercise given in sociolinguistics learning is related to analyzing codemixing and codes switching that occurs in learning english. the types of exercises given in sociolinguistics learning are related to find many varieties of english. the types of exercises given in sociolinguistics learning are related to the analysis of dialect, sociolect, idiolect, and register. the types of exercises given in sociolinguistics learning are related to standard and non-standard languages. the distribution of exercises are carried out in various ways, both individually and in groups. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 very needed needed less needed not needed the type of evaluation is based on the material in each material, both related to theory and practice evaluation techniques are carried out in various ways, both individually and in groups. evaluation is carried out at each completion of the material 282 in chart 4.4, the participants responded to three types of evaluation of learning sociolinguistics. it shows that the most needed type of evaluation is the one conducted after each learning material is completed (60%), followed by evaluation for both individual and group work (55%), and lastly, evaluation for both theoretical and practical elements (53.3%). 4.5 project-based learning chart 4.5. project-based learning chart 4.5 shows six elements in the project-based learning model (pjbl) regarded as 'very needed' and 'needed" by the respondents. in contrast to chart 1 through chart 4, this chart shows non-significant differences across the percentage of each element. the top needed element is a pjbl that improves students' understanding of sociolinguistics (65%) and the steps of the pjbl model (63.3%), followed by two elements that shared equal percentages (61.7%), namely understanding the concept of pjbl and carrying out learning process in groups. while 58.5% of respondents really needed to understand the pjbl in sociolinguistics, only 53.3% answered that studentcentred learning was very needed in the sociolinguistics course. after obtaining the results of quantitative data, structured interviews were conducted with 15 students. they were to answer ten follow-up close-ended questions (yes or no), namely whether they 1) understand the concepts of sociolinguistics, 2) comprehend how language is used in society, 3) study a topic related to language variations, 4) study a topic related to codeswitching and codemixing, 5) carry out tasks individually and in groups, 6) partake in evaluations performed at the end of each topic, 7) understanding the concept of pjbl, 8) comprehend pjbl steps, and 9) apply students-centre learning. based on the interview results, all students answered "yes" to all nine questions, and none answered "no". therefore, students participating in this study needed all these five variables, including their details to design a model of teaching materials for efl sociolinguistics based on pjbl. 5. discussion this research aims to analyse the model of efl sociolinguistics using pjbl for students and lecturers. this section explores the result from five variables in the questionnaires, namely the purpose of sociolinguistics teaching material, the topics of efl sociolinguistics teaching material, types of sociolinguistics exercises, learning evaluations, and implementation of the pjbl model. the results of the structured interview are included in this section. first, the variable “the purpose of teaching materials for sociolinguistics students” consisted of five elements that students need to understand: the concept of sociolinguistics, the use of english in society, analysis of sociolinguistics concepts, variety of english, and research capacity on sociolinguistics. informing the purpose of the course may motivate students to focus on developing their sociolinguistics knowledge. many researchers have endorsed this statement (e.g. al-busaidi & al-seyabi, 2021; duke et 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 very needed needed less needed not needed students understand the concept of project based learning. project based learning model that can improve students' understanding of sociolinguistics. the learning process is carried out in groups. students understand the learning steps of the project based learning model. students need student-centered learning project-based learning in sociolinguistics 283 al., 2020). also, understanding the concept of efl sociolinguistics would make it easier for students to conduct research related to sociolinguistics. furthermore, when students understand the variations of english, they will find it easier to distinguish different english variations used in society. three of five elements have been achieved in the english education program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah mataram. the lecturers often convey three essential understandings of learning sociolinguistics to students: the concept of sociolinguistics, the use of english in society, and the nature of language variations. this point is supported by the results of interviews with students who stated that they understood the concept of sociolinguistics and how english is used in society. meanwhile, two other goals in sociolinguistic learning (analysis of sociolinguistics concepts and research capacity on sociolinguistics) will be presented to the students to make them accustomed to conducting research, especially those related to sociolinguistics. regarding the variable “topics of sociolinguistics teaching materials”, there were 11 topics covered, namely 1) the variety of language; 2) dialect, sociolect, idiolect, and register; 3) standard and non-standard varieties; 4) codeswitching; 5) codemixing; 6) bilingualism, multilingualism, and diglossia; 7) verbal and non-verbal communication; 8) speech act; 9) language planning; 10) language and identity, and 11) language and ideology. the results of a questionnaire related to this variable (see chart 2) revealed that all respondents regarded all these 11 topics as either very much needed or needed to facilitate better learning of sociolinguistics. the lecturers of the english education program at the universitas muhammadiyah mataram have taught all 11 to their students. however, the seven most taught topics were the variety of language; dialect, sociolect, idiolect, and register; standard and non-standard varieties; codeswitching; codemixing; and bilingualism, multilingualism, and diglossia; and verbal and non-verbal communication. meanwhile, four other new topics will be introduced as new topics, namely speech act, language planning, language and identity, and language and ideology. the followings are the details of each of the topics above. variety of language is one of the topics discussed in efl sociolinguistics courses (george yule, 2006; hornberger & mckay, 2010; subhan, 2004; wardhaugh & fuller, 2015) to enhance the student's comprehension of different types of english, such as american english, british english, australian english, scottish english, canadian english, singaporean english, and new zealand english. a variation of language illustrates language style and styling, critical language awareness, and pidgins and creoles language (hornberger & mckay, 2010). also discussed in variety of language is the distinction of pronunciations (sounds), vocabularies (words), and grammar (sentences). dialect, sociolect, idiolect, and register are fouritem topics of sociolinguistics (subhan, 2004; wardhaugh & fuller, 2015) with each definition and example. first, dialect can be defined as a language variety or a variety of languages caused by geographical factors, such as rivers, mountains, hills, lakes, valleys, or others, that appear distinguishing in sounds, vocabularies, and sentences. second, sociolect is a language variation caused by social stratification and social status. the researchers recognised three speech levels in indonesia: low, middle, and high. third, idiolect is a language variation caused by individual character differences. moreover, lastly, the register is language variety formed due to differences in occupation and discourse. therefore, we often recognise the existence of various kinds of english, such as english for journalism, tourism, economics, medicine, and others. the standard and non-standard varieties are interesting topics to linguists (george yule, 2006; hornberger & mckay, 2010; subhan, 2004; wardhaugh & fuller, 2015). there are at least four parameters of standard language: autonomy, standardisation, historicity, and vitality (subhan, 2004). if a language variation does not meet these four features, it is regarded as non-standard. codeswitching is the switching of language by a person to the interlocutor for specific reasons. for example, the speaker regards the social status of the interlocutor, the speaker finds him/herself in a new situation, wants to show his credibility to the interlocutor or the public, and has limitations in communicating in another or particular language. on the other hand, codemixing often occurs in a society where a speaker mixes some words in one language with another (e.g. subhan, 2004). bilingualism, multilingualism, and diglossia are topics of efl sociolinguistics commonly put under the umbrella term of bilingualism. while bilingualism refers to a condition of someone mastering two languages or two language variations (subhan, 2004; yule, 2016), multilingualism is mastering master more than two languages or language variations. diglossia refers to the permanent use of several languages in society. verbal and non-verbal communication is a topic in sociolinguistics that discusses language functions and language forms (subhan, 2004). since language is a means of communication, the success of communication depends on the mutual intelligibility between two or more speakers (the sender and the receiver) to convey their message). the forms of communication can be divided into verbal and nonverbal communication. verbal communication is communication that uses spoken languages such as english, indonesian, chinese, and others, whereas nonverbal communication employs gestures, symbols, pictures, and body language to express meaning. 284 a speech act is an interesting topic in sociolinguistics that focuses on actions carried out via utterances (subhan, 2004; yule, 2016), categorised into three: locutionary (the act of producing meaningful utterances), illocutionary (the communication force of an utterance, such as promising, apologising, and offering), and the perlocutionary (an action performed by a speaker while making an utterance that may affect the listeners and others differently (austin, 1962; subhan, 2004; yule, 1996). language planning is an exciting topic in applied linguistics and sociolinguistics, which describes the activity of planning language in a country, a region, a district, or a school. at the national level, the government and the government officials play a role as the policymakers who express state rules and regulations to the people, and therefore, language planning in this context is often called language politics. (subhan, 2004; wardhaugh & fuller, 2015). language planning focuses on three dimensions, namely corpus planning (the intervention of a language), status planning (the allocation of the function of a language), and acquisition planning (language teaching and learning of either national language, second language, or foreign language). language and identity are a topic of efl sociolinguistics that portrays two key terms: identity and language (hornberger & mckay, 2010). this topic focuses on the definition of identity, the way humans present identities to the world, the types of identities, identity formation, and the intersection of language and identity intersect. language and ideology are related to language and linguistic behaviour that affect speakers' choices and interpretation of communication interaction. language ideologies frame and influence most aspects of language use, but their influence is not always directly observable (hornberger & mckay, 2010). the variable of “exercises in sociolinguistics course” concentrated on five types of exercise: 1) analyse codemixing and code-switching in learning english; 2) identify wide varieties of english; 3) analyse the dialect, sociolect, idiolect, and register; 4) analyse the standard and non-standard languages, and 5) the distribution of individual exercises and group exercise. exercises are fundamental in designing teaching materials for efl sociolinguistics because they determine the effectiveness and efficiency of pedagogic delivery, which previous studies have reported (richard, 2001; harwood, 2010; tomlinson, 2013; ismail et al., 2021). several points in the feasibility questionnaire ask three questions relating to exercises: the comprehensibility of exercises, the credibility of exercises, and the achievability of exercises. accordingly, these five types of exercise shall be the reference of researchers in designing sociolinguistics teaching materials based on pjbl, mainly based on how needed these are by the language learners as the respondents in this present study. in the case of the sociolinguistics course in the english education program at the universitas muhammadiyah mataram, all these five aspects of exercise were already practised. based on the questionnaire results (see chart 3), all respondents agreed that all five aspects were either needed or very much needed in helping them reinforce sociolinguistics learning in the classroom. one new aspect emerged from investigating the questionnaire and interview results, which can add more nuance to the existing exercise, namely analysing the implementation of those exercises to improve their quality. the variable of “learning evaluation” focused on three aspects: 1) evaluation of students' comprehension of theory and practice, 2) evaluation for both individually and in groups, and 3) evaluation after the completion of each topic. considering that evaluation is one way to assess the designed teaching materials, these three aspects embodied in the questionnaire items serve as guidelines in designing learning evaluations for teaching materials of efl sociolinguistics (tomlinson, 2013). in evaluating the teaching materials, a designer must pay attention to 14 elements: clarity of instructions, clarity of layout, comprehensibility of texts, the credibility of tasks, achievability of a task, achievement of performance objectives, the potential for localisation, particularity of the materials, teach the ability of the materials, flexibilities materials, appeal of the material, motivation power of the material, the impact of the material, and effectiveness in facilitating short-term learning (tomlinson, 2013). in addition, the designed teaching materials must be evaluated to identify the advantages and disadvantages of perfecting the updated teaching materials. this is supported by tomlinson (2013) and litlejohn (2011) that in designing evaluations, it is necessary to evaluate for the improvement of teaching materials and subsequent learning processes. therefore, the researcher would include three variables in designing teaching materials which were considered very much needed by the respondents, namely evaluating each material from both theoretical and practical aspects, evaluating students' comprehension of sociolinguistics individually or in the group, and evaluating each material after delivery completion instead of all at once at the end of the course. some of these evaluation elements were already found in sociolinguistics course in the english education program at the universitas muhammadiyah mataram. lecturers frequently evaluated the theories of sociolinguistics in the form of individual exams during the mid-semester evaluation. the findings of this research would provide the lecturers with alternative forms of evaluation that cover both theories in practice and are conducted after the completion of each topic, either carried out individually or in groups. 285 the “project-based learning model or pjbl” variable concentrated on six factors that students considered as very much needed or needed because students’ understanding of the concept of pjbl can motivate them in learning. it aligns with the findings of duke et al. (2020), who concluded that the pjbl model could increase students' learning motivation. the pjbl can also improve students’ understanding. previous research has reported that pjbl can improve a deep understanding of knowledge and skill (al-busaidi & al-seyabi, 2021; shuhailo & derkach, 2021), develop intellectual and social abilities (ketanun, 2015), high independence (al-busaidi & al-seyabi, 2021), new competencies, teamwork experience, and creativity (shuhailo & derkach, 2021). the learning process carried out in a group is an approach to enhance students’ self-confidence when collaborating with their peers and navigating social dynamics (shuhailo & derkach, 2021). furthermore, students’ understanding of the steps of pjbl can assist an educator in applying students centre learning (delisle, 1997; alan & stoller, 2005), and teachers’ implementing pjbl in efl sociolinguistics can improve students' understanding of sociolinguistics (thomas, 2000). accordingly, the researcher would apply six factors in the pjbl variable to design efl sociolinguistics teaching materials so that students understand the concept of project-based, improve their understanding of sociolinguistics, partake in group learning, understand the steps of the pjbl model, obtain access to student-centred learning, and experience pjbl in sociolinguistics. the sociolinguistics course in the english education program at the universitas muhammadiyah mataram has implemented these six aspects of the project-based learning model. however, based on the outcomes of this research, what still needs to be incorporated in the course is that the project assessment should take place while the project is being undertaken instead of at the end of it. an example of a project usually taken by the students is presenting or disseminating a finished product. based on the discussion of the findings drawn from the questionnaire and structured interview, it is evident that both students and educators english education program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah mataram, needed the efl sociolinguistics teaching materials based on projectbased learning model (pjbl). it will help guide the teachers in designing teaching materials which contribute positively to developing students’ skills and knowledge. five variables required for this design are a complete understanding of the purpose of teaching materials for sociolinguistics, the topics of teaching materials for sociolinguistics, learning exercises for sociolinguistics, models and delivery of evaluation for sociolinguistics, and implementation of project-based learning model (pjbl) in sociolinguistics course. the study's limitation was that it only involved 60 respondents. it is expected that future research can engage more participants and expand the scope of the research beyond the eleven topics as the focus of this study. 6. conclusions this study revealed that clear goals are mandatory in designing teaching materials for efl sociolinguistics based on the pjbl model. clear goals would help accomplish five objectives. first, students can focus on enhancing the knowledge described in the learning outcomes. second, materials' relevance and suitability with the topics should be a concern in designing teaching material. next, the form of exercise for students shall be carried out independently and in groups. also, an evaluation of sociolinguistics should be carried out at the end of each topic instead of all at once at the end of the course. lastly, student-centred learning is needed in sociolinguistics learning, and pbjl is the proper model to cater to this. the findings of this study also prove eleven topics that should be included in teaching materials for efl sociolinguistics to increase students’ comprehension of sociolinguistics. the benefit of this present study is providing information and reference for future researchers to design teaching materials for efl sociolinguistics by incorporating other relevant topics, different exercises, and evaluation methods. 7. acknowledgement we would like to express our sincere gratitude to the unit of research and community services of the universitas muhammadiyah mataram for supporting this research. references agustine, s., asi, n., & luardini, m. a. 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(2019). a sociolinguistic analysis of the use of english loanwords inflected with arabic morphemes as slang in amman, jordan. international journal of the sociology of language, 2019(260), 155-175. . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl-20192052 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.vxxx vol. 5, no. 1, april 2023, pp. 77-88 77 first language interfere in efl classes: revealing students’ perspectives and teachers’ reasons in ell nihta vera frelly liando, devilito prasetyo tatipang & ceisy nita wuntu universitas negeri manado, tondano, indonesia nihtaliando@unima.ac.id article history received : 2023-02-10 revised : 2023-04-12 accepted : 2023-04-27 keywords mother tongue students’ perspectives teachers’ reasons ell efl abstract multilingualism is a common phenomenon among indonesian students who are proficient in both national and local languages. however, the use of the first language (l1) in english as a foreign language (efl) classrooms has been a subject of ongoing debate. this study explores the use of the first language (l1) in english as a foreign language (efl) classrooms by investigating the perspectives of indonesian students and teachers’ reasons. the study used a qualitative approach with a in-depth semi-structured interviews conducted with teachers, and questionnaire for the students, convenience sampling was used to select 105 participants from grade 12 of ipa, ips, and bahasa. results showed that the majority of students had a positive perspective on the use of l1 by their english teachers during lessons. however, there was no significant difference in the students' perspectives based on gender and major classes. teachers' reasons for using l1 included bridging students' knowledge, motivating students, and creating an active learning atmosphere. however, the overuse of l1 was found to be a potential problem, as it could lead to a lack of mastery of the target language. the findings suggest that the use of l1 in efl classrooms can be beneficial but should be used in moderation to avoid students becoming too reliant on it. teachers should use l1 as a means to facilitate learning, not as a substitute for the target language. this study provides important insights into the use of l1 in efl classrooms from the perspectives of both students and teachers. these findings have important implications for language teaching practices and policies, not only in indonesia but also in other multilingual contexts worldwide. further research is needed to explore the long-term effects of l1 use on language acquisition and to develop effective strategies to minimize its negative impact. 1. introduction combining the first language (l1) in english language learning (ell) has been found to be helpful and can facilitate the teaching and learning process for both teachers and students (liando & tatipang, 2022). however, despite this benefit, the use of l1 in ell remains a controversial topic. as mentioned by resmini (2019) if the teacher wants to discuss a topic with the students, they can use first language in order to help the students struggle with english. in contrast to what has mentioned above, kadhim et al., (2022) argued that the use of the first language in foreign language learning is currently considered taboo, because many educational institutions are trying to prohibit the use of the first language in foreign language classes. the use of l1 in ell have many benefits, for example: reducing barriers to learning and increasing self-confidence in the learning process is one of the benefits of using l1, so that students can understand the target language being taught (liando & tatipang, 2022). some students are lower proficiency, so they have difficulties in expressing their thoughts accurately and confidently, so they use their first language to translate it into the target language or in this case is, english. galali & cinkara (2017) claimed that the students prefer when the process of teaching a foreign language the teachers use their first language because by using the first language the students can learn new foreign language vocabulary. yaghobian et al. (2018) stated that the amount and purpose of using a first mailto:nihtaliando@unima.ac.id 78 language in teaching a foreign language is to improve understanding and provide relevant insights into l2 or efl. in addition, sinaga (2018) emphasized that the students will feel confused with the teacher who teaches and speaks full english during the learning process so that sometimes students misinterpret the meaning of the lesson. according to fitriani et al., (2017), making it easier to capture ideas and concepts of learning material is an advantage of the inclusion of the use of the first language. in presents, there are arguments regarding pros and cons of using the first language during the english lesson. çelik and aydin (2018) claimed that too much use and dependence on the first language will result in and make interlanguage fossilization and students' awareness will automatically decrease and make students stay away from interest in learning foreign languages. çelik and aydin (2018) added that the role of first language during the english lesson is negative one. this means that the l1 can interference of the second language learning. on the other hand, hawa et al. (2021) mentioned that the use of the first language cannot be prohibited in foreign language classes but also cannot be used continuously, because if it is used continuously the mother tongue or first language can replace the target language rather than support it. in indonesia, there are hundreds of tribes with their own different languages (tatipang et al., 2022). in formal occasions, places like churches, mosques, government offices, even in schools and universities, for example in sulawesi utara province, it is a common phenomenon to see and hear the lecturers mix between bahasa indonesia and manado (liando & tatipang, 2022). when facing difficulties in learning english, students will then use or switch into their mother tongue (bahasa manado), or bahasa indonesia if they do not know the words in english, or when they lack of confidence in speaking english. throughout the history of elt in multilingual classrooms (indonesian), there has been much debate about the use of the first language as an introduction. in fact, most of indonesian students are students who can communicate in more than one languages (multilingual) both national and regional languages. (liando, tatipang, & lengkoan, 2022). this of course affects the english language skills of students in indonesia when communicating, because resmini (2019) in her research found that there will be a tendency to use the first language when they try to communicate in english. in this case, the first language will indirectly have positive and negative effects on the target language learning process. the impact of l1 used in ell is very diverse. as found by khairunnisa and lukmana (2020) where the use of the first language during english learning can create a conducive atmosphere for the student learning process. in addition, liando & tatipang (2022) also reveal the same thing, where the use of first language can motivate students to learn and bridge students' knowledge. moreover, çelik and aydin, (2018) suggest that teachers use first language as an alternative to strengthen students' mastery of english content. however, kusuma (2018) argue that excessive use of first language will affect students' low knowledge of using english (oral and written) and insensitivity to english usage errors. in addition, gusti et al. (2020); wahyuningsih and afandi (2020); zein (2019) also have the same opinion, which is the use of the first language is encouraged, but it should not be overused. based on those statements above, this study aims to examine the students’ perspective and teachers’ reasons of l1 used in ell. in addition, it is hoped that the result of the study will shed a great benefit to the body of english education in general and to the students and teachers in specific. the findings are hoped to broaden the knowledge and science of teaching english to the learners of english as foreign language. to the students, the results are hoped to provide basic knowledge for them to be able to understand more about the reason why english teachers use first language during the lesson. as for the teachers, the results are hoped to provide insight to the teacher that using both the l1/bahasa indonesia as well as english language in teaching english lesson are both of the same importance. by realizing students own justifications, english teachers may have a better chance to develop their' teaching strategy, including preferences on where and when to use first language in english class. 2. literature review 2.1 the use of first language during english lesson students may experience cognitive processes of language-learning by activating their prior knowledge in l1 as an invisible tool to learn the new language (paranduk & karisi, 2020). a relational nature of l1 use relative to l2 learning, the value of l1 use needs to take into account connections with a pedagogical focus to support l2 learning (yusuf et al 2022). the amount of l1 use should be judged by its purpose and content when considering how to support l2 learning (lumentut & lengkoan, 2021). liando and tatipang (2022) pointed out that when the mother tongue is used appropriately, it could help the students and the teacher learn english. as kadhim et al., (2022) claimed that the mother tongue has a significant role in improving the students’ english ability. in addition, the mother tongue provides a good role to clarify instruction, pronunciation and express their frustration or difficulties (khasawneh, 2021). blair (2019) on his 79 study pointed out that mother tongue also benefits the teacher in certain conditions, such as giving instruction, explaining grammar points or complex concepts, defining new vocabularies, checking students’ comprehension, and keeping the classroom atmosphere. 2.2 students perspectives of english teachers using first language liando and lumettu (2017) mentioned that in indonesia proposed that most students also give positive perceptions and attitudes toward the mother tongue used by the teacher in an english classroom. koşar (2022) showed that both views supported the opinions that using l1 in english classrooms should not be avoided because it was undeniable the benefits of its use in english classes for better efficiency and productivity. hasrina et al., (2018) revealed a strong tendency among the participants toward l1 used and its positive effects on language learning if used limited only in certain conditions. according to resmini (2019) a judicious, occasional, and limited use of l1 is a better way to take and manage efl classes rather than include or exclude them. the overall findings show that students' responses to the use of l1 in ell are quite positive. however, students also recognized the disadvantages of using too much l1 in efl classrooms, such as ignoring the target language. the students were accustomed to using l1 and tended to wait for the translation from the teacher or friends. 3. method this is a quantitative study. retnawati (2016) stated that, “one way of looking at quantitative methods is a collection of techniques for organizing, presenting, summarizing, communicating, and drawing conclusions from data, so that it becomes informative. descriptive design used to measure the students’ perspectives of english teachers using first language during the lesson. comparative design used to find out the differences students’ perspectives of english teachers using first language during the lesson based on gender (49 female and 41 male). in addition to that, spatioti et al., (2022) mentioned that comparative study is used to indentify the differences between two or more variables. the designs are the most suitable designs for this study because those can help the researcher to observe and disclose the research questions. in selecting the sample subject from the population, the researchers applied convenience sampling method. lines et al., (2022) believed that the sample elements were seleted because the researhers believe that the chosen respondents are representative of the population of interest in this sampling method. it was used because that study offered many advantages, such as fast to do, not expensive, and the subjects are readily. the researcher took the data from the students and teacher who attended the class at that time. the respondents of this study were 89 students from sma x manado grades 12 from ips, ipa, and bahasa, also with 2 english teachers. the reason of choosing the respondents were because the respondents are qualified enough to respond the study, and the number of the students were sufficient to support the study. in collecting the data, the questionnaire adapted from mohebbi and alavi (2014) applied in this study and consisted of 22 questions. the questionnaire was then translated and modified into bahasa indonesia and validated by three english teachers. the questionnaire consisted of 22 items, about the first language functions in efl classes instruction. the 22 items are ranged using the scale from 1 to 5 (1 = never, 2 = seldom, 3 = sometimes, 4 = usually, and 5 = always). the researchers used all the items in the questionnaire. moreover, to find out whether the questionnaire was valid or invalid, the researcher analyzed the items of the questionnaire using statistical tool, which is correlations statistic. henceforward, to reveal efl teachers reasons of using the l1 during in efl classes, the researchers applied semi-structured interview to get in-depth data. the application of semi-structured interviews is based on the availability of informants (english teachers) to provide sensitive information regarding their use of l1 in class, also considerations regarding the closeness of researchers to informants. in addition, retnawati (2016) argued that the items can categorize, if the index ≤ 0.4 it means the validation is low. 0.4-0.8 are moderate, but if the items ≥ 0.8 is highly validation. the total 18 valid items had passed the reliability test that were analyzed using cronbach alpha scale, and the result was 0.85 which means that the 18 items were reliable. the total 18 items were used to get the data for the real study. to protect the privacy of the respondents, the questionnaire filled by the respondents without writing their name. before the questionnaire is going to be distributed, the respondents had been informed that their answers are needed only for current study and their answers will not affect their grade or their relationship with the teachers. the name of the school also be named sma x in order to keep the privacy of the school. 3.1 data analysis techniques to analyze and interpret the quantitative data of the questionnaire, the researcher used spss statistical tools, to be more specific, they are: 80 1) mean was used to find out the level of the students perspectives of english teacher first language usage in the classroom for research question number 1. 2) sample t-test table used to find out the differences in students perspectives english teacher first language usage in the classroom based on their major classes and gender for research question number 2 and number 3. moreover, to measure the results analysis of the questionnaires, interpretation scale was used to measure the result of the analyzed items. the interpretation scale adapted from cavalheiro et al. (2022), there are five class intervals to measure the level of students perspectives of english teachers’ used of first language, they are: a) 4.50 – 5.00 = always = very highly used of l1 use by teacher b) 3.50 – 4.49 = usually = highly used of l1 use by teacher c) 2.50 – 3.49 = sometimes = moderate used of l1 use by teacher d) 1.50 – 2.49 = seldom = low used of l1 use by teacher e) 1.00 – 1.49 = never = very low used l1 use by teacher while for the analysis technique for semi-structure interview, the researchers applied descriptive analysis through scripting the interview. actually, the interviews were conducted after the class was over and recorded, then transcripted to be analyzed. the analysis of the semi-structured interviews were coded into ira-irb: (for interviewee a-b). 4. result this part presents the results, the interpretation of data, and the discussions of this topic. it covers the students perspectives of english teacher in using first language during the lesson as well as teachers’ reason in using it in ell. as previously mentioned, where the pros and cons of using l1 still occur frequently, the consideration of the success of the learning process of students and teachers in learning is the main factor that is important to be responded to. therefore, this study aimed to reveal students’ perspectives and teachers’ reasons toward l1 used in efl classes. moreover, in getting the results from the students' perspective regarding the use of l1 in ell, a comparative study was applied to compare the opinions of male and female students. the data related to this research is then presented based on the results that have been obtained from the field. 4.1 what are students’ perspectives of english teacher in using first language during the lesson? table 4.1 mean score of the students (both female and male) perspectives of english teacher in using first language during the lesson n min max mean std. deviation mean 89 2.89 5.00 4.02 .41992 valid n (listwise) 89 the fact that first language is used in english classes is definitely not a new thing for english language learners in indonesia. this occurs due to the strong influence of the first language for each student in every learning process. english learning activities do make teachers in indonesia have to use various ways to be able to make students learn english as a foreign language. in the context of this research, the first language used by teachers in teaching english is the students' local language (manado). the use of students' first language (manado) as a bridge in english in liando et al., (2022) is responded positively by students, because this l1 can bridge and can create a conducive learning atmosphere for students. nevertheless, it cannot be denied that each student must have different opinions in certain cases. therefore, in the context of this study, the research subject was expanded to find out how students' opinions related to the use of the first language during the english learning process. thus, in this first part, mean score of descriptive statistics has been used to answer the research questions number one about the students’ perspectives of english teacher in using first language during the lesson. the result of table 4.1 showed that the mean level of students perspectives of english teacher in using first language during the lesson was found to be 81 4.02 (table 4.1). the findings showed that the mean score was in the range 3.50 – 4.49. it indicated that the students of sma x perspectives of english teacher in using first language during the lesson was found to be usually (highly used of l1 use by teacher) based on the interpretation scale. it means that the english teacher use l1 mostly in teaching english. khairunnisa and lukmana (2020) believe that the use of first language in learning is inevitable and commonplace in classroom interactions. in general, the use of first language in english class is to bridge the gap between students and teachers during interaction, for example, a teacher translates into their first language when they do not understand the instructions given. however, the use of first language in english learning should be considered as well as possible to avoid mistakes in students' second language acquisition. the reason why in this study the students perspectives of english teacher in using first language during the lesson was high, because of their expectation of their english teachers, for example, first language help the students to learn more and enjoyable. it also could help teacher to make students more understand the lesson because by using first language the students can understand and save time in explanations. this statement was made based on the high mean result of the items in the questionnaire chose by the respondents and the interview with the teacher: “the use of l1 in teaching definitely helpful to bridge students’ knowledge in english learning. it could help us a teachers as well in delivering the knowledge so that the students could understand the lesson better”, (ir:a). also, “we actually used the l1 in order to make the students comfort in learning english. because some students tent to be quiet in learning, no responds and no answer. l1 in efl learning help them not only to deliver their idea but also to ask something to us. also l1 make them learn english better”, (ir:b). in line with the statement of an english teacher above, pardede (2018) states that the use of first language is also done to explain difficult grammar, ambiguous words, long instructions, to provide feedback and to check students' understanding. hasrina et al. (2018) argue that in learning english as a foreign language teachers have difficulty facilitating student learning unless there is interference or the use of first language. it is also believed that the use of the first language can help students acquire the required knowledge and to provide solutions to their incomprehension in learning english. hence, some students find learning english difficult and they have problems expressing their ideas, opinions, and comments using english, by using english in learning, so they prefer to use their first language to interact with the teacher and their friends in class. however, the use of first language in english learning must consider by teachers in term of “usage” which should not be too excessive. hawa et al. (2021) argued that excessive use of the first language in the process of learning english students will have an impact on the lack of exposure to the target language in students, this will result in students' ability in english will not increase. hasrina et al. (2018) add that l1 will make students confused and misunderstood when they use english, this is because there are use english, this is because there is a mismatch of selection of words that come from the first language to english, and vice versa. 4.2 is there any significance difference on students perspectives of english teachers in using first language during the lesson based on gender? table 4.2 the difference of students perspective based on gender gender n mean mean female 47 3.99 male 42 4.06 in this part, one sample t-test statistics has been used to answer the research questions number two about the students perspectives of english teachers in using first language during the lesson based on their gender. at the first step, the mean score of the 48 female respondents was 3.99, and the mean score of the 41 male respondents was 4.06. based on the result, it indicated that both were at the range level 3.50 – 4.49 (table 4.2). it meant that the result of both perspectives of the characteristics of the effective english teachers was found to be usually (high level of l1 use by teacher) . the result showed that p = .350 which grater than alpha scale 0.05 (table 4.3), it meant that there no significant difference in students perspectives of english teachers in using first language during the lesson based on the gender. therefore, the alternative hypothesis which stated that “there is a significant difference in the students perspectives of english teachers in using first language during the lesson based on the gender” was rejected. the reason of the result found out that there no significant difference based on gender because both men and women respondents have the difference perspectives of english teachers in using first language during the lesson. this is due to the differences in opinion 82 between male and female students are sometimes different, this is because there are differences in the perspectives, ways of learning and ways of expressing from male and female students (blair, 2019). gusti et al., (2020) also argued about the different significance of each student which can affect how they perceive things. because in general, perception is related to the interpretation, judgement, or opinion of students about an object that occurs around them. if a student has a good perception of an object, it will affect the student's perception and attitude toward favouring that object. however, the result of present study that showed there no significant difference because the male and female students of sma x manado have the same perspectives of the using of first language during the lesson. table 4.3 the mean score of the students perspectives based on gender f sig. t df sig. (2-tailed) mean equal variances assumed 11.719 .001 -.940 87 .350 equal variances not assumed -.918 68.201 .362 the result of present study that showed no significant difference might be because the male and female students of sma x manado have the same perspectives of using the first language during the lesson. based on this result, it shows the similarity between this present study and the study of yusuf et al. (2022) which found that there was no significant difference between male and female students. this is because the use of the teacher's first language is applied equally to each student. it provides equal focus and opportunity for all students with the aim of achieving english language learning in the classroom. basically, the use of first language in learning is unavoidable and is commonplace in classroom interactions. in general, the use of first language in english classes is to bridge the gap between students and teachers during interaction, for example, a teacher translates into their first language when they do not understand the instructions given. therefore, the distribution of first language use for each student was the same, thus it was found that there was no significant difference in its use based on gender. 4.3 is there any significance difference on students perspectives of english teachers in using first language during the lesson based on major classes? the third research question in this study was to know whether there was a significant difference in the students’ perception of english teacher first language usage in the classroom based on the classes. table 4.4 the mean score of the students perspectives based on major classes major classes n mean t sig. (2-tailed) students perspectives social 44 4.07 1.361 .177 science 45 3.97 1.361 .177 table 4.4 showed the mean score and the difference on students perspectives of english teacher in using first language during the lesson. the finding was those who study in social were higher (m=4.07) than those who study in science (m=3.97). by using independent sample t-test showed the difference is no significant. as shown in table 4.4 the significance value p= .177 which was greater than the significance level α= .05. it meant that the hypothesis that says there was significance difference in students’ 83 perspectives of english teacher in using first language during the lesson was rejected. the reason of the result found out that there were no significant differences might be because both social and science respondents had the perspectives of the using of the first language during the lesson by the teacher there different classes had no problems of teacher using l1. this is because the teaching of english using the first language in each class is carried out with the same concept, and refers to the same material and planning, therefore the majority of students get the same treatment in learning. in line with the study from resmini (2019) mentioned that the use of first language in each class, can be adjusted to the lesson plan used, this is to minimize the lag and the response of each student to the teaching process. 5. discussion in indonesia, as a country that has many cultures and languages, it is influences students in indonesia, because most indonesian students are students who can communicate in more than one language (multilingual), both the national language and regional languages. according to cavalheiro et al. (2022) a multilingual speaker is a person who lives in a country that has a diversity of languages or people who grow up with a variety of different languages. the definition of bilingualism is also almost the same as multilingualism, which means the ability to use two or more languages that are used for everyday conversations. this of course affects the english skills of indonesian students when communicating because there will be a tendency to use first language when they try to communicate in english. in this case, the first language will indirectly have positive and negative effects on the learning process of the target language. in this study, researchers examined the use of l1 in efl classes. in learning a language, the language learning process can be said to be successful if the language learner uses the target language as a means of communication properly and correctly. this is also stated and supported by the statement of tatipang et al. (2022) the best language learning is when learning is designed to communicate with the target language. reflecting on the results of research data conducted by researchers, if the english learning process carried out is indeed designed, so that the subject can communicate in the target language as often as possible. however, the problem is that the subject does not use english in accordance with british, american and australian standard english. subjects put more emphasis on the target language they use, which is more adapted to indonesian and the regional languages they speak. most of the subjects tend to do interlingual interference in their target language communication. interlingual interference is defined when a person speaks or writes the target language but is still influenced by their mother tongue (liando & tatipang, 2022). this is evidenced by the habit of subjects using their first language as an alternative language to express their ideas when they have difficulty communicating in the target language (koşar, 2022). it supported by the statement of an english teacher, where: “we sometimes used students’ mother tongue because of the students cannot deliver their idea, or ask something even feel shy and nervous using english. not only that, we use manado to explain certain difficult material to students so they can understand it better. but sometimes we used english so that they can expose a bit about english”, (ir:b). the perception of the use of mother tongue/first language by teachers, which falls into this high category, is applied by english teachers in the classroom with the aim of explaining difficult grammar, ambiguous words, long instructions, to provide feedback and to check students' understanding, as well as to provide students with the opportunity to express their ideas. in line with this, gusti et al. (2020); hakim and suharto (2020) also argue that in learning english as a foreign language teachers have difficulty facilitating student learning unless there is interference or use of the first language. in addition, budiharto (2019) also support the results of this study, where they argue that students can improve their understanding of english effectively if they use the first language. in this context, the use of first language is also believed to help students acquire the required knowledge and to provide solutions to their incomprehension in learning english. in addition, a study from sibarani (2019) also supports the findings in this study, where in addition to being responded positively by students, the use of first language to explain knowledge about english (target language) will make it easier for students to absorb the knowledge. furthermore, research from çelik and aydin (2018); nufus and nufus (2021) also proved the same thing as the findings of this present study, that the first language or mother tongue is used to explain vocabulary, clarify unclear meanings, and build interaction and cooperation with students. this present study is also in line with research conducted by debreli and oyman, (2016); hasrina et al. (2018) which showed that the use of first language by teachers helps when generating safety, conveying words, checking for understanding, and explaining grammatical patterns. they also found some students who felt shy, afraid of making mistakes and anxious in using a foreign language. however, wahyuningsih & afandi (2020) has a view that teachers should have a view to maximise the use of foreign language (english) in efl classes, they 84 also believe that english should be the main language in the learning process, as well as teachers being a model for students in using english. in addition, kusuma (2018) rejects the excessive use of the first language, where the use of l1/mother tongue will create a bad atmosphere for teachers and students. liando et al. (2022) also add that the excessive use of the first language results in bad habits for teachers and students in the learning process, interaction in class using the first language will be felt comfortable by students so they don't want to get used to english as the target language. the first language will make students confused and misunderstood when they use english, this is because there is a mismatch in the choice of words from the first language to english, and vice versa (fithriani et al., 2019). when the teacher uses the first language in learning english, it will cause incorrect sentence patterns (pardede, 2018). resmini (2019) also examines the influence of first language on english learning. the results of his research show that students' habits in using their mother tongue are carried over into learning english, for example in using punctuation in writing, making sentences that are structurally incorrect (mother tongue translated directly into english), and in pronouncing words with the intonation, stress, and even dialect of their mother tongue. in line with this, zein et al. (2020) assert that in contrast to first language acquisition, a person acquires a second language through a learning process and is consciously learnt both in the classroom and outside the classroom. first language acquisition can be a good comparison as a starting point to explain second language acquisition, so that second language acquisition also requires learning activities for the internalisation process. several causes were found that hampered the learning of the target language (english). as expressed by patrick (2019) lack of comprehensible input in english. comprehensible input is described if a person acquires language and develops language literacy when that person understands the message conveyed both orally and in writing. in this case, comprehensible input greatly influences the amount of vocabulary students have. in addition, the lack of a culture of reading literacy in english among students is another factor in the lack of input into the language learning process. in fact, these findings are the same as this study, where most of the students are less interested in reading in english so that the written input they need is lacking. even though exposure to the target language is very important to increase the input of the target language in language learning (liando & tatipang, 2022). in fact that the writing in english did not match their pronunciation, even though when the subject had sufficient input of the language over time they would understand english patterns well. in addition, the attitude of students who tend to be closed and shy so that in practice students do not practice much of the input they get. most of them prefer silence for fear of making mistakes. in line with that, kansil et al. (2022) mentioned that this is due to the reason why many students have limited pronunciation skills because they rarely practice the target language. furthermore, english teacher is a model that provides intelligible input for students where good pronunciation will make a good contribution to teaching, while bad pronunciation will create difficulties in the process of learning the target language (rido & sari, 2018). in fact, the use of the first language in english classes has its own reasons, in addition to facilitating learning, the use of the first language can change the learning situation in english classes, this was revealed by one of the teachers: “honestly, english not only make the students felt bad in the classroom, english also made them to be quite during the lesson, this is even bad when we as a teacher trying to explain with english. fear of making mistakes from their pronunciation, writing or reading. this is why we used manado sometimes or even often in teaching, and sometimes use both manado and english in the same goes. this is to be one of the alternative to manage the classroom, motivating, explaining, directing, so many more, it is so useful”, (ir:a). in connection with the results of this study regarding the use of the first language by the teacher, in which this use has its own goals by the teacher. the use of l1 is to provide comfort to students so that they are brave and active in class, the teacher invites students to use the students' first language. the teacher really understands the condition of their students, with an environment that is far from urban areas, the need for students to learn english is very low, so when the teacher uses english in class the students look confused, tense, and sometimes the learning objectives are not achieved properly. therefore, to provide a sense of comfort for students to learn english, the teacher also uses mother tongue/first language in the teaching and learning process. in addition, because students lack confidence in using english in class so that when the teacher gives orders to appear in front of the class, ask questions, or even respond to the teacher, students become passive and even they just stay silent without making an active contribution in class. vice versa, when students are given the opportunity to perform in two languages (english and mother tongue (l1) students are excited and want to be actively involved in teaching and learning activities. this present study also found that the reason for using the first language provides comfort for students to be brave and active in class. this happens because the teacher is very familiar with 85 the condition of his students to learn english is very low, so when the teacher uses english in class students look confused, tense, and sometimes the learning objectives are not achieved properly. therefore, to give students a sense of comfort to learn english, the teacher also uses manado language in the teaching and learning process. another reason is because the use of mother/first language is a habit used in students' daily lives, the use of first language is used as an excuse to make it easier to understand english. teachers at the school revealed that students were very foreign to english, environmental conditions and parents' background influenced students not to be interested in learning a foreign language. thus, the teacher chooses to explain the material directly to the point by using the students' first language. the teacher also feels that the teaching and learning process becomes less effective when using full english, the students do not understand and the teacher has to translate into their native language. this is in line with the findings from liando & tatipang (2022) where when learning english and the teacher uses full english, learning will make students less interested and less motivated in learning. also, the use of this first language is to avoid misunderstanding the meaning of english, so teachers and students use the first language as an english translation tool. where this is in line with the findings from liando et al. (2022) where the first language can be a bridge for teachers to translate or make students more understand english. in the implementation of teaching and learning activities it is not uncommon for the teacher to translate english into manadonese. this is because students do not have an englishindonesian dictionary that they can use to look up the meaning of words that are difficult to understand. the teacher also believes that gestures are less able to help students understand words or sentences in english. give examples using pronouns or synonyms have also been done by the teacher, but still students understand more about the word that the teacher translated into mother tongue (manadonese). the language development of language students must be properly monitored by the teacher by adjusting the stages of student learning. meanwhile, when students make mistakes in speaking the target language, it is part of language development (interlanguage). this was also stated by liando et al. (2022) making mistakes in practicing the target language can be a medium for learning the target language. in this context, interlanguage has several characteristics, such as the influence of the previously learned language, the characteristics of a second language, and the characteristics of the loss of word functions and grammatical morphemes, these are often encountered in interlanguage systems. as for the language learning process to run well to help the development of target language learning for students, the researcher provides several learning recommendations, namely the teacher is required to provide appropriate scaffolding and is appropriate to students' language abilities, provide entertaining means in learning to add comprehensible input to students, such as games, music, watching movies with english subtitles. in addition, due to the students' lack of confidence in using english in class, when the teacher gave orders to perform in front of the class, ask questions, or respond to the teacher, the students became passive and even stayed silent without making an active contribution to the class. on the other hand, when students were given the opportunity to perform using two languages (english and manadonese) they were excited and willing to be actively involved in teaching and learning activities. also, the use of manadonese is a habit used in students' daily lives, so the use of manadonese is used as an excuse to make it easier to understand english. teachers at the school revealed that students are very afraid of english, thus, teachers choose to explain the material directly to the point using manadonese or sometimes mixed with english. the teacher also felt that the teaching and learning process became less effective when using full english, the students did not understand and the teacher had to translate into manadonese. also, to avoid misunderstanding the meaning of english, teachers and students use bahasa manado as a means of bridging english knowledge. specifically, there were some contradictory perspective toward previous studies, where budiharto, (2019); hakim and suharto, (2020); galali & cinkara, (2017) indicated a negative response toward their preference when the teachers used their mother tongue in elt. meanwhile, debreli and oyman, (2016); liando and tatipang, (2022); liando et al. (2022) indicated a positive response toward the l1 used including this present study. some students preferred the teachers to use l1 in the efl classroom, and it indicated that all students felt comfortable when the teachers used the mother tongue in the classroom. in addition, students believed that the use of l1 could not be denied and difficult to be banned in the english classroom because it is their daily language, but to be limited to the minimum use. there were some recommendations to reduce the excessive use of mother tongue in english classrooms, such as maximizing english functions in efl classrooms and giving students more opportunities to practice their english orally. using english as the target language, assisted by the appropriate use of mother tongue on certain occasions, could support language learning and enhanced students’ english mastery. 6. conclusions 86 the present study found that students had positive perceptions towards the use of the first language (l1) in english language learning, as it facilitated their understanding, motivation, and participation in the learning process. however, some previous studies have shown that the excessive use of l1 could hinder the creation of an english-only atmosphere in the classroom. despite this, the present study suggests that the appropriate use of l1 can be tolerated in some contexts, such as bridging knowledge and clarifying meanings. teachers' reasons for using l1 included providing knowledge, motivation, creating an active and conducive learning atmosphere, and avoiding misunderstandings. while the use of l1 can provide comfort and clarity to students, it may also result in a low level of mastery of the target language. to reduce the overuse of l1 in english classrooms, teachers should maximize english functions in efl classrooms and provide more opportunities for students to practice their english orally. using english as the target language, with the appropriate use of l1 on certain occasions, can enhance students' english mastery. further research is needed to explore the long-term effects of l1 use on language acquisition and to develop effective strategies to minimize its negative impact. by promoting a balanced approach to l1 use, language teaching and learning can become more effective and inclusive, ultimately contributing to the development of multilingualism and intercultural communication in a global context. 7. recommendation there are several recommendations for this research based on the findings and discussion. the first recommendation is that to improve the quality and the effectiveness in learning english the teacher use the first language to make the students more comfortable to learn english as the foreign language. for examples the teacher must use the first language to explain grammar, new words, provide clarification when students do not understand the language, provide bait behind repairs and explain their mistakes. next, for the teachers him/herself to make their students more understand about the material, the teacher must facilitate the use of first language in the classroom during the lesson, for example explain the difficult words or the new vocabulary with the first language or to explain about the material use the first language. to help the students to express what are they feel about the lesson, the use of native language/first language is important. however, the male students perceived is more than the female students about the use of l1 during the lesson. then, the researcher suggested for the future studies who will conduct similar study to conduct the study in another schools in north sulawesi, and even abroad since study are still few conducted in indonesia. last but not least, future researchers can also conducting such research to find out the advantages and disadvantages of the use of l1 in the classroom. references altay, m., curle, s., yuksel, d., & soruç, a. 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situation: bipa teachers' successful strategies for teaching local culture during the covid-19 pandemic prayitno tri laksono* & febti ismiatun universitas islam malang, malang, indonesia prayitno27@unisma.ac.id article history received : 2022-09-05 revised : 2023-01-23 accepted : 2023-03-15 keywords bipa bahasa indonesia local culture teaching strategies online learning abstract teaching culture is now highly challanging for teachers of bahasa indonesia bagi penutur asing (henceforth: bipa) or indonesian language for foreign speakers since it is conducted online during pandemic. several strategies had been offered by numerous researchers and educators to be applied in bipa teaching yet the results remained unsatisfactory. thus, this study aimed to explore the strategy used in teaching local culture by bipa teachers during online learning. using descriptive qualitative design, researchers recruited thirty-three bipa teachers who have experience teaching local culture for one year. they came from indonesia, malaysia, switzerland, and philipphines.triangulation data were applied by distributing the questionnaires, conducting online classroom observation, and doing in-depth interviews. after all data were gathered, researchers followed the miles and huberman flow model for analysis. the results showed that bipa teachers had limited time and interaction in the hard situation during the pandemic, therefore, teaching local culture by using online platform as one of the solutions since the students cannot interact directly with indonesian speakers was worth to conduct. to support teaching local culture, bipa teachers implemented three strategies, including watching cultural video shows, simplifying reading, and providing foreign students with more role-playing activities to engage with local cultures material. these strategies adequately assisted them in understanding the concept of indonesian local culture and supported their communication ability with indonesian speakers. 1. introduction bahasa indonesia bagi penutur asing (henceforth: bipa) research is prominent to be conducted in online learning. attention to this issue has been developed in the area of speaking, teaching materials, cultural materials, language test for bipa, and its learning design. in terms of speaking ability of bipa students, it increased by engaging role-playing strategy, simple dialogues about daily life, and telling some stories on zoom (faiza, 2021). then, effective teaching materials is also necessary to support learning strategy use not only in offline classroom, but also during online (rofiuddin et.al, 2021; violensia, 2021; & asyah, 2021). in addition, the preparation of bipa teaching materials should also refer to one of the curricula used by bipa stakeholders and in accordance with their levels of language abilities. nurlina (2020) stated in her research findings that the speaking materials in bipa is more effectively taught when it includes cultural elements. another important point in her findings is the combination of cultural material and the function of communication in bipa learning activities. thus, there is no separation between cultural and language materials in bipa learning. different from the previous-mentioned, there are several challenges found in bipa during online learning. according to susandi (2022), the challenges are the various background of the students’ country of origin, students’ learning styles, students’ first language, cultural differences, and the adaptation process of bipa students. it indicates that teaching culture turns to be a defiance in online learning because it does not only criticize cultural behavior and its object, but also shape the students’ behavior and interprets experiences in learning bipa (susandi, 2022; suyitno, 2008). therefore, it is imperative to use learning strategies needed by bipa students during online learning. https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v5i1.11199 mailto:prayitno27@unisma.ac.id 64 in line with islam (2022), a strategy that can be used in learning bipa during online is providing effective learning platform. students might not learn the culture directly into the social environement or can not communicate with indonesian speakers, thus, selecting the appropriate online platform for bipa is crucial to avoid students from limittaions such as distance and interaction. likewise, the use of effective learning platform during online must be adapted to the bipa curriculum so that students can achieve the learning objectives. connecting to the previous discussion, ismail (2022) proposed a strategy to teach culture in bipa by introducing language variations such as formal and informal language to bipa students. in a nutshell, bipa teachers must provide meaningful learning strategies so that the aim of communication can be achieved by the students. the implementation of teaching culture in bipa so far is very diverse. purwono and asteria (2021) integrate writing in bipa classroom by introducing folklore in indonesia. the result showed that the bipa students get more engaged about culture by learning folklore. similar with ariani (2019), she also introduced local culture to bipa students by creating balinese products in the form of canang sari. in addition, ulumuddin and wisamanto (2014) incorporate local culture of central java into the teaching materials they develop to build supportive environment in learning indonesian. on the other hand, teaching culture in bipa classroom is currently undergoing significant adjustments in its implementation. research founded by fitriyah and andayani (2022) stated that the implementation of learning bipa is more effective privately with one student-one teacher. this aimed to maximize the learning results. the integration of cultural materials is crucial since learning grammatical in bipa does not adequately meet the students’ needs. in addition, learning bipa during online could not be conducted maximally due to the diversity of local time in indonesia and abroad. from this phenomenon, the stakeholders and bipa practitioners are required to improve the strategy for the continuity of bipa. meanwhile, the shortcomings exist in learning bipa are the small portion of the cultural materials, the low use of learning strategies, and the lack of involvement of indonesian speakers to introduce culture to students. then, the offer of effective learning strategies in teaching culture needs to be conducted for further observation so that teacher can design effective methods, techniques, teaching materials, and integrative teaching procedures related to culture and indonesia language. therefore, bipa stakeholders must pay attention to aspects of cultural teaching in bipa curriculum (suyitno, 2008). this is in accordance with the previous theory which stated that the relationship between culture and language was highly complex and cannot be separated from one another. research on this issue is also noteworthy to conduct. by recruiting thirty-three bipa teachers from indonesia, malaysia, switzerland, and philliphines, it is expected to provide more information on how bipa teachers integrate cultures in online learning. in broader significance, the findings of this research may be useful for foreign students who need to learn bipa more strategically. 2. literature review 2.1 teaching culture for bipa most of the studies stated that teaching bipa is never separated from cultures (suyitno, 2007). although the main goal of teaching bipa is to make the students able to speak indonesian, besides, bipa students must also understand and be able to accept local cultures in indonesia which they can use to build communication appropriately in the community. challenges might arise during teaching bipa. beside the previous-mentioned, different characteristic and background of the students can be problematic as well (nurlina, et.al., 2020). this is in accordance with tjahyadi (2019) who stated that teachers must teach indonesian culture and how they use in the society, for example, indonesian people tend to like greeting other people they meet, such as “where are you going?you look great this morning” and other personal matters. these situations can be extremely different and impolite for bipa students coming from western countries (arybowo, 2010) since the culture between western and asia are quite distinctive. this matter surely requires to be known by bipa students to avoid misunderstanding in meaning (amalia, 2018).to respon this situation, teachers’ maturity in conducting good cross-cultural understanding must be built during the process of learning (wardhaugh, 2006). thus, there will be no fatal cultural shock for bipa students due to their incomprehension in adapting indonesian language to the real environment in society (sari et al., 2021). 2.2 what bipa teachers should know? stated in the previous discussion that there are various challenges in teaching culture such as the diversity of students’ country of origin, their language structure, and learning styles that demand them to learn bipa harder (susandi, 2022). moreover, the facts reveal that the little amount of cultural content taught, the teachers' inconsistent use of the same learning techniques, and the absence of experts teaching bipa turned out to be the shortcomings in teaching bipa (suyitno, 2008). to fill these gaps, exploring teaching the local culture in learning bipa is necessary, including the learning strategies, materials, and learning sources. however, there are some studies that have been done on the effectiveness of language learning strategies in general, and many of the strategies discussed in these studies can be applied to learning bipa as well (maharani & laksono, 2021; ismiatun, 2022) such as setting clear goals, active 65 engagement, immediate feedback, repetition, and practice, and incorporating technology. in the sequel, choosing the appropriate learning materials and sources is crucial in learning bipa because it can affect the effectiveness and efficiency of the learning process. materials that are not appropriate for the students’ level or do not align with their learning goals can lead to confusion, frustration, and lack of progress. on the other hand, materials that are wellsuited to the students’ level and align with their learning goals can help them to understand and retain the information better, resulting in faster and more effective learning. additionally, choosing credible and reliable sources can ensure that the information provided is accurate and up-to-date (hakim, 2020). the nature of the general pattern in question is the type and sequence of activities used and entrusted by teachers and students in various learning events (jubhari et al., 2022). thus, the strategy refers to the characteristics of a series of teacher-student actions in offline andonline teaching and learning. studies on local culture have been studied by myriads of reseacrhers. diah and setyaningrum (2018) asserted that local culture is one of the components that gives the students identity as a special community that exists among the nations of the world. therefore, it is deemed necessary to raise awareness for every second language learner to better understand the local culture of the people who speak the language they are studying. 2.3 implications of research due to the current pandemic conditions, learning has switched one hundred percent to online including bipa. although it is not easy, online learning conducted for bipa requires the teachres to be able to use the most appropriate strategy in online teaching so that they can transfer their knowledge optimally and put it into practice (lavasani & faryadres, 2011). studies related to local culture have been carried out by numerous researchers in a comprehensive manner. krasniqi (2019) states that language learning must always be related to local cultural content that applies to speakers in form of gestures, tone of voice, and choice of words when communicating. nurlina et al. (2020) mention the importance of incorporating is highly needed since bipa students might have dinstinction culture with indonesia. it is intended that the provision of local cultural materials can generalize the perceptions of bipa students regarding communication norms that are in accordance with local culture. local cultural studies also have significant value as an effort to overcome moral crises and anticipate changes in global culture that are increasingly fast (rachman, 2021). local culture is indeed very instrumental in protecting the existence of a community's identity so that it does not necessarily disappear due to the influence of other cultures (arybowo, 2010). through the introduction of local culture to bipa student, students are expected to learn the characteristics of culturrs and apply them to indonesian speakers. to sum up, implications of this study are to enhance the students’ understanding on local culture by implementing the most appropriate learning strategies, materials, and sources. understanding the cultural context in which a language is spoken can help students to use the indonesian language more effectively and appropriately. then, incorporating cultural elements into the curriculum can make the learning experience more engaging and interesting for students. by studying local culture, students can learn about the perspectives and experiences of people from different backgrounds, which can promote cultural understanding and mutual respect. at last, understanding the local culture would help students to interact with native speakers more effectively and appropriately, as well as to adapt to the local environment if they visit or live in the country where the language is spoken. 3. method this study aimed to explore the strategies used by bipa teachers in teaching local culture during online learning. researchers employed a descriptive qualitative approach in which thirty-three bipa teachers, from indonesia, malaysia, switzerland, and philliphines were involved as paritipants of this study. thirty-one of them now currently live in java and the the two of them are out of java. they were selected with a minimum of one year teaching bipa using a convenience sampling so that the objective of this study can be achieved. the participants filled up the questionnaires consisting of nine items and captured three classifications, i.e., teaching materials, teaching obstacles, and teaching strategies during online bipa learning. after that, researchers took seven participants using purposive sampling for interwiews session. this step was emerged to obtain more detailed information in relation to the strategies used by bipa teachers in teaching local cultures during online learning. in addition, data sources can be obtained from various literature studies related to the research to develop learning design. in addition to collecting data through questionnaires and interviews, the researcher also conducted observations into the online classes of several bipa teachers who still had classes during this research. this class observation serves as data triangulation and matching between participants’ answers to questionnaires and interviews. thus, the results of this data collection are unlikely be subjective. the data of this study were analyzed by following miles and huberman’s flow model (miles & huberman, 2007) that focus on how a natural setting unfold one’s behaviour. in this context, the model was applied by studying the learning bipa on the strategies 66 used by bipa teachers. data analysis were done to determine the types of media and learning materials, the challenges of bipa online learning, and the analysis of strategies used by bipa teachers when teaching cultural materials in online mode. this was begun by data collection, including observation and interview. after collecting data, data reduction was taken by analyzing data in accordance with the formulation of the problem and omitted unnecessary data. data reduction step in this study consisted of identification, classification, and codification. researchers tried to check the validity of research by first doing re-observation and the expert triangulation. 4. result based on the data collection process conducted in the field, the following are the from thirty-three participants. the presentation of research results is be described in the form of tables and descriptions of real conditions in the field. moreover, the results of the study also combine findings during observations and in-depth interviews with participants regarding the introduction of local culture in bipa classroom during online. triangulation of the presentation of this data is important in order to avoid the subjectivity of the data obtained from the results of qualitative research (miles & huberman, 2007). 4.1 the type of learning media used by bipa teachers during cultural teaching determination of local cultural teaching media in learning bipa is substantial by doing the students’ need analysis. thereafter, bipa teachers can map out what teaching media are most likely to be used according to the students’ living situation since not all countries are supportive for teaching online. bipa teachers as the participants in this study are 75% from lecturers at universities in indonesia. in addition, there are also teachers from overseas, the ministry of education and culture's bipa, and the independent bipa program. they have their own styles in choosing and using teaching media for local cultural materials during online learning. during this two-year pandemic period, teachers used various learning media as shown in table 4.1 table 4.1 online teaching media teaching media amount zoom, g-meet, skype 32 (97%) g-classroom, edmodo, moodle 13 (39.4%) own teaching media 3 (9.1%) based on the table 4.1 table, it can be explained that 97% of bipa teachers use teleconference media in the form of zoom, google meet, and skype applications. meanwhile, there are only 39.4% of teachers who use online learning management system such as google classroom, edmodo, and moodle, while 9.1% of bipa online utilize learning management system (lms). the reason why bipa teachers in online learning prefer to use teleconferencing applications in conducting learning is due to the easiness and effectiveness of teleconferencing applications as media for synchronous learning with their students. in addition, the material presentation is also easier and faster to acces. material related to cultural learning can also be delivered easily by bipa teachersduring online learning. bipa teachers who participated in the in-depth interviews also asserted that using the zoom teleconferencing application is similar to teaching in a conventional classroom. the intended features are a white board for writing, a breakout room for working in groups, and being able to display various kinds of learning files using the share screen feature. therefore, zoom is the most widely used application by teachers when teaching local culture in bipa online classes. this can be seen from the answers of bipa teachers when interviewed as follows. “zoom is the most fully featured and easier to use than other media…” [rtm/mki/1] “i might choose to continue using zoom to teach because i can divide the class into breakout rooms if the class has a lot of students…” [rtm/al/1] it is also unavoidable; teachers should master online teaching media during the covid-19 pandemic. this is due to the increasing loss of class boundaries between teachers and students so that they can continue to carry out learning both synchronously (talpur et al., 2021). thereupon, it is undeniable that there are still some limitations in learning bipa today. the results of observations in online classes shows that the students were lack of engagement during the online class and could not maximally be conducted to transfer knowledge. even though cultural learning through bipa has a lot of limitation, bipa teachers argue that teaching local cultural materials is still considered very important to be included in learning bipa during online learning. this can be seen in table 4.2 which shows that 78.8% of the thirty-three bipa teachers think that teaching local culture is very important. table 4.2 importance of teaching local culture 67 no opinion amount 1 very important 78.8% 2 important 18.2% 3 quite important 0% the importance of teaching local culture is in line with the opinion of (amalia, 2018) who stated that cultural aspects were very important in the use of language when they communicated with the surrounding community. every language user in this world cannot be separated from the cultural role commonly used by speakers of the language. therefore, teaching cultural materials cannot be separated from bipa. this is supported by the answers of bipa teachers in in-depth interviews which was quoted as follow. “learning cultural material is definitely a must and should be incorporated into my lessons…” [itlc/en/2] “sometimes it is difficult to teach culture in zoom but it is still necessary and must be done …” [itlc/ca/2] 78.8% of the participants strongly agree that local culture must still be taught by teachers so that the language production of bipa students cannot be separated from the element of politeness that is appropriate and applicable in society. foreign speakers will be easier to socialize with native speakers when they are able to adjust word choices based on the politeness element in society (arybowo, 2010). furthermore, to support the importance of teaching local culture in online classroom, participants in the study also mentioned that the majority of them used local cultural teaching materials in the form of cultural videos obtained from several sources. this can be seen from the results of the questionnaire in table 4.3. table 4.3 types of learning sources in teaching local culture no learning sources amount 1 other author's textbooks 60.6% 2 self-written textbook 51.5% 3 cultural videos from youtube 87.9% 4 self-made cultural videos 21.2% 5 cultural props from other sources 51.5% 6 self-made cultural props 15.2% the selection of learning sources chosen by the participants is based on the rule where they can choose three learning sources in teaching local culture. from the results of the questionnaire, it was found that there were twenty-nine bipa teachers or 87.9% of the total participants who answered that cultural videos from other sources were their main choice when teaching local culture in online classes. in addition to that, bipa teachers also chose textbooks from other authors and textbooks written by the teachers themselves. the selection was based on the easiness to find sources because of the wide variety of video sources and textbooks available outside. in line with that, in an interview with a bipa teacher, he also mentioned the same thing as quoted below. “…cultural videos on youtube have more options and it's quick to use because i can't make my own video….” [tlctm/ea/3] “sometimes the theme of local cultue that you are looking for can be typed directly on youtube…” [tlctm/mna/3] “i have my own local culture teaching materials but they are not as complete as those in other writers' teaching materials. so, i combined them…” [tlctm/ca/3] this means that the use of cultural videos is more effective in building cultural knowledge for bipa students because they can indirectly watch and listen to cultural activities through indonesian = speakers shown in videos. snippets of local culture videos are considered sufficient to represent customs or culture that also applies in indonesian society. however, it is better for teachers to provide additional reinforcements related to watching videos of local culture in order to produce guided thinking concepts. thus, there will be a balance of information from the videos that students watch with information from their bipa teachers who also act as native speakers and cultural owners. textbooks from other authors are also the second most common choice of learning sources used by bipa teachers. this can be seen from the number of participants who prefered to use textbooks from other authors, which amounted to 20 participants or 60.6% of total participants. the selection of this textbook is based on the easiness and practicality in preparing it. meanwhile, there were only 17 participants or only 51.5% who answered that they wrote local cultural learning sources themselves to support bipa learning. self-written textbook is considered necessary to obtain additional information from other textbook sources. this statement can be seen in the interview as quoted below. “…the cultural material from the author's source is better and there are suitable examples…” [tlctm/ep/3] 68 "teachers should not only use one book, but they must be compared more tha one book, right..." [tlctm/al/3] meanwhile, from thirty-three participants, there were only 5 participants or only 15.2% who used self made cultural props in online learning. this is based on the experience of bipa teachers during online learning who explained that cultural props such as traditional clothes, cultural tools such as batik or other cultural tools are more practical to buy or borrow from others because the quality and accuracy of cultural objects are better than the props. this is supported by the results of extracting data through interviews with participants in the accounts below. "well, i like to show more concrete cultural objects such as borrowing traditional clothes from other places and sometimes i also borrow batik or typical fabrics from various regions..." [tlctm/en/3] table 4.4 learning materials in online bipa learning no learning materials amount 1 giving reading material the day before class starts 51.5% 2 simplify reading 69.7% 3 make a transcript of the video content 27.3% 4 giving extra time outside the class schedule 9.1% 5 make a class deal 6.1% 6 self-made local cultural materials 75.8% 7 using additional applications besides zoom 48.5% based on the results of data collection related to the materials chosen by bipa teachers during online learning, 75.8% participants answered that the best solution to build cultural learning is by making suitable local cultural materials with the needs of their students. in addition, simplifying reading is also the second most common choice because it is considered capable of providing efficient time for students with a short study duration. this helps students to quickly understand the material because the word choice and sentences in the reading has been adjusted to the students' abilities and the duration of their study hours. the strengthening of opinions regarding teacher solutions when teaching is also shown when participants answer interviews as shown below. “usually in conventional classes i use books with complex readings because i can correct their reading quickly in class. in contrast to classes, to correct each student's reading alone can take a long time and can't be fast…” [srl/mki/7] the selection of the solution is indeed based on the needs analysis recorded by the teacher before the program starts. this happen in order to make the local cultural material taught is not in vain and will be used by bipa students in real life. in addition to the students’ need, participants also answered that the second-best solution in overcoming obstacles is to simplify reading materials related to local culture. the reading materials are given to bipa student before the material is discussed in the classroom. the purpose of providing these reading materials is to make bipa aware of studying the upcoming materials. the use of objects that represent local culture can indeed help bipa students to know things related to local culture directly. in addition, teachers can also directly demonstrate the use of costumes from various regions in indonesia to be shown to students. the consideration of bipa teachers to use local culture teaching materials during online classroom is based on the suitability of local culture teaching materials with the needs of bipa studentsto facilitate the learning process. this is evidenced in table 4.4. table 4.5 determination of local culture teaching materials no determination of teaching materials amount 1 easiness to use 39.4% 2 availability of teaching materials in media 27.3% 3 the suitability of the material with the original condition 45.5% 4 suitability of teaching materials with students needs 81.8% 5 the attractiveness of local cultural teaching materials 30.3% from 33 participants who have filled out the questionnaire, 81.8% of participants stated that the adjustment of teaching materials to the students’ needs is the main thing in teaching local culture. this means that teachers must analyze bipa student first. after the analysis is intended, teachers can map out what local cultural materials needed by bipa students. the excerpts from the interviews below also explain the importance of teachers in conducting an initial needs analysis. 69 “…the teacher team usually also conducts interviews at the beginning of the meeting or pre-class regarding what cultural material needed by bipa students” [dlctm/ep/4] these activities can be conducted by teachers in order to facilitate the preparation of local cultural materials as well. the sequence of what culture should be taught can also be mapped once the teacher has obtained the results of the initial needs analysis. in addition, 45.5% of participants stated that the use of local cultural teaching materials was based on the suitability of the teaching materials with the original conditions to be studied. in line with the considerations of bipa teachers in determining the teaching materials they used, they also need to pay attention to the content of the teaching materials. based on the results of surveys and interviews to the participants, polite culture in oral communication became the main material chosen by teachers in bipa classroom. this can be seen from 27 participants who chose politeness material as the most important material to be taught. in addition, materials related to habits that should/should not be done, local wisdom, and special arts are the top choices as materials taught by bipa teachers during online learning. these materials were chosen by the teachers with the consideration that although bipa students cannot study in indonesia directly, they are still able to understand the cultural system that applies in indonesiawhen they come to indonesia in the future. this can be seen in table 4.5 below. table 4.6 selection of local cultural materials no cultural material amount 1 politeness in communication 81.8% 2 habits should/should not be done 72.2% 3 community local wisdom 63.6% 4 special art in the community 63.6% 5 ritual/religious activities 21.2% in the results of the interview, the participants' answers showed that incorporating an element of courtesy in language learning is important and mandatory. this statement can be seen in the excerpt from the interview below. “…the element of politeness is inherent in the choice of words in language learning. so, i shouldn't neglect this material to be taught in class…” [slcm/al/5] “they have to know about the good word choice… it's like feeling the culture in their language at the same time” [slcm/en/5] “i once had a small debate when there were students who disagreed with the concept of “anda” “kamu” word” [slcm/ca/5] the results of the questionnaires and interviews have indeed shown that it is very crucial for bipa teachers to include elements of polite culture in the bipa teaching material. as stated at the beginning of research, culture is indeed an inseparable part of language because it is a form of application of culture itself in society. the participants of this study determined that manners in oral communication as the most important material in learning bipa. this can be seen from 81.8% of participants who chose politeness in communication. meanwhile, the cultural materials, such as ritual and religious materials, are the lowest choice, which only chosen by 21.2% of participants. this is what stated by the participants during the interview which clearly explain why they become the lowest choice. this explanation is accounted as follows: “…i don't think it's too important to include religious rituals in the material. sometimes they will feel offended if something is different…” [slcm/mki/5] “… yes, it can be included as long as it is not about sensitive matters related to religious beliefs…” [slcm/ep/5] bipa students who come from western countries are not interested in discussing the concept of religious belief. this was stated by one of the bipa teachers who said that it was better to keep general topics rather than specific topics that caused discomfort. therefore, materials related to manners should be the most important material in bipa learning so that the students understand how to communicate with indonesian speakers. 4.2 challenges in teaching local culture by online bipa teachers learning bipa in online mode has challenges both internal and external factors. this can be seen from the results of data collection regarding the difficulties of bipa teachers when teaching local culture in online mode. table 4.7 obstacles of learning bipa in online learning no constraint amount 70 1 limited interaction 75.8% 2 unstabel internet connection 60.6% 3 power outage 12.1% 4 poor audio-visual quality 54.5% 5 student attention is not maximal 24.2% 6 limited study duration 54.5% based on the table above, the main obstacle experienced by bipa teachers during online learning is the limited interaction with students. it is stated by 75.8% of participants. teacher cannot communicate effectively with their students especially in explaining the materials. the following is an excerpt from interviews with bipa teachers about these obstacles. "...it's better to teach in offline class, in offline class the students have the opportunity to see us socializing with them directly, meanwhile when conducting the class via zoom, the interaction looks stiff and limited” [obrlp/mna/6] “oh right, the attention of students also cannot be maximized because they often turn off the camera with the excuse of a bad signal. this is also one obstacle found in class…” [obrlp/al/6] the lack of interaction in learning is also conveyed by teachers. the main problem that causes their lack of interaction is unstable internet connection. this problem can cause disruption when receiving image/video and audio receipts delivered by the students during speaking practice or when responding to questions from online bipa teachers. in addition, another problem found in online bipa learning is time differences between indonesia and bipa students’ country which can even reach a 12-hour time difference. the explanation from bipa teacher regarding time differences is shown in the quote below. “…i was still confused the first time i took classes because the time in malang and the us was more than 10 hours apart. i have to teach at night and even early in the morning meanwhile its usually ttime for me to sleep” [obrlp/ca/6] for example, one of bipa teachers mentioned in the interviews session that he/she must conduct the learning with students from america at 02:00 a.m because in america learning starts at 11:00 a.m local time. this condition is the main obstacle related to the performance of teachers when they teach in the early hours. table 4.7 indicates the strategies used by bipa teachers during teaching cultures in online modebelow shows solutions that are most widely used by online bipa teachers so far. 4.3 the strategies used by bipa teachers in teaching culture in this study, the teaching strategy focuses on local cultural materials in bipa. teachers can use the teambased learning to make online learning more effective. learning bipa using team-based will help teachers to manage the class easier. the role of the team is to make online learning more structured and measurable because there are two or more teachers who can collaborate and assess the bipa students. in this context, teachers can teach local cultural materials in an integrative manner with the language skills so that it makes the learning more efficient and communicative. in addition, local cultural materials can be taught at the same time with language materials. it can be seen from 54.5% of participants answering that the duration of effective teaching local cultures is 30% of the total learning. the participants in this study use several local cultural learning strategies as shown in table 4.8. table 4.8 strategies in learning bipa during online no learning strategies amount 1 live lectures/explanations 69.7% 2 cultural props show 75.8% 3 practicing local cultural forms independently 60.6% 4 watch documentary videos about local culture 84.8% 5 invite cultural experts as informant in class 33.3% watch documentary videos related to local culture is the main strategy chosen by bipa teachers in teaching cultural materials. it can be seen that there are 84.8% of participants who choose watching documentary videos as shown in the table above. watching videos is an effective strategy in online learning because bipa students cannot witness the cultural activities of the indonesian people directly. through watching videos, bipa students can practice listening skills from indonesian speakers. in addition to that, bipa teachers also choose showing props to bipa students through media as their strategy so the students can see directly the cultural objects they are studying. the strategy choice is also shown in the teacher's words when interviews session as shown below. "the most appropriate choice is to watch videos of people communicating because there must be cultural elements that can be seen from the conversation..." 71 [sbrlp/ep/8] “…students are often more enthusiastic when watching videos about culture. through the videos they can hear a lot of new things, new words, and can discuss about it with the teacher…” [sbrlp/mna/8] “i sometimes dance and my students watch it via zoom so that my students can see the culture directly from the teacher. this strategy is challenging but can attracts their attention more.” [sbrlp/en/8] although online learning has a lot of limitations compared to conventional learning, bipa teachers must be able to create a fun classroom atmosphere. inviting cultural experts in their classes can be one of the strategies to attract their attention so that they can discuss directly with the experts. through direct discussion, the enthusiasm of bipa students will increase because the experts can help students answering their questions. then, bipa teachers should also prepare learning evaluation strategies during online learning. good learning assessment can predict the achievements especially in the local cultural materials. therefore, bipa teachers need specific strategy to evaluate the learning outcomes of their students. the following table contains the results related to specific strategies in measuring the learning outcomes of local cultural materials. table 4.9 evaluation of bipa during online learning no evaluation type amount 1 giving multiple choice questions or short essays 42.4% 2 role play 60.6% 3 questions in a short interview 66.7% 4 small competition in the form of appreciation of local culture 24.2% the limitations in bipa requires bipa teachers to be more creative in evaluating the students’ achievement. without evaluation, the teacher will not be able to know whether the material is understandable or not. table 4.9 shows that the there are 66.7% of teachers evaluate the students by asking questions in short interviews to measure their understanding of the materials that had been taught. short interviews were conducted one by one to know if the material had or had not been understood. after that, the teachers can provide feedback to the student and re-explain material that had not been understood well. moreover, 60.6% of teachers also measured the abilities of bipa students through role-playing activities. the activity is designed in the form of a local cultural context that has been studied and then played so the students can get the real environment of the culture. role playing also help bipa student in the embodiment of the local cultural meaning they have already obtained in the excerpt from the interview with the teachers, the researchers found one of the evaluations made by the teacher that the students liked. “a student of mine asked why there are no more role-playing quizzes? because at that time i invited them to play a role in the context of buying and selling and bargaining culture. they are very happy when they know that in indonesia they can bid easily and definitely get a cheap price when in the market.” [ebrlp/al/9] the interviews excerpt above prove that the choice of modeling strategy to learn about bargaining culture is very imprinted on the minds of students until they remember it and want to repeat the role-playing activity. teachers can include cultural elements directly when students are invited to role-play because there are certain contexts that can be taught, especially in terms of local culture. 5. discussion bipa learning during the pandemic has many challenges for teachers in teaching indonesian in the local cultural context. these challenges arise from various aspects and must be mapped so that bipa teachers can teach language and culture optimally in hard situations. in this study, researchers involved thirty-three bipa teachers as participants to be able to find (1) types of media and learning materials, (2) online bipa learning challenges, and (3) the strategies used by bipa teachers in online teaching local language and culture to foreign speakers. in the process of collecting data, researchers conducted online questionnaires and interviews with bipa teachers. the following are discussed in terms of three matters. 5.1 the type of media and learning materials the results of this study show that teaching cultural materials is still very important to be included in bipaduring online learning. bipa teachers cannot abandon cultural materials because culture is the embodiment of the language of the speakers (purwono & asteria, 2021). as explained in previous research, the cultural elements in language cannot be separated in language teaching (rofiuddin et al., 2022). this means that teaching culture is essential to be taught to ease the students learn bipa. it is appropriate that bipa teachers are also proficient in explanations related to local cultural materials so that students are able to take pictures of distinctive language forms based on their cultures. a good bipa teacher will 72 always pay attention to the choice of learning strategies in the classroom related to teaching language and culture to their students (krasniqi, 2019). as explained before, there were thirty-three bipa teachers who become the participants of this study regarding cultural teaching strategies in online learning. they consider that the skill of teachers when using online media is a mandatory requirement during the covid-19 pandemic. based on their experiences, mastering teleconferencing applications such as zoom or google meet can help teachers to continue teaching. beside that, a matter of teachers’ proficiency of teaching culture is also important so that students have well-constructued of culture knowledge in bipa. this is also supported by the findings which show that as many as 97% of participants use the zoom and google meet applications for learning. in a study held by purwono and asteria (2021) stated that students' skills in using teleconference applications also contribute to the smoothness of the bipa learning process. without these skills, for the bipa students may not be able to gain comprehensive and good knowledge of learning language and culture (hakim, 2020). the selection of teaching local cultural in bipa is determined by the analysis of the initial needs of bipa students. bipa teachers analyze their students’ initial needs before they develop a learning strategy for the local cultural materials. the analysis is done in order to make sure that material taught is in accordance with the targets to be achieved by bipa teachers and students. in this context, cultural materials include manners, manners in communication, and local wisdom become the main material that can be taught through online learning in accordance with the results of the need analysis. based on to these facts, mastery of teleconference applications such as zoom and google meet make the teaching process run more effectively. 5.2 the challenges of bipa during online learning although learning activities are done through online platforms, it does not mean that teachers exclude the introduction of local culture in bipa learning. the local culture must still be included in learning because the use of a language is never separated from the cultural materilas of language speakers (pratama, 2021). the challenges that arise in local cultural are related to the limitations of interaction during online learning (septriani, 2021). an unstable internet connectionis the main obstacle because poor signal can reduce audio-visual quality as well (anggaira, 2022). another obstacle is the limited time of video teleconference services such as zoom. teachers also cannot invite bipa students to experience direct communication with the indonesian speakers unlike during offline/conventional learning. however, teachers can still collaborate with cultural experts or cultural pratitioners who can act as informants during online learning. this collaboration is very important to do in order to support students' insights from sources other than the teacher himself (herlinawati et al., 2022). therewith, another challenge in cultural learning is the inability of bipa students to use digital platforms. in accordance with the results of nofaie (2020) which states that distractions at home, distance from interaction, and the inability to use digital platforms properly prevent the optimal learning process. bipa learning should indeed be carried out by teachers and students who are already able to use digital platforms well. based on the research results of octaberlina and muslimin (2020) that teachers experience discomfort when teaching because of limited direct interaction and teaching boredom. the limited interaction and boredom can be a serious challenge for bipa teachers if an appropriate method is not immediately found to teach cultural materials to bipa students. in bipa learning, other challenges are also found in the form of teacher difficulties when evaluating learning outcomes. these difficulties are caused by the instability of the internet network which sometimes interferes with the audio-visual quality of teachers in providing feedback on digital learning platforms. willermark and anna (2022) also stated that communication in learning has challenges in terms of very limited communication because teachers and students cannot communicate informally and naturally like in face-to-face communication. 5.3 the strategies used by bipa teacher during online learning on the other hand, the local culture must still be introduced to the students because word choice is determined by the cultural context in which they speak (yogha, 2021). therefore, the best solution provided by teachers is to keep creating a learning context that is designed as if they are in the middle of a native society by using role-playing techniques in learning. role playing is an effective type of learning strategy that makes students understand the context of conversation (brown, 2006). surely, a good role playing is to use a certain conversation context and according to the planned target language. according to interview session, it can be seen that reading and listening to cultural materials can be simplified by giving the students a short reading material the day before class starts and providing subtitles for each video that is shown. as revealed in the results of idol & croll's (2016) which states that mapping simpler reading topics can speed up the process of students' understanding of the long reading topics they are reading. on the other hand, eryka and pustika (2021) found students' reading motivation increased when the teacher provided pictures and simpler reading assistance. students can increase their 73 motivation in finding more information in reading when they have been stimulated with pictures accompanied by simple reading as an introduction. this strategy used by teacher to facilitate students’ understanding and preparing schemata during discussions in online classes. moreover, it provides students with limitations in cultural discussions, but teachers still must facilitate consultation related to cultural materials outside the classroom. beside that, the teacher also gives opportunity for bipa students to watch a cultural video more than once so that their understanding can improve better. several teachers also stated that watching video was the most favorite part of student’s activity during online learning. they stated that by watching cultural videos, their knowledge about indonesian culture can be improved well (zainal & zainuddin, 2021). it implies thatcultural videos ease the students to recognize cultural values indirectly through interesting audiovisual shows. giving questions in the form of short interviews by the teacher is an effective evaluation to measure students' knowledge of indonesian culture (kristanto, 2017). in this case, teachers often ask students about short questions to ensure that their knowledge of indonesian culture is correct. based on these questions, usually bipa students will explain their answers quite completely. in the results of the discussion, it was found that local cultural teaching strategies used by bipa teachers during online learning can include (1) using teleconferencing applications, (2) simplifying reading, (3) showing videos related to local culture, (4) providing collaborative classes with cultural expert guests, (5) using measurable evaluations such as role playing in the context of local culture, and (6) conducting short interviews as evaluation. some of these strategies are applied so that online learning can still be effective and run according to the learning design. the direct impact that can be applied from the results of this study is that bipa teachers have new references in designing appropriate local culture strategies during online class. in addition, teachers can also see teaching materials and media that can be utilized to introduce the local cultures. 6. conclusions teaching local culture in bipa, especially during online learning, requires more attentions. myriads of studies have revealed how local culture is introduced in face-to-face meeting, including the teaching strategies, teaching materials, and learning media used. the challenge in teaching local culture between offline and online learning are quite different. however, there is just plenty research that discusses the strategy of introducing culture in bipa learning due to some limitations, and the results remain unsatisfying. thus, this study has filled the gap by unveiling some strategies applied by bipa teachers in teaching local culture, i.e., watching documentary videos about local culture, culture props show, live lecturing, practicing local culture forms independently, and inviting cultural experts as informant. by implementing those five strategies, it might help bipa teachers in teaching local culture during online learning so that the bipa learning remains meaningful. in addition to this, the direct impact is that bipa teachers have new references in designing strategies to introduce local cultures that are appropriate to use in online learning. teachers can also see teaching materials and media that can be used in introducing local culture in bipa learning. 7. acknowledgment this study is partially funded by the universitas islam malang (unisma malang) through the lppm research grant program, hibah-universitas islam malang (hi-ma). thus, researchers express their gratitude towards the institution and also lppm unisma malang. references abrian, r. & sulistiawati, a. 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(2021). malaysian english language teachers’ agency in using digital technologies during the pandemic: a narrative inquiry. íkala, 26(3), 587-602. http://dx.doi.org/10.17533/udea.ikala.v26n3a07 https://doi.org/10.33258/birle.v3i2.1033 http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v9n6p1 https://doi.org/10.25134/fjpbsi.v17i1.3892 https://doi.org/10.20473/ijss.v13i2.29918 https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i1.7851 https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i3.7401 https://doi.org/10.26499/rnh.v10i1.3376 http://journal.um.ac.id/index.php/jptpp/ http://dx.doi.org/10.23960/jpp.v12.i3.202207 https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i3.6908 http://dx.doi.org/10.17977/jptpp.v6i7.14925 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2022.100078 http://dx.doi.org/10.17533/udea.ikala.v26n3a07 76 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v5i2.10687 vol. 5, no. 2, august 2023, pp. xx-xxx 99 a closer look on indonesian efl students’ writing process: the application of cognitive and metacognitive strategies safira azizah & soraya soraya * sekolah tinggi bahasa asing lia, jakarta, indonesia soraya@stbalia.ac.id article history received : 2022-07-18 revised : 2023-05-28 accepted : 2023-06-10 keywords cognitive strategy; metacognitive strategy; think-aloud protocol; higher education; essay writing. abstract cognitive and metacognitive strategies have been researched to find an effective strategy in teaching writing. however, little attention has been given to investigate what is on the students’ minds while applying those strategies in the writing process. this descriptive qualitative study aims to investigate the process of applying the cognitive and metacognitive strategies by efl students while performing argumentative essays. three university students of the english department taking the essay writing subject were invited to record the process of authoring argumentative essays using zoom recording to display full audio and video on screen. their writings were checked and the students were interviewed. this process used think-aloud protocols (taps) completed with the screen recording method (srm) to record all activities on the computer screen, students’ work, and the interview explored the learners’ perception towards particular situation in their writing process. the data were categorized and analyzed using english as a foreign language (efl) writing strategies as a framework for narrative analysis. this study found that both cognitive and metacognitive strategies helped all participants complete their essay through the thinking process and decision making of each step and strategy. while cognitive and metacognitive were applied distinctively in each participant’s writing processes, it produced the internalization of writing steps critically in selfregulated learning. this study demonstrates that cognitive and metacognitive processes are effective in promoting varied writing strategies and self-regulated learning for efl learners. to get a thorough application of cognitive and metacognitive strategies in writing activity, future research can use other genre for students at different age or level of education. 1. introduction writing is a complex skill for students because they think as they write. it is a “mental process that involves thinking, reflecting, preparing, rehearsing, making mistakes, and finding alternative solutions” (diaz-larenas et al., 2017, p. 88). the activity in writing “enabled people to record, examine, and evaluate representations of reasoning as objects of reflection” (ferretti & graham, 2019, p. 1346; güneyli, 2016). the writer’s prior knowledge, experience, and thoughts would be expressed in language elements, including vocabulary, grammar, and structure (azizi & narges, 2017). writing competence is not only determined by knowledge of language rules and symbols, but should also be supported by the ability to generate and organize ideas, use appropriate words and sentences, and organize paragraphs (richards & renandya, 2002; nourdad & aghayi, 2016; qadir et al., 2021). in short, writing skills suggest a composition that recognizes the importance of generating, formulating, and refining one’s ideas (ramadhan, 2019) to convey the message to the readers. the idea of the message should be delivered in a certain kind of text (pitenoee et al., 2017) efficiently and effectively. thus, writing is frequently assumed to be the most essential skill to amass by students (jubhari et al., 2022; karpova, 2020) and it can be considered as the primary language competency in class or out-of-class (manchon, 2018; alharbi, 2019; marques & signes, 2016). https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v5i2.10687 mailto:soraya@stbalia.ac.id 100 however, the involution of writing in a foreign language is often perceived as a daunting task for efl students. it is far more complicated than writing in one’s native language due to the complexity of acquiring that skill (al-sawalha et al., 2012) and students feel the increasing level of difficulty after learning writing (harmer, 2007, p. 326). nowadays, most students are not interested in writing because they lack vocabulary, ability to organize ideas, and arrangement of words with appropriate grammar and structures (ramadhan, 2019; anaktototy, 2019; latifi et al., 2021). it is confirmed by rahmatunisa (2014) that indonesian efl learners face three major problems in writing an argumentative essay: linguistic, cognitive, and psychological problems. linguistic problems were mostly stemmed from their poor competence in english. the cognitive problems deal with organization of ideas/topics, and the psychological problems are due to laziness and lack of drive to do the writing task (junianti et al., 2020). the situation becomes complicated for higher education students who must produce argumentative essays in both academic and personal setting (luna et al., 2020; kleemola et al., 2022). argumentative writing is a scientific paper that entails arguments, explanations, proofs, or reasons (abbas & herdi, 2018). it is crucial for students to build and review their knowledge, as well as communicate their specific objectives and emphases (sanu, 2016) through written arguments (lu & zhang, 2013 p. 66) however, students may find it difficult to compose written argumentation because their lack of sensitivity to alternative perspectives and poor writing quality (abbas & herdi, 2018; ferretti & graham, 2019). undergraduate students often misunderstand the argument and their way of expressing their thoughts (wingate, 2012). to have a solid argumentation strategy (wingate, 2012), students must position themselves by generating, understanding, evaluating, and combining arguments and counterarguments from various sources and perspectives (luna et al., 2020; khunaifi, 2015). in short, authoring an argumentative essay is a task “that calls upon multiple and complex cognitive and metacognitive skills” (benetos & bétrancourt, 2020, p. 264). since cognitive components determine students’ knowledge and processing capacities, students should be taught writing strategies explicitly to enable them to plan, write, and revise their essays (ferretti & graham, 2019). flower and hayes (1981) stated that writing process involves a number of metacognitive and cognitive activities. pioneers in these fields, flower and hayes (1981) suggested cognitive process model which included a study of sub-processes (planning, retrieving information from long-term memory, reviewing, and so on) that make up the larger process of writing; the manner these subprocesses interact in the entire writing process; and the response to critical questions in the discipline. the evidence of cognitive and metacognitive strategies enhancing the students’ learning has been reported. mu & carrington (2007) proved that writing strategies improved students’ writing proficiency and solved writing problems. also, cognitive and metacognitive strategies were considered helpful for the writers to overcome the difficulties of writing through instruction (nückles et al., 2009), to enhance the content and quality of students’ writing (pitenoee et al., 2017), and to help students self-regulate their understanding of subject matter (maftoon & seyyedrezaei, 2012). although students of different genders applied cognitive-metacognitive strategies differently, the teaching and learning of esl academic writing are equally and significantly impacted (aripin & rahmat, 2020). while these studies show the positive impact of cognitive-metacognitive strategies in esl writing, none has provided a comprehensive study on students’ mind while composing the essay. flower and hayes (1981) stated that if one studies the process of writing from generating ideas to revision, one can see the learning process in action. also, kleemola et al. (2022) suggested there be a study investigating cognitive processes during writing to provide “a more thorough understanding of argumentative skills and strategies” (p. 10). therefore, this study aims to explore the process of students applying both cognitive and metacognitive strategies in writing an argumentative essay to better understand what they undergo in the writing process. observing the complete writing process from prewriting, writing, and post-writing would provide this study a complete picture of strategies in creating arguments. this study also highlights the participants’ ways to solve the potential in the writing process. the results of this study expect to contribute to the pedagogical teaching of writing for efl learners. thus, to fulfill the research objectives mentioned, the study applied a think-aloud protocol (tap) to capture the complete process. tap captures a detailed record of what is going on in the writer's mind while composing (flower and hayes, 1981; diaz-larenas et al., 2017). together with screen recordings and interviews, tap gave us a very detailed picture of the writers' composing process, not only the essay development but also the underlying intellectual processes. the subject of this study was limited to three students authoring the argumentative essay. 2. literature review 2.1 esl writing process mastering writing competence is a timeconsuming process, as writing is a process rather than a product (oshima, 2006), as it also challenges the 101 cognitive systems for memory and thinking. according to kellog (2008), writers use virtually everything they have learned and stored away in longterm memory by rapidly retrieving it or by actively maintaining it in short-term working memory because thinking is so closely linked to writing. in other words, “the writer should be aware of his/her learning process in order to be an effective writer” (diazlarenas et.al., 2017). the writing process typically involves four key stages: planning, drafting, editing, and producing a final version (harmer, 2004) as illustrated in figure 1. writers must decide what to say and how to say it by maximizing their reasoning skills and self-regulation skills (including goal setting, self-monitoring, selfinstruction, and self-reinforcement) to help them manage writing strategies, writing process, and their behaviors (graham & perin, 2007). diaz-larenas et al. 2017 the writing process into planning draft, writing a text, revising, and editing as illustrated in figure 2. considering the complexity in writing process, language teachers need to tailor the instructions to students' individual needs (johnson, 2008) and remind their efl students of employing the appropriate writing strategies to enhance their writing skills (alsawalha et al., 2012). there is a close relationship between writing and thinking which makes it important to investigate (raimes, 1983). additionally, students should learn to use online resources to generate writing ideas, receive support, and access evaluative tools to improve their writing competence. as digital resources become increasingly available, innovative approaches to teaching writing can support student self-sufficiency and independence (karpova, 2020), with understanding that "the writing process emphasizes the writer as an independent producer of texts" (hyland, 2003, p.10). therefore, students should learn from the writing processes used by professionals (johnson, 2008) to observe the positive correlation between writing competence and strategy (chien, 2012). 2.2 cognitive and metacognitive strategies cognitive and metacognitive strategies helped to overcome the difficulties of writing through instruction. the strategies assisted students to selfregulate their understanding of the subject matter (nückles et al., 2009) and helped enhance their writing content and quality (pitenoee et al., 2017). in addition to upgrading language proficiency, cognitive and metacognitive strategies were proven by maftoon and seyyedrezaei (2012) to enable students to communicate ideas clearly and logically. it is because writing process is related to the cognitive process and some factors such as cultural, motivational, and social (jennifer and ponniah, 2017; mastan et al., 2017). cognitive strategies refer to the mental operations or steps used by learners to learn and apply the latest information to specific learning tasks (sethuraman & radhakrishnan, 2020). cognitive strategies allow users to process, store, and transform diverse types of knowledge (mu, 2005). the taxonomy of cognitive strategies comprises of seven elements: generating ideas, revising, elaborating, clarification, retrieving, rehearsing, and summarizing (sethuraman & radhakrishnan, 2020). zhang & liu (2008) prove that cognitive and metacognitive strategies are closely related with each other and significantly with the students’ performance. fig 1. harmer’s writing process fig 2 writing process by diaz-larenas et al. 102 metacognitive writing strategies have been highlighted as beneficial for efl writers. these strategies help learners reach a higher level of writing content, achieve desirable goals, and have better control over their behavior and learning to make them confident and efficient in their writing, and have a proper guideline to regulate their materials (azizi et al., 2017). three elements of the taxonomy of metacognitive writing strategies are planning, monitoring, and evaluating (azizi et al., 2017). planning involves making and changing outlines, scheming ideas and conveying their objective for organization and procedures. monitoring involves controlling the writing process as they write. writers control their writing process by checking and verifying the content, organization, and local elements, such as grammar and mechanics of writing. after the writing process is completed, evaluation stage is started, comprising of rechecking and reconsidering written text at the planned thought (azizi et al., 2017). human cognitive and metacognitive processes, and particularly the mental process of writing is a study that can be investigated in different ways, such as observing reactions to specific stimuli, analyzing the errors, and the results of task performance (alamri, 2019) 3. method this study employed a descriptive qualitative method to investigate indonesian efl students' cognitive and metacognitive strategies in writing argumentative essays. purposive sampling was used to select three fifth semester students of english department in a higher education institution in jakarta who had taken a class on writing argumentative essays. the participants were identified as p1, p2, and p3. the participants were briefed on the study procedure, then instructed to record themselves using zoom platform as they write their essay while verbalizing as much thought as possible. the thinkaloud protocol (taps) was used to capture the cognitive and metacognitive strategies used by each participant during the writing process. screen recording was used to record all changes on the computer screen, including cursor movements, clicks, corrections, internet searches, and use of electronic aids such as dictionaries. the writing process was checked against the outlines and the final product. after the writing process, an in-depth interview (recorded and transcribed) was conducted to each participant for data validation and to explore their perception of the writing process. the data collected from the writing products, screen recordings, transcripts of the recordings, and interviews were subjected to narrative analysis, using mu's (2005) categories of english as a foreign language (efl) writing strategies as a framework. triangulation was used to ensure the reliability and validity of the data by using taps, screen recording, and interview methods. the essays were analyzed to identify and classify the participants’ cognitive and metacognitive strategies embodied in decision-making processes to solve problems encountered during the writing process. overall, this study aimed to provide a comprehensive analysis of the cognitive and metacognitive strategies used by indonesian efl students in writing argumentative essays, using a triangulation approach to ensure the reliability and validity of the data collected. 4. result this study focused on the process of applying cognitive and metacognitive strategies in the stages of writing argumentative essays (drafting and revising), and the problem-solving strategies at every stage. in general, different problem-solving strategies reflected variation in cognitive and metacognitive strategies in each student’s writing. table 1. findings of cognitive and metacognitive strategies applied by students *) done only by some participants cognitive strategies applied metacognitive strategies applied generating ideas revising elaborating clarification retrieval rehearsing summarizing * planning * monitoring evaluating 103 table 1 shows that most participants, except one, employed all cognitive and metacognitive strategies in their writing process. unlike the other participants, participant 3 (p3) skipped cognitive strategies, summarizing, and the metacognitive strategy, planning. the recording transcript showed that she did not brainstorm nor organize her draft but rather, went straight to pouring out ideas into freewriting. whether p3 had a clear goal and plan for the essay was not embodied in any apparent action. this lack of planning stage made the process of conveying ideas last longer. meanwhile, p1 only mentally planned the draft and p2 wrote down the outline. all and all, this lack of planning stage caused the long process of conveying ideas. the next step was analyzing the thinking process when students were composing their argumentative essays. data of screen recording display, recording transcripts, students’ work, and the interview transcripts are presented in table 2 to 10. the screen recording showed what the students were doing when writing, the tap showed their mental process and thoughts, the interview confirmed the writing processes strategies and validate the display on the tap and screen recording, and the produced essay showed the result of the process. 4.1. the process of applying cognitive strategies regarding cognitive writing strategies, all participants applied clarification and retrieval in their writing processes. 4.1.1 clarification clarification was identified when one participant disposed of confusion when, for example, thinking of incorporating a current issue to support the argument. to do this, the participant researched on google and read online news article for fact check. the clarification could be vividly identified and analyzed through one of the participants’ writing processes who expressed her thoughts that education should be free. to her knowledge, many students dropped out of school as a consequence of financial issues. table 2. excerpt in clarification data code data of audio excerpt screen recording captured writing strategies identified sub-strategies identified b66 okay, let’s see from this article. clicking an article at kompas.com cognitive strategies clarification the screen recoding and tap audio in table 2 showed that after p2 browsed on google, she said “let’s see from this article” while clicking a link to an article from kompas.com. while making an argumentative essay, p2 encountered some difficulties and stated them out loud by, for example, reexpressing words, clarifying the meaning of certain terms, evaluating the final writing, and researching credible articles to reinforce her arguments. in handling the problem-solving, p2 was no different from p1 who used google for references. during the interview, p2 mentioned the advantages of google. “it was really helpful. i had no idea what i was going to write about free education. google helped me brainstorm and gave me ideas about that topic. i also used google to look up a dictionary and look for synonyms. i also accessed grammarly via google.” [p2/cl] after reading the article briefly, p2 highlighted the necessary information or the key points and arranged them into some sentences in the essay as follows: “the first reason why education should be free is that it can make the students focus more on their studies. according to kpai, there is an increasing amount of students who dropped out of school because they haven’t been able to pay school tuition fees. not only that, but kpai also states that students choose to stop going to school because they have to help their parents with business rather than studying.” (retrieved from essay 2, p2/s1-s3) the implementation of clarification strategy, especially by incorporating or referring to trusted articles or online sources was evident in several paragraphs. for instance, the fourth paragraph contained the third argument about the impact of free education on society that was backed up with sources. according to https://www.uopeople.edu/, education should be free because it will improve society. with our people having reached a higher level of education, they will understand the country’s situation better. (retrieved from essay 2, p4/s4-s5) 104 p2 wrote this line after reading an article about the benefits of free school tuition fees to society which clarified her knowledge. quoting a statement from relevant and reliable source has positively strengthened p2’s argument about free education. as denoted in the two previous examples, p2 cited the source of her essay, which could help divert plagiarism and gave credit to the original ideas. the other proof of topic research was demonstrated in the discussion section of planning strategy. 4.1.2 retrieval as a cognitive strategy, retrieval refers to recalling personal knowledge or experiences. in writing process, retrieval can occur at the beginning. this study found that at the beginning of the writing process, p3 mentioned that she planned to relate her personal experiences to reinforce her arguments. this strategy was evident in the third paragraph which reflected the participant’s reminiscing her personal experience. table 3. excerpt in retrieval data code audio recording data screen recording data writing strategies identified sub-strategies identified a332 okay. nah, now, let’s point out about the money. from my own experience, i think money can umm… what is it? money can like.. make me more motivated to study. none cognitive strategies retrieval retrieval was found to be the most frequent strategy applied by the participants. there were many ways to determine retrieval strategy, such as rereading sentences, self-questioning, and reminiscing certain information that would be included in the writing. p3 reread aloud or silently to come up with ideas to continue the sentences. in the interview, she said “i always ask question to myself about the argument and i will be the one who answer too. nah nanti baru ngatur kata-katanya. [i’ll arrange the words later]” [p3/rt] the retrieval activity is presented in table 3 where nothing was shown on the screen but participant was busy thinking and self-questioning about the topic. the audio of think-aloud protocol (tap) recorded what she was thinking. the result of retrieval can be seen in her sentences, “this can lead to create a laziness on studying because they will think that it is free and they can do anything in class. besides, money sometimes can encourage us to be more effortful, more independent, and more motivated to give our best. after all, everything we accomplish will be more valuable and meaningful because we put lots of efforts to achieve that.” (retrieved from essay 1, p3/s3-s4) p3 also applied retrieval to monitor and revise certain words or sentences. therefore, this strategy was perceived as practical and helpful in enhancing the writing quality. the data of retrieval was also strengthened by her statement which denoted that rereading sentence effectively eased her in rechecking. one example of retrieval strategies could be identified in the final stage of writing, as shown on table 4. table 4. example of retrieval to monitor data code audio recording data screen recording data writing strategies identified substrategies identified a573 okay so …. however, some people still have strong argument that education should be free for everyone, especially for the students from the poor family. they assume that everyone should have an equal right for education. talking about right and equality, we need to make sure that everyone gets the same equality. not just about students, people should also consider the teachers who have educated their students countlessly. rereading sentences cognitive strategies retrieval a574 oh, wait wait. maybe, i can add one more word in this. metacognitive strategies evaluating 105 data code audio recording data screen recording data writing strategies identified substrategies identified a575 not just about students, people should also consider … rereading sentence cognitive strategies retrieval a576 and respect. yes. and respect the teachers who have educated their students countlessly. typing “and respect” metacognitive strategies evaluating table 4 shows that p1 reread the sentences several times and finally realized that it needed more words. thus, necessary revision could be made after the author reread the sentences and recalled personal experiences as a retrieval in cognitive strategy. it was evident from the beginning of the writing process where p1 mentioned that she planned to incorporate her personal experiences to reinforce her arguments about the topic. 4.2. the process of applying the metacognitive strategies metacognitive strategies played a substantial role in every participant’s writing process although not all strategies were applied. 4.2.1 planning p2 perceived that writing was nothing without planning. when interviewed, p2 claimed that planning enabled her to make coherent arguments, specify primary key points, work out a logical structure, and identify the end point for the writing before starting the process. the evidence of p2’s planning stage was her rechecking the writing prompt as the first step. table 5. findings in planning data code audio recording data screen recording data writing strategies identified substrategies identified b3 then i think we can just start uuuh let’s get started then. b4 uhh… today i’m supposed to write an essay. the prompt says uh that i will have to write about an … uh… an argumentative essay. metacognitive strategies planning b5 and it will be of 500 hundred words and the topic is should education be free. metacognitive strategies planning table 5 shows that p2 ensured that she comprehended the writing prompt before developing the essay. it can be seen from the screen recording that showed no writing activity. the audio of tap of b3-b5 showed that she was aware of the task, identified the goal and the necessity for a specific plan, and decided to convey her ideas or arguments precisely in the draft. in addition, p2 knew when, where, how, and what was to write for the introduction, body paragraph, and conclusion stages. after clarifying the writing prompt, p2 focused on the topic for a while before deciding what to write. the proof (screen recording and tap audio) showed a fluent flow of creating the outline and the outcome of the essay. to convince her arguments and make her essay credible, p2 look up to research articles of free education while generating the outline and drafting. p2 explored more than one research from news platforms, online forum discussions, and blogs through google. researching the topic prior to writing her essay was considered as planning, whereas the way p2 explored the research was a form of clarification in cognitive strategies. before outlining the counterargument and refutation of free education, p2 read an online discussion forum to understand people perceptions from this view point. then, she built her counterarguments upon those views and composed her opposite statements, for example, as follows: those who think that school cannot be free say that the school will not give the best facilities and materials for the students and the school will not make a progress. (retrieved from essay 2, p5/s1) 106 as the only participant who preferred to research the issues about the topic before writing the essay, p2 emphasized the significance of researching as a part of planning during the interview. “i look up for the facts first before i start writing the essay because i need to provide some evidences to support my arguments. i think by looking up for the evidences, i can convince the audiences (readers) better because they know that i write the truth about some topics and not merely based on my biased opinion.” p2 believed that stating her arguments based on fact could convince the readers about the truth while averting biased judgement. prioritizing credibility in her argumentative essay, p2 ensured that her opinions in the essay were beyond personal or surface knowledge of the subject. 4.2.2 monitoring monitoring refers to controlling the writing process while writing the text. simply put, monitoring is the editing part of writing. in this study, one example could be vividly identified in p1 who controlled her writing process several times for many aspects, including content, language, organization, and local aspects like grammar and mechanics of writing. in the interview, p1 stated that she frequently monitored her writing to avoid any errors or misconception to improve the comprehensibility of her essay. when she encountered errors in her essays, p1 revised them directly (see table 6 and discussion for details). table 6. examples in monitoring data code audio recording data screen recording data writing strategies identified sub-strategies identified a77 i notice that i missed something here, so let me add ... metacognitive strategies monitoring a78 um... who typing “who” metacognitive strategies revising in table 6, the screen recording and the audio from tap indicated that after writing the third sentence of the essay, p2 realized that grammatically, a relative pronoun was missing from her sentence, so she typed the correct one as follows: nelson mandela once stated that education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world. for that reason, it is undeniable that education is considered vital. however, there are numerous people who argue that education should be free since it plays a big role in our life. (retrieved from essay 1, p1/s3). in the interview, p1 stated that she avoided committing further errors by monitoring one paragraph for its content, punctuation, grammar, and other elements before writing the next. in this case, monitoring strategy helped p2 create better sentences and improve her essay. “before going on to the next paragraph, i usually recheck it several times. it takes time but it eases me to move on the next paragraph.” [p2/mn] table 7. monitoring to rechecking data code audio recording data screen recording data writing strategies identified substrategies identified a199 now, i’d like to recheck this whole first paragraph. scrolling upside and down for rechecking metacognitive strategies monitoring a200 ………………. scrolling upside and down for rechecking metacognitive strategies monitoring a201 i think it’s already good. it shows what i meant already. metacognitive strategies monitoring 107 p1 decided to monitor each paragraph because it saved the time at the evaluation stage after she completed the whole essay. monitoring played a significant role in identifying some problems creeping in the writing process and determining whether additional corrections were necessary. p1 realized that others would read her essay, so errors could affect the readers’ understanding. thus, p1 was seen to scroll back and forth in the screen recording and tap audio of tap as part of her monitoring. during the interview, p1 acknowledged the importance of readers’ understanding. “yes, i check whether there is grammatical error, punctuation, or things that i need to revise. i want to avoid any errors or misconception. um, so people can understand the essay easily too.” 4.2.3 evaluating when all participants finished drafting, they used an evaluative strategy to reconsider the produced essay, previous goals, planned thoughts, and changes made in the text. unlike the other two participants in this study, p2 was the only one who rechecked the whole essay using grammarly, a cross-platform cloud-based writing assistant that reviews spelling, grammar, punctuation, clarity, engagement and delivery mistakes. in short, grammarly offers people specific suggestions to enhance their writing beyond grammar. “when i was taught by ms. (name), she usually encouraged students to check the essay, including me. i also check the essay on grammarly when… when there are incorrect words (retrieved from datum iv, transcript code b422 b424) the finding of this study showed that p2 took the initiative to recheck her produced essay because she remembered that the writing lecturer told the class to get help from grammarly or similar platforms. thus, the evaluation stage in this writing process began when p2 access grammarly once completing her essay. before correcting the input texts, grammarly requires the users to adjust the correction setting based on the goals, audience formality, domain, and intention of their writing. grammarly offers a wide range of corrections in addition to grammar, such as word choice, phrases, and punctuation. in other words, grammarly helps remind the users of what to evaluate and revise from their writing. any changes made after evaluating the sentence was then classified as revising, specifically at the very final stage of writing. the screen recording and the tap audio on table 8 captured the moment p2 opened grammarly, adjusted the setting, and corrected the errors. table 8. examples of correction data code audio recording data screen recording data writing strategies identified substrategies identified b329 okay, now the grammarly can be used. i have logged in and use my email. opening grammarly b330 now we paste the essay which i have created pasting the essay in grammarly metacognitive strategies evaluating b331 the audience is knowledgeable clicking “knowledgeable” for audience metacognitive strategies evaluating b332 formal clicking “formal” for the formality metacognitive strategies evaluating b333 um general clicking “general” for the domain metacognitive strategies evaluating b334 um convince because it is argumentative essay clicking “convince” for the intent metacognitive strategies evaluating 108 data code audio recording data screen recording data writing strategies identified substrategies identified b335 clicking “done” for the goals and audience setting metacognitive strategies evaluating b336 the most important keys … okay clicking “keys” as a correction to “key metacognitive and cognitive strategies evaluating and revising b337 the most important keys rereading the revised line metacognitive strategies evaluating b338 for … to someone’s bright future clicking “for” as a correction to “to” metacognitive and cognitive strategies evaluating and revising table 9 shows the situation when p2 realized the mistake she had made before. the situation in the data found showed that evaluating and revising could be done simultaneously. the digital platform could show what the students needed to know. thus, when they learned the mistake, they learned the proper form of the sentence and how to improve it. table 9. findings in revising data code audio recording data screen recording data writing strategies identified substrategies identified b447 4 see… it was right. the word educating was supposed to be education. why did i change it? clicking “education” as a correction to “educating” metacognitive and cognitive strategies evaluating and revising b448 . especially … okay there should be a comma. clicking “especially,” as a correction to “especially” metacognitive and cognitive strategies evaluating and revising b449 4 school tuition fees clicking “fees” as a correction to “fee” metacognitive and cognitive strategies evaluating and revising b450 4 um… raised…raised to. i don’t have write raised up omitting “up” in the sentence metacognitive and cognitive strategies evaluating and revising b451 4 okay, higher level there should be a line. clicking “higher-level” as a correction to “higher level” metacognitive strategies and cognitive strategies evaluating and revising 109 as explained before, the corrections suggested by grammarly are diverse and not limited to grammar. however, it should be noted that such cloud-based typing assistant still needs human’s knowledge and writing aptitude because the tool only suggests optional revision to evaluate the text which the users can take or dismiss. in this case, p2’s background knowledge affected her decision to agree or disagree with some of trivial corrections in grammarly. table 10 demonstrates this practice. table 10. evaluating data code audio recording data screen recording data writing strategies identified substrategies identified with our people having reached a higher level of education, they will understand the country’s situation better. (retrieved from essay 2, p4/s5) b469 having … with our people have reached clicking “have” to see the reason metacognitive strategies evaluating b470 i think it is having. metacognitive strategies evaluating b471 dismissing the correction metacognitive strategies evaluating b472 just having metacognitive strategies evaluating as stated in the transcription above, p2 preferred to settle with her own sentence and word choice, and rejected grammarly’s suggestion to change the word have into “having” in a particular sentence. overall, using a writing app assistance at the evaluation stage enabled p2 to ascertain of her writing and determine the appropriate corrections for grammatical and lexical errors. in short, the collected data indicated that all participants, with respective writing habits, applied cognitive and metacognitive strategies to put forward their arguments in the essays confidently. 5. discussion this study highlighted the participants’ methods of solving the problems they encountered when writing an argumentative essay by exploring the application of cognitive and metacognitive writing strategies. writing an argumentative essay is a proper task to boost authors’ cognitive and metacognitive skills (benetos & bétrancourt, 2020) by composing a piece of writing full of argumentative explanation backed up with evidences and reasons in the body paragraphs (abbas & herdi, 2018; ferretti & graham, 2019). the writing process (harmer, 2004; diazlarenas, 2017) done by the student writers show that writing involves active thinking process which influences their decision making about what idea to express and how to deliver it (flower & hayes, 1983; oshima, 2006) into arguments. when the participants were thinking, nothing was shown on the screen (srm), but once they decided to do something, the audio recording of tap and srm showed how their thoughts were taking shape. the active thinking process and the decision-making affected the writers’ decision whether it was necessary to go back and forth to ensure appropriate idea delivery. the cognitive strategies may include generating ideas, revising, elaborating, clarification, retrieval, rehearsing, and summarizing. similar to metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies encompasses three main actions: planning, monitoring, and evaluating (ferretti & graham, 2019). it has been reported that student writers can think thoroughly about the writing process by planning, monitoring their comprehension or composition, and executing self-evaluation to their argumentative essays (zhang & liu, 2008). the findings showed that all participants decided to employ the same cognitive and metacognitive writing strategies in different manners. one participant spent more time for planning, while the others perused on evaluation; two participants applied all cognitive strategies, and the other skipped one step. these thinking process and decision-making impacted the produced essays. the benefits of cognitive and metacognitive strategies showed that the participants were able to conduct self-generated learning, and motivated to follow the steps in writing process thoroughly. it is evident that writing strategies improve writing proficiency (mu & carrington, 2007) and make students more independent in producing the writing. 110 (pitenoee et al., 2017; maftoon & seyyedrezaei, 2012). the following is the elaboration of how participants’ cognitive and metacognitive strategies were embodied in their writing an argumentative essay on the topic of free education. the first step is planning. in metacognitive strategies, planning consists of retrieval, classification, outlining, and rehearsing. planning helps writers formulate unambiguous idea and convince themselves of a solid base for presenting strong arguments. when drafting a piece of writing, authors must know what to write, what to emphasize and how to deliver the idea. the findings showed that all participants understood the assignment to write an argumentative essay with solid arguments. before creating the outline and structure of the essay, the participants identified the ideas, classified them, and then generated their argument. when necessary, the participants researched some reliable sources like articles on the given topics to gain more understanding and knowledge of the topics. if done properly, research enables students to be skillful in creating solid argument (wingate, 2012; kleemola et al., 2022). regardless of the method, generating ideas is a crucial cognitive strategy for writers to understand the issue and avoid getting stuck when communicating their arguments confidently. in short, they work on the content and language to ensure they communicated the message clearly (sanu, 2016). writes can also personalize the topics by linking their personal experience with the writing topics, and therefore, gain full comprehension of the ideas. confirming the studies by mu (2005), nückles et al. (2009), and sethuraman and radhakrishnan (2020), this finding proved that cognitive strategies assisted student authors in processing, transforming, and formulating information to acquire knowledge. it showed that the authors realized about the importance of generating, formulating, and refining ideas (ramadhan, 2019) so they could write longer and better. to create more specific, coherent, and comprehensible arguments, the participants in this study applied elaborating strategy by incorporating analogies and expanding subsidiary information. in other words, applying cognitive and metacognitive strategies enhances the writing content and quality (pitenoee et al., 2017). the next step was clarification and retrieval, which were two most used cognitive strategies by participants. the former was crucial to ensure themselves of the assignment, and the latter allowed authors to draw correlation between the given topic and their personal experience in order to create solid, logical arguments. when writers have a connected experience with the topic, they can understand the issue better and argue confidently. the other cognitive strategy is rehearsal, which refers to the process of checking the execution of the planned ideas in writing. in this study, rehearsal was applied by the participants after clarification and retrieval process, although cognitive strategies can also be applied simultaneously. once participants realized that their argumentative essay carried weight to the readers, they would be aware that they should present clear, solid arguments. they retrieved information and revised their draft because clear writing and plain language is more likely to deliver a message successfully. the participants frequently employed monitoring strategies for the content, language, and organization of the essay to present clear, robust argument. to gain better clarification, the participants reviewed their sentences to ensure a coherent writing/paragraph structure with a logical flow and proper diction. the participants also self-questioned their own argument to recall and argue about the issues. self-questioning occurs when authors access information stored in their long-term memory and instigate it into their conscious awareness or working memory. when their self-questioning is satisfied, authors will be more confident with their arguments. this study indicated that these processes, which are closely related to individual learning task, could be efficiently executed when the participants had better cognitive skills, such as making predictions, linking the topics with their prior knowledge or experience, summarizing, and applying proper mechanics of writing, namely grammar rules and vocabulary (zhang & liu, 2008). regarding the mechanics of writing, this study found that the participants acknowledged the importance of mastering cognitive strategies so they could identify and minimize errors, revise grammatical and lexical issues, and clarify the content to ensure essay clarity to the readers. this study found that linguistic problems occurred due to students’ poor competence in english. they were aware of this drawback, and therefore, they checked their work thoroughly for grammar, vocabulary, cohesion, and coherence at the revision stage (richard & renandya, 2002; nourdad & aghayi, 2016). as a result of applying cognitive and metacognitive strategies, the participants’ language awareness improved, their linguistic competence increased, and eventually, they scored higher in writing because they submitted their best work. in short, the students in this study were motivated to eliminate the problems of writing content, linguistic, and writing strategy. it has been reported that cognitive and metacognitive strategies are considered helpful for writers to overcome the difficulties of writing through instruction (nückles et al., 2009), minimize errors, and fix writing problems. especially at monitoring stage, the participants solved writing problems, revised the errors, and improved their writing (azizi & narges, 2017). rahmatunisa (2014) & junianti (2020) reported that writing strategies were proven to eliminate the linguistic problems. 111 in a wider range of revision, evaluative strategy was applied by the participants to reconsider the written text, previous goals, planned thoughts, and changes undertaken to the text. the participants realized the importance of evaluation to enhance their writing quality of their writing, and to save time in the writing process. this study found that students revised any errors and misconceptions to make their essay comprehensible and coherent. in other words, they tried to have a complete control of their writing. controlling the writing process takes place throughout the stages of writing, showing that the participants tried to eliminate linguistic and cognitive problems using cognitive and metacognitive writing strategies (rahmatunisa, 2014). to eliminate cognitive problems, the participants planned the writing by generating ideas, creating essay outline, building arguments, and clarifying information. first, the generated ideas were most likely related to their personal experience, meaning they were actively recalling previous experience and concentrating with their mind. then, they outlined the essay, which required active cognitive processes to arrange each argument into a building block of an argumentative essay. after that, they needed to clarify what they wrote to ensure everything has been presented in coherent and logical manner. at last, before writing the concluding paragraph, the participants decided to unify and conclude the arguments stated in the body paragraphs by summarizing the main points or highlighting the key points of the whole argument. therefore, the participants needed to use the correct dictions or vocabulary to differentiate the thesis statement from the restatement. this study found that in addition to linguistic and cognitive issues, the psychological problems, which may have stemmed from laziness and demotivation, were also faced by the participants. the application of cognitive and metacognitive writing strategies helped lazy and demotivated participants in two stages. first, at the planning stage, cognitive-metacognitive strategies helped participants see every step of composing an argumentative essay, and follow these steps accordingly. therefore, they were encouraged to maximize their thoughts to get ideas, arrange all arguments, and ensure they were valid and logical. second, the psychological problems could be eliminated at the evaluation stage. at this stage, the participants needed to reread all the text to ensure the relevance of the message and an effective delivery of their argument. this study confirmed the previous studies by nückles et al. (2009) on the positive effect of cognitive and metacognitive strategies on students writing. the implementation of both cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies assisted students to self-regulate their understanding of the subject matter (maftoon & seyyedrezaei, 2012)., and positively impacted students’ habits and writing competence (chien, 2012). another important element found in the study was the presence of digital platforms, such as online dictionaries, search engines, and grammar-checker apps which enabled the students to generate ideas, clarify information, and elevate their writing proficiency. digital tools are helpful to explore ideas (karpova, 2020) from various sources and perspectives (luna et al., 2020; khunaifi, 2015). combined with participants’ self-experience and opinions, robust online sources are powerful tools for the participants to independently revise their writing and overcome linguistic problems. in other words, the digital platform is a tool to obtain appropriate writing support, to compose arguments, and to evaluate the writing quality (karpova, 2020). therefore, this study demonstrated that digital tools and cognitivemetacognitive strategies assisted the participants to independently improve their writing skill and quality before submitting the work, instead of relying on their teachers to check their writing (al-sawalha et al., 2012). various metacognitive writing strategies have significantly impacted the teaching and learning of esl academic writing (aripin & rahmat, 2020). this research also showed that writing is an important skill to amass students (jubhari et al, 2022; kleemola et al., 2022) to make them an independent text producers (hyland, 2009; johnson, 2008). in terms of applying cognitive and metacognitive strategies in performing argumentative essay, this study confirms the previous studies about the positive impact of cognitive and metacognitive strategies in writing activity. as an added value, this study provides a more transparent method to capture what happens in the students’ minds while undertaking the writing process. the outcome has two-sided benefits: provides a potential alternative to explore the mental process and production process in writing and helps determine the best strategy to improve students’ writing skills. it is recommended that active thinking and awareness of the strategies be emphasized in the teaching to encourage learners to undergo every step in writing, harness the strategies to produce a proper argumentative essay, and eventually, be an independent writer. 6. conclusions it can be concluded that cognitive and metacognitive strategies enable the participants to elevate their writing habits and writing quality. it is undeniable that this strategy should be applied differently to each student because it directly relates to individual thinking activity and decision making. regardless, the application of cognitive and metacognitive strategies in writing proves the students’ control over their writing activities, so they can overcome writing difficulties and self-regulate their writing habit. as a result, students are able to put their understanding of subject matter into practice, and convey their ideas clearly and logically in written 112 language. the benefits of cognitive and metacognitive strategies include building self-regulated learning in the steps of writing activity and strategy, creating awareness of readership, and eliminating linguistics problems. this study provides an alternative way to observe the students' minds while applying those writing strategies by using tap, srm, students’ work, and interviews to allow investigation of the cognitive processes. the implication of the study is significant to the pedagogical teaching of writing for efl learners. it is recommended that future research identify students’ perception and strategy when assigned a writing task, especially when they feel under pressure of developing an academic text. to make students internalize the writing process, the teaching can focus on cognitive and metacognitive strategies, and teachers are advised to support independent students’ writing process in order to help raise their proficiency level. as a final thought, the findings from this study provide valuable insights into efl teaching programs elsewhere in indonesia to perceive writing as a multistage process leading to the use of varied writing strategies for effective outcomes. references abbas, m. f. f., & herdi, h. 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(2008). investigating cognitive and metacognitive strategy use during an english proficiency test. indonesian journal of english language teaching, 4(2), 32-49. https://doi.org/10.25170/ijelt.v4i2.1573 https://doi.org/10.24903/sj.v1i1.15 https://doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2020.88.5 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2011.11.001 https://doi.org/10.25170/ijelt.v4i2.1573 journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i3.11005 vol. 4, no. 3, december 2022, pp. x-x 320 classroom assessment practices of efl lecturers with current curriculum implementation: where policy meets practice alfian alfian 1*, m. nur akbar rasyid 2, akhmad habibi 3, noprival noprival 4 & mohammad yusuf 1 1 universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin jambi, jambi, indonesia 2 universitas islam negeri alauddin, makassar 3 universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia 4 sekolah tinggi ilmu kesehatan harapan ibu jambi, jambi, indonesia alfian@uinjambi.ac.id article history received : 2022-08-15 revised : 2022-11-22 accepted : 2022-12-04 keywords assessment practice curriculum iqf attitude knowledge kkni efl students abstract within the context of indonesian higher education, the assessment focuses on the three domains of students’ competencies, namely knowledge, skills, and attitude. therefore, this study aims to explore the assessment practice of efl lecturers, especially the methods used in assessing the three students’ competencies. it also explores the general assessment practice and examines differences by educational degree and length of teaching experience. this quantitative study relies on survey data from 71 participants joining the efl lecturers’ association in indonesia. furthermore, the convenient sampling technique was used to determine the sample, and the data were analyzed using spss version 24. the results showed that the lecturers employed various methods in assessing the three domains of students’ competencies. it was also found that the lecturers mostly employed observation (66.2%) for assessing attitudes domain, tests (33.8%) for assessing knowledge, and work performance (29.6%) for skills. the findings demonstrated that the lecturers have followed the assessment policy of the government related to the method, purpose, instrumentation, procedure, and reporting grade. the results also showed no differences in the assessment practice between lecturers with master and doctoral degrees. additionally, there was no difference among the four categories of teaching experiences in the assessment practice. these findings are expected to become a reference for lecturers and curriculum development in conducting and designing appropriate assessments to guarantee teaching and learning quality. 1. introduction student assessment is an important component of the curriculum because it provides both information and evidence of learning. the assessment results could be used to modify teaching, develop curricula, and create a program to improve learning quality (angelo, 2012; black & wiliam, 2010; nitko & brookhart, 2007; linn & miller, 2005). furthermore, it determines the learner’s achievement and the success of teaching and learning goals (hamodi et al., 2017); widiastuti, 2016; otaya, 2017). the purposes of assessment can be achieved with proper methods, instruments, and techniques, as well as procedures that are properly situated in well-founded theory. within the indonesian context of higher education, the theory has been adopted by the government and universities through assessment guidelines practice (see dikti, 2019; diktis, 2019), which the students also use. however, previous studies have shown that several university teachers use assessment practices they are familiar with (reynolds-keefers, 2010; rohl, 1999). therefore, new assessment methods, tools, and activities were learned through intuitions (scarino, 2013). this point implies that some teachers may not use the guide written in their assessment policy, which may be true in an indonesian context. the lecturers’ assessment practices could be further understood by exploring the current practice in implementing the new curriculum. assessment practice has been the priority of studies for decades. several growing reports have been made on the area of assessment (alemi & khanlarzadeh, 2016; box et al., 2015; hamodi et al., 2017; ibrahim et https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i3.11005 mailto:alfian@uinjambi.ac.id 321 al., 2017; lake & olson, 2020; martha et al., 2021; panadero et al., 2019; sathasivam et al., 2019). for example, panadero et al. (2019) studied the spanish university assessment practices, focusing specifically on situations in higher education through library research. the teachers used various assessment instruments, although the final score of the student’s grades was mostly obtained from a final examination. the study showed that the teachers rarely used formative assessments by peers or self-assessments. despite the variations in assessment, they were unlikely to change the practices for their first to fourth year. several studies on the assessment practice have been conducted within the indonesian context (arrafi, 2021; retnawati, hadi, & nugraha, 2016; puad & ashton, 2021; zaim & arsyad, 2020). most of these studies focused on and examined the assessment model at the secondary school level. for example, puad and ashton (2021) studied an islamic boarding school focusing on implementing formative and summative assessments. until recently, there were only several reports on assessment practices in higher educational levels after the implementation of the indonesian qualification framework (iqf) based curriculum (referred to here as kkni) (e.g., nasution, sudrajat, & jahro, 2019; yustitia & wardani, 2017). these studies mostly address authentic assessment practices. however, little attention has been given to the practices of efl teachers that focus on the methods and procedures used for assessing the three students’ competencies and practice generally demanded in the current curriculum implementation within the indonesian context. this study aims to fill out this empirical gap by investigating how lecturers of english as a foreign language (efl) conducted an assessment, particularly the method used in assessing the three-domain competencies as guided by kkni. it also examines the relationship between the assessment practice and the educational background (master’s and doctoral degree) of lecturers, as well as their teaching experiences. more specifically, this study was conducted to answer the following research questions: (1) what methods are mostly used in assessing students’ competencies? (2) how are the lecturer’s assessment practices regarding the method, purpose, instrumentation, procedure, reporting grade, and barrier? (3) is there a difference in assessment practice between master and doctoral degree lecturers? (4) are assessment practice differences among the length of teaching experiences? this study provides an overview of how efl lecturers conducted an assessment of student learning. it also emphasizes the essential assessment point in english teaching, which covers students’ competencies of attitude, skills, and knowledge. this means the method commonly used in assessing each competency was provided. in addition, the results consist of the latest analysis and insights into assessment practice, such as method, purpose, instrumentation, procedure, assessment score, and barrier. this can serve as a reference for the lecturers when conducting assessments in the future. this study is expected to contribute to the assessment data in efl related to faculty practice, which the lecturers require in the practice. furthermore, it is significant because it provides relevant information on the assessment practices for universities, education stakeholders, and curriculum designers in formulating policies for language learning. 2. literature review 2.1 theory of assessment assessment is defined as a systematic process that is useful for gathering information in the form of material to conclude a process (reynolds et al. (2010). this is similar to reynolds (2010) and ghafar (2011), who defined assessment as a systematic procedure that includes collecting, analyzing, and translating evidence achieved by learners, as well as the extent to which the learning objectives were met. it is a step for obtaining various information to determine the learning process policy (uno & koni, 2012; custer et al., 2000). meanwhile, in the classroom context, it refers to the process of assigning or determining values to students based on specific criteria (harun & iqbal, 2018). assessment has a very important role in the context of educational institutions, one of which is to analyze whether the learning has achieved the intended outcome (william, 2011). furthermore, it helps monitor, improve, or ensure learning success and serves as material for the accountability of an educational institution (earl, 2003; nitko & brookhart, 2012). assessment is a way to ensure and improve the quality of educational provision (abera at. al, 2017). based on the purpose and the time, the experts in the field classified assessment into two kinds, namely the formative and summative. this division was initially made by bloom, hastings, and madaus in 1971 (arrafi, 2021). summative assessment is used to measure learning outcomes, often for judgemental purposes, which are conducted at the end of a program for validation and selection. this kind of assessment is still widely used by educational institutions, although it is often combined with formative. on the other hand, formative is conducted during and throughout the learning process and focuses on learning improvement. it assesses the students in the process of forming their competencies and skills, therefore helping them to continue the growth process (brown & abeywickrama, 2010, p. 7). most higher educational institutions have employed both types of assessment to make final decisions and improve learning (black & wiliam, 2018). 322 black and william (2018) emphasized that assessment is classified into three kinds based on purposes: “assessment as learning, assessment for learning, and assessment of learning.” assessment as learning is used in a more specific sense, that is, to optimize learning (earl, 2012). meanwhile, “assessment for learning” refers to the process by which teachers use assessment evidence to inform their teaching. the assessment determines the extent to which students have achieved intended learning outcomes. previously, earl (2003) stated that summative is carried out at the end of a learning process to monitor and guarantee learning outcomes. in this case, it is referred to as an assessment of learning. in contrast, both assessments for and as learning aim to improve the process and are carried out during the formative (black & wiliam, 2006; newton, 2007). 2.2 assessment policy in the indonesian higher educational context within the university context of teaching and learning, the implementation of the indonesian qualification framework (iqf) based curriculum (referred to as kkni) has recommended assessment to measure the standards of competency, such as knowledge, skills, and attitude of the learners (government regulation/ permenristekdikti 44 the year of 2015 number 5). these domains are graduate attributes that need to be developed by higher education institutions (chalmers & partridge, 2013). therefore, the indonesian government, through the directorate of higher education (dikti) and directorate of islamic higher education (diktis), has provided a policy for university lecturers to conduct student assessments. this assessment is aimed at ensuring similar or fair standards and contributing to the quality of higher education (panadero et al., 2019). the policy has provided guidelines for lecturers to conduct assessments, which are written in the curriculum document of the university. furthermore, the guidelines consist of assessment principles, purposes, methods, instruments, assessment procedures, and procedures for giving final grades or grade appeals, etc. (dikti, 2018; diktis, 2019). they also contain all the information about how students’ performance in the course will be assessed, including the type of assessment instruments, namely exams and exercises, the weight of each instrument, how the final grade will be calculated, and others. (panadero et al., 2019). for example, the assessment techniques include observation, participation, work performance, written and oral tests, and questionnaires. the existence of various kinds of techniques aims to show the effectiveness of the assessment and the achievement of the students (brown & race, 2013). the guidelines provide the instrument used in assessing students, which is relevant to the curriculum change and response to the learning outcome (yahiji et al., 2019). it also informs about the techniques for assessing the three domains of students’ competencies. for example, observational assessment techniques and peer and self-assessment techniques are used to examine learners` attitudes. according to hattie and timperley (2007), peers and self-assessment are very effective for assessing the aspects of attitude because they are very helpful in developing student learning in terms of self-regulation. moreover, willey and gardner (2007) emphasized that both assessments have a positive effect. therefore, they can improve learning outcomes and further motivate students to learn. the knowledge domain of the students can be assessed by using written or oral tests, presentations, observations, and assessment techniques which refer to higher-level thinking-oriented assessments, case studies, and problem-solving tasks that require learners to think critically (yuwono & pasani, 2018). the assessment of knowledge should involve various techniques. however, written tests (examinations) in the form of summative are usually the main choice for teachers in various educational institutions (see, kartono, 2011; panadero et al., 2019). meanwhile, formative often have little proportion in determining students’ achievement and are mostly neglected (salirawati, 1998). regarding the assessment of the skills domain, the teachers use the techniques of students’ performance, practices, simulations, and others. the performance-based assessment gives tasks that can show skills and encourage students to perform or think effectively and efficiently. this is aimed at helping students compete in the work world and solve their problems (otaya, 2017). since the implementation of the assessment policy by the government, several growing studies have examined the assessment i.e gahara, 2017; nikmah & makhshun, 2021; nasution et al., 2019; puad & ashton, 2021; saftari & fajriah, 2019; umami 2018; saefurrohman, 2018; zaim, & arsyad, 2020; yustitia & wardani, 2017. for example, puad and ashton (2021) investigated secondary efl teachers’ views on classroom-based assessment at an islamic boarding school, and the results showed that the teacher tends to view assessment from summative rather than formative perspectives. it was also demonstrated that there is an emphasis on assessing students’ attitudes and behaviour in classrooms alongside their academic ability. this is supported by zulaiha et al. (2020), stating that teachers had the necessary knowledge of assessment principles and used that information in their instruction. however, there was a gap between instructors’ knowledge and its application in classroom activities, notably during the implementation and monitoring phases. some influences were also found on teachers’ practice of classroom assessment, such as the local or school policy, the use of nonachievement factors (e.g., students’ attendance and attitudes), and parents’ involvement in their children’s education. 323 other studies focusing on authentic assessment (assessing students’ attitudes, skills, and knowledge domains) have also been conducted i.e., gahara, 2017; nikmah & makhshun, 2021; saftari, & fajriah, 2019; umami, 2018. for example, gahara (2017) examined the use of authentic assessment for islamic religious education courses in junior high school. a qualitative case study approach was conducted by interviewing four teachers and two principals, while the data were obtained through observations and documentation. the results demonstrated that the success of authentic assessment could be seen in the integration of students’ attitudes, knowledge and skills competencies. therefore, the character competencies of students are being productive, creative, with attitude, skilled, and knowledgeable. the assessment of the three domains was also supported by saftari & fajriah (2019), who found that the techniques and instruments used in the 2013 curriculum include the assessment of attitudes, knowledge, and skills competencies. furthermore, gahara (2017) showed that authentic assessments are carried out using various methods: tests, portfolios, projects, peers, and self-assessment. umami (2018) emphasized that assessment can be conducted in religious courses using various methods following the student’s competencies. for example, the attitude domain can be assessed through observation, journal, peer, and self-assessment. furthermore, the knowledge domain can be assessed by written tests, observation, and tasks, while skills are assessed by work performance, project, product, and portfolio. these results are supported by nikmah & makhshun (2021), finding that assessment techniques and instruments used by islamic education teachers are a.) attitude aspect, using observation techniques, peer-topeer, journal, and self-assessments. b.) knowledge aspect, using assignments and written and oral tests techniques. c.) the skills aspect is using practice test techniques, project appraisal, performance, and portfolio assessment. several studies have assessed students’ outcomes in the three domains (attitude, skills, and knowledge). several reports were also made at the secondary school level, and the majority of the subject were islamic religious teachers. these studies have provided theoretical and practical contributions to the particular subject. however, only a few reports have been made at the university level on the subject of efl lecturers. additionally, none of the studies particularly explore the dominant method used by efl lecturers in assessing students’ competencies. therefore, this study aims to fill this gap by exploring the dominant methods used by efl lecturers in assessing students’ competencies. it also explores the different assessment practices from 5 constructs concerning the competencies. 3. method this study aims to explore the practice of efl lecturers in assessing the implementation of the current curriculum in the indonesian higher education context. it also specifically examines the method used to assess the three efl student competencies domains: attitude, knowledge, and skill. furthermore, it aims to investigate the assessment practice related to the instrumentation, purpose, procedure, and reporting grade. a quantitative survey design was employed to have a more comprehensive understanding and clear picture of the assessment practice. 3.1 population and sample the population of this study is english lecturers joining the elite and lita, two english lecturer associations in indonesia, with 153 lita and 253 elite members, respectively. furthermore, a random sampling technique was used to recruit 71 english lecturers who responded to the questionnaire as the study sample. table 3.1 presents the demographic information of the population. table 3.1. demographic information no characteristics variables n percentage/% 1 gender male 28 39.4 female 43 60.6 2 degree master 48 67.6 doctoral 23 32.4 3 teaching experience 1-5 year 7 9.9 6-10 year 22 31.0 11 – 15 year 15 21.1 ➢ 16 year 27 38.0 324 it was found that two-thirds or 43 respondents were females, and more than one-third, or 28 were males. most respondents have completed master’s degrees (48 people), and only 23 have doctorate. furthermore, most had more than 16 years of teaching experience, and only a few had 1 to 5 years. this implies the lecturers have much experience conducting an assessment. 3.2 instrumentation and data collection the data were obtained from the respondents using the google form-based questionnaire. the items on the questionnaire were adapted from two available resources designed by bouchaib (2016) and onyefulu (2018). furthermore, the questionnaire was originally designed to investigate the assessment practice and was modified to match the current context of the study. the questionnaire consists of three parts: the first has seven closed-ended items describing the respondents’ informational background. the second part consists of seven open-ended statements measuring the method used to assess the student’s competencies domain. finally, the last part consists of 29 questions in the form of statements using the five likert scale, namely strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree, that focus on the methods, purpose, instrumentation, procedures assessing students, reporting the final grade, and the barrier in conducting an assessment. moreover, the questionnaire was validated by expert judgment before sending the google form link(https://bit.ly/angketassessment) to the respondents through a whatsapp group (wag). two lecturers with doctoral degrees in language education and educational evaluation major gave their opinion about the questionnaire. in line with the data collection, the purposes of the study were explained in the questionnaire, and participation was voluntary. 3.3 reliability and validity cronbach’s alpha (α) test was conducted to measure the instrument’s reliability using the spss version 24. it is generally accepted that a questionnaire is reliable when the cronbach alpha value is > 0.60. based on the data processing results using the spss version 24, the overall reliability coefficient was 0.851, indicating that the questionnaire was reliable for this study. meanwhile, the instrument’s validity was measured using the expert’s opinions. a practical approach to content validity is sought by experts’ judgment (furwana, 2019). content validations are used to check whether a test was correctly designed or to validate the translation and standardization of an instrument used in a different culture (fernándezgómez et al., 2020). two experts were asked to give their opinions on the instruments, specifically the questionnaire, for clarity, accuracy, and relevance to classroom assessment practices (onyefulu, 2018). the instrument can examine student assessment practices with several improvements based on the process. 3.4 data analysis before analyzing the data, the responses to the questionnaire were downloaded from google form as a microsoft excel sheet, coded, and imported to the spss application version 24 for further analysis. furthermore, descriptive statistics were used to find the frequency, mean, standard deviation, and other numeric details. inferential statistics of independent sample t-test was employed to determine whether there were differences between educational degrees. additionally, analysis of variance (anova) was applied to analyze whether there were differences in teaching lengths, while the significant level of 0.05 determined the variances. table 3.2 mean score interpretation range of mean score practices 1.00 – 1.90 very low 2..002.90 low 3.00-3.50 moderate 3.60-4.49 high 4.505.00 very high according to table 3.2, the mean score interpretation of the assessment practice of the participants ranges from 1 to 5. therefore, the mean score between 1.00 to 1.90 indicates a very low practice of assessment, while 4.50 to 5.00 shows a very high frequency. this mean score interpretation was adopted and slightly modified from several studies (including tuan, 2021). 4. findings even though there are several studies on classroom assessment, only a few reported on the assessment practice of efl lecturers concerning the method of assessing learners’ competencies, including attitude, skills, knowledge, and other related constructs covering method, purpose, and instrumentation, procedure, assessment score, and barrier. therefore, this study aims to fill this gap by exploring the dominant assessment methods used by efl lecturers in assessing students’ competencies. it also aims to explore the assessment practices from five constructs (method, purpose and instrumentation, procedure, assessment score, as well as barrier) concerning the competencies. four questions guide this study, namely 1) what methods are mostly used in assessing students’ competencies? 2) how are the lecturer’s assessment practices concerning the method, purpose, instrumentation, procedure, reporting grade, and barrier? 3) is there a difference in assessment practice between master’s and doctoral degree lecturers? 4) are assessment practice differences among the length of teaching experiences? a survey design was used to 325 answer these questions by distributing questionnaires to participants while the data were obtained and analyzed using spss version 24. the analysis results of the questionnaire are presented based on the research question. 4.1 methods used in assessing student competencies descriptive analysis was employed to find out the methods that are mostly used in assessing students’ competencies by indicating the percentage of the participants who responded to the questionnaire. the assessment method used by the respondents in the three domains of student competencies was identified using descriptive statistics, such as frequency and percentage (%). the three students’ competencies of the assessment method are presented in table 4.1. table 4.1. frequency of assessment method of attitude, knowledge, and skills. attitude knowledge skills methods freq. % freq . % freq. % observation 47 66.2 6 8.5 18 25.4 participation 7 9.9 12 16.9 10 14.1 performance 2 2.8 19 26.8 21 29.6 questionnaire 10 14.1 8 14.1 2 2.8 self-assessment 3 4.2 0 4.2 0 0 presentation 0 0 2 2.8 3 4.2 fieldwork 0 0 0 0 2 2.8 test 2 2.8 24 33.8 15 21.1 total 71 100.0 71 71 100.0 100.0 according to table 4.1 above, the lecturers use various methods to assess the students’ attitudes. however, the method that was mostly employed was observation (66.2% or 47). this is followed sequentially by questionnaire (14.1%), participation (9.9%), and self-assessment (4.2%). interestingly, two methods of assessing students’ attitudes (performance and written test) domain were unlikely chosen by the lecturers. only 2 lecturers (2.8%) used each of the written tests and performance methods to assess students’ attitudes toward efl teaching and learning. this indicates that various methods were used to assess the students’ competencies. however, the method mostly employed by the lecturers in assessing the attitude domain is observation. table 4.1 presents the frequency and percentage of the assessment methods for the knowledge domain. the table also illustrates the various methods used in assessing students’ knowledge domain. however, most lecturers choose the test method (33.8%). this test technique means that they either used written tests or oral. the second method used in assessing knowledge is asking students to perform their work (26.8%). another method employed by the lecturer is participation (16.9%), followed by questionnaire (11.3%), and observation (8.5%). the last method is presentation with 2.8%. therefore, the test was mostly employed, which indicates that the lecturers consider it an appropriate method for assessing the knowledge domain. besides, it follows the guidelines of the methods for assessing knowledge. the frequency and the percentage of the methods for assessing the skills domain are also shown in table 4.1. the table illustrates that lecturers also employ various kinds of methods in assessing student skills. most of the lecturers chose performance (29.6%) and observation (25.4%) in assessing this domain. this is followed by the test (21.1%), and participation (14.1%), while the least methods were questionnaires and fieldwork (2.8% of each). interestingly, the presentation was only chosen by 3 or 4.2% participants, whereas it is one of the methods for assessing students’ skills. this result indicates that the most favourable method for assessing this domain is work performance, which is recommended by the assessment guidelines and policy. 4.2 lecturer`s assessment practice descriptive statistics were conducted to find the mean scores of the assessment practice in the six constructs, including method, purpose, instrumentation, procedure, reporting grade, and barrier. table 4.2 presents the mean scores and standard deviation of each construct of assessment practice based on the 5 point likert scale. it is also shown that mean scores ranged from 3.63 to 4.50. 326 table 4.2 the profile of assessment practice constructs minimum maximum mean std. deviation method 3.33 5.00 4.22 .41252 purpose 3.00 5.00 4.40 .52475 instrumentation 2.00 5.00 3.64 .65388 procedure 3.13 5.00 4.43 .46572 reporting 3.75 5.00 4.50 .42989 barrier 2.67 5.00 4.19 .71207 4.23 according to table 4.2, the overall mean score of the lecturer’s responses to the questionnaire was 4.23. this point indicates that the assessment practice related to the method, purposes, procedures, and reporting, and the barrier was between “agree and very agree”. therefore, the overall mean score was categorized as high in accordance with the criteria given by tuan (2021). the method subscale means a score of 4.22, indicates that the respondents used various methods to assess students’ learning. furthermore, the purposes subscale mean score of 4.40 reveals that the respondent had a clear purpose in conducting the assessment. the instrumentation subscale means the score was the lowest (3.60), indicating that the responses to this scale were “rather agree”. this shows that the respondents used one or two instruments in assessing student learning. the procedure subscale score was 4.42, which indicates that the respondents followed the procedures on the assessment guidelines. meanwhile, the grade scale had the highest mean score (m=4.50), indicating that the respondents prioritized the midterm and final examinations (summative assessment). 4.3. the differences in assessment practice by educational degree and teaching experience according to the statistical analysis using an independent sample t-test, the results of the different assessment practice based on the educational background (degree) is presented in table 4.3. table 4.3. assessment practice based on the educational degrees of the lecturers degree n mean std. deviation f sig. s2 48 4.17 .38199 .099 .754 s3 23 4.13 .38155 total 71 4.15 .38177 the result of the independent sample t-test showed that educational background (degree) did not have any significant effect on the overall practice of the assessment (f (0.099) = .099, p < 0.05). accordingly, the two variables have similar assessment practices, indicating that one’s degree level cannot significantly influence the other’s assessment practice. this is supported by the mean score of the two educational backgrounds, which indicated no statistically significant differences in the mean score of s2 degree (4.22) and s3 degree (4.24) in assessment practice. 327 the one-way anova was used to analyze the differences in assessment practice by four teaching experiences. the statistical analysis of the difference in the assessment practice based on the teaching experience is presented in table 4.4. table 4.4. assessment practice based on teaching experiences n mean std. deviation f sig. 7 4.33 .32264 .981 .407 22 4.25 .37962 15 4.30 .30906 27 4.15 .33456 71 4.23 .34321 the anova results indicated that teaching experience did not have a significant effect on the assessment practice (f (2, 281) = 981, p < 0.05). accordingly, there were no differences in assessment practice among the four teaching experiences. therefore, one’s teaching experience cannot significantly influence the other’s assessment practice. this is also supported by the mean score of each teaching experience, which indicated no statistically significant differences among the four teaching experiences. further, the tukey-hsd post hoc was conducted to identify the significant differences between groups accurately, and the results are summarised in table 4.5. table 4.5. tukey-hsd test and overall assessment practice. (i) teaching experience (j) teaching experiences mean difference (i-j) std. error sig. 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound 1-5 year 6-10 year .08189 .14899 .946 -.3107 .4745 11-15 year .03089 .15716 .997 -.3832 .4450 >16 year .18574 .14563 .582 -.1979 .5694 6-10 year 1-5 year -.08189 .14899 .946 -.4745 .3107 11-15 year -.05101 .11497 .971 -.3539 .2519 >16 year .10385 .09861 .719 -.1560 .3637 11-15 year 1-5 year -.03089 .15716 .997 -.4450 .3832 6-10 year .05101 .11497 .971 -.2519 .3539 >16 year .15485 .11057 .503 -.1365 .4462 >16 year 1-5 year -.18574 .14563 .582 -.5694 .1979 6-10 year -.10385 .09861 .719 -.3637 .1560 11-15 year -.15485 .11057 .503 -.4462 .1365 according to table 4.5, the results of tukey-hsd post hoc indicate that there were no differences between 1-5 years (p = 0.582), 6-10 (p = 0.719), 11–15 (p=0.503), and more than 16 years of experiences (p=0.503). in terms of the mean score differences, it is noticeable that the score was above 4.00 for all the lengths of teaching experiences. the highest mean score was obtained in 1-5 years of teaching experience 328 (m4.33, sd= 0.32), while the lowest was found in 16 years or more (m=4.15, sd=0.33). this indicates no relationship between the length of teaching experiences and the assessment practice. in other words, the assessment conducted across the teaching experiences had similar practices, which means that the lecturers in this current study followed the guideline in the assessment policy document. in summary, the results showed that lecturers used various assessment methods to evaluate students' competencies across three domains: attitude, skills, and knowledge. the main conclusion drawn from the research questions on these issues is that each student's competency was assessed using a particular methodology. for instance, the attitude domain was assessed mainly by observation, skill by work performance, and the knowledge domain by the testing method. another significant result is related to the assessment practice in general, which showed that the lecturers highly implemented the policy. this can be seen from the mean score of the assessment practice constructs. in addition, the teacher's adoption of the assessment practice, which indicated that there were no discrepancies across levels of educational degrees or among four teaching experiences, is evidence that the assessment policy was implemented. 5. discussion this study aims to explore the assessment practice of efl lecturers in terms of the methods used in assessing three students' competencies covering attitude, skills, and knowledge as demanded by the curriculum at the indonesian english lecturers' community, elite and lita. furthermore, it aims to explore the assessment practice related to method, purpose, instrumentation, procedure, reporting grade, and barrier based on the lecturer's educational background and the length of teaching experiences in relation to the student's competencies. the results demonstrated various methods employed by the lecturer to assess the students' three domains. it was also found that every domain has its assessment method that the lecturers favour. for example, the attitude domain was mainly assessed by observation techniques, skills by work performance, and knowledge by testing techniques. the findings indicated that the lecturer's degree or educational background and the length of teaching experience did not show any differences in assessment practice. moreover, the lecturers followed the guideline in assessing students' competencies. concerning the results, several important points were discussed based on the proposed research questions to provide new insight for efl lecturers in assessing students learning. 5.1. method used in assessing attitude, knowledge, and skills the results showed that various methods were used for research question 1, which is related to the method used by efl lecturers in assessing the three students' competencies domains. it was also found that specific techniques mainly assessed certain competencies. for example, the attitude domain was mainly assessed by observation, skills by work performance, and knowledge by testing techniques. this indicates that the lecturers were knowledgeable about the assessment policy and guidelines provided by the directorate of islamic higher education (diktis) (2019). the results related to the assessment of student attitude, in which observation was the most used, supported the previous studies in a similar context i.e., kusaeri, 2019; maba & mantra, 2017; yang, 2006). for example, kusaeri (2019) emphasized that students' attitudes could be primarily assessed through observation. similarly, maba and mantra (2017), concerning the assessment models employed by indonesian elementary school teachers, reported that the majority of student attitudes might be evaluated through observation. this is in line with kasmah (2018), which stated that lecturers apply observation and participation methods in assessing the student learning process. meanwhile, in this current context of the study assessment of attitude, the domain emphasized spiritual assessment, including religious or moral issues, and social attitudes, such as discipline, self-confidence, responsibility, courtesy, honesty, and tolerance (kurniati & khaliq, 2019). the similarity between these results and the previous ones may be due to the deep understanding of efl lecturers about the assessment guidelines and policy of the university, which is under the ministry of religious affairs. although the assessment policy is from the directorate of islamic higher education, the directorate works by adapting from indonesian higher education (ministry of education, culture, research, and technology). based on the assessment of the knowledge domain, this study showed that the test (written and oral tests) was commonly employed by efl lecturers. according to previous studies, teachers commonly used testing techniques in assessing the knowledge domain (alfiriani, 2016; ermawati & hidayat, 2017; gan & davison, 2017; kurniati & khaliq, 2019). for example, alfiriani (2016) found that teachers generally choose written tests to assess students' knowledge. similarly, kurniati and khaliq (2019) emphasized that written and oral tests were among the four types selected to assess students' knowledge. ermawati and hidayat (2017) found that the knowledge domain was assessed through examinations divided into daily, mid-term, and final tests. the test was employed in the current study for the assessment of the knowledge domain and is also recommended by the assessment policy through guidelines. 329 besides this recommendation, there are several reasons for using the technique in assessing knowledge. for example, multiple choice or other tests can assess learners' engagement in higher levels of cognitive reasoning, such as application and synthesis of knowledge or higher-order thinking skills (hots) (singh, & de villiers, 2012; zaidi et al., 2018). however, it was argued that using tests, such as multiple-choice, does not reflect current theories of learning and cognition nor measure students' learning achievement and the abilities they acquire for future success (yani, 2017). the skills domain is one of the competencies recommended to be assessed in the current kknibased curriculum implementation. this study showed that work performance was one of the most frequent assessment methods used by efl lecturers in assessing students' skills. this indicates that the lecturers used the assessment guidelines by the ministry of religion (2019). this report aligns with previous studies (kurniati & khaliq, 2019; maba & mantra, 2017; rukmini & saputri, 2017). for example, kurniati and khaliq (2019) found that performance was used to assess students' skills, especially in english. similarly, listiyawati et al. (2021) found that performance-based and peer assessments, as well as portfolios, were mainly used to assess students' skills. furthermore, rukmini and saputri (2017), on the authentic assessment to measure students' productive english skills based on the 2013 curriculum, found that english skills, such as speaking, were assessed through performance with the grading system using a rubric. work performance can be categorized as an authentic assessment since it requires the students to perform a task (maba & mantra, 2017) which shows the students' actual skills. additionally, ermawati and hidayat (2017) emphasized that the attitude and skills domains have a significant role in showing the student's actual ability after they have learned the theory. the work performance can be assessed individually, in groups, or in pairs. performance-based assessment has a significant role in the teaching and learning process. according to norris (2009), performance-based assessment helps provide diagnostic feedback, which assists students in improving their learning. it is used for making summative decisions about the student's skills. moreover, it can improve their learning awareness because it requires the students to prepare and practice for their performance. vantassel-baska (2013) emphasized that performance-based assessment helps the lecturers obtain information about students' strengths and weaknesses, their needs, and what they know to make decisions for future instruction. this study showed that most lecturers use performancebased assessment, although some select different methods for assessing skills domain. one possible reason performance-based assessment is ineffective is that the lecturers have limited knowledge, competence, and experience in assessing skill domains. second, the lecturers have limited knowledge in choosing the assessment instrument. 5.2. assessment practice on assessing attitude, knowledge, and skills research question two concerning the assessment practice includes a method, purposes, instrumentation, procedure, reporting the grade, and barriers in assessing students. the results showed that the respondents indicated "agree and very agree" with the statements written on the questionnaire. this indicates that the lecturer's assessment practice was very high. in another word, the lecturers commonly conducted the assessment based on the guidelines recommended by the university and the directorate of islamic higher education (diktis, 2019). however, the significant finding that needs to be discussed in this research question is the assessment instrumentation and reporting of the grade. this study showed that the lecturers responded with "rather agree" to the statement on the instrumentation variable's item. this indicates that the lecturers may have difficulty designing the instrument for their assessment practice, especially rubrics not used by the teacher (rahmawati et al., 2019). this may be related to the instrument requirement, which must cover validity and reliability (bariah, 2019). moreover, the difficulty in developing instruments for assessment is also found in the previous studies (i.e. azizah, 2018; ermawati & hidayat, 2017). ermawati and hidayat (2017) found that the lecturers have limited knowledge about the instrument in assessment. the previous studies emphasized that the lecturers use their ways of designing instruments because they do not have formal assessment training. therefore, they primarily draw on students' experiences or work within the faculty/department/area instructional style (rodríguez-gómez et al., 2013). several studies have recommended that the difficulty in designing instruments can be solved by reading literature about assessment and upgrading knowledge through training for students. in this current context, the lecturers could also use the assessment guidelines provided by the government and the university. in terms of the student's final grade (reporting variable), the significant results of this subscale showed that the lecturers reported the students' final grade by accommodating four components of grade, namely assignment, participation, and midterm and final tests. this indicates that summative assessment was the priority of the lecturers in assessing the students since the final grade was mainly taken from the test type in the form of mid and final tests. both tests also emphasized the student's knowledge domain which may neglect their attitude and skills. this does not correlate with the students' learning outcome as 330 mandated by the curriculum (see. diktis, 2019; permendikbud, 2020). additionally, the results showed that the summative assessment contradicts the principle of authentic assessment, which emphasizes assessment for and as learning. the assessment for, which was carried out during the learning process, focuses on assessing the process, which aims to improve itself through formative (black & wiliam, 2006; newton, 2007). formative assessment is conducted by obtaining data on improving students' learning outcomes, understanding the competencies or teaching materials studied and formulating the information. subsequently, the most effective learning activities are decided for students in order to effectively understand the competencies given (adinda, et al, 2022).additionally, earl (2003) emphasized that learning assessment generally aims to monitor and guarantee learning outcomes. the focus on the summative assessment using test techniques found in this study is similar to the previous reports (i.e. friantary & martina, 2018). for example, friantary and martina (2018) evaluated efl teachers in assessing students' outcomes of the implementation of the 2013 curriculum (k13). it was found that the written test techniques were dominantly employed to assess the knowledge domain of the students. they also emphasized that the student learning outcomes assessment implemented by the indonesian efl teachers in their study slightly differs from the standard provided by the guidelines. 5.3. assessment practice based on the educational degree and teaching experience concerning the research questions related to the differences in the assessment practice for assessing students' competencies, as well as the educational degree and the length of teaching experiences, the results showed there was no statistical difference in the assessment practice between master's and doctoral degree lecturers. this is similar to the assessment practice based on the length of teaching experiences. the analysis results also showed no statistical differences in assessment practice among the four categories of teaching experience. this indicates no relationship between the educational degree and the length of teaching english with the assessment practice. the possible reason for this is that the lecturers are in the same department; therefore, they can share assessment experiences. another potential explanation is that the lecturers have the same convenient ways of assessment, regardless of their educational degree and the length of teaching experiences. this is because they follow the policy of the directorate of islamic higher education on assessing students concerning the method, purpose, instrumentation, procedure, and reporting grade. this result is in line with previous studies. for example, beenstock and feldman (2018) stated that lecturer in the same department tends to have a similar scoring method (assessment). this may apply to the current study, whose sample is from the english department. therefore, lecturers learn and imitate each other in conducting assessments. this is in line with scarino (2013), stating that lecturers learn new assessment methods, tools, and assessment activities on their job. this study discussed the critical point in relation to the assessment method used by efl lecturers and the practice generally used in assessing the three competencies. as it was presented, the results have been compared and contrasted with the previous studies. it was also found that the lecturers followed the government's guidelines in assessing the student's competencies. two implications can be drawn from this study. firstly, lecturers should consider using the appropriate methods in assessing students learning in the current curriculum. secondly, they must use the policy guideline the university and the government provide. this study is limited because it only examines the method of assessing students' competencies. therefore, a further survey is recommended to be conducted in relation to the problem and barriers to implementing assessment policy. 6. conclusion this study contributes to the understanding of the assessment practice carried out by efl lecturers in assessing the three domains of competencies, namely attitude, skills, and knowledge at the university level. the results significantly showed that efl lecturers employed various methods to assess students’ competencies. furthermore, they followed the assessment guidelines provided by the government and university. the other key novelty finding is that the assessment of students learning in the three domains should consider the method, purpose, instrumentation, and procedure for conducting the assessment in order to have accurate results and also achieve the learning goals. the following recommendations are put forward to lecturers, quality assurance institutions, curriculum developers, and the university. first, the lecturer is recommended to improve the quality of knowledge and skill in evaluating and assessing learning by following the guidelines issued by the university, diktis, and dikti. second, they should use these results as a source of assessment literature. third, they are advised to attend seminars, workshops, or training related to learning and assessment in the current curriculum. fourth, the university should provide all facilities for implementing reliable and valid assessments. 7. acknowledgment this study was fully funded by universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin jambi with grant number b/l.ii/pp.00.9/05/2021. the authors are grateful to the rector of universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin jambi for the grant. 331 references adinda, d., & denami, m. 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(2020). an investigation into efl teachers' assessment literacy: indonesian teachers' perceptions and classroom practice. european journal of contemporary education, 9(1), 189-201. instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 83-88 83 an analysis of pronouns used in selected international journal articles: exploring authors’ flexibility and consistency rumintang harianja 1, ratih saltri yudar 2, susy deliani 3, mutia sari nursafira 4 and budianto hamuddin 5 1, 2, 4 universitas lancang kuning, pekanbaru, indonesia, 28265 3 universitas muslim nusantara al-wasliyah, medan, indonesia 5 universitas hasanuddin, makassar, indonesia budihamuddin@pasca.unhas.ac.id xxx article history received : 2019-09-01 revised : 2019-12-13 accepted : 2019-12-27 keywords international journal pronouns analysis unique fame abstract this study aims at identifying the pronouns used in journal articles in terms of numbers and familiarity. the data taken from three different journals from three various fields, i.e., education, medics and engineering. it consists of 21 articles taken from the current issue 2018, where this study started. it is selected conveniently due to its unique and fame as a discipline and reputable sources. in collecting the data, the researcher accessed the journals published by science direct (q1 scopus indexed). the analysis showed that the writer in these three international journals commonly used several pronouns interchangeably. however, some articles in journal from medical and engineering consistently used only one chosen pronoun, which was recorded found at different sections in the journal article. the data then coded and transcribed to ease the analysis in this researcher. as a result of the study, it was found out that the data showed 19 kinds of pronouns in total were used in these three different fields. these results showed us that the pronoun usage in a scientific article from these three various fields varies with options of different pronouns. the pronoun seems used to help the impact of imposition and showing politeness or quality of the articles. 1. introduction publications of research articles in international journals currently become an emerging issue in indonesia. under a new regulation from the general directorate of higher education of indonesia's ministry of national education, publishing in scientific journals is required as a prerequisite for undergraduate and doctoral qualification. writing and getting acquainted with a scientific article is therefore essential for students today. moreover, sometimes when authors write articles, the authors include their style and prior knowledge that affect how someone or something (pronoun) is mentioned in their article. the important thing for the correct use of pronouns in journal articles selected by the authors is that the readers can view the style and position of the authors. a pronoun is important in scientific articles in the sentence that develops or points an object directly into the sentence. pronoun can refresh objects and subjects. in addition, the use of pronouns can improve our paper, as we can manage someone or something directly in study pronouns and can avoid something repeatedly. however, wallwork, a. (2016). (2016). in his article, mentioned researchers from different disciplines write and sometimes follow a different structure in different ways. for example, there are significant differences in the form of the writing and construction of a medical, mathematical and sociological document. therefore, this study finds that a pronoun in this selected reputable journal can help to expand custom and style knowledge by using the correct pronoun that can be applied later. also, how the researcher strategically utilizes pronoun knowledge to mention specific objects in their articles seems to have a different communicative purpose. myers (1989) also mentions, in his phenomenon article " the pragmatics of politeness in scientific articles," the pronoun can represent the writers' intent to avoid misunderstandings, or display unity and respect for readers or peers in their article. in line with its review, each author has its own style, and each journal has its practice. (hamuddin, 2012). in addition, understanding the method and structure as well as the style or tradition of a good paper increases the probability of a positive publication of the manuscript submitted. it means that the writers will know not only the topic but also the way the article is written means that the selection of a pronoun is essential for the quality of writing. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 83-88 84 therefore, this paper interested to analyze the used of pronouns in selected scientific articles, especially. the pronoun will be observed regarding the use of the chosen pronoun from a prominent journal in 3 different areas, i.e., education, medics and engineering. focusing on the use of the pronoun in each article journal and explore the use of pronoun employ by the authors in their article of the journal in current issue in these different areas, i.e., education, medical and engineering. based on the introduction above, the research questions focus on revealing the types of pronoun most widely used in selected foreign journal articles and finding out the authors consistently using or swiftly using the same pronoun throughout their article? 1.1 international journal articles the international journal is an article that is written by an expert and published throughout the year. this is evolved from time to time include such as letters, short communications, review articles, research articles, case reports, editorials, and many supplementary articles. zeinali et al. (2018) "journal studies are classified into four general categories, including original papers, review articles, technical notes/notes and letters to editors." this is the way to open access for exploration scientific research and collaborative efforts in the various sciences such as medical, education, engineering etc.although this is multidisciplinary. meo, s. a. (2018). "writing and publishing a scientific paper in academic journals is a highly competitive, timeconsuming stepwise process". it is such as examining competitive to develop knowledge in a particular field which publicized on it that makes it easier for all humans to share knowledge development. 1.2 pronoun pronoun is a word that used to refer to someone or something. the most common pronouns are the personal pronouns, which refer to the person or people speaking or writing (first person), the person or people being spoken to (second person), or other people or things (third person). frank (1972) “classifies pronouns into seven types. they are personal, interrogative, relative, demonstrative, reflexive, indefinite, and expletive.”. 2. method this quantitative study employs descriptive analysis to reveals a phenomenology of selected pronoun used in reputable articles. this will be used to analyze in using pronouns selected international journal articles. this descriptive quantitativemethod of investigation is accomplished into research design stages. the writer obtained the data by searching selected articles which is from international journal article on three (3) different areas i.e., education, medical and engineering, and presented in tabulation form. international journal of education research (q1), journal of international medical research (q1) and international journal of engineering studies were selected due to their fame, to represent the fields. the study then selected the latest seventh (7) publication in 2018, where this study started in the beginning. a total of 21 articles then selected conveniently to be analyzed in order to see the use of pronoun by the authors from these three different fields. figure 2.1 conceptual framework the corpus of the present study consists of 21 articles selected international journal articles in the current issue 2018 in three areas, i.e., education, medical, engineering, as seen in the table below: table 2.1 the selected journals education journals medical journals engineering journal articles number of words articles number of words articles number of words ijer 1 9.340 jimr 1 2.605 ijes 1 6.256 ijer 2 8.857 jimr 2 3.893 ijes 2 4.398 ijer 3 9.254 jimr 3 3.396 ijes 3 6.503 ijer 4 8.854 jimr 4 3.960 ijes 4 9.278 ijer 5 6.493 jimr 5 3.176 ijes 5 10.056 ijer 6 11.230 jimr 6 3.426 ijes 6 7.252 ijer 7 10.452 jimr 7 6.391 ijes 7 7.913 total of articles: 7 total of the word: 107.278 (54.85%) total of articles: 7 total of words: 43.877 (22,43%) total of articles: 7 total of words: 44.404 (22.7%) total 195.559 http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 83-88 85 a total of words 195.559 is used corpus of this study of which education 107.278 (54.85%) of words. medical 43.877 (22.43%), engineering 44.404 (22.7%) words selected international journal articles. furthermore, in the selection of the journal, this study selected from current issue 2018. finally, a total of selected articles journal is 21 from each of education, medical and engineering form the corpus of this present study. to analyze data, this study sets its analysis on the total of using pronoun, and then the researcher makes the percentage from the total of data from each journal. nevertheless, the researcher makes the diagram form to display the data revealed. finally, the researcher will count the percent of data by using below formula and make the interpretation: p = frequency x 100 % = n where: p = percentage f = frequency n = total number of data 100 = constant multiple 3. findings 3.1 the most frequently used pronoun (fame) the result of kinds of most frequently pronouns a total of seven articles published from international journal of educational research (ijer) in current issue 2018 formed the corpus. throughout this chapter, the following abbreviations used were: table 3.1 pronoun in ijer n o pronoun frequency percentage (%) 1 this study 42 36.8 2 this research 7 6.1 3 this article 2 1.7 4 this paper 15 13 5 this current study 1 0.8 6 the paper 2 1.7 7 the study 12 10.5 8 the current study 4 3.5 9 the research 9 7.8 10 the article 12 10.5 11 the present study 1 0.8 12 the present research 1 0.8 13 the case study 5 4.3 14 the present article 1 0.8 total 114 100% as seen in table 3.1, the study follows up a total of 114 in using pronoun were found in the ijer corpus. the pronouns of informing readers as followed by this research had 6.1% in total, this article, and the paper delivered the same total which was 1.7%, this paper had 13%, the study with 10.5%, the current study was 3.5%, the research was 7.8%, the article was had 10.5%, the present study, this current study, the present research and the present article come together in 0.8%, the last one, the case study, was in 4.3 current study, the present research and the present article come together in 0.8%, the last one the case study was in 4.3%. it means in this education journal "this study" seems to show its fame comparing other pronouns. table 3.2 pronoun in jimr no pronoun frequency percentage (%) 1 this study 17 42.5 2 this case-control study 2 5 3 this current study 6 15 4 the study 9 22.5 5 the present study 5 12.5 6 the current study 1 2.5 total 40 100% as seen in table 3.2, the study follows up a total of 40 pronoun word were found in the jimr corpus. the pronoun of informing readers about the research by using this study was 42.5%, followed by this casecontrol study in 5, this current study in 6%, this study had 22.5%, the present study was 12.5%, and last, the current study was 2.5%. it means in the medical journal "this study" seems to show its fame comparing other pronouns. table 3.3 pronoun in ijes no pronoun frequency percentage (%) 1 this paper 11 28.9 2 this study 19 50 3 the present study 4 10.5 4 we use 1 2.6 5 we introduce 1 2.6 6 we give 1 2.6 7 we have seen. 1 2.6 total 38 100% as seen in table 3.3, the study follows up a total of 38 in using pronoun were found in the ijes corpus. the pronoun of informing readers about the research by using this paper was 28.9%, this study had 50% follows by the present study with 10.5% and we use, we give, we have seen it out with (2.6%). this means in engineering journal “this paper” seems showing its fame comparing other pronouns. 3.2 the consistency of pronouns used this section presents the analysis consistently of data being in use pronouns of education journal as illustrated in table 3.4. the consistency means that the authors used a specific pronoun to represent his/their team in the article body text. while flexibility means that the author used more than one pronoun interchangeable in the text. therefore, this study presents its data based on the author's consistency or flexibility in their writing. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 83-88 86 table 3.4 pronoun consistency-flexibility in ijer no education journals statistic consistent/ flexible pronoun use 1 ijer 1 flexible this study, the research, this research. 2 ijer 2 flexible the article, this article, this research, this study. 3 ijer 3 flexible this paper, the paper, the study. 4 ijer 4 flexible the case-study, this paper. 5 ijer 5 flexible this paper, this present article. 6 ijer 6 flexible this study, this paper, this study, the current-study, the research. 7 ijer 7 flexible this research, this study, this currentstudy, the study, the research, the present research, the present study. from the sample above, this might indicate the pronouns used by scientific writers in international journal education by seven journals are more flexible and not only use a single pronoun. table 3.5 consistent/flexible in jimr no medical journals statistic consistent/ flexible pronouns use 1 ijmr 1 flexible this study, the study 2 ijmr 2 flexible this study, the presentstudy, the study, the current study. 3 ijmr 3 flexible this case control-study, the study, this study, this current-study, the present study. 4 ijmr 4 flexible the study, this study, the study. 5 ijmr 5 flexible this meta-analysis, this study, the presentstudy, the study. 6 ijmr 6 flexible the study, this study, the current-study. 7 ijmr 7 consistent the study from the sample above, the pronouns used by scientific authors in an international medical journal by seven journals, show the journals in jimr were 16 journal is flexible, and one journal is consistent in the use of pronouns. table 3.6 consistent/flexible in ijes no engineering journals statistic consistent/ flexible pronouns use 1 ijes 1 flexible this study, the present study 2 ijes 2 flexible this paper, this study, the present study. 3 ijes 3 consistent this present-study. 4 ijes 4 flexible we use, we introduce, we give, the present study, we have seen. 5 ijes 5 consistent this paper. 6 ijes 6 flexible this study, this paper. 7 ijes 7 consistent the study. from the sample above, the pronouns in scientific writers on international engineering journals by seven journals show the journals on ijes on three journals are consistent and three journals more flexible and one journal use subject pronouns in showing their journal articles. 4. discussion from the data analysis above, the researcher analysis of the corpus including twenty-one scientific articles from three scientific journals area (ijer, jimr, and ijes) showed that experimental writers of the journals use journal pronouns in their texts. the researcher analyzed the kinds and differences in frequency of pronouns in three different fields. in this study, the researchers analyzed the number of pronouns that occurs in the entire area. the researchers reveal nineteen kinds of pronouns; there are this study, this research, this article, this paper, this current study, the paper, the study, the current study, the research, the article, the present research, the present study, the case study, the present article, this case control-study, and besides that this study also found the subject pronouns that use by writer's style such as we introduce, we use, we give, we have seen. wherefrom the data analysis found the most o frequently use a pronoun in three fields was this study. based on the results in each different area in use pronouns to inform the reader how the writers called writers' articles. where found out the data analysis in ijer on seven journals were flexible. next, the findings obtained from the results of data analysis that found in the jimr field which found six journals that were flexible and one journal is consistent, furthermore, from analyst ijes data which finds four flexible journals and three journals is consistent in using pronouns. the small difference between the use of pronouns in ijer, jimr, and ijes showed that scientific writers use the pronoun preferred in their article. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 1, no. 3, december 2019, pp. 83-88 87 to display the preferred data this study conducted in ijer that found fourteen kinds pronoun in their articles and this study was the favourite one. compared with jimr in terms of frequency that use six kinds of pronouns and this study still the favourite one. the last ijes with use the favourite one was the study. based on the explanation above, the former had vast differences frequency in use the kinds of pronouns between ijer, jimr and ijes where from the data analysis found the most of frequently by use pronoun in three fields was this study. showed the three scientific writers ijer, jimr and, ijes used the different pronouns to illustrate their articles journals. therefore, the result of text analysis based on the preference of scientific writers that use pronouns has different kinds of each other from three fields. it depends on each writer's style. nevertheless, this diverse to the results of the research conducted by gray, b. (2010) who carried out about demonstrative research entitled "the use of demonstrative practices and determinations as to a cohesive device: focus on these initials in academic prose." the results of the study show that the use of pronouns "this and these" are the most widely used pronouns on antecedents and demonstrative use which is assumed by many nouns which are mostly abstract in academic writing. moreover, this comes out not so in line with rustipa's (2015) who conducted the research entitled the use of pronoun demonstrative and demonstrative determiner in top-level student writing: a case study. in their study, they found that the use of demonstrative determinants and demonstrative pronouns on toplevels were stable in supporting the relationship of text and context, the results of the study differed from this current study, which was more demonstrative as a reference in delivering an article. this might suggest that scientists such as parfilova, and karimova, (2016) conducted “the research entitle adolescents' demonstrative behavior research” pointing out that demonstrative usage is high in adolescents, this provides a statement that students among adolescents often face problems in interpersonal communication. this relates the equation indecisive use in this study which uses demonstrative elements as measuring the frequency of demonstrative usage in the delivery style to the reader. ataman, o., & çetinkaya, g. (2017). the investigation of preparatory class students' subject of pronouns and possessive adjectives. this research gives the results of the study in the use of subject pronouns which are more useful using the first person "i" in sp and "my" in pa. ataman, o (2017), the investigation of preparatory class students' subject of pronouns and possessive adjectives. this research gives the results of the study in the use of subject pronouns which are more useful using the first person "i" in sp and "my" in pa. the findings of this study state that the relationship in the use of subjects in showing the most frequently and types of kinds of pronouns, which in this current study only uses the subject pronouns "we" to use on one journal at ijes in the style of mentioning articles in international journals 5. conclusions the researchers reveals nineteen (19) different pronouns, i.e., this study, this research, this article, this paper, this current study, the paper, the study, the current study, the research, the article, the present research, the present study, the case study, the present article, this case control-study. moreover, this study also found the subject pronouns that use by writer's style such as we introduce, and we use, we give, we have seen. the data analysis found the most frequently use (fame) pronoun in these three different fields was the use of this study. the authors from these three various fields, somehow showing flexibility or using pronoun interchangeability in their writing. authors from education fields showing more flexible than authors from the other two areas. authors from medical and engineering fields in the specific situation seems more consistent, or it might the author feel more convenience in using only a specific pronoun. 6. acknowledgement this research was partially supported by pasca sarjana umn al-wasliyah medan. we also thank our colleagues from applied linguistic center pbig fkip unilak who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations of this paper. references ataman, o., & çetinkaya, g. 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(2018). evaluating the distribution of research in radiation sciences as published in general medical physics journals. the egyptian journal of radiology and nuclear medicine, 49(4), 1119-1124. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, august 2020, pp. 00-00 70 analysing reading skill in national plus school curriculum: phonological awareness of young learners jumerli ariati uin sultan syarif kasim riau, pekanbaru, indonesia jumerliariati@gmail.com article history received : 2020-04-29 revised : 2020-08-07 accepted : 2020-08-11 keywords phonological awareness young learner reading skill bilingual education abstract this research aims to analyse reading skill of english for young learners in ses national plus school which teaches their classes using full indonesian or full english. the researcher used phonological awareness test to determine the students’ ability to switch between the two languages. 63 young learners from the selected school were tested to find out the nature of their awareness when it comes to the reading tasks. this study used central tendency measures of descriptive statistics to summarise and describe the data. the results indicate that the respondents displayed phonological awareness in some tasks and experienced difficulties in other tasks. various deficits in phonological awareness of the bilingually educated young learners were observed and categorised as initial sound identification, final sound detection, final sound detection and letter identification. 1. introduction in educational system, teaching and learning system, reading is a language skill that students are expected to master. the ability to read, thereby absorb, question,, create and recreate all sorts of information they would be able to obtain, has become an indispensable skill in life (derin et al., 2019). regulation government of indonesia number 17 in 2010 about the management and organisation of education determined that kindergarten is an early childhood education unit in formal education channel that organise tutelage for children aged from 4 to 6 years. nowadays, in pekanbaru, many kindergarten schools consider english as a helpful medium instruction for their subject. students also need to use english as a medium for teaching. indonesian as most student’s first language (l1) and english as a foreign language, are used as communication and pedagogic resources in english lesson taught by an experienced teacher. ses play group and kindergarten curriculum are based on the latest indonesian national curriculum from indonesian ministry of education, combined with international curriculum which is adopted from the singapore curriculum. the process of learning and class activities are a combination of the classical and area methods, allowing the students to develop their social skills and adapt their learning habits to those of formal higher educations through classical method, while enabling them to be creative through the area method. ses national plus preschool brings different curricula which use 50% national curriculum and 50% international curricula. in ses school, the national curriculum is delivered with indonesian in berbahasa, berhitung and kreativitas classes, whereas for international curriculum is delivered with english in english, maths, and mandarin. overall, ses school in indonesia primarily teach using both indonesian and english rather than prioritising one language over the other or only using one language for its titular class. the students learn to read in english the teachers have to nurture the students’ reading skills. the challenge comes when students could not produce the sounds of the words they learn correctly because they’re foreign language pronunciation is affected by their first language. higher education level students usually code-switch as compensatory strategy for their deficiency of skill in the language at the time (marwa, 2014; derin et al., 2020). however, as ses national plus school familiarises the students’ with both languages since kindergarten and primary levels, they should have a considerable chance to avoid this typical language learning hurdle. moreover, to teach the students learn to read we can start with early year’s education, early years education refers to the first years of non-compulsory schooling (childcare centres, kinder 1 and kinder 2). a good reading skill at kindergarten level will predict future reading development. reading is an interaction process of communication, meaning that readers are actively engaged when they read instead of merely receiving visual input. it is a complex thought process that includes more than recognition of words on the http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, august 2020, pp. 00-00 71 printed page. an essential part of the reading skill is the skill of being able to recognise written forms and to connect them with their spoken forms and their meanings. for instance, phonemic awareness is the knowledge that spoken words are made up of sounds that can be separated, that is, that /kæt/ (cat) is made up of the sounds /k æ t/. if the learner can already read in their first language, and the writing system of the first language is alphabetic, the learner will already have phonemic awareness. in essence, phonemic awareness is not awareness of particular sounds. furthermore, it is awareness of the general principle that words are made up of separable sounds. it is likely that learners who are not literate in their l1 but who are above the age of seven or eight will already have phonemic awareness in their l1 but this should be checked. learners who are between four and six years old could be tested for phonemic awareness and, if necessary, could be given phonemic awareness activities. phonemic awareness and letter knowledge are the two best predictors of how well first language children just entering school will do at learning to read during the first two years of school. phonemic awareness training can have positive longterm effects on spelling (cobb & hinkel, 2017). phonological awareness has been identified as one of the most important predictors of reading success that should be addressed in preschool and kindergarten. juel et al. (1986) found that 87% of first grade children who had difficulty with phonological awareness tasks such as blending, segmenting, and manipulating sounds remained in the bottom quarter of their class in reading four years later. the influence of phonological awareness in teaching reading has been noted as making students read easily through most of their formal education if the teachers teach the students how to manipulate the letter or word start earlier (pfost et al., 2020). 2. method this research purposed to known the influence of phonological awareness toward reading ability in english young learner. so, the researcher conducted to survey design to find out is how the members of a population distribute themselves on one on more variable (for example, age, ethnicity, religious preference, and attitudes toward school). this research is to analyse reading skill of english young learner by using phonological awareness test. this research consisted of two variables, one dependent variable and one independent variable. the independent variable is reading skill; meanwhile dependent variables are phonological awareness. the independent variable is as a variable which influences the dependent variable, and dependent variable is as a variable which is influenced by the independent variable. to find out the reading skill of english young learner, the researcher used phonological awareness test by the indicators (wei, 2005). there are: identify initial sound, final sound detection, phoneme deletion and letter identification. each indicator has the possibility to test students reading skill and phonological awareness. there were 60 words that had been read by students for all indicators. the highlights 4 questions being asked to the students. first, in identify initial sound the researcher asked about the first sound of the word. secondly, in final sound detection, the researcher asked the students to identify final sound of the words. thirdly, phoneme deletion, the researcher asked the students to delete the first sound and the last sound of the words. and last, letter identification, the researcher asked the students to read the letters. 2.1 time and place this research on bilingual education was conducted from november 2018 until january 2019. there were some national plus school across pekanbaru. ses national plus school was selected because it is located in the middle of pekanbaru and uses a different curriculum than the standard indonesian curriculum, which is 50% national and 50% international curricula. students are taught in indonesian for their national curriculum classes of berbahasa, berhitung and kreativitas and in english for their international curriculum classes of english, maths, and mandarin. based on the observation, the researcher was observed every class in the school, in each class half students can follow the english instruction while half student still not. and sometimes, when the teacher taught in berbahasa and berhitung classes, the teacher use indonesian and the students respond in english language. in learning process, the students also learn to read in english the teachers have to provide reading skill to the student who wants to enter the primary level. the problem has come when students try to produce the sound of the system of word, students could not produce the sound correctly, it because the system sound from their first language effect when students acquire the second language. based on the conversation above, it can be said that the students in ses school has a problem about how to blending the sound of the word and manipulate the sound of the word given. example: some children said the word “green” as /green/ and some student said /gri:n/. 2.2 population and sample the population of this research was english young learner in academic year 2018/2019. the total of population was 63 english young learners. regarding to the number of the population, purposive sampling is used to determine the sample of this research; all http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, august 2020, pp. 00-00 72 samples selected are regarded as having the potential to contribute to attaining the answers of the research questions (cohen et al.. 2000; johnson & christensen, 2000). the researchers had chosen the sample of the research that has potential to answer the research question. from the number of the population only 27 students were having the potential to answer the research question. 27 students were the students that under the maintained of elaboration and developing reading skill and also want to enter the primary level. 2.3 technique of data collection the technique of collecting data in this research is to call the samples one by one and invite to do the reading test. there were 27 samples in this research and treated in the same way. 2.4 technique of data analyzing there are some steps in analysing the data of descriptive statistics. firstly, the researcher analysed the central tendency. this is about the contribution of the score based on their character of statistic such as mean, median, and mode. a mean is the total of the scores are divides by the numbers of scores. to calculate the mean, the researcher will sum all of scores and then divide the sum by the number of students. a median is a middle score that will be gotten by seeing the middle score. a mode is the number of score that appears most frequently in a list of scores. secondly, it is variability. variability shows the spread of the score in distribution of score in a distribution. range, variance and standard deviation all indicate the amount of variability in a distribution of score. a range of score is the difference between the highest and the lowest score to items on an instrument. a variance indicates the dispersion of scores around the mean. and a standard deviation is useful information. the last step, the researcher calculated relative standing. relative standing is statistics that describe one score relatives to a group score. two frequently use statistic are percentile rank and z score. a percentile rank of a particular score is the percentage of participants in the distribution with scores at or below a particular. a z score is a popular form of the standard score, and it will show a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one. table 2.1 score categories no scale level 1 81 100 excellent 2 61 80 good 3 4160 average 4 21 40 poor 5 0 20 very poor in addition, to determine the level of competence was very good, good, fair, less, or bad the researcher used interval categories designed by novitasari et al. (2010, p. 16). 3. findings to get the data dealing with the phonological awareness test, the writer provided and gave the students a test which consisted of 60 questions with the different indicators; identifying initial sounds, final sound detection, phoneme deletion and letter identification. table 3.1 descriptive statistics n min max total score mean phonological awareness 27 18 100 1664 61.7 based on the table above, it can be show that from the total of the students score is 1664 while the minimum score of their phonological awareness test is 18 and the maximum score is 100. therefore, the mean score is 61.7. this data was further analysed by using spss 20. then, the result is shown in the table below: table 3.2 the score score valid frequency per cent valid per cent cumulative per cent 18 1 3.7 3.7 3.7 20 1 3.7 3.7 7.4 27 2 7.4 7.4 14.8 37 1 3.7 3.7 18.5 53 2 7.4 7.4 25.9 54 2 7.4 7.4 33.3 57 4 14.8 14.8 48.1 67 5 18.5 18.5 66.7 68 2 7.4 7.4 74.1 77 2 7.4 7.4 81.5 88 2 7.4 7.4 88.9 92 1 3.7 3.7 92.6 100 2 7.4 7.4 100 total 27 100 100 this frequency table is depicted in the histogram in figure 3.1. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, august 2020, pp. 00-00 73 figure 3.1 the histogram of frequency distribution of phonological awareness then the researcher simply explains. there were two students categorised in very poor level, three students in poor level, eight students in average level, 9 students in good level and five students in excellent level. in line above, it can be concluded that the ability of reading tested by using phonological awareness categorised as good. 4. discussion the presentation and analysis of the data, the finding of the 27 students led the researcher to infer that the phonological awareness has positive influence on students’ reading skill at ses school, pekanbaru. phonological awareness is concerned with the ability to manipulate and to attend the whole unit of speech such as syllables, onset, rimes and phonemes. phonological awareness skills are usually distinguished by the tasks that are used to measure them (e.g., an odd-man-out task and a sound blending task) and unit(s) of sound measured in the task (e.g., onset, rime, and phonemes). the units of sound typically measured in phonological awareness tasks are the syllable, onset and rime, and phoneme. onset refers to the initial consonant or consonant cluster in a word, whereas rime contains the remaining vowel and consonants. for example, in the word clam, cl is the onset; am the rime; and /k/, /l/, /æ/, and /m/ are the phonemes. there are a variety of tasks that have been used to measure phonological awareness, such as blending (e.g., “what does /k/ /ɑ/ /r/ say?”), deletion (e.g., “say sunday without sun”), and oddity tasks (e.g., “which word starts with a different sound: rug, rope, can, red?”) (anthony & francis, 2005). in other words, if the students understand about the phonological awareness, students could easily predict what the word students are reading. but if the students do not understand how to manipulate the word, students will not be able to read the word in proper pronunciation. the findings of the research are aimed to give information to the teacher in teaching reading, speaking and writing at kindergarten students. the teacher can easily explain about phonological awareness to the students. learning how to read in that school starting from play group level, in that level the students learn how to identify the sound. after finish in play group level, the students continue to the kindergarten 1 level, in that level the students learn about short vowel sound and before entering primary school students go to kindergarten 2 level which had more lesson to be learnt. in that level, the students start to develop their reading skill by learning double consonant letter. and also students practiced to read short text. however, the teacher was not highly concerned about phonological awareness. researcher needed to press its importance to the teacher so that phonological awareness is emphasised as early as possible. the urgency is due to how phonological awareness starts to emerge as early as age two. it increases with age, becoming finer-grained depending on the combination of school and parental educational influence. independent of those two factors, a child’s knowledge of nursery rhymes also significantly contributes to their literacy development of phonological awareness (andrews & baker, 2019). no phonological awareness curricula specifically designed for english young leaners was located by this author. no researchers suggest that these skills emerge suddenly in kindergarten; rather, phonological awareness is a group of related skills that emerges slowly throughout early childhood. the shortage of curricula may be due to low awareness of the need for phonological awareness education for preschoolers. 5. conclusion this research was done at ses school pekanbaru on phonological awareness for variabel x and questionnaire to get bilingual education data for variabel y. the purpose of the research was to identify the influence of phonological awareness on bilingual education at ses pekanbaru. based on the presentation and analysis of the data, the finding of the 27 students led the researcher to infer that the phonological awareness has significant influence on students’ bilingual education at ses school pekanbaru. it can be seen that the influence of phonological awareness on their bilingual education was 52,2%. in other word, if the students understand about the phonological awareness, students could easily predict what the word students are reading. but if the students do not understand how to manipulate the word, students will not be able to read the word in proper pronunciation. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, august 2020, pp. 00-00 74 6. acknowledgement this research was partially supported by applied linguistic center pbig fkip unilak who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although students may not agree with all the interpretation of this paper. references andrews, j. f., & baker, s. 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(2005). the relationship between phonological awareness and reading ability of thai students in english and thai in primary schools of thailand. doctoral dissertation. university of maryland http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v5i1.11200 vol. 5, no. 1, april 2023, pp. 1-16 1 the impact of english morphological awareness on vocabulary enrichment: a causal-affect relationship research i ketut wardana universitas mahasaraswati denpasar, indonesia, 80232 ketutwardana71@unmas.ac.id article history received : 2022-09-05 revised : 2023-01-09 accepted : 2022-12-12 keywords morphological awareness derivational morphology vocabulary enrichment language learning assessment abstract limited vocabulary is one of the most common difficulties faced by efl learners in indonesia. ignorance of english morphological awareness prevents students from expanding lexical words. however, research on morphological consciousness is relatively rare. therefore, this study aims to examine the impact of morphological awareness on efl learners’ vocabulary. the study used a causal-effect relationship research design. the population consisted exclusively of students of the english and management studies program at universitas mahasaraswati denpasar (n=1360). however, in this study, only 10% of the population (n = 136) was sampled using a systematic random sampling technique. there were two types of instruments: instrument a was ten successful two-layer multiple-choice morphology tests and instrument b was vocabulary completion tests. the data were then analyzed using statistical mediation regression and a series of independent-sample t-tests. the results indicated that the participants' perception of the derivation morphology was rated as "poor", which impacted their "poor" achievement. morphological awareness significantly affected participants' vocabulary, with sig 0.000 < alpha (0.05) and tob (21.601) > tcv (1.667). furthermore, morphological awareness did not differ by gender (t = 1.221, p = 0.224 > 0.05), but by study duration (t = 4.729, p = 0.000 < 0.05) and academic courses (t = 5.306, with sig 0.000 < 0.05). the results underline that explicit morphological instruction has a positive effect on efl learners in predicting and promoting vocabulary. therefore, through linguistic pedagogy, knowledge of english word formation rules has a much stronger and more positive effect on language competence and performance in efl class than a purely non-linguistic approach. 1. introduction english morphological awareness encompasses all knowledge of how words are fundamentally constructed, or in short, it's about the word grammar. words are developed into word formation rules through affixation, compounding, reduplication, conversion, acronym, and onomatopoeia. this knowledge can develop efl students' vocabulary. in fact, vocabulary becomes the primary concern of language learning objectives as it plays an important role in conveying meaning, either through spoken or written english. therefore, according to plag, 2018; liang, et al., 2021), morphological awareness can help students improve their language skills. furthermore, according to borghi et al. (2019), knowledge of word formation can increase students' motivation to learn the language. however, some previous studies (franscy & ramli, 2022; fitriyani & nulanda, 2017) show that vocabulary is more influenced by non-linguistic elements such as teaching-learning methods and talents. in fact, it is considered weak to claim that learning the english language (ell) can be achieved without considering the linguistic role. therefore, the morphological awareness intervention can lead to a larger number of english word entries. however, morphology lessons become less important in english classes in indonesia, which is why learners fail to develop their vocabulary. morphological instruction in efl classes focuses on solving vocabulary difficulties (borghi, et al., 2019). limited vocabulary is one of the most common problems learners face when developing language skills (franscy & ramli, 2022; fitriyani & nulanda, 2017). knowing the derivation markers mentioned https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v5i1.11200 mailto:ketutwardana71@unmas.ac.id 2 above allows learners to determine word class and predict meaning based on the position and function of words in sentences (afri & putra, 2021). in the reading text, there are mostly morphological markers that can make learners stop reading (tahaineh, 2012). if they don't understand the markings, they will spend a long time consulting the dictionary for the meaning (an & thomas, 2021). this long dictionary consultation weakens the motivation to read. therefore, according to yang & dai (2011), learners can get clues to the written or spoken ideas if they have a good understanding of english morphology. this condition, according to bailey et al. (2021)., morphology lessons can be one of the ways in solving vocabulary problems. therefore, examining the impact of morphology teaching on efl learners' vocabulary can lead to an appropriate strategy for improving learners' vocabulary. there have been limited studies concerned with the causal-effect correlation between english morphology and vocabulary enrichment. the previous findings mostly reveal vocabulary teaching strategies (reis & fogarty, 2022; kay & adnyani, 2021; kalsum et al., 2021) in fact, these findings have not described the impact of morphological awareness on the increasing number of vocabulary entries. however, some findings that are concerned with morphological intervention revealed theoretical evidence that this study refers to. apriyani & ilma (2020) claim that there was a “fair significant correlation” between students’ morphological awareness and their vocabulary mastery and morphological awareness contributed as much as 21.9% toward students’ vocabulary mastery. meanwhile, (arviyolla & delfi, 2022) indicated a “positive and strong” correlation between students' morphological awareness and vocabulary mastery. however, concerning the specific language skill, nurwati (2013) finds evidence that morphological awareness gives a 50.69 % contribution to writing ability and they are significantly correlated. all findings referred to this study proved that morphological awareness is mostly correlated with vocabulary mastery. however, none of the studies reveal a more specific impact of derivational morphology instruction on learners’ vocabulary enrichment. therefore, this study examines not only the impact of morphological awareness on efl learners’ word entries but also determines whether the comprehension of morphology and vocabulary differ based on gender, length of the study, and educational background. given the previous research on which this study draws, it is easy to predict that there is a connection between morphology as the study of word structure and vocabulary structure. theoretically, it can be said that a vocabulary is a group of lexical words that can only be learned and understood based on their morphological structure. however, how morphology lessons affect the number of word entries and whether vocabulary is related to language proficiency requires further intensive investigation. this study strongly believes that awareness of word formation rules in morphology classes will positively influence and develop efl learners' vocabulary mastery. therefore, the results of the study provide a general contribution to the development of word entries through word reconstruction, in which words are morphologically broken down into smaller units. this study can provide a new perspective to promote english vocabulary literacy. so, teachers can map the language learning goals and strategies of language teaching through a linguistic pedagogy approach. so, this study believes that english vocabulary literacy can be strongly and positively impacted through morphological awareness that is significantly correlated to language proficiency. so, the roles of the linguistic pedagogy approach contribute a better view than word memorizing-based learning. considering the limitations of the study, this study only focuses on (1) the conceptual level of students' derivational morphology, and (2) the differences in students' knowledge based on gender, learning experience, and academic courses. therefore, this study proposes two research problems: does english morphological awareness (ema) significantly affect participants' vocabulary proficiency and how do ema and vocabulary proficiency differ by gender, length of study, and academic courses? 2. literature review this study summarizes and synthesizes the previous theoretical knowledge and statements consistent with the morphological process. the discussion of english derivational morphology cannot be separated from morphological segmentation through a word-formation process. according to gaston et al. (2021), a derivation is a morphemic process that generates new lexemes. this means that derivations are different word forms from different paradigms. based on this statement, this study clarifies that a lexeme is the smallest abstract lexical unit, either simple or complex word forms in a paradigm that is usually written in upper case. for example, required; requires, required, require, and requirement. each affix inserted into this lexeme consists of several morphemes that differ in word formation rules, either by inflectional or derivational morphemes. the discussion of derivation morphology is presented in three subtitles: the conception of derivation morphology; derivation prefix and derivation suffix. 2.1 english morphology awareness conception and morphological awareness have the same terms for an individual's knowledge of word structure. according to asaad & shabdin (2021), the concept of derivational morphology refers to an individual's awareness of the morphemic structure of a 3 word and their ability to reflect and manipulate that structure. furthermore, stump (2019) adds that the study of morphology in word forms is usually viewed as segmenting words into morphemes and determining the entire syntactic class of word forms. this means that all words can be segmented into smaller meaningful units. for example, the word il-logic-al-ly consists of three morphemes, namely the prefix -il, which marks the negative meaning of the adjective as logical, and the morpheme -ly of the adverb. this word formation thus changes the semantic category of the original word. however, cats are composed of two morphemes: cat as the root word and the suffix -s as the plural marker. the second process is called inflection, which only determines grammatical categories. so, the core theory of morphology is morphemic. this view is consistent with manova & knell (2021) who state that: 1) derivation is a morphemic change that produces a word with a different morphemic identity; 2) two words that are the same but have different lexical meanings; 3) the derivation rule is a chronological order rule. from this explanation it can be seen that the derivation occurs not only in different word classes but also in the same word but with different lexical meanings, furthermore, the derivation has a limited distribution but very different affixes. the formation of the derivation thus consists of a complex structure containing the same distribution class as the members of the word class. the derivation tends to be core layer formation. this process tends to be statistically more diverse but more limited in distribution and certainly shows a change in word class. based on the theoretical review of this concept, this study summarizes the review that the concept of morphological derivation consists of (i) several principles related to the morphemes of a language and (ii) morphotactics, namely restrictions on how morphemes are allowed to be appended, and (iii) spelling changes that may occur due to morpheme combinations. 2.2 derivational prefix the derivational prefix is a term in morphology where a word formation process occurs through the combination of the bound morpheme and the free morpheme at the beginning of the word. in other words, prefixing is the act of adding a prefix to the base with or without changing the part of speech, e.g., en+ rich (adj), enrich (v) or not+ agree (v) disagree (v). according to mena & saputri (2018), derivation formation is caused by changes in basic meaning when adding affixes to the stem of the word, e.g., unhappy (adj) becomes unhappy (adj). the two-word classes are the same but have opposite meanings, so these words fall into the derivational category. it also changes the base word class, for example, care (n) + ful becomes careful (adj) and the words careful + ly (adv) become careful (adv). adding suffixes to the base word leads to a change in word class, from nouns to adjectives and from adjectives to adverbs of manner. dermawansyah et al. (2022) add the statement that from this combination there is a process of changing phonemes in the orthography and pronunciation due to the phonological process. prefixes in english word formation can be grouped according to their meaning and function into negative prefixes, inverse prefixes, pejorative prefixes, level prefixes or measures, orientation and attitude prefixes, locative prefixes, time and order prefixes, number prefixes, and neoclassical prefixes. the research which was conducted by mahamu & sofyan (2021) on the principle of morpheme recognition in english found (1) forms of indefinite pronouns, comparative level, superlative degree, and reflective pronouns; (2) singular and plural forms; (3) past participle form regular {-d}/ {-ed} and irregular {– n}; (4) forms of singular and plural nouns and present and past verbs; (5) homonymous forms; and (6) free and bound morpheme forms. from the results of the classification, morphemes can be identified based on word form, word class, and meaning that appears. subsequent research, which was conducted by (anita et al., 2014) found that the level of student competence in the word recognition process in morphological knowledge needed to be increased because it was still categorized as moderate. in general, this study summarizes this theory that the presence of base-form prefixes does not change the base form of the part of speech, but only provides a semantic modification of the base form. however, the combination of these morphemes results in phonemic change, either regressive or progressive assimilation. for example, the alveolar nasal becomes a velar nasal when followed by a velar consonant. 2.3 derivational suffix phonological awareness also covers how the words are formed in such a way as to change the grammatical category, lexical form, and semantic meaning by adding suffixes. according to berg & aronoff (2021), suffixation is the process of adding bound morphemes as a suffix to the end of the base form with or without changing the basic word class, for example, speak (v) + -er becomes speaker (n), speech (n) + less turns into speechless (adj) 'without words’. in contrast to prefixation which tends to change the meaning, it does not change the word class. the presence of suffixes in the basic form tends to change the basic word class (utami & mujadidah, 2021). suffixes in derivational morphology do not play too much semantically on the basic form (fernández alcaina, 2021). its main function is to change the basic form of word class (mahendra & indrawati, 2017). however, this study presents a perspective that suffixes in english word formation can be classified into several categories based on the resulting word 4 class of their morphological process. these categories include: (i) denominal suffixes, (ii) deverbal noun suffixes, (iii) deadjectival noun suffixes, (iv) denominal adjective suffixes, (v) deverbal adjective suffixes, (vi) adverb suffixes, and (vii) verb suffixes. based on the above theoretical explanation and the empirical studies, this research emphasizes some basic principles of the conception of the derivative morphology. the concept to which this study refers is the ability of students to identify morphological derivation forms and to explain changes in word forms and meanings from morphological processes in a holistic and detailed way so that new forms of the mechanism of these changes can be predicted. the basic principles are (i) derivational morphology is the process of word formation by attachment; (ii) affixation is the merging of morphemes in basic words by adding morphemes as prefixes and morphemes as suffixes, which can change the meaning and class of words; and (iii) the context of the sentence strongly determines the choice of derivation form. for this reason, this study predicts that the level of student perceptions of the derivational morphology is determined by the context of the sentence. however, students' ideas actually come from the learning process, and misunderstandings are caused by less learning experience. 3. method this present study enlightens the research problem of whether english derivational morphology awareness in morphological instruction significantly impacts the participant’s vocabulary and how english derivational morphology awareness and vocabulary literacy differ based on gender, the length of the study, and academic courses. this study believes that morphological instruction of derivational awareness impacts efl learners’ vocabulary entries significantly to promote language proficiency. considering the learners’ characteristics, the learners’ word formation rules and vocabulary might differ based on the length of the study and academic course, but female and male students have the same difficulties in both variables. the methods describe how this study was conducted to gain the findings. this study used a quantitative approach with a nonexperimental causal affect relationship research design. nonexperimental designs are research designs that examine social phenomena without direct manipulation of the conditions that the subjects experience (cresswell et al., 2015). to see the difference in achievement based on gender, length of the study, and academic background, a comparative analysis was also applied. according to pappas & woodside (2021), comparative research enables the researcher to examine the differences between two or more groups on the phenomenon that is being studied. the independent variable of this study is derivational morphology awareness as the cause and its value is independent of other variables. meanwhile, the dependent variables of this study are vocabulary literacy, gender, length of the study, and academic background as the effect. its value depends on changes in the independent variable. the population was 1360 students of universitas mahasaraswati denpasar. this size is too large to cover in one single study due to much time-consuming and financial spending. therefore, 10% of the whole population is taken for the sample. furthermore, systematic random sampling is used to determine the number of students involved in the study. systematic random sampling means there is a gap, or interval, between each selected unit in the sample. here are some steps in determining the sample of the study. the researcher: 1) numbered the units on the frame from 1 to n (so, 1360 is the total population size), 2) determined the sampling interval (k) by dividing the number of units in the population by the desired sample size. a sampling interval of 1360/136 = 10. therefore, k = 10. so, one unit was out of every ten units to end up with a total of 1360 units in the sample, 3) divided the entire population into 10 groups each of which consists of 136 students. then the first group (group a) contains 136 students the second group (group b) with serial numbers, and so on until group j, and 4) selected a random start between one and k (10). so, the random start was one unit on the frame that was followed by every kth (in this case, every tenth) unit after that first number. group a: 11, 22, 32, 42, 52, 62, 72, 82, 92, 102, 112, 122, 132, group b: 142, 152….232, group c: 342,…442, and until 1360. the sample was divided into two different groups. they were 68 from the english study program (esp) and another 68 students from the management study program (msp). esp students have learned english morphology, but msp has learned general english. for the gender differences, this study involved 68 male students and 68 female students. for the length of their study, 68 students were in semester 2, and the same number of students were in semester 4. data were collected through two tests. test a was used to measure students' morphological awareness and test b was used to measure vocabulary literacy. the type of test was two-layered multiple-choice test items. first-layer of the multiple-choice test was used to measure students' ability to identify the correct derivational morphology within four choices. meanwhile, the second-layer items had four options containing the reasons for choosing the form in the first layer. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/independent-and-dependent-variables/#independent https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/independent-and-dependent-variables/#dependent 5 the number of questions tested was 16 questions consisting of 8 questions to measure the conception of prefix derivation, and 8 questions for suffix derivation. each item was arranged according to the rules for writing multiple-choice questions. during the pandemic, to avoid face-to-face interactions, the test was prepared and distributed using a google form, and a question link was emailed to participants, and they had to answer based on their understanding. 16 test items were examined by 5 experts consisting of 3 lecturers in the faculty of teacher training and education and 2 english senior high school teachers. a consensus was reached among the experts and only 10 items were declared eligible for testing. it can be seen from the test item analysis. the item difficulty level (fv) and item discrimination index (dv) in the test were calculated and presented in table 1. table 1. test item analysis test item fv dv criteria 1 0.339 0.371 good 2 0.339 0.000 bad 3 0.323 0.323 good 4 0.395 0.306 good 5 0.258 0.129 bad 6 0.411 0.306 good 7 0.226 0.194 bad 8 0.339 0.355 good 9 0.266 0.048 bad 10 0.315 0.403 good 11 0.298 0.048 bad 12 0.306 0.355 good 13 0.355 0.387 good 14 0.331 0.339 good 15 0.323 0.000 bad 16 0.444 0.565 good the results of the difficulty test item analysis (fv) above are interpreted into three categories, namely “difficult”, “medium”, and “easy”. fv<0.30 is categorized as “difficult”, fv 0.30 0.70 is categorized as “moderate”, and fv > 0.70 is categorized as “easy”. so, if fv < 0.30 or fv > 0.70 then the test cannot be used. based on the fv in the table above, the difficulty level index of the questions ranges from 0.226 to 0.444. meanwhile for the interpretation of the discriminating index (dv), where dv 0.70 is categorized as “very good” (used), 0.40 dv < 0.70 is categorized as “good” (used), 0.20 dv < 0.40 is categorized as “enough”, and dv < 0.20 categorized as “bad” (not used). based on the data in the table, the discrimination index ranges from 306 to 0.565. there were 6 items in the test that were deleted (2, 5, 7, 9, 11, dan 15) because the discrimination value of the item was smaller than 0.20. so, there were only ten (1, 3, 4, 6,8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16) test items used to measure the students’ morphological awareness. on the other hand, test b was in the form of fill in the blank test items taken from the lecturer’s guided book approved by the institution head. therefore, there was no trial test administered because they were considered valid and reliable. there were twenty items of filling the blanks where the students wrote the best word formation to complete. the score was objective; the correct one gets one. the results of the tests were then checked to determine the raw score, mean score, and average score. this study used parametric statistical mediation regression analysis because the data were normally and homogeneously distributed after applying the kolmogorov-smirnova and shapirowilk normality tests, where sig .053> p.0.05 and homogeneous test where sig .845 >p.0.05. a causal steps statistical test method with one-way linear regression was applied to find out the impact of morphological awareness on vocabulary literacy (syafiq et al., 2022). in addition, a series of independent sample t-tests were applied to measure whether ema of participants and their vocabulary literacy differed based on gender, length of study, and academic major. there are two decisions in the causal-effect statistical test: the comparison of the statistical significance and the comparison of the t-count value with the t-table. the significance value is presented in (p < 0.05). if the significance value is higher than 0.05 (p < 0.05), english morphological awareness (ema) significantly affects the participants' vocabulary literacy. on the other hand, if the significance value is lower than 0.05 (p>0.05), then the ema does not affect the participant's vocabulary literacy; (2) the comparison of the t-count value with the t-table. if the t-count value is higher than t-table (rob > rcv), then ema affects vocabulary literacy and vice versa, if the value of rob < rcv, then it does not affect literacy of english vocabulary. to see the difference between ema and vocabulary literacy based on participant characteristics, decision-making at this stage uses a significance value of 0.05. if the significance value is <0.05, then the student's ema or vocabulary is significantly different based on gender, study range, and educational background. on the other hand, if the significance value is higher (> 0.05), then, ema and vocabulary literacy do not differ based on gender, study range, and educational background. 6 4. results this study attempts to investigate the impact of morphological awareness on efl learners’ word entries. this research highlights the role of explicit morphological instruction in english language learning so that vocabulary problems can be mapped, and the number of word entries can be increased. the results of this study were grouped into 4 research findings, namely (1) the participant’s morphological awareness, (2) the participant’s english vocabulary, (3) the impact of morphological awareness on vocabulary literacy, and (4) differences in morphological knowledge and participant vocabulary based on gender, the length of the study, and academic course. 4.1 morphological awareness the result of instrument a is categorized into correct and incorrect answers. the participants’ correct answer is categorized as "high awareness" in english morphology because participants can answer twolayered questions correctly. however, incorrect answers can be classified into three awareness categories, namely "less awareness", "low awareness", and "poor awareness". participants’ english morphological awareness is categorized as "less" because they answer the first-layer questions correctly but answer the second-layer questions incorrectly. on the other hand, participants' morphological awareness is categorized as "low" because they answer the firstlevel questions incorrectly but answered the secondlevel questions correctly. participants' morphological awareness is then categorized as "poor" because students answer both questions incorrectly. the results of the first research question of whether english derivational morphology awareness significantly impacts the participant’s vocabulary literacy are presented in the numeric data. the data were the scores of two-layered multiple-choice tests and were interpreted in different levels of criteria. therefore, the level of students' english morphology awareness in each item can be presented in table 2. table 2. participants' conception level on morphological awareness answer t/t t/f f/t f/f criteria high awareness less awareness low awareness poor awareness n f/% f/% f/% f/% 1 52 (38%) 18 (13%) 26 (19%) 40 (30%) 2 76 (56%) 25 (18%) 20 (15%) 15 (11%) 3 58 (43%) 30 (22%) 28 (20%) 20 (15%) 4 81 (60%) 22 (16%) 15 (11%) 18 (13%) 5 90 (66%) 16 (12%) 10 (7%) 20 (15%) 6 73 (54%) 21 (15%) 9 (7%) 33 (24%) 7 47 (34%) 24 (18%) 16 (12%) 49 (36%) 8 60 (44%) 26 (19%) 14 (10%) 36 (27%) 9 47 (34%) 30 (22%) 20 (15%) 39 (29%) 10 56 (41%) 19 (14%) 21(15%) 40 (30%) total 640 (47%) 231 (17%) 179 (13%) 310 (23%) mean 47.06 16.99 13.16 22.79 based on information in table 2, the finding indicated 2 groups of participants; one group answered the questions of the two-layered multiple-choice test correctly and the other group answered the questions incorrectly. the total number of answers was 1360. the total number of correct answers regarding the participants’ awareness of morphology was 640 gained by 64 participants and the total number of students and the number of incorrect answers was 720 obtained by 72 participants. the average score of participants correct answers was 47.06 and the average score of the incorrect answer was 52.94. the participants’ conception of prefixes and suffixes in this study was categorized as “poor”. it can be seen from the data that 23 or 17% of participants had “less comprehension” because they only identified the derivation form of the words correctly but could not determine their semantic category. furthermore, 18 or 13% of participants failed to identify the correct form of derivation but gave the correct reason. this indicated 7 that the participants were not familiar with derivational morphology. participants selected the correct reason not because they understood but guessed it blindly. the data in the last column showed that 31 or 23% of participants had misconceptions because they could not identify the correct word formation concepts. to determine the morphological awareness category, the total raw score of each student was categorized into specific criteria of “excellent” (scores 84% to 100%), “good” (scores 68% to 83%), “sufficient” (scores 52% to 67%), “poor” (scores 36% to 51%), and “very poor” (scores 20% to 35%) this category directly reflects the level of awareness of english morphology. to clarify, the participants’ english morphological awareness is presented in figure 1. figure 1. participants’ english morphological awareness the finding presented in figure 1 revealed the participant’s awareness category of how the words are formed in english derivational morphology. from the figure, only 4% of the participant had ‘excellent awareness”, 20% of the participants had “good awareness”, 7% of the participant had “sufficient awareness”, 37% of the participant had “poor”, and 32% participant had “very poor” awareness in english derivational morphology. from the data taken and analyzed from instrument a, the finding of the study revealed that the participants’ awareness of english morphology is categorized as “poor”. this study found 4 main problems the students faced in determining the correct forms of word formation in derivational morphology, namely (i) the inability to determine bound morphemes as prefixes and the exchange of lexical meaning; (ii) unawareness of determining bound morphemes as suffixes and the exchanges word class and lexical meaning; (iii) difficulties linking bound morphemes as suffixes to word bases and bound morphemes as suffixes; and (iv) unawareness of the context given in the sentences. 4.2 vocabulary mastery instrument b is a vocabulary test that measures participants’ knowledge in determining the correct form and meaning of words or phrases from the perspective of morphological process. the type of question is objective, that is, there is only one correct answer in the form of “fill in the blanks”. students fill in the correct answers in the blanks provided in any place in the sentences with the base word in brackets as clues. participants answer by changing the form of the word base according to its position in the sentences and the word class that is used according to the context. the number of questions is 20 and each question is assessed with "correct 1 gets 1". the total score is determined by the total score divided by the maximum score multiplied by 100. after obtaining the average score of each participant, the literacy vocabulary category is determined. the total mean score of each student was categorized into specific criteria of “excellent vocabulary literacy” (scores 84% to 100%), “good vocabulary literacy” (scores 68% to 83%), “sufficient vocabulary literacy” (scores 52% to 67%), “poor vocabulary literacy” (scores 36% to 51%), and “very poor vocabulary literacy” (scores 20% to 35%). to find out more data, the participant’s vocabulary literacy level is presented in figure 2. 5 27 10 51 43 excellent good sufficient poor very poor 8 table 2. distribution of participant's vocabulary score frequency 100 2 participants 90 6 participants 80 3 participants 70 4 participants 60 8 participants 50 9 participants 40 21 participants 30 30 participants 20 36 participants 10 17 participants based on the data obtained from instrument b, the total score was 4480 and the average score was 35.88. referring to the range of value criteria, vocabulary literacy can be categorized as "poor", namely 36-52. for the overview of the findings from the analyzed data, participants’ vocabulary literacy can be presented in figure 2. figure 2. participant’s vocabulary figure 2 indicated the participant’s poor ability in identifying the correct forms of suffixes and prefixes and determining the word class in the post-lexical context. it can be seen that 8.6% of the participants had “excellent”, 3.2% of the participant got “good”, 8.6% of the participants had “sufficient”, 30.22% of the participants had “poor”, and 87.64% of the participants had “very poor” vocabulary literacy from ema. the data analysis from instrument b showed that the average result of the gap-filling test was 35.88, meaning that 64.12% of the participants failed to determine the correct answer. the findings of this study indicate that the literacy morphology of the participants is in a low category. this picture not only reflects the low level of vocabulary through word formation in the morphological process but indicates language skills in general. the difficulties faced by students raise several important issues, namely, (i) participants' english lexicon entry only concerns a standard set of words that have definite root words, (ii) vocabulary of word formation is difficult to memorize but must be understood; and (iii) the context of the sentence is not considered as crucial by participants in efl in terms of the word environment and the lexical category, therefore the participants can determine the appropriate word selection. 8 3 8 30 87 excellent good sufficient poor very poor 9 4.3 the impact of ema on vocabulary the third analysis in this study consists of two proposes, namely (i) determining whether there is an impact of morphological awareness on participants' vocabulary awareness and (ii) measuring the level and pattern of the influence of morphological awareness on vocabulary literacy. for this reason, the finding taken from instrument a is compared with the finding taken from instrument b. this comparison used parametric statistics because the data are normally distributed and homogeneous. this study used parametric statistical mediation regression analysis that describes statistically (1) the measurement of the simultaneous test (f test) and (2) the significant measurement of the significance level of the f test (<0.05). the findings revealed that the significance value was less than 0.05 (f = 466.609, sig .000 <0.05) then there is an impact of the student’s awareness on their vocabulary literacy. further analysis is to determine the significance level of the variables. the significance of ema on vocabulary can be presented in table 3 table 3. the significance of ema on vocabulary coefficients model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (cons) -6.339 2.152 -2.945 .004 ema .896 .041 .881 21.601 .000 a. dependent variable: vocabulary the ema included in this study impacted participants’ vocabulary achievement significantly since the result of the linear regression correlation test showed that sig 0.004 < alpha (0.05) and tob (2.945) > tcv (1.667) and that sig 0.000 < alpha (0.05) and tob (21.601) > tcv (1.667). taking the analysis into account, this study found that ho: p = 0 (there is no impact of ema on vocabulary literacy) is now rejected. h1: p # 0 (there is a simultaneous impact ema on students' vocabulary literacy) is accepted. from the regression analysis, it can be interpreted that the ema has a strong and positive impact on the students’ vocabulary mastery simultaneously. that is, the more intensively the students understand english morphology, the broader they can develop their vocabulary. in contrast, the students who do not gain morphological awareness cannot develop vocabulary and of course, they have difficulties in reading and writing english. 4.4 differences in vocabulary referring to the second subproblem, this study reveals that students’ conceptions might differ based on gender, educational period, and academic major. for this reason, the t-test was applied. associated with the characteristics of male and female students, differences in ema based on gender can be presented in table 4. table 4. differences in ema based on gender, grade, and department gender n mean f sig. t df sig. (2-tailed) male 68 49.41 4.566 .034 1.221 134 .224 female 68 44.85 1.221 126.439 .224 grade year 2 68 37.79 6.797 .010 -4.729 134 .000 year 3 68 54.71 -4.729 128.612 .000 department esp 68 55.59 8.531 .004 5.306 134 .000 msp 68 37.94 5.306 122.601 .000 10 the results of the independent sample t-test in table 4 above showed that female and male participants had relatively the same level of conception of derivational morphology. this can be seen from the results of the two-layered multi-choice test where the tvalue of ema was 1.221 and the p-value (>0.05) (t = 1.221, p >0.05). this means that there was not any tendency for female participants to understand english word formation better than male students. male and female students had the same difficulties in english derivational morphology. the next analysis is the extent to which differences in the conception of derivational morphology are influenced by the length of the study. considering the finding presented in table 3, this study confirms that the difference in the period of study can affect students' understanding of forming english words. this can be seen from the t-test with a value of -4.729 and a p-value was 0.000 (t = -4.729, p<0.05). this value shows a significant difference based on the group of academic levels. participants of semester 4 performed ema better than participants of semester 2. the different academic departments have also an impact on the level of students' awareness of the word-formation process through derivational morphology. the data in table 3 show that there is a significant difference in the results measuring morphology awareness between english language students and management students. this statement is supported by the statistical results of the study, where the t-test showed that the p-value is less than 0.05 (t=5.306, p<0.05). this means that there is a significant difference due to different academic backgrounds. participants studying english morphology had higher scores than participants studying general english. there are differences in the level of ideas and misunderstandings between the students of the english-language study program and the students of the management study program. vocabulary competence can be expanded in this way by understanding the morphological process of words in explicit learning. based on the above result, morphological awareness significantly influenced the students' vocabulary, in this case, it can be interpreted that the lack of ema impacts the participants' limited vocabulary. this finding can of course be used as a theoretical and empirical reflection for the most pedagogical treatment possible. however, the independent-sample t-test is required to find out whether vocabulary competency differs by gender, length of study, and academic history. differences in vocabulary by gender, length of study, and degree programs can be shown in table 5. table 5. differences in vocabulary mastery gender n mean f sig. t df sig. (2-tailed) male 68 38.18 .317 .575 1.182 134 .239 female 68 33.76 1.182 133.011 .239 grade year 2 68 34.71 4.988 .027 -.628 134 .531 year 3 68 37.10 -.628 125.986 .531 department esp 68 27.50 16.923 .000 -4.845 134 .000 msp 68 44.26 -4.845 112.278 .000 considering the data presented in table 5, this study confirms that both male and female participants got the same problems in enriching vocabulary. this can be seen that the t-test was 1.182 and the p-value was .239 which was higher than 0.05 (t = 1.182, p >0.05). it means that there are no statistically significant differences in vocabulary literacy based on gender. moreover, different levels of education might influence different vocabulary literacy. in fact, this study revealed that year three participants’ vocabulary literacy was not better than year two participants. it means that both groups had the same problems in vocabulary literacy. it can be seen from the statistical significance that the t-test was -.628 and p-value was 531 (t = -.628, p >0.05). however, there was a significant difference in vocabulary literacy between esp participants and msp participants. these statistical findings revealed that t-value was -4.845 and p-value was .000 (t = -4.845, p <0.05). it can be interpreted that esp participants had more word entries than msp participants. 5. discussion this study proposes two research questions that is explored through a quantitative approach method with 11 a causal-effect relationship research design. therefore, there were two main findings from this study. the first result of this study showed that all participants were broadly classified to have a “poor” achievement in ema. however, participants of english study program (esp) who received phonological instruction had quite better comprehension and participants of management study program (msp) who did not specifically study morphology still had difficulty understanding the word formation rules in english. in comparison, while esp participants were better at identifying the lexical words than participants in the msp class, they also had trouble identifying the corresponding suffix and prefix markers, which significantly impacted their vocabulary. on average, the students' lexical entries were rated “poor” because they could not identify the correct forms of derivation morphology. after the morphological instruction, some participants of esp achieved a “good” achievement in vocabulary, meanwhile, others had a “moderate” vocabulary, and the rest had a “poorly limited vocabulary. however, all msp participants who did not have morphological instruction had “poor” vocabulary. as bowers & kirby (2010) and goodwin & ahn, (2010) revealed in their studies, this study statistically found that morphology awareness had a significant impact on participants' vocabulary enrichment. consistent with morphological notions and misunderstandings, the results of the two-layer multiple-choice tests showed that 47% of the participants correctly answered the derivation morphology. 17% of the participants, on the other hand, could only identify the correct form of derivation in the gap text, but could not explain why they used this form. in addition, 13% of 136 participants could not identify english prefixes and suffixes but could answer the argument part correctly. this ensures that the students did not understand them but blindly guessed the answers. of all the questions tested, 23% of participants had misconceptions about english derivation morphology. this finding is consistent with kieffer & lesaux (2008) who find that the concept of derivational morphology has a positive impact on students' vocabulary in reading literacy. in addition, this study supports schmitt & zimmerman's (2002) earlier statement that concepts of derivational morphology can help learners develop more word inputs and bowers et al., (2010) claim that the morphological awareness naturally enable them to perform the four language skills more proficiently. the second finding showed that participants' morphological awareness did not differ by gender. (dąbrowska, 2008). female participants had the same understanding and ability to determine the suffix and prefix of the derivation as the male students. this means that the students had the same problems with word class markers. however, participants' understanding and ability in morphological awareness differed according to length of study and academic course. year 3 students had a better understanding of morphological awareness than year 2 participants because they linked derivational morphology to postlexical context. furthermore, esp participants were better at derivation morphology than msp students, but their comprehension was still rated as “poor” due to less practice. by mastering vocabulary, esp participants acquired better vocabulary compared to msp participants. however, neither male nor female participants differed in vocabulary proficiency (mccarthy, 2008). furthermore, the duration of the study had no influence on the vocabulary mastery of the msp participants. all had poor english vocabulary. both male and female participants had the same ability and difficulty in identifying, determining, and explaining forms of prefixes and suffixes (sonbul & el-dakhs, 2021). however, the ema students differed in terms of length of study and academic background. second-year participants recognized fewer forms of english prefixes and suffixes compared to third-year participants. although both esp and msp participants had the same problem in the ema, esp participants performed slightly better than msp participants. consistent with gender differences in vocabulary proficiency, this study showed that students' vocabulary did not differ by gender. however, zhonggen (2018) finds some evidence that female students were better than male students at promoting new vocabulary in playful classroom activities. however, the length of study now differed depending on the academic courses, with esp participants providing more recognized vocabulary than msp participants. the finding of the study confirms that the misconception of derivational morphology is caused by 3 basic factors. 1) differences in the linguistic system the english word formation rules are different from indonesian where the suffix in english is the prefix in indonesian. for example, the word “keep” -er (agentive) is interpreted as pen-jaga in indonesian. 2) multiple interpretations of english verbs the english verbs differ from indonesian verbs that have contained a derivational prefix and suffix. for example, the verb 'to push' in indonesian has obtained the prefix 'men-dorong', and the verb “to buy” already has a derivational prefix and a suffix; men -beli-kan in indonesian. 3) words memorizing-based learning the last issue is the way the students memorize the english word formation may seem hard to keep the words in mind because memorizing is not the same 12 as how linguistic cognitive works (mcbridechang et al., 2008). to support this statement, the two most difficult forms of derivational morphology are displayed in the test that participants faced. several confirmations like zhang (2016) and bowers et al., (2010) on the three points above, elaborate that (i) the differences in language systems are theoretically dynamic. this means that changes in language form are due to a universal language system, both in indonesian and english or in any language like english-chinese (zhang, 2016). for example, adding morphemes as prefixes or suffixes to elementary words undergo a phonological (morphophonemic) process through phoneme simulation; (ii) the mental process of word formation does not necessarily change category morphologically, there are exceptions, often referred to as null conversion; (iii) implicit learning is required so that the basic concept of word formation in the source language l1 can be a means of understanding the derivational morphology of the target language (l2). starting from these three statements, derivational morphology is a mental process of assembling morphemes into different lexical derivational forms and semantic categories (farris et al., 2021) this study supports some previous research findings conducted by some researchers in indonesia. regarding the above findings, syaputri (2019) revealed that “indonesian word pattern construction” influenced students’ errors in determining english word construction. along with the research finding, the author found that the students could not identify derivational markers containing grammatical, lexical, and semantic properties. however, this study did not mention any roles of morphological awareness in the context of language skills. in fact, morphological awareness is useful to deduce meaning in reading and morphological performance is crucial to help students use the word entries in writing and speaking skills. furthermore, agustiani & gumartifa (2020) revealed the reasons respondents used morphological forms are classified into 9 categories; entertainment, habits, efficiency; saving space and time, simplification, aesthetics, narcissism, self-indulgence, uniqueness, and trend. however, self-contentment reasoning is the most dominant reason owned by respondents. that is, these morpheme forms can stimulate students in this research to find word forms from these morpheme combinations outside the examples given. regarding the role of morphology instruction, this study is in line with the finding found by anwar & rosa (2020) who indicated a significant role of morphological instruction in facilitating students at junior high school to learn english more easily with significantly greater achievement. it means that students with morphological awareness or students that are instructed in morphology gain better achievements in their english learning, resulting in better english proficiency. furthermore, the finding of this study was quite different from the research finding of ramirez et al. (2014). they found that participants' english morphological awareness was moderate. such a condition became a positive potential for the teacher to help the students solidify their knowledge in english word formation rules in the process of exploring vocabulary, dealing with reading comprehension, and fulfilling various english literary needs. this study recommends that both deductive and inductive english morphology interventions be given to efl tertiary students in conjunction with appropriate practices that can continuously train their english morphology awareness. in fact, this study supports the research findings of (adam, 2018). the results showed that awareness affects 51.5% of students' vocabulary mastery. therefore, it is certain that there is a significant correlation between students' morphological awareness and their vocabulary proficiency. zhang (2015) suggests that morphology can be applied as a strategy to improve students’ skills. considering the impact of morphological instruction and vocabulary mastery, this study is consistent with the findings of research conducted by abdillah (2018) who found that there was a significant association between morphological awareness and vocabulary mastery of seventh-semester students at the islamic university of malang. in agreement with this study, akbulut, (2017) revealed some evidence that the higher the students' morphological awareness, the better their vocabulary mastery will be. from the characteristics point of view, male students have the same problem as female students. this means that gender differences have no impact on students’ understanding of morphology. however, the conception of morphology in this study differs based on differences in the level of study and academic majors. the factors that mostly cause students' derivation misconceptions are the difference in the linguistic system, the inconsistency of the morpheme switching mechanism, and words memorizing-based learning. regarding how the participants presented their morphological knowledge, different from the previous studies, the study applied two-layered multiple-choice tests to the participants by providing two levels of questions with 4 options each. this study has contributed the method how the conception must be measured. in fact, the previous studies only used truefalse and simple multiple-choice test. according to bass & chambless (1994), the purpose of this type of test is to measure whether students had the best, good, sufficient, little, or poor awareness of derivational morphology. thus, it can be known what 13 morphological processes are less or not understood at all by all participants. the measurement method used in this study provides guidance, knowledge stimulation, and reasoning anticipation. comments so that students' english proficiency can be realized. meanwhile, to improve the number of lexical entries, this study has a more effective way to measure the participants’ performance than the instrument used in previous studies. however, this study gave “fill in the gaps questions”. this type of test does not provide any options but a word clue form of the root word in brackets and the students write down the answers according to the context of the sentence. the purpose of this test is to measure participants’ ability to identify the word class of the clues and the syntagmatic of the sentences. explicit instruction is required to provide students with knowledge of word constructions. spencer et.al (2015) showed that a one-factor model that included morphological processes and vocabulary knowledge provided the best fit to the data. in addition, modeling the response to explanatory items was found effective to examine sources of variance in the vocabulary and morphological awareness tasks. it can thus be concluded that the morphological and vocabulary knowledge level of the participants not only depends on gender differences (simonsen et al., 2013), study duration and academic background, but also the appropriate explicit teaching model should be best considered. based on the discussion of the findings, this study clearly shares new knowledge of how explicit morphological teaching impacts the participants vocabulary and role of how assessment technique measures the number of lexical entries of the participants objectively. the findings contribute the evidence that with or without morphological instruction impacts the participants’ ema on the increasing or decreasing number of lexical entries. the more intensive students understand morphological awareness, the more word entries the students obtained and the better they can perform the english language tasks. furthermore, morphological awareness can be instructed through communicative-based language teaching to increase efl learners’ involvement and motivation (wardana et al., 2022). on the contrary, without morphological instruction, participants gain fewer word entries, and they cannot perform better language tasks easily. from all consideration and comparison of the present research findings with previous theoretical and empirical findings, this study states that explicit morphological instruction strongly impacts the efl learner’s phonological awareness and the number of lexical entries. 6. conclusions considering the role of english morphological awareness in the development of efl students' vocabulary proficiency, two findings were uncovered. the evidence elucidates that “with” or “without” a morphological instruction affects the size of english word entries. based on all considerations and comparisons of the present research results with previous theoretical and empirical knowledge, this study underlines that morphological awareness significantly influences the number of lexical entries of efl learners. consistent with the characteristics of the learners in terms of morphological awareness and vocabulary, female and male students face the same difficulties in understanding english morphology and developing vocabulary. however, morphological awareness and vocabulary enrichment differ according to the length of study and academic courses. this study implies the use of both deductive and inductive english morphological interventions to be given to tertiary efl students in conjunction with appropriate practice. although this study has provided general evidence for the causal relationship between english morphological awareness and vocabulary in the efl context, these results cannot cover the entire problem of linguistic phenomena because it is limited only on examining how english morphology awareness affects participants' vocabulary competence. therefore, other aspects of linguistics are required for further study. for this reason, this study suggests that future researchers investigate more about the role of linguistics in enhancing efl students' language soft skills. finally, this study states that linguistic pedagogy instruction in english 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(2018). differences in serious gameaided and traditional english vocabulary acquisition. computers & education, 127, 214– 232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.07.014 https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211045040 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9557-0 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9557-0 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11525-018-9329-z https://doi.org/10.1007/s11525-018-9329-z https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2022.101777 https://doi.org/10.24815/siele.v9i3.24830 https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v4n4p61 https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12193 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.07.014 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v5i1.12331 vol. 5, no. 1, april 2023, pp. 48-62 48 a critical discourse analysis of a female vice-presidential candidate’s acceptance speech ramos asafo-adjei 1 , francis bukari 1* , ernest kwesi klu 2 1 takoradi technical university, takoradi, ghana 2 university of venda, south africa francis.bukari@ttu.edu.gh article history received : 2022-12-21 revised : 2023-03-28 accepted : 2023-04-26 keywords acceptance speech cohesive devices critical discourse analysis discourse elements gender identity abstract this instrumental qualitative case study examined the acceptance speech of professor naana jane opoku-agyemang, the first female vice presidential candidate of a major political party in ghana. the study aimed to identify the discourse elements and cohesive devices used in the speech and to evaluate how she conveyed her political ideology and gender identity. specifically, the research question was: which discourse elements and cohesive devices were employed, and how were political ideology and gender identity manifested in the speech? the data consisted of an eight-page speech delivered on july 28, 2020, in accra, containing 3,972 words. fairclough's (2015) threedimensional textual analysis model was used for data analysis, which includes description, presentation and interpretation, and explanation of social reasons. results showed that professor opoku-agyemang used discourse elements and cohesive devices such as 'however,' 'also,' and 'second' to highlight her academic and political expertise and present herself as a qualified vice presidential candidate. she aimed to inspire women and encourage them to aspire to any position, including becoming the president of ghana. the study's findings contribute to existing literature and can inform future research on female political representation, exposing the approaches of a marginalized group and their use of speeches to gain recognition within ghana’s political space and beyond. 1. introduction chen (2018) avers that language is fundamental to the existence of humankind and is essential in implementing a successful democratic rule in any country across the globe. language is the conveyor belt of power that propels people to vote, to argue or to revolt, as adaoma (2022) suggests. language, which is essential to politicians, is a key explanation of political stability or polarisation, according to abdelkadir (2021). according to chen (2018), language is the primary means by which politicians carry out most of their activities, including campaigns, manifestos, rallies, elections, inaugurations and governance. the main goals of political speeches are to persuade, to educate and to inform the public, as well as to incite or to entertain them. according to abdel-moety (2015) and soomro and bahram (2015), discourse analysis entails linguistic analyses of connected works and speeches, including political addresses. the centrality of political speeches to the governance of many states globally has resulted in attention being paid to political speeches and their linguistic associations and implications (altikriti, 2016; chen, 2018; kimenye, 2022; mutune, 2018; robbert & udoh, 2022). for instance, president uhuru kenyatta and former prime minister raila amollo odinga’s political speeches were subjected to critical discourse analysis by kimenye. kimenye discovered that language was employed deliberately to convey the philosophy behind the handshake and initiatives to develop bridges. additionally, mutune examined the inauguration speech delivered by kenya’s president uhuru kenyatta on november 28, 2017, during his swearing-in ceremony, and he discovered that the president managed to win over the supporters by emphasising the importance of democracy, healthcare, education and the global community. additionally, hillary clinton’s interviews, the features of her political discourse and the covert tactics she used to represent her political ideology, were all examined by abdel-motey (2015). https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v5i1.12331 mailto:francis.bukari@ttu.edu.gh 49 abdel-motey discovered that clinton deployed rhetorical persuasion strategies frequently and used linguistic devices to gain control over and influence conversation. within the ghanaian space, evidence suggests that considerable attention has been paid to political acceptance speeches (israel & botchwey, 2017; kantorgorje et al., 2021). for instance, israel and botchwey investigated the illocutionary acts used by the fourth republic presidents of ghana in their presidential acceptance addresses and their intended communicative effects on their audience. kantorgorje et al. also investigated the use of epistemic modality (em) in four ex-presidents of the fourth republic’s chosen acceptance speeches. this data from the available literature implies conversely that research that pay attention to examining acceptance speeches of female ghanaian opposition vice-presidential candidates’ speeches are rare. accordingly, this enquiry aimed to identify the discourse elements and cohesive devices professor naana opoku-agyemang employed and to evaluate how she manifested her political ideology and gender identity. the following research questions, therefore, guided the study: (1) what are the discourse elements and cohesive devices employed in the acceptance speech of professor naana opoku-agyemang? and (2) how do ideology and gender identity manifest in the acceptance speech of professor naana opoku-agyemang?. professor jane naana opoku-agyemang was selected as the running mate for the national democratic congress (ndc) to partner with john dramani mahama for ghana’s 2020 presidential and parliamentary elections. before her selection, she had occupied the position of minister of education from 2013 to 2017 when the ndc was in power. she made a name for herself as an english language expert before entering national politics; she worked as a professor in the english department at the university of cape coast (ucc), one of the top public universities in ghana. she held important positions at ucc, including head of the english department, the founding dean of the school of graduate studies and research and the first female vice chancellor. running mates are important political players for three reasons: (1) they balance the qualities of presidential candidates, (2) they can affect how well presidential candidates do in elections and (3) should a president be elected, vice presidential candidates hold the second-highest position in politics in most nations (sanders, 2019). therefore, her appointment as the first female vice-presidential candidate of a major party in ghana makes her speech a valuable resource worth investigating because her selection comes against a backdrop of a society where females are often relegated to the background within the political space. according to the conversation (2020), in 1960, a few years after ghana gained independence, the national council of women was established to recognise the critical roles women could play in ghana’s development. ghana, subsequently, signed up to numerous regional and international protocols to attain gender equality and went further to establish an affirmative action policy in 1979 with a quota of 40% of all state and public boards, councils, commissions and committees envisioned to be occupied by females. worryingly, six decades on, females constitute only 13.1% of parliamentarians, for instance. similarly, bawa and sanyare (2013), commenting on the ghanaian situation, indicate that females' political participation has gradually waned, contrary to optimistic reports that worldwide empowerment movements have ameliorated women’s political involvement in africa. norris (1997) stated that there are few women in authority because there are few women leaders shown on the front pages. it is, followingly, vital to unceasingly study female participation in politics, thus the choice of professor jane naana opoku-agyemang for this enquiry. the purpose for undertaking this study is hinged on two critical reasons. firstly, this study deals with one of the gaps in cda studies within the ghanaian political landscape. even though many experts have conducted cda studies, virtually no study has focused on cda from the perspective of female political candidates, especially female vice presidential candidates of the major political parties (the ndc and the new patriotic party [npp]). consequently, this study makes an essential contribution by revealing the discourse elements and cohesive devices employed by professor naana opoku-agyemang and how ideology and gender identity manifest in her acceptance speech. secondly, as the first study on cda which analyses the acceptance speech of a female vice presidential candidate of a major political party in ghana, the study is envisioned to serve as a basis for further studies on the political speeches of other females and other marginalised groups within the ghanaian political space. this will help stakeholders to understand the approaches of these marginalised groups through the use of speeches to heighten the chances of these marginalised groups in regards to making positive inroads in politics. 2. literature review 2.1 political speeches the literature is awash with studies on political speeches through the cda lenses (almahasees & mahmoud, 2022; carreon & svetanant, 2017; derakhshani et al., 2021; kanwal & garcía, 2019; sharififar & rahimi, 2015), albeit the attention has generally been on male politicians’ speeches, with a few focusing on those of females. for instance, using halliday’s systematic functional linguistics lenses, sharififar and rahimi investigated the art of linguistic spin in obama and rouhani’s political addresses at 50 the un in september 2013. sharififar and rahimi averred that obama employed colloquial language which was made up of simple vocabulary and short sentences which were easily comprehensible to his myriad audiences. on the contrary, rouhani adopted difficult language which was rather difficult and official. carreon and svetanant investigated the key essentials of the political speeches of the thai prime minister, gen prayuth chan-ocha, and they found that keywords relating to information conveyed by the prime minister constituted 62.86% while those related to functions of language constituted 22.04%. hinged on fairclough’s cda and rhetoric, derakhshani et al. investigated donald trump’s maiden speech from the perspectives of frequency and roles of some rhetorical approaches, as delivered to the un. derakhshani et al. found that donald trump employed abundant rhetorical and cda strategies; donald trump further employed attentive lexical varieties perceptively. more so, alyeksyeyeva et al. (2021: 99) examined some features, such as war rhetoric, of the australian prime minister’s (scott morrison) speech in the parliament on 22nd march, 2020, and they found that “on the one hand, militarisation of health issues during the coronavirus period as the most pervasive strategy to address the public and, on the other hand, the prime minister’s appeal to unite in the face of danger”. on their part, almahasees and mahmoud (2022, p.1) investigated the persuasive techniques utilised in seven speeches of king abdullah ii of jordan which were presented at the un, european parliament, islamic countries cooperation and arab league from 2007 to 2021. king abdullah ii used “creativity and metaphors, reference, circumlocution and intertextuality...to persuade the international community of his vision”. on the relatively meagre attention paid to female politicians’ speeches, kanwal and garcía (2019) analysed the campaign speeches of hillary clinton to unearth her projection of gender identity via frames. it was found that she employed the practice of framing for projecting her gender identity; she, more so, used the fight and family frames to amend the borders of american presidency regarding gender. from the foregoing discourse, it is palpable that attention to political speeches through the cda perspectives and fairclough’s three-dimensional model are not scarce. however, that most of these studies are hinged on male politician speech analyses and that their female counterparts are virtually neglected is what makes the current enquiry which is hinged on a female politician’s (prof. jane naana opoku agyemang) acceptance speech more crucial. also, that the current enquiry proceeds to identify the discourse elements and cohesive devices she employed and how she manifested her political ideology and gender identity is noteworthy and essential for consideration for further studies on female politician’s speeches. 2.2 discourse markers in speeches discourse markers connect discourse elements, such as linking signals, fillers in, discourse markers, temporisers (chubarova & rezepova, 2016). discourse markers are linguistic tools, according to sun (2013), through which interlocutors enter a discourse to be heard, to inform the audience of the structure of the text or discourse, the process(es) used to create it and the interlocutors’ intentions and attitudes toward the subject matter, the readers and their text. matei (2010) classifies discourse markers into: additives, inferential, elaborative, causative and contrastive markers. on his part, al-khazraji (2019) posits that discourse markers include: so, now, thus, therefore, anyway, finally, however, though, further, similarly, perhaps, maybe, probably, certainly, (un)fortunately, naturally. discourse markers serve several purposes (müller, 2008; murar, 2008; schiffrin, 2006). discourse markers emphasise cohesiveness and coherence relationships in language and entail speaker choice, according to blakemore (2006). they are also used in speech to serve a deictic or indexical role, indicating their capacity to illustrate the connection between earlier and later discourse that must be made by the hearer (schiffrin, 2006). according to murar (2008), discourse markers are useful components of discourse management. cohesive devices are used when some aspects of a discourse are interpreted in a way that depends on other elements, according to halliday (1982) who defines them as the relationship of meanings that exist inside the text. karlina et al. (2015) argue that speakers who employ effective use of cohesive devices show their competence in discourse. therefore, speakers or writers’ ability to use cohesive devices to convey their message(s) indicate their ability to produce good and quality discourse. a study by feng (2010) on the role of cohesive devices and the quality of political speeches concluded that those speeches that effectively employed cohesive devices were rated highly. this means that cohesive devices have a greater role in the success of any written or spoken text. evidence from the foregoing discourse suggest that discourse markers play pivotal roles in advancing the positions of speakers – a critical reason that informed the decision for this domain to be investigated in this enquiry. 2.3 ideology and identity in speeches from a cda standpoint, ideology is a representation of power, dominance and legitimation by social groups (fairclough, 2015; sarfo-kantankah, 2022). as abdel-moety (2015) and abdulkadir (2021) advances, language shapes ideology and ideology shapes language; political ideology concerns how to allocate power and to what ends power should be utilised. according to kimenye (2022), some people adhere to a particular ideology fervently, while others get general inspiration from a network of 51 related philosophies without formally endorsing any particular one. each political philosophy has beliefs on the ideal form of government as well as the soundest financial system. the literature is packed with positions on identity (kamari et al., 2012; schlenker et al., 2012; zakaria & lee, 1994). for instance, zakaria and lee perceive identity as the entirety of an individual’s self-construal and how an individual construes himself or herself in the present, how an individual construes himself or herself as the individual was in the past and how an individual construes himself or herself as he or she aspires to be in the future. kamari et al. define identity as the characteristics, attitudes, personalities, outward appearances or facial expressions that define an individual (self-identification, as described in psychology) or a group of individuals (collective identity, as usually stated in sociology). although contextual, situationally adaptive and dynamic, individuals’ identities are located. according to kamari et al., because of their roots in the feeling of personal identification, identities tend to feel as though they are stable universal categories characterising an individual, despite their fluid qualities. gender identity represents an important aspect of identity in psychology, since it can determine, to a substantial degree, how an individual perceives himself or herself, both as an individual and in connection to other people, ideas and nature (schlenker et al.). it is obvious from the foregoing review that the centrality of ideology and identity in advancing the positions of speakers (and in this study, the position of a politician) cannot be overemphasised – a pivotal rationale that informed the decision for this domain to be investigated in this enquiry. 2.4 theoretical underpinning fairclough’s three-dimensional textual analysis model was applied in this study because of its usefulness and appropriateness for analysing political speeches (addy & ofori, 2020; handayan et al., 2018; zhu & wang, 2020). the significant contribution of fairclough to cda revolves around three dimensions. that is, the analysis of data involves three stages. the first stage is the text. here, the acceptance speech was described. the second is the interaction. at this stage, the speech was presented and interpreted for meaning. the third is the context. here, the speech was explained (socially and politically) in regard to the research questions that guided this enquiry (fairclough, 2013). the cohesive and discourse markers analysed in this enquiry are contrastive and additive discourse markers. the relationship between meanings in a text is known as cohesion, and it arises when the interpretation of one piece in a speech depends on another (halliday, 1982). a study by feng (2010) on the role of cohesive devices and the quality of political speeches concluded that those speeches that effectively employed cohesive devices were rated highly. furthermore, hilker (1991) states that cohesive devices have significant interactive roles in discourse, as they show a relationship between the interlocutors – speaker(s) and hearer(s). examples of discourse markers analysed in this study are additive discourse markers (second, third, fourth, also), contrastive markers (but, however) and concession discourse markers (yes, at this time) (fraser, 1999). the full text of professor opoku agyeman’s acceptance speech was downloaded and coded according to discourse markers and cohesive devices. to satisfy the second research question (how do ideology and gender identity manifest in the acceptance speech of professor naana opokuagyemang?), the text was coded to identify portions that contain ideology and gender identity. 3. method 3.1 context madsen (2019) explains that ghana gained independence in 1957 through kwame nkrumah’s convention people’s party (cpp). women were afforded the opportunity to vote and to stand to be elected in 1954 during the independence struggle. several women had prominent posts, including members of parliament, deputy ministers and district commissioners as compensation for their enormous contributions to ghana’s independence. the representation of the people (women members) act, passed in 1959, guaranteed the nomination and election of ten women to parliament, making kwame nkrumah one of the first african leaders to set a quota for women in politics (allah-mensah, 2007). sadly, as the cpp lost power, the quota system was forgotten. thereafter, a series of coups d'état occurred (allahmensah, 2007). madsen further explains that in 1981, flight lieutenant john jerry rawlings became president through a military coup, and, under his supervision, the first democratic elections for the fourth republic were conducted in 1992. though ghana is officially a multiparty country, realistically, it is a two-party country – the new patriotic party (npp) and the national democratic congress (ndc) being the only parties to have won political power in the entire history of ghana’s fourth republic. the ndc received 50.7% of the vote in the 2012 elections. (http://www.ghanaweb.com/ghanahomepage/electio n2012/) the new patriotic party (npp), which was the main opposition party, received 47.7% of the vote, and the cpp received 0.18%. according to madsen, just 11% of the candidates elected to parliament were women, and the female to male ratio was 0.12. furthermore, the npp received 53.8% of the votes in the 2016 election, while the incumbent received 44.4% of the votes, with the cpp receiving just 0.24% (http://www.ghanaweb.com/ghanahomepage/electio n2016/). despite only 13% of those elected to parliament being women, women’s achievements have slightly increased. despite ghana’s adoption of the cedaw (convention on the elimination of all 52 forms of discrimination against women), bfa (beijing platform for action), the african charter on human and people’s rights and the maputo protocol, madsen claims that the proportion of women in ghanaian politics is not encouraging. akita (2010) indicates that botswana and ghana are successful african democracies but ghana seems to be the preserve of men only. as madsen et al. (2020) opine, the choice of professor naana jane opoku-agyemang in july, 2020 as running mate by the main opposition presidential candidate for the 2020 election advanced optimism for improved gender inclusiveness and raised the chances of fighting the male-dominated system embedded in ghanaian politics. her acceptance speech, therefore, is a landmark speech with the potential to impact gender representation in ghanaian politics positively. even though brigitte dzogbenuku of the progressive people’s party (ppp) and nana konadu agyemanrawlings of the national democratic party (ndp) are females who have participated in top ghanaian politics, none achieved this as members of a major political party. 3.2 sampling and related issues this instrumental qualitative case study’s (creswell, 2007; stake, 1995) population comprised all political speeches in ghana; the target population comprised all female vice presidential political speeches in ghana. the sample size was one (the acceptance speech of professor naana jane opokuagyemang) because of its uniqueness. her speech was purposively selected because she is the first female vice-presidential candidate of a major political party in ghana. as etikan et al. (2016) explains, purposive sampling involves the deliberate selection of participants because of their peculiar qualities. although few speeches of female vice presidential running mates exist in ghana, none of these females represented a major political party. this constituted the exclusion (other female vice presidential running mates) and inclusion (professor naana jane opokuagyemang representing a major political party) criteria for this enquiry. figure 1 adapted from kanwal and garcia (2019) her speech is, therefore, a valuable resource worth investigating because her selection comes against a backdrop of a society where females are often relegated to the background within the political space. her speech which was delivered on 24th july, 2020 in accra was eight pages long and contained three thousand nine hundred and seventy-two (3,972) words. the speech was sourced from the ghana news agency (gna) at http://www.faapa.info using the google search engine. in order to ensure her rights to informed consent and participation, the researchers sought her consent after explaining the purpose of this study to her. in order not to hurt any of the potential readers of this enquiry because of the sensitive nature of political discourse, the researchers have carefully conducted the study through academic lenses rather than through outright politically motivated lenses. 4. result this section of the study contains information on the summary of the speech. thereafter, the analyses pertaining to the two research questions are presented. 53 4.1 the acceptance speech: summary professor jane naana opoku-agyemang made some profound statements covering subjects such as violence, poverty, gender, identity and equality. she assured the party faithful that she would satisfy them. she thanked mr. john mahama for selecting her as his running mate for the 2020 elections and espoused how people were excited about her appointment. she urged the electorate to turn up in their numbers to vote for her party on 7th december, 2020. she then continued by stating that mr. john mahama’s choice of a woman as his running mate has gingered women in the country and impacted them positively. she ended her speech by appealing to all ghanaians to give her the opportunity to serve them. rq 1: what are the discourse elements and cohesive devices employed in the acceptance speech of professor naana opokuagyemang? discourse markers have peculiarities in spoken discourse (matei, 2010). discourse markers include elements that organise the discourse structurally and elements that express speakers’ opinions and are intended to establish some contact with audiences (carreon & svetanant, 2017). in this direction, the investigators sought to explore the discourse markers used in her speech. the acceptance speech produced thirty-two discourse markers and cohesive devices; the contrastive markers were nine, additive markers were eight and the concession discourse markers were fifteen. the results are found in table 1. the presentation involves the category of discourse marker, its use in the speech and the page of occurrence of the cited use. the analysis shows that she employed numerous contrastive, additive and concessive discourse markers. contrastive markers are used to mark contrast in texts or discourse (alowayid, 2018). according to blakemore (2006), contrastive discourse markers are important in creating coherent statements indicative of the relationship between the expressions in a statement. they also function as a link between or among opposing ideas or viewpoints. followingly, this domain was explored to identify the type contrastive markers used in her and speech and the purpose(s) for which they were used. table 1. types of discourse markers used type of discourse marker example in speech contrastive but, as i keep assuring you, we have not always been like this. no, as you also know, ghana has not always been like this. (p. 3) but importantly, it is a new focal point for girls and women; you have respected women; the women of ghana will not forget. (p. 1) however, what i knew and believed then was that if i studied and focused enough, that if my actions benefited others before they benefited me; there was nothing impossible to achieve in our great country. i still believe in these values, that others matter, too. (p. 3) however, we will find safer ways to meet and talk and plan, and strategise for the good of our country. we will collectively work out the way forward. (p. 4) additive there are also, sadly, reports of deaths of students. (p. 3) as if this is not bad enough, the level of violence, brute force, blood-letting and sheer breakdown of law and order in an otherwise straightforward act of registering to vote is unbefitting of this nation that was until recently, a fulcrum of democracy in our region. (p. 5) second, we need meaningful, quality and comprehensive education that goes beyond access and responds to the future we can actualise. (p. 4) third, we must leverage on vocational and technical training to equip many into meaningful and fulfilling work. (p. 4) fourth, we must provide opportunities that transcend political patronage, ‘connection’ and the practice of whom-you-know. equal and fair opportunities based on merit are an imperative for sustainable economic growth. the time for that shift is now. (p. 4) 54 concession yes, it gets emotional sometimes, for which we will not apologize; emotions only confirm our humanity. (p. 2) at this time, may i say to the shs students who are in school taking your final exams: i have children your age in same situation too, even if not biological. (p. 4) all the same, my condolences to the families; many of us share in your loss. (p. 5) as if this is not bad enough, the level of violence, brute force, blood-letting and sheer breakdown of law and order in an otherwise straightforward act of registering to vote is unbefitting of this nation that was until recently, a fulcrum of democracy in our region. (p. 5) truth be told, despite all our challenges, ghana remains a special place where any dream is possible, where every aspiration matters, and where anyone – be it a little boy from bole or a little girl from komenda – can grow up to be anything they want to be. (p. 4) the result from table 1 suggests that predominant contrastive markers she employed are but and however. to a greater extent, these contrastive discourse markers helped her to achieve her intended purpose of comparing what her political party the ndc had done previously and would do if voted for in the 2020 general elections. her arguments are based primarily on what she claimed to be bad governance of the ruling npp. firstly, there is a comparison between ghana then and ghana in 2020. she compared how ghanaians were able to get employment no matter their tribe, religion or political affiliations and how the situation had changed. she used contrastive markers to paint a picture of how ghanaians were no longer selfless but selfish. evidently, she employed the contrastive devices to draw differences between her political party, the ndc and the ruling npp. as an academic, she strategically used these contrastive markers to strike differences to convince the ghanaian voters to choose her political party in the general election. to connect discourse units with semantic similarity, additive discourse markers are used (hallyday & hassan, 1976). in order to maintain the coherence and continuity of a document, additives introduce the units of discourse that repeat and emphasise the crucial point or provide pertinent additional information to the expressions already mentioned (al-khazraji, 2019). evidence suggests that her speech is characterised by the use of additive cohesive devices, as exemplified in table 1. the use of additive discourse devices at the start of the body paragraphs facilitates information flow from the previous paragraph. that is, as if that is not enough, second, third and fourth are indicative of her intent to add to the information already presented to her audience. concession discourse markers are used to identify semantic relationships that typically have an uncertain outcome (jarrah et al., 2021). concessive discourse markers may serve some rhetorical purposes, such as persuading the listener of the argument being discussed, avoiding false accusations and providing information about unexpected events (jarrah et al., 2021). using concessive discourse markers at the beginning of the body paragraphs helps convince the audience of the argument under discussion. that is, at this time, truth be told and yes are indicative of her intent to convince her audience with the numerous points she raises to help her fight the status quo. rq 2: how do ideology and gender identity manifest in the acceptance speech of professor naana opokuagyemang? ideology focuses on beliefs, philosophies, thoughts or systems an individual would like to uphold. this usually manifests in speeches – text or talk (kanwal & garcia, 2019) which are also critical to political discourse. therefore, the researchers explored this domain to comprehend how she manifests ideology and gender identity. evidence from her address indicates that she, to make known her ideologies or that of her political party to make the audience know the kind of system her political party would run if voted into government, used words which demonstrate solidarity, unity, team spirit, patriotism and harmony. examples are presented in table 2. the presentation involves the ideologies and gender identity she espoused and the page of occurrence of the cited use. it is evident from table 2 that her use of “my brothers and sisters…” indicates that she considers her audience as her siblings, making it sound as though they belong to the same family. this is an approach to make her audience feel connected to her. in human society, people, perhaps, feel connected to others who use words which suggest they (the people) are important and needed. she, therefore, very strategically employed these words to assure the people that she was always with them and would 55 always share in their predicaments and joy. in extracts 2 to 5, her use of the name ghana and the phrases my country and our country indicate solidarity and patriotism. she used these words tactically to show that she puts her country first. that is, she is more committed to the country’s interests than her individual interests. since she was representing the interest of her political party which places the country first, she used ideology and gender identity to convince the audience that, if the ndc was voted into power, they would ensure that the people are served committedly. apart from the ideology that supports serving the country, she also indicated that she and her party had the people’s progress and development at heart in extracts 6 to 8. these statements are intended to depict how people-centred she and her party are. these were to draw the people’s attention to the selfless nature of the ndc. she wanted her audience to understand that all efforts by her political party are geared towards creating good and reliable economic and social systems for the people in order to create opportunities and a conducive environment for the ordinary people in the country to thrive. these are all communicative strategies to get the audience to accept the ndc and to vote them into power on december 7, 2020. in extract 9, she also tried to make the people understand that her party supports inclusive governance, where everyone is needed to help contribute to decisions and strategies for running the affairs of the country. this was to assure the audience that the ndc stands for togetherness. it was to make the people understand that everyone’s ideas would be valued and considered in shaping the overall decisions for the nation. she connected with her audience to make them feel that her situation had not been different from that of the people in extracts 10 and 11. she used these statements to make the audience understand that they also have the potential to get to where she, the professor, is now. this is aimed at encouraging the people and, therefore, is likely to make the people believe that voting for the ndc to come into power would improve their livelihoods, as the ndc understands their problems and needs. professor naana opoku-agyemang strategically used these statements to show some level of association between herself and her audience. playing the gender card, this was aimed at influencing both sexes to make decisions that may be in favour of her political party. she also made it clear that the ndc is a unifying political party that runs a system devoid of discrimination based on religion, ethnicity, race, age and gender, as evidenced in extracts 12 to 14. table 2. ideology and gender identity used type extract number examples in speech ideology 1 my brothers and sisters… 2 ebenezer, this is how far you have brought your handmaids; this is how far you have brought ghana. 3 …usher ghana into recovery and prosperity. 4 …opportunity to serve my country… 5 …for the good of our country. 6 what matters is to hold the door open for those behind us and create other avenues for self-actualisation for many more. 7 …translate our excitement into action for the benefit of the good people of our beloved country. 8 …that others matter, too. 9 together, we can strategise… 10 villages and towns across our country are full of stories like mine. 11 …whose experiences echo mine. 12 whether you are ga, mfantse, sisala, ewe, gonja, asante, nzema, mamprusi or any other ethnic group, you are valued as a ghanaian. 13 ...our muslim brothers and sisters… 14 come, men, women, our youth, our children-together… 56 gender identity 15 to my daughters and sisters, we are in this together. 16 …it is a new focal point for girls and women… 17 …you have respected women; the women in ghana will not forget. 18 …weight of responsibilities and concerns we bear as women. 19 …women have always played pivotal roles… 20 ... by your choice, you have turned the struggles of so many women who have come before this moment into a probability. 21 i pay homage to those many, many unknown women, the silent and invisible and unacknowledged women… 22 …let me once again congratulate prof. rita dickson, recently appointed vice chancellor of the kwame nkrumah university of science and technology” and “congratulations as well to dr. koryoe anim-wright, who becomes the first female registrar of upsa, where this event is taking place. 23 if we choose to be anywhere as a country, the destination should not include a place where a 90-year-old woman, akua denteh, is stoned to death because someone has decided that she is a witch. this is a strong ideology that projects the party as being for everyone, regardless of background. also, she demonstrated the ideology of oneness or togetherness and patriotism in the use of words such as “we”, “our”, “together”, “us”, “ghana”, “country” and “nation”. “we”, “our”, “together” and “us” appeared ninety, fifty-three, seven and eighty-six times, respectively. these were used to indicate that her party stands for unity and togetherness. also, “ghana”, “country” and “nation” appear twenty-five, thirty-nine and twenty times, respectively. these show that the ndc places the country first. this was a way to draw audiences’ attention to the selfless nature of the ndc and its leadership. in respect of how she projected her gender identity, in extract 15, she made it clear to her audience that she would prioritise women’s and girls’ interests. she made the audience, especially the females, part of her family, and this projected her identity as a soft, a caring and a loving female whom the voters must choose. universally, most women are perceived as home builders. in this regard, she made it known to her audience that with her identity as a female and a loving woman who understands women and girls, she would focus on decisions which positively impact women and girls in the country (extract 16). generally, in extract 17, she wanted to draw the audience’s attention to the importance of women in society. since she is a woman and saw herself in her current position as the running-mate of a major political party in ghana, she could only call on her fellow women to show appreciation for the party’s decision to choose one of them. this, again, shows naana opoku-agyemang’s identity as a woman. thus, for women not to forget what her party had done for them by choosing one of them into such a high and enviable position, indirectly, she was calling on her fellow women to show appreciation by voting her party into power on december 7, 2020. again, she identified herself as a woman who understands the struggles women go through, the weight of responsibilities many women have to carry in order to make their families and homes work, how women are indispensable in society due to the various roles they play, how important her choice as the running-mate is to her fellow women and her understanding and knowledge about how it feels to be a woman (extract 18 to 21). though many men in ghana have achieved respectable heights, she chose to highlight the achievements chalked by some selected women in the country. this shows the kind of connection she has with her fellow women. that is, in extract 22, she congratulated prof. rita dickson, the current vice chancellor of the kwame nkrumah university of science and technology and dr. koryoe aminwright, the first registrar of the university of professional studies, accra (upsa). additionally, though many men in ghana had suffered some form of brutality, naana opoku-agyemang only mentioned one old woman who was murdered (extract 23). these prove that professor naana opoku-agyemang is a women’s advocate. such gender identity presentation is to make women join hands with her to raise her to the position of the first female vice president of ghana. finally, to very strategically project her identity as a woman, she frequently used the word “woman” or “women” in her speech. altogether, “woman” and “women” were used twenty-two times. generally, it is noteworthy that she 57 made giant strides, through this landmark speech, to position herself through a strategic utilisation of the gender card to project the abilities of women, not only to occupy critical political positions but, also, to permeate other spheres or sectors of ghanaian leadership because of their positive multifaceted dispositions. 5. discussion the issues pertaining to her use of discourse markers, cohesive devices, political ideology and gender identity, as related to the findings of this enquiry, are discussed sequentially in this section. she exhibited her prowess in the use of discourse elements and cohesive devices. her use of the discourse markers and cohesive devices was not done in isolation, but was melded with aspects of how she projected her political ideology and gender identity. most often than not, men in politics seem to preach unity and togetherness during election periods. however, she uses novel approaches, through discourse elements and cohesive devices, to project her support for unity, patriotism and solidarity, among others. this is in line with how hilary clinton used her speech to build her own fight frame that a woman can equally fight for the welfare and betterment of her society (kanwal & garcia, 2019). pertaining to the discourse markers, the language of politics is persuasion (chen, 2018), and that can only be achieved through parallel constructions and comparison (sun, 2013). the discourse markers suitable for comparison are the contrastive markers (matei, 2010). she used contrastive discourse markers to draw two types of comparison: gender and political ideology. in respect of gender comparison, her speech emphasises her choice as the first female running mate of one of ghana’s two major political parties. this was captured in her speech as: “…however, you have respected women; the women in ghana will not forget”. in this example, she compares her political party, to the npp. interestingly, the latter have never chosen a female as their running mate. her use of ‘however’ is, therefore, intended to significantly strike this contrast with the aim of registering the uniqueness of the ndc regarding her selection to the presidential running mate position. evidently, her selection is a crucial step in addressing the gender imbalance at the echelons of ghanaian politics, and that trump card is what she plays. as chubarova and rezepova (2016) aver, discourse markers – in this case, contrastive discourse markers – reflect the intention of speakers and their reaction(s) towards what they are communicating. in respect of political ideological comparison, there was a comparison of political ideologies between the ndc and the npp, where she espoused that her political party believes in the welfare of all ghanaians, not a selected few. these are exemplified in: “but, as i keep assuring you, we have not always been like this. no, as you also know, ghana has not always been like this”…“however, we will find safer ways to meet and talk and plan, and strategise for the good of our country. we will collectively work out the way forward.” evidently, she uses ‘but’ to indicate to her audience that, prior to the npp taking over power in 2016 from the ndc, the situation of ghana was better. that is, ghanaians are not being governed to the level that the ndc seeks to provide, should the ndc be voted into power. she then used ‘however’ to offer a promise to ghanaians that, should the ndc be voted into office, unlike the ruling npp which does not meet with the people to plan and strategise for the good of ghana, her ndc would do that to ameliorate the ghanaian situation. these intentions are in consonance with the suppositions of titscher et al. (2000) who opine that politicians employ contrastive discourse markers to discredit their political opponents. she employed additive discourse markers to great effect, too. through the additive discourse markers, she advanced her political ideology by revealing what her political party would embark on to transform the country when ghanaians vote for them into power. “second, we need a meaningful, quality and comprehensive education that goes beyond the access and responds to the future we can actualize. third, we must leverage vocational and technical training to equip many into meaningful and fulfilling work.” in these two examples, she listed what her political party would do when elected. by emphasising quality education, especially vocational and technical education, she indicated an intention of a shift from the existing theoretical dominated education to a more hands-on education that could drive ghana’s developmental agendum. in addition, she carefully used additive discourse markers to drum home the ills of her political opponents – the npp, for example: “as if this is not bad enough, the level of violence, brute force, blood-letting and sheer breakdown of law and order in an otherwise straightforward act of registering to vote is unbefitting of this nation that was until recently, a fulcrum of democracy in our region.” here, she painted a picture of the country’s gloomy nature in terms of using violence to harm fellow countrymen and women. this, she believed, was unacceptable. additive discourse markers, according to al-khazraji (2019), aid in maintaining attention among interlocutors. again, chubarova and rezepova (2016) and karlina et al. (2015) are among the scholars who have found that additive discourse markers aid politicians and speech deliverers to espouse their ideologies coherently. in addition, she employed concession discourse markers to great effect. these markers were used to create an expectation, to lament and to empathise with the citizenry. for example, she mentioned that “as if this is not awful enough, the degree of brutality, brute force, bloodshed and utter collapse of law and order in an otherwise simple act of registering to vote is unworthy of this country, which was, until recently, a 58 center of democracy in our region”. this is lamentation to suggest that ghanaians have suffered pain and that the ruling npp without bereft of ideas to ameliorate the situation. again, she used concession discourse markers to give hope to many ghanaians who had lost hope on how the country was being governed. “to be told, despite all of our difficulties, ghana continues to be a unique nation where anyone be it a little boy from bole or a young girl from komenda can grow up to be anything they want to be” (p. 4). this was to inspire young men and women not to leave the country for other countries in search of greener pastures. she also used the concession discourse markers to empathise with the citizenry: “yes, it gets emotional sometimes, for which we will not apologise; emotions only confirm our humanity” (p. 2). this aligns with jarrah et al. (2021) who affirm that speakers employ concessive discourse markers to empathise and lament. particularly on how she presented her political ideology outside the context of the cohesive and discourse elements, she gave the impression that her political party is committed to ensuring that the law is upheld to the letter by abiding by the established procedures for administering the people in a young democracy like ghana’s: “we must provide opportunities that transcend political patronage, connection,’ and the who-you-know principle. for sustained economic growth, merit-based opportunities must be available to all. the moment has come for that change.” she expressed the belief that the rule of law, which is the bedrock of every democratic society, is missing in ghana because people get into positions not through merit but through the influence of political party members in government. she also painted her political ideology as the only political tradition that is sensitive to the many difficulties confronting the citizenry. she demonstrated that her political party’s ideology duly follows the constitution and shows concern for individuals during challenging moments – “what matters is to hold the door open for those behind us and create other avenues for selfactualisation for many more”. the ideological leaning towards the masses by politicians in political speeches when politicians are looking for political power is what appiah (2015) describes as a perfect strategy politicians employ when they are in opposition and want the citizens’ votes. with respect to how she played the gender identity card, she put forth issues related to women and those of ghana generally. for example, she revealed: “... by your choice, you have turned the struggles of so many women who have come before this moment into a probability”. considered from amoli’s (2016) perspective, women can play the role of the head of a household or family. this, she addressed by applauding women for handling the weight of responsibilities and roles in their families. these were strategically delivered to convince the audience and the public that she could function as the head of all women and even men if she was allowed to become the vice president of ghana. her speech, considered from a general perspective, has a huge and positive influence on the audience. specifically, women might have been highly influenced by her speech, as women connect easily to one another as compared to their men counterparts (amoli, 2016). she makes four distinctions of alignment as she plays the gender card. firstly, she aligns herself with women, for example, “…let me once again congratulate prof. rita dickson, recently appointed vice chancellor of the kwame nkrumah university of science and technology…congratulations as well to dr. koryoe anim-wright, who becomes the first female registrar of upsa, where this event is taking place”. though many men in ghana have achieved respectable heights, she highlighted the achievements chalked by only women in the country. this shows the kind of connection she has with her fellow women. secondly, there is an alignment with the youth, and this was captured in her speech as: “our youth, our children-together are all part….” thirdly, there is alignment with academia. she indicated that: “becoming the first female vice chancellor of a ghanaian university was – for me – the most tangible testament to this fact”. finally, she aligns herself with the general ghanaian populace: “whether you are ga, mfantse, sisala, ewe, gonja, asante, nzema, mamprusi, or any other ethnic group, you are valued as a ghanaian”. by aligning herself with women and young girls, she depicted that her political party has positive thoughts toward helping women and girls. again, when aligning herself with the young people, she deliberately presented herself and her political party as entities trustworthy for safeguarding the interest of the youth. when she aligned herself with academia, she wanted those in academia to perceive her as one of them. finally, when she aligned herself with the masses, she demonstrated oneness with the people. this affirms appiah’s (2015) assertions that politicians align themselves with the masses as a way of identifying themselves with them, with the ultimate aim of amassing votes. relevance from a cda perspective. she attempted to change the status quo where, in the past, a woman would not be selected as the official nominee from any major political party because of gender biasness. she attempts to alter history by presenting her identity as a strong and level-headed woman capable of delivering at that high level. as schlenker et al. (2012) assay, gender identity forms a vital part of identity in psychology, as it can determine, to a significant degree, how an individual perceives himself or herself, both as an individual and in relation to other people, ideas and nature. her philosophy was based on placing her country and compatriots first. these manifested in her speech where she made use of words such as “country”, 59 “nation”, “ghana”, “we” and “our” which project solidarity and patriotism. all these are aimed at giving her an upper hand over her opponents in the presidential race. she also clarified that she did not wish to be a vice president for only a few but rather for all, irrespective of background, race, ethnicity and gender. that is, she projected herself as a potential openminded vice president who will serve all ghanaians, regardless of gender, creed, religion or sect. furthermore, she related well with her audience and all ghanaians in her quest to become the next and the first female vice president of ghana. these relatedness and all-inclusiveness were made known in her constant use of “we”, “us” and “our”. she, additionally, used effective strategies to convince her audience and the people of ghana that, though she is a woman, she had the strength and vigour needed to become the first female vice president of ghana. also, it is the agenda of the ndc to include the minority group in their pool of voters, and she accomplished this by inculcating a sense of unity, togetherness and equality and by introducing herself as a sister, a mother and a grandmother to all, including individuals of the opposing political party. she also demonstrated unity by including in her concept of ghanaian, muslims, christians and people of all ethnicities and races. according to kimenye (2022), politicians preach unity whenever they know that a lot of people are watching them. in a country like ghana where the proportion of women in politics is not encouraging despite the nation adopting a number of gender protocols (bawa & sanyare, 2013; madsen, 2019), her speech serves as a catalyst to invigorate and to expedite the participation of women in politics. on the part of the males, her tactical play of the gender card and sagacious use of discourse markers to present her ideas could influence their perceptions and, possibly, result in them welcoming more women into the political world since akita (2010) affirms that ghanaian politics seems to be the preserve of men only. as madsen et al. (2020) opine, the choice of professor naana jane opoku-agyemang in july, 2020 as running mate improved gender inclusiveness and raised the chances of fighting the male-dominated system embedded in ghanaian politics. all in all, her speech is a landmark speech with the potential of impacting gender representation in ghanaian politics positively. 6. conclusion this cda study aimed to investigate the discourse elements and cohesive devices used by professor naana opoku-agyemang in her acceptance speech as the first female vice-presidential candidate of a major political party in ghana. based on fairclough's three-dimensional textual analysis model, the study aimed to examine how she manifested her political ideology and gender identity. the data was analyzed to draw five key conclusions. firstly, contrastive discourse markers were employed to discredit political opponents and advocate for future plans. secondly, additive discourse markers were used to persuade audiences to vote for the political party by emphasizing quality education. thirdly, concession discourse markers were utilized to increase the party's chances of winning the election. in terms of gender identity, professor naana projected a message of hope for women to become anything they wished, including becoming president of the country. her speech also projected the ndc ideology of unity, patriotism, inclusiveness, and peoplecentredness. the findings of this study provide valuable information for gender inclusiveness and raise the chances of fighting the male-dominated system embedded in ghanaian politics. however, the qualitative nature of this study and its small sample size may limit the generalizability of the results. therefore, future research could explore a comparative analysis of male and female vice presidential candidates' acceptance speeches to provide a better understanding of the nuances of political speech. references abdel-moety, d. m. 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(2020). a critical discourse analysis of the us and china political speeches-based on the two speeches respectively by trump and wang yi in the general debate of the 72nd session of un assembly. journal of language teaching and research, 11(3), 435-445. https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i2.6285 https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2635000 https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.3.11.2136-2140 https://theconversation.com/women-in-ghana-progress-but-important-challenges-remain-130065 https://theconversation.com/women-in-ghana-progress-but-important-challenges-remain-130065 https://theconversation.com/women-in-ghana-progress-but-important-challenges-remain-130065 https://doi.org/10.2307/20045923 ramos asafo-adjei 1, francis bukari 1*, ernest kwesi klu 2 1 takoradi technical university, takoradi, ghana 2 university of venda, south africa instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i3.11100 vol. 4, no. 3, december 2022, pp. 290-308 290 a comparative study on the use of first-person pronouns in ten international diplomatic speeches surendra pokhrel daito bunka university, tokyo, japan suru.pokhrel1@gmail.com article history received : 2022-08-24 revised : 2022-11-26 accepted : 2022-12-03 keywords culture diplomacy discourse gender differences pronouns persuasion abstract this paper explores how world leaders use first-person pronouns in diplomatic speeches as a case study on how stance is communicated in high-stakes situations. the dataset comprises ten speeches to security and the economy given by heads of state/governments to their counterparts at international conferences/summits. the data were analysed from a quantitative/corpus-linguistic perspective using antconc (anthony, 2021) to summarise general patterns of personal pronoun use and then from a qualitative/discourse-analytical perspective, identifying specifically related examples for more detailed interpretation in context. the contextual features considered for the critical discourse analysis were gender, ideology, and the political systems of the speaker’s country. the results showed that most lead favoured the plural first-person pronoun “we” over the singular “i”. this was especially marked for the middle eastern leaders in the sample. the plural form was used for two main functions: (i) audience-inclusivity, referring to the audience of delegates/attendees, and (ii) audience-exclusivity, referring to the nation represented by the speaker. the distribution of these functions in the individual speeches varied greatly, ranging from extreme inclusive use (85%; temer [brazil]) to extreme exclusive use (65%; putin [russia]); this was largely predictable based on the speaker’s role at the event (e.g., facilitator vs dissenter from a consensus view) and the level of perceived national power. “i” was found to be used mostly at the beginning of the speeches to extend gratitude to the organisers. however, it was often deployed to increase the speaker’s self-dedication throughout an address. similarly, whereas deployed throughout the speeches to establish a sense of communal rapport between the audience and the speaker. the evidence does not suggest any major differences in the usage of first-person pronouns based on gender, as shown by similarities in the speeches of german chancellor merkel and bangladeshi prime minister hasina. 1. introduction diplomacy is the only means to tackle problems between countries peacefully. bull (1977: 156) defined diplomacy as “the conduct of relations between sovereign states […] by official agents and by peaceful means.” diplomacy is the art of pursuing one’s country’s national interest vis-à-vis other countries. it can be described as mediation between countries, sometimes including the application of tactics and intelligence to further (mutually) beneficial official relations through communication. communication is vital in diplomacy, as it is the primary means of resolving conflicts in domains such as trade, security, and territorial integrity. the purpose of communication is fulfilled when the listener understands the inference of an utterance (bach & harnish, 1982). in the communication process, speakers may explicitly articulate any utterance; however, if they think that verbal language is inadequate for inferring correct meaning, they may apply nonverbal communication, such as gestures. both verbal and nonverbal means of communication are important in diplomacy, as nonverbal language can reveal the immediate displeasure of a negotiating partner. accordingly, the most critical aspect of diplomacy is the use of language acceptable to the host country's people, society, and culture. in some cultures, directness can adversely affect interpersonal and even diplomatic relations: when a diplomat says yes, he means ‘perhaps’ when he says perhaps, he means ‘no’ when he says no, he is not a diplomat. (voltaire as cited in escandell, 1993: 15) this quotation from voltaire provides insight into how language is used by diplomats, even roughly 250 years after his death. diplomatic practitioners may not communicate explicitly, and they may use nuanced language. more specifically, diplomatic language is distinguished by various linguistic markers of indirectness, including ambiguity, euphemism, implicitness, and vagueness (na, 2012). https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i3.11100 291 language plays an essential role in shaping international relations. diplomatic language is a social dialect that furthers the successful pursuit of international relations and is used by individuals in diplomatic capacity. 1 the subtlety of diplomatic language is frequently a product of the complexities of working in or with cultures that differ from those of the diplomatic agent. consequently, the efficient use of diplomatic language demands that its practitioners understand the core values of the culture(s) in/with which they work (kealey, 1996: p. 145-146; kealey & macdonald, 2004, p. 441). the intentional use of language in negotiations and speeches indicates how culturally competent a leader or negotiator is, as well as how cooperative the speaker is. thousands of bilateral visits, conferences, and summits occur worldwide annually between state and non-state actors. international summits, conferences, forums, or conventions are sites where negotiations are conducted, discussions take place, and deals are made, albeit often behind the scenes rather than in public (pokhrel, 2020, p. 182). leaders use such international and regional platforms to seek cooperation with other countries in areas of interest, and their speeches are expected to conform to the ideal values of diplomacy. a haphazard method of addressing high-ranking dignitaries cannot produce positive results; diplomatic speeches follow a set protocol and style established throughout years of practice. according to burahanudeen (2006, p. 39), speeches delivered at international summits usually contain four main sections: (a) the opening salutation, (b) an expression of appreciation or admiration for the host nation or organization, (c) a discussion of the issues of concern (a summoning of cooperation), and (d) closing remarks. in the salutation, leaders generally greet the distinguished guests attending the event. in the appreciation portion, they express their appreciation of the host city and nation and convey messages from their people to the people(s) of the host nation(s). the third section, in which leaders request cooperation from other countries and delegates in domains such as trade or security, is the most important in terms of the issues discussed. it contains the most explicit use of the conventional language of rhetoric and persuasion. in the last section, the leaders thank the organizers and attendees of the summit or conference. a variety of linguistic devices can be used to establish and maintain individual and group identities, as well as to signal dissociation or affiliation among political actors. these devices range from the 1 social dialect refers to a specific form of language used by a particular social class or occupational group. in the context of this work, social dialect is associated with the specific language pattern used by diplomats in their diplomatic capacity. purposeful selection of register-specific words to the use of terms of address (chilton, 2003, p. 107). pronouns serve to enact indexicality and act as important framing devices in diplomatic discourse. the present study aims to uncover the use of firstperson pronouns in diplomatic discourse, the section of the speech in which they occur, and for what purpose they are used. there are numerous studies on pronoun use, most of which are based on political speeches. however, these studies fail to adequately consider aspects such as culture, gender, religion, and ideology, which can significantly influence language use and, consequently, the use of pronouns. this study attempted to address these pitfalls by selecting speeches delivered by heads of state and government with different cultural, religious, and ideological backgrounds in diverse settings. in addition, the use of pronouns may differ depending on the gender of the speaker, so the discourse of female leaders was also analyzed and compared with that of male leaders. 2. literature review language constructs relationships. from writing scientific papers to teaching, from diplomatic to political speeches, pronouns are an essential part of daily life.2 pronouns are a natural part of language and have always impacted language, especially in how they signify the nature of interpersonal relationships (greene, 2021, p. 2). halmari (2004, p. 5-8) explained how personal pronouns are a creative way to guide an audience’s thoughts. diplomacy requires a variety of persuasive strategies, and pronouns are used as a strategy to direct an audience’s perceptions. pennycook (1994) argued that the selection and use of pronouns reflect power relations. among the many types of pronouns (demonstrative, indefinite, interrogative, personal, possessive, reciprocal, reflexive, and relative), personal pronouns refer to the people or things a speaker is talking to or about, as well as to themself. within this category, there are subjective and objective pronouns. beard (2000, p. 43) stated that pronominal choice massively influences the overall effect of communication. in the context of this study, the same logic was applied to diplomatic speeches. brown and gilman (1960, p. 255–56) indicated that a speaker’s cultural background and the relationship between the speaker and the listener determine pronoun use. to explain the relationship between speakers and listeners, they provide examples 2 for recent research on pronoun use in writing scientific papers, see harianja et al. (2020); for pronoun use in the classroom, see norris and welch (2020). 292 of rulers and common people of medieval europe, arguing that pronoun selection was directed by personal attributes such as age, birth, profession, sex, and wealth. people with a higher status were consistently found to use fewer first-person singular and more first-person plural pronouns. high-status individuals’ more frequent use of we reflect that they are often more group-oriented (kacewicz et al., 2013, p. 13). the aforementioned research aimed to identify pronoun choice according to social hierarchies. due to their profession, political leaders or diplomats have a higher social rank; thus, this research is relevant in analysing the pronouns used by leaders in diplomatic discourse. research concerning the use of personal pronouns in political contexts has gained significant attention in recent years. however, more research needs to be conducted in the diplomatic context. as the diplomatic and political fields are similar, reviewing the literature exploring the political context is relevant. for example, karapetjana (2011, p. 43) examined pronoun choice in political interviews and concluded that the ways politicians present themselves form part of their personalities. the use of self-referential pronouns can create both positive and negative images of a politician. karapetjana’s findings were based on an analysis of the discourse of two latvian politicians’ public interviews using goffman’s (1981, p. 124-29) participation framework.3 her research also suggests that the first-person singular pronoun implies authority, commitment, involvement, and personal responsibility. various other researchers have also investigated the use of personal pronouns in the political domain. håkansson (2012) and laukkanen (2019), for example, studied the selection of personal pronouns in speeches delivered in the state of the union address by various american presidents, noting that context plays an essential role in determining their use. indeed, most of the literature on the use of personal pronouns has used american presidents as exemplars. 4 in a diplomatic context, wageche and chi (2016) considered pronoun use in international platform speeches by presidents barack obama and xi jinping, which was of particular interest to this thesis. 2.1. modal verbs coates (1983) classified the functions of modal verbs into categories, including capacity, deontic, epistemic, and logical. while several other modalities exist, these four are the most common. a capacity modal verb expresses an ability to perform 3 goffman’s “participation framework” is a tool for analyzing the interactional role exhibited by different people of a group of any particular place. for details see goffman (1981, 124–59). certain tasks and reflects capability and credibility. an epistemic modal refers to assertions and indicates whether the speaker is committed to the truth of the content (bybee et al., 1994, p. 179). in a review of coates (1983), houston (1984, p. 277) suggested that the meaning of epistemic modal verbs is traditionally associated with the theory of possibility. when a modal verb affects a situation, it is called a deontic modality, indicating obligation and permission. chrisman (2015) suggested that a deontic modality concerns what is necessary or possible according to various rules, such as the norms of morality, practical rationality principles, or certain countries' laws. in using deontic modals, a speaker potentially forwards an obligation, gives permission or shows commitment to ability and intention. jacobs (1995, p. 217) argued that the mismatch between the form and function of modal verbs creates difficulties for non-native speakers. he indicated that most modals initially had the same qualities, but due to the changing nature of usage, they have developed into specific categories with distinctive features and functions. the fact that most speakers chosen for the present research were from linguistic groups other than english (i.e., english was their second or third language) may have impacted their use of modal verbs. 2.2. male vs. female pronoun use language is a social construct with various purposes depending on the place of use, such as highcontext culture (hcc) and low-context culture (lcc), and local parametric conditions. hall (1976, 1990) described the communicative cultures in australia, new zealand, the us, canada, germany, and scandinavia and categorized them as lccs. in contrast, he labelled cultures across asia and the middle east as hccs. according to hall, speakers of hccs often hide behind objective factors, such as the environment, their identity, or their profession, to maintain harmony while communicating. they convey contextdependent information, and the other party must decode and comprehend their intentions. in contrast, in lccs, people encourage individualism and tend to express information more directly, and language rather than objective circumstances determine communication content. lakoff (1975) described how female language differs from male language in terms of linguistic features, such as the frequency of polite forms, question tags, and rising intonation in the declarative. she asserted that the differences between men’s and women’s 4 for more recent studies on the use of personal pronouns, see alavidze (2017) and dahnilsyah (2017). 293 language mirror societal differences rather than being a primary problem. similarly, xia (2013, p. 1485) suggested that language reflects, records, and transmits social differences. she argued that women appear nonassertive when speaking because many societies have long branded them inferior to men. however, this misconception has been changing recently due to increased educational awareness and women’s active participation in trade and industry. in studies of language use by gender, results differ widely according to context, society, country, and culture. in some languages, vocabulary or grammar features may be entirely determined by the speaker’s gender. for example, shibatani (1990) found that the words used by males and females in japan differed, even though they carried similar meanings. more often, however, gender is expressed in different frequency or use preferences. ishikawa (2015, p. 598) found that women tended to use more pronouns in argumentative essays. similarly, anderson (2012) examined the pronoun choices of male and female editors and discovered that female editors used more personal pronouns. dong (2014, p. 96) concluded that “the gender difference phenomena in language reflect that the cultural psychology and social value orientations of language users are affected not only by social and environmental stress but also family culture and experience.” brownlow et al. (2003, p. 129–130) documented that women use more singular pronouns than men in unscripted television interviews and attributed this to being more self-focused. in contrast, fatemeh (2016, p. 172) suggested that men use first-person plural pronouns more frequently than females. ahmad and mehmood (2015, p. 12) also found that men use the first person singular pronouns more than women, concluding that this was a means to exhibit dominance. these discrepancies may be partly reconciled by noting that ishikawa (2015) and anderson (2012) conducted research in relatively open societies (i.e., where women position themselves as equal to men), whereas fatemeh (2016) examined more religious and conservative societies. in many societies, religion is an important part of people’s lives and strongly influences how many speak. in strict islamic societies, for example, where women are required to have a male chaperone to go about their day-to-day activities, there is no freedom of speech. hence, it can be concluded that male and female languages differ due to culture and religion. the present study explores female language in diplomatic discourse based on the abovementioned literature. 3. method the present research adopted a mixed methods approach, using both corpus linguistics and critical discourse analysis (cda) to explore the use of personal pronouns in 10 international speeches. first, the speeches were analyzed as a corpus to identify the frequency and distribution of pronoun use. second, cda was performed to examine the functions of the first-person singular and plural pronouns used by world leaders in the data. cda is “a type of discourse analysis research that primarily studies the way social abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in social and political contexts” (van dijk, 2004, p. 352). this method aspires to understand how ideological presuppositions influence language choice in text and speech. 3.1. data the ten addresses selected for the analysis encompassed a culturally diverse range of speakers and target audiences, from secular democratic western nations (such as the us) to conservative authoritarian states (such as qatar and iran). as such, the speeches were delivered by representatives of different political systems ranging from democratic to authoritarian and monarchic to nominally communist. the speeches selected for this study were delivered between 1989 and 2019. the transcripts of these speeches can be found on the homepages of the respective countries’ foreign ministries, except those of the emir of qatar and japanese prime minister shinzo abe. the emir’s speech is available on the group of 77 (g77) homepage. in contrast, prime minister abe’s speech is available in english on the website of the japanese graduate school of public policy (grips). since the speeches were retrieved directly from official homepages, they can be considered primary data. the selected speeches included hcc and lcc speakers from various linguistic backgrounds. all speeches are publicly available in english; however, video evidence shows that some leaders delivered their speeches in their native languages, such as president xi (chinese) and supreme leader ali khamenei (persian). english was a second or third language for almost all the leaders selected, the only exception being president donald trump. as discussed, with those speaking a second language, it was clear that inherited culture and its characteristics would be reflected as people construct their worldviews based on their inherited cultures. table 3.1 provides a detailed overview of each summit/conference/visit, speaker, location, and speaker’s position. leaders’ speeches are prepared in advance by professional members of the government who consider the audience and the purpose of the speech. therefore, it can be assumed that these writers are intentional regarding pronominal address choices. in ongoing research by the author, one foreign minister stated that https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/inequality 294 professionals are involved in writing leaders’ international speeches; however, he noted that political leaders sometimes disregard the written content. thus, it can be safely assumed that all ten addresses were prepared in advance. table 3.1 list of speeches, leaders, countries, and summits year summit/conference speaker name of country position/title 1989 9th non-aligned movement summit birendra bir bikram shah dev federal democratic republic of nepal (kingdom of nepal) head of state/king 2005 2nd south summit of group 77 and china sheik hamad bin khalifa al-thani state of qatar head of state/ supreme leader 2012 16th non-aligned movement summit sayyid ali hosseini khamenei islamic republic of iran head of state/emir 2014 visit to african union headquarters shinzo abe japan head of government/prime minister 2017 arab–islamic–american summit donald john trump united states of america head of state/ president 2017 arab–islamic–american summit sheik hasina peoples republic of bangladesh head of state/ prime minister 2017 summit of heads of state of mercosur and associated states michael temer federative republic of brazil head of state/ president 2017 world economic forum annual meeting xi jinping peoples republic of china head of state/president 2018 10th brazil, russia, india, china, south africa (brics) summit vladimir putin russian federation head of state/president 2019 55th munich security conference angela dorothea merkel federal republic of germany head of government /chancellor 3.2. data analysis the corpus data from the speeches in table .31 were extracted using antconc. antconc helps analyze extensive corpora datasets. all speeches (data) were converted into separate plain-text files and imported into antconc. data retrieval was performed via a group search of the text files for all speeches simultaneously, with the filenames indicating the source speech for each token. sets of pronoun tokens in context (concordances) were retrieved with the regular expression search patterns [^a-za-z](i|me|[mm]y|[mm]yself|[mm]ine)[^a-za-z] for first person singular pronouns, and [^a-zaz]([ww][ee]|[uu]s|[oo]ur|[oo]urselves)[^a-za-z] for first person plural pronouns. for first person plural pronouns. concordance plots were also obtained, summarizing the token distribution within each file. frequencies were then normalized for text length to calculate relative frequencies of pronoun use per thousand words, which formed the basis for the empirical analysis and comparison (wegeche & chi, 2016, p. 33). due to a large number of pronouns, not all tokens were considered in the functional analysis, but representative examples were selected based on a random sampling of concordance lines. to cross-check the reliability of the data results obtained from antconc, the search function of microsoft word was applied alongside an extensive reading of the data. 4. findings the findings and discussion are divided into multiple sections. first, the widespread use of firstperson singular and plural is discussed, followed by an in-depth analysis of the first-person singular and plural pronouns. the concordance plots obtained from antconc are also discussed. 295 4.1. overview of first person singular and plural pronoun use table 4.1. use of singular pronouns vs. plural pronouns no speaker summit/year i % we % 1 king birendra, nepal nam summit, belgrade/1989 9 19 36 81 2 emir bin khalifa, qatar south summit of the group 77 and china, doha/2005 9 29 21 71 3 supreme leader khamenei, iran nam summit, tehran/2012 7 11 51 89 4 president trump, usa arab–islamic–american summit, riyadh/2017 33 25 95 75 5 president putin, russia brics summit, johannesburg/2018 8 24 26 76 6 president temer, brazil mercosur summit, brasilia/2017 9 14 55 86 7 prime minister abe, japan african union, addis ababa/2014 41 69 20 31 8 chancellor merkel, germany munich security conference, munich/2019 79 28 198 72 9 president xi, china world economic forum, davos/2017 8 7 87 93 10 prime minister hasina, bangladesh arab–islamic–american summit, riyadh/2017 21 51 18 49 total / average percentage 224 27 607 73 table 4.1 shows the number and percentage of firstperson pronouns used by all ten leaders, including both singular and plural forms. the speeches contained 831 first-person pronouns, 607 (73%) of which were firstperson plural. a clear distinction can be made regarding using singular and plural pronouns. a prime objective of diplomatic speeches is to gather the international community's support and establish oneself as a responsible figure in world politics. as the function of plural pronouns is to create a collective identity among participants, their use serves the primary objectives of diplomatic speeches. in observing and reading the speeches in question, it was noted that the leaders focused their international addresses on general themes, such as development, terrorism, and world peace, regardless of the summit’s concrete theme. table 4.1 indicates that most leaders were highly inclined toward using first-person plural pronouns, meaning that they self-identified as a part of a group or institution. conversely, some leaders (prime ministers abe and hasina) sought to establish themselves as individuals, disregarding the collective nature of their respective summits or conference. table 4.2 provides a general image of the pronouns used; a more detailed discussion of the use of “i” and “we” follows. 4.2. the use of first person singular pronouns table 4.2 presents both the absolute number (“total”) and the relative frequency (“per 1000w”) of first person singular pronouns in each speech. a wide range was observed, from 2–31 tokens per 1,000 words. 296 table 4.2 first person singular pronoun occurrence no speaker summit/year i my me myself mine total per 1000w 1 king birendra, nepal nam summit, belgrade/1989 7 1 0 1 0 9 6 2 emir bin khalifa, qatar south summit of the group 77 and china, doha/2005 8 0 1 0 0 9 6 3 supreme leader khamenei, iran nam summit, tehran/2012 6 1 0 0 0 7 2 4 president trump, usa arab–islamic–american summit, riyadh/2017 23 6 3 0 1 33 10 5 president putin, russia brics summit, johannesburg/2018 7 0 1 0 0 8 8 6 president temer, brazil mercosur summit, brasilia/2017 7 2 0 0 0 9 9 7 prime minister abe, japan african union, addis ababa/2014 29 6 5 1 0 41 15 8 chancellor merkel, germany munich security conference, munich/2019 61 9 8 1 0 79 17 9 president xi, china world economic forum, davos/2017 6 0 2 0 0 8 2 10 prime minister hasina, bangladesh arab–islamic–american summit, riyadh/2017 12 6 1 2 0 21 31 total 166 31 21 5 1 224 106 shorter speeches contain an exceptionally high rate of first-person pronoun use compared to longer addresses. scrutiny of prime minister hasina's short speech showed that she concentrated on current world issues, from the refugee crisis to her country's policy toward terrorism. in short speeches, leaders want to be heard regarding the things they are talking about and therefore try to be more assertive by using more personal pronouns. the total number of singular pronouns recorded was 224 across all the speeches. the use of first-person singular pronouns in diplomatic speeches can be interpreted as a discourse strategy to present ideas and convey personal viewpoints and feelings to the audience, as can be seen in the following example: 1. “i feel the pain of refugee, as i myself had been a refugee.” (prime minister hasina, 2017) prime minister hasina shared her story highlighting the international refugee crisis sparked by global terrorism. storytelling international events using the first person singular pronouns might spark a sense of urgency among the participants to collaborate on the discussed issue. a common stereotype is that undemocratic leaders use more singular pronouns to show the power of their positions; however, the results in table 4.3 show otherwise. prime minister hasina tops the list, with a normalized rate of 31 tokens per 1,000 words. chancellor merkel and prime minister abe, democratically elected leaders, uttered 17 and 15 first-person singular pronouns for every 1,000 words, respectively. these findings indicate that these leaders felt personally involved in the conference or summit. it was remarkable to discover that president trump, president temer, president putin, king birendra, and emir bin khalifa used 10, 9, 8, 6, and 6 first-person singular pronouns per 1,000 words, respectively. given president trump's image as a self-centred former businessman (rucker & leonnig, 2020, p. 7), it is surprising that among all the speeches analyzed, he 297 used the first-person singular pronoun at an average rate compared to some other leaders. the arab islamic american summit was his first overseas trip as us president; the findings here demonstrate that leaders are often forced to change their tone after being elected, or at least when speaking to an international audience. leaders who were not democratically elected such as president xi (leader of the communist party of china [cpc] and president of china) and supreme leader khamenei of iran, who were elected by the national people's congress (china) or an assembly of "experts" (iran)—used a negligible number (2, 2) of first-person singular pronouns. there are two possible interpretations of this result. first, they were both already the undisputed leaders of their home countries and did not want to be seen as self-centric in the international arena. second, they wanted to save face and appear inclusive on the global stage. similarly, the emir of qatar and king birendra of nepal used low numbers of first-person singular personal pronouns. the phenomenon of pluralism majestatis may explain such low usage by royalty, also referred to as "the royal we." ernest satow (1932, p. 37) noted that royals often use "we" and "our" rather than i" and "my" in his seminal work, a guide to diplomatic practice.5 even the democratically elected but authoritarian russian president putin did not use many first-person singular pronouns to appear inclusive on the world stage. the limited use of "i" by leaders who were not democratically elected (or who were in office due to extraordinary circumstances, such as, in the case of brazil'sbrazil's president temer, the impeachment of a president) suggests that they are less likely to present themselves as individuals at international diplomatic events. this reality may have caused president temer to use few first-person singular pronouns. a remarkable similarity between the two female leaders in this group of 10 speakers can be seen. prime minister hasina and chancellor merkel used the most first-person singular pronouns, although they belong to completely different cultures, regions, religions, and societies. bangladesh is a predominately islamic country where women often find themselves comparatively disadvantaged in all aspects of society, such as education and work. in contrast, hasina's frequent use of singular pronouns shows her authority and power in her home country. this might also be interpreted as hasina wanting to show her authority because women are underrepresented at the leadership level, and she was the only female leader participating in the conference. in her speech at the 2019 munich security conference (msc), chancellor merkel told the story of international relations through her personal history.6 as a result, she used more singular pronouns than her male counterparts. at the conference, merkel was one of the longest-serving heads of government, which may have played a role in her uttering this group's secondmost first-person singular pronouns. women avoid aggressive and threatening language regardless of their position (mahartika & hanafiah, 2019, p. 231). the female leaders recounted personal experiences in diplomatic speeches, which may explain their frequent use of the first-person singular pronoun. japanese prime minister abe's use of more singular pronouns can be attributed to the fact that he was on a bilateral visit to the african union (au), not a summit or conference. throughout his speech, abe made promises regarding the development of au economies, either in the form of official development assistance (oda) or investment; thus, he wanted to demonstrate authority as the leader of a developed nation and show personal commitment by using "i." 4.3. distribution of first person singular pronouns the concordance plot in figure 1 was generated in antconc using a regular expression search pattern [^azap-z](i|me|[mm]y|[mm]yself|[mm]ine)[^a-za-z] for the first person singular pronouns “i,” “me,” “my,” “myself,” and “mine.” the concordance plot view allowed us to map the usage distribution of the first person pronouns throughout the 10 international speeches scrutinized. 5 the use of “royal we” is also found in the speech of léopold louis marie, king of belgium, in an address in congo in 2022. for full text of the speech, see, https://www.monarchie.be/en/agenda/speech-by-hismajesty-the-king-university-of-lubumbashi 6 please refer to example 3 below for the evidence of personal experiences she was sharing in her speech. 298 figure 4.1 concordance plot view of first-person singular pronoun tokens the concordance plots show a vast disparity in the use of first-person singular pronouns. reviewing the speeches showed that singular pronouns generally occurred most frequently at the beginning and end of each speech, though with some exceptions (most notably chancellor merkel and prime minister hasina, whose usage pervaded the main content of their speeches). as expected, singular pronouns were rarely used in the salutation section of these speeches. however, firstperson singular pronouns were highly visible in the appreciation section of the speeches. this can be attributed to the speakers wanting to thank the organizers by showing their involvement and connecting with the audience. president temer and supreme leader khamenei were the organizers of the summits at which they spoke. therefore, they did not offer appreciation to the organizers and the host country, which is reflected in the low number of firstperson singular pronouns. conversely, emir bin khalifa, as summit organizer, extended appreciation to the distinguished guests for supporting qatar in 299 organizing the conference using the first-person singular pronoun. the middle section of the concordance plots (“summoning of cooperation”) marks a significant decline in the use of first-person singular pronouns. however, at the end of the summoning section, firstperson singular pronouns increased again because the leaders sought to ask for the cooperation policy they presented. chancellor merkel and prime minister hasina were the obvious exceptions to this general finding. below are three examples of the pronoun “i” used in the middle sections of these speeches: 2. “i also applaud the gulf cooperation council for blocking funders from using their countries as a financial base for terror and designating hezbollah as a terrorist organization last year.” (president trump, 2017) 3. “i have often talked with president xi jinping about how we can learn from one another with regard to what each of us does well.” (chancellor merkel, 2019) 4. “the image of 3-year-old ayla lying lifeless on the seashore, or the image of blood-stained omran in aleppo, shake our consciences. i can hardly take in these images as a mother myself.” (prime minister hasina, 2017). in the first example, president trump used “i” to project himself as a dominant figure in the fight against terrorism. this implies that leaders use the first-person singular pronouns to construct a positive image of themselves if something is successful or projected to be successful. similarly, in example 3, chancellor merkel glorified her self-image. in this particular example, “i” was assertively inserted to portray chancellor merkel as one of the most active champions of global cooperation. however, this may have presented a negative image of others in the audience. having already been german chancellor for 16 years, her ties with other leaders were significant. it should be noted, however, that she spoke with president xi as the chancellor of germany, so “our” government would have been the more desirable phrase. in example 4, prime minister hasina uttered a statement of fact (i.e., a representative speech act) to project herself as a kind human being and politician by inserting a feminine touch into her statement. in doing so, she used the first-person singular pronoun to frame herself positively. 4.4 the use of first-person plural pronouns table 4.3 shows the general use of “we,” “our,” “us,” and “ourselves” in the ten speeches. the total number of recorded first-person plural pronouns was 607, but after normalizing the pronouns per 1,000 words, 263 were found. as mentioned, the total number and the normalized frequency did not match; the latter formed the basis of the analysis. table 4.3. first-person plural pronoun occurrence no speaker summit/year we our us ourselves total per 1000w 1 king birendra, nepal nam summit, belgrade/1989 13 17 5 1 36 24 2 emir bin khalifa, qatar south summit of the group 77 and china, doha/2005 8 11 1 1 21 15 3 supreme leader khamenei, iran nam summit, tehran/2012 22 22 6 1 51 16 4 president trump, usa arab–islamic–american summit, riyadh/2017 50 38 7 95 28 5 president putin, russia brics summit, johannesburg/2018 15 11 0 26 27 6 president temer, brazil mercosur summit, brasilia/2017 35 19 1 55 56 7 prime minister abe, japan african union, addis ababa/2014 14 4 2 20 7 8 chancellor merkel, germany munich security conference, munich/2019 140 33 22 3 198 43 9 president xi, china world economic forum, davos/2017 62 14 9 2 87 20 10 prime minister hasina, bangladesh arab–islamic–american summit, riyadh/2017 12 4 2 18 27 total 371 173 55 8 607 263 300 table 4.3 depicts that president temer used the highest proportion of first-person plural pronouns per 1,000 words, followed by chancellor merkel (56 and 43, respectively). president trump, president putin, and prime minister hasina used 28, 27, and 27 plural pronouns per 1,000 words, respectively. in contrast, prime minister abe used only 7 “we” pronouns for every 1,000 words. this matter can be interpreted as the speaker not wanting to create a group identity with the au countries during his visit; rather, he wanted to be assertive because the african countries could provide nothing in return. despite the branding of japan as an hcc country where people work in groups, this seems to have been trumped by other considerations on the international stage. hence, the notion of hcc and lcc may only apply in negotiations rather than speeches, presumably because speeches are made in public, whereas negotiations are not. in all the speeches, “we” was primarily used to share responsibility and create group accountability. the first-person plural can lead interpreters to conceptualize group identities, coalitions, parties, etc., as either insiders or outsiders (chilton & schäffner, 2002, p. 30). depending on the objective, the usage of “we” functions differently, but in all instances, it is used to reduce subjectivity. in the ten speeches analyzed, whenever “we” represented an organization or global population, its function was associated with a shared cause, such as addressing global warming or terrorism. international or regional policies related to global concerns are usually sustained over the long term, but government leadership often changes due to elections or other reasons. when leaders use the first-person singular pronoun “i,” other parties may be reluctant to work with them because when new leaders are elected, they may change their policies, necessitating renegotiation. therefore, using “we” provides longterm assurance for the other party to the negotiation. likewise, “we” was used to refer to regional issues that the speaker represented, such as the middle east, the eu, the south asian association for regional cooperation (saarc), or nato, or most often, to refer to the speaker’s country. however, royals use pluralis majestitas to conjure royal institutions. this fact was known to the author of this thesis, who grew up in a kingdom, but he was never aware of its significance. figure 4.2 presents a breakdown of the categories of referents for which the leaders used first-person plural pronouns in their respective speeches. figure 4.2. distribution of first person plural pronoun use according to referent 301 note: “me” stands for the middle east, and “eu” stands for the european union. “country” refers to the country the leaders represent, while “organization” refers to the site of diplomatic gatherings, such as nam, the un, and saarc. finally, “global population” refers to humankind, while “rw” stands for “royal we.” figure 4.2 shows that most leaders used plural pronouns primarily to denote the host organization or the global population as a whole, with three notable exceptions. president putin (65%), prime minister abe (60%), and prime minister hasina (55%) used the majority of their first-person plural pronouns to refer to their own countries. in contrast, president temer used almost 85% of his first-person plural pronouns to refer to the host organization, mercosur, and its allied states, which can be explained by the fact that he was the host of the summit. likewise, the summit hosts emir bin khalifa and supreme leader khamenei also used about 66% and 55% plural pronouns, respectively, to refer to the organization and global population. supreme leader khamenei, chancellor merkel, and king birendra had a more comprehensive range of group referents in their speeches. they used a significant minority of plural pronouns for their regions when elucidating relevant challenges and opportunities for the middle east and the european union. merkel addressed the conference not as a host but as the german chancellor. king birendra used the “royal we” to refer to the monarchy of nepal; however, the analysis indicated that emir bin khalifa chose not to reference pluralis majestitas. the results indicated that “we” as a country was uttered in speeches when the speaker’s government had achieved something notable or they wanted to be seen as a positive force by highlighting policy achievements. examples of the different functions of “we” are given below: 5. “in spite of varying perspectives and orientations, we member states of this movement have managed to preserve our solidarity and bond over a long period of time within the framework of the shared values, and this is not a simple and small achievement.” (supreme leader khamenei, 2012) 6. “we expect that the digital economy of the russian federation program we have launched will increase the productivity of labor 30 percent by 2024.” (president putin, 2018) 7. “in 2014/2015, we conducted very intensive negotiations with greece about remaining in the eurozone. we then had to grapple with the refugee issue on a massive scale.” (chancellor merkel, 2019) in example 5, “we” denoted the nam movement and could be interpreted as inclusive. supreme leader khamenei used the first-person plural pronoun to warn the west that the nam had been working discerningly despite differences among its member states. this example shows that “we” is sometimes employed to create a sense of unity and thus sound powerful as a group. in example 6, president putin used “we” in an exclusive sense, referencing russia or the russian government. in contrast, in example 7, chancellor merkel spoke on behalf of the eu when she used the pronoun “we,” implying the necessity of collective responsibility in the wake of financial and refugee crises. when using first-person plural pronouns in a speech, the level of subjectivity is lowered, providing a sense of collaboration to the listener. the possibility of misinterpretation of discourse is also reduced, ultimately lowering the chance of future conflicts. figure 4.3 presents the concordance plot for the distribution of first-person plural pronouns throughout the ten speeches. 302 figure 4.3. concordance plot view of first-person plural pronoun tokens dense clusters of first-person plural pronouns can be observed in figure 4.3. intense use of these pronouns was found toward the end of the “summoning of cooperation” section of many speeches, especially in those by supreme leader khamenei, president trump, chancellor merkel, and president xi. collective pronouns may have been used intensively in the summoning section because continuous repetition of any word (in this case, the plural pronoun “we”) can highlight the importance of the utterance. however, some researchers, such as harris (2009, p. 15), have argued that continuously uttering the same word may sound bombastic and overly rhetorical, which could adversely affect the audience. it is precisely at this point that conventional diplomatic language comes into play 303 in the form of rhetoric and persuasion in speeches in international settings. 4.5. use of modal verbs in conjunction with first person plural pronouns when cross-referencing the concordance plot in figure 4.3 with the actual speeches, it was found that verbs of necessity, intention, and ability were used. president xi, chancellor merkel, and president trump used the highest number of verbs of necessity, the majority of which were “must” and “should,” followed by “need to.” moreover, the female leaders used an almost equal number of necessary verbs. these findings disprove the stereotype that female leaders are more inclined toward weak expressions of obligation. the female leaders used as many obligation verbs as their male counterparts. the following section presents the statistical analysis of the first-person plural pronoun “we” and some examples of its usage in the middle of the speeches in connection with verbs of necessity. table 4.5. verbs of necessity in connection with first person plural pronouns no speaker summit/year we + must we + should we + have to we + need to total 1 king birendra, nepal nam summit, belgrade/1989 1 1 2 emir bin khalifa, qatar south summit of the group 77 and china, doha/2005 1 1 3 supreme leader khamenei, iran nam summit, tehran/2012 4 2 6 4 president trump, usa arab–islamic–american summit, riyadh/2017 5 5 5 president putin, russia brics summit, johannesburg/2018 0 6 president temer, brazil mercosur summit, brasilia/2017 2 1 3 7 prime minister abe, japan african union, addis ababa/2014 0 8 chancellor merkel, germany munich security conference, munich/2019 5 1 4 10 9 president xi, china world economic forum, davos/2017 3 22 4 29 10 prime minister hasina, bangladesh arab–islamic–american summit, riyadh/ 2017 2 3 1 6 total 17 28 4 12 61 based on table 4.5, it is clear that the leaders used a wide variety of modal verbs of necessity, with preferences for specific verb forms. in total, 61 necessity modals were observed across the ten speeches. the most frequently used modal verb in conjunction with the first person plural pronoun was “we should,” followed by “we must.” chancellor merkel, prime minister hasina, supreme leader khamenei, and president trump used 10, 6, 6, and 5 modal verbs of necessity, respectively, while the other leaders used only a negligible number. 8.“we need to strengthen our determination; we need to remain faithful to our goals.” (supreme leader khamenei, 2012) 9. “as we deny terrorist organizations control of territory and populations, we must also strip them of their access to funds.” (president trump, 2017) 10. “we should commit ourselves to growing an open global economy to share opportunities and interests through opening up and achieve winwin outcome.” (president xi, 2017) from these examples, it can be surmised that every linguistic modality utilized in international addresses serves a specific goal and represents a notion meant to persuade the audience to concur with or adopt a particular position. the use of modalities in speeches may be influenced by potential judgments from the speaker’s viewpoint, or it may account for the expressed evaluations, predictions, commitments, conditional consequences, abilities, encouragements, potential abilities, and preconditions. the involvement of plural pronouns makes a more interesting case, given that modal verbs are rarely observed alongside the singular pronoun “i.” these examples show that “we” at the end of the summoning section of the scrutinized speeches were mostly used to request cooperation by lowering subjectivity while reinforcing the power of the message through the use of modals and plural pronouns. in example 8, supreme leader khamenei used the 304 collective pronoun “we” and “need to” to convince the audience of the positive aspects of being faithful to their commitment to nam. as leech (1987: 101) noted, in terms of meaning, “need to” is halfway between “must” and “should”; it asserts obligation or necessity but without certainty. by using this middle-ground modal verb, khamenei was not issuing an ultimatum that everyone must follow; rather, he wanted the high-level audience to judge for themselves in relation to the speaker’s ideology. in example 9, the subjective modal “must” alongside the plural pronoun “we” represented a request—if not a duty—for all the islamic state leaders to refrain from funding terrorists. president trump used “must” as a deontic modality to illustrate a situation in which all participants were morally obliged. when the speaker cannot, or possibly even does not want to, ask for an actualization, such as when offering counsel, making requests, or issuing warnings, the deontic modal “must” is frequently utilized (collins, 2009: 35). unexpectedly, president xi used “we should” more often, which seems to be common in his speeches on other platforms (wegeche & chi, 2016, p. 40). he attempted to draw his audience closer by enriching his persuasion with modal verbs, such as “should” and “must,” when highlighting the benefits of cooperation and the risks of non-cooperation, as illustrated in the example. in example 9, “we” was used to refer to the global population, together with the modal verb “should” to convey obligation (albeit more weakly than “must”). collins (2009: 45) described “should” as expressing a modality of medium strength. on an interesting global economic topic, president xi committed to opening his country’s economy to achieve a win–win for those involved. in this instance, the modal “should” express the desirability for this outcome. table 4.6. verbs of intention, ability, and conditional sentences no speaker summit/year we + can we + will we + shall we + would if we + verb total 1 king birendra, nepal nam summit, belgrade/1989 2 2 2 emir bin khalifa, qatar south summit of the group 77 and china, doha/2005 0 3 supreme leader khamenei, iran nam summit, teheran/2012 3 1 4 4 president trump, usa arab–islamic–american summit, riyadh/2017 1 9 6 16 5 president putin, russia brics summit, johannesburg/2018 0 6 president temer, brazil mercosur summit, brasilia/2017 1 2 3 7 prime minister abe, japan african union, addis ababa/2014 2 3 1 1 7 8 chancellor merkel, germany munich security conference, munich/2019 13 6 2 10 31 9 president xi, china world economic forum, davos/2017 14 14 10 prime minister hasina, bangladesh arab–islamic–american summit, riyadh/ 2017 0 total 20 35 1 2 19 77 table 4.6 showcases the verbs of intention and ability in connection with the first-person plural pronoun “we” in international diplomatic speeches, the most used intention and ability verbs are “will” and “can.” gardón (2006: 455) stated that when uttering the modal “will,” the speaker communicates that the preposition expressed is potentially true without necessarily mentioning any evidence. thus, “will” is an easy modal to utter in international speeches. below are two nominal examples of ability modals: 11. “in pursuing the strategy of innovation-driven development, we will bolster the strategic emerging industries, apply new technologies and foster new business models to upgrade traditional industries; and we will boost new drivers of growth and revitalize traditional ones.” (president xi, 2017) 12. “[…] because we can overcome many of the inefficiencies that exist among the many member states that are in the european union and in nato […].” (merkel, 2019) “will” is a strong modal verb to express clear intentions, certainty, determination, and promise. the use of “will” reinforces the exact objective of a leader or country in international speeches. example 11 illustrates president xi’s prediction for the future based on the current reality of a modernizing chinese economy. his expression was not merely a prediction but a fact. ekawati (2019: 23) stated that the modal 305 “will” is used to avoid the idea of dictating as if the speaker is asking the audience to agree with his or her idea. this does not show that the speaker and the audience are equal. thus, it can be maintained that even speakers from communist countries do not want to dictate or enforce their ideas on others—at least not in speeches. in example 12, the modal “can” was used to indicate the ability of the eu and nato to overcome the inefficiencies faced by both regional organizations. chancellor merkel tried to convince the high-level delegates, especially those from developed nations, by acknowledging shortcomings and proposing a way forward. in doing so, chancellor merkel used the ability verb “can” with a relatively high frequency. while ability verbs showcase the strength of leaders and their countries, they can also be viewed as rhetoric if continuously employed in diplomatic circles (giannakidou & staraki, 2013, p. 255). in table 4.6, it can be seen that the leaders used occasional conditional sentences along with plural pronouns. in total, 19 “if” conditionals were recorded in the ten international speeches. among all the leaders, chancellor merkel and president trump used conditionals 10 and 6 times, respectively. the use of conditionals helps a speaker maintain face while addressing potentially difficult topics. 13. “if we do not confront this deadly terror, we know what the future will bring more suffering and despair.” (president trump, 2017) in this example, the simple present tense was used to present a negative situation and propose what should be done in response. president trump tried to imagine a future by inferring past terrorist events. instead of uttering “i,” as he generally did, he said “we” together with a conditional sentence to assure that he was speaking as an institution, not as a businessperson. since his relationship with the islamic world was rocky from the beginning of his term in office, the use of “we” was clearly aimed at portraying him as responsible and realistic. this evidence suggests that leaders frequently hide behind the first-person plural pronoun “we.” the comparison of modal verbs reveals an interesting conclusion: leaders of powerful countries typically use strong modal verbs, while those of developing countries use weak modal verbs. all types of countries (developed and developing) have their priorities and responsibilities, as shown by their leaders’ semantic expressions of modal verbs. 5. discussion from the results and analysis, it can be asserted that diplomats use the first-person singular pronouns to appear collaborative, to present themselves positively in the international arena by avoiding self-referential pronouns as much as possible, and to point out personal qualities. in other words, they seek validation of their leadership from the international community. the personal qualities that politicians want to express may include principles, morals, and power, as well as the image of someone who is not afraid to take action when necessary (bramley 2001, p. 28). this contention can equally be applied to the diplomatic speeches analyzed. bramley (2001, p. 27) demonstrated that politicians use the first-person singular pronoun “i” to display authority and explains that the usage of “i” generates compassion between the audience and speaker. bramley’s analysis was based on domestic politics. because politicians mostly handle diplomacy, it can be asserted that bramley’s findings are also valid with regard to diplomatic addresses. similarly, beard (2000: 25) observed that “i” suggests a clear sense of personal involvement, particularly useful when conveying information beneficial to the audience. the use of “i” also indicates the relationship between the speaker and the political system of their home country. the author of the current study believes that diplomacy is politics but on the international stage, where strong leaders’ pronominal choices affect other leaders’ decisionmaking. as discussed, leaders use “i” to project themselves as responsible figures on the international stage. first-person singular pronouns continuously surfaced in the admiration section of the speeches, such as “i wish.” thus, it can be asserted that first-person singular pronouns are employed to state personal opinions and feelings on international stages. in addition to these positive aspects, certain drawbacks must also be noted. first, the overuse of “i” may repel an audience, as it creates the impression that cooperation or teamwork with the speaker will be difficult. excessive use of “i” may create an image of a leader as self-centric or power-hungry; it may also evoke a sense of inequality in the audience, implying that others are inferior (beard, 2000, p. 45). in international diplomatic speeches, leaders convey policy messages in international politics and diplomacy. when expressing these priorities, leaders often use “we” to indicate the support of their respective populations for their initiatives. summits, bilateral/multilateral meetings, and conferences are a matter of pride and prestige for leaders and countries, and their success is measured by how any speech or policy initiated by a leader affects others. to successfully establish their agendas, leaders need to be inclusive and try to do so by frequently using firstperson plural pronouns. “we” is a collective pronoun denoting a speaker’s country or organization while replacing the name of their country or organization in the discourse. the use of “we” creates an atmosphere of commonality, as opposed to the use of “i,” which places the focus on the individual leader. bramley (2001, p. 76) asserted that 306 the function of “we” in speeches is to create a group feeling when multiple parties are involved. thus, leaders try to create like-minded groups at international conferences by using pronouns of collectiveness. the first-person plural pronoun “we” mainly occurs in the third section (summoning of cooperation) of speeches, indicating that leaders want to work collectively on international issues such as trade or security. 6. conclusion this study focused on identifying and using firstperson pronouns in diplomatic discourse. the findings show that pronouns are an important linguistic device in diplomatic discourse. both singular and plural firstperson pronouns are used by leaders to persuade their audiences. among the ten speeches analyzed, the leaders hailed from different cultural backgrounds, yet most repeatedly used the plural we more than the singular “i.” president xi almost exclusively used firstperson plural pronouns (accounting for 93% of all pronouns), while supreme leader khamenei, president temer, and king birendra used more than 80% of all types of pronouns. chancellor merkel also mostly used plural pronouns (72%). in contrast, the other female leader, prime minister hasina, used an almost equal percentage of singular and plural pronouns. “i” was mostly found at the beginning of the speeches to extend personal gratitude to the organizers. conversely, “we” was deployed throughout the speeches to establish communal relations between the speaker and the listeners. prime minister abe used the most singular pronouns (69% in absolute numbers). despite cultural, economic, religious, ideological, and political differences, these leaders endeavoured to show empathy for the betterment of the world through their use of collective pronouns. a common stereotype is that leaders from authoritarian countries display their (internal) power through the extended use of singular pronouns on international stages, more so than leaders from democratic countries. however, the findings here suggest otherwise. the leaders of democratic countries used more first-person singular pronouns than those from undemocratic countries to indicate the power of the political systems they represented. moreover, leaders do not want to intimidate other countries through language but instead use a language of peace and friendship in spoken discourse. the female leaders’ language pattern was characterized by assertiveness, which suggests that societal position dramatically impacts how people speak. the findings regarding the language of the female leaders are conclusive, but a few speech samples may not paint a clear picture overall. in the ten scrutinized speeches, allusions to ideology were limited. nevertheless, it can be maintained that leaders leaning toward a communist ideology used more collective pronouns to save face and not be branded as self-centric, thereby projecting themselves as inclusive. future research on pronominal choice in diplomatic speeches may compare (1) speeches in venues such as the united nations general assembly and (2) speeches delivered in bilateral/multilateral venues. such comparisons could provide insight into how the audience, the venue, and perceived national power influence pronoun choice. 7. acknowledgements i would like to express my sincere gratitude to professor dr. christian w. spang, my academic supervisor, for his continuous revisions and suggestions throughout the manuscript writing phase. for feedback on the initial research and writing phases, i would like to thank dr. robert sigley, former associate professor at daito bunka university, tokyo. furthermore, i would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive suggestions and comments on the submitted manuscript. any remaining errors are my own responsibility. references ahmad, i., & mehmood, a. 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(2013). gender differences in using language. theory and practice in language studies, 3(8), 1485–1489. https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/301914/laukkanen_olavi_pro_gradu_2019.pdf?isallowed=y&sequence=2 https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/301914/laukkanen_olavi_pro_gradu_2019.pdf?isallowed=y&sequence=2 https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/301914/laukkanen_olavi_pro_gradu_2019.pdf?isallowed=y&sequence=2 https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/48.2.173 https://doi.org/10.3126/joia.v3i1.29094 https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v6n5p32 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 31-36 31 language comparison between swahili and malay languages with semantic and pragmatic problems shintia dwi putri department of english education, universitas lancang kuning, indonesia dwiputrishintia@gmail.com article history received : 2020-04-21 revised : 2020-04-26 accepted : 2020-04-27 keywords language comparison swahili malay semantics pragmatics abstract the purpose of this study is to explore the similarities and differences of malay and kiswahili, which is better known as swahili. this study intends to investigate the patterns of response from malays and kiswahili. in discussing the idea of linguistic meaning by comparing the swahili language with malay, this study focuses on different meanings, assuming that there will be differences regarding the discussion of meaning types that can enhance understanding and appreciation of linguistic meaning. the discussion takes a general conceptual orientation of approach that considers language to be an analysis where the analytical unit is speech acts. from a broader perspective, this article distinguishes the conceptual and associative meaning of the use of malay and swahili languages then begins dealing with the individual types. there are five types of meanings discussed, namely conceptual, connotative, social, affective and collocative. the results show that there are many differences between malay and swahili languages. the connotation is meaning that is still difficult to understand, and it is what requires the continuation of learning semantics and pragmatics because every language has a different meaning following the culture. 1. introduction a human being is a social creature. in fact, man is a receiver and sender of messages who assembles and distributes information (greimas, 1970). sapir (1956) insists that “every cultural pattern and every single act of social behaviour involves communication in either an explicit or implicit sense" (p. 104). the tool for this communication is language (derin, putri, nursafira, hamuddin, 2020). greimas (1970) and sapir (1956) seek to investigate the relationship between language and culture, and what the connection between language and culture is. in other words, if there is a relationship between language and culture, how can they have this association? to achieve the answer, some of the main relevant points are introduced and discussed as follows. the definition of linguistic meaning is complex and thus, somewhat troublesome. the diverse approach to analysis, explanation and interpretation demonstrates this issue (hamsa & weda, 2019), more so considering how easily people create new words and apply new meanings for existing words (derin, deliani, fauziah, afifah, & hamuddin, 2019; klymenko, 2019). scholars approach linguistic meaning, in different ways, in particular: as a reference and a context, a brain-image term, a proposition of truth-value or a communicative usage (kempson, 1977). swahili (or kiswahili as it is called when one is speaking the language) is the most important and widely studied indigenous language of africa, the national and official language of kenya and tanzania (stigand, 2013). it is spoken as a native language on the eastern coast of africa and the islands adjacent to the coasts of kenya and tanzania from southern somalia in the north. it is also a lingua franca of the african continent spoken as a second language by millions of people mainly in kenya, tanzania, uganda, and east zaire. in mozambique, rwanda, burundi, zambia, malawi, the countries of southern arabia including yemen and oman and in other parts of the world, they are also speakers. all speakers of swahili share a unique way of expressing time, day or night. two focal points used to say time are sunrise or sunset. the first hour of the day is after dawn, not midnight, and after sunset, the first hour of the night is. the way they communicate indirectly with each other using the popular language, also known as leso, is also peculiar to swahili speakers. this multifunctional towel typically has a title which sends a proverbial message to its target audience. while to understand the development of the malaysian languages, in particular the national language, some background issues need to be explained. the term, bangsa malaysia coined by tun dr. mahathir, the former prime minister for 22 years, was used to http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 31-36 32 emphasize a united malaysian nation which does not distinguish its citizens according to ethnicity. it is regarded as “people being able to identify themselves with the country, speaking bahasa malaysia and accepting the constitution” (abdoolcarim, 2000). the malay language is malaysia's official language, and it is one of the malayo-polyne-sian languages; branches of the austronesian language family spoken widely in brunei, indonesia, malaysia and other neighbouring regions. to malay, bahasa jiwa bangsa, or language, is the soul of the nation. through the efforts of national education and cultural assimilation, the malaysian, chinese and indians also can communicate fluently in the malay language (fontaine & richardson, 2005; gabriel, 2014; ozóg, 1993). the malay language is now written in the 26-letter roman alphabet due to the influence of british colonization over the malay peninsula since 1795. thus, modern malay is easy to acquire, thanks to the high abundance and accessibility of ways to learn languages in the twenty-first century’s technological era (asril & wiza, 2017; junaidi, hamuddin, simangunsong, rahman, & derin, 2020). some of the modern malay words have adopted english vocabulary for word or vocabulary. that is difficult to translate into malay, such as a hobby, manipulating (manipulation), criteria, etc. 2. method this qualitative study employs descriptive analysis (zook & pierce, 2018) to reveal the similarities and differences between malay and swahili languages. the researcher focused on the semantics and pragmatics, which is focused in particular attention on different meanings, assuming that there will be differences regarding the discussion of the type of meaning can enhance understanding and appreciation of linguistic meaning (mwihaki, 2004). the discussion takes a general conceptual orientation of the approach (cronin, 2016), which considers meaning as use, where the unit of analysis is speech acts. this study distinguished the conceptual and associative meaning of the use of malay and swahili languages then begins dealing with the individual types. the researcher also used various references from related articles and books to support the explanation. 3. findings and discussion 3.1 meaning as use meaning as use is the word of the speaker and particularly the purpose of the speaker or the desired communication effect of the voice. this approach to the idea of meaning is reinforced by the assumption that language is purposeful: we want concrete goals to be fulfilled when we speak. the use of language thus means choosing acceptable linguistic types for the subsequent communicative environment and cultural contexts. analysis as a practice does not apply explicitly to the meaning or expression per se. it depends on the language, which describes an utterance in terms of the speech act. a speech act has three definitive criteria: locutionary act, illocutionary force and a perlocutionary event. these criteria can be illustrated utilizing the swahili utterance: taaluma ya isimu ina manufaa mengi. translation: linguistic discipline has many benefits. this utterance is a locutionary act in a given sense. it includes the use and articulation, in compliance with certain grammatical laws, of linguistic forms such as phonemes, syllables, verbs, phrases and prosodic characteristics to express a certain linguistic meaning. the malay language is characterized by a straightforwardness of verbal expression of the language (goddard, 1997). assessing the verbal expressions may not necessarily reflect their real feelings or opinions and may be direct or indirect, depending on the situation and the person. for example, to claim one’s self to be more co patent than others is seldom uttered in malay culture, although the speaker may be so. finally, the utterance establishes a connection between the speaker, the listener and the message. the speaker does not only linguistically express a context and word but also influences an event through the use of words. thus the definitive parameters of a speech act encompass two utterance properties: a meaning in the form of a mental image that must be encoded by the speaker and a communication feature that the listener must decipher. 3.2 functional grammar the term functional grammar has been used before, notably by dik (1978). the study risks adding to the number of its meanings here, and thus debasing its value, only because it is peculiarly apt for this new employment that dik (1978) proposes to outline a new grammatical formalism which, if it can be successfully developed, will be worthy of the name functional on three counts. first, it is required to function as part of a model of language production and comprehension. secondly, the formalism ascribes to every sentence, word, and phrase. this functional description differs from the structural description of better-known formalisms mainly by stressing the function that a part plays in a whole rather than the position a part occupies in a sequence of others. thirdly, properties that distinguish among logically equivalent sentences will have equal importance with properties that they share. whereas many other grammar theories consider language as an inherently arbitrary and genetically determined system, above all, fg attempts to incorporate its findings into a wider context, the theory of social interaction. also, the proposals from the fg are evaluated against a pragmatic adequacy metric, i.e. the degree to which they are effectively consistent with http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 31-36 33 human behaviour and interaction and account only. fg is, therefore, a reflection of the linguistic science functionalist model. it must expect complex, unstable and complex aspects. in the area of word order, for example, whether a language chooses prefield organization (i.e. the order o (object) v (verb) or o postposition v) or post field organization (vo or v preposition o) appears in itself to be immaterial for the functioning of that language. in essence, this is thus a practical matter. on the other hand, several phenomena of word order (clause-initial placement, additional positions, passivity etc.) can be related to practical factors, such as a speaker's evaluation of the hearer's awareness and aspirations. these are also the most important phenomena of fg's adepts. there are yet other phenomena that appear to display dysfunctionality. for example, the occurrence of postpositions in a post field language, where the language can be shown to have introduced prepositions as a 'therapeutic' measure (kahrel, 1985). grammaticalisation is described as “a process focusing on how grammatical forms and constructions are formed—how they are used, and how they shape the language,’’ based on the definition offered by hopper & traugott (1993, p. 1). grammaticalisation seems to be “a mechanism by which structure emerges from language use” (bybee & hopper, 2001, p. 13). due to this reason, grammaticalisation is also regarded as a framework that concerns’ “the problem of whether category borders are discreet and whether the structure and usage are interdependent, of the language, defined and less defined” (hopper & traugott, 1993, p. 1). within this section, this study seeks to clarify the grammaticalisation of the data from the two firms. first, winstedt's (1927) analysis of the term is seen as an ordered listing. essentially, fg aims to take into account the discourse structures in different contextual and communicative contexts. it is consistent with rational adequacy. the above offers the basis for describing how the linguistic concept can accurately be used for social and psychological experiences. the particular purpose of the interaction defines the meaning form to be used. 3.3 types of meaning semantics is an analysis of the meaning of lexical items and other language parts (ramadhan, 2019). there are seven types of meaning; conceptual, connotative, affective, stylistics, reflected, collocative and thematic meaning. this study focuses on only two of the types of meaning: conceptual meaning and connotative meaning. 3.3.1 conceptual meaning conceptual meaning means content that is rational, cognitive or denotable. it is based on two fundamental concepts, constructively and (in a scientific way) structures. the meanings used in dictionaries and the presentation of these lexical objects are typically derived from them (nor & zamri, 2015). moreover, the conceptual meaning of a language can be studied in terms of contrastive feature. it depends on the given lexical field (kasriyati, rafiah, herdi, & abbas, 2019), so that (for example) the meaning of the word woman could be specified as (+ human, + adult, male), as distinct from, man, which could be defined (+ human, + adult, + male), man is incompatible with a woman because of the distinct feature which is (male feature). the second principle that of a structure is the principle by which larger linguistic units are built up out of smaller units, (for example) in this sentence: {[(all) (men)] [(are)] [(mortal)]}* *we can analyse the sentence syntactically into its constituents parts two linguistics concepts control semantics representation of the conceptual meaning: that of contrast and organization. these principles are comparable to the paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations; they observed in phonological and syntactic analyses. the application of these features uses a binary notation whereby the value of a feature is specified as either positive [+], negative [-] or neutral [∓]. consider these swahili meanings: mtu ‘person’, mtoto ‘child’, mzee ‘elderly person’, kijana ‘youth’, mwanamke ‘woman’, mwanamume ‘man’, mvulana ‘boy’, msichana ‘girl’. mtu → [+ human], [+adult], [+male] mtoto → [+ human], [+adult], [+male] mzee → [+ human], [+ adult], [+male] kijana → [+ human], [+adult], [+male] mke → [+ human], [+ adult], [– male] mume → [+ human], [+ adult], [+ male] mvulana → [+ human], [– adult], [+ male] msichana → [+ human], [– adult], [– male] besides, to define the meaning, semantic features serve as a basis for comparing and contrasting lexemes. all these lexemes share the feature [+ human]. otherwise, lexeme pairs compare or contrast on the basis of certain properties, as shown mentioned semantics rules. the application of these features uses a binary notation whereby the value of a feature is specified as either positive [+], negative [-] or neutral [∓]. consider these malay meaning: “puan” (+human, +adult, -male), “cik” (+human, +adult,-female). 3.3.2 associative meaning the associative meaning of expression has to do with a speaker's mind. they can, in turn, be classified into six subtypes: connotative, collocative, affective, reflected and thematic. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 31-36 34 3.3.3 connotative meaning the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to (leech, 1981). the connotation is the real world meaning associated with a word by a speaker. in other words, it is beyond conceptual significance and relies on background, culture or society. connotative meaning can, therefore, be arbitrary or inconsistent. it depends on a lot how a person or society perceives a word. it is the interpretation we make with what these lexical elements represent. in english, the word 'dog' may have the connotation loyalty, apart from its referential meaning. when evaluating word meanings, two terms called denotative or connotative meaning. it should be identified; "sea" denotes an extensive body of water, but it does contain a sense of risk, uncertainty... one element of connotative meaning is the social meaning (sometimes called stylistic meaning), which varies between ages, gender, social class and cultures. dialect may be a strong case in point. it is a language that speaks to the social conditions in which it is used. the pavement is used in british english and sidewalk in american english. the residence is formal, and the residence is informal. it means that the connotative definition of a word is based on the essential conceptual characteristics to include the various additional non-criterion properties that we've come to anticipate from a comparison. it can be illustrated employing an examination of the swahili terms: mtu ‘person’, mwanamume ‘man’ and mwanamke ‘woman’. what comes to mind when you hear these expressions? niliona mtu mmoja na wanawake wawili. translation: i saw one person and two women. under the basic rules of language use, a woman is also a person because she has the biological characteristics of a human being. nonetheless, some cultures do not give a woman the status of a person. in many african cultures, the meaning 'mtu’ connotes a man. it is thus used exclusive of women and children. this usage is not peculiar to the elderly; the youth adopt the same attitude. noteworthy is a popular tune which goes: kila mtu na dame wake. translation; everyone with his dame’. what do you make of that? and for malay is like that. figurative language is fundamental to malay’s oral heritage and is one the key means by which traditional bonds and attitudes are transmitted between social groups. malaysia's complex and diverse cultural composition provides rich data for cultural, cross-cultural and intercultural study (raslie & azizan, 2018). as in other cultures and communities, where communication is focused primarily on the spoken language, the use of acceptable figurative phrases is considered a characteristic of comprehension, speed-witness and education in a specific situation. enormous importance is placed on figurative meaning both in the definition phraseological categories and in the ability to interpret figurative language: the malay sentence is made up of two main components: subject and predicate. similar to english, noun sentences, verb, or adjective phrases may extract the subject and predicate (noah, omar & amruddin, 2015). the malays stress the element kiasan (analogy, simile, metaphor, and allusion, moral) and the two lapis (layers or levels o1 meaning—i.e. the literal and the figurative) in such sayings (winstedt, 1981). it is the distinguishability of the image. it has earned these recurrent phraseological patterns an institutional position in society. it can be illustrated in the following examples. the phrase hidung belang to mean a ¹casanova' uses the words hidung (nose) and belang (striped) as a more gentle way calling the person a ¹skirt-chaser' or ¹a woman-chaser' the more direct way is saying it would have been kejar wanita (to chase after women). indeed, the pattern by which a portion of a human body is connected to an adjective or a noun to indicate a certain form of action is one commonly found in malay’s two words figurative units, known as simpulan bahasa: mulut bocor—mouth rotten—¹someone who cannot keep secrets' kepala batu—headstone—¹someone who is stubborn' kaki botol—foot bottle—¹an alcoholic' mata telinga—eye ear—¹a hope for the future' tangan dingin—hand cold—'someone who has ¹¹green fingers''' which demonstrate the non-compositionality of institutionalized status in figurative words in malay. in both of these examples, awareness of the symbolic or semiotic importance of the culturally different parts of the human body is central to the figurative sense. such cultural awareness is important to participate fully in a malay speaking group. when comparing english and malay, there are some basic concepts, such as spatial relations, which share expressive meaning; for example, ¹right' kanan connotes positively, and ¹left' kiri connotes negatively in both languages. similarly, atas ¹above' and bawah ¹below' connote positively and negatively respectively in malay as do their counterparts up and down in english. moreover, there are also di kerences; for example, sense data such as soft/hard and hot/cold do not necessarily share the same connotative meaning: the malay lembut hati (¹soft liver') translates better as ¹kind hearted' than ¹soft hearted'—because soft has a negative connotation in english when applied to http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 31-36 35 personality (mastor, jin, & cooper, 2000). similarly, in english, cold-hearted has a negative connotation, whereas in malay hati sejuk (¹cold liver') has a positive connotative meaning ¹a feeling of relief about something'. we see this also in the malay idiom tangan dingin—hand cold—¹to have green fingers'. in english, the word ‘cool’ has a positive connotation, but ‘cold’ does not. 4. conclusion from the results of this study, it can be concluded that there are many differences between swahili and malay languages. of course, every language has a different meaning under the related culture. each country has its own language to make it easy to communicate. there's very much the connotation meaning that is still difficult to understand. it is what requires us to continue to learn about semantics. it is observation does not mean that one type of interpretation or the other is of less importance to human communication. instead, these significances are complementary. however, the identification of associative-meaning next to conceptual-meaning-raises a vital query about the nature of semantics. the definition of semantics should not be limited to the transparent context. it can then be applied to implicit or symbolic verbal contact techniques. therefore, this study argues for future studies to develop a more specific definition of semantics that would include pragmatics in its scope. the more expansive area of linguistic interpretation refers to the understanding of semantics as a crossdiscipline for several social and human disciplines, in particular: philosophy, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and computer technology. references abdoolcarim, z. 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(2019). indonesians' tendency to refer abbreviation as acronym: types of abbreviation as word formation process. globish: an english-indonesian journal for english, education, and culture, 8(2). derin, t., putri, n. s., nursafira, m. s., & hamuddin, b. (2020). discourse analysis (da) in the context of english as a foreign language (efl): a chronological review. elsya: journal of english language studies, 2(1), 1-8. dik, s. c. (1978). stepwise lexical decomposition. the peter de ridder press. fontaine, r., & richardson, s. (2005). cultural values in malaysia: chinese, malays and indians compared. cross cultural management, 12(4), 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1108/13527600510798141 gabriel, s. p. (2014). ‘after the break’: reconceptualizing ethnicity, national identity and ‘malaysian-chinese’identities. ethnic and racial studies, 37(7), 1211-1224. goddard, c. (1997). the universal syntax of semantic primitives. language sciences, 19(3), 197-207. greimas, a. j. (1970). les proverbes et les dictons. du sens, 1, 309-314. hamsa, a., & weda, s. (2019). comparative study in indonesian and english: identifying linguistic units of comparison. asian efl journal, 25(5.2), 96-110. hopper, p., & traugott. e. c. (1993). grammaticalization (2nd ed.). cambridge university press. junaidi, j., hamuddin, b., simangunsong, w., rahman, f., & derin, t. (2020). ict usage in teaching english in pekanbaru: exploring junior high school teachers’ problems. international journal of advanced science and technology, 29(3), 5052-5063. kahrel, p. (1985). indirect questions and relators. bolkestein et al.(eds.), 165-181. kasriyati, d., rafiah, s., herdi, h., & abbas, m. f. f. (2019). lexical errors found in subtitling projects of efl learners of university of lancang kuning. lectura: jurnal pendidikan, 10(2), 155-166. kempson, r. m. (1977). semantic theory. cambridge university press. klymenko, o. (2019). twitterverse: the birth of new words. proceedings of the linguistic society of america, 4(1), 11-1. leech, g. (1981). semantics: the study of meaning: – revised and updated: england. pelican books http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ http://edition.cnn.com/asianow/asiaweek/magazine/2000/0908/nat.malaysia.html http://edition.cnn.com/asianow/asiaweek/magazine/2000/0908/nat.malaysia.html journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 31-36 36 mastor, k. a., jin, p., & cooper, m. (2000). malay culture and personality: a big five perspective. american behavioral scientist, 44(1), 95-111. mwihaki, a. (2004). meaning as use: a functional view of semantics and pragmatics. in swahili forum (vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 127-129). noah, s. a., omar, n., & amruddin, a. y. (2015). evaluation of lexical-based approaches to the semantic similarity of malay sentences. journal of quantitative linguistics, 22(2), 135-156. nor, z. m., & zamri, n. (2015). lexical features of malaysian english in a local english-language movie, ah lok café. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 208, 282-299. ozóg, a. c. k. (1993). bilingualism and national development in malaysia. journal of multilingual & multicultural development, 14(1-2), 59-72. ramadhan, y. (2019). an analysis of semantic waves: maton’s legitimation code theory for cumulative knowledge-building. elsya: journal of english language studies, 1(2), 3944. raslie, h. b., & azizan, a. b. (2018). refusals in the malay culture: gender differences in focus. international journal of academic research in business and social sciences, 8(12). sapir, e., & mandelbaum, d. g. (1956). culture, language and personality. selected essays edited by david g. mandelbaum. university of california press. stigand, c. h. (2013). dialect in swahili: a grammar of dialectic changes in the kiswahili language. cambridge university press. winstedt, r. (1981). the malays: a cultural history. three continents. amazon winstedt, r. o. (1927). the great flood, 1926. journal of the malayan branch of the royal asiatic society, 5(2 (100), 295-309. zook, k. l., & pearce, j. h. (2018). quantitative descriptive analysis. in applied sensory analy of foods (pp. 43-71). routledge. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 8-13 8 incorporating communicative competence in assessment and english language teaching in multilingual settings ella yuzar state islamic university of ar-raniry, banda aceh, indonesia ellayuzar@gmail.com article history received : 2020-03-31 revised : 2020-04-10 accepted : 2020-04-18 keywords communicative competence language teaching language assessment multilingual settings abstract there has been a high level of agreement among scholars that communicative competence should be integrated within language learning and assessments. this study unravels the issues of how communicative competence can be assessed and measured in multilingual environments and how the testing can be promoted. using content analysis approach as the qualitative method, it begins with the historical review of communicative competence from 1970s to the most current concept involving intercultural communicative competence. then, some practical models of communicative competence that can be used to propose a measurement of communicative competence are presented. later, this article argues that there is an upsurge need to shift the paradigm of language testing and language assessment towards communicative competence. moreover, the nature of language testing should not only concern linguistic or knowledge competence but also recognize the different varieties of english. this study implies that, in the field of language testing, language test designers should encompass the concept of communicative competence in the test construct to include real-life language use, and by extension, to increase test validity. as for teachers, a reform integrating communicative competence in classroom language assessment has become essential within the scope of language teaching. 1. introduction the expansion of global communication and mobility has culminated the use of english in the multilingual and multicultural environments. the notion of communicative competence has become a demanded skill in communicating in the 21st century. communicative competence as the central importance of acquiring a second language enables the international community to communicate and interact effectively with speakers from different languages and cultural backgrounds (savignon, 2018). however, one of the essential questions that remain is how to incorporate communicative competence in assessing and teaching languages. as this is happening, the position of english spoken by its native speakers as the indicator of standardized language test has also been challenged by the existing and emergent english varieties in the real-life context (edwards & fuchs, 2019; laitinen, 2018; tickoo, 2020). for example, world-level higher educational institutions have been admitting more international students, and global companies have been flocked with transnational expats. curriculum, teaching method, classroom climate, and other aspects of language learning are already undergoing adjustment for multicultural environments (derin & hamuddin, 2019; mena & rogers, 2017; sleeter & carmona, 2017). it is incongruous if the assessment in language testing and teaching is still inflexible or limited to the scope of the linguistic structure without contemplating the ability to communicate properly in multilingual settings. therefore, this current study aims to address the question of how to assess communicative competence and promote communicative language testing in the new paradigm of second language testing. to achieve this aim, the article begins with the historical review of communicative competence and its controversies among scholars. next, the useful frameworks or models used to assess communicative competence are introduced. then it continues with the current debates or studies in this area and the implication for language teaching and testing. the paper concludes with a recommendation for future research about topics related to communicative competence, language learning assessment, and multicultural learning environments. 2. literature review this section of the paper is a fixture for reaching out the agreement for the demands to integrate language teaching and assessment with communicative competence. how the term was http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 8-13 9 originated and then debated by scholar is presented, and the selections of theoretical frameworks are provided for considerations. finally, it concludes with the amplified controversies in the breadth of communicative competence as well as its implication for teaching and by extension, assessing language. 2.1. the historical review of the concept and controversies of communicative competence the idea of communicative competence was first coined by hymes (1972), as a response to his dissatisfaction of chomsky’s (1965) term of grammatical competence. for chomsky, competence means the shared knowledge between the ideal speaker and listener established in a homogeneous speech community and linguistic or grammatical ability becomes the only concern for language performance. competence is measured by the ability of learners to produce knowledge of a language structure. in opposed to this, hymes considers grammatical competence and chomsky's description of the performance is too confined to describe the entire actual language behaviour and thus cannot reflect the actual competence. later, hymes (1972) introduces the term communicative competence and defines it as a knowledge of the rules for understanding and producing both the referential and social meaning of language. he considers that social aspect is as essential as part of the linguistic knowledge in which linguistics competence help learners to understand and produce grammatically correct sentences. while for communicative competence help to understand and produce sentences that are more meaningful, appropriate and acceptable according to particular situations. in a similar vein, widdowson (1978) asserts that “we do not only learn how to compose and comprehend correct sentences as isolated linguistic units of random occurrence; but also, how to use sentences appropriately to achieve communicative purposes (p.2)”. he perceives language learning not only as understanding the knowledge of a set of grammatical rules but also including the ability to convey messages or communicate the language to others. additionally, acquiring a language does not only means having the ability to understand how to recognize words and sounds, speak, and write word stocks but it also means the ability to use those phrases properly depending on particular speech situations. widdowson (1973) also claims that giving english instruction for six or more years does not guarantee learners' ability to communicate as the idea of that 'once competence is acquired, performance will compensate' is not acceptable. further, he suggests that communicative skills must be learned along with the linguistic skills; otherwise, the acquisition of only linguistic skills may hinder the development of communicative abilities. however, the realities of english as lingua franca (elf), globalization, and intercultural communication have challenged these two original assumptions. although chomsky’s and hymes’s proposal of language competence are different in many ways, the two theorists still do not consider how to achieve effective communication in multilingual and multicultural societies with the accompanying language structure knowledge, skills, and attitude. the challenge of integrating these components, i.e. linguistic ability, skills, and attitude, has been embraced and extensively developed by the intercultural studies in language teaching and learning. at this point, byram (1997) developed intercultural communicative competence (icc), which was not to reject the hymes's notion of communicative competence but to extend the approach by including the intercultural dimension of using a foreign language. this extension combines the elements of communicative competence with a range of language knowledge and skills, attitudes towards people from different backgrounds, required in the interaction with those from other cultures. an example of the need for intercultural communicative competence can be observed from brown’s (2009) ethnographic study that reports on communication barriers among local and international students at british universities. she further explains that the host students hold a crucial role in helping international students not only to communicate with linguistically appropriate english but also to understand the important social that would make them able to adjust to the local student community. for instance, a brazilian student was told not to. “look at a woman in a straightforward way, or you will get slapped. when i said, 'oh why?' he said, 'because you're not expected to, you don't do that.' he was english, talking about english women, you see. i didn't know that before!" (brown, 2009, p. 443) it also proves the importance of involving awareness of culture varieties, the ability to recognize different cultures, and the ability to intercede between them in language teaching and assessment. more importantly, the insufficient merely native speaker model was replaced with an alternative model of the ‘intercultural speaker’ (p. 31). just as young & sachdev (2011) confirmed in their study that both students and teacher are in a tendency of adapting and applying intercultural communicative competence in their classrooms. however, even though byram's icc has included the multi-voiced cultural notions in foreign language learning, it remains narrowly linked to the association of different nations and cultures in a binary distinction. therefore, the composition of icc, which is based on nationalist grouping of culture, might still be disputed in term of communication on a more global scale. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 8-13 10 kramsch (2006) also perceives that the concept of communicative competence is not enough in new realities of communication in the global age in which language learners are now likely to interact with only a native speaker coming from one identifiable national culture. it also speakers who grew up with multilingual, cultures, and language varieties. therefore, she offers the notion of symbolic competence as a broader and more reflexive perspective of communicative competence also intercultural communicative competence (baker, 2016). she then defines symbolic competence as "the ability to read and interpret spoken and written discourse, identify the symbolic value of words and metaphors, grasp their social and historical significance, contrast them with metaphors in one's own language, and reframe one's interpretation of events" (2010, p. 24). kramsch does not ignore the element of communicative competence as the symbolic competences enrich the sophisticated ability to interpret and negotiate meaning which language learners need in communication in the universal context. in their study, kramsch & whiteside (2008) further explain that symbolic competence is not a mere element of communicative competence nor another skill that needed to be mastered by language learners. it is considered as the ability to monitor mind set, ideology, identity, and position of others in term of what is required at the moment of the speech event. in other words, symbolic competence is the most recent and contemporary way of understanding communicative and intercultural competence in multilingual environments. 2.2. the frameworks of communicative competence following bagarić & djigunović (2007), there are three models that have become the fundamental grounds of empirical and theoretical research on communicative competence. the first is the framework proposed by canale & swain (1980). in a similar vein to hymes (1972), their first model incorporates three main components of language and skills, i.e. grammatical, sociolinguistic and strategic competence, which canale (1984) later switch some elements of sociolinguistic into discourse competence. for them, grammatical competence enables the learner to understand and use linguistic knowledge to express the literal meaning of utterances. this component involves semantics, phonetics, syntactic, morphological and vocabulary knowledge. regarding the sociolinguistic competence, canale & swain take into account hymes’ concept of language use appropriateness in a variety of social contexts. moreover, this competence assesses learners' ability of language use comprehension in particular sociolinguistic or sociocultural situations. the strategic competence, which canale (1983) highlights as the component that can enhance the effectiveness of communication, involves the knowledge of verbal and nonverbal communication strategy that can reduce communication breakdown. it includes repetition, paraphrase, reluctant, modification of messages, etc. finally, discourse competence is the ability to communicate using coherent and cohesive language production that establishes meaningful spoken and written texts. it can be examined by learners' use of cohesive devices such as pronouns, conjunctions, parallel structure, etc. in order to form a logical relationship between a groups of sentences. designing a more complex, comprehensive and precise framework than the previous model, bachman and palmer (1996) propose two broad areas that comprise language ability, i.e. language knowledge and strategic competence. there are two main components of language knowledge, namely, organizational and pragmatic knowledge that complement each other for the purpose of effective language use. in this model, organizational knowledge is the ones that control the use of formal language, which consists of grammatical knowledge and textual knowledge. grammatical knowledge consists of the comprehension of vocabulary, syntax, phonology, morphology, etc., which assess language learners’ in understanding and producing grammatically correct sentences. on the other side, textual knowledge is the knowledge to produce coherent spoken or written text. it covers learners’ ability in choosing the appropriate cohesion devices such as conjunctions, paraphrase, coordinating words etc. and ability to address the topic with a suitable type of text such as composing narrative texts, description, argumentation, causation, etc. in case of pragmatic knowledge, it covers two areas of competence; first is the ability to express and interpret particular language function and second is the ability to understand and create certain linguistic conventions that are proper in a particular context. the third framework is the model of communicative language competence presented within cef or common european framework (2001), which was designed to aim for language assessment as well as for language teaching and learning. in this model, communicative competence is perceived in three basic components, i.e. language competence, sociolinguistic competence and pragmatic competence. language competence which includes grammatical competence enables language learners to apply the knowledge of language content such as lexical, semantic, phonological, grammatical competence in producing structured utterances. sociolinguistic competence enables learners to express appropriate language use in the particular social context, and pragmatic competence underlines two abilities, i.e. discourse competence and functional competence. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 8-13 11 in sum, these frameworks and theories regarding communicative competence are to provoke language educators and test designers to visualize the ability to understand communication beyond language as a restricted feature. 2.3. current debates in assessing communicative competence the previous section reviews the historical development of the communicative competence in relation to second language teaching, learning, and testing by focusing and elaborating on the influential perspectives of communicative competence and its framework that could be used to design a way to assess learners' communicative competence. the discussion of the current debates on communicative competence will look upon two key issues. first is the assessment of communicative competence in the classroom setting. second is the raised problem in assessing communicative competence in a high stake or standardized language testing. concerning communicative competence in the classroom setting, two main issues occur in language assessment. first is, the contradictive goal of language curriculum and the need for communicative competence (derin, nursafira, yudar, gowasa, & hamuddin, 2020). most educational institutions, ranging from secondary school to graduate programs at university, merely emphasize the writing ability. most school and university assignments do not involve oral competence as their assessment indicators. there is an imbalance development on the oral task and the written task. as a result, there is not a sufficient framework or model to assess communicative competence. regarding this, oliver, haig, & rochecouste (2005) report on the teaching and assessment of oral task in a secondary school in western australia. they explain that the teachers found difficulty in assessing students' oral task due to the curriculum bias toward writing skill. teachers admit that they do not have the skills and guidance for assessing communicative skills even though the teachers and the students feel they need to require communicative competence. besides, canagarajah (2006) also finds that there is a need of changing pedagogical priorities from the reliance of discrete-item test on formal grammatical competence to the development of instruments that are able to assess performance and pragmatics. he also emphasizes that "the new assessment would focus on strategies of negotiation, situated performance, communicative repertoire, and language awareness,” (p. 229). on the other hand, the theory is not the only part that should be reformed. savignon (2018) argues that rectification in classroom practice should also be encouraged. teachers need to collaborate with the institutional support in assisting both pre-service and in-service teachers in improving their capability for integrated communicative teaching. the field of standardized language testings, harding (2014) also assert that there is an urgent need to shift the nature of language testing from being narrowly linguistic criteria to the test construct that are sufficient to reflect the current communicative needs. in a more recent study, elder, mcnamara, kim, pill, & sato (2017) report on three studies that investigates language assessment for english in the specific purpose context. their findings raise almost the same issue of whether the language should and can be assessed objectively and separately from the context as they found in the studies that most of the non-linguistics expertise put little attention on testtakers' accuracy and greater emphasis on participants' communicative ability in transferring the message. similarly, morrow (2018) argues that communicative language testing purposes enhance the validity of language test. such a test should use authentic materials and activities based on test-takers' real language use that measure various types of appropriateness with social, cultural, and pragmatic norms. even though the construct of communicative language testing is significantly different from the well-established psychometric forms of testing, a movement toward communicative language testing must be promoted. in sum, drawing from the previous research in this area, this study argues that communicative competence can be assessed by shifting the paradigm of language assessment from only focusing on linguistic or knowledge content to sociolinguistic and pragmatic language testing. moreover, the new appearance of language testing and language assessment should recognize different varieties of english as a result of communication in the global environment. 3. implications for language teaching and testing noticing the improvement in the field of language testing toward communicative competence, the present study argues that second language testing should pose more concern on communicative language testing than merely assess linguistic competence. in order to fulfil the validity requirement, the second language test should also an emphasis on sociolinguistic and pragmatic competence. it includes the test that incorporates different varieties of english as the result of the type of communication needed in the 21st century. it is in line with harding's (2014) proposal of "adaptability" in the communicative language testing construct. he further explains that the notion of adaptability is a common measure of "the test takers need to cope with different varieties of english, to use and understand appropriate pragmatics, to cope with the fluid communication practices of digital environments, and to notice and adapt to the formulaic linguistic patterns associated with different http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 8-13 12 domains of language use” (p.194). drawing from the theoretical review and current debates in assessing communicative competence and communicative language testing, the study proposes three implications that might inform the field of language testing. first, one of the ways to test the validity of a language test can be measured through the argumentbased approach in which the language test is able to represent the language used in the real-life context. recently, english has been learned and used by millions of people around the world in many settings, including higher educations. there is a number of english varieties that students in higher educations will encounter. high stakes or standardized language test should consider assessing test takers' ability dealing with diverse varieties of english. the test should also incorporate certain communicative abilities as part of the test construct, e.g. ability to express and respond to pragmatics use of language, ability to tolerate potentially unfamiliar language varieties, ability to negotiate to mean and avoid communication breakdown, ability to communicate with interlocutor from different language background and culture, ability to use appropriate discourse data whether in spoken or written text. second, communicative language testing and assessment can incorporate a variety of communicative test instruments. for example, language use can be assessed through a carefully designed and interactive role-play. in this way, the test examiner might be able to assess the test takers' use of correct language structure as well as the appropriate use of language pragmatics. a role-play activity that includes roles having different positions and social status can be used to assess language learners' sociolinguistic competence. another sample activity is the study of yamashita (2001), who explores the usefulness of bachman & palmer's (1996) picture response test (prt). he utilizes this method instead of writing of recorded verbal audiolingual prompt to draw on pragmatic behaviour. third, language classroom assessment could integrate innovative tasks with technology-enhanced language teaching and testing by using blogging, social networks, wikis, and other types of digital spoken or written communication. the possible tasks that teachers could incorporate to measure language performance are collaborative writing and note-taking, multimodal comprehension, video conferences, etc. for example, kung (2016) has proved that the use of a media literacy approach, such as by giving students the exposure of authentic online news items might help increase their oral communicative competence. this way of teaching and assessing language will reflect the real context of language use and the new literacies, as nowadays, communication has been done more through electronic devices. 4. agenda for further research to further examine how to measure and assess communicative competence in the field of language testing, a longitudinal study that investigates the development of english language use, especially in the academic environment, should be conducted. also, an ethnography study in the multilingual classroom can be done to obtain further explanation and examination of language use in the real context. the result of this study later might inform language test designer in constructing a language test that can assess not only linguistic content or knowledge but also communicative competence. this study will also notify language teachers related to the target and goal in the language testing preparation classroom. another study that proposes a multilingual language testing should be conducted. a language test construct that includes different varieties of english can be designed and piloted in order to develop a new paradigm of communicative language testing. 5. acknowledgement this paper was initially a research paper assignment when the author was undertaking a master program. the writer of this article is immensely grateful to dr. chloé diskin from university of melbourne for her objective comments and suggestions in the original manuscript. references bachman, l. f., & palmer, a. s. 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(2011). intercultural communicative competence: exploring english language teachers’ beliefs and practices. language awareness, 20(2), 81-98. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0383 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 1-7 1 bilingual education vs english-only approach at australia’s northern territory schools fadhlur rahman monash university, clayton, australia frah0002@student.monash.edu article history received : 2020-03-27 revised : 2020-04-03 accepted : 2020-04-26 keywords english-only approach bilingual education northern territory (nt) australia abstract the present library research highlights the “english-only” approach used in the aboriginal classrooms in northern territory (nt) schools, australia. this library study collects its data from five decades (1968-2018) of research and theorisation on the implementation of english instruction at indigenous classrooms in australia by referring to the changes of approaches from bilingual instruction policy to the current “english-only” approach. the writer then reports the problems occurred in the implementation of this approach in the specific classroom interaction. factors like socio-cultural gap and dysfunctional discourse were found to be influencing the ineffective english-only classroom in the nt schools. what alternatives may have been tried in the northern territory schools and to what degree of success? 1. introduction in a global multilingual context, australia has been identified as one of the hotspots for language endangerment (anderson and harisson, 2007). according to the national indigenous languages survey in 2005, from 250 indigenous languages about 110 are critically endangered. 145 of aboriginal languages are currently acknowledged, and northern territory (nt) is exceptionally known as one of the most linguistically diverse areas in australia (mufwene and vigouroux 2012; meakins 2014; devlin et al., 2017). there are at least fourteen languages are considered strong and still spoken by the aboriginal inhabitants, where twelve are in the northern territory (marmion et al., 2014; biddle, 2014). in this sense, children of the aboriginal inhabitants in nt may face linguistic challenges in the form of "english-only" approach created in school's setting, including the apparent 'invisibility' of their linguistic repertoire (moses & wigglesworth, 2008). the implementation of this approach means that the vast majority of indigenous children are being forced to submerge into the target language, which is standard australian english (wigglesworth et al., 2018). as a result, indigenous students have insufficient participation in the classroom as they scarcely display their linguistic skill and knowledge (moses & wigglesworth, 2008). therefore, this library research aims to critically evaluate and discuss the effectiveness of “english only” approach in nt school‟s system. in this research, the writer argues that the "english-only" approach precludes the active participation of indigenous students in the classroom. hence, alternatives approach that leads to the successful output of effective communication in nt schools setting is required. 1.1 historical overview: bilingual to english-only prior to the existence of english-only approach in nt aboriginal classrooms, robert menzies (the australian prime minister) in 1950 came up with the idea of instigating a “bilingual education” for remote students in nt schools (devlin et al., 2017). since then, the notion of bilingual education was viewed as the most desirable approach, however, only after twenty-two years later the program was finally launched by the australian government (wigglesworth et al., 2018). principally, the rationale of bilingual instruction is that children should first fully develop their native tongue before they can accomplish educational knowledge in a second language (manning & baruth, 2004). in practical terms, this means that indigenous children must be instructed and educated to read and write in their mother tongue before they are taught those skills in english (chavez & amselle, 1997). nonetheless, several models of bilingual education have been executed in nt schools, but the practical implementation of such programs is often far from ideal. according to lowell & devlin (1998), there was an attempt to discontinue nt bilingual education program in 1998. although some brave schools have been struggled to maintain the policy, bilingual education was practically gone. with the loss of this program, the bilingual team teaching in most schools journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 1-7 2 has gone as well. in this sense, non-aboriginal teacher (who speak only english) employed the english-only approach as the teaching and learning instruction. therefore, the miscommunication between nonaboriginal teachers and indigenous students seems commonly taking place. further, in many cases, the effectiveness of classroom instruction and guideline might be seriously lessened due to the socio-cultural and linguistics contrast between the aboriginal students and the non-indigenous instructor. as a consequence, indigenous children could not comprehend the teaching-learning instruction; hence, many students are becoming less and less motivated to attend school regularly. later in 2008, the government initiated the school policy that state “the first four hours of every school day should be taught in english”, this arrangement is, thus, undermining the already beleaguered bilingual program (simpson et al., 2009). a change in this policy was promptly proclaimed, without any systematic consultation and research (wilkins, 2008). in fact, “bilingual education programs in nt had been effectively stripped back by various phases of government intervention” since 1998 (wilson, 2014). later, with only five hours of instruction per day, this may impact the implementation of the language and cultural-based programs (godinho et al., 2017). in response to that, spillman (2017) contended that the english-only policy led to the abandonment of support for bilingual literacy agendas that had received a policy authorisation since 1972. therefore, this decision somewhat disregards the international labour convention concerning the integration and protection of indigenous populations in australia (kinslow-harris, 1968). accordingly, as a member nation of ilo (international labour organisation), the australian government should protect the indigenous and other tribal populations (commonwealth, 1973), including the children belonging to the populations. in which they "shall be taught to read and write in their mother tongue or the language commonly used by the group to which they belong". also, the provision shall be made for a gradual "transition from their first language to the national or official language of the country". equally important, the appropriate "measures shall be taken to preserve the vernacular language". thus, it can be contended that the australian government has broken the academic promise which they had agreed on in 1973. although henrard (2007) asserted that language rights are just as solid as the government policies, nonetheless, without the unequivocal protection in law, aboriginal people have no control to protect their children matters over the nt government's policy (liddicoat, 2008). from the aforementioned educational perspectives and the rapidly changing system on educational language policy in nt, it can be concluded that shifting bilingual education policy to the privileging english-only instruction show how complicated the nt community languages ecologies are and how the classroom practice put it into a different path. therefore, the ambivalent attitude of educational policy in nt should trigger researchers, practitioners, and policymakers‟ efforts and thoughts to conduct an effective way of teaching and learning for aboriginal students in nt schools, australia. 2. discussion in 2008, malcolm brough (the minister of aboriginal affairs) had advised nt schools to advocate an english-only approach as language instruction in the first half of school's periods (devlin et al., 2017). the reason behind this assertion was to "close the gap" and improve aboriginal students' language proficiency results on national assessment program literacy and numeracy or naplan (devlin, 2010). as a consequence, nt aboriginal community was shocked by the sudden announcement, especially when they are expecting the government to protect their children's right to learn with and in their first language (commonwealth, 1972). as a term, english-only approach is where english is the only language instruction used for teaching and learning, even though there is a recognition of the existences of other languages spoken by students or represented in the community (lesson-hurley, 2000). however, as far as the scholars‟ concern, one of the limitations of the english-only approach in nt school is the existence of 'disparity gap' in sociocultural between teachers and students. according to crago (1988), cultural disparities between students and teachers in communicative interaction practices have pivotal implications for teaching-learning progress in the classroom. this contention has been acknowledged by some scholars (e.g. lessard et al., 2015; krause & prinsloo, 2016), as they believed of how cultural discrepancies influence the incompatible teaching-learning outcome. similarly, lowell & devlin (1998) argue that the cultural discontinuity between home and school in the aboriginal environment results in the classroom interlocutor‟s incommunicative interaction, which means that english-only approach could contribute to the aboriginal school failure in nt. in addition to that, the evidence from moses & wigglesworth‟s (2008) discourse analysis research suggests that “englishonly approach has stimulated specific behaviour patterns” in aboriginal students, which creates dysfunctional discourse. they believe that this approach hinders active participation of indigenous students in the classroom interaction. journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 1-7 3 another limitation of the english approach in nt schools is because non-aboriginal teachers have a tendency to create a monolingual space, yet aboriginal children convey different linguistic repertoire to the classroom (angelo & carter, 2015). however, this mismatch exchanges cannot be judged as solely a teacher's fault, but rather to perceive it as an educational challenge in the school policy (angelo, 2013). one way to eclipse this limitation is by providing more aboriginal teaching assistants in nt school system (lowell & devlin, 1998). because with the presence of a teaching assistant, "the use of pragmatic code-switching" in the classroom can be reduced (lowell & devlin, 1998). in fact, the distribution of fully-qualified teachers compare to the population of the indigenous student population is on the disproportion rate (van gelderen, 2017). according to cummins (2000), language's instruction at school is far more cognitively demanding than every day's style in the casual conversation. thus, aboriginal students cannot interpret language instruction (english) and show no indication that they will understand the instruction given and whatsoever. a clear example was found in moses and wigglesworth's (2008) study when non-aboriginal teachers were using english in interrogative forms; the students were giving uncooperative responses. it shows how important the role of the first language is; thus, nonaboriginal educators must have sensible states of mind towards the language codes the children convey to the class and should regard and use their 'home' language as a medium of instruction (malcolm, 2003). i contend that the english-only approach in the nt classroom impedes the first language of indigenous students as well as delayed the learning of english (l2) itself, thereby hinders its educational effectiveness. 2.1 the significance of mother tongue the successful bilingual education is underlying in the fundamental principle of literacy development and first language acquisition. krashen (1996) asserted that giving children quality education in their primary language will provide them with the knowledge to comprehend, and the literacy to transfer across languages. this suggests that a proper bilingual program will give the children a comprehensible input and prior knowledge of the first and second language, also will stimulate their literacy development simultaneously. he illustrated this philosophy by presenting the analogy sample of "the paris argument", in which how an individual could transmit the specific information faster and more comprehensive from first language (english) to the second language (french), rather than by understanding it directly as one acquires french. this analogy confirms that the background of knowledge and subject matter of the individual's first language significantly related to the provision of one' second language literacy independently. there are considerable empirical shreds of evidence consistently support the significant benefits of the first language in bilingual education (see baker, 2000; cummins, 2000; ganal, 2014; silburn et al., 2011; skutnabbkangas, 2000). in silburn's et al. (2011) work, for example, they contend that the development of first language literacy on aboriginal children affects the second/additional literacy in another language, in this context, english. in a similar vein, ganal (2014) approved that bilingualism has a positive impact on children‟s linguistic and educational progress as they gain a deeper understanding on how language system is worked and then how to use it effectively. further, in her research, ganal found that when children develop and practice their literacy in both languages, they can process the languages system by comparing and contrasting both languages simultaneously. moreover, this claim is supported by the works of cummin's (2000) and skutnabb-kangas's (2000), in which they asserted that bilingual education might also develop the flexibility of children's thinking as a result of processing information in two different languages. as a result, bilingual children perform better in their personal, educational development when teachers effectively teach them the first language and help them develop literacy in that language. in contrast, when children are forced to disregard their mother tongue, their conceptual base for learning is weakened; thus, halt the development of their second language (baker, 2000). therefore, mother tongue promotion at school will assist both short and long-term literacy development of aboriginal students' second/additional language (english). building on empirical pieces of evidence above, it is hoped that in the future, the english language will be integrated and taught in the ongoing first language (aboriginal) teaching, rather than in a monolingual (english) learning space. as supported by cummins (2000), the opportunity given to minority languages (aboriginal languages) as a language instruction will not hurt children academic performance, but instead provide them with a vehicle for selfdetermination to incorporate their primary language and culture into the school system, regarding making the school as an instrument of culture and language preservation rather than destruction. in line with cummins' claim, devlin (2009) endorsed this program significantly as she found a positive outcome of the bilingual education program in her research. the outcome from her study shows that bilingual program students perform as good as monolingual program students in english academic skills, although they are being given considerably less english instruction. journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 1-7 4 moreover, in another multilingual community like in the united states, august & shanahan (2006) founded that bilingual instruction employs a restrained but substantial positive impact on minority students' english academic attainment. in short, based on some major research concerning minority children and bilingual program in relation to english literacy, it is found that there is no indication that bilingual instruction hinders students from academic achievement either in their first language or english. a bilingual program was initially created to contribute to the vitality of aboriginal languages. as written in un declaration on the right of indigenous peoples (2010), "indigenous peoples have the right to establish and control their educational system and institutions providing education in their own languages, in a manner appropriate to their cultural methods of teaching and learning". although this statement was belated, formally supported by the federal government of australia, the bilingual programs are somehow being overlooked by the nt authorities. this decision has been highly criticised by most scholars (wilkins, 2008; devlin, 2009; waller, 2011). as a result, in 2012, scrymgour (a former member of northern territory legislative assembly) softened her position and re-construct the nt educational policy and reboot classroom's language instruction. in this way, the bilingual program is not only elevated the status of aboriginal languages as the legitimate vehicle for cultural and intellectual exchange at school but also provide a solid foundation for students' literacy development in both 'home' and 'school' language. these results thus confirmed the significance of solid connections between languages in community and schools as an essential step to improve english literacy in remote, multilingual school's context (wilson et al., 2017). 2.2 transitional bilingual programs principally, the goal of transitional programs is to enhance students' proficiency in english as a second or additional language. in such programs, home language is used for the instructional assistance until learners have given an adequate level of english language skills and proficiency. the expectation is that students will be ready to move out to the english only classroom after three years. however, this contention is criticised by lessow-harley (2000), she viewed this program as an unrealistic agenda because it seems impossible to expect children to master their l2 in a three-year period. however, a country like china has taken major steps to implement this transitional bilingual program (wang, 1986). the results from wang's research suggested that these transitional bilingual programs have increased academic achievement as well as improve children's' participation and attendance. canada also illustrates an obvious example, with notable success and progress of its "dual (frenchenglish) immersion programs" for english speakers (lessow-hurley, 2000). in fact, the transitional language programs have been established to support indigenous and immigrant minorities, some with "the goal of transitioning" younger students from their primary languages to french, while others with "the purpose of preserving" their heritage language (cummins, 1984). in a similar vein, sweden provided transitional bilingual programs for its immigrant children, with the goal of enabling them to function fully both in swedish and their 'home' language, where swedish is taught initially as a second language by the fifth or sixth grade (lesson-hurley, 2000). another successful attempt of transitional bilingual programs was adopted by the philippines government, in which they formulate an effective way of teaching l1 literacy and dominant language in minority ethnic schools (martin, 2018). further, the transitional bilingual program has been contended and promoted as a more suitable approach for young learners rather than english-only programs (cummins, 2000). this approach may enhance learning in all curricular focuses (devlin et al., 2017), since this approach enables young students to carry out a powerful, affirming function of both languages. hence, from the empirical confirmations and practical implementations, it is clear that transitional bilingual programs have produced generally positive results in a broader multilingual context. 2.3 translanguaging: alternative approach although nt school has succeeded in maintaining its stable bilingual education for such a long-time, there has been a great pressure from many factions to halt this program and move to a typical english-only standard classroom (simpson et al., 2009). thus, another approach is required to tackle this issue, namely, "translanguaging". according to baker (2011), translanguaging is "the process of making meaning shaping experiences, gaining understanding and knowledge through the use of two languages". this approach, therefore, extends the concept of 'languaging' by providing a lens for assessing the correlation between one's language practices and multilingual or multidirectional language learning (wei, 2011). further, translanguaging conveys a multilingual awareness, which is defined as a language awareness that develops and enhance learners' consciousness and sensitivity to the forms of functional languages (carter, 2003). furthermore, this approach can be instigated in the teaching-learning process since its function is to differentiate the discourse between interlocutors and increase students' participation in the classroom (martin-beltrán et al., 2017). this intermediation aids aboriginal children to find a more appropriate mother-tongue version of their english phrases. journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 1-7 5 since multilingual learners (aboriginal) are essential to this study, therefore a translanguaging approach can be seen as a fluid practicality approach that goes beyond a socially constructed language and an educational system to engage diverse students in "multiple meaning-making schemes" and prejudices (garcia & wei, 2014). even though code-switching has a long tradition in educational research, translanguaging offers the fluidity of multilingual practices as an asset in making sense of the context in which teachers and students are immersed (creese & blackledge, 2010). a researcher like canagarajah (2006) have studied the multilingual and multimodal characteristics of translanguaging in a diverse community. he asserted that the use of technology allows the blending of semiotic elements (text, drawing, pictures) and the multimodal final product (power-point presentation). this constituting process, therefore, creates particular attention for both teacher and student as a discourse function. therefore, the concept of translanguaging is used in the classroom as an effort to understand how teachers and students express their thoughts through more than one language interchangeably. also, to mediate and combine intellectual endeavour with an array of one's language background and knowledge (martin-beltran et al., 2017). 3. conclusion in conclusion, this paper has attempted to explore significant issues that cause ineffective english–only program at nt schools in australia. drawing predominantly from 47 empirical studies, the writer affirmed that the english-only approach is not proper for young aboriginal learners, because the english language was scarcely exposed in multilingual societies like the northern territory. factors like 'socio-cultural gap' were found to be influencing the ineffective english-only classroom in the nt. besides, there have been a number of studies also mentioning how monolingual (english–only) space created by non-aboriginal teachers deter indigenous students' responses in the classroom setting. interestingly, some alternative approaches have been employed in some countries. the 'transitional bilingual programs' and 'translanguaging approach' are seen clinically relevant to the needs of aboriginal schools in nt since it gives aboriginal students self-determination to incorporate their home language and culture into a school system. also, the first language of aboriginal students plays a key role in the outcome of students' english literacy. the shreds of evidence from this study suggest that it is fundamental to provide sustainable transitional-bilingual programs for indigenous inhabitants of northern territory (nt). one of which is by providing a teacher training-based centre for both aboriginal teachers/teaching assistant and nonaboriginal teachers in nt schools. specifically, by understanding aboriginal learning features and communications relevant to the specific region in which they are working. in addition, the primary focus for the authority in nt is to foster a collaborative approach between non-indigenous and indigenous teachers. in regard to creating an effective classroom instruction, notably in concentrating on what was currently being done in the early school programs to a possible experimental setup program in the future. 4. acknowledgement this library research was conducted during the writer‟s master program at monash university, australia. the advice given by dr. louisa 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(2017). the role of aboriginal literacy in improving english literacy in remote aboriginal communities: an empirical systems analysis with the interplay wellbeing framework. educational research for policy and practice, 17(1), 1-13. doi: 10.1007/s10671-017-9217-z instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.vxxx vol. 5, no. 2, august 2023, pp. 115-131 115 english as a lingua franca in an indonesian multilingual setting: preservice english teachers’ perceptions ronald maraden parlindungan silalahi 1*, wulandari santoso 1 & bertaria sohnata hutauruk 2 1 universitas bunda mulia, jakarta, indonesia 2 universitas hkbp nommensen pematangsiantar, pematangsiantar, indonesia bomberrose@gmail.com article history received : 2023-03-27 revised : 2023-07-04 accepted : 2023-07-11 keywords pre-service english teachers english as a lingua franca teacher education programme english language teaching multilingual standard english abstract english as a lingua franca (elf)-informed teaching emphasises the plurality of english in english language teaching (elt). however, little is known about how elf can be applied in elt in indonesia. this study examined pre-service english teachers’ perceptions of elf to evaluate its potential incorporation into elt in this context. a sequential explanatory design was used to produce more comprehensive results through the use of quantitative and qualitative approaches. a total of 150 participants completed a questionnaire with 19 close-ended items. subsequently, a group interview was conducted with five participants; they were selected based on their distinct perspectives regarding elf, as reflected in the questionnaire, to generate in-depth qualitative data. the data analyses comprised descriptive statistics for the quantitative data and thematic analyses for the qualitative data. the quantitative findings revealed that there was a strong belief in the native english speaker as the ideal model (mean value of the questionnaire item: 3.53; standard deviation: 0.78), despite the acceptance of elf and other varieties of english. however, the qualitative findings demonstrated that the participants’ perceptions of elf were ideologically constrained due to the unequal power relations among different varieties. these results may indicate that the hegemony of native-speaker norms could be affected by the dominance of standard english in teacher training programmes. furthermore, the findings suggest a need for integrating elf into these programmes to equip pre-service teachers with pedagogical strategies to implement elf. future research could explore a pedagogical framework of elf specifically for the indonesian multilingual setting. 1. introduction the acceptance of english in nearly all aspects of life has been rapid and exceptionally global. as early as the 18th century, english was predicted to be a global language (al-mutairi, 2020; kachru, 1982; kachru, 2019). from the 21st century onwards, english has not been the language of anglophone countries; rather, it has become a language used natively by millions of speakers worldwide (crystal, 2003). it has been suggested that there are approximately 400 million english as a native language (enl) user and approximately 430 million english as a second language (esl) users in countries that were affected by british colonisation (crystal, 2003). in 2008, the growing population of english users across the globe reached two billion (crystal, 2008). while the statistics are significant, english as foreign language (efl) users are the ones who have made it the truly global and universal language of the 20th and 21st centuries. in 2003, crystal (2003) estimated that there were 750 million efl users, with a medium level of competence. the inevitable use of english was not achieved solely through colonisation; rather, globalisation and the invasion of british and american cultures through the arts, music, and technology have played a part (graddol, 2006). the expansion of english has been mainly examined from the lens of english as a lingua franca (elf), an intricate linguistic phenomenon that this paper attempts to address. in general, elf is defined as the utilisation of english as a channel of communication among mailto:bomberrose@gmail.com 116 speakers from various linguistic identities (dendenne, 2021; seidlhofer, 2001; silalahi, 2019, 2021). the notion of elf highlights that elf users could flexibly and creatively use their english to communicate strategically in multilingual environments (cogo, 2015; cogo & dewey, 2012; jenkins, 2011; jenkins et al., 2011). during its initial emergence, elf was viewed as transformative due to its ability to transcend the traditional concept of efl. this perspective is based on the premise that english users should not be expected to adhere to the norms of native english speakers (jenkins, 2015a, 2015b). with reference to kachru’s (kachru, 1982; kachru, 2019) categorisation of the different functions of english, nness’ use of their own varieties of english should be legitimised. as the proportion of nness has expanded, ness have become the minority not only in terms of english language use but also in terms of the ideologies related to english (brumfit, 2001). thus, elf is seen as a way to legitimise various forms of english for the purpose of intercultural communication (hülmbauer et al., 2008). regarding english language teaching (elt), elf indicates a new conceptualisation of english use that challenges the raciolinguistic ideology. hence, the concept of elf has several pedagogical implications in elt: (1) the main objective of learning english is no longer to attain native-speaker proficiency. (2) teaching materials underpinned by the principles of elf are favourable for teaching intercultural communication (galloway, 2017; galloway & rose, 2014, 2018). (3) multilingual teachers, rather than native english speakers, play a significant role in providing a space for multilingual language practices in classrooms (kirkpatrick, 2012; llurda, 2017). numerous researchers have called for a framework of an elf teaching model that is relevant to various educational settings (dewey, 2012; kirkpatrick, 2012; wen, 2016). this would mainly serve as guidance for teachers at the conceptual level of elf, which can be implemented in their own classrooms. however, recent literature has highlighted a knowledge gap regarding how elf could be realised in specific teaching contexts (galloway & rose, 2018). this study aims to address the aforementioned gap by examining how pre-service english teachers perceive the role of elf in elt in indonesia. considering the multilingual nature of indonesia, where hundreds of local languages co-exist, elfinformed teaching could be a powerful tool in terms of facilitating a transformative pedagogy in which the multilingual identities of english users in indonesia are recognised and valued. the following research question has been examined in this study: what are indonesian pre-service english teachers’ perceptions regarding teaching elf in english classrooms? to address this question, this study used a sequential explanatory design, which gathered and analysed quantitative data in the first phase and qualitative data in the subsequent phase. the use of both quantitative and qualitative approaches was expected to ensure that the research data would have the necessary breadth and depth, which could provide a more holistic understanding of the issue under scrutiny. the findings of this study are expected to offer insights for the relevant stakeholders, including the government and educational practitioners, regarding the current pedagogical paradigm that operates within teacher preparatory programmes in indonesia. informed by the research results, the stakeholders could take the necessary measures to reconceptualise the orientation of the curricula, which could accommodate the elf paradigm to equip pre-service english teachers with relevant pedagogical strategies so that they can implement elf in their future careers. the novelty of this research lies in how it enriches the literature on pre-service english teachers’ perceptions of elf in the indonesian context. the study findings revealing that there was a tendency among the pre-service english teachers to favour native-speaker norms due to the dominant exposure to standard english in their training programmes have improved our understanding of the significant role of teacher training programmes. the results suggest that what is taught in these programmes could either reinforce native-speakerism or challenge it through the incorporation of the elf paradigm into the curricula. this paper first reviews the conceptual discussion of elf and elf-informed teaching in elt. following this, it describes the methodological approach as well as the rationale behind the research design, instruments, sampling, and data analysis. it also presents the findings of this study according to certain predetermined themes and discusses the research results with regard to the literature. finally, it lays out the conclusions by highlighting the significance and the limitations of this study, in addition to identifying potential directions for future research. 2. literature review 2.1 conceptual discussion: elf present-day usage of english transcends geographical restrictions, occurring at the global scale. in essence, elf is a communication tool used by speakers with different native languages (friedrich & matsuda, 2010). while this definition may be relevant to nness, it can be problematic for ness since english serves as their first language. as jenkins (2012) argues, elf does not encompass a traditional view of language and is distinct from enl; therefore, it needs to be acquired by nness as well. thus, any english user regardless of their linguistic background could be considered an elf user. in this respect, elf offers a new way of communication and interaction for both ness and nness (jenkins, 2012). 117 elf is deemed to be part of world englishes (we) (seidlhofer, 2005), which aims to challenge the monolithic view of standard english (pennycook, 2007). it celebrates the diversity of the english language and emphasises that english is not governed by a single norm (mesthrie & bhatt, 2008). while the we paradigm supports the legitimacy of english varieties emerging from local contexts, the theories of elf address the legitimacy of english as a tool of communication among diverse english speakers (ishikawa, 2016). in essence, elf is more concerned with understanding the process of linguistic accommodation involving speakers from different backgrounds who use english to engage in interactions (lai, 2020). thus, the notions of we and elf are not opposed to each other; rather, they belong under the umbrella term “global englishes” (jenkins, 2015a, 2015b) the elf paradigm transcends nes variations of english and “nation-based varieties” (seidlhofer, 2001, p. 134). thus, elf is not english that is owned by its native speakers but is extended to include the process of being appropriated for intercultural communication (hülmbauer et al., 2008). elf is also viewed as fluid language use, in which speakers could adapt the language to suit the dynamic nature of communication circumstances (seidlhofer, 2011). elf users can skilfully use english as a resourceful tool they can freely adapt, exchanging codes in a manner that is different from the norm of native english but remains acceptable (jenkins, 2011). therefore, elf has recently been reconceptualised as english as a multilingua franca, described as the employment of one’s multilingual repertoire in elf communication (jenkins, 2015a, 2015b). jenkins (2015b) states that, in efl interactions, english can be used as the preferred contact language but is not automatically chosen. therefore, elf emphasises the significance of cultural and linguistic differences (galloway, 2017; kirkpatrick, 2012; xu, 2018), which allows speakers to creatively and flexibly use their entire multilingual repertoire according to specific communication needs (cogo, 2015; mendoza, 2023). elf should not be viewed as an english variation but as a way of using it (jenkins, 2012; seidlhofer, 2011). thus, elf cannot be categorised in relation to nation-states, which are often conceptualised as having a fixed named language. moreover, several elt practitioners interpret elf as a simplified form of english, implying that nness are exhibiting a linguistic deficiency in terms of adhering to the norm of enl (jenkins, 2012). from the elf perspective, the linguistic agenda of ness should no longer dominate elf communication (jenkins, 2009), which is increasingly dynamic, intercultural, and multilingual (galloway & rose, 2015; jenkins, 2015a). following jenkins (2012), elf is better understood from the perspective of “communities of practice” (seidlhofer, 2011, p. 87). this approach may comprise elf communication in terms of its regularities and variability in a specific context, as speakers with diverse resources mutually develop their shared repertoire to achieve their communicative purposes on a particular occasion. 2.2 elf-informed teaching the development of elf as an emerging paradigm has contributed to the field of elt. as elf transcends the traditional ways of conceptualising language ownership by its native speakers, the main learning objective is not attaining native-speaker competence but aiming for intercultural competence (byram, 2021). kirkpatrick (2012) argues that the shift from native english-based teaching to a multilingual orientation must take contextual and cultural factors into account. in a similar vein, mckay (2009) maintains that reliance on native-speaker models has to be reduced on occasion. therefore, it is crucial to revisit the englishteaching model that reflects the ideologies of the inner circle. when integrated into elt, elf brings a new way of seeing present-day linguistic realities, which should be accommodated in the classroom by valuing and teaching the real usage of english in local contexts (boonsuk & ambele, 2020). in elf interactions, diverse sociocultural factors may affect how speakers utilise their multilingual repertoire, which may encompass patterns that are different from those of ness. in the efl paradigm that primarily manifests enl-based teaching, failing to produce native varieties of english is viewed as an error on the part of english learners; in contrast, elf takes a critical perspective that involves legitimising the utilisation of learners’ linguistic repertoire (rose & galloway, 2019). in english classrooms, native-like accuracy does not serve as a benchmark for measuring learners’ english proficiency (zhang, 2022). rather, the emphasis is on effective and intelligible communication among multilingual interlocutors in multilingual contexts (jenkins, 2015b; seidlhofer, 2011). recent developments in the incorporation of elf into elt have demonstrated the need for a more pluralistic approach to elt practices (park, 2022). elf-informed teaching is thus seen as a way to develop learners’ understanding of the existence of english varieties (lopriore & vettorel, 2015). however, embracing the elf paradigm does not mean prescribing which language features should be introduced to learners (dewey & jenkins, 2010). as jenkins et al. (2011) state, the elf paradigm is not about selecting certain language elements to be included in teaching materials or selecting certain english varieties to be taught to learners. instead, adopting a pluralistic view of elf means enabling learners to value and reflect on their own sociolinguistic reality according to each local context of use. therefore, it is essential to regard learners as possessing the capacity to maximise their multilingual 118 communicative resources and to provide them with the representation of the pluralities of english existing in real-world communication contexts (lopriore & vettorel, 2015). the pedagogical shift towards elf in elt would inevitably require support from different stakeholders; however, as dewey (2012) argues, it begins with teachers and, thus, with teacher education. recontextualising elf in teacher education courses is considered a crucial beginning to transform student teachers’ knowledge of the use of english in multilingual environments. a useful step would be to introduce them to the roles of elf and english varieties through diverse teaching materials and critical discussions (cogo & dewey, 2012). these methods may allow student teachers to challenge their own beliefs regarding english and reflect upon various teaching strategies to create classroom activities that aim to promote elf awareness (lopriore & vettorel, 2015). furthermore, the reconceptualisation of communicative competence, which is commonly perceived as the ability to adhere to native-speaker norms, must be critically discussed. thus, trainee teachers could develop a renewed understanding of multilingual competence, which focuses on developing one’s ability to use languages for different functions rather than on teaching how to master each language (canagarajah, 2011). 2.3 a critical review of previous studies several previous studies that align with this research focused on the perceptions of elf in asian multilingual countries. underpinned by the elf perspective, yu (2019) investigated the literacy skills of secondary english language education students and found that the education system in taiwan offered learning literacy skills that needed to focus on reading skills rather than writing. this study concluded that taiwan’s secondary english education was not in line with the need to develop literacy skills for international communication. this research shows that learning literacy skills has no direct link with communication, which implies a loose relationship between learning english under the english language education system and communicative use (e. g. lin, 2012; seilhamer, 2015). sung (2019) investigated international students’ perceptions of the use of their language at a multilingual english-medium international university in hong kong, paying particular attention to the use of elf. the findings showed that the students adhered to a pluralistic conceptualisation of elf. some students emphasised the importance of elf for academic and social integration at the university, while the local students felt resistance towards the use of elf. this research suggests that there is a monolingual view of elf, which has an impact on social exclusion and linguistic disadvantage. the aforementioned two studies emphasise students’ perceptions of elf implementation in two different contexts. in the monolingual context, the problem of implementing elf is oriented towards students’ linguistic competence, which is not evenly distributed in each language ability. in a multilingual context with nes and nnes, the tension arises from the perceived rejection of the policies built by policymakers to facilitate language norms. the present study is oriented towards investigating pre-service english teachers’ views regarding elf to make an academic contribution to the development of elf in the indonesian multilingual context. this research is in line with zhang’s work (2021), which investigated student teachers’ perceptions of implementing elf in mainland china. learning in a monolingual context means prospective teachers do not have a comprehensive understanding of elf and its implementation in the classroom. this could impact the rejection of the elf model in elt due to the contextual challenges faced in elf-informed teaching. therefore, deliberate efforts are needed to promote elf awareness and develop elf-informed teaching. 3. method 3.1 research setting and participants the study participants comprised pre-service english teachers in several indonesian private universities that offered an english education programme in their faculties. the number of the sample was obtained using purposive sampling, with the sample measurement tool referring to the cochran formula (cochran, 1963): where n = sample size z = precision level (95%) with a value of 1.96 p = correct level (50%) q = wrong level (50%) the cochran formula (1963) was used in this study because the population size (i.e. the specific number of pre-service english teachers) was not precisely known (sugiyono, 2021). using this formula, the number of respondents was calculated as follows. the result of the calculation revealed 97 participants to be the minimum number needed for the sample. data collection was conducted based on this calculation, and 150 respondents were obtained. referring to the formula proposed by cochran’s (1963), 119 150 respondents are considered sufficient to represent a population whose number is not precisely known. the inclusion criteria were as follows: pre-service english teachers who (1) understood english variations; (2) had teaching experience in either professional careers or micro teaching programmes offered by the universities; and (3) were expected to graduate with adequate english proficiency and acquire the english-teaching skills necessary for teaching primary and secondary students. table 3.1 shows the demographic information of the participants. table 3.1 participant information demographic n percentage gender female 118 78,7% male 32 21,3% age 18-25 26-39 ≥40 148 1 1 98,7% 0,7 % 0,7 % semester 1 2 1 0,7% 3 70 46,7% 4 5 41 27,3% 6 7 37 24,7% 8 3.2 research design and instruments this was sequential explanatory research consisting of a two-phase data-collection process, focusing on quantitative data and qualitative data (creswell & creswell, 2018). quantitative data were collected first, followed by qualitative data (ivankova et al., 2006). this research design was chosen to ensure more comprehensive findings would be obtained via the use of both quantitative and qualitative approaches. the qualitative results were used to further explain the quantitative results. in the first phase of data collection, 19 close-ended questionnaire items adapted from curran & chern (2017) and zhang (2022) were distributed to 150 participants through google forms. the participants were required to identify their stance on a five-point likert scale, which covered statements regarding (1) the implementation of different learning models; (2) the exposure to different english varieties in elt; (3) language and culture in elt; and (4) the utilisation of english as a medium of instruction. drawing on the research results from the first phase of the data collection, a group interview (gi) was used to perform data triangulation, facilitate deeper explorations, and validate the findings from the previous research phase. the gi was conducted virtually for approximately 120 minutes with five participants who had previously filled out the questionnaire. they were selected because they had demonstrated different views regarding elf and had taken compulsory teaching courses in the third and fifth semesters. it was assumed their nuanced perspectives and knowledge of core teaching skills would facilitate in-depth discussion regarding elf. the gi data were then recorded and transcribed to support the results obtained from the quantitative data. 120 table 3.2 gi participants participants gender semester teaching experience s1 female 3 1 s2 female 3 1 s3 male 5 1 s4 female 5 2 s5 female 5 2 3.3 data analysis procedure this study obtained both quantitative and qualitative data, which were analysed separately using different methods. descriptive statistics were used to look for “a summary picture of a sample” based on the pre-determined themes (gray, 2014, p. 626) to discern the general patterns of the participants’ views regarding elf. subsequently, thematic analysis was employed on the qualitative data. it followed the phases of the coding analysis, namely (1) creating the initial codes, (2) categorising the codes into potential themes, and (3) describing patterns as demonstrated in the data (robson & mccartan, 2016). 4. result this study aimed to investigate pre-service english teachers’ perceptions regarding teaching elf in english classrooms. based on the findings obtained from the quantitative and qualitative data, the research results are divided into several sections: nativespeaker norms in the english learning model, views regarding english varieties, use of l1 and sociocultural contexts in elt, and students’ understanding of elf-informed teaching. 4.1 native-speaker norms in the english learning model this section presents the research results regarding the participants’ views about native-speaker models in english classrooms. the participants ranked statement 1 the highest (m = 3.64, sd = 0.76): “materials in english classrooms should refer to native-speaker models only” (see table 4.1). furthermore, they strongly believed that the english programme should mainly focus on teaching students how to communicate with ness (m = 3.54, sd = 0.72). the participants’ perceptions were also relatively positive in relation to the importance of speaking like native speakers of english (m = 3.34, sd = 0.82) and imitating them in communication (m= 3.3, sd = 0.78). statement 6, which concerned whether students with a high level of english proficiency should behave like ness, ranked the lowest (m = 3.14, sd = 0.85). table 4.1 participants’ views towards native speaker norms in english learning model no statement mean sd 1 materials in english classrooms should refer to native-speaker models only 3.64 0.76 2 materials should be based on native speakers only. 3.28 0.73 3 learning how to interact with native speakers should become the main emphasis in the english program 3.54 0.72 4 students should speak like native speakers 3.34 0.82 5 students should imitate native speakers in communication 3.33 0.78 6 students with high level of english proficiency should behave like an english native speaker 3.14 0.85 the gi results revealed disparate findings regarding the participants’ views. some of the participants did not aim to imitate ness and did not want to teach their future students how to speak like ness: 121 s1: “the most important thing is that we can speak english fluently and other people can understand what we are saying.” (1:08:53–1:08:58) s3: “we know we have different accents in indonesia. as long as we can understand each other.” (1:17:56–1:18:06) excerpt 1 however, one of the participants expressed concern about the accuracy of pronunciation, although she did not want to speak like ness: s2: “but i train myself to pronounce words so that other people can understand what i am saying. i will not ask my students to imitate native speakers because it will be too difficult for them. but i will teach them how to pronounce words in english correctly.” (1:10:27–1:10:36) excerpt 2 while several participants clearly stated that they did not force themselves to acquire native-speaker competence, other participants seemed to consider the contextual circumstances in which they would teach in the future: s4: “it depends on the methods we use. if i use the oral approach [to teach english], of course i will ask my students to speak like [english] native speakers. if i teach in international schools, i will also adjust my accent and the way i speak [like native english speakers].” (1:11:38– 1:12:17) s5: “it also depends on the teaching context. if the learning objective is to learn pronunciation, we have to be native-like so that our students will imitate us. but if i teach high school students [in mainstream schools], i will not force myself to be like [english] native speakers.” (1:15:45–1:16:22) excerpt 3 the results of the questionnaire revealed that ness were considered the only model with regard to learning english. although some of the participants in the gi refused to emulate native english speakers, they seemed to favour native-like fluency and accuracy. s1: “to make our students fluent in speaking english… help our students use correct grammar. if students already have an ability to use correct grammar and speak english fluently, it means that we have achieved the learning goals.” (0:22:23–0:23:10) s5: “i think it is important to teach our students how to communicate with ‘bule’ [native english speakers]. so we can convey the message clearly just like what they do.” (0:26:10–0:26:50) excerpt 4 the aforementioned findings demonstrate the participants’ beliefs regarding “the best way of teaching english” to students, which still reflects the ideal learning model of native english speakers. 4.2 views regarding english varieties the participants were required to identify their perceptions about the exposure to different english varieties. with regard to the inner circle varieties, the participants strongly believed that students should know the differences between the varieties of english spoken by ness (m = 4.14, sd = 0.71). this finding also corresponds to the participants’ responses concerning statement 7: “students should recognise english native varieties” (m = 3.77, sd = 0.74). table 4.2 inner circle varieties no statement mean sd 7 students should recognise english native varieties 3.77 0.74 8 students should be aware of the differences in english spoken by native english speakers. 4.14 0.71 the participants also agreed that students needed to understand the english spoken by nness (m = 3.80, sd = 0.67) and be exposed to different varieties of english spoken by nness (m = 3.62, sd = 0.90). the responses to statement 9 (m = 2.82, sd = 1.02) demonstrated that the participants showed less agreement regarding whether introducing different english accents to students would be confusing. table 4.3 outer circle varieties no statement mean sd 9 showing students with different english accents need to be clarified for students. 2.82 1.02 10 understanding english spoken by foreign speakers is essential for students 3.80 0.67 11 introducing students to a variety of non-native english (india, singapore, africa, etc.) is necessary for class. 3.62 0.90 122 furthermore, the qualitative data showed how the students had been primarily exposed to standard english during their studies: s5: “our textbooks are from english-speaking countries… we also learn grammar like what native speakers use in their communication.” (0:13:41–0:14:43) s4: “i think there is no suggested accent or form [to learn]… for example, in the phonology test, the lecturer asked me to choose between american or british english… we can choose which accent and standardised forms that we want [to use].” (0:30:46–0:31:02) s1: “i think our lecturers mostly use american english. [but] we are free to choose whether we want to use american or british english.” (0:34:50–0:35:38) s2: “but in the listening class, we usually watch videos with british accent.” (0:36:47–036:53) excerpt 5 these findings may indicate that the participants’ preferences regarding the inner circle varieties might have been influenced by how they were substantially exposed to american and british english during their studies. it is also intriguing that, despite their strong orientation to the “established” representations of english, the quantitative results demonstrate the participants’ positive stance towards elf and other varieties of english. however, the qualitative data seem to indicate a contrasting finding: s2: “we cannot hide our batak (local) accent.” (0:36:30– 0:36:30) s5: “i always use the indonesian accent while speaking english. ... i think my students are more native-like than me. i feel incompetent to be a teacher.” (1:25:06–1:27:29) excerpt 6 although the participants encouraged the introduction of different english varieties to english classrooms, they had a tendency to favour standard english and attribute less value to other varieties of english. 4.3 use of l1 and sociocultural contexts in elt the participants were asked about the medium of instruction in the class and the incorporation of traditions and cultures into elt. as demonstrated in table 4.4, the participants agreed that code-switching strategies should be taught to students (m = 3.82, sd = 0.70) and that indonesian and local languages should be used in english classrooms (m = 3.39, sd = 0.86). they also realised that the use of other languages in addition to english will not pose difficulties to students in terms of communicating effectively (m = 3.05, sd = 0.94). table 4.4 participants’ views towards language used in the classroom no statement mean sd 12 using indonesian and local languages as the language of instruction makes the learning process more effective 3.39 0.86 13 using indonesian and local languages as the language of instruction does not make it difficult for students to communicate effectively 3.05 0.94 14 teachers should teach code-switching strategies 3.82 0.70 with regard to the aspects of traditions and cultures in elt, the participants’ approval ratings for the importance of helping students understand language users from various sociocultural backgrounds were higher than those for the importance of familiarising students with the cultures and traditions of ness (m = 4.02, sd = 0.71 and m = 3.62, sd = 0.76, respectively). this finding is supported by the participants’ agreement that teachers should raise students’ awareness of intercultural differences through critical discussions (m = 3.85, sd = 0.68). furthermore, the participants expressed a high level of agreement with the statement that the utilisation of english in the real world should become the main emphasis in the english programme (m = 3.82, sd = 0.73). in contrast, they exhibited a relatively low level of agreement with the statement that english should be used exclusively when discussing local traditions and cultures (m = 3.24, sd = 0.80). 123 table 4.5 participants’ views towards traditions and cultures in elt no statement mean sd 15 using english in authentic communication should be the teacher's primary focus. 3.82 0.73 16 when talking about their traditions and culture, students should use english. 3.24 0.80 17 teachers should help students understand people from different linguistic and cultural 4.02 0.71 18 familiarizing the culture and traditions of native english speakers is essential for students 3.62 0.76 19 teaching intercultural differences is essential for teachers 3.85 0.68 4.4 students’ understanding of elf-informed teaching the participants seemed to have relatively inadequate knowledge of elf, as illustrated below: s2: “i haven’t heard about elf before. i only know efl.” (0:01:01–0:01:18) s1: “i once heard about english as a lingua franca, but i don’t know what it is.” (0:01:27–0:01:46) excerpt 7 furthermore, the participants were confused about the concepts of elf and efl. some of them perceived elf as having similar characteristics to efl, as illustrated below: s2: “… i think, elf and efl is similar in terms of their functions. both are used in communications between native speakers and non-native speakers.” (0:17:17–0:17:27) excerpt 8 however, one participant stated the definition of elf: s5: “as far as i know, [a] lingua franca means that… for example, a is from china, and b is from indonesia. so we use english to communicate with each other.” (0:01:56– 0:02:35) excerpt 9 she also compared the notions of efl and elf, stating the following: s5: “efl is identical to standardised english, but elf is much broader. it can cover singaporean english, indian english, african english. for me, they are different.” (0:19:22–0:19:56) excerpt 10 it is apparent that this participant merely focused on the function of elf, which serves as a tool to bridge english speakers worldwide. however, none of the participants discussed how the principles of elf are manifested in elt. during the gi, the moderator highlighted some core principles of elf-informed teaching (si, 2019), which include the emphasis on (1) using appropriate language to fulfil communicative purposes, (2) understanding the use of english in multilingual environments, (3) focusing on effective communication strategies instead of native-like competence in communication, (4) fostering capable elf users rather than native-like english use, and (5) utilising teaching materials containing linguistic and cultural diversities. notably, all of the participants expected to learn about elf during their current studies: s5: “i expect that elf can be considered as a compulsory course or a seminar so that we can learn more about elf.” (1:41:34–1:42:04) s2: “i think elf is interesting, so maybe there is a programme that could discuss elf in depth.” (1:39:33– 1:39:53) excerpt 11 in the final stage of the gi, it could be seen that the participants’ understanding of elf-informed teaching had developed; however, it was not possible for the researchers to cover all the main attributes of elf. 5 discussion this study examined pre-service english teachers’ perceptions of incorporating elf into english classrooms in the indonesian context. furthermore, it focused on four pre-determined themes, which could portray the participants’ views regarding the notion of elf, namely native-speaker norms, english varieties, use of other languages in elt, and elf-informed teaching. on the one hand, the quantitative findings showed that the participants were in favour of nativespeaker norms in teaching english. on the other hand, the participants also highlighted the importance of introducing other varieties of english and being able to communicate with english speakers from different sociocultural backgrounds. these contradictory findings could be explained by the qualitative results 124 indicating the dominant exposure to standard english in the programmes the participants were enrolled in. the participants seemed to face a dilemma: adhering to the “ideal” norm or embracing the pluralistic english reflected in the authentic use of english in multilingual settings. furthermore, the results also showed the participants’ lack of understanding of elf, as elf principles had not been introduced to the teacher preparatory programmes. therefore, it is necessary to deliberately incorporate elf into the curricula to prepare future english teachers with elf-informed teaching. this investigation also revealed that the participants held a strong belief in the native englishoriented teaching paradigm in elt. this could be seen from their positive views regarding ness as the role model in learning. although the results also demonstrated that the participants regarded the exposure to english from the outer and expanding circles as well as the utilisation of indonesian and local languages as essential in supporting students’ english learning, they seemed to perceive that native varieties of english were the ideal norm compared to elfinformed teaching. it is also evident that the participants had not been equipped with sufficient knowledge of elf in their teacher training programmes, which failed to develop students’ awareness of elf-informed teaching. regarding the results, some important aspects must be discussed to situate the present study within the context of the existing literature. the discussion is expected to add new insights regarding the current state of how indonesian pre-service teachers view the teaching of elf. 5.1 native english speakers as a target model the findings of this study showed that the participants favoured native-speaker norms in elt. this could be seen from their relatively strong agreement regarding elt material and styles of communication and interaction referring to native english speakers. these results support previous studies that were conducted in similar contexts, including those in indonesia (kusumaningputri et al., 2022; ubaidillah, 2018), iran (moradkhani & asakereh, 2018; sa’d & hatam, 2018), and china (zhang, 2022). kusumaningputri et al. (2022) found that their participants showed strong favouritism towards imitating a native-like communication model as they believed that modelling nes was the only “correct” way of using english. similarly, the research conducted by sa’d & hatam (2018) and zhang (2022) indicated that english was only owned by ness, making them the legitimate english speakers. in relation to native-oriented teaching materials, ubaidillah (2018) and moradkhani & asakereh (2018) found that indonesian and iranian english users preferred materials published by the inner circle countries for different reasons. while the indonesian pre-service teachers showed some distrust towards locally published materials, the iranians highlighted the issue of intelligibility that arose when using elfinformed materials. the research results revealing the dominance of native english speakers as a target model may stem from the efl paradigm, which has been commonly applied in elt policies and practices, particularly in the expanding circle countries. in this sense, efl still encompasses enl-informed teaching that takes ness and their cultures as the target (hülmbauer et al., 2008). accepting native english as the norm is not merely about being able to imitate native speakers’ behaviours; it also involves accepting their ideology, which could lead to linguistic discrimination among english speakers from diverse sociocultural backgrounds (wang & fang, 2020). according to the elf paradigm, enl is not applicable to english learners since nness are more likely to communicate using english with nness, rather than with ness, for the purpose of intercultural communication (akkakoson, 2019; jenkins, 2009; sung, 2013). in elf interactions, intelligibility is not solely determined by a native-like accent (jenkins, 2000). therefore, using native-speaker judgements in elf contexts is problematic since what may be regarded as errors based on standard english could be considered understandable by elf users (seidlhofer, 2001). the results of this study also indicate the importance of developing local teaching materials that incorporate local english varieties. some scholars have called for the promotion of learners’ contextual and cultural realities when designing pedagogical materials to relate them to learners’ real-world situations (ambele & boonsuk, 2021; guerra & cavalheiro, 2018). nevertheless, developing elf-aware materials is not an easy task, as teaching materials have traditionally been based on british or american english. research has also demonstrated that elf is still underrepresented, particularly in textbooks (matsuda, 2012; vettorel & lopriore, 2013). even when resources that promote other english varieties are available, they are usually imported and, thus, less affordable (kusumaningputri et al., 2022). it is important to note that an elf perspective is needed not only for published materials but also for classroom practices that value language differences (lopriore & vettorel, 2015). for example, using audio or visual materials that reflect real-life contexts could be an effective learning tool for introducing english users from other linguacultural backgrounds (kirkpatrick, 2015). 5.2 english varieties the study results indicate that the student teachers held a monolithic view regarding established english norms despite their acceptance of other varieties of 125 english. for instance, they showed significant agreement with regard to introducing english varieties from the inner circle countries and the differences among the english varieties spoken by native speakers; however, they also highlighted the importance of exposing students to other varieties of english. this finding corresponds to those of prior studies (e.g. pudyastuti & atma, 2014; ramadhani & muslim, 2021), which demonstrated that there was a complex perspective among the participants with regard to which english varieties should be prioritised in elt. in these studies, although the participants acknowledged that imposing the standard norms was unavoidable in terms of achieving the prescribed learning objective in the efl setting, they placed a greater emphasis on effective communication among different english speakers in the global community. the aforementioned findings are also reflected in the present study. despite their acceptance of the promotion of english from the outer and expanding circles, the participants demonstrated a strong inclination towards the established norms of english. this conflicting finding may indicate that, while they were aware of their identities as multilingual individuals who could use their rich linguistic repertoire to communicate effectively, they seemed to perceive their multilingual competence as something to be ashamed of. in addition, the participants’ preferences for the inner circle varieties might have been influenced by the exposure to standard english during their study, as stated by some of the participants in the gi. in the context of teacher preparatory programmes, what student teachers have learnt during the course of their study may affect how they perceive “the best practices” of teaching the language (lortie, 1975) consequently, such experiences may shape their preconceptions about teaching, which may influence their future teaching careers (borg, 2004). in essence, what they have experienced as a student may shape their idealised view of which english should be taught in english classrooms. if they are not provided with alternative ways of using english, the dominant exposure to standard varieties of english will strengthen the legitimacy of native-speaker models among the participants. given the status of english as a lingua franca in this globalised era, adhering to native-speaker standard english for communicative purposes is deemed irrelevant as it does not equip students with the diverse english varieties that currently exist (boonsuk & ambele, 2020; wang & jenkins, 2016). the advance of globalisation and the increasingly multilingual settings in anglophone countries have significantly shifted from communication that occurs mainly in monolingual speech communities to the utilisation of english among people across the globe who speak english creatively to fulfil their communicative goals (boonsuk & ambele, 2020; cogo & dewey, 2012; prabjandee, 2020). regarding the current trend and use of english, the orientation towards ness cannot portray the authentic usage of english in multilingual environments and is thus irrelevant (galloway & rose, 2015). moreover, imposing a single english variety with the aim of achieving native-like proficiency is unrealistic and impractical (jindapitak, 2019; tantiniranat, 2019). as pennycook (2014) argues, in the context of the outer and expanding circles, acquiring native-like english is impossible regardless of the teaching method adopted. thus, it is important for non-native english teachers to operate within the elf perspective, as it could liberate them from the tendency to use native-speaker standard english as a gauge (blair, 2015; kirkpatrick, 2012). 5.3 the role of other languages and cultures in elf-informed teaching according to the findings of this study, the participants strongly endorsed the incorporation of other languages and cultures into elt. for example, they showed a positive response regarding the effectiveness of using indonesian and local languages for communication. with regard to the cultural aspects of elt, they highlighted the importance of understanding intercultural differences. the results of this study are in line with those of previous studies in similar contexts (khairunnisa & lukmana, 2020; kusumaningputri et al., 2022; rasman, 2018; santoso, 2020). despite the participants’ firm belief in nes supremacy, observational data from the studies focusing on the participants’ language practices revealed that the use of other languages was inevitable even when the policy was against it (rasman, 2018; santoso, 2020). contextualising their studies in the indonesian multilingual setting, these scholars have suggested that the country’s linguistic ecology and rich cultural diversity should be considered in both policymaking and pedagogical practices. in the present study, the participants’ agreement regarding the role of other languages and intercultural communication may indicate the presence of multilingual and multicultural awareness among the participants. however, this view is often associated with english being the only means of communication with people from different languages and cultures due to its role as the global lingua franca (ishikawa, 2016). in the context of a multilingual society, this perspective is not always relevant, as one may have other shared languages with the interlocutor that can be flexibly utilised to achieve communicative purposes. hence, the reconceptualisation of elf that describes english as a multilingua franca supporting both linguistic and cultural differences is arguably more compatible with the multilingual reality (jenkins, 2015a, 2015b). concerning the shift in the multi-lingua-cultural approach, multilingual elf users could use their plurilingual repertoire to communicate strategically and show their plurilingual identity to better relate themselves to other cultures (jenkins, 2012). 126 concerning classroom contexts, it is necessary to promote providing a space for students’ multilingual practices, with english serving as one of the linguistic resources available. this method allows students to scaffold their learning, signal their multilingual competence, and transform their identities (garcía & li, 2014). such dynamic language practices are called translanguaging (garcía & li, 2014), flexible bilingualism (creese & blackledge, 2011), or pedagogical translanguaging (cenoz & gorter, 2020). elf and translanguaging researchers focus on similar topics, namely the communicative and negotiation strategies embodied in one’s resourceful semiotic repertoire (canagarajah & wurr, 2011). having a shared stance, elf and translanguaging legitimise all language users’ actual communicative practices that are dynamic, hybrid, and creative (mendoza, 2023; seltzer & garcía, 2020). 5.4 elf-aware teacher education according to the findings of this study, the participants showed a lack of understanding of elfinformed teaching. furthermore, they admitted that an explicit introduction to elf pedagogy was absent in their teaching courses, resulting in them being unaware of its legitimacy in english classrooms. this result is in line with the research in the expanding circle (e.g. rahayu, 2019; soruc, 2015) revealing that the elf paradigm had yet to be promoted within teacher education programmes. however, this finding contradicts the recent research conducted by ramadhani & muslim (2021) in the indonesian context; in their study, the majority of the participants had sufficient knowledge of elf. this discrepancy may be caused by the different exposures to elf the participants had during their studies and elf communication. the research result seems to demonstrate that the current curricula in teacher education programmes have yet to include elf as one of the pedagogical concepts that must be promoted among pre-service english teachers. the development of elf-aware teacher education has been reiterated by scholars in various contexts (e.g. bayyurt & sifakis, 2015; blair, 2015; dewey, 2012; sakhiyya et al., 2018) as it can be a powerful tool for facilitating a shift away from the prevailing orientation in elt that is driven by the nes model. in essence, if the conceptualisation of elf that celebrates “dynamic pluralistic manifestations of linguistic resources” is to be promoted (park, 2022, p. 583), a crucial step is transforming pre-service teachers’ beliefs during “the apprenticeship of observation” (borg, 2004, p. 274). for any transformative changes in elt pedagogy to occur, individual teachers’ mindsets should be considered (bayyurt & sifakis, 2015). following widdowson (2012, p. 5), the significance of elf lies in helping us “to consider its effect as a catalyst for change in established ways of thinking.” there are no fixed norms since they are continuously changing and evolving (seidlhofer, 2008). thus, teacher education programmes need to adapt by incorporating elf-aware instruction; this may include rethinking westernminded teaching approaches, which still commonly comply with the use of standard english, and incorporating elf-aware pedagogy that reflects present-day linguistic realities (galloway & rose, 2015; jenkins, 2015a, 2015b). when immersed in elfinformed teacher education, future teachers are given opportunities to reflect on their own convictions regarding teaching, think critically about established teaching models, and finally transform their perspectives about the role of english in contemporary times. this study suggests that teacher education programmes in indonesia should look into an alternative pedagogical model in elt. considering the multilingual nature of indonesia, the status of english must be repositioned within the nation’s linguistic ecology (santoso, 2020; santoso & hamied, 2022). therefore, the enl teaching model should not be promoted as the only “correct” teaching approach. this requires pre-service english teachers to be made aware of other varieties of english that characterise multilinguals’ linguistic repertoire and are legitimate to be used in communication among speakers from different linguacultural backgrounds (rerung, 2015, 2017). furthermore, future english teachers should understand that learning should be more focused on meeting communication needs rather than on revealing the advantages and superiority of a model (baumgardner & brown, 2003). drawing on the principles of elf, kirkpatrick (2012) has proposed a lingua franca approach for advancing elt, particularly in the asian context. the main concepts of this model are summarised below: (1) the ultimate aim is to exploit english effectively in multicultural elf settings. (2) the teaching curriculum covers local/regional literature and cultures. (3) classroom activities enable students to embrace their own values and cultures in english. (4) teaching materials encompass linguistic variations, which reflect the speech styles employed by elf users in asian countries. this pedagogical approach could arguably serve as general guidance for teachers with regard to implementing elf in their classrooms. this research provides practical implications for teacher education programmes and policy-making in the indonesian context. introducing elf to teacher education programmes and incorporating elf into the curricula are required to develop pre-service english teachers’ competence in teaching english using the elf paradigm (deniz et al., 2020). this can be realised by 127 exposing students to other varieties of english through the use of authentic materials. furthermore, the integration of local values and cultures could raise students’ intercultural awareness, leading to them accepting the pluralistic nature of english in diverse sociocultural contexts. moreover, providing students with opportunities to interact with english users from diverse sociocultural backgrounds could make them aware of the importance of intelligibility over accuracy. therefore, they may notice the irrelevance of imitating the nes model when interacting in a multilingual environment. nevertheless, the implementation of elf-based teaching requires considerable effort from the relevant stakeholders, including governments, practitioners, and researchers, to find the elf best practices suitable for a particular context. in essence, the availability of qualified teachers, teaching materials, and assessment strategies underpinned by elf should be ensured. in this manner, the pluricentric view of english could be strategically realised in the field of elt while taking into account the complexity and reality of present-day english use. 6 conclusions this study revealed that the english teacher education programmes in indonesia are still oriented towards the traditional efl paradigm. furthermore, it demonstrated the strong reliance on the native english speaker model in indonesia; nevertheless, the participants were accepting of elf and other varieties of english. ideological rankings between native english and other varieties constrained the participants’ perceptions of elf. the student teachers did not receive sufficient support from teacher education programmes in developing their understanding of elf. these findings have significant implications for educational policy-making and practice, highlighting the need to integrate elf into teacher training courses to enhance future teachers’ professional competence in implementing elf-informed teaching. the orientation towards elf can be realised by allowing educational institutions the option of using learning materials that expose students to different varieties of english, thereby improving their ability to use english without focusing on the nes model. with regard to teacher preparatory programmes, the results of this study suggest that such programmes need to revise their curricula to foster elf awareness and develop teachers’ professional competence. moreover, a critical evaluation of english-teaching methods and approaches that favour the nes learning model must be introduced into teacher training programmes to raise student teachers’ awareness of the importance of implementing the english-teaching approach suitable for local contexts. the participants in this study were limited to pre-service english teachers. future studies could involve other educational stakeholders, such as in-service teachers and faculty members. this would allow the research in this field to benefit from multiple perspectives regarding elf, which could enrich the discussion about the potential and challenges of implementing elf in a specific context. future research could also employ additional instruments, such as observation, to investigate how teachers and students use their multilingual practices with regard to elf. furthermore, investigating naturally occurring language practices in elf communication could provide useful examples of how english users utilise their language repertoire to communicate strategically. 5. acknowledgement this article is fully funded by the research grant programme at bunda mulia university. references akkakoson, s. 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(2022). investigating student teachers’ perceptions of english as a lingua franca and its teaching in mainland china. asian englishes, 24(3), 247–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2021.1926647 http://dx.doi.org/10.30813/jelc.v11i2.2609 https://doi.org/10.37546/jaltjj35.2-2 https://doi.org/10.18823/asiatefl.2018.15.4.23.1186 https://doi.org/10.18823/asiatefl.2018.15.4.23.1186 https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2020.1778374 https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-2016-0003 https://doi.org/10.1515/jelf-2016-0008 https://doi.org/10.1515/jelf-2012-0002 https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217753848 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6653-6_11 https://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2021.1926647 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v5i1.13228 vol. 5, no. 1, april 2023, pp. 32-47 32 indonesian efl pre-service teachers' experiences: revealing english instructional challenges during teaching practice muhammad ghozali abdillah, rahmah fithriani * universitas islam negeri sumatera utara, medan, indonesia rahmahfithriani@uinsu.ac.id article history received : 2023-02-14 revised : 2023-04-20 accepted : 2023-04-26 keywords pre-service teachers english instruction teaching practice novice teachers challenges abstract efl pre-service teachers who desire to become qualified must practice teaching in school settings to apply classroom-learned skills. consequently, adequate preparation at the numerous schools and their readiness where they would teach is essential. this qualitative research investigates the challenges indonesian efl pre-service teachers encounter in english instruction during teaching practice. this study utilized a phenomenological case study approach, as it offers significant benefits in comprehending the intricate dynamics involved in becoming an english teacher. to ensure impartiality and fairness in the research, a purposive sampling technique was employed to select 10 out of 40 pre-service teachers as critical informants who could provide valuable insights into the subject matter and facilitate the identification of information-rich cases. the collection of data was conducted through the utilization of semi-structured interviews, teaching diaries, and teaching videos. the findings indicate that efl pre-service teachers encounter challenges in effectively communicating instructions, which can be attributed to various factors such as insufficient resources, limited access to media, inadequate preparation, disruptive behavior of learners, and insufficient proficiency in english and pedagogical knowledge. nevertheless, this study has identified three significant challenges: inadequacy of teaching resources, the absence of respect, and insufficient content knowledge. the findings suggest that school administrators, policymakers, and other stakeholders must develop productive, systematic, and structured induction experiences for novice teachers, particularly those still in the process of completing their teacher training, to address the challenges they encounter. 1. introduction acquiring the skills and knowledge necessary to become an effective teacher is multifaceted and intricate. consequently, how student trainees acquire teaching skills has emerged as the focus of various interests and methods for exploring its multiple dimensions, actors, and dynamics. the domain of research and publications in this field has increased significantly, particularly in teaching practice. teaching practice plays a determinant role in the teachers' initial education and their early development (arends, 2015; britzman, 2003; bullough, 1994; caires & almeida, 2005; capel et al., 2004; evelein et al., 2008; thiessen, 2000; veale, 1989). since the establishment of training colleges in the nineteenth century, it has remained a fundamental aspect of teaching and learning (cohen & manion, 1997). developing the expected duties of teachers requires teacher training in particular. the teacher training program must balance theoretical and practical components properly. in teaching practice one of the programs that serve this aim is the teaching practice program (özdaş, 2018). consistent with the preceding statement highlighting the importance of teaching training in the area of education, empirical evidence has shown that teaching practice provides numerous advantages to teacher trainees, including the opportunity to learn and develop as professional teachers while also embodying their philosophies, theories, and understandings (abongdia et al., 2015) along of the components of pedagogical knowledge, content knowledge, rural knowledge, ecological knowledge, inquiry knowledge, and personal knowledge (mokoena, 2017). the theories and knowledge gained by prospective teachers will be valuable and meaningful if they are exposed to the information, abilities, attitudes, and behaviors they need in actual https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v5i1.13228 mailto:rahmahfithriani@uinsu.ac.id 33 educational settings. in other words, teaching practice is a platform that is designed in such a way as to enable pre-service teachers to implement the theoretical knowledge they have acquired in real-life classroom scenarios to develop their understanding and competence as future professional teachers (abdullah & mirza, 2020; marais & meier, 2004). in addition to being a compulsory prerequisite for prospective teachers, teaching practice serves the purpose of providing them with exposure to authentic scenarios and circumstances of practice, as well as challenges and potential solutions for overcoming them. in addition to being a compulsory prerequisite for prospective teachers, teaching practice provides them with exposure to authentic scenarios and circumstances of practice and challenges and potential solutions for overcoming them. despite the benefits that teaching practice offers to prospective teachers, the term teaching practice itself is portrayed as a phase in which a teacher candidate is immersed in the authentic teaching and learning environment (abongdia et al., 2015; adebola, 2022; fandiño, 2013; foncha et al., 2015). upon commencing their teaching careers, student teachers are likely to encounter a range of emotions, including excitement, anxiety, anticipation, and apprehension (foncha et al., 2015). the efficacy of teaching practice can be influenced by a range of factors, including the emotions of prospective teachers, their beliefs and knowledge regarding classroom instruction, teaching, and content knowledge, as well as contextual factors such as expectations, requirements, and the impact of influential school and university figures (borko & mayfield, 1995). teaching practice undoubtedly provides significant opportunities for student teachers to attempt the art of teaching before entering the world of the teaching profession (abongdia et al., 2015), which is much needed by prospective teachers to be professionally trained and prepared to become effective (khalid, 2014). a plethora of studies have been conducted on diverse aspects of teaching training. a plethora of studies has been conducted on diverse aspects of teaching training. literature indicates that pre-service teachers engage in teaching practices to develop pedagogical knowledge, competencies, and values relevant to future teacher performance improvement programs or teacher professionalism (abdulwahed & ismail, 2019; azano & stewart, 2015; mafugu, 2022). in addition, teaching practice is utilized to help student teachers to be aware of their choice as professional educators (mahmood & iqbal, 2018). several prior research that examined a variety of practical teaching and teacher training development domains including bosnyák and gáncs (2012); cheng (2013); coşkun (2013); gan (2013); genc and buyukkarci (2013); gurbuz (2006); haigh et al. (2006); hamaidi et al. (2014); leke-ateh et al. (2013); ralph (2007); starkey & rawlins (2012); tuli & file (2009); yusof et al. (2014). as mentioned earlier, most studies emphasize real teaching practicum; from practical training to evaluation to advantages and disadvantages, those same studies demonstrate that training teaching research has become increasingly intriguing in teacher education. additional studies concentrating on prospective teachers must demonstrate a specific relation to the practicum experience; however, the features established there could substantially affect it. a number of the studies concentrated on the perceptions of pre-service teachers (fajardo, 2013; gutierrez, 2015; jaimes, 2013; lopera & monsalve, 2015; sánchez, 2014), their perspectives of ideological influence (osorio et al., 2009; viáfara, 2016), the growth of their research skills (cárdenas b et al., 2005; ortiz & duarte, 2014), the improved performance of their linguistic or cross-cultural competencies (castañeda & montenegro, 2015; franco & galvis, 2013; garcés & olivera, 2014; gonzález, 2008; holguín, 2013), and their perceptions on language instruction (castillo & cortés, 2012; cortés, 2016) whereas others suggested changes to the teaching practicum component of the curriculum for language teacher training programs (bohórquez, 2012; fandiño, 2013; granados-beltrán, 2016; holguín & morales, 2011; medina, 2012; mendez & bonilla, 2016). to the greatest of our understanding, numerous studies have addressed classroom management in the setting of efl and esl classrooms (aliakbari & heidarzadi, 2015; león & castro, 2017; farrell & bennis, 2013; habibi et al., 2017; haukås, 2016; islam, 2017; karim et al., 2020; kazemi & soleimani, 2016). merç and subaşı (2015) elaborated on turkish teachers' classroom management problems and coping strategies. in a study examining students' attitudes toward educators' affective factors in efl classes, ranjbar and narafshan (2016) identified that teachers' selfconfidence, culture, attitude toward native english speakers as well as the language, absence of anxiousness (class and topic management), and motivation are the affective factors that have the greatest impact on students' english language acquisition. it is evident from the preceding review of pertinent literature that many investigations have examined the challenges pre-service teachers encounter during their teaching practicum. however, certain gaps persist in the literature. first, most previous research concentrates solely on actual teaching practicum, including practical training, evaluation, positive and negative aspects, and classroom management. second, previous studies on teaching practice have also neglected student teachers’ lived experience of doing the practicum to a large extent. in addition, the starting point for this study was the assumption that training to become a teacher is a period of intensive investigative process and exploration of oneself, 34 others, and novel environments. examining the perceptions and experiences of those in the process of becoming teachers must be deemed the most relevant. in response to the issues previously discussed, this study attempts to portray how teachers in teaching practicum enact classroom instructions. this study will concentrate on the instruction of english as a foreign language in indonesia to fill a gap in the literature since the previous study has not been explicitly investigated within the contexts of indonesian teaching practice. in conclusion, the study contends that classroom instruction research will generate new insights for teacher training programs and policymakers as it will be correlated with teachers' professional identity construction, materials used, student engagement, and policy implementation. these characteristics are crucial to investigate in the context of teacher education. even though previous studies have examined classroom instruction in the educational sector (adebola, 2022), they have not specifically investigated foreign language learning, such as english language instruction. this study was conducted to see how 10 indonesian pre-service efl teachers' understanding of teacher development evolved in light of their eight-week practicum experiences. to exemplify the view that teaching is fundamentally experiential, the qualitative research method was deemed more appropriate than the quantitative research method. therefore, it is necessary to concentrate on the thoughts, feelings, and meanings that emerge and to pay attention to the prospective teachers' challenges, skepticism, and issues regarding their teaching practice experience. it is widely acknowledged that adopting a phenomenological approach can yield significant benefits in comprehensively grasping the dynamics and multifaceted nature of becoming a teacher. the findings of this study were enhanced by the diverse range of data sources utilized, although the primary investigation centered on a limited cohort of efl preservice. consequently, it could be argued that a larger group of participants, comprising not solely preservice teachers but also relevant stakeholders, would have yielded different results. due to the limited number of participants and the idiosyncratic nature of first-year teaching experiences, no claims could be made regarding the ability of the findings to be generalized. the findings would provide valuable insights into the teaching practicum program in educational training institutions, which would assist policymakers, school administrators, supervisors, and other stakeholders in making prudent choices concerning teaching training as a component of initial teacher preparation. particularly, the stakeholders involved may utilize this information to minimize or solve the difficulties pre-service teachers confront throughout their teaching practicum and to initiate prevention measures against the obstacles. besides that, preservice teachers can also utilize this study as a source of information and reference when preparing to conduct teaching training by recognizing the likely challenges that student teachers will face. the study would also stifle interest in future research into the teaching practice program at education faculties and colleges. 2. method the current research focuses on student teachers' field experiences, specifically emphasizing the instruction of english as a foreign language. this study employed a qualitative phenomenological case study method, which is advantageous for gaining a more in-depth understanding of the dynamics and complexity of becoming an english teacher. creswell and poth, (2016) explicated that the phenomenological approach centers on scrutinizing a phenomenon through a group of individuals who have collectively experienced the phenomenon. due to its emphasis on subject perspectives and the interpretations they generate of the phenomenon being studied, the phenomenological case study design was deemed appropriate for this research. furthermore, according to merriam (1998), a case pertains to a fundamentally restricted occurrence wherein a specific duration exists for data collection or a finite count of individuals who can be interviewed or observed. the case study offers a thorough examination and depiction of a particular phenomenon. the case study provides a comprehensive analysis and description of a specific phenomenon. this study's qualitative phenomenological case study design extensively relies on participants' vivid descriptions of a phenomenon (marshall & rossman, 2006). therefore, this study's data were derived from semi-structured interviews, student teachers' diaries, and teaching videos. this study attempts to shed light on the challenges that prospective teachers encounter when employing english during their field practicums by describing the experiences of the participants in order to provide a comprehensive knowledge of this phenomenon (gall & borg, 2007). 2.1 participants ten fourth-year students (7 females and 3 males) registered for a bachelor's degree in the education program at a state university in medan, indonesia, were invited to participate in this research through a purposive sampling technique. the use of purposive sampling was evidenced by selecting samples that were "abundant in necessary information" (patton, 1990). this implies that any individual with a similar experience can be chosen as a respondent from a specific setting (pandey & pandey, 2015). since the study's primary objective was to identify student teachers' difficulties, this present study will concentrate on student teachers’ field experience by 35 analyzing the experiences of fourth-year student teachers who had just completed their final practicum. a purposive sampling technique was employed to reach the objective. furthermore, purposive sampling was used because not all final-year students in the institution possess criteria that correspond to the phenomenon being investigated. therefore, the researchers established certain considerations or criteria that the participants should meet: the student teachers who have just completed their teaching practicum. for ethical compliance, the tenth participants were identified in numerical order (participant-1,-2,-3,-4,-5,-6,-7,-8,-9,-10) for anonymous sake to conceal their actual identities. 2.2 data collection the current investigation utilized multiple data sources to triangulate and comprehensively depict the examined issues. the primary data sources included semi-structured interviews and teaching diaries, while the secondary data was taken from teaching videos recorded during the pre-service teachers' teaching practice. these data were obtained to gain information regarding the experiences and voices of the prospective teachers. semi-structured interviews were conducted to understand the issues under investigation better. all 10 participants were individually interviewed to gain a full explanation of their viewpoints and perspectives on their field-based teaching practicum experiences. this method permits the ahead-of-time specification of questions, provides the interviewer with wide latitude to inquire about various topics, and allows the interviewee to define the nature of the interview. in addition, it permits the collection of comparable and systematic data from respondents via an interview form and the examination of the phenomenon's depth (bogdan & biklen, 2006; patton, 1990). all interviews were done upon the participants' return to their home university and were audio recorded in bahasa indonesia and transcribed verbatim, and later further translated into english in their entirety. each interview lasted between 20 and 30 minutes. the interview started with a few pre-determined questions which reflected the perceived problems participants had throughout their teaching practicum; however, there was also some space for flexibility and freedom of expression. respondents were asked, for instance, to explain whether or not their pre-practicum expectations were met and significant moments they encountered in lesson planning, teaching, and engaging with their learners and others. the teaching diary was collected as an additional data source to investigate how teachers see the phenomenon of their classroom practices. the teaching diary will be photographed as documentation for the results' data analysis process. this is repeated to triangulate the data and obtain a deeper understanding of the issues under investigation. throughout the field experience term, the participants kept diaries. due to our limited time and availability that prevented us from visiting the teaching practicum sites consistently, the student teachers were asked to hand in their teaching diaries discussing the disadvantages and advantages aspects of the days' teaching and how those things affected them as student teachers. the research's veracity and reliability were proved by the participants' firsthand accounts of their experiences as inexperienced teachers (pinnegar & daynes, 2007). finally, the student teachers recorded their classes during their teaching practicums. each participant recorded their class throughout two meetings, producing twenty video recordings. the collected videos were observed, and the data was used to validate or refute the information derived from the other two sources. 2.3 data analysis and ethical consideration the researcher coded and examined the data in order to identify emergent themes (karim et al., 2020). hence, the data gathered from the two-three sources were analyzed using thematic analysis. braun and clarke (2006) characterize thematic analysis as a versatile and helpful research approach that can produce a richly comprehensive and intricate data description. the patterns and themes within the data were identified, evaluated, and presented with a minimum organization but detailed descriptions of the data, which were then utilized to interpret various aspects of the prospective teachers' experiences during their teaching training. to accomplish this, at first, all audio-recorded interviews were converted transcriptions using word processing software and then, all ten participants' transcripts were analyzed and compared to determine differences and similarities, and each transcript was reread line-byline to identify patterns, emerging themes, and subthemes among the data. (jati et al., 2019; muyassaroh, asib, & marmanto, 2019). initially, the transcribed interviews were reviewed to gain a broad understanding of the results of the interviews. based on our global perspective of the interview results, the researchers combined similar data into a single theme. in arranging the data, the researchers chose the most prominent voices that, from the researchers' viewpoint, were closest to the emerging themes. ethical consideration is an essential part of the research because it addresses respondents' consciousness and willingness to participate in research; hence, it is necessary to inform them by requesting their consent (akaranga & makau, 2016). adhering to this, the researchers assumed that all interviewees were aware of their right to an explanation of the aims, methods, purposes, and findings of the research, as well as their right to refuse participation or withdraw at any time. the researchers also emphasized how they will profit from the study, and the assurance of confidentiality and privacy of the research, as creswell and poth (2016) highlight. 36 3. result the purpose of this study is to explore the viewpoints of indonesian efl pre-service teachers concerning the challenges encountered in english instruction. the study utilized data triangulation through the implementation of semi-structured interviews, the collection of pre-service teachers' teaching diaries, and the observation of teaching videos. three themes and multiple sub-themes were identified from the analysis of data collected from three sources, as depicted in figure 3.1. figure 3.1. themes and sub-themes of challenges about english instruction. accordingly, direct case quotations are additionally provided in the qualitative findings report. the letter d after each quotation denotes "diary" and "i" interviews. all participants are categorized by numerical order (participant-1,-2,-3,-4,-5,-6,-7,-8,-9,10). in what follows, all these challenges reported by the efl pre-service teachers will be discussed in detail. 3.1 lack of teaching resources appropriate instructional materials across all domains must support the implementation process to attain optimal learning goals. hence, the provision of resources is required to efficiently and effectively deliver instructional material during teaching and learning. the teaching and learning process will be relatively straightforward if a school has sufficient teaching resources. in the same vein as pre-service teachers, students currently undergoing university training and placed in schools for practical training should be equipped with the necessary resources to become effective teachers. however, there exist several notable obstacles that pre-service teachers face. however, student teachers must overcome several obstacles to achieve optimal educational outcomes. various obstacles, such as stress, heavy workload, limited teaching time, and insufficient support from mentor teachers and facilities, hinder aspiring student teachers' acceptance into schools. 1) inadequacy of school materials /equipment a shortage of educational resources prevents student teachers from teaching, as study mentioned earlier, that a shortage of educational resources renders it difficult for pre-service teachers to apply their theoretical knowledge to real-world classroom scenarios. the study revealed that many student teachers encountered challenges in teaching and learning due to insufficient school resources during their teacher training. “the books students use as learning resources are too high for student competency, there are too many terms learners do not understand, plus the school does not have a library, so i have to look for material that fits students' needs.” participant 1, (i) “learners never apply the theory i have taught because the school has no language laboratory to conduct experiments or practical works.” participant 2, (i) “at the beginning of teaching practice, i experienced problems when i wanted to explain learning material, due to not having stationery (broad marker and whiteboard eraser). the school where i did the teaching practicum did not provide stationery to the teacher, so i had to bring my own.” participant 6, (i) nearly all pre-service teachers in this study struggled to manage instructional resources. participant 6 pointed out that the school does not provide instructor stationery. it hampered the participant's ability to implement a high-quality student learning process. moreover, according to participants 1 and 2, the schools where they conducted their practicums lacked supporting facilities such as a library and a language laboratory, making it difficult for them to conduct practical work or access relevant materials that might meet their requirements. 2) heavy teaching load and mentoring issue two of the student instructors identified the heavy teaching workload as a challenge. the observed challenge seemed to augment the pedagogical and emotional burden of the student educators, who were already encumbered by their duties as both student teachers and university students. the participant remarked that she appeared unmotivated and cognitively overloaded: “my mentor teacher depends on me for all his tasks (making lesson plans, syllabi, semester program plans, lack of teaching resources inadequacy of school materials /equipment, heavy teaching load and mentoring issue lack of respect providing and maintaining classroom discipline and setting teacher role lack of content knowledge teacher knowledge of language and teaching, instructional planning and using teaching techniques 37 and annual program plans). this overwhelmed and stressed me because i was also working on my college assignments.” participant 9, (i) the significant workload results from the number of tasks, school programs, and responsibilities that pre-service teachers must complete during their fourth year in university while teaching practice placement in schools. this constitutes a burden for them to meet the requirements of both components, to which preservice teachers attribute their lack of articulation. in other words, the tasks anticipated to support their teaching practice in the fourth year are frequently unrelated to the pedagogical project they are developing in schools. participants also felt stress and detachment due to the mentor teacher's constant assignment of numerous tasks and lack of attention or guidance during the teaching practicum, as participant 3 mentioned. “in school, where i was doing my practical, my mentor teacher never guided me during the teaching practicum process, so i always had to try to ask for feedback on my teaching performance in class.” participant 3, (i) the efl pre-service teachers were assigned mentor teachers, but the mentor teachers did not adequately assist them during their teaching practice. the present investigation also discloses that the most substantial support they need is guidance or feedback for enhancing individual student teachers' performances, including their pedagogical skills, discipline, work ethic, collaborative skills, dependability, and content knowledge. this heightened feelings of isolation, social detachment, and inadequate teacher learning. 3.2 lack of respect implementing innovative pedagogical approaches by prospective educators has increased student engagement and motivation toward learning. notwithstanding, the pre-service teachers in this study encounter challenges concerning maintaining discipline and managing their classes. they struggled with preserving and regulating classroom discipline in their designated schools. the students are cognizant that they are in the institution solely to acquire teaching experience and, therefore, cannot assert power over them (abongdia et al., 2015). 1) providing and maintaining classroom discipline the total absence of respect experienced by preservice teachers among learners is also associated with schools' unpreparedness to accept pre-service as a place for their teaching practicum. (mufidah, 2019; mupa & chinooneka, 2015). however, school unpreparedness is not the only reason pre-service teachers experienced a decline in moral standards and a lack of discipline. this poor attitude is not exclusive to a single nation but is a worldwide phenomenon. unfortunately, this behavior was cited as one of the obstacles that inhibited the effectiveness of prospective teachers throughout teacher training. to verify the above statement, the following respondent quotes are provided: “i never tolerate students eating in class during class hours. almost every time i go to class to teach, they still eat. i am confused about making them understand that their actions are impolite and breaking the rules. finally, i always tell them to finish their food before the lesson.” participant 2, (i) “i was disappointed by the disruptive students in my classroom. when their host teacher is speaking, they will remain silent.” participant 3, (i) “i find many students who like to make fun of me when i am usually teaching; they throw body shaming, so sometimes i feel annoyed. i always reprimanded them, but this continued until i finally decided to ignore it.” participant 4, (i) “almost all students feel trivial about the student teachers who teach in their class. what shocked me was when i found several students causing a fight in the classroom and the class had to be suspended due to a non-conducive situation.” participant 6, (i) “they were very impolite when they spoke to me. the intonation was always high, they were stubborn, and they always made excuses when they made mistakes. sometimes when i am busy explaining, they laugh while watching videos on their cell phones. it is horrible to see it because it made me think, "can't i teach well?" or "am i not that competent to function the teaching method well? yeah, it is sad but true.” participant 7, (i) 38 disruptive learner behavior appeared to be a formidable obstacle for all participants. as the participants noted, it commonly took the form of bullying, unnecessary talking, initiating a fight, being noisy, using inappropriate language, disobedience, or disrespecting the student teacher. based on the response, participant 4 complained that many students enjoy making fun of her when she is teaching. although she consistently reprimanded them, this situation persisted until she eventually ignored them. it is also pointed out that the learners greatly underestimate the student teacher. this happens to participant 6. the fact that he discovered his students engaging in a fight in class prompted him to assert that his students treated him with extreme disrespect and deemed him to be of no consequence. all of the student teachers appeared to be having difficulty managing disruptive behavior. particularly, they complained about being incapable of anticipating inappropriate behavior, using ineffective methods to address it, or being unable to surmount it. they also appeared helpless and uncertain about how to manage disruptive student behavior. as participants 2 and 7 reported above, they argued that they had not figured out how to convince learners that their actions were improper. in addition, they misjudged their ability as prospective instructors because they could not implement the teaching method effectively. 2) setting teacher role the pre-service teachers' dissatisfaction was also apparent due to the differential treatment they received from students compared to their permanent teachers. it could be observed from the diary entry provided by participant 3: figure 3.2 participant 3 {i also want to be like their host teacher, the learners immediately become calm and quiet when she enters the class (d)} the statement made by the respondent above implies that the participant held the host teacher in high regard and acknowledged the distinctions between their respective roles as prospective educators and the host teacher. it can be inferred that the participant experienced difficulty maintaining a comparable level of control over his students compared to the host instructor, indicating a potential deficiency in his capacity to manage his students effectively. this criterion ultimately determines the quintessential representation of a teacher. other individuals preparing to become teachers acknowledged that there are differences between their perspectives and those of practicing teachers. the individual remains indecisive regarding the specific type of teacher they aspire to be. nonetheless, the performance of student teachers may be impacted if they cannot attain their envisioned ideal teacher, as highlighted by participant 9. figure 3.3. participant 9 {i cannot be the teacher i would like to be, as i would like to be more constructive and hilarious but cannot do so without losing my authority (d)} the excerpt from participant 9's teaching diary illustrates that the ideal image of a teacher is that of an individual who is both constructive and humorous. however, she admitted that she could not embody this ideal without relinquishing her authority. the issue at hand, as previously noted by two participants, pertains to the potential inability of student teachers to attain the status of an ideal teacher. this predicament may result in insecurity, leading to a crisis of identity in which they cannot determine whether to adopt the role of a controlling or a facilitative teacher. 3.3 lack of content knowledge becoming a pre-service teacher involves the acquisition of content and practical knowledge. content knowledge pertains to various teaching theories, whereas practical knowledge links to the teaching experiences of trainee teachers. it is believed that pedagogical subject knowledge, in particular, can aid teachers and student teachers in establishing clarity in high-level degrees, as pedagogical content knowledge often consists of content-specific strategies for creating authentic instructional material for learners (ball et al., 2008; baumert et al., 2010). in addition to chaotic classrooms, lack of content knowledge appeared to be the issue pre-service teachers encountered during classroom practices. 1) teacher knowledge of language and teaching as revealed by the data, the efl pre-service teachers were uncertain about their grammatical and vocabulary knowledge, english-speaking skills, and teaching expertise. these appeared to have caused quite a commotion in their pedagogical and affective environments and turned out to be face-threatening actions. as participant 3 pointed out: “as an english student teacher, i realize my english skills are low, especially in teaching english. when i teach, i am doubtful about what i am teaching; i am 39 worried that what i teach is wrong or less precise than it should be.” participant 3, (i) regarding the content knowledge-related challenges, participant 3 remarked that this teaching challenge is due to insufficient expertise in the subject matter. the participant expressed a deficiency in selfassurance regarding his capacity to guide the students. his perceived lack of proficiency in english hindered his ability to teach the students. 2) having too little preparatory teaching practice in addition to the pre-service teacher's lack of subject matter expertise, the unpreparedness of student teachers' teaching practice contributes to their lack of content comprehension, as participant 5 reported: “other student teachers and i only have a little time to prepare things related to teaching training. our school observations were brief; we only focused on completing permits to conduct teaching practicum there.” participant 5, (i) according to the response, the participant stated that she could barely prepare things herself for teaching practice and that the observation she conducted was extremely brief. it demonstrates that the student teacher was unprepared to conduct a teaching practicum and unfamiliar with teacher training. the student teachers were keen to get more 'hands-on' teaching experience in school, which they believed would prepare them better for their teaching practicum. 3) instructional planning methods of instruction, classroom management, planning lessons, and learner motivation posed the greatest challenges for these efl pre-service teachers. the study demonstrates that some participants had difficulty creating lesson plans and syllabi, as they could not write them due to differences in the training they received during their study. “i am fine with my teaching method, but i have difficulties making lesson plans because the method i learn from my campus differs from the subject teacher who guides me during teaching practice. because i needed clarification about which one to choose, i followed my teacher's previous steps.” participant 7, (i) “on campus, i had already learned about how to design excellent and correct lesson plans, but when the school assigned me to make a syllabus, i had never studied design before, which made it difficult for me, and finally, i started to learn it slowly while asking my mentor teacher for help.” participant 10, (i) according to participant 7, there were significant disparities between what she discovered on campus and lesson planning. eventually, she simply followed the lecture plan created from the start. this demonstrates that the pre-service educator is unaware of the purpose and significance of a lesson plan. the response of participant 10 indicates that she finds it challenging to create a syllabus because she has never been taught how to do so on her campus. 4) using teaching techniques according to graham (1997), pre-service teachers frequently struggle to implement the concepts gained in teaching methods in their classrooms. pre-service teachers are frequently characterized as having trouble applying ideas acquired in teaching methods to their classrooms. below are the participants' comments for the preceding. figure 3.4. participant 1 {sometimes, i am confused about what kind of method i should apply when teaching, all i do is follow what my teacher does (d)} figure 5. participant 3 {the experience was unpleasant, and i was not instructed on how to condense the material and write on the whiteboard (d)} based on the responses above, it is evident that pre-service teachers had difficulty executing the teaching method, although they neglected to recognize their difficulties in this category. the researchers also observed that pre-service teachers had difficulty comprehending the teaching method, either because they lacked sufficient information about the teaching method they were employing or because they proposed implementations during the lesson-planning stage that did not align with the teaching method. 40 from the comprehensive data analysis, it can be inferred that most participants experienced challenges during their teaching practicum. it is imperative to highlight that the challenges mentioned above are not attributable solely to a singular party or factor but rather to a confluence of various elements. based on the data gathered, efl pre-service teachers encounter challenges in effectively conveying knowledge during instruction. the issue can be attributed to various factors that exert influence, including inadequate facilities and media that fail to support the learning process and schools' unpreparedness to support student teachers during their teaching practicum. furthermore, the disruptive behavior of learners constitutes a noteworthy impediment to the teaching efficacy of pre-service teachers. moreover, the paucity of english proficiency and pedagogical expertise makes it unfeasible for pre-service teachers to complete an ideal teaching practicum. 4. discussion this study aimed to investigate the challenges efl pre-service teachers faced in english instruction during their teaching practicum. according to the findings of this study, efl student instructors began their pedagogical practicum in a challenging environment. on the one hand, they faced various foreign language pedagogy-related challenges. the results also indicate that the challenges encountered during the teaching practice were related to teaching resources, classroom management, teaching facilities or media, both technical and non-technical content knowledge, pre-service teachers' english skills, preservice teachers' motivation, and teaching technique. this research reveals the need for educational institutions to redouble their efforts to develop teacher preparation programs that integrate a culturally responsive pedagogy with content area pedagogy to assist student teachers in attending to the knowledge that their learners bring to the classroom rather than focusing on perceived deficiencies (gonzález et al., 2005). there is a glaring disparity between what potential teachers are trained for and what schools require of them. as it seemed, sometimes, prospective teachers' understanding of school culture, physical amenities in schools, and academic assistance (resource materials) in schools is unrealistic, resulting in difficulties with adaptation. however, it is abundantly obvious from the exchanges mentioned above with prospective teachers on teaching practice that schools cannot employ student teachers in light of the readily available educational materials. this study also indicates that overcrowding often occurs during the teaching process. due to the shortage of educational resources and the number of learners exceeding what the school should accommodate, the school is overcrowded, the class is not conducive, and learners are not maximal in learning at school. this would later influence the classroom performance of prospective teachers. in their absence, challenges such as overcrowded classes will continue to impede the advancement of preservice teachers. schleifer et al. (2017) argue that when student teachers lack teaching materials, they frequently lack teamwork and experience, significantly impacting their performance. other than that, due to the absence of adequate facilities, efl student teachers unavoidably could only offer theories in their teaching method. for instance, when efl preservice teachers are required to conduct practical work but lack access to a language laboratory, they can only do the practical work in the classrooms. since laboratories are significantly more structured than typical classroom settings, laboratories allow teachers to extend beyond the traditional classroom approach, enabling them to consider alternative methods of instruction and encourage greater student engagement and teacher–learner relationship (hofstein, 2004; hofstein & lunetta, 2004). in addition, the study revealed that mentor teachers did not make this differentiation, and while not very cooperative, they had never mentored aspiring teachers. during teacher training and classroom teaching instruction, the efl pre-service teachers were not adequately supervised by their supervising teacher. furthermore, students reported that some of their training instructors did not assist them in designing lesson plans for both practice and actual teaching. teaching resources do affect the quality of student teachers in the training field. the major reason why learners' effectiveness remained subpar because of a shortage of teaching and learning resources was also cited as limited or inadequate teaching resources that prevented pre-service teachers from accomplishing well due to school unreadiness (heng & sol, 2022; mupa & chinooneka, 2015). the research also reveals that efl pre-service teachers experienced challenges in teaching, mainly in controlling the learners in the classroom. the student teachers also demonstrated that the noise in the classroom had a significant impact on how student teachers managed their classes. ulla (2016) argued that learners' noises during the class, their disinterest that developed at the beginning of the lesson, unanticipated chats among learners, and their lack of concentration and respect for the students teachers all contributed to the difficulty. additionally, disruptive learner behavior was revealed to be a significant obstacle for all efl pre-service teachers. the present study revealed the attitudes of prospective teachers toward the obstacles. in a few instances, the data revealed that prospective teachers preferred to give up doing what they would like to do or what they deemed appropriate in order to accommodate the difficulties. particularly, they complained about being unable to anticipate inappropriate behavior, utilizing poor methods to address it, or being incapable of overcoming it. they also appeared clueless and 41 uncertain about addressing problematic student behavior (sali & kecik, 2018). these pre-service instructors entered the educational environment without preconceptions about what it should appear like. this aligns with what foncha et al. (2015) stated: pre-service teachers envisioned a congenial setting for learning and teaching without realizing that teachers cultivate such an environment with their learners. pre-service teachers are extremely anxious about managing the classroom and schedule (murray-harvey et al., 2000). it is because the pre-service teacher considered it as an obstacle to their delivery of the teaching plans. therefore, this is reported that pre-service teachers' abilities to handle their classes differ depending on the teaching and learning environment, learners' responses, and student teachers' preparedness (mudra, 2018). ultimately, the pre-service teacher would shed the identity as a teacher. managing the learners' noises, addressing inappropriate behaviors, and similar issues are just a few issues that student teachers encounter when training. it reveals that one of the challenges in establishing classroom roles was not becoming the ideal teacher. because pre-service teachers are currently worrying about their courses, their role in the classroom, the excellent program during their practicum experience, and the impact they are having on their students, not only in regards to language but also in terms of how they may alter learners' lives (castañeda-trujillo & aguirre-hernández, 2018). they look up to an authoritarian teacher as their ideal teacher image, which contradicts what participants thought they were expected to be. they risked losing their authority when seriously trying to emulate that idealized educator. eventually, they slide into feelings of demotivation and dissatisfaction due to this problem. not knowing which teacher roles to assume emerged as the other difficulty regarding setting teacher roles. efl pre-service teachers could not decide whether to become a teacher as a controller or a teacher as a guide. pre-service teachers pointed out that the reason why they have difficulty in managing the classroom may be because the pre-service teachers are not considered to be real teachers (kyriacou & stephens, 1999). this aligns with what coşkun, (2013) argued: student teachers struggle to manage the classroom because they are not considered real teachers. this is quite incompatible with what adebola (2022) the lack of respect held by the learners that student teachers went through indicates that schools were not adequately equipped to receive pre-service teachers and prevented them from functioning as intended. this demands a comprehensive and systematic approach to school discipline, intending to determine and prevent or eliminate probable causes. the study indicates that, as it seemed, the lesson plan templates they were taught in college was not the one they were required to utilize. pre-service teachers are not well equipped for teaching practicum regarding content knowledge. in addition, they were primarily pressured to change their intentions and demotivated because the ideas they acquired did not apply to the teaching practicum. this ultimately led to a loss of motivation among pre-service teachers, hindering their ability to achieve the learning objective successfully. this notion is reinforced by premier and miller (2010), who assert that pre-service teachers encounter the difficult reality of teaching in a classroom setting during practicum, as well as the challenges of a cultural context, curriculum, and work environment, which might leave them confused. this study also reveals that pre-service teachers believed the program they were taught at university was not the same as the program they were supposed to teach, and they consequently continued to struggle with implementation strategies and classroom management during their teaching practice. the teacher-education program did not provide teachers with examples of effective approaches to draw from during their practicum. therefore, the preservice teachers struggled to construct teaching outcomes since they were not taught how to do so. therefore, the absence of pre-service teachers' knowledge and skills could adequately hinder their ability to direct the learners (mkhasibe, 2018). regarding the challenges-content knowledge issue, this study discovers that the participant lacks teaching knowledge competence. anxiety about what is taught to students due to incompetence in understanding teaching knowledge and learning subjects is one of the causes that contribute to anxiety in pre-service teachers (öztürk, 2016). this student teacher was similarly concerned about the absence of content understanding leading to misunderstandings among learners. therefore, pre-service teachers must have the high content knowledge and pedagogical content understanding due to their teacher training programs. in other words, the content knowledge should be combined with pedagogical components of the teaching and learning process. teachers' topic knowledge and pedagogy must be incorporated into every school's program for teacher preparation (santos & castro, 2021; turnuklu & yesildere, 2007). concerning subject matter knowledge, it is noted that effective practices do not frequently accompany comprehensive theory. this transpired during the efl student teachers' classroom meeting. the student teacher does not appear to know which teaching method the respondent should employ. since they could not integrate the teaching methods described in their tutorial material with those employed by instructors in schools. allen (2009) observed that prospective teachers respected the theory they had acquired in college throughout pre-service training, 42 but after becoming practitioners, they adhered to conventional teacher practice. this is consistent with what benejam (1993) asserted, namely that student teachers are well aware of general theoretical principles, yet they do not understand how to apply them when dealing with learners' specific needs and unique situations, so they implement the old traditional approaches to teaching because they give them the confidence to survive. in addition to subject content and student knowledge, teachers must be familiar with certain methods, approaches, and ideas to employ them in developing their classrooms (shulman et al., 2005). the unpreparedness of student teachers' teaching practice is also one of the causes of their lack of content understanding. the pre-service teachers thought that the preparation was insufficient for the field experience. nevertheless, by conducting observations, pre-service teachers can create effective planning for teacher training because they offer the student teacher a quick way to become familiar with his or her task and then know how to approach it continuously. furthermore, observation can provide pre-service teachers with materials for creating lesson plans and lesson notes (etimbi, 1994; jenkins et al., 2005). it indicates that obstacles exist in preparing student teachers for classroom practices. it is believed that these obstacles stem from the many phases of the procedure, i.e., from the university to the practical schools. therefore, they attributed their ineffective teaching to inadequate teacher training (arasomwan & mashiya, 2021). there appears to be an urgent need to increase preservice efl instructors' understanding of the possibility that their path to becoming language teachers may be extremely challenging. this could be accomplished through problem-based learning. preservice efl instructors are presented with authentic classroom problems instead of the commonplace inauthentic classroom scenarios in teacher training textbooks (le maistre & paré, 2010). within problem-based instruction, pre-service efl teachers may be asked to analyze challenging classroom circumstances embedded in real case studies of novice and experienced teachers and what they would do if they were those teachers. such a case methodology could expand the pedagogical strategies available to efl pre-service teachers by providing examples of thinking professionally about problems and demonstrating how expert teachers approach problems (kleinfeld, 1990). pre-service teachers in indonesia are typically sent to comparatively easy-to-teach schools for their teaching practice experiences instead of difficult-to-teach schools when they become full teachers. then, we could design student teachers' practicum experiences so that they are exposed to diverse teaching contexts (i.e., contexts with both positive and negative conditions) and are encouraged to reflect on the realities of these contexts. this would contribute to the efl pre-service teachers' understanding of the teaching above contexts. in addition, the current research results have implications for school administrators and policymakers, indicating the need to develop productive, systematic, and structured induction experiences for beginning instructors. this study's primary findings indicate that pre-service teachers encountered three obstacles during their teaching practicum: 1) a lack of teaching resources, 2) a lack of respect, and 3) a lack of subject matter knowledge. teacher educators can use this information to reduce or address pre-service teachers' challenges during teaching practicum and implement preventative measures against the obstacles. pre-service teachers can also use it as a source of information and reference when preparing to conduct teaching training by recognizing the likely challenges that student teachers will face. 5. conclusion the present study investigated the challenges faced by indonesian efl pre-service teachers during their teaching practice. the study utilized a phenomenological case study approach, which enabled an in-depth understanding of the complex dynamics involved in becoming an english teacher. the findings revealed that pre-service teachers face various challenges in effectively communicating instructions to learners due to factors such as limited resources, inadequate preparation, disruptive behavior of learners, and insufficient proficiency in english and pedagogical knowledge. the study identified three significant challenges: inadequacy of teaching resources, the absence of respect, and insufficient content knowledge. the findings suggest that there is a need for productive, systematic, and structured induction experiences for novice teachers, particularly those still in the process of completing their teacher training, to address the challenges they encounter. furthermore, the study highlights the importance of adequate preparation for student teachers, particularly in terms of providing teaching resources and adequate supervision from supervising teachers. the data also revealed that learners lack discipline in terms of noise and inappropriate behavior, leading to a lack of respect for pre-service teachers in the classroom. the insufficiency of content knowledge is also an issue, which can be attributed to inadequate preparation for the practicum experience. these insights will benefit policymakers, school administrators, supervisors, and other stakeholders making prudent decisions regarding integrating teaching training into initial teacher preparation. references abdullah, n. a., & mirza, m. s. 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(2014). student teachers perception towards teaching practicum programme. international journal for innovation education and research, 2(10), 121–130. https://doi.org/10.31686/ijier.vol2.iss10.253 https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v11n4p117 https://doi.org/10.19183/how.21.1.13 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2021.100110 https://doi.org/10.4314/ejesc.v5i1.56316 https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443890520108 http://dx.doi.org/10.14483/calj.v18n2.9477 https://doi.org/10.31686/ijier.vol2.iss10.253 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 19-26 19 discourse analysis in e-learning-based course using moodle platform: an experimental design silvia eka putri 1, budianto hamuddin 2, mutia sari nursafira 3, and tatum derin 4 1, 3, 4 universitas lancang kuning, pekanbaru, indonesia 2 universitas hasanuddin, makassar, indonesia budihamuddin@pascaunhas.ac.id article history received : 2020-04-21 revised : 2020-04-24 accepted : 2020-04-25 keywords information and communication technology (ict) english as a foreign language (efl) e-learning discourse analysis moodle abstract the covid-19 pandemic has caused educational institutions all over the world to migrate their teachings online. since indonesian government issued the sk mendiknas no. 107/u/2001, educational institutions had to steadily integrate their learning process with technology. so, this study intends to investigate the effectiveness of using the open-source learning platforms known as moodle in a selected university, universitas lancang kuning (unilak) in indonesia. while multiple courses uses moodle, this study selected to analyse the 2017/2018 fifth semester students as they are the ones who pioneered moodle for other classes to use. with a quasi-experimental research design, this study used four types of test to calculate the results of the essay pre-test and post-test on both experimental and control classes. with the eventual mean of 65.53 for the experimental class and 63.25 for the control, this study proved that moodle does effectively improve indonesian university efl students’ learning compared to conventional lecture-style learning. future research is hoped to extend or compare this study with an investigation on how university efl students are using e-learning during the covid-19 pandemic and other factors that have not been covered in this empirical study. 1. introduction in line with developments in information and communication technology (ict), the trend of elearning as an alternative learning arose. al-fraihat, joy, masa’deh, & sinclair (2019) state that e-learning has mainstreamed and has been massively adopted in higher education. teachers and lecturers largely must adapt in using technology in their teaching as their students are part of the technological generation (junaidi, hamuddin, simangunsong, rahman, & derin, 2020). according to choudhury & pattnaik (2020), “in the last two decades there have been various social, technological and organizational factors that have impacted the e learning stakeholders and no stakeholder influences the world of electronic learning in isolation.” utilisation of information technology (it) for learning activities in indonesia nowadays is more conducive with the issuance of the ministerial of national education decree (sk mendiknas) number 107/u/2001. the decree encourages conventional schools to implement distance education, making the learning environment take on a dual-mode. applying e-learning in teaching english as a foreign language (efl) for students in the early stage is challenging for parties involved in education, especially considering the status quo of covid-19 pandemic. this issue is an exciting topic to explore considering improvement on the effectiveness of e-learning programs also fulfils public expectation for the relevant higher education’s quality. this study placed its context on the faculty of teacher training and education (fkip) in universitas lancang kuning (unilak). in early 2017, the dean of fkip unilak in pekanbaru city initiated the blended-learning project using moodle to enhance the learning environment and to raise the fkip students’ it skills both in teaching and learning. this program provides convenience to lecturers as well as students who have mileage and time, to keep doing learning activities through e-learning media. many types of online tools are tried out for various classes in fkip unilak. lecturers and student who are training to be teachers integrate their lessons on google classroom and kahoot to familiarise unilak students with online learning (putri, 2019). youtube videos and social networking sites such as line and whatsapp are used to supplement lecturers’ lesson plans (marwa & herdi, 2017; risani, 2020; yudar, aditomo, & silalahi, 2020). the university’s blended learning online platform steadily guides students to understand and refer to global and advanced academic sources such as elsevier, springer nature, wiley-blackwell, taylor & francis, and sage (harianja, yudar, deliani, nursafira, & hamuddin, 2019). hamuddin, syahdan, rahman, rianita, & http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 19-26 20 derin (2019) show that blogging is a consistent alternative learning media that fkip unilak students use to practice and create their online writing track record since 2016. future studies may identify and investigate the use of other online tools in this selected university, but this study focused on the open-source learning platform, moodle. ‘moodle’ stands for modular object-oriented dynamic learning environment. this platform is one of the “world’s most popular learning management systems (lms) for both learning and training in various disciplines (klaus, 2005), most probably because it is user-friendly, open-source, and free to download” (bataineh & mayyas, 2017; solutions, 2017). unilak lecturers use moodle to manage their students learning in distance because it serves as a useful tool by providing learning facilities with important supporting features. moodle features rally on management on tasks, quizzes, chats, and uploads of various learning material formats (liu, atif, froissard, & richards, 2019). moodle makes distant learning more comfortable to understand because the information is served not only with text but also with additional pictures and videos. 1.1 blended learning in fkip unilak universitas lancang kuning (unilak) has undergone the primary transformation of adopting blended learning style for their curriculum. the move is partly motivated due to lack of budget, significant increase in the number of university students, the generational change of student population, and the upto-date nature of online sources that cannot possibly be ignored. through e-learning, the feasibility of learning with no time limitation proportionate to the students’ requirements has been brought about. in comparison to the traditional learning which might disregard the students’ requirements and unable to address a student at a specific time and place, elearning is an excellent strategy to deal with the problem (farajollahi & zarifsanaee, 2012). to facilitate and support the distance learning of fkip unilak, moodle is one of the many e-learning platforms that are used as a learning management system (lms). instructions to use moodle were first disseminated in the university’s blended-learning platform that can be accessed in https://blendedlearning.unilak.ac.id/ which can be freely accessed by all students of unilak. moodle is used by lecturers in three study programs in fkip, namely biology education, early childhood education, and english education departments. in the case of the latter, discourse analysis, reading iii, basic english grammar, and interpreting are some courses in the english education department of fkip unilak that already use moodle. among these courses, discourse analysis (da) is an excellent choice for this study to focus on as it is the course starts using moodle earlier than other classes. researchers also chose da course over others because according to herlinawati, saukah, mukminatien, isnawati, & bastian (2020), “composing linguistically accurate paragraphs was the most ‘challenging’ factor of complex writing process encountered by (indonesian) university students majoring in english,” (p. 69). compared to the other courses that also uses moodle, da course is a more high-stakes class because it is an advanced material and the results of this empirical study will greatly benefit further refinement of fkip unilak’s elearning. 1.2 teaching english using moodle the key advantage of using moodle is the lack of requirement for an official or paid license to use the platform. educators need only to modify its system to fit their faculties’ procedures and policies. additional advantages of moodle include its wide array of economic, technological, academic, and philosophic benefits. furthermore, teachers’ and students’ perceptions have been proven to be largely positive in using moodle for teaching and learning. moodle’s usefulness and ease of use have been identified as the main two factors that influence the usage of moodle for learning, according to a survey on 564 students from nine departments at the university of macau (teo, zhou, fan, & huang, 2019). cigdemoglu, arslan, & akay (2011), for example, conducted for the first time in a private university in turkey, a qualitative study of instructors’ attitudes and experiences with moodle in their classes. the researchers had coded the interviewing answers into eight themes: (a) need to use; (b) learning and interest; (c) expectations; (d) grade-book and news forum; (e) students’ level of participation; (f) students’ impression; (g) advantages; and (h) disadvantages. this in-depth investigation revealed that “the more an instructor has used the tool, the more beneficial they find using the tool,” (cigdemoglu, arslan, & akay, 2011, p.795). however, there are some aspects that were found wanting in moodle-based learning. average waiting time for a response, feedback quality, material thoroughness, material clarity, website userfriendliness, cooperation diversity, and material quantity were found to be characteristics that needed to be addressed further for maximal satisfaction for students, particularly females according to a study that focused on the perceptions between male and female students in the university of belgrade (horvat, dobrota, krsmanovic, & cudanov, 2015). more recently, in taiwan, chang & lan (2019) explored undergraduate efl students’ perceptions of using moodle for their reading course. while perceptions were dominantly positive in claiming moodle to be helpful, the researchers found that the density of the students’ post-test summaries were relatively the same with the summaries of their pretest. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ https://blended-learning.unilak.ac.id/ https://blended-learning.unilak.ac.id/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 19-26 21 so far, the application of moodle in classrooms has been investigated in turkey, china, serbia, and taiwan. there are certainly more similar studies that are not covered in this literature review, but it seems that an experimental study on moodle’s application in an indonesian efl classroom hasn’t been conducted. the studies found within the context of moodle and indonesia are kautsar, musashi, kubota, & sugitani (2014) that focused on developing the plugin call function, paturusi, chisaki, & usagawa (2014) that used moodle to investigate the application of online quizzes for mathematics students, sulisworo, agustin, & sudarmiyanti (2016) that applied moodle on a secondary school’s physics course, and sari & setiawan (2018) that used moodle for economic learning. therefore, this study aims to address the gap of investigating indonesian university students’ application of moodle for the improvement of their efl. the results of this experimental study is hoped to aid the design and development of high-quality lms-based courses in university-level. 1.3 teaching discourse analysis course with moodle the definition of ‘discourse’ reflects a focus on the linguistic point of view, especially that of applied linguistics. discourse refers to the speech patterns and the analysis pinpoints how language, dialects, and statements are used in a particular community. discourse as a subject of study looks at the discourse among people who share the same speech conventions. moreover, discourse refers to the linguistics of language use of understanding interactions in a social context, specifically the analysis of occurring connected speech or written discourse (derin, putri, nursafira, & hamuddin, 2020). discourse analysis (da) focuses on the relationship between language forms and a limited sense of context. it tends to be oriented to a narrow understanding of the broader social, cultural and ideological forces that influence our lives (ainsworth, 2017). then, critical discourse analysis (cda) goes much further toward addressed the ideological dimensions of discourse (van leeuwen, 2008). since moodle framework is capable to be adapted in many activities in teaching and learning process, this experimental research has applied activities such as database entry, knowledge transfer, schedule planning, texting, online quiz and assignment in the da course. this present study tries to set moodle platform in teaching cda topic in da course at the fifth semester of fkip unilak, pekanbaru, in order to see whether moodle can be effectively used to support the e-learning in the university level. 2. method the research aims to find out the effectiveness of moodle platform in the e-learning process for da course. the research based its framework on experimental to establish possible cause and effect consists of two variables (zulkarnain, 2012). the independent variable (x) refers to the use of moodle platform in e-learning-based course, and the dependent variable (y) refers to students’ ability in da class. the quasi-experimental design is chosen as it is suitable to be implemented in this condition. the reasoning lies on how this design allows the researchers to design the preand post-tests in between-group research including non-random assignment to participants or groups (creswell, 2002). this research was conducted on the fifth semester students (class a & c) of english education department in fkip unilak on 2017/2018 academic year. the duration of the study took place from december 2017 to the end of january 2018. the flow of this quasi-experimental study can be seen in figure 2.1. figure 2.1 experimental research setting 2.1 population the population of this research is the fifthsemester students of the english education department in fkip unilak. the sample chosen to represent the entire year are two classes, a and c, totalling to 53 students who are enrolled in discourse analysis course. 2.2 sample in this research, the researchers determined two classes as the sample by the recommendation of the lecturer involved. one class is designated as experimental class which is taught using moodle, and the other as the control class which uses the traditional learning process. table 2.1 sample of the research no class number of students class 1 vc 26 experiment 2 va 27 control http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 19-26 22 51,53 52.97 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 experiment control experiment control 2.3 the technique of collecting data the research used a test to measure the effectiveness of using moodle platform in da elearning. the test was conducted in the form of essay test. the 20-item essay test was given to the students in the pre-test and post-test phases to both of the classes during the appropriate time per the da syllabus. 2.4 the technique of analysing the data to find out the significant difference between the experimental and control class by using e-learning with moodle, the researchers statistically analysed the resulting data with the t-test if the data is regular and homogenous. if the data is not normal or not homogenous, the researchers analysed the results with the u mann-whitney test. the results are used to obtain an empirical view of the improvement of both classes’ overall comprehension from the pre-test and post-test score. then, the researchers calculated the averages of the pre-test and post-test scores with ngain. n-gain is the primarily used method to obtain the effect size of the treatment that is given to the experimental class (sugiyono, 2006). 3. findings the pre-test is completed by all students from both classes before the researchers give the treatment of using moodle to the experimental class. the purpose of the pre-test is to determine the students’ original ability before the treatment begins. the test is an essay test, and the results of the pre-test can be seen in table 3.1. table 3.1 descriptive statistics of pre-test scores according to table 3.1, the minimum score of the experimental class’ pre-test is 15.00 lower than the control class, who scored 35.00. the maximum score on the experimental class in the table is 75.00, which is higher than the control class’ maximum score of 65.00. test of the students’ concept mastery on the average is 51.53 for the experimental class. this score is lower than the control class’ mean of 52.97. figure 3.1 better illustrates the pre-test results of both classes. figure 3.1 comparison pre-test scores figure 3.1 clearly shows that the average of the experimental class is lower than the control class. the mean diagram of the experimental class averages on 51.53 and control class averages on 52.97. after obtaining the data on the average of pre-test results of both experimental and control classes, the researchers further calculated the results with the normality test, homogeneity test and continuity test of pre-test data by using parametric statistic, namely t-test. the t-test can be used if the data distribution is normal and homogenous, while if data is not normal or not homogenous the u mann-whitney test will be used. the data is calculated by using nonparametric, namely u-mann whitney. normality test is done to ascertain if the data distribution is normal or not. it is a requirement for establishing the next step in parametric or nonparametric statistics. the researchers used the kolmogorov-smirnov (ks-21) as the formula to procure the results of the normality test. the results of the normality test on the data results of the pre-test of both classes can be seen in table 3.2. table 3.2 normality test of pre-test table 3.2 shows that normality test proved the pre-test data distribution is, indeed, normal. experimental class in asymp. sig. (2-tailed) is 0.186 with significant level is 0.05. if the data value of asymp. sig. (2-tailed) 0.186 > 0.05, it means that the distribution of data is normal and controls the class value of asymp. sig. (2-tailed) 0.562 > 0.05, meaning that the data distribution is also normal. afterwards, the researchers conducted the homogeneity test on the pre-test results. it is done to determine the quality of similarity of the sample. it is obtained by comparing the value of based on the trimmed mean, which is calculated with the levene formula. the experimental and control class’ homogeneity test results is shown on table 3.3. table 3.3 homogeneity test of pre-test concerning table 3.3, the homogeneity test of pretest gain value based on asymp. sig. (2-tailed) is 0.108 with significant level 0.05. it means the pre-test on experimental class came from homogenous variance. considering asymp. sig. (2-tailed) 0.108 is larger than 0.05, the pre-test data of both classes are, in fact, from the homogenous variance. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 19-26 23 65.53 63.25 10 20 40 80 experiment control experiment control finally, because the data distribution of pre-test is normal and homogenous, the next test is the t-test. the asymp. sig. (2-tailed) on the pre-test is compared with significant level 0.05, which is the same with the standard value of 0.05. the similar numbers indicate that the data is not different significantly. the result of t-test on pre-test can be seen in table 3.4. table 3.4 t-test result of pre-test in table 3.4, t-test results of both experimental and control classes were not significantly different. this conclusion occurs because the value of asymp. sig. (2-tailed) is 0.139. it meant asymp.sig. (2-tailed) 139 > significant level 0.05. thus, between experimental class and control class, the results are not difference significantly different from each other. with both classes’ original and standard abilities established as relatively the same, researchers moved on to the post-testing. the data was collected in an identical manner with the pre-test, which is by an essay test for the da course on the topic of cda. based on the data that had been collected, experimental and control classes yielded the results displayed on table 3.5. table 3.5 descriptive statistics of post-test score concerning table 3.5 above, the minimum score of the experimental class is 50.00, which is higher than the control class’ score of 45.00. for the maximum score and average score, the experimental class is higher than the control class. where experimental class gets the maximum score 85.00 with the average score is 65.53, the control class obtained a maximum score of 80.00 and an average score of 63.25. the conclusion is that the post-test score of the experimental class is higher than the control class. the comparison of the post-test scores of both classes are better visualised on figure 3.2. figure 3.2 comparison post-test scores of experimental and control classes based on figure 3.2, this study found that the average post-test score of the experimental class is higher than the control class, the opposite case with the pre-test score.. the mean diagram of the experimental class achieves an average of 65.53, while the control class achieves an average of 63.25. similarly with the pre-test, the post-test data results are the tested multiple times with the normality test and the homogeneity test as the qualification for the continuing test. the result of the normality test on the post-test data can be seen on table 3.6. table 3.6 normality test of post-test table 3.6 shows that the experimental class’ asymp. sig. (2-tailed) is 0.113 with significant level 0.05. as the data of asymp. sig. (2-tailed) 0.113 > 0.05, it means that the distribution of data is normal. the control class’ asymp. sig. (2-tailed) 0.123 > 0.05, which also means that the data distribution is also normal. this means that both classes’ post-test data has a normal distribution. next, researchers conducted the homogeneity test on the post-test scores, and the results is shown on table 3.7. table 3.7 homogeneity test of post-test as can be seen on table 3.7, the value of asymp. sig. (2-tailed) is 0.172 with significant level 0.05, meaning that the post-test on experimental class is coming from homogeneous variance when based on asymp. sig. (2-tailed) 0.172 > 0.05, it means that the post-test data both the classes form the homogenous variance. since data are normal and homogenous, so the data can be calculated by using parametric t-test. the result of t-test on the post-test data can be seen in table 4.8. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 19-26 24 table 4.8 t-test result of post-test table 4.8 shows that the t-test result of both was not significantly different. this is because the value of asymp. sig. (2-tailed) is 0.249. it meant asymp.sig. (2-tailed) 249 > significant level 0.05. as experimental class and control class are found equal, researchers moved to calculate the data with n-gain to obtain the effect size of the moodle treatment on the experimental class. the result of the n-gain can be seen on table 4.9. table 4.9 n-gain score of experimental class table 4.9 shows that the average of n-gain is 0.29, meaning that the significance of the treatment, that is using moodle-based learning, in the experimental class is in the middle level. this is because according to the criteria of achievement, n-gain score can be said as a middle level if the score is 0.3 < g < 0.7. therefore, the open-source learning management system moodle gives a positive effect for the elearning of the fifth semester students of english education department in fkip unilak, pekanbaru. 4. discussion the researchers analysed the results of the multiple statistical tests on the data of essay pre-test and post-test scores from students’ discourse analysis comprehension. based on the results of pre-test calculations, the experimental class (51.53) and the control class (52.96) were not significantly different. after giving the experimental class the treatment of using moodle as the framework for their da course, results of post-test calculations also showed that the experimental class (65.53) is not significantly different with the control class (63.25). the key difference, however, is that during the pre-test, experimental class scored lower than the control class, but they scored higher in the post-test. the calculations with the normality test, homogeneity test, t-test, and n-gain in overall led researchers to confirm that using moodle as e-learning platform is effective for university efl students. 4.1 teaching discourse analysis using moodle from the results of this quasi-experimental study, the researchers conclude that moodle in e-learning is indeed effectively used in teaching and learning by the discourse analysis course which pioneered its usage to other classes. the students’ comprehension of the advanced material of critical discourse analysis is better than students who were taught with only the traditional, in-class lecture techniques. this finding can be ascertained from the students’ mean scores in the pre-test (51.53) and post-test (65.53). the post-test score is better than the pre-test, and this is true for both experimental and control classes. although, as the experimental class who initially scored lower than the control class eventually scored higher, the researchers conclude that the treatment e-learning does give positive effects. 4.2 students’ results in using moodle the indonesian university efl students’ who are taught without the moodle platform in e-learning sometimes feel lack of interest and boring into the classroom. it is caused the students sometimes do not interested in the conventional method in the classroom and do not use another media or platform in a learning activity. based on the fact, the score of the students who are taught using moodle platform in e-learning can be seen from the result of the mean score in the control class in the pre-test (52.96) and post-test (63.25). they also have a different score, but it is still lower than the mean score in the experimental class. 5. conclusion this study used a quasi-experimental research design to statistically determine the effectiveness of the open-source learning platform known as moodle for university efl students. fifth-semester students in fkip unilak who were enrolled in discourse analysis course during the 2017/2018 academic year became the focus as they are the ones who first started using moodle for their e-learning process. one class is chosen as the control class in which the students are taught with only the conventional method, and the other class is chosen as the experimental class in which the students are taught with moodle as the platform of their e-learning process. both essay pretest and post-test results were finely calculated with normality test, homogeneity test, t-test, and n-gain. in the end, the study found that the experimental class’ average post-test score is 65.53, higher than the control class’ score of 63.25. the findings of this research show that students who are taught with the blended-learning style gains significant improvement than with traditional lecture-style learning. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 1, april 2020, pp. 19-26 25 this study addressed the seeming research gap of empirical investigation on efl university students’ application of moodle in indonesia. in the future, researchers might be interested to compare the empirical findings of the application of moodle or other online tools across different disciplines or different countries. gender differences is suggested to be taken into account in future studies, as researchers of this quasi-experimental study should note that the students involved in this research are dominantly female. while student and teacher perceptions is a common and perhaps an unending avenue of research focus, researchers would like to recommend future studies to break down or develop the minutiae practical application of online tools, narrate the details of the transformation of conventional to online teaching, and study the completely exclusive elearning style that is occurring during the world-wide 2020 social distancing due to covid-19 pandemic. 6. acknowledgement this research was supported by the faculty of teacher training and education (fkip) in universitas lancang kuning (unilak). the researchers also thank their colleagues from united kingdom gang out (ukgo) and unilak-research advancement for intellectual and scientific improvement (u-raise) academy who provided aid in improving the language quality of this research article. 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(2019). factors that influence university students’ intention to use moodle: a study in macau. educational technology research and development, 67(3), 749-766. van leeuwen, t. (2008). discourse and practice: new tools for critical discourse analysis. oxford university press. yudar, r. s., aditomo, d. t., & silalahi, n. s. (2020). movie as a helper for students' pronunciation in speaking skill class. elsya: journal of english language studies, 2(1), 15-19. zulkarnain, l. (2012). use of statistics in social research. medan: prime publishing . http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ https://www.lambdasolutions.net/guides-and-research/moodle-user-guide-intro-to-moodle https://www.lambdasolutions.net/guides-and-research/moodle-user-guide-intro-to-moodle journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 120-125 120 community language learning (cll) in tertiary level: a learner friendly approach to elt in bangladesh tazreen jahan bari bangladesh university of professional, dhaka. bangladesh 18151004@student.bup.edu.bd article history received : 2020-10-09 revised : 2020-11-16 accepted : 2020-12-01 keywords community language learning elt language learning tertiary level abstract this paper entitled "cll in tertiary level: a learner friendly approach to elt in bangladesh" aims to analyse the problems faced by tertiary level language learners in bangladesh. this paper shows how community language learning (cll) can be a learner-friendly approach that creates an environment and process fit for maximum efficiency in target language learning. this paper analyses the quantitative data collected via questionnaire from fifty tertiary level students of bangladesh from five universities across bangladesh. this study reveals that tertiary level students face more barriers in classroom participation due to selfconsciousness and anxiety. this study further reveals that using the cll method that treats learners like a whole person allows them to take responsibility for their learning process. it also promotes small study groups consisting of peers and a counsellor-teacher to provide a more efficient learning environment is friendly to the learners. thus, this study asserts that cll is the most learner-friendly and efficient approach to elt in the tertiary level and opens future research possibilities on how this method can be implemented. 1. introduction english language learning is something most students face throughout their academic lives in bangladesh. however, upon entering the tertiary level, students face difficulty learning that is different from being just technical as they face anxiety and shyness induced by a new sense of adulthood. in this context, students of the tertiary level find it more comfortable with making mistakes in a learning environment where they are seen as whole persons and given a chance to learn from their peers and control their learning process. charles a. curran in his book, “counselinglearning: a whole-person model for education" (1972) has developed a language teaching model based on a relationship between teacher and learner that resembles that of a client and counsellor (curran,1972, p. 113). curran explains that the teacher/counsellor by "understanding the language of feeling, answers in the language of cognition” (as cited in richards, dudeney & rodgers, 2001, p. 95). this learning model based on the counsellor-teacher method is the community language learning method or cll, emphasising the importance of trusting relationships and comfortable learning space in the language learning process. cll method promotes small scale classrooms where the students or learners can learn from each other and feel comfortable enough to overcome learning anxieties. although a cll is a reasonably well-researched concept, there is a significant lack of research in this field from the students' perspective. especially in bangladesh, this study attempts to focus on the tertiary level students of bangladesh and create a platform for their voices to be heard. this study entitled “cll in tertiary level: a learner friendly approach to elt in bangladesh” suggests that community language learning (cll) considers the learner's psychological needs by creating a learning process. it based on mutual trust among peers can offer a learner-friendly environment, thus ensuring a more efficient learning process. this paper's general objective is to show how cll is the most learner-friendly and efficient elt method for tertiary level students. to this purpose, this study aims to fulfil the following specific objectives: (1) to determine the problems faced by tertiary level students in english language learning and (2) to show the efficiency of cll method in resolving these problems and becoming the most student-friendly method for elt. in order to examine how cll can be the most learner-friendly approach to elt at the tertiary level, this paper asks the following research questions: what are the problems faced by tertiary level students in language learning classroom? this question will enable the researcher to understand the students' most frequent language learning problems and identify the most common learning barriers. the questionnaire is designed to identify problems specific to learners' comfort and learning anxiety in a classroom environment. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 120-125 121 how can community language learning resolve these problems? this question resonates with more specific questions in the questionnaire that will give the researcher ideas about how using cll method can lessen some of the problems that the tertiary level students face. the questionnaire will ask questions that will compare the two approaches: traditional and cll and choose the one that fits their learning style best. 2. literature review anxiety regarding language learning has been a topic for discussion for a long time. many researchers have given their opinion regarding this issue. anxiety can significantly hamper the learning process. as scovel (1978) has suggested, learner anxiety can be multiple fallbacks, whereas facilitating learner anxiety can produce positive results in the learning process. although it is common for learners to feel anxiety, adult learners especially experience anxiety and frustration induced by a sense of ambiguity in their dual state as an adult and a child-like learner (rardin et al. 1988). zou (1998) in “rethinking empowerment: the acquisition of cultural, linguistic, and academic knowledge” explains that, for effective teaching and meaningful learning, the most crucial factor is establishing trusting relationships. (zou, 1998, p.5). however, most learning strategies do not focus on community building through trusting relationships. cll can offer such relationships. paoling liao (2014) has taken a modern take on cll in his study, “flipped learning: integrating community language learning with facebook via computer and mobile technologies to enhance learner language performances in taiwan." it has shown how online communities can also serve as communities for language learning where learner anxiety is alleviated through the feeling of community (liao, 2014, p. 92). online communities are growing day by day, and they can serve as a safe space for language learners who depend on a comfortable learning environment for better language learning. la forge (1979) wrote in "reflection in the context of community language learning," about using cll for speaking english at junior college in japan. he found that "the quality of the english showed a remarkable improvement." (la forge, 1979, p. 252), which shows how cll can be a viable english qualityarners facing anxiety in the classroom. koba, ogawa and wilkinson in “using the community language learning approach to cope with language anxiety” (2000) asserts that, “a sense of security is woven into each activity of a typical cll cycle along with comfort” (community language learning section, para. 6). this sense of security can go a long way in case of language learners dealing with language anxiety. gallagher's (1973) study on a comparative study between cll and other traditional methods reveals that students in a cll group have more positive changes than students in a traditional group. in her study, fatemeh zarrabi also explores the positive effect of interdependent learning (zarrabi, 2014, p.126). samimy and rardin in “adult language learners’ affective reactions to community language learning: a descriptive study" (1994) examine "whether or not cll is facilitative in alleviating emotional barriers that hinder language acquisition." this study found that "a majority of them experienced a reduction of anxiety" (samimy & rardin, 1994, p.387). although much research has been done on cll, there is a significant lack of work examining this method from the tertiary level learner's perspective, creating a research gap. this research examines this niche of language learning to eradicate some of the said gaps by providing a nuanced understanding of learning anxiety and learners' comfort in the classroom. bringing in the learner's perspective will emphasise the learners' specific needs and how that can be fulfilled by using the cll approach. 3. method this research has been done using a quantitative method using data collected from primary sources. the sources consist of a tertiary level student studying in bangladesh. the researcher has made a questionnaire that asks questions regarding classroom participation, comfortable learning methods, and learner anxiety while learning english as a foreign language. by using this questionnaire, the data has been collected via e-mail, whatsapp and facebook from fifty students studying in five different universities across bangladesh namely bangladesh university of professionals, university of dhaka, rajshahi university, north south university and brac university. bangladesh university of professionals, university of dhaka and rajshahi university are three prominent public universities of bangladesh and therefore follow similar learning structures and environment. north-south university and brac university are two leading private universities of bangladesh that again follow similar learning environment. all five universities have students coming from various backgrounds and varying degrees of exposure to the target language. therefore, the tertiary students who have participated come to cover both public and private university learning environments, making the research more far-reaching. the response collected from students has been converted to numerical data. this data has then been placed on graphs and charts to expose the patterns in a learning process that the researcher has then analysed. 3.1. conceptual framework this research has been organised into two main sections, and the questionnaire reflects that, as shown in figure 3.1. the questionnaire is used to collect data from fifty tertiary level students studying in five universities of bangladesh. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 120-125 122 figure 3.1 conceptual framework the first part of the questionnaire is used to identify what kind of problems tertiary level students in bangladesh face regarding elt. as bengali is the mother tongue of majority students in bangladesh, most students, especially in the tertiary level, face anxiety issues, lack of self-confidence. as students at this stage start to see themselves as individual adults, it clashes with the learner identity perceiving them young and prone to mistakes. which is why this section of the questionnaire is designed to find out specific problems that students face in efl classrooms the second portion of the questionnaire tries to see how different aspects of cll can help alleviate the problems generally faced by tertiary level students. it does so by providing questions to the students that differentiate between a traditional learning technique and a cll method's learning strategy. the researcher suggests cll as a solution to classroom anxiety and learning barriers. thus, cll can be suggested as a learner-friendly approach that solves most frequently faced problems by tertiary level students. 4. findings whether students feel shy while answering questions in the target language has revealed that 68% feel shy, whereas only 32% feel comfortable classroom participation. 72% of students have said that they only participate in classroom activities when forced to do so (see appendix b). figure 4.1 barriers faced by students in language learning class the collected data further revealed that 38% (19 out of 50 students) of learners find themselves suffering from self-consciousness, 46% (23 out of 50 students) learners are inactive due to nervousness and nearly 16% (8 out of 50 students) of the total student body find the classroom and instructor or learning environment unfriendly. this data has been illustrated in figure 4.2. whether as adults, they have grown weary of making mistakes, 56% (28 out of 50 students) answered that this sense of adulthood makes them think they cannot make mistakes. when asked to specify an unfriendly environment, 68% agreed that the traditional role induces it. 32% of student agreed that a large-scale classroom made active participation more stressful. 38% 46% 16% barriers faced by learners in language learning classroom self-consciousness nervousness unfriendly environment http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 120-125 123 the data reveals that only 22% of the students preferred traditional classrooms (which are generally large scale in the context of bangladesh) over small study groups or communities of friends based on mutual trust preferred by 78% of the students. this data has been illustrated in figure 4.2. figure 4.2 cll in relation to preferred classroom furthermore, upon being questioned about whether students will feel more comfortable speaking and participating in the class activities if the teacher was someone like a counsellor/mentor, 88% (44 out of 50 students) of the total student body answered in the affirmative. in comparison, only 12%, which consists of only six students out of 50, preferred a traditional instructor. this result can be seen in the pie-chart below: figure 4.3 preferred instructor in class in answer to whether they learn better when discussing things with peers or in the classroom, 78% of the latter spoke. moreover, 84% of students have said that they tend to seek out their fellow peers before the instructor when they face any problem regarding learning materials (see appendix b). when the students are asked if they can take responsibility for their learning process, only 6% of students said no whereas 34% of students said yes, and 60% of students said, "to some extent". this result can be seen illustrated in figure 4.4. figure 4.4 cll in relation to preferred learning process furthermore, upon being asked how they learn well, 66% (33 out of 50) students answered they prefer self-study based learning over instructed learning process which is preferred by remaining 34% (17 out of 50) students (see appendix b). 5. discussion 5.1 problems faced by tertiary level students as the data shows, most learners feel classroom anxiety as adult learners. this anxiety is expressed through the lack of classroom participation in tertiary level students based on their shyness. which asks to examine this barrier further to see what problems are specific to the tertiary level students. adult learners such as tertiary level students more often than not suffer from self-consciousness and nervousness due to their newly developed sense of identity as a whole-person or new-adult. as adults, most people feel that they are not allowed to make mistakes. it is why among tertiary level students who are new adults, yet students prone to mistakes in a language learning classroom, self-consciousness becomes a barrier to their language learning process. another barrier to their language learning process is their instructor. a traditional instructor will treat them like students rather than a colleague or friend. although this superior-inferior relationship works with younger students, tertiary level students are more comfortable with an instructor who can see eye to eye, creating an equal ground of respect between the learner and instructor. as the data shows, most students prefer a mentor or counsellor as an instructor rather than an instructor in the traditional sense. moreover, a traditional instructor is not bound to consider the student's psychological needs as a counsellor would. 5.2 cll and expectations from classroom tertiary level students are easily subjected to a sense of alienation in a large-scale classroom as it can create an “intimidating atmosphere” (nuraini, 2016, 78% 22% preferred community small study group part of large class 88% 12% preferred instructor counselor teacher 6% 34% 60% autonomy over learning process no yes to some extent http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 120-125 124 p.12). the data shows that most students prefer a smallscale classroom as they are quickly left behind and intimidated by a large classroom which is the reality for most bangladeshi language learners in the tertiary level. the student body in classrooms can be anywhere between 50-150, which is undoubtedly anxietyinducing, especially in adult learners who are anxious about the idea of making mistakes in front of a large crowd. a study shows that providing a small-scale peer group for classroom activities revealed that “students were impressed and happy” with their work “because of the supportive environment provided through working with peers in a group" (mahmoud, 2014, p.261). the collected data draws a similar conclusion from the students as upon being asked, most students replied that they feel more comfortable in a small-scale classroom. cll makes cll a better option than other language learning methods, as cll specifically focuses on giving the learners a small-scale classroom to lessen classroom anxiety through community feeling. a classroom designed to fit the cll mentor of language learning will also have an instructor who takes on a counsellor or mentor's role rather than the traditional role of an instructor. as the data reveals, most students of tertiary level prefer this type of instructor over traditional ones. as learners prefer instructors who are friendly and see them on equal ground, it will provide a more comfortable environment for them, which will enable them to learn better than in a traditional classroom. they will feel more comfortable to look past the initial shyness and participate in classroom activities. furthermore, they will feel comfortable to reach out to the instructor when in need which will enable them to learn from their mistakes without being discouraged. 5.3. cll and expectations from the learning process to understand how tertiary level students, learn best, the researcher has first examined their preference in learning. as the data shows, most learners prefer to ask for guidance to their fellow peers rather than asking their instructor when faced with a learning barrier or problem. it can become a learning barrier as the other learners may not always know the right answer or be inadequate to give them a proper solution to their problem. furthermore, this creates a gap between the instructor and students, becoming an obstacle in the learner's progression path. which again points to cll as a solution as cll offers the students an instructor who is more open to the learners; therefore, more approachable than the traditional instructor. furthermore, this suggests that they prefer to have autonomy over their learning process. this idea is reinforced when the students are asked if they find themselves capable of taking responsibility for their learning process. most students replied that some students replied in the affirmative, and only a few students replied negatively. it shows that almost all students like to have autonomy over their learning process, and most of them think they can take partial responsibility for their learning process. a study done on saudi university students reveals that letting the students be in charge of their assigned tasks made feel "that they became more responsible for their work as creators of ideas and builders of meaning and knowledge” (mahmoud, 2014, p.262). it makes cll the most suitable method for tertiary level students as it allows the learner to have autonomy over their learning process. however, as most students answered, "to some extent", it reflects that although they want autonomy over their learning process, some degree of guidance and control is needed, which is not surprising as most tertiary level students are at the threshold of adulthood not completely adult yet. meaning they find themselves wanting to be autonomous yet are prone to mistakes when given full responsibility. which is why cll can again be the perfect solution for these students. a study done on intermediate-level iranian efl students shows that a shift from "teacher dependence to learner interdependence" can positively change efl students' learning progress (zarrabi, 2016, p. 126). cll allows the learners to have a degree of autonomy over their learning process yet bounds them by the sense of community or interdependence, allowing them to take guidance and help when in need. 6. conclusion “there is a huge discrepancy between what the students expect and what the real scenario is in bangladesh” in the context of language learning in tertiary level (haque, 2014, p.63). therefore, it is of great significance to understand the learning barriers these students face and mitigate them as far as possible. the research has attempted to examine the problems tertiary level students face in language learning and how these problems can be resolved using community language learning or cll. the data analysis has revealed that most students face self-consciousness and alienation due to their sense of identity as a new adult and unfriendly instructors and large classrooms. the data further shows that most students would prefer a counsellor and small group, which will offer them a more comfortable learning environment by relieving psychological anxiety induced by learning in an alienating environment. furthermore, tertiary level students are capable of taking responsibility for both their learning process and prefer learning from peers or on their own. community language learning can offer a counsellor, small study groups and autonomy over the learning process to the learners. as tertiary level students are usually new adults trying to cope with their new responsible and autonomous selves, cll fits their needs perfectly. thus, cll appears to be the most student-friendly approach to elt for tertiary level http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 120-125 125 students. although most researchers focus on the efficiency and practicality of language learning methods, it is crucial to give the learners a platform to voice their needs and preferences. it is especially true for tertiary level students who have had time to understand their learning needs. this research has attempted to be a reliable platform for representing the learners' voice and bringing forth their opinions in the context of language learning barriers and classroom anxiety. from analysing the results and providing a nuanced understanding of the problems at hand, this study recommends partial or full implementation of the cll in tertiary level classrooms of bangladesh to mitigate the learning barriers in this context and encourage a more efficient learning process. future researchers can elaborate on this novel way of looking at language learning barriers to find new ways of developing a learner-friendly classroom. references curran, c. a. (1972). counseling-learning: a wholeperson model for education. new york: grune and stratton. gallagher, r. m. (1973). an evaluation of a counselling-community learning approach to foreign language teaching or counsellinglearning theory applied to foreign language learning. loyola ecommons: dissertations. retrieved from https://ecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=2444&context=luc_diss haque, s. (2014). expectation of tertiary students of bangladesh from elt classrooms. journal of nelta, 19(1-2), 56-64. koba, n., ogawa, n., & wilkinson, d. (2000). using the community language learning approach to cope with language anxiety. the internet tesl journal, 6(11). retrieved from http://iteslj.org/articles/koba-cll.html la forge, p. g. (1979). reflection in the context of community language learning. english language teaching journal, 33(4), 247–254. retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej206586 liao, p. (2014). flipped learning: integrating community language learning with facebook via computer and mobile technologies to enhance learner language performances in taiwan. multidisciplinary social networks research, 437, 92–101. doi: 10.1007/978-3662-45071-0_8 mahmoud, m. m. (2014). the effectiveness of using the cooperative language learning approach to enhance efl writing skills among saudi university students. journal of language teaching and research, 5(3), 616-625. doi:10.4304/jltr.5.3.616-625 nuraini, k. (2016). the barriers of teaching speaking english for efl learners. ellite journal of english language, literature, and teaching, 1(1), 7-14. rardin, j. p., tranel, d. d., tirone, p. l., & green, b. d. (1988). education in a new dimension: the counseling-learning approach to community language learning (1st ed.). counselinglearning publications. richards, j. c., dudeney, g., & rodgers, t. s. (2001). approaches and methods in language teaching. cambridge university press. samimy, k. k., & rardin, j. p. (1994). adult language learners’ affective reactions to community ianguage learning: a descriptive study. foreign language annals, 27(3), 379–390. doi: 10.1111/j.1944-9720.1994.tb01215.x scovel, t. (1978). the effect of affect on foreign language learning: a review of the anxiety research. language learning, 28(1), 121–142. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-1770.1978.tb00309.x zarrabi, f. (2016). a study on cooperative language learning : the impact of cll approach on english language proficiency on efl learners. european journal of education studies, 1(2), 119-132. zou, y. (1998). rethinking empowerment: the acquisition of cultural, linguistic, and academic knowledge. tesol journal, 7(4), 5– 6 . http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ https://ecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2444&context=luc_diss https://ecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2444&context=luc_diss https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45071-0_8 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45071-0_8 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1978.tb00309.x instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 134-140 134 impact of vocabulary learning strategies on gender based esl learners in pakistan muhammad safdar bhatti 1 & rafia mukhtar 2 1 the islamia university of bahawalpur, punjab. pakistan 2 workers welfare school (g) bahawalpur, punjab. pakistan safdarbhatti2001@gmail.com article history received : 2020-07-24 revised : 2020-11-22 accepted : 2020-12-23 keywords investigation strategies vocabulary esl learners comparatively abstract the wide spectrum of english language compels readers to find out the exact crux of the language itself. english has won the status of international language. it has become a dire need of this age. the english language is comparatively difficult due to its pronunciation, sentence structure and vocabulary level from local languages in pakistan. vocabulary is the utmost aspect of learning a second language. it is the essence and soul of language. the language process depends on learning vocabulary. so the current paper investigates the impact of vocabulary learning strategies for the esl learners in pakistan. it was an experimental type of research. one hundred students of grade-9 in the academic year 2019-20 participated in this study. the data was collected through test and questionnaire. the study results revealed that the students who were taught by the esl learning techniques (semantic mapping, imaging and pics, visual and auditory, group association and word contact) performed better as compared with the students in the traditional vocabulary learning method. female students performed better in the experimental group. esl male learners used group association learning technique at priority, and esl female learners used visual and auditory learning at their priority. the researchers recommend that english language teachers should use vocabulary learning strategies for teaching english to esl learners. 1. introduction pakistan is a developing country. its literacy rate is not praiseworthy and is at a low level in the ranking list of literate countries. the situation is even worse in rural areas (bhatti, 2016). the students, even after twelve years' education, are unable to get command over english language (kannan, 2009; bhatti, 2016). students just study to pass their exams, and most of them prepare specific areas of the syllabus (warsi, 2004), which directly affects their learning. language is a weapon for man. it has to be taught and used in social groups. the studies of asyiah (2017) revealed that metacognitive and determination strategies were most preferred vlt selected by pupils while teachers often used contextual strategy. according to jenpattarakul (2012), the techniques, like rote reiteration, meaningful sentences of vocabulary, use of pictures motivated students to learn the english language that increases their imagination and creativity. in early 20th century, the linguists and researchers paid their attention to gender differences in human language acquisition and explored the difference among gender in using vocabulary, communication, and syntax. gender and language are the main study areas among applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, and researchers in investigating different speech aspects related to gender (tannen & deborah, 2006). gender difference in learning a language is related to psychology, physiology, and personal experiences. male students employed social strategies, while female students liked cognitive and metacognitive strategies (wei, 2016). premeditated vocabulary learning approaches are supposed to suit students' personal needs (wei & attan, 2013). it is the only way to speak with each other, and it is the way by which we can send our messages to others. it is not only used for routine dialogue but also used in education, research and science in spoken as well as in written form. without it, man is like a dumb animal. proficiency over target knowledge of vocabulary can make our students powerful speakers, handsome listeners, good readers and writers. for learning any language, both the oral and written skills are of equal importance. the students' achievement in learning vocabulary is related to accurate vocabulary learning strategies (yunus & saifudin, 2019). for this purpose, there is a dire need of interaction among the learner, educator and the study material. in fact, english is being used worldwide as an international language and has become a lingua franca and a language of greater opportunities. it also enjoys a supreme status in society. its sound knowledge is a successful passport for any job. the students are more motivated and engaged when they work in group activities to improve vocabulary in reading classes (alghamdi, 2019). basically, learning a second language is never easy. learning of vocabulary is the very basic point to expertise it in the target language. vocabulary http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ mailto:safdarbhatti2001@gmail.com journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 134-140 135 acquisition, vocabulary retention and vocabulary transfer are some confusing processes in learning vocabulary. no doubt, the role of vocabulary is very vital in order to language teaching and learning. mastery in the vocabulary will enable the students to enhance other skills well. developing vocabulary is a confusing series of actions to achieve the results. it takes a long time to master english vocabulary. it makes the learning process more meaningful. lack of vocabulary seems one of the major causes of the failure of our students. it is the major hindrance in the learning process, especially english. academic english is essential for the success of esl learners in school settings. it has been observed that in most of our public and private schools, the teachers teach the students only by the so-called traditional ways of teaching english vocabulary. learners have to wrestle with new vocabulary, rules of grammar, pronunciation and more. in learning a second language, vocabulary is the most paramount part. it is the soul and essence of a language. it is also the first and leading stair in language acquisition. its knowledge plays an important role in almost all areas of language. so, the whole process of learning a language depends on learning its vocabulary. english vocabulary is marvelous and becomes part and parcel of technology and social interaction. the cognitive, social and psychological factors are involved in learning and retaining of vocabulary. the social indicators of students learning process are parents, peers and teachers who help in refining the learning process of the learners through different literary events. it has to be taught and used in social groups. it is the only way to speak with each other, and it is the way by which we can send our messages to others. it is not only used for routine dialogue but also used in education, research and science in spoken as well as in written form. recently, network communities made the globalization much easier than ever. the vital role is being played through the english language. no part of the world is seen without understanding and speaking the english language. trade, administration, social and educational problems are easily discussed in the english language. most people convey their thoughts and perform a variety of functions in different situations. echoing on the above explanation, the present study seeing some gaps and sets its core objectives, namely; (1) to compare the achievement scores of students learning through esl learning techniques and traditional methods. then (2) to analyze the effective vocabulary learning strategies between esl male and female learners. in the end, try (3) to offer strategies and tools to help students in learning new vocabulary. nevertheless, this study also would like to seeks for (4) the male students’ standard deviation and mean achievement of esl learning techniques and (5) the female students’ standard deviation and mean achievement of esl learning techniques. therefore, this present study will set an experimental study in nature, which included both groups: experimental and control group. 2. literature review 2.1 the nature of vocabulary the knowledge of words relevant to its meaning and explanations is called vocabulary (schmitt, 2000). vocabulary is the fundamental aspect of grasping a second language. the vocabulary learning process needs the abilities of retention, acquisition, and transfer of vocabulary (schneider et al., 2002). according to oxford (1990), language learning strategies are behaviours or techniques used by the learners in facilitation and acquisition of language. language learning aspects must be considered during teaching vocabulary, which is: syntax, semantics and arranging of words. every language has different meanings, sentence structure and arrangement of words which leads to several vocabulary learning issues. cognitive, social and psychological factors are involved in learning and retaining of vocabulary. the social indicators of students' learning process are parents, peers and teachers who help in refining the learning process of the learners through different literary events. mobius (1904) (as cited in na, 2016), presented the sex differences of the human brain. he observed that women are physiologically weak-minded than men as women skull is eight per cent less than men. leonard (1998) (as cited in na, 2016), found that the cerebral cortex related to complex thinking is thicker in women's brains than men's. the left cerebral hemisphere is dominant in females, which facilitates short-term memory and language communication while the right cerebral hemisphere is dominant in males and helps to enhance the analytical ability and comprehensive competence. the psychological difference revealed that male learners are adventurous, confident, independent and outspoken but careless, and females are delicate, quiet and irresolute. it means that male learners are better self-evaluators and selfrecognizers. douglas and burman (2006) stated that boys speak later than girls. after one and a half year from birth, females have twice the vocabulary than males. boys are apt at verbal reasoning. the females are good at grammar and spelling. gender issue in second language acquisition has achieved the vital acceptance and attention among researchers and linguists worldwide (brantmeier, 2003; young & oxford, 1997), strategies of learning (jimenez, 2003; young & oxford,1997) production of errors (jimenez, 1992). different results have been achieved through the various researches carried out on that issue. some studies supported males over females or vice versa, and even others revealed that gender is an irrelevant issue in foreign language acquisition. regarding vocabulary acquisition, the gender role occupied a projecting place among scholars. some studies that addressed gender differences mostly http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 134-140 136 related to a lexical acquisition. according to boyle (1987), males are dominant over females incomprehension. scarcella and zimmerman (1998) also revealed that men performed better than women in the academic vocabulary recognition test. the studies of lin and wu (2003), lynn et al. (2005), and edelenbos and vinje (2000), investigated the superiority of males over females in vocabulary knowledge of the foreign language. unlike foreign scholars, sunderland (2000) showed that women had better performance than men in a memory test. on the other hand, the findings of jimenez and terrazas (2005-2008) revealed a non-significant gender difference in a receptive vocabulary performance test. meara and fitzpatrick (2000) and jimenez and moreno (2004) showed that females performed higher than males in productive vocabulary. the empirical evidence found in favor of females in lexical availability test (jimenez & ojeda, 2009). many studies had mixed results in vocabulary acquisition of foreign language (jimenez,2010). in identifying the role of gender in vocabulary learning strategies, jimenez (2003) found that females were superior to males in qualitative and quantitative terms by using more strategies than males. the female students learn vocabulary rapidly than their male counterparts. however, male students incorporate more new words into lexicons than female students (llach & gallego, 2012). vocabulary is needed in learning a second language. according to nation (2001), vocabulary learning is the first step for achieving the goal. according to stoller and grabe (1993), vocabulary development is essential for non-native and native learners. kaivanpanah and zandi (2009) revealed that first and second languages could not be learnt without a sound knowledge of vocabulary. hulatijn (2005) told that without knowing the meanings of the words, understanding the text is strictly hampered. quin and irvings (1997) revealed that memorizing new and unrelated words is a difficult task. according to wei (2007), long term retention is necessary for learning new vocabulary. vocabulary learning is the major grievance of esl students. it is difficult for them to memorize the new vocabulary structures for a long time. the words are building blocks for learning a language. words do not exist in isolated form. they are interwoven to achieve listening and reading understanding to share the ideas in writing and speaking process. oxford (1990) proposed six learning strategies. they are: retrieving and remembering, cognitive strategy, meta-cognitive strategy, compensation, affective and social strategy. in short, internal and external factors are responsible for learning. the internal factors concern age, motivation, intelligence, attitude, personality and aptitude. as for the external factors, they refer to the learning environment, teaching methods, social background and evaluation. oxford and scarcella (1994) identified many approaches for the teaching of vocabulary based on learners' needs, motivation and difficulty. in the past, vocabulary was taught in the class unsystematically that learners learnt the vocabulary without the guidance of their teachers. the new and modern approach made the learners learn vocabulary systematically with the help of words which students use frequently. nation (2001) contends that learning strategies of vocabulary are part of general teaching. 2.2 word meaning theory there exists a basic structure behind every word, fixed meaning and fuzzy meaning. in fixed meaning, the learners acquire the core meaning of a word, and the fuzzy meaning is not concerned with fixed meaning (aitchison, 2003). they are constructed into planning information and process. 2.3 techniques of vocabulary retention (tvrs) oxford and crookall (1990) proposed a few memory strategies to help learners in recovering and storing new information a) grouping association: grouping is easier to remember new words. for example, (nouns, verbs), semantic(statements) or themes (words about situations). new words based on old memory concepts like, "erroneous mean is mistaken" the students cannot associate with "error". b) words context technique: new words are placed in long-term memory with the help of meaningful dialogues and sentences in a story. c) using imagery: meaningful imagery is helpful for new language information. d) semantic mapping: related words are arranged by means of arrows and lines in semantic mapping. e) visual and auditory learning: similar sounds help new language words incorporating mother language. the learners create auditory links with the familiar and new word through a visual link. they may be memorized by using rhymes. repeating novice words are pronounced loudly in sentences to improve retention skills. it is done by reading newspapers and magazines. moreover, flashcards may be used to develop interest among learners. other methods include matching, filling the blanks; prefixes and suffixes exercises. students may learn many new words but unable to retain in long term memory. the current study is undertaken to help esl learners in retaining and learning vocabulary through effective learning techniques used to learn new words. the core objectives of the study are to compare the achievement scores of students learning through esl learning techniques and traditional methods. and also to analyze the effective vocabulary learning strategies between esl male and female learners. to offer strategies and tools to help students in learning new vocabulary. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 134-140 137 3. method the current study was experimental in nature which included both groups: experimental and control group. in addition, a questionnaire was filled up by teachers about their experience regarding esl vocabulary learning strategies. secondary level esl learners of bahawalpur city were those concerned with this study. the data was collected from esl learners of secondary level in the academic year 2019-20. the study was limited to bahawalpur city only. in this study, one hundred students from govt. s. d. high school, bahawalpur and workers welfare high school (girls) participated. esl learners from grade9 were selected randomly. among the overall one hundred students, fifty belonged to the control group, and the other half belonged to the experimental group. each group had equal participation of male and female students. the following research tools were used to collect the data from the respondents are questionnaire for teachers, pre-test and post-test for students. the test was used to collect the data to find out the level of vocabulary from the respondents. there were both open-ended and close-ended questions. the instrument, vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire (vlsq) developed by schmitt (1997, 2000) was used for the study. the vocabulary learning strategies were memory, determination, cognitive, social, and meta-cognition. the second instrument, vocabulary level test (vlt) by (nation, 2001; schmitt, schmitt, & clapham, 2001) was used by the researchers for measuring vocabulary size of students. it was easy to administer. test and questionnaires were the research tools used for this study. questionnaire was delivered to the teachers about their teaching experiences. their result was also collected on the same questionnaire as their performance. 4. findings 4.1 the comparison between students learning through esl learning techniques and traditional methods table 4.1 the comparison of performance under control and experimental groups respondents frequenc y mean std. d t p control group 50 57.12 11.82 -2.338 .021* experimental group 50 62.72 12.12 *p<0.05 table 4.1 discovered an apparent distinction in students’ performance between control and experimental groups under esl learning strategies. the two groups had an apparent distinction between them. the mean achievement score of the control group is (m= 57.12, sd= 11.82) and the experimental group is (m=62.72, sd=12.12) with (p value<0.05) shows that experimental group had better achievement score as compared with the control group. so the research question, "how to compare the achievement scores of students learning through esl learning techniques and traditional methods?” can be answered by the affirmative. 4.2 analysis of the effective vocabulary learning strategies between male and female esl learners table 4.2 student’ performance under esl learners’ strategies in experimental group n=50 students n mean std. d t p male 25 56.98 11.41 -2-462 .016* female 25 62.86 12.44 *p<0.05 in table 4.2, there was an apparent distinction in students' performance between male and female under esl learning strategies. it is obvious that there is an apparent difference in both genders. the achievement of males is (m= 56.98, sd= 11.41) and females (m=62.86, sd=12.44) with (p value<0.05) showed that female respondents performed better as compared with male respondents. so the research question, “how to analyze the effective vocabulary learning strategies between esl male and female learners?” can be answered by the affirmative. 4.3 the strategies and tools to help students in learning new vocabulary table 4.3 mean score of overall learning strategies among esl learners semantic mapping word context techniqu e using imagery/ pics group associatio n visual & auditory learning mean 3.57 3.62 3.64 3.65 3.76 std. dev. 1.32 .77 .85 .79 1.04 it is evident from table 4.3 that the most useful learning technique among esl learners was visual and auditory learning technique. the second learning technique was a group association for the students. the third esl learning technique was using imagery. word context technique was the fourth important indicator for esl learners at the school level. the last technique that was used by the students was semantic mapping. 4.4 the mean of achievement score and standard deviation of esl learning techniques for male students http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 134-140 138 table 4.4 mean score of male students learning strategies among esl learners n=25 tests semantic mapping word context technique using imagery group association visual & audit. learn. mean 3.093 3.343 3.272 3.400 3.325 std. d. 1.25 .67 .82 .79 1.01 table 4.4 illustrates that the most useful learning technique among esl male learners was group association learning technique. the second learning technique was the word context for the students. the third esl learning technique was visual and auditory learning. the fourth technique was using imagery. the last technique that was used by the male students was semantic mapping. it is evident from the bar graph below. figure 4.1 mean and sd of indicators by male esls 4.5 the mean achievement score and standard deviation of esl learning techniques for female students. table 4.5 mean score of female students learning strategies among esl learners n=25 semantic mapping word context technique using imagery group association vis. & aud. learn. mean 4.053 3.910 4.015 3.913 4.195 std. d. 1.225 .762 .726 .718 .888 the above table demonstrates that the most useful learning technique among esl female learners was visual and auditory learning. the second technique used by female students was semantic mapping. the third technique was using imagery. the fourth one was a group association learning technique. the last technique used by female esl students was word context. it is evident from the bar graph below. figure 4.2 mean and sd of indicators by female esls 5. discussion as stated earlier, a questionnaire was also prepared to check teachers' views about the strategies to improve the vocabulary of esl learners. teachers told that when they provided their students' proper guideline, their students took more interest in learning vocabulary items. they considered themselves part of that activity and took part fully. at the same time, 80% of teachers told that they found their students more confident. 89% of teachers agreed that the use of vocabulary learning strategies through different activities had a positive impact on the minds of the students. 100% of teachers strongly agreed that secondary level students' vocabulary skill was improved with the help of vocabulary learning strategies. the study supported the findings of the previous studies like alqahtani (2015) that communicative competence has good vocabulary knowledge. the successful learners responded well during interaction with second language learners. according to teng (2014), vocabulary learning has proved a successful communication. the study of davoudi and chavosh (2016) affirmed that comprehension improved the vocabulary knowledge of learners. a significant difference in students’ performance between control and experimental groups under esl learning strategies was found. the mean achievement score of the control and the experimental group showed that the experimental group had better achievement score as compared with the control group. there was an apparent distinction in students' performance between male and female under esl learning strategies. the achievement score of male students and female students shows that female students have performed better as compared with male students. the current study supported the findings of the studies yunus and saifudin (2019) that students' achievement in learning vocabulary is related to accurate vocabulary learning strategies. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 134-140 139 the overall most useful learning technique among esl learners was visual and auditory learning technique. the second learning technique was a group association for the students. the third esl learning technique was using imagery. word context technique was the fourth important indicator for esl learners at the school level. the last technique that was used by the students was semantic mapping. esl male learners used group association learning technique at priority while esl female learners used visual and auditory learning. the second learning technique used by the male learners was word context, whereas the female learners used semantic mapping. the third technique used by male learners was visual and auditory learning, while the female learners used imagery. the fourth technique of the male students was using imagery while the female learners were group association learning technique. the last technique used by the male students was semantic mapping, whereas female students used word context. 6. conclusion the purpose of this study was to develop gender based vocabulary learning strategies of secondary level students through different strategies. after the data analysis of the results of both groups, it was proved that various activities and strategies were fruitful and full of entertainment for the students during the experiments. the study also supported the findings of wei (2016) that male students were more unwilling and independent to be dominated, and they have underprivileged vocabulary because they dislike the study of routine language. female students improved their language competence via note-taking and dialogue reciting. therefore, it has been demonstrated that there is a significant difference in the results of pretest conducted before teaching the lessons according to the plan of researchers and post-test after the favourable accomplishment of the research tasks. it is a fact that gender-based vocabulary learning strategies are perfect means for the secondary level students to improve their vocabulary. it can be concluded that when a teacher creates a learning environment in the classroom by using interesting vocabulary learning strategies, then naturally, the students' response is positive. 7. recommendations based on the current research findings, the following recommendations were made: there is a dire need to develop vocabulary. so, vocabulary must be given more importance in language teaching to get mastery over the language being taught. the researchers further recommend that english language teachers should use different strategies for teaching english in general and for improving vocabulary in particular at the secondary level. they should also motivate their students to work through pair and group in the classroom. public schools should be equipped with libraries, language labs and audio-visual materials such as tape recorder, video-player, overhead projector, multimedia, and such facilities may properly be used for developing the vocabulary of secondary level students. nevertheless, researchers should develop students' vocabulary by giving them exposure to the new phrases and words they might encounter. references aitchison, j. (2003). words in the mind. blackwell publishing ltd. alghamdi1, h. a. (2019). exploring second language vocabulary learning in esl classes. english language teaching, 12(1), 78-84. alqahtani, m. (2015). the importance of vocabulary in language learning and how to be taught. international journal of teaching and education, 3(3), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.20472/te.2015.3.3.002 asyiah, d. n. (2017). the vocabulary teaching and vocabulary learning: perception, strategies, and influences on students’ vocabulary mastery. jurnal bahasa lingua scientia, 9(2), 293-318. bhatti, t. m. (2016). teaching reading through computer-assisted language learning. the electronic journal for english as a second language, 17(2), 1-11. boyle, j. p. (1987). sex differences in listening vocabulary. language learning, 37, 273-284. brantmeier, c. (2003). does gender make a difference? passage content and comprehension in second language reading. reading in a foreign language, 15, 1-27. chen, w. w. (2003). current trends of vocabulary teaching and learning strategies for efl settings. journal of feng chia university, 7, 187-224. cohen, a. d. (1990). language learning. insights for learners, teachers and researcher. boston, mass: heinle and heinle publishers. cohen, a. d. (2000). strategies in learning and using a second language. beijing: foreign language teaching and research press. davoudi, m., & chavosh, m. (2016). vocabulary learning strategy use by iranian efl davoudi, m., & chavosh, m. (2016). vocabulary learning strategy use by iranian efl learners across proficiency levels. international journal of linguistics, 8(1), 67-81. edelenbos, p., & vinje, m. (2000). the assessment of a foreign language at the end of primary (elementary) education. language testing, 17, 144-162. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 134-140 140 ellis, n. c. (1994). vocabulary acquisition: psychological perspectives and pedagogical implications. the language teacher, 19(2), 1216. jenpattarakul, w. (2012). the impact of keyword technique on the students’ vocabulary retention ability in an efl class. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 3(3), 565-565. jimenez, r. m. (1992). errors in the written production of english and possible conditioning factors. madrid: complutense university of madrid. jimenez, r. m. (ed.) (2010). gender perspectives on vocabulary in foreign and second language. basingstoke: palgrave macmillan. kannan, (2009). pictures for language learning. cambridge: cambridge university press. lin, j., & wu, f. (2003). differential performance by gender in foreign language testing. poster for the 2003 annual meeting of ncme chicago. llach, m. p. a., & gallego, m. t. (2012). vocabulary knowledge development and gender differences in a second language. studies english linguistics applied, 12, 45-75. lynn, r., fergusson, d., & horwood, l. j. (2005). sex differences on the wisc-r in new zealand. personality and individual differences, 39, 103-114. meara, p., & fitzpatrick, t. (2000). lex 30: an improved method of assessing productive vocabulary in an l2. system, 28, 19-30. na, w. (2016). gender differences in the use of english vocabulary learning strategies in chinese senior high schools. studies in literature and language, 12(4), 58-62. doi: 10.3968/8225 nation, p. (1990). teaching and learning vocabulary. new york: newbury. nemati, a. b. (2008). vocabulary retention technique through an organized learning scheme. indian linguistics, 69(1-4), 289-296. o’malley, j. m., & chamot, a. u. (1990). learning strategies in second language acquisition. cambridge: cambridge university press. oxford, r. l. (1990). language learning strategies: what every teacher should know. heinle & heinle publishers. oxford, r. l. (1990). use of language learning strategies: a synthesis of studies with implication for strategy training. system, 17, 113. oxford, r., & crookall, d. (1990). vocabulary learning: a critical analysis of techniques. tesl canada journal review, 7(2), 9-30. scarcella, r., & zimmerman, c. (1998). academic words and gender. esl student performance on a test of academic lexicon. studies in second language acquisition, 20, 27-49. schmitt, n. (2000). vocabulary in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. schmitt, n., schmitt, d., & clapham, c. (2001). developing and exploring the behaviour of two new versions of the vocabulary level test. language testing, 18, 55-88. schneider, v. i., healy, a. f., & bourne, l. e., jr. (2002). what is learned under difficult conditions is hard to forget: contextual interference effects in foreign vocabulary acquisition, retention, and transfer. journal of memory and language, 46, 419–440. sunderland, j. (2000). issues of gender and language in second and foreign language education. language teaching, 33, 203-233. szuchman, l. t., & thomlison, b. (2010). writing with style: apa style for social work. cengage learning. teng, f. (2014). research into practice: strategies for teaching and learning vocabulary. beyond words, 2(2), 41–57. warsi, j. (2004). conditions under which english is taught in pakistan: an applied linguistic perspective. sarid journal, 1(1), 1-9. wei, w. s., & attan, a. (2013). exploring strategies for vocabulary learning and teaching for esl learners–a literature review. jurnal teknologi, 65(2), 1-6. young, d. j., & oxford, r. (1997). a gender-related analysis of strategies used to process written input in the native language and a foreign language. applied language learning, 8, 43-73. yunus, k., & saifudin, m. s. (2019). vocabulary learning strategies among english as second language learners. journal of qualitative social sciences, 1(1), 12-19. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp.85-92 85 a morphological process of derivational affixes in popular line webtoon: the annarasumanara baiatun nisa universitas bina sarana informatika, jakarta. indonesia baiatun_nisa@bsi.ac.id article history received : 2020-07-31 revised : 2020-08-15 accepted : 2020-08-26 keywords morphological process affixes derivation line webtoon annarasumanara abstract this research tries to analyze the morphological process of derivational affixes in a popular line webtoon comic titled annarasumanara authored by il kwon ha. this research uses a synchronic descriptive approach in which data are collected and explained naturally. the objects of this research are the conversations in annarasumanara from episode 1 to 10. the results of the research are 53 words that changed word classes, involving 7 derivational prefixes and 47 derivational suffixes. the suffix “-ly” is the most dominantly used in the webtoon. this study revealed not only the detailed morphological process of affix analysis but also the grammatical categories of words and meanings. 1. introduction language uses a variety of expressions to convey a myriad of ideas, thoughts, and feelings that people have. most of them are limited to the level of grammar and words in order to make sense and be understandable (dixon & aikhenvald, 2012). that account is called a morphological process, which is a process that can be explained based on basic operations (roots, stems, or body parts) that bring out the meaning desired by the speaker. abrar (2014) states that a morphological process is a linguistic process that forms words. within this process, people can create new words, use existing words in creative ways, and engage in linguistic wordplay (hamuddin et al., 2019). a morphological process is used to differentiate one word or inflection from another word. it can be defined as the different ways of structuring words. it emphasizes the two main methods, word formation and derivation (unubi & yusuf, 2017). this is why musa, rahman, & altakhaineh (2015) argued that words could be formed or developed through various morphological processes in the language. so, there is a certain word-formation or a morphological process that changes morphemes into words in a language (derin et al., 2019). referring to the morphology process, morphology cannot be separated into linguistic terms as the most fundamental units of grammatical forms (rustamaji, 2015). furthermore, to build the vocabulary by adding affixed words will have different grammatical meanings and categories. for example, in the word “happy”. it is an adjective. so, if you add the word “ness” after the word “happy”, it substituted to the adverb “happiness”. thus its process not only changes the form of words, but also changes the meaning. in that morphological process, derivation is used to form new words, by combining affixes. they change the basis of meaning. in many cases, derivational affixes will change the syntactic category and meaning at the same time, and sometimes the meaning is predictable (efransyah, 2019). the derivation will list various processes in which the new words are taken from existing words or roots of words, for example from noun to adjective as in the word ‘season’ to ‘seasonal’ ; from verb to noun in the word ‘sing’ to ‘singer’; from verb to adjectives in the word ‘accept’ to ‘acceptable’ and so on (putri, 2018). the morphological processes can be thought as the best classification form of words. further, they play a role in language. it not only creates the new morphemes but also creates new morphemes in the same morpheme. in turn, it functions to compose the word. the combinations of the independent bases with two or more independent roots or stems are called compounds, while the combinations of bases with non-binding or binding elements or words involving modifiers are called derivations compounds. so, the morphological process can express another meaning in the mandatory grammatical category, otherwise known as deformation (yunira et al., 2020). as a result, the morphological process breaks down complex words into basic components, which are called morphemes. morphemes are the meaningful sequences of letters that can be combined to make complex words. there is a similar difference between the inflectional and derivational morpheme. the inflectional morpheme is added to the stem to match its syntactic characteristics, for the example, ‘run’ and ‘runs’. it exemplifies a different from of words as it is applied in the context of other sentence. on the other http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp.85-92 86 hand, derivational morphemes adjust the meaning of the stem to produce a new meaning, for the example ‘rerun’ and ‘runner’. both of the inflectional and derivational morphemes usually adjust the stem in a consistent and predictable manner. thus it provides valuable clues for mapping the form of written word to its meaning (rastle, 2019; yablonski et al., 2019). the concept of morpheme is different from the concept word. morphemes cannot stand as words on their own. it is categorised as a free morpheme but if it can stand alone, it can be said a bound morpheme. when it is used exclusively alongside a free morphemes such as /-s/, /-ly/, /im-/, /un-/, those are called bound morpheme (khan et al., 2016). the other part of morpheme is affix. it is the simple elements of syntactic derivations. it is the syntactic operations that manipulate the smallest object (embick, 2015). one or more morphemes may be arranged by a single word. it can be represented by a single sound and a syllable (rustamaji, 2015). according to ekerete josiah & udoudom (2012) derivational affixes can change the class of root or base. it means that it changes the root of part of speech.. affix has the important role to complete the sentence. it is still a bound morpheme but it has a special function in grammatical structure of the word (ansar, 2016). according to utami (2014) derivational affixes have some characteristics; they are: 1) the words with derivational suffixes combine an arbitrary matter. in this case, to make a noun from the verb ‘adorn’, we must add the suffix “-ment” and no other suffix will match, whereas the verb can be combined only with “-ure” to make a noun ‘failure’. on the other case, the base or root of the word ‘employ’ may use the different suffixes “-ment”, “-er”, “-ee” to make three nouns with different meaning (employment, employer, employee). another example is the word ‘engage’. it functions as verb, so if adding -ment in the end of word, it changes its function to be engagement as a noun; 2) in many cases, derivational suffixes change the part of speech using additional letter. the function of noun becomes an adjective by adding “-ive”, and the change of the active adjective to active verb can be added by “-ate” as in the word figure. that root is used as a noun but if adding -ive in the end of the word, it becomes figurative in which it has the function of an adjective form; 3) derivational suffixes usually do not close off a word. it can be added by another derivational suffix and next, if it is required, for example the word fertilizer. getting to grips with morphology and grammar are the key to have fluency in the mother tongue or foreign language. in many languages, grammar and word formation are structured by adding affixes to stems (for example adding affixes such as -er ', to the root word "work". the function of word is verb and it is altered to the noun “worker”). so it emphasizes the central role of morphological acquisition in the first learning and second language. however, in the second language acquisition and processing (l2), the phenomena of speech syntax expressed through additional words that has been identified as one of the most challenging tasks (kimppa et al., 2019; ciaccio & jacob, 2019). linguists, language enthusiasts, and teachers of english have studied the language problems as distinction from of the morphological processes. some of them discuses, classify, describe and identify the types of affixes grounded in morphological processes (alhasibunur, 2016; unubi & yusuf, 2017; and bunau et al., 2018). however, the study of the morphological process has never been exhausted. hence, relating to this problem, this study focuses on the morphological process that it not only describes the morphological process of affix analysis derived from annarasumanara comic in line webtoon, but also describes the grammar category, the words, and the meanings that are produced during the derivation process. currently the webtoon is a favorite reading platform for visual readers. many innovations have been made nowadays. through smartphone technology, all comic lovers can enjoy the reading using an ease application, either for offline or online reading (istiqomah et al., 2020). at the same time, many digital companies compete to create the webtoon platform. one of them must use or have android applications as it is used by the webtoon, and manga lovers is line webtoon. this application for reading comics may be familiar to most of the people in the world. line webtoon is one of the most popular comic reading applications with a total downloader more than 600,000 (herlambang, 2020). this study contributes to the pool of knowledge on morphological process by investigating derivational affixes found in in a widely popular cyberliterature of the current generation.. 2. method the method used in this study is synchronic descriptive. synchronic research looks at what and how the parts interact. in addition, djajasudarma (2013) shows that synchronic descriptive is a method of research and data collection in which data is collected and explained naturally. therefore, this study explains the process of derivation of annarasumanara comic in line webtoon authored by il kwon ha based on affixes that affect the meaning of words and shape changes. the annarasumanara consists of 27 episodes but this study limits its data from episodes 1 to 10 as the objects of the study since the utmost importance information needed about affixes as the objective of the study have already found in episode 1 to 10. so, http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp.85-92 87 purposive sampling was used to obtain the sample in this study. purposive sampling is an approach where some parts confirm to certain criteria for selection (sibona & walczak, 2012). annarasumanara is one of the most famous comics in the live feed of line webtoon application. il kwon ha, its author, is a famous comic artist from south korea. the word annarasumanara comes from the korean language which has the same meaning as “abracadabra” used by magicians. 3. findings after analysing annarasumanara comic in line webtoon, it is found out that there are 53 words which got change in class of words involve of 7 words of derivational prefixes and 46 words of derivational suffixes. 3.1 derivational prefix the characteristic of derivational prefixes is the addition of derivational prefixes. it is an affix that is placed in front of a base word or root. the 7 prefixes in annarasumanara include non-, re(2 times), dis-, un-, im-, and ab-. the example analysis of the derivational prefixes describe as follow: 3.1.1 nonsense the word nonsense is the result of derivational process. the word nonsense is created from positive noun to negative noun. the prefix nonin the word ‘nonsense’ is attached to another morpheme ‘sense’. the root of word ‘sense’ have similar meaning with feeling. after the root is added with non-, it becomes ‘nonsense’ that have meaning as words that have no meaning. the process of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: sense (noun) ↓ non+ sense ↓ nonsense ( noun) word ‘nonsense’ is taken from conversation on episode 1: “what a nonsense…”. this word appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10. 3.1.2 reminds the word reminds is the result of derivational process. word reminds is created from noun to verb. the prefix rein the word ‘remind’ is attached to another morpheme ‘mind’. the root of word ‘mind’ means part of a person’s brain where their thoughts are. after added with re-, it becomes ‘remind’ that have meaning to remember of something important. the process of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: mind (noun) ↓ re+ mind ↓ remind (verb) the word remind can be seen in conversation on episode 4: “looking at you, reminds me of my old days”. this word appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10. 3.1.3 disappear the word disappear is is created from verb to verb by adding the prefix –dis in the word ‘appear’. the word ‘appear’ give the impression of being seem/ noticeable. after added with dis-, it becomes ‘disappear’ that means go out of sight or lost. the process of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: appear (verb) ↓ dis+ appear ↓ disappear (verb) the word disappear can be found in conversation on episode 6: “if you are a real magician, make them disappear like the restaurant owner”. this word appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10. 3.1.4 unbind the word unbind is created from verb to verb by adding the prefix un in the word ‘bind’. the word ‘bind’ means tie something with a rope or string. after added with un-, it becomes ‘unbind’ that have similar meaning with untie. it means to set free something. the process of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: bind (verb) ↓ un+ bind ↓ unbind (verb) the word unbind is in conversation on episode 6: “if you are a real magician, unbind this tedious curse of poverty”. this word appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10. 3.1.5 immature the word immature is created from adjective (mature) to adjective by adding the prefix im in the word ‘mature’. the word ‘mature’ means young person that showing emotional or act like an adult. after added with im-, it becomes ‘immature’ the otherwise of mature, it is not fully developed as an adult. the process of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp.85-92 88 mature (adj.) ↓ im+ mature ↓ immature (adj.) the word immature can be seen in conversation on episode 9: “he’s saying things that the little ai would say. words that childish and immature”. this word appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10. 3.1.6 abnormal the word abnormal is created from noun to adjective by adding prefix in the word ‘normal’.the word ‘normal’ means usual or ordinary. after added with ab-, it becomes ‘abnormal’ that have meaning unusual thing in a way that it is worrying or harmful. the process of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: normal (noun) ↓ ab+ normal ↓ abnormal (adj.) the word abnormal can be found in conversation on episode 10 “it doesn’t seem normal…and you accepted to that abnormal thing”. this word appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10. 3.1.7 replaces the word replaces is the result of adding the prefix in the word ‘place’. the word ‘place’ means the position or area. after added with re-, it becomes ‘replace’ that have meaning put something in the new position. the process of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: place (noun) ↓ re+ place ↓ replace (verb) the word replace can be found in conversation in episode 10: “ta-da! this is called ‘switch’ magic that replaces one thing with another”. the word replace appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10. 3.2 derivational suffix derivational suffix is an affix that is placed after a base word or root. derivational suffixes are occurring more often in annarasumanara. derivational suffixes denoting processes vary not only in form but also in function. for example, the derivational suffixes -ian, ment, -ance and -er have a noun maker function, -less, -ish, -ous as an adjective maker and -ly as an adverb maker. the 46 suffixes in annarasumanara include: – ian (1), -ment (2), -ance (2), -er (1), -less (3), -ion (4), -ing (1), -ness (4), -ly (9), -ous (2), -al (2), -y (3), -ful (3), -able (2), -ive (1), -ity (2), -ence (1), -hood (1), ish (3). there are 9 example analysis of the derivational suffixes describe as follow: 3.2.1 magician the word magician is the result of adding the suffix -ian in the word ‘magic’. it is created from noun to noun. the word ‘magic’ means a secret power to make impossible thing happen or do some tricks by saying special words. after added with -ian, it becomes ‘magician’. it means the person who have the secret power to make impossible thing to happen. the word of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: magic (noun) ↓ magic + -ian ↓ magician (noun) the word magician is used four times in the annarasumanara. two of them are in the conversation on episode 1: “have you heard about the magician?”, and on episode 10: “if you are a real magician, make them disappear like the restaurant owner”. 3.2.2 amusement the word amusement is the result of adding the suffix -ment in the word ‘amuse’. it is created from verb to noun. the word ‘amuse’ is the verb that make time pass pleasantly. after added with -ment, it becomes ‘amusement’ that means something that make time pass pleasantly. the word of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: amuse (verb) ↓ amuse + -ment ↓ amusement (noun) the amusement can be seen in conversation on episode 1: “you know, there’s an amusement park on the hill.” this word appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10 3.2.3 attendance the word attendance is the result of adding the suffix -ance in the word ‘attend’. it is created from verb to noun. the word ‘attend’ have meaning be present at the event. after added with -ance, it becomes ‘attendance’. it means an act of being present at the event. the word of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: attend (verb) ↓ attend + -ance ↓ attendance (noun) http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp.85-92 89 the word attendance can be found in conversation on episode 1: “i’ll call attendance in 5 minutes”. this word appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10. 3.2.4 owner the word owner is the result of adding the suffix er in the word ‘own’. it is created from adjective to noun. the word ‘own’ means belonging tho the person mentioned. after added with -er, it becomes ‘owner’. it refers to someone belonging. the word of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: own (adj.) ↓ own + -er ↓ owner (noun) the word owner is in conversation on episode 1: “the owner seems like a nice person”. this word appears twice in the entire episode 1 to 10 that is in episode 1 and 6. 3.2.5 breathless the word breathless is the result of adding the suffix -less in the word ‘breath’. it is created from noun to adjective. the word ‘breath’ means air taken into and sent out of the lungs. after added with -less, it becomes ‘breathless’. it means that having difficulty to breathing. the word of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: breath (noun) ↓ breath + -less ↓ breathless (adj.) the word breathless is found in conversation on episode 2: “you ran? why so breathless?” this word appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10. 3.2.6 totally the word totally is the result of adding the suffix ly in the word ‘total’. it is created from noun to adverb. the word ‘total’ means the number or amount. after added with -ly, it becomes ‘totally’. it has similar meaning with completely. the word of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: total (noun) ↓ total + -ly ↓ totally (adv.) the word totally can be seen in conversation on episode 2: “i was so startled and ran so hard, i totally forgot about it”. this word appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10. 3.2.7 truly the word truly is the result of adding the suffix -ly in the word ‘true’. it is created from adjective to adverb the word ‘true’ means giving the right statement or connected with fact. after added with -ly, it becomes ‘truly’ that have meaning same as sincerely or feel grateful. the word of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: true (adj.) ↓ true + -ly ↓ truly (adv.) the word truly can be found in conversation on episode 3: “i am truly truly envious”. this word appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10. 3.2.8 envious the word envious is the result of adding the suffix -ous in the word ‘envy’. it is created from verb to adjective the word ‘envy’ means wishing something what everyone has with the same qualities. after added with -ous, it becomes ‘envious’. it means that feeling envy and want something better than everyone has. the word of derivation can be seen in the following diagram: envy (verb) ↓ envy + -ous ↓ envious (adj.) the word envious can be found in conversation on episode 3: “i am truly truly envious”. this word appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10. 3.2.9 question the word question is the result of adding the suffix -ion in the word ‘quest’. it is created from noun to noun the word ‘quest’ means long search. after adding -ion, it becomes ‘question’ that have meaning sentence that ask for information. the word of derivation can be seen in the following diagram bellow: quest (noun) ↓ quest + -ion ↓ question (noun) the word question is in conversation on episode 3: “so it was a hard question… thanks anyway.” this word appears only once in the entire episode 1 to 10. the summary of morphological process of derivational affixes in annarasumanara comic episode 1 to 10 in line webtoon can be seen at table 1. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp.85-92 90 table 1 derivational affixes analysis no word part of speech roots part of speech derivational affixes prefix suffix 1 magician noun magic noun -ian 2 amusement noun amuse verb -ment 3 nonsense noun sense noun non 4 attendance noun attend verb -ance 5 owner noun own adj. -er 6 breathless adj. breath noun -less 7 totally adv. total noun -ly 8 invitation noun invite verb -ion 9 amazing adj. amaze verb -ing 10 childish adj. child noun -ish 11 strangeness noun strange adj. -ness 12 goodness noun good noun -ness 13 finally adv. final adj. -ly 14 truly adv. true adj. -ly 15 envious adj. envy verb -ous 16 question noun quest noun -ion 17 magical adj. magic noun -al 18 fairy noun fair adj. -y 19 colorful adj. color noun -ful 20 jobless adj. job noun -less 21 comfortable adj. comfort noun -able 22 urgently adv. urgent adj. -ly 23 payment noun pay verb -ment 24 lucky adj. luck noun -y 25 reminds verb mind noun re 26 darkness noun dark adj. -ness 27 productive adj. product noun -ive 28 thoughtless adj. thought noun -less 29 responsibility noun responsibl e adj. -ity 30 reality noun real adj. -ity 31 beautiful adj. beauty noun -ful 32 vaguely adv. vague adj. -ly 33 personal adj. person noun -al 34 coincidence noun coincide verb -nce 35 disappear verb appear verb dis 36 unbind verb bind verb un 37 weary adj. wear verb -y 38 neighbourhood noun neighbour noun -hood 39 amputation noun amputate verb -ion 40 actually adv. actual adj. -ly 41 richness noun rich adj. -ness 42 logically adv. logic noun -ly 43 snobbish adj. snob noun -ish 44 seriously adv. serious adj. -ly 45 poorly adv. poor adj. -ly 46 foolish adj. fool verb -ish 47 immature adj. mature adj. im 48 precious adj. price noun -ous 49 abnormal adj. normal noun ab 50 appearance noun appear verb -ance 51 careful adj. care noun -ful 52 replaces verb place noun re 53 lovable adj. love verb -able it is found that not all affixes have the same function when attached to the root or base. when the affixes change the class of a root or base then they are called derivational affixes. the example of prefix re-, aband the suffixes -ment, -ance are called derivational affixes because rechanges a noun (mind) into a verb (remind); abchanges a noun (normal) into an adjective (abnormal); -ment changes a verb (amuse) into a noun (amusement); -ance changes a verb (attend) into a noun (attendance). in derivational prefix, a noun can be made by adding nonto the noun (sense-nonsense); by adding abto the adjective (normal-abnormal). a verb can be made by adding reto the noun (mind-remind, placereplace); by adding dis-, unto the verb (appeardisappear, bind-unbind). an adjective can be made by adding imto the adjective (mature-immature). derivational suffixes usually change the part of speech of the word to which they are added. a noun can be made by adding -ian, -ness, -ion, -hood to the noun (magic-magician, good-goodness, questquestion, neighbour-neighborhood); by adding -ment, -ance, -ion, -m, -nce to the verb (amuse-amusement, pay-payment, attend-attendance, appear-appearance, invite-invitation, amputate-amputation, coincidecoincidence); by adding -er, -ness, -y, -ity to the adjective (own-owner, strange-stranger, dark-darkness, rich-richness, fair-fairy, responsible-responsibility, real-reality). an adjective can be made by adding less, -ish, -al, -ful, -able, -y, -ive, -ous to the noun (breathe-breathless, job-jobless, child-childish, snobsnobbish, fool-foolish, magic-magical, personpersonal, color-colorful, beauty-beautiful, comfortcomfortable, love-loveable, luck-lucky, productproductive, price-priceless). an adverb is normally made by adding the suffix -ly to the adjective (finalfinally, serious-seriously, logical-logically, urgenturgently, vague-vaguely, actual-actually, and poorpoorly). http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp.85-92 91 from these details can be seen that suffix –ly as adverb maker is used 9 times and as derivational affixes which occurred the most in the selected line webtoon. 4. conclusion this study thoroughly describes the morphological process within a cyberliterature that the current generation widely consumes from the modern and smartphone-tailored reading application. after analysing the webtoon comic titled annarasumanara, it can be concluded that there was morphological process dealing with roots, bases and stems. for example: move + ment = movement. the word ‘move’ is the root and the word ‘movement’ is base; danger + ous = dangerous. the word ‘danger’ is the root and the word ‘dangerous’ is the base; bare + ly = barely. the word ‘bare’ is the root and the word ‘barely’ is the base. there were two types of affixes, namely prefix and suffix. from the analysis can be known that there are 7 derivational prefix and 46 derivational suffixes. the suffix “-ly” is the most dominantly used in annarasumanara comic in line webtoon. references abrar, m. 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(2020). re-visits the grand theory of geoffrey leech: seven types of meaning. reila : journal of research and innovation in language, 1(3), 105–110. https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v1i3.3768 http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 93-100 93 analysis of efl teaching in pakistan: method and strategies in the postmethod era muhammad asif ali khan ontario institute for studies in education, toronto, canada raoasifjah@gmail.com article history received : 2020-08-23 revised : 2020-11-05 accepted : 2020-12-09 keywords english as a foreign language teaching method teaching strategies abstract this study investigates the teaching methods and strategies practised in pakistan to teach english as a foreign language in the post-method era. english language pedagogy in pakistan has taken a new turn since the establishment of higher education commission and applied linguistic departments in many universities in pakistan. it focuses on classroom teaching analysis to see what teaching methods and strategies that english language educators in private and public institutes apply. the study applied qualitative methods with five english teachers as foreign language (efl) of the public and private sectors' intermediate level. the participating teachers were given nine open-ended survey questions about the nature of language, language teaching methods, classroom strategies and techniques, and their roles as teachers in the classroom. findings revealed that efl teachers in both public and private sectors employ multiple teaching methods and techniques in their classroom practice, rather than holding to one particular method. the data also differentiates teaching methods and strategies of the teachers in the both sectors. interestingly, it appears that efl teachers in the private sectors seem to aim at communicative teaching approaches. in contrast, teachers in the public sectors are more inclined to use grammar translation methods (gtm). 1. introduction in pakistan, the english language holds the official language and medium of instruction, particularly in the private and higher education sectors. it is used as a medium of communication in government institutes and business organisations across pakistan. however, efl teachers can lack formal training, and there is a lack of consistency in the use of course books and audio-visual aids. teachers, whether or not they are aware of it, use different strategies from classroom to classroom. as a result, the standard method and strategies of elt in pakistan are considered unsatisfactory (teevno, 2017, p.2). as all agree, english is now considered global lingua franca, and a person who possesses remarkable skills in communicating in english avails better opportunities in career and professional life. in contrast to the one who lacks such proficiencies in english; the same privilege a well-versed english speaker in pakistan enjoys. however, our educational institutes and language learning centres across pakistan differ in their elt methods and strategies. as a result, a noticeable number of esl students fail to achieve english essential skills (hussain, 2017). it is the medium of instruction in all higher educational institutes that means teachers deliver their lectures and english subjects' lectures; students attempt their english exams. in practice, teachers encourage students to discuss the topic in english. across pakistan, the primary sources of english language learning are the private language centres, where the emphasis is on memorising spellings, translation, and understanding grammar rules. for instance, at these centres, teachers provide their students with a list of words and phrases to memorise; secondly, students learn the everyday expressions and use of language through translation. more importantly, the stiff and rigid rules of grammar are explained with code-switching and in comparison, with the students' first language. hence, the need to teach english with the situated use is eminent (khan, 2016). as a result of these old and traditional esl methods, a visible majority of students lose their motivation and discontinue their course (hussain, 2017). because of the decontextualized esl teaching, students fail to make fair use of their language learning in their daily lives. on any day in pakistani life, find more occasions to speak in english instead of writing. regardless, cognitive skills play a similar role in oral communication and writing (asghar & but, 2018). pakistan, like indian, is another multilingual country with over 70 languages and variations. the national language is urdu, and four local languages (e.g., sindhi, punjabi, pushtu, and balochi) also enjoy special attention in the educational system in their respective provinces. regardless of all these local languages, english is the only second language learned and taught across the country. it is also taught http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 93-100 94 as a compulsory subject from grade 1 to undergraduate in pakistan. there is an eminent global demand for english speakers in pakistan that the traditional system of gtm has failed to produce (ahmed & rao, 2013). as a result, there is a recent discussion and mandate for teaching english from the applied linguistic viewpoint (jailani, 2004, p.8). the course description in the syllabus does not offer much help to language teachers to develop essential english skills, and preferably, the text implies memorisation. students in class read the text loud but fail to comprehend it. similarly, this elt tradition does not improve students’ writing skills. most students' writing skills are also relatively low, and they cannot write a complete well-structured sentence. therefore, this study explores the teaching methods and strategies qualitatively applied by efl teachers at the intermediate level in pakistan's public and private sectors. freeman (2000) states that “when teachers are exposed to methods and asked to reflect on their principles and actively engage with their techniques, they can become more transparent about why they do what they do. they become aware of their fundamental assumptions, values, and beliefs (p.ix).” the study investigates if teachers are still strictly using one prescriptive method or using their freedom to adjust techniques and strategies to develop l2 skills and proficiency. this study also sheds light on how efl teachers in pakistan view the nature of language and language learning, the role they play in the classroom, the socio-culture relevant pedagogies they applied. the data were collected from elt teachers from both in the public sector or private sector post-secondary colleges of pakistan. this study's area is limited to the teaching method, methodologies, strategies, and classroom techniques used by the participating teachers to develop either accuracy or proficiency in l2. 2. literature review: the post-method era since the establishment of the higher education commission in 2005 and applied linguistic department in many universities, several rigorous research types have been conducted in english language pedagogy. khan and akhter (2017) suggest the way to improve the standard of english language in pakistan by advocating the “explicit knowledge of grammar” (p.2) for second language learning. on the other hand, jamil (2014) signifies the “critical understanding of the working of language’’ (p.1) for precise and purposeful communication. the confusion of form and function of the english language is still the core issue in pakistan as in academic level accuracy in the english language is valued. at non-governmental business sectors, meaningful communication is highly appreciated. the condition of efl in pakistan is not entirely satisfactory, especially in rural areas. most english language teaching programs lack adequate language education goals, design, and methodology. ghulamullah (2017) stresses learners' skills acquisition and maintains that a clear presentation of the l2 curriculum would benefit both teachers and l2 learners. despite all, the business of language teaching is progressing at a fast pace. muhammad, natasha & shumaila (2016) investigated the pedagogical techniques in teaching and learning efl and found that many teachers in the public sector faced problems of exercising new techniques from the centre in their classroom with students from various linguistic and cultural backgrounds. they also found that many teachers were unwilling to adopt innovative teaching methods; thus, these teachers fail to create a productive learning environment. the overemphasis on form rather than a function of the english language is based on the fact the english language is the medium of examination and instruction in higher education in pakistan; it is also the medium of official communication in writing in government documentation. hence, many publicsector universities in pakistan now offer english courses, including english for the academic purpose (eap) and remedial grammar courses. many official bodies, such as the punjab education and english language initiative (peeli), the british council in pakistan, the pakistan english language teachers association (pelta), and the society of pakistan english language teachers (spelt) have attempted to address the various issues related with efl and l2 pedagogy over the years but the benchmark of communicative competence is still very low. the reason for this may be that new english teachers lack access to professional language teaching programs. the dominant method in the public sector is that language is a phonemes system, structure, and syntax. thus, grammar translation method (gtm) is prescribed and practised to improve the accuracy of l2 learning (ghulamullah, 2017; gulzar & sultana, 2009). by way of contrast, in the private sector, teachers are less dependent on the grammartranslation method. instead, they employ a communicative approach by focusing on the function instead of the form of the target language. it is popular as a marketing strategy for their language centres in the private sector, so most teachers shun the gtm and prefer to use the clt approach (warsi, 2004; gulzar & sultana, 2009). english language teaching includes global perspectives with a wide range of teaching methods and strategies being applied by language educators worldwide. these teaching methods differ in their context, learner's need, styles, and preferences. widely known scholar kumaravadivelu (2006) claims the methods are dead, and we are in the post-method http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 93-100 95 era where one prescriptive method may not fit all learner’s needs and culture (kumaravadivelu, 2006). he believes that language educators cannot be trained to use a single method that may not have universal application (kumaravadivelu, 2006). in his book, he insists language teachers “go beyond the limited, and limiting, the concept of method and consider the challenges and opportunities of an emerging postmethod era in language teaching’ (kumaravadivelu, 2006, p.2). the disappearance of the method has given rise to the post-method debate (akbari, 2008). the post-method pedagogy suggested by kumaravdivelau appears to provide a pedagogical explanation for teachers' problems of the second language across the globe. indeed, he revolutionises the very concept of the method of l2 teaching. kumaravadivelu (2003) urges teachers to go beyond any prescriptive pedagogical methods and employ to post-methodological pedagogy. his post-method pedagogy gives practising teacher freedom to construct personal theories based on their practices and context. additionally, it signifies teacher autonomy, and unlike eclecticism, post-method pedagogy stresses principled pragmatism, (kumaravadivelu, 2006). scholarly discussion of the post-method gives the impression that each l2 educator can shape their context-sensitive practice according to relevant theories. however, the question remains unclear as to whether teachers must undergo special training to develop learning material and design their test without relying on language learning. most coursebooks are based on a particular method, which is marketed and promoted. secondly, most teachers are aware of some burning issues related to society's social and political problems. even a light conversation on such issues may put the teacher in some serious situation. for example, in arab saudi and china, language educators are not supposed to discuss social and political problems in the classroom. hence, the part of the post-method pedagogy that puts a teacher in a transformative intellectual role as an agent of change remains impossible. most importantly, language teachers' recruitment agency always presents the requirement and responsibilities that l2 teachers are supposed to perform; these requirements do not include teacher role as agents of change. if the postmethod is a movement that turns away from the prescriptive method and regards method as dead, their evidence and data should have included teachers’ views about their role worldwide. 3. method the primary source of data collection was the efl teachers in the public and private sectors. the reason for selection is that these teachers teach in various pakistan cities, including lahore, karachi, hyderabad, dadu, and peshawar, hence their location covers the different region with particular communities and culture. additionally, these are major urban centres with higher educational institutes serving both urban and rural students. all the participants teach english at the post-secondary level, which focuses on adultesl learners from various regions of the country. does the l1 of learners and the language learning institute’s region also play any role in designing teaching methodologies? these learners' first language differs from other regions; for example, esl learners from lahore speak punjabi as their first language while learners in dadu speak sindhi. in peshawar, the first language is pushto. furthermore, in karachi and hyderabad majority of learners use urdu as their first language. therefore, these were teachers selected to determine their learners' first language and the region impacts on their teaching strategies and techniques. 3.1 data collection for this study, five teachers participated. they were sent via email the google form with nine openended questions covering the area of language teaching method, strategies, factors influencing their choice of strategies, coursebook, and their role in the classroom. the instrument for data collection was mainly the google form. after, the qualitative survey data were categorised into themes related to elt methods and strategies in the light of the post-method era. after that, the data were analysed descriptively and comparatively within the themes of the post-method era. the conclusion was built on the after describing, and comparing the participating teachers' responses from both the public and private sectors. 3.2 procedure this study was conducted on the following nine open-ended questions with 5 participant teachers of english in public and private sectors in pakistan: a) what teaching methods/approaches do you use to teach english as a foreign language? what types of activities, do you conduct, do you integrate all our skills or teach them separately? b) how effective is the communicative language teaching in your classroom? does l1 play any role in developing l2 in your class? give us some background of the socio-culture language need and wants of your students? c) what is a language to you (is the language a system of discrete grammar items or is the language a way of expressing meaning and ideas), and what does it mean to know and use a language (is to know a language to mastering the discrete grammar items or developing ability to communicate in the target language)? (answer it http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 93-100 96 was keeping in mind the local context and your students' need, wants and style of learning l2). d) there is no best method, but it is a post-method era. which of the following methods are very common in your classroom, based on your experience, kindly brief why? 1) grammar translation method 2) direct method 3) audio-lingual method 4) communicative language method 5) structural approach 6) task-based language learning 7) the natural approach 8) total physical response (tpr) 9) suggestopedia e) which coursebook are you using and how practical is the coursebook in developing english language proficiency and accuracy? do you also use some supplementary materials for developing l2; do you keep the form, function, or context of the language system in mind for selecting the supplementary materials? f) in teaching english, do you also consider developing the target language's cultural competence, or do you regard english as the language of globalisation with zero cultural competence of english-speaking societies? tell us why? g) there are many reasons why a particular lesson plan, material, approach, method work well in one context but not in another context. how do you manage, frame your pedagogic strategies to develop l2, or which of the following context do you consider in mind in developing your teaching strategies and techniques? h) according to kumaravadivelu (2006), "teacher must be enabled to develop the knowledge, skills attitude and autonomy necessary to construct their context-sensitive theory of practice,". do you rigidly follow the theories of language teaching and methods developed by the western thinkers and theorists or develop your theories of practice? i) do you encompass your teaching the social, political, and cultural realities, and do you play a transformative role in creating awareness of social, political, and cultural realities among your learners? 4. findings according to the survey report, 2 efl teachers of the public sector focus on gtm to develop their students' accuracy and academic english. in comparison, the other three teachers mainly focus on the clt approach. however, they also taught grammar content to develop their students' communicative ability and proficiency. data analysis highlights that these teachers do follow prescriptive methods: “a grab bag of classroom practices” (bell, 2003, p.2) but with variations to meet their students' needs, learning goals, and learning style. on the other hand, there are ample evidence of teachers proclivity for “traditional approaches rather than being innovative”. in other words, there should be a shift from teacher-centred to learner-centered (soomoro & memon, 2016, p.3). figure 4.1 elt in the public and private sector we should also note here that pakistan is one of the underdeveloped countries that has not seen notably consistent socio-economic growth since her establishment in 1947. as a result, elt in the country lacks technological advancement due to which gtm is usually preferred and practised mostly (zohra & abbas, 2018). however, it is recent that the higher education commission (hec) of pakistan started a project on english language teaching reforms (eltr). this project's primary purpose was to bring about some effective change in the elt profession (khattak & abbasi, 2010). 5. discussion method and the post-method era have recently been the well-debated efl topics worldwide (almaktary et al., 2017). hence, we learn, bell (2003) discusses the term method with lowercase “m” as “a grab bag of classroom practices” (p.2) that includes. he then cites oller (1993), “programs, curricula, procedures, demonstration…” (p.2). on the other hand, a method with uppercase m stands distinctly as “a fixed set of classroom practices that serve as prescription and therefore do not allow variation,” (bell, 2003). the data reveal that in pakistan, all the participatory teachers use a method, not a method. like participant c& d if using gtm in public sectors also use activities, and techniques related to direct method (dm) and clt because of the pressure from education authority in public sectors to make students communicate and get proficiency. the other participants, focusing more on communicative language functions, would do well not to ignore teaching the language's form. simultaneously, it is also observed that learning another language much depends on lerner’s strategies and techniques (ali & hanan, 2019). in contrast,, citing kramsch & sullivan (1996), ahmed & arif stress the dependency on elt teachers’ global approach while infusing local context informing strategies for language development. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 93-100 97 5.1 language and culture english has been learned and used by millions of people worldwide in many settings, including higher educations. countless people have developed their english language proficiency in public and private educational institutes (yuzar, 2020). language teachers in developing countries must develop their pedagogy relevant to their culture and learning styles and their students (canagarajah, 2002). they seem to resist using the target language's sociolinguistic functions to contain cultural, linguistic norms and behaviours (kramsch & murphy, 1996). this study also analyses english teaching as a foreign language in pakistan if participants consider the target language's culture as an integral part of l2 or remain intrinsically and eminently 'language' teachers. generally, every classroom is also a promising platform associate with the knowledge to learn with the outside worldly experiences (panhwar et al., 2017). besides, the text's foreign cultural element is to give language learners information about norms and situated use of language; ultimately, l2 learners understand the language in context. however, partial consideration is given to english's cultural context in pakistan (ahmed & shah, 2013). likewise, participant a thinks the cultural influence of the target language is inevitable. he seems to remain out of this dilemma and suggests that educational policymakers and curriculum designers consider this problem. likewise, participants c & e also seem to think culture is language; they do not underestimate the value of sociolinguistic functions of language and the cultural background of language content. participant c believes it is necessary to explain the cultural background of poetry to understand its content. similarly, participant e views the cultural knowledge necessary to understand the target language fully. however, participant b & d do not consider culture as an integral part of the target language, so they seem reluctant to include culture in their language pedagogy. 5.2 form or function/accuracy or proficiency the english language has the privilege of the official language's status and language of instruction and examination at post-secondary education in pakistan. in 1976, the first curriculum of english language learning was published in pakistan. the textbooks help learners achieve the learning objectives described in the education policy of pakistan'spakistan's government (buriro et al., 2018, p.350). these textbooks are based on gtm and used in the public sectors widely. in comparison, ahmed & rao (2013)believe that the “clt approach is more suitable for teaching english as a foreign language” (p.8). it is also a growing language of communication especially in the private sectors of business; hence, teachers attempt to train their students to master the formal and functional properties of l2 with practicals knowledge, grammatical accuracy, and communicative appropriacy (kumaravadivelu, 2006). this study data reveals that teachers attempt to develop grammatical accuracy through form-based instruction and use meaning-based activities to develop communicative language competence. it also appears that participating teachers in the private sectors blended their learners' learning experiences with visual charts and handouts that could increase interaction between l2 learners and learning material (yuliana et al., 2020, p.80). all participants appear to emphasise communicative language teaching, but they do not depend on developing their students' accuracy and english proficiency. participant a stated that depending on clt does not give the desired result. participant e considers communicative ability as the benchmark of language learning. while participant c, who teaches english in the public sector, seemed to understand the importance of communicative ability but found limited opportunities to conduct meaningbased activities to improve proficiency in the target language. similarly, participant c emphasised learning the discrete items of grammatical forms of the english language but did not undervalue understanding language function. to him, language is both: a system of discrete items and a way of expression. likewise, all participants view language to express meaning but do not devalue learning grammar forms. they all seem to attempt to improve accuracy through form-based instruction and activities and proficiency through meaning-based activities. all participants used supplementary material besides the course books with audio-visual aid to achieve accuracy and proficiency, except participant b who do not follow any sourcebook and develop his material to meet his students' needs, learning style, and background. 5.3 the parameter of practicality in practice, kumaravdivelau stresses that teachers must develop context-sensitive pedagogy according to their students' culture. to see if these teachers do construct their context-sensitive theory of practice or follow the theories developed by western scholars, this study also asked participant teachers about what factors, like age, learning goal, learning style, educational, and economic background. they consider in developing their pedagogic strategies and technique. the apparent issue with the methods appears in failing to recognise every context of language learning and teaching (khatum, 2018, p.424). in the same light, the study shows that all participants do not strictly follow western scholars; instead, they all seem motivated and aware of developing their http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 93-100 98 practice theory. what a language teacher does in a classroom may not resemble any specific method, canagarajah (2002). in the same manner, participant b considers “social, cultural, economic, political and psychological context” in developing teaching strategies and techniques. on the other hand, participants c exercises these theories as an “umbrella” not to go stray from authentic practice. he believes that these western scholars "do not reflect the local need" of his students. to develop his theory of practice, participant c consider age learning goal, l1 and learning background to construct his contextsensitive pedagogy. 5.4 to teach or to transform pakistan is suffering from political, economic instability due to inequality and injustice. this study investigates if teachers bring their social and political lived experience into the classroom to transform the local setting's social and political reality. the data tells that not all participants are willing or allowed to discuss political and social disturbance. a teacher in the public sector tries to discuss the socio-political realities more than he is allowed to do. similarly, participant b & e consider it teachers' responsibility to transform student's social-political life. however, participant d does not discuss politics in the classroom at all. the data provide evidence that teachers may play the role of the transformative intellectual in pakistan if they are willing to do so. 6. conclusion language teachers have always sought an 'ideal method" to develop their students' english language proficiency, and that also has some universal application for all l2 learners (islam, 2020, p.135). similarly, efl teachers in pakistan appear in this study in search of the best method. therefore, this study focuses on collecting empirical data to analyses teaching methods and strategies being applied by efl teachers in pakistan. it provides evidence that teachers in the periphery community are still practising prescriptive methods with variation to harmonise their pedagogy with their students' needs, learning goals, and learning desire. hence, this study demonstrates that “methods are not dead, nor will they ever be,” (bell, 2003, p.10). the qualitative survey reported that teachers in the public sector tend to apply older strategies and techniques of gtm compared to the teachers in the private sector. the latter attempts to develop their students’ communicative ability and proficiency. public sector teachers mostly aim at developing accuracy by mastering grammatical forms and paying less attention to communicative appropriacy. contrary to this practice, teachers in the private sector attempt to develop proficiency by mastering meaningful communicative expression and paying less attention to grammatical accuracy. soomro et al. (2016) mentioned the 2003 curriculum and textbook reform by the civil society of pakistan that highlighted the complications of efl textbooks for the students of the public sector and emphasised the unexclusiveness of situated use language in real life. the study also demonstrates that teachers in the public sectors are more constrained and cannot apply methods like audio-lingual method, direct method, communicative language teaching, or task-based language learning. unlike teachers in the private sectors who are free to develop their learning material and adopt techniques and strategies commonly attributed to prescriptive methods. as a result of outdated gtm, students of public sectors face a substantial predicament in communicating in english in real life (abrejo et al., 2019, p.44). to conclude, this study data provide evidence for a wide gap of research on the efl teaching method and considerable need to rethink the language educational goal for redesigning language teaching pedagogy in pakistan. 7. acknowledgement i would like to acknowledge professor jeff bale of the ontario institute for studies in education for his valuable guidance and cooperation for this study. references abrejo, b., sartaj, s., & memon, s. 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(2020). incorporating communicative competence in assessment and english language teaching in multilingual settings. reila : journal of research and http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ http://www.dawn.com/news/663605/english-language-teaching-in-pakistan http://www.dawn.com/news/663605/english-language-teaching-in-pakistan journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 93-100 100 innovation in language, 2(1), 8-13. doi: 10.31849/reila.v2i1.3864 zahra, t., & abbas, a. (2018). pedagogical implications of corpus-based approaches to elt in pakistan. journal of education and educational development, 5(2), 259-275. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 129-133 126 does instagram as learning media affect students’ writing skill on recount text?: an experimental research ismi baqiatus sallamah & agus husein as sabiq iain purwokerto, indonesia ismibaqia01@gmail.com article history received : 2020-11-18 revised : 2020-12-03 accepted : 2020-12-23 keywords instagram learning media recount text writing abstract this research's objectives were to examine whether instagram as a learning media is useful toward students' writing recount text or not and measuring how significant the effect of instagram on students’ writing recount text before and after treatment. this quasi-experimental research involved 35 students as participants from two different classes. researchers took 10th graders from a selected private school in purbalingga as research samples. two ips classes were selected, i.e., x ips 1 was set as an experimental class, and x ips 2 was set as a control class. the data were collected from the score of pre-test and post-test after the treatment. researchers then compared the students’ achievement from control and experimental classes and analyzed the data using descriptive analysis and n-gain. the research findings indicated a significant achievement of students' competencies in using instagram than conventional learning in writing recount text. the average n-gain score from experimental class and control class obtained 0.308 > 0.057. the mean score of pre-test in experimental and control class obtained 69.875 > 64.818 and the mean score of post-test in experimental and control class was 79.461 > 67.142. as a result, the experimental class's mean score was higher than the control class means instagram as a learning media is useful in writing recount text. 1. introduction generally, someone should learn four skills to learn a language. there are integrated skills to learn in english, such as speaking, reading, listening and writing. writing is one of the main competencies that students should master. writing is a thinking method that requires a great deal of work to rearrange concepts and feelings (linse & nunan, 2005). they need to convey their feelings in writing in the right way. they need to communicate their ideas and feelings creatively so that the reader can understand their writing. writing has a unique role in language teaching, as its acquisition requires the practice and understanding of three other language skills, such as listening, reading and speaking (klimova, 2012). the composition of the digital age of education is one of the hurdles in teaching. students appear to have access to their social media platform regularly. they also speak to their friends, update their social networks, and share their images to be up-to-date. the phenomenon of using social media is essential to use the learning media network in the teaching and learning process of writing classes (ismail et al., 2018; salikin & tahir, 2017). several approaches can be applied to writing teaching in the classroom. one of the approaches in which it has recently been implemented is a discourse and genre-based approach. the discourse and genre approach is related to how writing is taught for unique purposes and contexts (dirgeyasa, 2016; richards, 2015). discourse and rhetorical theories of the genre are concerned with the ways actors use language to take on social identities and mediate situations (collin, 2012). it shows that students need to compose their text that suits the intent and meaning of writing themes. thus, effective teaching is mainly required for learners who use english as a foreign language, especially in the media. effective media are required to make students more interested in learning english. current technology is rising very rapidly, and technological innovations in indonesia, especially in the education sector. the use of technology in education is one indicator that will help students improve their skills and learn (gunantar & transinata, 2019). among the students' popularity, instagram offers an excellent opportunity for the teacher to design a creative learning activity. instagram helps students develop ideas and provide a learning experience that they enjoy, with contextual content (basith, 2020; f. handayani, 2016). as one of the social media sites, instagram is commonly used by students. it offers users an instant way to capture and share their life moments with friends through a series of (filter manipulated) images and videos (hu et al., 2014). instagram is a mobile photo-sharing application that allows users to take photos, use filters, and post them on the site itself. instagram has more than 400 million active monthly users who post more than 40 billion photos (alhabash & ma, 2017). instagram may take up several functions: creating accounts, posting http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ mailto:ismibaqia01@gmail.com journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 129-133 127 content, applying filters, adding subtitles, tag user, adding locations, adding hashtags, including content, adding comments, navigating and tracking other accounts, checking the following accounts for feeds, and exploring hashtags/users (search for) (al-ali, 2014). on instagram, users can express feelings and situations where they are. instagram is a media to upload and share photos with fellow instagram users. instagram users can communicate by commenting on photos. as a result, instagram seems to provide a perfect atmosphere for l2 learners to create descriptive or recount writing. many things can be achieved using instagram. by writing skills, students could write text to the "caption" section, and the student could provide input in a comment column before sharing their images or videos. that will be more fun for students than writing a paper. this tool helps students to share views and perspectives on various topics. students may also participate in a group event where everyone asks each student to comment on a photo or a video. it helps them to share information with students and teachers. some researchers investigated students' perception of the use of instagram in writing teaching. students were reported to have a positive perception of the use of instagram as a learning media. instagram offers enjoyable classroom environments and encourages students to be innovative, communicative and often collaborative with peers (anggraeni, 2017; damayanti & santoso, 2019; gunantar & transinata, 2019; mr & seftika, 2019). distinguished with this research, the researchers used experimental research to examine whether instagram is useful or not in teaching writing. another research is conducted by shazali et al. (2019) who employed a classroom action research to explore instagram as a learning tool in developing students' english language writing ability. the study's findings indicated that instagram is a useful tool for developing vocabulary and grammatical accuracy for learners. with the similarity of using instagram, this research focused on one of the productive writing skills. in this study, the researchers proposed instagram as a tool for teaching writing. instagram is versatile and can be used as a learning medium. instagram can be accessed anywhere, and at any time, instagram can also be accessed via mobile phone and device. instagram helps students to display and say what they are going to chat. students should show some of the images and post them on instagram so that the others can see. instagram can be a meaningful environment for developing student writing skills, especially in writing recount texts. through the feature of photo sharing on instagram, for example, the students can post their images publicly to retell the past events they have experienced. besides, this feature allows them to interact with their peers, instructor, and other viewers by discussing the picture description's content. the shared images can be posted in a series so that they can represent the series of events. if any students can post a new post on instagram for a day, it would be meaningful to develop their language if they write their post in english to write in english. with the features inside instagram, the teachers can consider this kind of social media to be meaningful instructional media. its popularity among the young generation and characteristics to share images can help the students develop their writing skills, both personal and factual recount text. therefore, this research aimed to examine whether instagram as a learning media is useful toward students' writing recount text or not and to measure how far the significant effect of instagram on students' writing recount text before and after treatment. 2. method in this research, the researchers used experimental research with two groups becoming the subject of the research. the experimental treatment is defined as the experimental group, and the other which has no treatment is defined as the control group. the researchers used experimental research to notice what would happen to the study subject after implementing teaching media as the treatment. in this research, the researchers used an experimental method to investigate using instagram as a learning media in writing recount text. the researchers used a quasi-experimental design, used pre-test, treatment, and post-test. the researchers used this type of method because it does not allow the control and manipulation of all relevant variables. this study deals with two variables, namely instagram as learning media as the independent variable and writing recount text as the dependent variable. the independent variable is also frequently referred to as the experimental or treatment. the dependent variable refers to the result or outcomes of the study. the researchers selected x ips i grade, consisting of 18 students, and x ips ii consisted of 17 students, both as a population and a research sample. as a result, 35 students of both classes at ma armina bungkanel, karanganyar, had a population and sample in this study. most of the students in this grade have instagram accounts so that they were familiar with this application. in collecting the data, the researchers used documentation and pre-test and post-test. researchers conducted documentation based on data obtained from various sources based on the pre-and post-test sheets, a screenshot of students' text on instagram and other students' transcriptions. the pre-test and posttest questions comprise two sections, all of which are recount texts. the first part was to create a personal recount text on "staying at home during a pandemic http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 129-133 128 situation" consisting of an orientation, event, and reorientation of at least two pages, consisting of 100150 sentences. while the second part consists of the same mission, at least three paragraphs and the theme was "holiday experience" to make writing recount text easy. besides, the materials also related to talking about students' experiences. the researchers analyzed data using descriptive quantitative analysis which counts central tendency (mean, median, and mode); dispersion (range, variance) and standard deviation using inferential analysis including normalized n-gain score (n-gain). the formula is as follow: 3. findings aiming to examine whether instagram as learning media in writing recount text is useful or not, the researchers answered the formulated problems by presenting the pre-test and post-test results descriptively. besides, the data was also measured using normalized n-gain. the descriptive statistics and n-gain scores from both experimental and control groups then were compared to examine the hypothesis. the highest pre-test score for experimental students was 79, and the lowest was 58, with an average score of 69,875. whereas the highest post-test score was 90, the lowest score was 71. besides, the result of normality using n-gain in the experimental group was 0.3. statistical data of the experiment pretest and post-test outcomes can be seen in table 3.1. table 3.1 descriptive statistic of experimental class result statistic pre-test post-test mode 79 85 median 69.75 79 mean 69.875 79,46154 max 79 90 min 58 71 range 21 19 varian 68,55113636 29,26923 st. dev 8,279561363 5,410105 according to the results, the experimental class students had a significant improvement in their writing tests scores. instagram was utilized effectively by the teacher to develop students' writing skills. the post-test scores also revealed that all of the students had met the minimum standard score on writing recount text, which is ≥70. in the control group, the highest pre-test score for students was 73, and the lowest score was 50, with an average score of 64,818. whereas the highest post-test score was 77, the lowest score was 56. also, the normality results using the n-gain category in the control class were 0.05. the statistical data of the control group pre-test and post-test outcomes were summarized in table 3.2. table 3.2 descriptive statistic of control class results statistic pre-test post-test mode 65 62 median 65 68,5 mean 64,81818 67,14286 max 73 77 min 50 56 range 23 21 varian 44,96364 37,20879 st. dev 6,705493 6,099901 based on the students' scores in the control group, it meant that there was no significant improvement in the control group. the gap of average scores between pre-test and post-test did not significantly improve. besides, 35% of the students in the control group have the scores under the minimum standard score. 3.1 hypothesis testing the research hypothesis that used in this research are two kinds of hypothesis; they are: a) null hypothesis (h0) the null hypothesis stated that there is no significant effect of using instagram as a learning media toward students' writing skill. b) alternative hypothesis (ha) the alternative hypothesis stated that there is a significant effect of using instagram as a learning media toward students' writing skill. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 129-133 129 figure 3.1 screenshot of teaching through ig live based on the findings in table 3.1 and table 3.2, it can be concluded that there was a significant difference in students' writing outcomes between the experimental class and the control class. h0 was rejected, and ha was accepted. this fact rejected the null hypothesis, which is said: "there is no significant effect of using instagram as learning media toward students' writing skill in writing recount text". it accepted the alternative hypothesis, which said, "there is a significant effect of using instagram as learning media toward students' writing skill in writing recount text". 4. discussion 4.1 students’ experiences the researchers used instagram as a learning tool to apply it in various ways according to the needs of students. by incorporating instagram as a learning media in the english teaching-learning process, students have been encouraged to make the most of it. there have been some learning experiences encountered by students. 4.1.1 ig live features the researchers found that many other benefits derived from instagram, one of the benefits of using instagram, were ig live features, which allowed researchers and students to engage in a single forum. in this forum, the researchers specifically clarified the material without being gathered in the classroom, and the students listened to the material explained by the researchers. students can also ask the question or answer directly in that forum, and the researchers will answer the students' questions directly in that forum, speak and write on the "comment" part. ig live can be seen in figure 3.1. in this treatment, researchers did an oral presentation about recount text material, such as concept, purpose and social function, general structure, language features of recount text and formula (past tense). before ig live began, researchers gave the material through the instagram experimental group, after all the students had read the material, the researchers started ig live. an oral presentation using live videos, listening to the live presentation, and discussing comments are the activities suggested creating meaningful learning activities using instagram (akhiar et al., 2017). using ig live videos enables the teacher to support face-toface learning with the students while the condition does not let them do traditional formal class. some researchers claimed that instagram could support formal learning situations, create an enjoyable classroom atmosphere, and enhance students' communicative skills (erarslan, 2019; mansor & rahim, 2017). the popularity of instagram among the young generation can be a useful tool for language learning. the students can get classroom learning atmosphere though live video, shared material, group discussion, and sharing task reports. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 129-133 130 figure 4.1 screenshot of instagram captions in the control class, the researchers applied to the classroom (face-to-face learning). in this era of pandemics, due to the corona virus's spread, face-toface learning must be complemented by strict health protocols. luckily, ma armina bungkanel was part of the green zone. thus, even though it was only a limit of 50% of the number of students who took part in learning, it was still possible. according to government guidelines for home learning, using ig live was a modern way to attract students who could learn from home. 4.1.2 instagram group researchers have set up the instagram group; the name of the group is the experimental class. the instagram group is part of the instagram features that are appropriate for discussion. in this feature, researchers may have provided material or tasks using photo, video or voice notes. the researchers can explain the material clearly by using a voice note. it can increase students' comprehension of the content even if the learning process is not in the classroom (face to face). in this treatment, the researchers provided the material via the instagram group, sent an example of the recount text, and then discussed it with them. researchers and students will work together to resolve the meaning, social role, linguistics features, and formula found in the text. after that, the researchers provided the students with a problem to solve themselves and sent direct messages to instagram researchers. instagram is undeniably a useful tool for student interactions, particularly in the discussion of their work-related activities. the students involved seemed more inspired and loved to participate and connect with their peers, as instagram fueled their interest in learning (khalitova & gimaletdinova, 2016; mansor & rahim, 2017). 4.1.3 corrective feedback in instagram caption instagram provides several tools, such as a filter to entirely edit the image and a caption to explain the images and videos when uploading them (meisani et al., 2016). the captions in this study were recounting text with images that were suitable for the recount text plot. students were asked to upload their images in a sequence to retell the story based on the photos they posted. the use of instagram caption can be seen in figure 4.1. captions teacher’s feedback http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 129-133 131 students have developed a story about the holiday experience; they should develop a text with excellent images and share it on the instagram feed. the text should consist of the recount text's general structure, the orientation, event and reorientation of the text. after students post their text, the researchers provided feedback in the "comment" column. the text will be assessed by the researchers and the english teacher based on the organization, the content, the language use, the vocabulary, and mechanics. writing a caption on instagram can be a beneficial experience for them to write in english. writing a caption often gives them exposure as language learners to englishlanguage functions in a real sense instead of what they say (meisani et al., 2016). therefore, the use of instagram caption could improve students' motivation and writing skill (akhiar et al., 2017; gunantar & transinata, 2019; shazali et al., 2019). other authors (soviyah & etikaningsih, 2018; warda & wijaya, 2019) also found that the use of instagram caption could enhance students' writing descriptive text since they can get the ideas to write through the pictures. in writing, having an idea and how to start writing would become a challenge for students whenever they are asked to write (f. handayani, 2016). caption on instagram is useful to be the bridge for connecting the context and writing ideas. the teacher can give useful corrective feedback toward students' post of their recount texts through the comment column. instagram was indicated as a useful corrective tool to develop students' vocabulary and grammatical accuracy (shazali et al., 2019). students were given a sheet of paper in the control class then created a recount text with the same rules as the experimental class. however, the researchers did not respond because students felt it was difficult and boring to write. used captions on instagram in the experimental class, students became more interested and enthusiastic (mansor & rahim, 2017). besides being equipped with compelling images, instagram was also equipped with an instagram-like feature, anyone who likes their text will click the "love" button. this feature will make students more appreciative of their writing. in addition, there is a column of comments that allows other people (followers) to respond to their texts so that students can be peer-reviewers (nahru, 2020; sirait & marlina, 2018). the peer-review activity may be based on misspelling or grammatical errors. the combination of student outputs and feedback is a crucial element for successful language learning, particularly in writing skills (aloraini, 2018). the comment column's feature in the instagram post provides an opportunity for teacher and students to give corrective feedback for improving writing skill. one more thing, in the millennial era, they could be called to up to date person because they uploaded something new on social media, especially on instagram. 4.2 the effectiveness of instagram as learning media in writing recount text the researcher compared the post-test score of the experimental class with the control class, the mean score of the post-test in the experimental class was higher than the mean score of the post-test in the control class (79.461 > 67.142). the use of instagram as a learning media could enhance writing skill (a. d. handayani et al., 2018; warda & wijaya, 2019) as seen from the students’ learning outcomes in control and experimental classes. the researchers used instagram as a learning media to apply it in various ways, depending on the needs of students. incorporating instagram as a learning media in the english teaching-learning process has allowed students to benefit from it. as shown in table 1 and table 2, the findings indicated that using instagram as learning media gave a significant improvement in students' writing recount text. there could be several activities in the classroom using instagram. the students were able to share ideas and views about various topics using this platform. students may also engage in a group event in which each student could ask the other students to comment on a picture or video that they shared. this allowed them to share information with classmates and teachers. as a website for photo sharing, instagram could also inspire students to be spatially and linguistically conscious by capturing and editing pictures and the captions and feedback choices (erarslan, 2019). the effectiveness of mediating students’ writing using instagram was also reported by listiani (2016), who compared the treatments of instagram writing and teacher-centred writing to the students with high and low motivation. on the other hand, gonulal (2019) found that some students expressed negative attitudes toward instagram to overcome structurerelated mistakes. thus, instagram should not be the only way to learn english informally but should be a platform for learning peripheral languages. the post-test scores also revealed that all of the experimental group students had reached the standard minimum scores. in contrast, there were 35% of the control group students have not reached the standard scores. this study has better findings regarding this score improvement than what gunantar & transinata (2019) found in their classroom action research. they found that there were still 3% of the students who have scores under the standard minimum after employing two classroom action research cycles. 5. conclusion instagram, as learning had a significant effect on students' achievement in writing recount text. this present study reveals based on the n-gain in the research findings. the average score of n-gain on the experimental class's post-test outcomes was higher http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 129-133 132 than an n-gain score of the control class (0.308 >< 0.05). there was improvement achievement in experimental class than students in the control class. the experimental class's post-test mean score was higher than the post-test mean score of the control class (79.461 >< 67.142). therefore, it can be concluded that the students who were taught by using instagram as learning media have a higher score than those who were taught by conventional ways in writing recount text. through the features of instagram, such as live videos, instagram group, and caption writing, the students experienced meaningful classroom atmosphere, enjoyable learning activities, peer-review activity, effective corrective feedback, and eventually writing skill improvement. it is suggested that teachers use social media in mediating online learning effectively. references akhiar, a., mydin, a. a., & adi kasuma, s. a. 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(2019). the effectiveness of teaching writing descriptive text by using social media “instagram” to improve students’ writing ability at junior high school students. tell : teaching of english language and literature journal, 7(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.30651/tell.v7i1.2696 http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, august 2020, pp. 37-45 37 sexism in elementary efl textbooks: spotted in uzbekistan nasiba norova university of massachusetts boston, united states nasiba.norova001@umb.edu article history received : 2020-07-11 revised : 2020-08-10 accepted : 2020-08-13 keywords efl textbooks textbook evaluation gender analysis critical discourse analysis abstract the current study examines the representation of gender in four english as a foreign language (efl) textbooks, namely kids’ english, for elementary students produced in uzbekistan. the study implements fairclough's (2013) three-dimensional discourse approach: description, interpretation, and explanation for textbook analysis. the quantitative analysis of efl textbooks unveiled an imbalance in gender representation, in which males are depicted considerably more than females. underrepresentation of females in the textbooks demonstrates that kids’ english efl textbooks contain a sexist ideology and stereotypical agenda. the study suggests that the sexist ideology of the textbooks perpetuates patriarchy and unfair gender societal values, thereby hindering the development of gender equality efforts in the efl context of uzbekistan. 1. introduction the constructive function of textbooks in facilitating structured lesson plans, providing linguistic input in activities, tasks, texts, and visuals have been exhaustively reiterated in the literature (hutchinson & torres, 1994; shannon, 2010; sheldon, 1987). the textbooks have been mentioned as a resource for illustrating the societal structures, values, and norms (aljuaythin, 2018; amerian & esmaili, 2013, 2015; lee, 2018; parham, 2013). over the last decades, there has been a significant interest in the investigation of gender representation in english as a foreign language (efl) textbooks as well (derin et al., 2020). this interest is mostly driven by misrepresentation of genders in relation to their social and domestic roles and the social activities they are engaged in. also, this interest has been fostered by the influential role of textbooks on young language learner’s gender identity formation, future career dreams, and inspirations. this research is a foremost critical study examining gender representation in english textbooks in uzbekistan. central asian country uzbekistan has never been an area of critical investigations either by local or international scholarship. by examining these textbooks, the study informs about the gender ideology represented in these textbooks and raises awareness of accountable bodies such as the ministry of education of uzbekistan, textbook publishers, and the association of english teachers. the post-soviet government of uzbekistan has made a step toward creating gender-fair society bypassing "gender equality law” in 2019. the significance of the study lies in the fact that it is the first critical examination of the gender representation in efl textbooks produced in the understudied country. by examining the efl textbooks, the study aims to enrich the field of gender studies and material evaluation by adding a study conducted in the barely studied central asian context of uzbekistan. the study also intends to inform the government of uzbekistan of its shortcomings in textbook production. 1.1 context of uzbekistan after gaining independence in 1991, a post-soviet uzbekistanexperienced hardship in many domains of life, including but not limited to social, economic, political, and educational because of the slow postcommunist transition (kangas, 2002). after the fall of the soviet union, the onset of the de-russification policy paved the way for the increased attention to the english language (smagulova & ahn, 2016). the english instructions of 1990s were based on grammar translation and audiolingual methods and they would not start until middle school, specifically at grade 5. the textbooks used for english classes were primarily produced in russia and taught at uzbek schools (hasanova, 2007, 2016; hasanova & shadieva, 2008). there was a dire shortage of teaching materials, textbooks, workbooks, teaching manuals, educational tools, and audio-visual resources in all subject classrooms including english classrooms. due to the pressing need, the country could no longer borrow textbooks from its former oppressor. therefore, with the help of british council, the ministry of education of uzbekistan published their first textbooks, fly high english and english matters, to teach english at grades 6-9 (hasanova, 2007). http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, august 2020, pp. 37-45 38 considering the popularity of the english language in the globe, later, the ministry of education made a fundamental change in its policy, allowing the students to learn english from elementary school at grade 1. english language as a school subject was added to the elementary school curriculum since 2013 following the president’s 2012 decree (lezuz, 2012). in efl contexts, language teachers are given more authority and freedom in choosing their pedagogical approaches, policies, including textbooks (ellis 1997; hutchinson, 1987). however, this is not the case in the post-soviet country of uzbekistan. the approved textbooks by the ministry of public education must be produced in uzbekistan for uzbek english learners. due to the 2012 decree on foreign language policy, books such as kids’ english designed for elementary school has been developed and tested in 2013. kids’ english textbooks have been in use since then and have become the sole mandatory textbook used in the entire republic. not only foreign language teaching system experienced improvements, but the social and political life of citizens also dramatically transformed. even though the constitution of uzbekistan guarantees equal rights to all citizens, males and females never had equal rights in real life due to cultural and religious traditions. in 2019, the country introduced a substantial judicial reform in history, i.e., it passed a law on gender equality with usaid’s support. the law defines what gender-based discrimination is and comprises legal actions that needed to be taken to confront it. thanks to this law, discrimination against women cannot be ignored in the uzbek society, as well as uzbek mentality and traditions are no longer accepted as an excuse for unfair gender treatment (usaid, 2019) passing the first gender equality law is the key step for founding gender-fair society in uzbekistan. the present study aims to examine if the government’s efforts to promote a “gender-equal” society by equating women’s status to the men’s is reflected in contemporary elementary school textbooks. this study is inspired by the key role of school textbooks in children’s formation of gender-based attitudes and behavior since schools and overall education play a significant role in establishing gender-fair society (lee, 2014, 2018). 2. literature review 2.1 role of textbooks in efl context despite technological advancements occurring in the educational field, and students' sophistication in technological devices such as computers and phones, textbooks remain as the mainstay element in efl classrooms (hutchinson & torres, 1994; junaidi et al., 2020). undeniably, the language learning process is a dynamic and highly interactive with constant three elements: teacher, learner and textbook (allwright, 1981). a textbook in this interaction aims to provide linguistic awareness and communicative ability to foreign language learners of english. the textbook also serves as a reference and resource for students who enjoy learning a language outside of the classroom setting (sheldon, 1987). it is the main source of english input in the classroom in the form of texts, activities, explanations, and visual learning resources (shannon, 2010). language instructors also take advantage of having textbooks in the classrooms. first of all, the teacher’s syllabi are structured and backed up with the content of the textbooks. they are also, as hutchinson & torres argue, “[…] the most convenient means of providing the structure that the teaching-learning system requires” (p. 317). the structure backed up by textbooks further builds routinized and predictable teaching practice, which is important for language learners to avoid their linguistic anxiety (derin & hamuddin, 2019; prabhu, 1992). the facilitating role of textbooks, such as saving some time to plan the lesson, discussions, and homework assignments, has been exhaustively mentioned in the literature (sheldon, 1987, 1988; hutchinson & torres 1994). most importantly, the textbooks have been acknowledged to give "confidence and security" (hutchinson, 1987; hutchinson & torres 1994) equally to both novice and experienced teachers. moreover, textbooks are physical artifacts that play a central and integral part in the learning process, and they are here to stay, so they not only survive in the modern era of digitalization but also prosper within (mohammadi & abdib, 2014; sheldon, 1988). despite being a constructive resource by both learners and teachers in efl classrooms, textbooks have scrutinized scrutiny and evaluation. even though there is no "rule-of-thumb activity, and no neat formula, grid, or system […] a definitive yardstick" (sheldon 1988, p. 245) for textbook evaluations, some scholars use checklists or questionnaires to check the appropriateness for the use of the textbook (ellis, 1997; litz, 2005; sheldon 1988). ellis (1997) suggests predictive (pre-use) and retrospective (postuse) evaluation to determine which textbooks are best suited to teachers’ purposes. litz (2005) suggests using a questionnaire that includes categories such as practical considerations, layout, and design, skills, language type, subject, and content for the same purpose. sheldon (1988) advocates a rating sheet that includes criteria for evaluation such as rationale, availability, layout/graphics, accessibility, authenticity, cultural bias, educational validity, overall value for money, to name but a few. textbooks contain many multimodal semiotics, such as texts, colorful images, signs, and symbols. historically, images emerged before the scripts, and they were invented for communication even before http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, august 2020, pp. 37-45 39 humans developed their linguistic speech. the images embody both form and meaning and are considered as signs or semiotics (kress, 2010). this semiotics is the basis of "visual literacy" and is described as "a matter of survival" (kress & van leeuwen, 2006, p. 3). kress & van leeuwen (2006) argue that visual elements interact with the reader and distribute informational value as they express meaning through color, tone, framing, and other categories and communicate meaning to viewers (salbego et al., 2015). kress (2010) suggests a multimodal approach to image analysis drawing from halliday's (2014) systemic functional linguistics emphasizing representational, interactive and compositional meanings of images (kress & van leeuwen, 2006). kress's multimodal semiotic approach considers images as meaning makers describing social realities, social environment, social relations, as well as social changes (bezemer & kress, 2010). 2.2 language, gender and textbooks it is commonly accepted that gender is a biological phenomenon. however, many would argue the cultural paradigm of the concept. gender is culturally constructed (butler, 1988, sunderland 2006), so do gender roles, identities, different feminine, and masculine characteristics which are assigned to genders conventionally. butler (1988) asserts that "gender reality is performative, which means, […] it is performed” (p. 530). it means that masculinity and femininity do not pre-exist in society, but rather a society itself constructs gender identities, gender roles, the way these genders speak, and the way they have to behave to be a proper male or female. the assigned roles to different genders result in different gender “performances," “enactments," and “displays” of genders. this gendered performativity is enacted by social and linguistic practices (holmes and meyerhoff, 2003; sunderland, 2006). attention to language and gender did not emerge until the feminist rise in the late 1960s. since then, many scholars have paid attention to the linguistic performativity of gendered discourse (sunderland, 2006). being the key tool for the performativity of gender roles, language can adversely affect the fair representation of genders. language can be used to stereotypical implant views and can contribute to the construction and maintenance of gender stereotyping (sahmeni & afifah, 2019). so, school textbooks inevitably serve as commodities to represent and transmit political, social, economic, and cultural views (shannon, 2010). they are also sites for social and cultural bias to be represented (ulum & köksal, 2019), therefore becoming an object of criticism (khodabakhshi, 2014). even though designers and developers of textbooks put much effort on such a demanding work by taking a plethora of factors into account, such as age, ethnicity, class, gender, level, and purpose of the curriculum, some cultural aspects such as balanced and unbiased gender representation are frequently disregarded to date (amerian & esmaili 2013, 2015; ulum & köksal, 2019). frequent exposure to the unequal and partial depiction of males and females in the textbooks can construct gender identities in young language learners', which might conflict with the expansion of gender equality efforts in contemporary society (aljuaythin, 2018; mustapha, 2013). correspondingly, stereotypical portrayals of the genders and underrepresentation of a particular gender affect children's development, put a specific constraint on their career goals, and shape their perspective on their imminent roles (hamilton et al, 2006). therefore, it is significantly important for textbooks, as a vital tool for learning language and social structures, to display non-sexist and gender-fair materials, so that young language learners could establish their true gender identity and believe in their abilities to reach equal opportunities as human beings despite their gender (amerian & esmaili 2013, 2015; hamilton et al, 2006; lee 2014, 2018; parham, 2013). 2.3 empirical studies on gender representation in efl textbooks efl textbook image analysis has been conducted by many scholars in the asian context. while some asian countries such as iran, saudi arabia, and japan are prolific in this regard (aljuaythin, 2018; amerian & esmaili, 2013, 2015; lee, 2018; parham, 2013), there seems to be no critical textbook research in central asian context particularly in efl context of uzbekistan to challenge the current societal situation. it is because critical thinking is absent in uzbekistan (khamidova, 2018) to conduct critical book evaluations. the existing studies on gender representation in the textbooks conducted in the asian efl other than uzbekistan have demonstrated diverse stereotypical views and gender discriminating ideologies. in some empirical studies on gender representation in efl textbooks, women have disproportionately low representation in comparison to men (amerian & esmaili, 2015; aljuaythin, 2018; ahmad & shah, 2019; parham, 2013). the overrepresentation of males and underrepresentation of females was reflected on the activity the genders were engaged in, and through the social roles the genders performed (aljuaythin, 2018); unequal representation of genders in the textbook displayed males in dominant and influential positions while females were illustrated in dependent and inferior positions (ahmad & shah, 2019). some studies revealed overt and covert sexism (amerian & esmaili, 2015) and overt depiction of the secondary role of females (lee, 2018) with clear gender bias towards females (parham, 2013). the findings of the studies identified that efl textbooks do not reflect the actual situation of societal structures http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, august 2020, pp. 37-45 40 causing hindrance to the course of attaining gender equality in society (aljuaythin, 2018; lee, 2018), as well as hindering to explore the students' full potential in their gendered identities (amerian & esmaili, 2013, 2015). as most studies conclude, education holds responsibility for the future of society (ahmad & shah, 2019; aljuaythin, 2018; amerian & esmaili, 2013, 2015; lee, 2014, 2018; parham, 2013). imbalanced representation of females and males, sexist and stereotypically biased representation of genders perpetuate the invisibility and inferiority of females in society. similar to other studies, the current study aims to investigate the textbooks to see if they meet the current needs of uzbekistan, striving to create non-sexist and gender-fair society. to do so, the study aims to investigate the ratio of the frequency of female and male images; female and male’s social and domestic roles; activities females and males attend; and female and male’s pictorial representations in elementary textbooks used in uzbekistan. 3. method the study investigates efl elementary textbooks kids’ english 1, 2, 3, and 4 produced for uzbek english learners utilising critical discourse analysis (cda) approach. the present study combines cda with gender studies to identify actual gender representation in the textbook. the study implements fairclough's (2013) three-dimensional discourse approach. the study considers that it is valid and fair to implement a european-based cda framework for the analysis of the textbooks produced in uzbekistan even though it is located in the asian continent. despite diverse mentality, societal, and cultural structures, modern uzbekistan is striving to integrate equal gender rights law into its society and become similar to the western countries. 3.1 materials as mentioned above, english instructions at elementary schools have been started from 2013 in uzbekistan. thus a need for textbooks aimed to teach english to uzbek elementary students emerged since then. uzbek scholars worked in collaboration with foreign institutes such as norwich institute for language education, iatefl, and british council to produce kids' english textbooks for elementary school students. accordingly, uzbekistan produced kids' english 1, 2, 3 and 4 to teach respective classes. kids' english 1, 2, and 3 aiming to teach grades 1, 2, and 3 respectively were reissued in 2016 and 2017 years. kids' english 4 for grade 4 students was published in 2016 and was not reissued. the study selected the latest issues of the textbooks kids' english 1, 2, 3, and 4 for the analysis. the textbooks are available online at www.hasanboy.uz website for free to download. the researcher needed to use electronic copies of the books because of the inability to obtain physical copies due to travel restrictions in and outside the united states (us). so, the electronic copies were downloaded from the above-mentioned website as it was the only website that had provided efl books in pdf format. the reason behind selecting elementary school efl textbooks is that they are rich in pictures and serve as an initial and primary source of the language. 3.2 methodological framework cda as a field can be integrated with different domains including textbooks and teaching materialevaluation. for cda, “language is a part of society, linguistic phenomena are social phenomena of a special sort, and social phenomena are (in part) linguistic phenomena" (fairclough, 2013 p. 19). language is not perceived only orally or in written forms, but through visual language too, such as pictures on posters, images in books, magazines. they are ubiquitous in modern life and are of great importance to get the message, as they convey and represent particular meaning (fairclough, 2013). the study analyzed gendered images (images with either gender) as linguistic items from selected kids’ english 1-4 textbooks using fairclough’s threedimensional cda framework, i.e., description, interpretation, and explanation. the first stage of the framework is the description. in this stage of analysis, images are identified, labeled, and classified, since this stage is concerned with "formal properties" of the images. the second stage is concerned with the provision of interpretation of the labeled gendered pictures. the interpretation is achieved concerning the background cognitive assumptions of the person who makes the interpretation. the third stage is an explanation. as fairclough (2013) clarifies, “explanation is concerned with the relationship between interaction and social context, the social determinations of the processes of production and interpretation, and their social effects,” (p. 22). at this stage, it is possible to see visual language as a social practice depicting, sustaining and shaping social structure. fairclough also adds, "the relationship of discourses to processes of struggle and power relations is the concern of the third stage of the procedure, explanation" (2013, p. 117). through the explanation stage, the analysis connects gendered images to the social context and social structures of uzbek society and exposes if the images communicate stereotypical views about genders. to sum, through cda's three-dimensional model, it is possible to disclose gender ideology portrayed on efl textbooks for language learners. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ http://www.hasanboy.uz/ http://www.hasanboy.uz/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, august 2020, pp. 37-45 41 3.3 procedure for the image analysis, the study adopts amerian & esmaili's sex stereotype's concept (2015, p. 6) to identify how genders are represented in the textbooks. amerian & esmaili's (2015) study contains eight factors determining gender ideology represented through pictures on the textbooks. the study adopts four of those factors because only these four out of eight quantitatively approach image analysis. the factors are as follows: a) the ratio of the frequency of female and male images; b) female and male’s social and domestic roles; c) activities females and males attend; d) the female and male’s pictorial representations. the image analysis began by analyzing the aforementioned four aspects by counting the images manually. to verify the reliability of the collected data, the numbers and frequencies were checked and reviewed three times by the researcher. after compiling the quantitative data illustrating four investigating factors, the analysis proceeded with a qualitative interpretation of these factors in relation to the social context of uzbekistan. 4. findings the first stage of fairclough’s cda framework is the description. in this stage the identified, labeled and classified images are described according to four research questions mentioned earlier. 4.1 the ratio of female and male images the first analyzed factor in the four elementary textbooks was the ratio of female and male images in the textbooks. as shown in table 1, in all textbooks, female images fall behind in number in comparison to male images. while there are 502 female images in four textbooks, the male images totaled 611 occurrences. these numbers indicate that male occurrence is 0.8% more than female occurrence resulting in the disproportionate representation of genders in the textbooks. table 4.1 frequency of female and male occurrences textbooks female male kids’ english 1 135 175 kids’ english 2 151 184 kids’ english 3 123 147 kids’ english 4 93 105 total 502 611 4.2 male and female social and domestic roles the second examined factor was the social and domestic roles associated with each gender. as shown in table 2, some roles were dominated by either gender or were occupied exclusively by one. for instance, females outnumbered males in occupations such as teaching (32), selling (11), and medicine (doctors/nurse 8) while men outnumbered women in jobs like sports (21) and police (10). some occupations were demonstrated as of particular gender's occupation as well. the occupations such as a driver (7), a fireman (7), and a director (2) were exclusively men's domain, while a dancer (10) and a secretary (3) were women's exclusive area of work. only a cook (4) as a social role and daughter/son/ sibling domestic roles were shown almost equally by both genders (20 for males and 21 for males). table 4.2 social and domestic female and male roles roles female male student teacher doctor/nurse sportsman parent sibling/son/daughter salesperson policeman secretary cook director dancer fireman driver 149 32 8 12 7 20 11 2 3 4 0 10 0 0 178 8 1 21 4 21 1 10 0 4 2 0 7 7 4.3 activity frequency of females and males the third examined factor was the activity types males and females engaged in the images. similar to domestic and social roles occurrences, the quantitative analysis of activities undertaken by both genders was either dominated by one gender or done by one gender more than the opposite. to be specific, as it is shown in table 4.2, the images illustrated males doing sports and working on the computer more than females (16 & 8 vs 7 &2 accordingly), while pictures illustrating females playing games and talking on the phone (30 &8 vs 23 & 2) are more in number. while morning exercises are exclusively performed by male characters (4), household chores are carried out only by female characters (7). the table also shows that the only shared activity both genders participated was singing (3). http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, august 2020, pp. 37-45 42 table 4.3 female and male activities activities female male engaging in sports exercising talking on the phone shopping watching tv horse riding computer work playing games household chores traveling fishing singing taking pictures 7 0 8 2 3 4 2 30 7 0 0 3 1 16 4 2 1 2 0 8 23 0 1 2 3 0 4.4 pictorial representation of males and females the fourth investigated factor is related to female and male pictorial representation. table 4.4 pictorial representation of females and males pictorial representation kids’ english 1-4 females only males only more males more females equal share 46 (15%) 74 (24%) 63 (20%) 33 (11%) 92 (30%) total 308 as shown in table 4.4, out of 308 pictures, 92 of them portray equal categories depicting an equal number of males and females. female only images consist of 15% of all images, while male-only images outnumber the former to 9%. mixed-gender pictures depicting males more consist of a fifth of all images in efl textbooks, and group images depicting more females comprise merely 11% of all images. 5. discussion the second and third stages of fairclough's model deal with interpretation and explanation of the data in relationship with the social context and social processes of uzbek society since the textbooks are produced by and for the uzbek learning population. correspondingly, the findings unveiled three themes: “sexism and stereotyping in the textbooks,” “perpetuation of patriarchal values”, and “lack of women empowerment”. thus, the current study contributes to the pool of scholarly work on textbook evaluation by exposing the gender ideology of the uzbekistan context represented in its english textbooks. 5.1 sexism and stereotyping in the textbooks the underrepresentation of females in the textbooks indicates that the kids’ english 1-4 have sexist ideology as there is an imbalanced representation of males. with the representation of females being outnumbered, the textbooks can also be interpreted as promoting the superiority of males over females. the sexist view is seen not only in the image occurrences but also in the domestic and social roles they perform. the real-life females working as firefighters, drivers, office workers or the females working on the computer, engaged in other activities other than teaching and doing household chores, are not exemplified. these sexist views on women stereotype them and impose on generalizable assumptions to the young learners. for instance, seeing women talking on the phone more than men engender the stereotypical idea of "chatty idler woman" or women working as sales personnel demonstrates that they cannot pursue careers requiring mental and physical strength. these depictions are unrealistic and do not depict the actual social structure of uzbek society. even though the number of women performing male's roles and activities is fewer, they are neither invisible nor nonexistent. dismally, the findings of this study are consistent with other studies conducted in the asian context (aljuaythin, 2018; ahmad & shah, 2019; amerian & esmaili, 2013, 2015; lee, 2014; parham, 2013), suggesting that efl textbooks promote a certain degree of sexism against women due to the overrepresentation of males and stereotyping of women. 5.2 the perpetuation of patriarchal values the dissymmetry in the representation of males and females also reflects patriarchal values set on the male gender in uzbek society. the reports on “gender assessment in uzbekistan" produced by asian development bank (2014, 2018) demonstrate that patriarchal norms and gender stereotypes are persistent in existence in uzbek society. the reports also suggest that these norms are the main obstacle for societal development in creating a gender-fair society. according to the report, the uzbek model of patriarchy is mostly seen in the labor division. in which males are responsible for the material and financial burden of the household and taking care of the family budget. at the same time, females are responsible for managing household chores, taking care of their family members and the offspring's upbringing, and education. the illustrative representation of women doing nurse/doctor jobs or being engaged in cooking in the kitchen or doing household chores at home are examples of labor division set by the patriarchal family. males doing computer work, engaged in driving, or well-paid occupations such as firefighter, director or police also indicate male’s concern for sustaining the family at home as if they are “the only breadwinners” of the family. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, august 2020, pp. 37-45 43 clearly, the textbooks are picturing the unreal social structure of uzbek families and promoting patriarchy. the promotion of patriarchy and patriarchal values were also found in other studies (aljuaythin, 2018; sulaimani, 2017). apparently, the efl textbooks are involved in the perpetuation of patriarchal society and patriarchal ideology. as sunderland (2006) argues, “patriarchy is women’s struggle” (p. 21), which is contrary to the fairness and equality efforts the government of uzbekistan is attempting to establish since 2019. the patriarchal values portrayed in efl textbooks empower only males and sustains gender inequality in uzbek society. 5.3 deficiency of women empowerment last but not least, the underrepresentation of females, the attached stereotypical views to them, and the perpetuation of patriarchal values through efl textbooks establish a solid foundation for the disempowerment of women within uzbek society. such textbooks do not empower women to share tasks equally; they do not inspire to have a variety of career choices or to perform diverse activities merely due to their gender. the lack of such encouragement in the elementary efl textbook creates an obstacle for women empowerment. language education, through efl textbooks, should facilitate “emancipatory discourse” (fairclough, 2013) in order “to ultimately transform the dominant orders of discourse, as a part of the struggle of oppressed social groupings,” (p. 198). the struggle women are facing in uzbek society is partially portrayed realistically through domestic roles, social roles and activities both genders are engaged in. sadly enough, the textbooks neither teach to break nor to challenge societal structure, but add to the growth of gender bias, inequality, and disparity. 6. conclusion the current study investigated the representation of gender in four uzbek efl textbooks for elementary school students. it aimed to analyze gender representation in these textbooks to see if efl textbooks assist in the government's aim to create a "gender-equal" society and to add to the field of material evaluation and gender representation, for only a few studies have focused on this issue. the goal of the paper is to debunk gender dissymmetry in textbooks to inform educational officials to call for improvement. the significance of the study is that there is no other study aimed to evaluate elementary english textbooks used in the context of uzbekistan. the paper is also a primary work critically approaching efl textbook analysis used in uzbekistan using fairclough's (2015) threedimensional framework to critical discourse analysis. the quantitative analysis unveiled an imbalance in uzbekistan’s gender representation as males are depicted more than females. underrepresentation of females in the textbooks proves that the efl textbook kids' english has a sexist ideology and sets stereotypical agenda on them. the study suggests that this, consequently, perpetuates patriarchy and unfair gender societal values hindering the development of gender equality efforts in uzbekistan. nonetheless, some limitations need to be mentioned. also scrutinising middle and high school efl textbooks could contribute to fully comprehend the gender ideology predominant in efl textbooks used in uzbekistan. additionally, incorporating a multimodal semiotic approach to textbook evaluations could yield different results. including texts as a new semiotic dimension, in addition to the visuals, would reveal new facets of gendered societal reality presented in the textbooks (bezemer & kress, 2010; kress, 2010; kress & van leeuwen, 2006). analyzing language use in relation to genders could be another dimension for a semiotic approach to textbook evaluations. this study has some pedagogical implications for language classrooms. it is highly recommended for the uzbek efl teachers to adopt a critical perspective on societal issues, such as gender fairness, and bring it to the classroom table when they notice stereotypical propaganda or sexism in textbooks. also, it is worth bringing other materials to the language classrooms which do not reflect gender bias towards either of the genders. undoubtedly, the ministry of education of uzbekistan should revise the content of the published books and pay close attention to the balanced, unbiased, unsexist representation of both females and males in the textbooks aimed at educating young uzbek language learners. following a long-term goal of the uzbek government to create a gender-fair society, there should be teacher training, and support programs to equip teachers with a critical perspective toward gender ideologies to further challenge, break, and transform them in their classrooms and in the society in the long run. it is worth restating that the textbooks in most efl contexts, including uzbekistan are the primary source of not only language learning (hasanova, 2007), but also of education in general, socialization with the outer world, and increasing cultural awareness. education influences students' identity formation, including national and gender identities (ahmad & shah, 2019). correspondingly, school education has a transformative power, and it is responsible to a great extent for the unfair gender differences which might occur in society in the future (parham, 2013). therefore, all school subjects, not just english as a foreign language, should also hold responsibility for the future of the students who are growing up as members of uzbek society. raising awareness and consciousness to the societal practices through http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2, august 2020, pp. 37-45 44 language education is necessary for breaking, challenging, and transforming societal orders (fairclough, 2013). because the long-term goal of education is establishing gender-fair society which will provide equal opportunities and rights for both genders, the effort should start from the beginning, from the initial classes of compulsory education, from elementary school. references ahmad, m., & shah, s.k. 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(2006). gender stereotyping and under-representation of female characters in 200 popular children’s picture books: a twenty-first century update. sex roles, 55, 757–765. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9128-6 hasanova, d. (2007). teaching and learning english in post-soviet uzbekistan. english today, 89(23), 3–9. hasanova, d. (2016). english education in uzbekistan. in a. ahn & j. smagulova (eds.), language change in central asia (pp. 245267). de gruyter. hasanova, d., & shadieva, t. (2008). implementing communicative language teaching in uzbekistan. tesol quarterly, 42(1), 138-143. holmes, j., & meyerhoff, m. (2003). handbook of language and gender. blackwell publishing. hutchinson, t. (1987). what’s underneath? an interactive view of materials evaluation. in l. sheldon (ed.), elt textbooks and materials: problems in evaluation and development (pp. 37-45). modern english publications. hutchinson, t., & torres, e. 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(2002). uzbekistan: the karimov presidency-amir temur revisited. in s.n. cummings (ed.), power and change in central asia (pp. 130-150). routledge. khamidova, s. (2018). civil society in uzbekistan: building from the ground up. eucam commentary, 31, 1-4. https://eucentralasia.eu/2018/07/civil-societyin-uzbekistan-building-from-the-ground-up/ khodabakhshi, m. (2014). choose a proper efl textbook: evaluation of "skyline" series. social and behavioral sciences, 98, 959–967. kress, g. r. (2010). multimodality: a social semiotic approach to contemporary communication. routledge. kress, g. r., & van leeuwen, t. (2006). reading images: the grammar of visual design. london, england: routledge. lee, j. f. (2014). gender representation in hong kong primary school elt textbooks – a comparative study. gender and education, 26 (4), 356–376. lee, j. f. 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(2019). using critical discourse analysis (cda) in media discourse studies: unmask the mass media. reila: journal of research and innovation in language, 1(2), 39-45. https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v1i2.2764 salbego, n., heberle, v., & da silva balen, m. (2015). a visual analysis of english textbooks: a multimodal scaffolded learning. calidoscópio, 13(1), 5-11. shannon, p. w. (2010). textbook development and selection. in international encyclopedia of education (pp. 397-402). elsevier ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08044894-7.00065-8 sheldon, l. (1987). elt textbooks and materials: problems in evaluation and development. modern english publications. sheldon, l. e. (1988). evaluating elt textbooks and materials. elt journal, 42(4), 237-246. sulaimani, a. (2017). gender representation in efl textbooks in saudi arabia: a fair deal? english language teaching, 10(6), 44-52. doi:10.5539/elt.v10n6p44. sunderland, j. (2006). language and gender. an advanced resource book. routledge. ulum, g., & köksal, d. (2019). ideology and hegemony of english foreign language textbooks. globally and locally written practices. springer. usaid. (2019, december 19). uzbekistan passes law on gender equality. usaid. https://www.usaid.gov/uzbekistan/programupdates/dec-2019-uzbekistan-passes-lawgender-equality http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ https://eucentralasia.eu/2018/07/civil-society-in-uzbekistan-building-from-the-ground-up/ https://eucentralasia.eu/2018/07/civil-society-in-uzbekistan-building-from-the-ground-up/ https://www.lex.uz/docs/-2126032 https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-044894-7.00065-8 https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-044894-7.00065-8 https://www.usaid.gov/uzbekistan/program-updates/dec-2019-uzbekistan-passes-law-gender-equality https://www.usaid.gov/uzbekistan/program-updates/dec-2019-uzbekistan-passes-law-gender-equality https://www.usaid.gov/uzbekistan/program-updates/dec-2019-uzbekistan-passes-law-gender-equality instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.4980 vol. 3, no. 1, april. 2021, pp. 71-79 71 vocabulary size of university of aden english language students abdulnaser mohammed ali naqeeb university of aden, aden, yemen naser77sam@yahoo.co.uk article history received : 2020-09-21 revised : 2020-09-23 accepted : 2021-04-21 keywords vocabulary size nation vocabulary size test (vst) range word family abstract this research paper tried to evaluate english students' vocabulary size by using nation vocabulary size tests (vst). the study used a sample of the third level students at the english-faculty department of education-aden at the university of aden in three categories according to their academic achievement in the class (high =80-100, medium= 70-79.99 and low =less than 69.99). the researcher used nation and beglar (2007) (14000) vocabulary size test to measure the vocabulary size. based on the analysis of students’ correct answers in the vst, the study found that students' vocabulary size ranges between 1000-8000 words with variant percentages. it was found that (80%) of third level students’ vocabulary size (high 08-100 and medium 70-79.99) is in the range (10003000), (76%) of third level students’ vocabulary size (high 08-100) is in the range (1000-5000) and (51%) are in the range (1000-8000). the study found that (59%) of third level students (medium 70-79.99) are in the range (10005000) and (40%) of them are in the range (1000-8000). the third level students (low, less than 69.99) recorded the lowest size by (50%) in the range (10003000), (41%) in the range (1000-5000) and only (21%) are in the range (10008000). considering the total word size of the three categories together, the study found that (70%) are in the range (1000-3000), (59%) range in the range (10005000), and (37%) are in the range (1000-8000). 1. introduction vocabulary forms an essential element of a language. instead, it can be said that words are the beginnings and origins of any human language. languages were created from words and their associated meanings then grammar came to organise these words. language acquisition, and similarly language learning, start by acquiring and learning words rather than other language elements. no words mean no language. wilkins (1972) wrote that "[…] while without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (111112). similarly, lewis (1993, p. 89) stressed that “lexis is the core or heart of language." this statement shows the great value of words in any language. moreover, grabe (1991) and frederiksen (1982) referred that second and foreign language researchers stress the great value of vocabulary knowledge in language competence. studies of learners' vocabulary size are very useful in diagnosing students' levels, commonly known as placement tests. knowing learners' vocabulary size helps educators classify learners in their appropriate study levels in any educational program (laufer & nation, 1999). schmitt (1994) referred that the vocabulary size test puts the learners in their suitable levels in any educational program. it will help those in charge of education programs in planning and designing admission and placement (entrance examinations). schmitt (1994) said that vocabulary size tests help teachers know the deficiencies of their learners' vocabulary size and try to find solutions. there are standard tools designed by experts to be used to measure the number of words a learner knows in a particular language which is usually called vocabulary size tests (vst)—knowing vocabulary size shows teachers, learners and even course and curricula designers where to start and teach. vocabulary size test work as a diagnostic tool in this regard. foreign and second language research stressed the importance of estimating learners' vocabulary size. thus, studying learners' vocabulary size has become essential in any country or english as a foreign language (efl) institution. there are many vsts in esl or english literature as a foreign language (efl) or even first language learning. x-lex developed by milton and meara, the vocabulary size test developed by nation and the vocabulary levels test (vlt), are examples of vsts. this study will use nation vocabulary size test 2007 to estimate english journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.4980 vol. 3, no. 1, april. 2021, pp. 71-79 72 language students' vocabulary size. this test created by nation & beglar (2007) identified the vocabulary size based on three categories, namely high (80-100), medium (70-79.99), and low (less than 69.99). the tested students, in this case, will be the third level students in the university of aden in yemen because in this university and maybe in yemen, no research has been done in this regard as far the researcher knows. therefore, this study will contribute to yemen's english language learning by estimating english language students' vocabulary size at the university of aden. moreover, this study might serve as diagnostic means of university of aden english students' vocabulary size that will help in many aspects such as placement tests, designing course books and determining teaching materials needed for learners in different learning stages (hu & nation 2000). additionally, this study will help students know where they are in terms of vocabulary size, modify and develop their learning strategies, and improve their levels. therefore, this research paper proposes three major questions; (1) what is the vocabulary size of third level english language students in the university of aden based on the three categories of nation & beglar’s (2017) vocabulary size test (vst)? (2) what is the difference in vocabulary size among the categories of high, medium and low among the third level english language students?, and (3) what is the score of students at each vocabulary frequency level (i.e. 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 5000, 6000, 7000 and 8000) based on the vst 2007? 2. literature review this part will review the literature related to the topic of the study. this will include vocabulary size, vocabulary size test and previous studies relevant to the study's topic. 2.1 vocabulary size vocabulary size can be defined as the overall stock of words and their associated meanings and use a learner or speaker of a language knows. all learners or speakers of a language possess certain words that form an essential part of their proficiency or linguistic competence. vocabulary size is sometimes referred to as breadth of vocabulary in comparison to the depth of vocabulary. anderson and freebody (1981, p.92) defined vocabulary size as "the number of words for which the person knows at least some of the significant aspects of meaning." research is sll and fll showed that vocabulary size is significant in language proficiency. for example, meara (1996) stressed this by saying: “all other things being equal, learners with large vocabularies are more proficient in a wide range of language skills than learners with smaller vocabularies, and there is some evidence to support the view that vocabulary skills make a significant contribution to almost all aspects of l2 proficiency.” (p.37). meara (1996) went further by referring that vocabulary size is a determining factor in second language learning and considered it "at the heart of communicative competence" (p.35). some studies showed that vocabulary size is strongly correlated to reading competence (ouellette 2006; snow, tabor, nicholson, kurland 1995) and, other studies showed relevance to success in school (biemiller & boote 2006; bornstein & haynes 1998). other studies showed that vocabulary size is very relevant to using english in different situations. schonell, meddleton, and shaw, 1956 referred that the knowledge of the most frequent 2000-word families in english forms the basic lexical stock needed for everyday oral communication. hazenburg and hulstijin (1996) contended that 10,000 words are enough for second language learners in the university. however, eyckmans (2004) referred that "[w]hen learners' move on to read authentic texts in the target language, the consensus among applied linguists seems to be that 3,000 to 5,000-word families should suffice." regarding vocabulary size, research in a second or foreign language is in constant development and tries to figure out the number of words an efl, esl or native language speakers have. schmitt (2000, p.2-3) referred that the english language has between 600,000 to over two million words and over 54000word families. (nation (2006, p.59) referred that the english language has 88,000114,000-word families. schmitt (2000) found that english native-speaking university students would have a vocabulary size of about 20,000-word families. adolphs and schmitt (2003) pointed out that second language learners need 2000-3000 of the most frequent words to communicate daily. schmitt (2007) added that that second language learners need 5000 words to read authentic text. dissimilarly, hazenberg and hulstijn (1996) pointed out that second language learners need around 10,000 words for starting academic study in the university. sciarone (1979), laufer (1992), nieuwborg (1992), and nation (1993) claimed that the most frequent 5000 words cover around 90%-95% of word tokens in an average text for second language learners. it means that sll or english as a foreign language (efl) need 5000-8000-word families in the university study. similarly, nation (2010: 15) pointed out that "counting the 2,000 most frequent english words as the high-frequency words is still the best decision for learners going on to academic study" since these words cover about 80% of any text. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.4980 vol. 3, no. 1, april. 2021, pp. 71-79 73 in vocabulary size research, scholars differentiate between receptive vocabulary knowledge and productive vocabulary knowledge of a word. the first one refers to words that learners or users of a language store in their minds primarily read and listen to. whereas the latter refers to the active words that are used in producing language in speaking or writing. this difference is the difference between using a word to understand and using a word to produce or express oneself. nation (2001, pp. 26-28) specified word knowledge in three elements (form, meaning and use). knowing form means knowing its different parts, spelling and sounds, whereas knowing meaning refers to recognising its associated meanings and other words that connect to it. simultaneously, knowledge of form means using its grammatical functions, collocations, and different parts of speech. he further classified word knowledge in the following table: table 2.1 word knowledge f o r m s p o k e n r what does the word sound like? p how is the word pronounced? w ritte n r what does the word look like? p how is the word written and spelt? w o rd p a rts r what parts are recognisable in this word? p what words are parts needed to express meaning? m e a n in g f o rm a n d m e a n in g r what meaning does this word form signal? p what word form can be used to express this meaning? c o n c e p ts a n d re fe re n ts r what is included in the concept? p what items can the concept refer to? a sso c ia tio n s r what others words does this word make us think of? p what other words could we use instead of this one? u se g ra m m a tic a l fu n c tio n s r in what patterns does the word occur? p in what patterns must we use this word? c o llo c a tio n s r what words or types of the word occur with this one? p what words or types of words must we use with this one? c o n stra in ts o n u se r where, when and how often would we meet this word? p where, when and how often can we use this word? journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.4980 vol. 3, no. 1, april. 2021, pp. 71-79 74 2.2 vocabulary size test the vocabulary size test, abbreviated as vst, is a standard measurement tool designed to estimate the total number a speaker or a learner of a language knows. generally, vsts are used to measure native speakers' vocabulary size or second/foreign language learners' vocabulary size, or some are used to measure both native and foreign language learners. nation and beglar (2007) pointed out that vst is designed as "a proficiency measure used to determine how much vocabulary learners know" (p.10). vsts are designed as monolingual, and some are designed as bilingual tests. monolingual vsts are designed as a multiplechoice test or yes/no questions in one language, while bilinguals are also designed as multiple or yes/no questions in two languages. in this type, the word is presented in english, and the answer or choices are presented in the learner's first language. generally, these tests can be found in print format or online versions. based on design criteria, vsts are of two main types. the first one is a dictionary-based test, and the second one is a corpus-based test. in the first one, the test taker selects a word family from each n pages (for example, from every 10th page and so on) from a dictionary that is expected to be known by the test taker. in the second one, the test taker has to select a word family from a corpus-based list. the list is ranked according to the most frequency (the first most frequent 1000 words, the second most frequent words). nation (1990) referred that the second type is generally used with non-native speakers of english. nation and beglar (2007, p.1) confirmed that "[t]he vocabulary size test is designed to measure both first language and second language learners' written receptive vocabulary size in english. researchers all over the world use vocabulary size test. considering the validity and reliability of the vst, it is considered very valid and reliable by researchers. beglar and nation (2007, p. 9) reported that the vocabulary size test is "a reliable, accurate, and comprehensive measure of a learner's vocabulary size from the 1st 1,000 to the 14th 1,000-word families in english". similarly, beglar (2010) conducted a rasch-based validation study of the monolingual vst among one-hundred-seventy japanese and nineteen native english speakers. he found that the vst is very valid and reliable for measuring learners' vocabulary stock. the study indicated that the great majority of the test items showed an excellent fit to the rasch model, high practicality in scoring and distribution, high reliability indices (>0.96) and very low ambiguity. other studies that proved the validity and reliability of the vst are gyllstad 2012, gyllstad, vilkaite, and schmitt 2015. the vsts are free and available online from paul nation's website. 2.3 previous studies many studies have been found in the literature for english second or foreign language learners' vocabulary size. one study is sungprakul (2016). this study investigated the vocabulary size of thai university students. 40 efl learners from the first, second, third, and fourth levels in the english department at silpakorn university in thailand participated in the study. the study found that the first-year students' vocabulary size ranges between 5800-5900 words from the first 10000 most frequent words, 6610.00 in the second level, 7100.00 in the third level, and 7360.00 fourth level. this study is considered weak because of the small size of the sample. another study is almasry (2012) in the uae. he examined the relationship between breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension in an english as a foreign language (efl) context. the sample of the study is ninety-three high school students. the study found a positive correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. similarly, almasry (2012) sample is small. another study is also found in iraq. the study is by alfatle (2016). he examined the growth of vocabulary size and depth of word knowledge in iraqi foreign language learners of english (efls) over four years of university instruction. the sample is forty students from each level (120). the study found that the growth of vocabulary increases by 800 to 1000 words annually. 3. method this study's research design is a descriptive one that uses the nation and beglar (2007) vocabulary size test. the data collected in this study is primarily quantitative. 3.1 participants the participants in this study are thirty students from the department of english at the faculty of education-aden. they are male and female students. their age ranges between 17 to 25, and they come from rural and urban areas. according to their previous educational achievements, the students were categorised into three main groups (high = 80-100, medium= 70-79.99 and low= less than 69.99). these groups are high, medium and low. ten (10) students were selected from each group= 30 students. it makes the sample as is in the following table: table 3.1 the sample of the study level h ig h 8 0 -1 0 0 m e d iu m 7 0 7 9 .9 9 l o w l e ss th a n 6 9 .9 9 total third level 10 10 10 30 journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.4980 vol. 3, no. 1, april. 2021, pp. 71-79 75 3.2 data collection this study's data was collected by the vocabulary size test developed by paul nation and beglar (2007). it is the 14000 version that has 140 multiplechoice items. the test consists of 140 items distributed on fourteen sections representing the fourteen thousand most frequent words. the sections are arranged according to the frequency of the words starting with the first 1000 most frequent words and so on, until the 14th 1000. the test is based on nation's own british national corpus bnc word family lists (nation, 2006). many studies check the validity and reliability of this test all over the world. this study is limited to measuring receptive vocabulary size of english language students at the university of aden (third level students at the department of english/ faculty of education/aden) using nation and beglar (2007) vocabulary size test one in the academic year 2018/2019. 4. findings after collecting the questionnaires, they were checked for completeness and labelled according to high, medium and low. next, they were compared with the answer key to see the correct answers. some questions handed unanswered. these were counted as zero-scores, although it was difficult to ascertain whether "no answer" was due to a genuine lack of knowledge of a word or the lack of time available or desire to complete the test. correct answers were calculated in the three categories (high, medium and low). microsoft excel sheet was used to get the mean score and percentages of students’ correct answers in the three categories. then the mean score of categories was calculated. the mean score and percentages of the first 3000, 4000 and 5000 words were calculated separately to know the percentages and means in these three levels. then the mean score of these means was also taken to get the final result regarding the mean score of the first 5000 words. the tables 4.1 show the analysis, interpretation and discussion of the results: table 4.1 third level students high 80-100 m e a n o f th e tw o m e a n s m e a n o f th e th re e m e a n s m e a n m e a n o f th e first 5 0 0 0 m e a n o f th e first 4 0 0 0 m e a n o f th e first 3 0 0 0 % m e a n o f c o rre c t a n sw e rs f u ll m a rk l e v e l 51% 76% 68% 75% 80% 90% 9 10 k 1 87% 8.7 10 k 2 80% 8 10 k 3 42% 4.2 10 k 4 40% 4. 10 k 5 25% 38% 3.8 10 k 6 23% 2.3 10 k 7 13% 1.3 10 k 8 11% 1.1 10 k 9 4% 0.4 10 k 10 1% 0.1 10 k 11 0% 0.0 10 k 12 0% 0.0 10 k 13 0% 0.0 10 k 14 31% 3.064286 total mean journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.4980 vol. 3, no. 1, april. 2021, pp. 71-79 76 as can be seen from the table 4.1 and 4.2, the mean score of students' correct answers (high 80-100) ranges from k 1 to k11, but with variant mean scores, the highest is in k 1 is 90%, then the percentage decreases reaching only 1% in k11. students' average scores in the levels k 8-k 22 are less than 20% which means that she is the only student who has vocabularies. students with 80% and above are on the levels k 1 to k 3 with a mean score of 80%. beyond the 5,000-word level, the numbers decline further and further at each level until they reach the (1%) in k 11 (11000). the mean score decreases in going to the k 4, recording 75%, and decreasing by going to the level k 5 to k 8, recording 68%, 76%, and 25%, respectively. it means that students (third level students high 80100) range of vocabulary size ranges between k 1 with 80% to k 5 with 76 %. this result is dissimilar to sungprakul (2016), who studied thai university students. 40 efl learners from the first, second, third, and fourth levels in the english department at silpakorn university in thailand participated in the study. the study found that the first-year students' vocabulary size ranges between 5800-5900 words from the first 10000 most frequent words, 6610.00 in the second level, 7100.00 in the third level, and 7360.00 fourth level. third level students (third level students high 80-100) in the university of aden ranges between 5000 with (76%) and 8000 with only (25%) with only words with a mean score of (51%) which is about half of the students (third level students high 80-100) are within the range of 8000 words size while it is 7100 in the thai university students. this low size of vocabulary size can be attributed to the weakness of secondary school education, curriculum and number of lectures in every semester. additionally, subjects taught in arabic (university prerequisite courses such as islamic culture, computer, arabic language, psychology, fundamentals of education, psychological health and history of education) constitute about 25% of english courses. table 4.2 third level students medium 70-79.99 mean m e a n o f th e tw o m e a n s m e a n o f th e th re e m e a n s m e a n o f th e first 5 0 0 0 m e a n o f th e first 4 0 0 0 m e a n o f th e first 3 0 0 0 % m e a n o f c o rre c t a n sw e rs f u ll m a rk l e v e l 40 % 59% 68% %65 %80 90% 9 10 k1 87% 8.7 10 k2 63% 6.3 10 k3 21% 2.1 10 k4 34% 3.4. 10 k5 %19 17% 1.7 10 k 6 6% 0.6 10 k 7 2% 0.2 10 k 8 2% 0.2 10 k 9 1% 0.1 10 k 10 0% 0.0 10 k 11 0% 0.0 10 k 12 0% 0.0 10 k 13 0% 0.0 10 k 14 23% 0.311111 total mean table 4.3 the main findings in the three categories vocabulary size range h ig h 80 -1 0 0 m e d iu m 7 0 -7 9 .9 9 l o w l e ss th a n 6 9 .9 9 total 1000-3000 80% 80% 50% 70% 1000-5000 76% 59% 41% 59% 1000-8000 51% 40 % 21% 37% journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.4980 vol. 3, no. 1, april. 2021, pp. 71-79 77 table 4.3 clearly shows that the third level students (medium 70-79.99) vocabulary size ranges between 5000 to 7000 words. the students' highest mean score correct answers are 80% in the k 3 (3000 words), and the percentage decreases gradually to reach 65% and 68% in the k 4 and k 5. the mean score of the three levels is (59%). it means that only 59% of the vocabulary size is between 1000 (k 1) and 5000 words (k 5). the mean score of the levels k 6, k 7 and k 8 is only 40 %. this result means that only about half of the students (59%) (medium 70-79.99) are within the range 1000=5000 vocabulary size. the table also shows that the mean score of the third level students (medium 70-79.99) in the vocabulary size levels k 1 (1000)-k 8 (8000) is only (40%). the vocabulary size of the university of aden students decreases from (51%) in the (third level students high 80-100) to (40%) in the third level students (medium 70-79.99). table 4.4 third level students low less than 69.99 m e a n o f th e tw o m e a n s m e a n o f th e th re e m e a n s mean m e a n o f th e first 5 0 0 0 m e a n o f th e first 4 0 0 0 m e a n o f th e first 3 0 0 0 % m e a n o f c o rre c t a n sw e rs f u ll m a rk l e v e l 21% 41% 32% 41% 50% 57% 5.7 10 k 1 51% 5.1 10 k 2 43% 4.3 10 k 3 11% 1.1. 10 k 4 0% 0.0 10 k 5 0% 0% 0.0 10 k 6 0% 0.0 10 k 7 0% 0.0 10 k 8 0% 0.0 10 k 9 0% 0.0 10 k 10 0% 0.0 10 k 11 0% 0.0 10 k 12 0% 0.0 10 k 13 0% 0.0 10 k 14 12% 0% total mean table 4.4 demonstrates that third level students (low less than 69.99) vocabulary size only ranges between k 1 (1000) and k 3 (3000) with low percentages ranges between 57% to 11%. the mean score of the three levels k 1, k 2 and k 3 together is only 50%, and the percentages decrease to 32% when going to k 4. the mean score of the 5000-word size is 41%. the mean score of the 8000-word size is only 21%. according to this result, only 41% of the thirdlevel students (low less than 69.99) vocabulary size is within the k 3 (3000). 5. conclusion based on the students' performance in the nation & beglar’s (2007) vocabulary size test (vst), english language third level students in the university of aden have different vocabulary sizes. i was ranging between 1000 and 5000 words with various percentages. the high (80-100) category had different vocabulary ranges; 76% had a range of 1000 and 8000, whereas half of the students (51%) had a range between 1000 and 8000. of the 59% of students in the medium category (70-79.99), 40% possessed a vocabulary range between 1000 and 5000, while only 40% had a range of 1000 and 8000. students in the low category (less than 69.99) were recorded with 21% having a range of 1000-8000, 41% with a range of 1000-5000, and 50% with a range of 1000-3000. considering the total word size of the three categories together, the study found that 70% are in the 10003000 vocabulary range, while a little over half of them (59%) are in the range of 1000-5000, and only 37% are in the range 1000-8000. with a significant majority of students, who were in their third year in the university of aden, possessing between 1000 and 3000 vocabulary range, this study recommends the following strategies to address such a large number of low vocabulary sized students studying english. the strategies include adjusting homework assignments for students that will lead them to do more research and more reading. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.4980 vol. 3, no. 1, april. 2021, pp. 71-79 78 the improvement of english courses in the university, the re-evaluation of the running courses in the departments of english at the university of aden to update the teaching materials with daily life words referring to famous corpora such as the british national corpus bnc and corpus of contemporary american english coca, the addition of supplemental or differentiated activities, as well as the involvement of vocabulary researchers and experts in updating and designing courses. references alfatle, a. b. m. 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(1979) woordjes leren in het vreemde-talenonderwijs. muiderberg. netherlands: coutinho. snow, c. e., tabors, p. o., nicholson, p. a., & kurland, b. f. (1995). shell: oral language and early literacy skills in kindergarten and firstgrade children. journal of research in childhood education, 10(1), 37-48. sungprakul, s. (2016). measuring vocabulary size of thai university students. international journal of social science and humanities research, 4(4), 608-624. wilkins, d. (1972). linguistics in language teaching. london: edward arnold. wong, w., & van patten, b. (2003). the evidence is in: drills are out. foreign language annals, 36(3), 403-423. journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 101-107 101 dealing with mental health in online learning: a retrospect on elt teachers and efl learners during covid-19 pandemic asma-ul-ferdous 1 & nazia forhin shifat 2 1 asa university. dhaka. bangladesh 2 notre dame university, dhaka. bangladesh nazia@ndub.edu.bd article history received : 2020-10-16 revised : 2020-11-01 accepted :2020-12-13 keywords pandemic mental health english language teaching (elt) english as foreign language (efl) abstract this paper intends to depict the mental health of english language teaching (elt) teachers and english as foreign language (efl) learners at a tertiary level during the covid-19 pandemic. the educational boards across the globe have been forced to transition to smart classrooms, digital platforms, and effective teacher training programs in online delivery methods. in bangladesh, the networking system and the management system are being run with care to ensure online classes at tertiary levels. this study showed how elt teachers and efl learners experience diverse and innumerable inconveniences due to geographical locations, finance and other systematic online education problems during the pandemic. the study found results which showed what makes them susceptible to anxiety, frustration, depression, which injure their mental health. getting habituated to new study techniques, cooperating with the lack of laboratories and other required study materials, network connectivity problems, and the harshness of covid-19 make their living challenging and unneeded mental stress. quantitative data has been collected through google questionnaire, and qualitative data has been collected through semi-structured interviews over telephone and online messaging. the results showed that despite continually searching for a way to overcome various troubles, teachers and students get drown into worsening mental health. 1. introduction the world is currently facing unprecedented pandemic. there is no doubt the covid-19 has affected our way of living and has disrupted the normal cycle the world has been revolving on for the past few decades. along with the economy, society, political system, governance mechanism, the covid-19 has also shown its obtrusive impact on the education system. the situation turned much difficult as students and teachers were not prepared for the online platform at all. when the whole world is fighting with this sudden outbreak, bangladesh got the first covid-19 case on march 8, 2020 (satu et al., 2020). the world health organization (who) has declared the covid19 pandemic is as an international public health emergency (world health organization, 2020). henceforth, the integral constituent of this field is the teachers and students. as the pandemic covid-19 has transformed teaching-learning to a newer mood, the pedagogy must be reorganized to change learners' perspectives and the best outcome (islam & bhuiyan, 2020). however, e-learning protocol cannot change the pandemic itself but can ensure social distancing by limiting face-to-face communications (murphy, 2020). the virus has taken this system to the limit on them. as the long followed scheme turns out to be an aberration; the vital resources and support networks also comes to a halt. alongside the day to day lives of the teachers and students and their mental health is also affected. some questions quickly come to mind: while the experts throughout the world come together to find solutions on different academic and administrative issues, how much is the mental aspect considered? how much are the taken steps beneficial for the developing country like bangladesh? the majority of the students, especially pupils living in developing countries, tend to score the highest possible grade. most of them consider it to be the only important thing in life. however, the concept of mental well-being remains concealed and unnoticed by parents and teachers. as the whole world combats for a physical cure from this outbreak, mental health is negligent (usman et al., 2020). usually, psychological diseases such as dementia, schizophrenia, or bipolar disorder are considered serious problems. based on traditional belief, a student is mentally healthy if s/he is not suffering from such diseases. according to mowbray (2020), mental health during the covid-19 pandemic is related to occupation, gender, socioeconomic status http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09603123.2020.1802409 journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 101-107 102 and so on. moreover, the absence of mental illness and emotional health refers to a positive mind that gives someone the ability to laugh to carry on daily lives. people who have good health can still have underlying emotional problems and mental problems. a mental health problem's negativity can hinder the individuals' natural potentialities in early education, work, and become unsociable. teachers and students of universities come from various social backgrounds, and they are superstitious about their mental health. however, the challenge of online teaching and learning is a grey area that needs to be carefully thought. in bangladesh, anxiety and depression are prevalent among tertiary level students. nevertheless, online classes' onset due to the pandemic has imposed an extra burden of mental stress and rational fears of certain uncertainties on both students and teachers. teachers who teach english as a foreign language or second language in various private universities and learners are positively affected due to covid-19. it requires a great deal of motivation energy to teach and learn english. according to saqlain & islam (2014), the goal of second language learning is both linguistics and non-linguistic where it focuses not only on individual's ability of reading, writing, speaking and listening but also on the eagerness and motivation to learn the language. although the people worldwide can conduct a successful meeting or online class with transparent, placid sound systems, the meticulous uninterrupted real-time streaming is unknown to many and bangladesh. for a third world or developing country, the approach made to run online classes for preventing the academic sector from coming to an ultimate stoppage is very challenging. in this regard, dhawan (2020) has mentioned that online pedagogy is related to the accessibility, affordability, leniency, policies and long-lasting learning. the study has been conducted with several objectives. these are to focus and emphasize mental health ideals and diagnose what remarkable changes private university elt teachers and efl learners go through to transform the existing educational system into a modern scientific model of online education. as background conception, it has been kept in mind that mental happiness plays a crucial role in the gradual rise of virtual academic progress. in bangladesh, as the novel epidemic virus soon takes the shape of a pandemic form like all the other countries, it was quite challenging to imagine the unimaginable to figure out solutions to unpredictable events, where experience does not exist to bring a solution. according to the traditional education system, the teacher enters; students rise; the teacher takes attendance, and the class starts. here, interaction occurs through face-toface communication. after the covid-19 lockdown in bangladesh, some of the universities opted for online classes, and the majority of the students go back home. however, things turned out of the frying pan and into the fire for both the teachers and students. the traditional class system has suddenly changed into a virtual class scheme. lack of face to face interaction causes both the teachers and students more anxious. it makes them worried about the important lessons they are missing. all these facts make online classes a sheer challenge to reach out to individual students scattered all over the country in this current situation. according to tasneem (2020), shifting to online classes will be inconvenient to the students of lower-income families because they do not have the necessary technological devices and internet connections. as a result, gradually, both teachers and learners get mentally stressed and frustrated. in rural areas, e-learning is worse than rural areas because of insufficient infrastructure required in virtual classes (radha et al., 2020). 2. literature review several studies have been conducted to show the impacts of covid-19 on students and teachers’ mental health. many studies have revealed how learners and teachers from various backgrounds are severely affected by the extended time lockdown due to pandemic. as online classroom has taken the place of the traditional classroom in current pandemic, numerous studies worldwide have been conducted on the impacts of covid-19 on various aspects like economy, education, health etc. to continue remote learning with a collaborative effort, impromptu dependency on the online network has made researchers and practitioner examine whether people are psychically and mentally placid or not. the rapid transition to online learning has made the teachers and students wholly dependent on technological devices to cope with academic activities in education. in bangladesh, private universities are going with online activities to their site where public institutions are still waiting to start. therefore, the mental health of both elt teachers and el learners of the private universities is being overlooked in where it lies the rationale of conducting this research. macintyre et al. (2020) conducted a study on 600 language teachers and showed the stressors and coping responses among the language teachers in the advent of covid-19. many researchers have conducted a study of the impact of covid-19 on teacher's psychology and emotions. besser, lotem, zeigler (2020) in their study showed a higher level of psychological stress on university teachers of israel during the transiting to online synchronous teaching. their ultimate goal was to illustrate the impact that falls not only on students but also on university professors. recent researches (priyo & hazra, 2020) showed that about 21 per cent of the students represent severe mental health concerns and 40 per cent suffer from mild mental health concerns. in their study, banna et http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 101-107 103 al. (2020) have found out the mental health condition of 1,427 adult people from bangladesh during the pandemic. they have shown 33.7% in anxiety symptom, 57.9% in depressive symptom 59.7% in mild to too severe level of stress. hasan et al. (2020) have extracted results from their study on mental health & well-being among home quarantined bangladeshi students. it is shown that 28.5 % of the respondents had stress, 33.3% anxiety, 46.92% depression from mild to too severe, and according to dass 21 and 69.31% had event-specific distress from mild to severe in terms of severity according to ies. hossain et al. (2020) from bangladesh have conducted a study of bangladesh's people's mental health condition. islam et al. (2020) explored a study on covid-19 related stress and its factors and found that 85.60% of the participants are in covid-19-related stress, resulting in sleep shortness and short temper chaos in the family. nevertheless, yeasmin et al. (2020) in their study have investigated how covid19 has impacted on children's mental health in bangladesh where they show that 43% children suffer from a major depressive disorder and 30.5% suffered from the mild disorder, 19.3% from moderate disorder and 7.2% from severe disturbances. huge research has been done on the impacts of covid-19 on the mental health of diversified participants worldwide. studying relevant literature, it is found that none of the studies covers what mental trauma english language teachers and students from the private universities of bangladesh embrace during online classes. the sporadic study has been conducted in bangladesh during covid-19 on student’s and teachers’ mental and psychical health, whereas almost none on elt teachers and el learners. though some mental health studies have been carried on other sectors' participants, very few are conducted on the teachers and students from education sectors. these urge the researcher what mental issues the students and teachers of english language embrace in online learning and teaching during covid-19. it is hoped that this study will help future researchers do further study on the private and public university’s students and teachers’ mental health and pave the way how this mental fugitiveness can be reduced to a certain extent. 3. method the study was conducted among the students and teachers of private universities of bangladesh. the mixed-method combines qualitative and quantitative approaches in the data collection process. data was collected through interviews over the phone, messaging and google questionnaire. all the participants, including teachers and students, were selected randomly from the english department who was adjusting to online learning during the pandemic and spent at least one trimester online. respondents for the interviews included ten efl (english as foreign language) learners from a private university of bangladesh and ten elt teachers from different private universities in bangladesh. quantitative data regarding stress and anxiety related to e-learning was collected from 46 participants from various private universities in dhaka's capital. the participants were esl/efl learners from various private universities. a questionnaire having 13 questions was sent to these 46 respondents through google questionnaire to collect data. quantitative data were analysed using percentage and shown descriptively. 4. findings and discussion in the survey when participants were asked whether they feel stressed and anxious about their online learning where 70% replied ‘extremely’ and 10% said ‘medium’ and rest 20% replied that they are not stressed and anxious at all where nobody was in ‘lower’ anxiety. in query to the availability of devices majority participants (82.2%, the aggregated result of ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree) agreed that they have logistic support like wi-fi, laptop, internet for online learning. among them, 76.1% of students use a smartphone, 37% use laptops, and only 2.2% use a desktop as an online learning device during covid19. about internet connection, only 26.1% found it fast. the same proportionate 37% of participants found it interrupted and slow where none says that it is speedy. mondol and mohiuddin (2020) from bangladesh in their study, showed why teachers and students asked for cost-effective data packages during the pandemic. when they were asked if it is affordable to attend online classes during this pandemic the same proportionate 41% the aggregated result of ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’ agreed on it, in opposite aggregated 29.5% disagreed on it were 29.55% remained neutral. in responses to the overall question whether they can enjoy online classes, only 34.8% agreed that they enjoy it where aggregated 37% disagreed with this. in response to whether their home environment is suitable for online learning or not, the participants of equal proportionate, 41.3%, were in favour and against it, whereas the remaining participants were neutral. furthermore, as participants were asked about their progress in english communication skills, (48.9% the aggregated result of ‘strongly disagree’ and ‘disagree’) replied that they were not in progress where only 26.7% agreed it that they were developing language skills. in another query, participants were asked about the reliability of online assessments where to 50% responders, the online assessment is reliable. in against, only to 19.6% responders, the online assessment does not seem valid and reliable like offline examination. “the validity and reliability of such unsupervised online exams can be improved by conducting more of exams with different possible questions with varying time duration on the same topic instead of conducting one single exam for evaluation” (zayapragassarazan, 2020). http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 101-107 104 furthermore, when they were asked whether they can afford internet or not 60.5%. the aggregated result of ‘extremely difficult’ and ‘difficult’ said it was difficult to afford and the aggregated rest replied that they can afford it and can manage it somehow. in another query, it was asked whether they could attend online classes quickly where the result says that 70.5% can attend somehow though sometimes they get disconnected but rest said they could quickly get access to online classes. in another query, 54.3% responded that they could easily collect materials using the internet, but 17.4% replied that they could not quickly collect them. however, in another question, most 80% agreed that reading those materials online or reading from soft copies makes them psychically exhausted and mentally tired where only 20% replied ‘no’. to get more information on the teacher's mental health regarding the complete dependency online, 20 participants were interviewed to add more data on quantitative data. 4.1. insufficient logistics along with taxonomy in status students studying in universities come from different geographical locations of bangladesh. many of them are currently living outside dhakatill now. bangladesh, a developing country still has to work in the network services and other modern living facilities in the rural and remote areas. whilst students and teachers living in the city centres manage to take the maximum benefit, people in rural areas struggle the most. sufficient broadband network intensity and necessary devices to access online classes are few and far between too many. during the lockdown, the students from low-income family could not afford a laptop or desktop. in contrast, mobile phones were not compelling enough for the participation of online classes. during this lockdown period, the learners were struggling with economic problems (mishra et al., 2020). these teachers and students usually find it challenging to run and attend classes due to poor network connections and devices' unavailability. it forges anxiety, worries, and restlessness in them. it goes same with the findings from the researcher (islam et al. l 2020) who have found out in their surveys that only 55.3% of people have access to laptops, pcs, or tablets to online classes and other 44.7% of the students cannot attend classes due to lack of logistics. disruptions in internet connections due to load shedding, climate, and insufficient feasibility of devices, interrupt ongoing classes and make teachers and students mentally agitated. materials scarcity and materials design is another issue during online lessons. to add more information on quantitative data in an interview regarding materials, a teacher replied, “if you ask about materials scarcity, i must say that there it is, and it was always there. moreover, all the teachers are well aware of this crisis and accustomed to dealing with that issue. a student said, “teachers get a limited number of times to finish the syllabus because the syllabus is full of same old traditional contents. teachers skip many important points just to finish the syllabus." as a result of these fears, questions and feelings of being downgraded and unprivileged accumulated in them; they devastatingly feel broken, affecting their mental health. they worry that they would thus lack the necessary and competent knowledge that shortly will harm their grades and even professional life. moreover, these students cannot wrap up their incomprehension of the concept, by browsing net and videos as supplements to their practical demands. the unjustified feeling of insecurity arising in them cannot also be thrown down. they often feel that others who live in cities with better internet access and better computerized electronic devices would benefit. it injures their mentality and way of thinking. learners often feel belittled among peers. besides, it also widens the inequalities in access to learning that are already prevalent in our tertiary education level. 4.2 challenges in implementation although the authorities are taking initiatives to continue the semesters and finish the ongoing semester without much delay, some aspects need a brilliant move. although the smartphone is ubiquitous among students, the smaller size is not good enough to understand the current study's online deliveries. in the interview, eight students who already attended online exams opined that they are not getting sufficient time to complete their assessment compared to classroom assessment in current practice. adanır et al. (2020) found turkish students' opinions where they showed their significant concerns of online assessment over its implementation where they showed worry for adopting cheating during the examination. 4.3. challenges in other sides the other big challenge is for the private university teachers and students doing part-time jobs. in this study, when the ten teachers were asked whether they are worried about losing their job, most of them showed their worry, and the students replied in the same way. it is also supported by the study of (prio & hazra, 2020) where it has been shown that 42 per cent of the upperclassmen were found to have some form of income-generating occupations or even stable jobs to support themselves and their families. therefore, as lockdowns were urged throughout the country, many have lost their jobs or experienced a decrease in income. many of them who still manage some form of income promoting sources face hindrances in coping with the duty and online class timings, increasing agitation in them. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 101-107 105 4.4. teachers’ maintaining issues another side of the struggle is studied on the teachers. in a question of how they maintain their sudden extra fare in reply, it is found that most of the teachers were not also prepared for the instituted online classes and assessment method. although the adjustment to virtual classes has been quite successful for most universities in the developed nations, which already had the necessary technological infrastructure in place for assisting this shift, it has proven to be a challenging task in our country which did not have much prior experience in teaching courses online. they had to adopt a completely new system they are barely used to in a short time. often, the students feel a lack of being skilled in this platform of teaching and learning. some face problems because they either lacked computer literacy or could not choose online platforms when they thought about net speed and device access to themselves and their students. they had to prepare new digital study notes and presentations and restructure their teaching to get it manageable and comprehensible. despite the absence of lab and other various teaching equipment, teachers feel restive to ensure learning. thus, teachers too have to comply and deal with the increased workload, mental stress, and frustrations on their insides. this pandemic to balance between personal and professional life is challenging for many teachers because staying at home creates a physical and psychological gap between home and school (macintyre et al., 2020). moving away from the face to face communication meant a lack of interactions. self-doubt develops as educators consistently encounter the thoughts of not conveying their utmost to the students. many teachers never feel comfortable with the online platform because they feel it is essential to see the students' smiley face in the flesh. a teacher said, “online class or other activities seems to my food without salt. but, as i was professionally obliged to take online classes, i learn something new, get used to it and start organizing online classes with my students.” they also have to grapple with the disruption of the ongoing class. most of the time, it is inscrutable that all the assigned students are participating in the class with proper attention. the teacher said, "i strongly believe that online class and other activities should remain allowed even in other time except for pandemic because we must have the technological knowledge to arrange them." some other teachers claimed before organizing the online classes they just started feeling a little bit stressed thinking that everything would go on “okay” or not. though, in a few days, they started to feel comfortable with the virtual classes. another private university teacher shared his experience and said, "there are many drawbacks with online classes before/ during/ after time. many students from various levels, who have more or less technological knowledge, aware of using apps or other media essential for an online class, are less interested and less stressed in attending the classes. this scenario is different for many students who do not know how to install or use the apps, making them stressed. taking all the teachers' inconveniences and mental aspects into account, teachers happen to lost control of their patience and end up rebuking students on odd occasions, sometimes. it gives rise to turmoil and turbulent feelings in teachers' minds to what they feel sorry for soon after. teachers' mental health worsens when issues like salary, promotion, bonus, and allowance are unsettled in the current crisis. the situation gets critical because many things start going wrong due to the continuity of the pandemic lockdown. according to a private university "dealing with too many students creates a total mess sometimes. online teaching and assessment method is difficult for many of the teachers. moreover, teaching numerous students with numerous problems with a new system is another big trouble. many of the teachers feel unbearable stress which needs counselling and break from work.” another teacher said, “when you have to adjust with a new system, of course, you will feel lack of skill. sometimes i share my incomplete skills with my colleagues, and we work as a team to have a clear concept of the new teaching method. notably, the “mental health worsens when the bosses too do not know what to do and deduct the salary." behind this scenario, some teachers feel relief just focusing on the present, not in the past and future. 4.5. stress during online exam the other big challenge is online exams, as exam designing is an important issue. according to islam et al. (2020), online assessment with an open book can be successful and feasible if appropriately monitored but still showed worry whether it will work or not and emphasized the teacher's hard work in this regard. though some developed countries have the success of implementing online examinations, in developing countries, learners face challenges like lower computer literacy, limited access to ict or lack of experiences that require learners to accept online mood of assessment (adanır et al., 2020). disagreement over admission tests and modes of evaluation has taken precedence over more important issues that can have long-term detrimental impacts on education. it drains the teachers, as they always figure out a path to negotiate with the authority and the student body. to get rid of all the negative energies in mind, and keep up with the workflow, teachers usually adhere themselves to works, escapes frequent dissentient standings, and engage in religious activities. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 101-107 106 5. conclusion as in bangladesh covid-19 was detected in the mid of march, private universities adopted few initiatives to run their academic activities online. this study found that worsening mental health condition was embraced both by elt teachers and efl learners. the study reveals while attending online classes and assessment, efl learners face difficulties because of insufficient logistic support, unaffordable devices, internet services, unavailability of class materials, interrupted internet connection, noisy home environment, incessant reading from online materials, lack of scope in developing language skills, and struggling to participate in online assessment. this study finds the dangerous mental health condition that the elt teachers face because of sudden dependency on online without any prior knowledge, fear of losing a job, sudden extra fare, and lack of computer literacy, which have increased their workload worsening mental health condition. it also shows how making a balance between professional life and personal life by staying at home leads to deteriorating their mental health condition during this pandemic. the investigated result will show the path for future researchers to do more research on the teachers and students' mental health from the participants of other areas. 6. recommendations finally, yet importantly, the uncertainty and fear surrounding the current pandemic have given rise to anxiety, stress, and various mental health issues that have also befallen elt teachers and efl learners. they are under enormous psychological pressure like the rest of society. they also have their relatives or friends infected with this deadly virus or fighting on in the death bed. even if not infected or suffered fatalities, the covid-19 has created enough trepidations and hence overwhelming people of all levels. every individual has a fear of death. amidst this, it is almost impossible for teachers and students to concentrate on either teaching or to study thoroughly. regardless of the pandemic, most occurrences evoking psychological distress can be diminished by well-constructed and lenient approaches and solutions. such a huge population could be engaged in online education after careful observation and planning. culturally relevant pedagogy with mini-lessons can keep both teachers and learners interactive. nowadays, microsoft and many other web developers provide efficient tools for e-learning like zoom, google meet and many others. however, learning through elearning apps may increase fatigue among teachers and students, which should be measured under consideration. providing video recordings of the online class lectures would help them to refer to the videos later. they can watch it multiple times or even offline after downloading, to clear concepts chapter wise. as stated by islam et al. (2020), adopting a "universal pass” for the current semester so that no student would fail irrespective of their academic performance, and get relief from worries. the government should also come forward and take some actions to seriously consider providing subsidy for education using the internet without disruption similar to other sectors which have received aids during covid-19. references afacan adanır, g., i̇smailova, r., omuraliev, a., & muhametjanova, g. (2020). learners’ perceptions of online exams: a comparative study in turkey and kyrgyzstan. international review of research in open and distributed learning, 21(3), 1-17. avi bessera. a., lotem. s. & zeigler-hill. v. 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(2020) covid-19: strategies for online engagement of remote learners . retrieved from https://doi.org/10.7490/f1000research.1117835 .1 http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.4951 vol. 4, no. 1, april 2022, pp. 15-23 15 deictic expressions used by lera boroditsky in ted talks channel putri dinia ningsih & fika megawati * universitas muhammadiyah sidoarjo, east java, indonesia fikamegawati@umsida.ac.id article history received : 2020-09-17 revised : 2022-03-21 accepted : 2022-03-11 keywords deictic expressions speech types of deixis ted conference communication abstract highlighting the importance of deictic expression studies in english language context, particularly in the form of speech, it is pivotal to explore further deixis as the specific area of pragmatics in order to enrich the theory as well as the practice of verbal communication development. thus, the purpose of this descriptive qualitative study is to determine the presence of deixis in lera boroditsky’s speech of “how language changes the way we think?” and to decipher the meaning of each deictic statement in her speech. the data were obtained from a video of the ted talks channel on youtube. then the transcript of the speech was analyzed and evaluated by using levinson’s (1983) and huang’s theories (2014). the results demonstrated that lera boroditsky’s speech has six categories of deixis: person deixis, spatial or place deixis, temporal or time deixis, social deixis, discourse deixis, and emotional deixis. each deictic phrase has a distinct meaning depending on the context or situation presented in the speech. in other words, recognizing deixis in a formal speech helps understand the intention of speakers with different personalities, backgrounds, and cultures in several types of communication. in addition, some implications of the findings on the process of teaching and learning english language is also elaborated in this study. 1. introduction the relationship between language and meaning can be expressed in the structure of language through the concept of deixis (levinson, 1983). since deictic describes a meeting point between linguistic framework and social context in which speech takes place, the analysis of deixis becomes a central element in pragmatics (bublitz & norrick, 2011). any form of language used to ‘point’ or ‘indicate’ is called deictic expressions or indexical (yule, 1996), and deictic expressions require participants to find concrete relations. when someone calls another person by phone and says ‘it’s me’, they invite the interlocutor to figure out, based on oral characteristics, which ‘me’ the speaker refers to (culpeper & haugh, 2014). deixis can be found in many areas like speech (asmarita & haryudin, 2019), song (sitorus & fukada, 2019), or novels with a different culture (khalili, 2017). speech delivered by a country leader, a business leader, or a community leader may be problematic when the audience has difficulty understanding the context and what reference the speaker intends to express (retnowaty, 2019). some public speakers do point when they speak in front of many people (kurniadi, 2017). the likes of the former president of the united states, ronald wilson reagan, used a pointing in his speech “tear down this wall”. without knowing the context, it will be difficult to understand the place he was referring to. malala yousafzai, an activist from pakistan also used pointing in her speech, “but first of all, thank you to god for whom we all are equal and thank you to every person who has prayed for my fast recovery and new life.” the word “we” can be interpreted as inclusive “we” or exclusive “we”. when the speaker utters and excludes addressee or speaker plus other(s), it means the speaker uses an exclusive ‘we’, and when speaker and addressee are included, it is an inclusive ‘we’ (huang, 2014). this condition is also found in lera boroditsky’s speech. one of the examples is, “we’ve started doing research, and now we have actual scientific data to weigh in on this question” in this situation, the listeners may wonder, who is the “we” lera addressed or what is the meaning of “we” she used in the speech? lera boroditsky also did another pointing when she said “i see you guys pointing there, there, there, there, there…” 16 lera boroditsky, an associate professor of cognitive science at the university of california san diego, is well known for her research on how language shapes the way we think. she presented a speech in front of many audiences at an official ted talk conference in 2017, and it gained more than 5 million views on youtube and got more than 10 million views on the ted website. she also has delivered the highlights of her extensive and fascinating research where she engaged the audience by interacting and asking the audience to think and imagine a certain situation. she also used rhetorical questions that make the audience feel included, attract the audience’s attention by using interesting slides or photos and incorporate media at appropriate times to make her point meaningful (yadav & jabeen, 2013). there has been plenty of research focusing on deixis in the form of speech. in indonesia, the first previous study was written by kurniadi (2017) who discussed the classification of deixis in malala yousafzai’s speech using yule’s theory. he found that person deixis is the dominant one. further, anita (2017) discussed the temporal deixis used in donald trump’s victory speech and analyzed it using levinson’s theory. she concluded that gestural deictic expression is more dominant than the symbolic one. meanwhile, retnowaty (2019) focused on analyzing donald trump’s speech to un general assembly using yule’s and levinson’s theories. the results show that the most frequent deictic expression used by donald trump is the person deixis. having a similar research focus, this study aimed to delve deep into this area by presenting observations on online talk. while the two studies mentioned above analyzed political speeches which mostly have more person-type deixis and have deep, ambiguous, or even strong arguments, this study used speech from the ted talks program which explains the latest scientific topic. researchers have expressed interest in the ted program and compelled them to analyze the comments given to the program (lestariningsih, 2020). furthermore, speech, gesture, and slide interplay have been the concern of this program harrison (2021). in a broader scope, ted talks have given inspiration in the area of english skills such as listening (crible, abuczki, burkšaitienė, furkó, nedoluzhko, rackevičienė, & zikánová, 2019), discourse markers, and figurative language (mattiello, 2019). highlighting the topics, it is clear that deixis on a speech is an under-explored study. thus, this examination provides novelty to the area of deixis. this study also gives a theoretical contribution regarding the use of levinson’s (1983) and huang’s theory (2014). in huang’s theory, there is one additional type of deixis which all together add up to six types of deixis that have not been analyzed by other researchers. thus, this study gives more comprehensive results on the development of a deictic study. in addition, this study also contributes to the pedagogical aspect, particularly raising the pragmatic awareness of efl learners (eslami-rasekh, 2005) and the pragmatic competence of efl teachers (tajeddin & bagheri, 2021). based on the explanation above, it is crucial to investigate the field of deixis further to get more empirical pieces of evidence related to the use of different theories. thus, this study is intended to identify the types of deixis relying on the theories by levinson and huang. the researchers used the combination of deixis theory from levinson and huang because they give an up-to-date deixis theory and present quite deep and various examples. this study also aimed to interpret the meaning of each deictic expression used in lera boroditsky’s speech. 2. method the researchers used the descriptive-qualitative method whereby the data were served in the form of sentences and presented descriptively based on the research problems. the primary source of this study was a 14-minute recording of the speech by lera boroditsky presented at ted women in november 2017. ted women gives women the platform to share bright ideas and inspiration. the presentations delivered in ted women are also accessible on the ted youtube channel. for the secondary data, the researchers used the transcript of the speech on the ted website and ted youtube channel. using a qualitative approach, the researchers collected and analyzed the data. the researchers studied videos of ted talks available on youtube and the ted website to find speeches that contain deictic expressions and have high viewership. the researchers selected lera boroditsky’s speech due to its significant impact on the development of language. additionally, researchers also studied lera boroditsky to ensure her credential as a speaker in ted talks. she also publishes some journal articles related to the topic that she shared in that forum. in addition, the comment section on her videos indicated that boroditsky could engage her audience by interacting and asking questions. she uses rhetorical questions that stimulate the audience to react. in her research about the use of vocabulary and linguistics presented at a ted conference (aravind, & rajasekaran, 2020). she stipulated that esl learners can develop their vocabulary knowledge and mastery level through the emerging technique of ted talks. in other words, the speech is considered appropriate to be investigated based on its interesting topic as well as meaningful content, in addition to giving the audience new knowledge related to the linguistic form of speech. with the transcript provided by the website, the researchers proceeded to analyze the speech and 17 collect data in the form of sentences containing deictic expressions. after manually collecting the data from 316 sentences, the researchers categorized the data into 6 types of deixis based on levinson and huang’s theories. finally, every data of deictic expressions was interpreted and concluded into research findings. 3. result 3.1 types of deixis after closely examining the speech and the transcript of the speech, the researchers found six types of deixis used in lera boroditsky’s speech. they were person deixis, time deixis, place deixis, social deixis, discourse deixis and emotional deixis. table 3.1 illustrates the details of the classifications. table 3.1 types of deixis no. types of deixis number of utterances 1. person 223 2. place/ spatial 30 3. temporal/ time 21 4. social 4 5. discourse 36 6. emotional 2 total 316 it can be seen in table 3.1 that the researchers found 223 person deixes, 30 place/spatial deixes, 21 temporal/ time deixes, 4 social deixes, and 36 discourse deixes. for the emotional discourse, the researchers found two utterances that showed the emotional aspect of the speaker (see table 3.2 (appendix)). the type of deixis that was mostly used by the speaker was person deixis. a similar finding was concluded by kurniadi (2017) and retnowaty (2019). the use of person deixis plays a significant role in the way the speaker delivers the message of the speech. 3.2 interpretation of the meaning each deictic expression has its meaning depending on its context. this section presents the results which have more than one reference and the ones that represent each category are presented. 3.2.1 person deixis person deixis refers to the speaker, the listener, and any additional individual who may or may not be present in the conversation set. the following parts are the findings of person deixis. data 1 i hope that’s happening. so, because of this ability, we humans are able to transmit our ideas across vast reaches of space and time. we’re able to transmit knowledge across minds. i can put a bizarre new idea in your mind right now. i could say,” imagine a jellyfish waltzing in a library while thinking about quantum mechanics.” now, if everything has gone relatively well in your life so far, you probably haven’t had that thought before. but now i’ve just made you think it, through language. (00.4801.23) the excerpt of the speech quoted above contains singular first-person deixis, plural first-person deixis, and second-person deixis. the word “i” is singular first-person deixis and refers to the speaker, lera boroditsky, because she is the one and the only person who speaks in front of many audiences. the word “we” is a plural first person deixis and we “inclusive” addressee because ‘we’ refers to the speaker and the audience (huang, 2014). the speaker intends to share that she and the audience are capable of transmitting knowledge to another person. boroditsky changes ‘we’ into ‘our’ to explain the possessive of herself and the audiences. the word “your” belongs to the audiences’ mind and life. data 2 these arguments have gone back and forth for thousands of years. but until recently, there hasn’t been any data to help us decide either way. recently, in my lab and other labs around the world, we’ve started doing research, and now we have actual scientific data to weigh in on this question. (02.11-02.28) the word “us” refers to the speaker and the audiences because of the provided context, “but until recently, there hasn’t been any data to help us decide either way.” the speaker uttered, “people have been speculating about this question forever”. therefore, the word “us” refers to the speaker and the audience who are speculating about those questions. ambiguity may arise in that utterance if the audience does not understand the speaker’s intention and so in this case the audience may decide whether he/she is a part of the people who are speculating that question or not (yule, 1996). 18 the word “we” refers to the speaker and her colleagues who are researching to find data that proves the research problem. thus, “we” in those utterances means we ‘exclusive’ addressee. the audience is excluded in this part. the word “my” indicates that the laboratory belongs to the speaker data 3 you would say something like, ”oh, there’s an ant on your southwest leg.” or, “move your cup to the north-northeast a little bit.” in fact, the way that you say “hello” in kuuk thaayorre is you say, ”which way are you going?” and the answer should be, ”north-northeast in the far distance. how about you?” so imagine as you’re walking around your day, every person you greet, you have to report your heading direction. (02.56-03.20) from the above transcript quotation, the word “you” and “your” may refer to the audience and the other interlocutors if that condition happens in kuuk thaayorre or if they speak like kuuk thaayorre people. in other words, the use of “you” is indefinite, meaning that it refers to persons other than the immediate addressees. it is similar to when a speaker says, “oh, there’s an ant on your southwest leg.” there is also “you” that refers to the audience in the forum. data 4 i’ve told you about how speakers of different languages think differently, but of course, that’s not about how people elsewhere think. it’s about how you think. it’s how the language that you speak shapes the way that you think. and that gives you the opportunity to ask, ”why do i think the way that i do?” ”how could i think differently?” and also, ”what thoughts do i wish to create?” thank you very much. (13.40-14.04) boroditsky uses “i” to indicate her as a subject. but 3 thoughts may have possible meaning that “i” is referring to the audience because she urges the audience to ask his or herself with this utterance “why do i think the way that i do?” in this case, the speaker is not only referring to herself but also the audience. the use of “you” indicates that the speaker wants the audience to participate by thinking or imagining the condition that the speaker utters in her speech. data 5 so, if you take english speakers and i just show you someone breaking a vase, and i say, “he broke the vase,” as opposed to “the vase broke,” even though you can witness it yourself, you can watch the video, you can watch the crime against the vase, you will punish someone more, you will blame someone more if i just said, “he broke it,” as opposed to, “it broke.” the language guides our reasoning about events. (10.28-10.54) the data above contains first-person deixis, second-person deixis, and third-person deixis. for the first-person deixis, there is “i” and “our”, second person “you” and “yourself”, and for the third person deixis, “he” and “it”. the speaker uses “you” to refer to the audience and puts the reflexive pronoun “yourself” at the end of the clause to emphasize that the audience can witness the crime against the accident by his/herself. the word “he” refers to the illustration on the screen (a picture of a man) and the word “it” refers to the broken vase. the speaker uses “our” to explain the possessive of the speaker herself and the audience. 3.2.2 spatial or place deixis spatial or place deixis indicates the speaker’s position in space. the following are the findings of spatial or place deixis found in the speech. data 1 so let’s just say the accuracy in this room was not very high. (04.23-04.25) the use of proximal deixis “this” indicates that the space is near to the speaker (levinson, 1983). the word “this” refers to the room where the speaker and the audience are. in this case, the word “this” means proximal from the speaker’s location at coding time (ct) and it is also proximal to the addressee at receiving time (rt) (levinson, 1983) because the audience (addressee) is in the same room as the speaker. therefore, the speaker’s location and the audience’s location is proximal. data 2 so here i have pictures of my grandfather at different ages. (04.42-04.46) the word “here” refers to the picture of boroditsky’s grandfather shown on the screen. “here” means proximal from the speaker’s location and also distal from the audience’s location because the screen is away from the audience. data 3 i see you guys pointing there, there, there, there, there. (04.12-04.15) the word “there” in that utterance is expressed by a body movement or a gesture. the speaker is pointing in the direction in which the audiences point and make a gesture by moving her hand to the direction where the audience points. the audience can interpret and understand the word “there” by seeing the direction the speaker points at with her hand. the word “there” is away from the speaker, or so-called distal, but it can mean proximal to the addressee at receiving time. data 4 you would say something like, ”oh, there’s an ant on your southwest leg.” (02.56-03.00) 19 the word “there” refers to the interlocutor’s southwest leg so it is away from the speaker’s location at coding time and it can be used to mean proximal to the addressee at receiving time. 3.2.3 temporal deixis temporal deixis is concerned with the various times that are engaged in and alluded to in an utterance. the following parts are the findings of spatial or temporal deixis. the findings of temporal deixis are elaborated as follows. data 1 i could say, ”imagine a jellyfish waltzing in a library while thinking about quantum mechanics.” now, if everything has gone relatively well in your life so far, you probably haven’t had that thought before. but now i’ve just made you think it, through language. (01.0601.24) in this quoted transcript, the word “now” is accompanied by phrases “has gone” and “so far”. there is a shift from the condition wherein the previous time the speaker imagines that the audience’s life has gone well. in the present time, the speaker asks or urges the audience to think and imagine a jellyfish waltzing in a library while thinking about quantum mechanics by saying “but now i’ve just made you think it, through language.” data 2 so, what i’m doing right now is, i’m making sounds with my mouth as i’m exhaling. (00.2500.29) the word “right now” indicates the time when the utterance is heard. the speaker is saying something to the audience, and it is done at the exact time when the speaker is uttering that sentence. thus, the coding time and the receiving time are almost the same. data 3 now, i’ve given you a few examples of how language can profoundly shape the way we think, and it does so in a variety of ways. (10.5511.04)) the speaker uses the word “now” frequently to shift from one utterance to another. thus, “now” is in the present time when the speaker is uttering the word. the word “now” may immediately change before the present time when the speaker utters other utterances. 3.2.4 social deixis social deixis is concerned with the social information embedded inside diverse utterances. the speaker says the following utterances that belong to social deixis. data 1 charlemagne, holy roman emperor, said, ”to have a second language is to have a second soul” -strong statement that language crafts reality. (01.51-01.59) the speaker mentions “holy roman emperor” and “charlemagne”. addressing charlemagne as “the holy roman emperor” suggests that the speaker considers the social hierarchy in her speech. using honorific references indicates that the speaker respects the referent (amin & jukil, 2019). data 2 but on the other hand, shakespeare has juliet say, ”what’s in a name? a rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” well, that suggests that maybe language doesn’t craft reality. (02.0002.10) the speaker does not address shakespeare using his title, but by pointing or saying the last name the speaker implies that the speaker is aware of the equality in the social status (levinson, 1983). so, this form is included in honorific reference because it shows that the speaker respects the referent. for juliet, a character from shakespeare’s work named juliet capulet, the use of the first name indicates equality and familiarity because juliet capulet is widely known as juliet. data 3 so here i have pictures of my grandfather at different ages. (04.42-04.47) the phrase “my grandfather” shows the kin relationship. grandfather is a kinship term that is included in the social deixis category. the speaker shows a picture of an old man who is related to the speaker by blood. 3.2.5 discourse deixis discourse deixis, also known as text deixis, refers to aspects of the discourse that are included in the speech. the data within lera boroditsky’s speech indicating the use of discourse deixis are presented below. data 1 now, of course, there isn’t just one language in the world, there are about 7,000 languages spoken around the world. and all the languages differ from one another in all kinds of ways. some languages have different sounds, they have different vocabularies, and they also have different structures -very importantly, different structures. that begs the question: does the language we speak shape the way we think? now, this is an ancient question. people have been speculating about this question forever. (01.2401.50) the use of distal demonstrative “that” refers to the preceding segment of discourse. many languages in the world make their structure, vocabulary and sound 20 raise questions “does the languages shape the way we think?” similar to the word “that”, “this” also refers to the previous utterances. the referent of “this question” is already presented by the speaker before she utters “this is an ancient question”. data 2 there are also really big differences in how people think about time. so here i have pictures of my grandfather at different ages. and if i ask an english speaker to organize time, they might lay it out this way, from left to right. this has to do with writing direction. if you were a speaker of hebrew or arabic, you might do it going in the opposite direction, from right to left. (04.39-05.00) the word “this” refers to the current portion of the discourse because “this” refers to both the former and the latter of the discourse. the word “this” demonstrates the way the english, hebrew, or arabic speakers laid out the time. data 3 languages have all kinds of structural quirks. this is one of my favourites. lots of languages have grammatical gender; every noun gets assigned a gender, often masculine or feminine. (08.01-08.12) the word “this” refers to the forthcoming segment of the discourse. the speaker says “this is one of my favourites” to refer to the grammatical feature of gendered nouns used in german and spanish languages. 3.2.6 emotional deixis emotional deixis is concerned with the speaker’s level of participation in the discourse’s specific situation to which he or she is referring. to know this type of deixis in this study, the next part describes the details of the data. data 1 you learn the number list and you learn how to apply it. a little linguistic trick. well, some languages don’t do this, because some languages don’t have exact number words. (06.12-06.21) the word “this” indicates the speaker’s empathy to the people who do not have exact number words and who, instead of counting by number, use an utterance like “this is quite small” or using estimated quantities (huang, 2014). thus, the word “this” conveys the speaker’s empathy to those who are incapacitated to do certain activities which may include the utilization of exact numbers, such as operating algebra in construction work. data 2 the tragic thing is that we’re losing so much of this linguistic diversity all the time. we’re losing about one language a week, and by estimates, half of the world’s language will be gone in the next hundred years. (12.55-13.06) the use of “this” indicates that the speaker feels unhappy with the loss of languages. the utterance contains emotional deixis because the speaker expresses her concern regarding the trend of language loss. 4 discussion 4.1 type of deixis deixis is widespread in languages, it is because the indicators like ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘who’, and ‘what’ are very helpful to coordinate the situation of utterance (griffiths, 2016). the results of some previous studies show that person deixis appears to be the most common deixis in their research. retnowaty (2019) found that person deixis is mostly used to address the speaker and the audience, indicating that the speaker mostly uses plural first person “we.”. the use of “we” intends to build an image for the speaker as the president who is close to the citizen of the united states of america. kurniadi (2017) also found that person deixis mostly is used in speeches. the speaker mostly uses “i” because she told her life and her experiences. these previous studies are similar to this research because the speaker tends to use person deixis rather than the other types of deixis. in this study, the speaker uses “i” 41 times, but the quantity is quite similar to the use of “we” (31 times), meaning that the range is not very high. since the speaker wants to share the opinion or the result of her research on how the way languages shape the way we think, she tends to use “i” and “we” because she wants the audience to be involved in the speech and to realize that the speaker and the audience both have similar capacities in thinking about the issue. the types of deixis found in this study are different from the ones found in retnowaty’s research (2019). the difference is in the use of emotional deixis in the study. while retnowaty only investigated 5 types of deixis, the current research uses 6 types of deixis. kurniadi (2017) studies 3 types of deixis: person, spatial and temporal deixis, reflecting on yule’s theory. in contrast to other studies, anita (2017) investigates temporal deixis. the different types of deixis enrich the previous studies’ findings as well as add the references for the efl learners in using the model of speech. this type can inspire viewers who are not quite confident when delivering a speech in english in the context of public speaking. it is expected that studying this topic can help non-native speakers to improve their english to an extent of replicating the nativeness of the english native speakers. 4.2 barriers in interpreting deixis deixis is commonly expressed in languages and allows participants to find concrete relations. therefore, the study of deixis becomes an important part of interpreting spoken or written work. however, 21 some studies showed that understanding the meaning and the referent of deictic expressions is not easy. further, the study by maspufah (2015) showed that students in senior high school have problems in interpreting the context and identifying the referent of the deictic expressions in narrative text. the study from wicaksono (2019) showed that the students at the university levels could easily interpret person, time, place, and social deixis because they are often used in everyday life, both orally and written. however, they have difficulties in understanding discourse deixis and comprehending the situational information in a descriptive text. the key to understanding is knowledge about deixis and context to uncover the deixis in verbal communication including speech. many words and phrases are employed throughout the production of the speech, and the students’ comprehension will be highly dependent on the circumstances in which they are said. in other words, deictic terms are employed in numerous languages to indicate ‘who,’ ‘when,’ ‘where,’ and ‘what.’ these words do not have stable referents and continually pick up new referents depending on who utters them, when they are said, and where they are uttered. for example, depending on who gets the role of the speaker, the personal deictic pronoun “i” can refer to either the speaker or the listener. 4.3 the role of teachers in introducing deixis by knowing that the students face some problems and have difficulties in analyzing or interpreting the referent of deixis, english teachers should allow the students to practice and learn more about deixis (yekta, 2015; nurhikmah, 2019). in technology integration, this seems to be essential to be introduced to the learners to make communication better (hill, 2006). furthermore, a collaborative strategy can be an alternative in classroom activities (djawa, degeng, widiati, & toenlioe, 2016). authentic materials or data such as newspapers, songs, advertisements, or recorded speeches can be used as material in the classroom. the teacher can reflect on the findings of this study to have insights in enhancing the students’ competence in understanding the use of deixis in speech. therefore, this study may give an insight or information for them in understanding deixis and the context of the speech. other than that, by watching and listening to the speech, the students can learn and practice their listening skills. by using these research findings as learning material, the students can understand the context of the speech, the use of deixis, and practice their listening skills at the same time. it is critical to define the specific areas in which pragmatics teachers must be knowledgeable to assist students in understanding the intentions of others and expressing themselves in the current socio-cultural environment. in other words, before teaching l2 pragmatics, it is more vital to recognize what the teacher is expected to know than it is to enable learners to express themselves in the best way possible. knowledge of subject matter, knowledge of pedagogical content, and knowledge of the learners and local, curricular, and educational contexts are considered essential for efl teachers (ishihara, 2010). 4.4 adaptability to deixis toward online source understanding deixis contributes to the educational context, including in the selection of online sources. spoken and written deixes have specific characteristics. accordingly, dealing with online sources used for teaching and learning activities, teachers’ and students’ talk also get affected by what they read and watch from the internet. itcan be a method to show students how to put typical deixis on their communication. the relevance of person, place and time in materials design is defined as a key factor in the overall design of the english language syllabus ahmed & shazali, 2011). in the indonesian context, the genres provided in the lessons consist of various texts. the result of this study can be used to see the different contexts from a speech presented in online sources. furthermore, it can be connected to the skill of describing a public figure. understanding deixis from people that the students are describing can be a meaningful task for students in doing depth-analysis of the project. do not only learn the organization of the text, but they also find the pragmatic aspect within the investigation. concerning online oral presentations, today’s teachers and students are most familiar with this activity. thus, providing models from various online sources in delivering materials is needed. the careful selection in adapting or adopting the contextual model helps the learners strengthen their english skills naturally. this process can minimize errors and confidence problems during the performance (rahayu, 2018). moreover, role play is one of the teaching strategies that can encourage learners to apply their deictic expression. teachers may suggest learners pretend to be a specific famous public figure and practice giving a speech in front of the classroom. by imitating what the public figure usually applies in their utterances, students can build character understanding toward what they play. another benefit is they learn strategies to attract public attention through meaningful and comprehensible verbal communication from the selected figure (naseri, 2017). 5. conclusions 22 the results show that the speaker uses six types of deixis in her speech. the meaning of each deictic expression is varied depending on its context. for example, there is first-person “i”s which refers to the speaker and “i”s that possibly refers to the audience, in personal deixis. the speaker uses “i” instead of “you” to refer to the audience because she wants the audience to feel included in the situation of the utterances. further, body movement or gesture is essential to support the interpretation of spatial deixis. temporal deixis is also frequently used by the speaker. next, the uses of last name, first name, and the family relationship appear in the social deixis. dealing with discourse deixis, distal demonstrative shows its role in determining “previous” or “forthcoming” in the text. the last one, emotional deixis indicate empathy and unhappy feelings. to conclude, six categories of deixis (person, place/spatial, temporal/time, social, discourse, and emotional) are applicable in every conversation we make, primarily speech. all people may use different linguistic forms to encode deictic information. there is no strict rule in speech delivery to use types of deictic terms. essentially, the main point of the study of deixis is how the participants of a speech have access to the object referred to in a deictic act (huang, 2014). concerning the rapid transformation of technology integration, it is recommended that further research focuses on exploring more types of deixis in speech with digital communication context. references ahmed, m. & shazali, m. 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(1996). pragmatics. oxford university press. journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 59-69 59 challenges confronting the administration of english language program: secondary school context in nigeria ogunode niyi jacob federal university wukari, nigeria ogunodejacob@gmail.com article history received : 2020-07-15 revised : 2020-08-19 accepted : 2020-08-19 keywords administration challenges english language abaji secondary school nigeria abstract this objective of this study was to investigate the challenges facing the administration of english language program in senior secondary schools in abaji area council of federal capital territory (fct), nigeria. the study used questionnaire as instrument for data collection. 80 respondents were selected from the entire population of english teachers and school administrators in abaji. purposive research techniques were employed to select the respondents. research survey method was adopted for the study. to determine the reliability of the instrument, test and retest methods. the data collected were analysed using simple percentage, mean statistical and chi-square was employed to test the hypotheses. the result collected from the study led to the following conclusion that scant fund, shortage of professional english teacher, inadequate english language instructional materials, deficient english laboratory, poor capacity development of english language teachers and paltry motivation of english language teacher are the challenges affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. 1. introduction by 2050, nigeria is forecast to have 400 million people, meaning it will overtake the united states as the world’s third-most-populous country. the starkness of this fact (its population is currently about 200 millions) illustrates the degree to which demography will shape africa’s future (www.economic.com). nigeria has a federal system of government with 36 states and the federal capital territory of abuja. within the states, there are 744 local governments in total. the country is multilingual, and home to more than 250 different ethnic groups. the nigerian educational system comprises of the basic education, the junior and secondary school education and the higher education. the secondary schools’ education is the post-basic education. secondary school education is also views as the education that prepares the students for career choice in the higher institutions. the broad aim of secondary education within the overall national objectives is to prepare the students for higher education and for living a responsible life in society. upon completion of nine years of basic education, most students proceed to the post-basic level, known as senior secondary education, for a period of three years. nigeria has the largest secondary school education in africa. the nigerian senior secondary schools have a diversified curriculum, with subjects program to wider the students’ knowledge and outlook in real life. the official language for instruction in all the nigerian senior secondary schools is english language except for special program like local language and international language program. the core subjects are english; mathematics; one major nigerian language; one elective out of biology, chemistry, physics or integrated science; one elective out of english literature, history, geography or social studies; and agricultural science or a vocational subject. one of the three elective subjects may be dropped in the last year of the senior secondary course. the promotion of students from one class to another is determined by a combination of continuous assessment scores and end-of-term examinations. the senior school certificate examination is taken in the last year of senior secondary education and a certificate is awarded on successful completion and passing of a national examination, which is conducted by the west african examinations council or the national examinations council. english language program in nigeria is a program that is very important to the student academic progress. the students use english language for all their subjects except the local languages or international language. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 59-69 60 according to oribabor (2009) the english language is regarded as the backbone of all other subjects taught in secondary schools. this is because it is the medium of instruction in most secondary and institutions of higher learning in nigeria. in fact, the english language is one of the few core subjects recommended for secondary schools as stipulated in the national policy of education (2004). it is therefore, an essential pre-requisite for further education. at least a credit (c6) in english is a requirement even for science-based subjects. for effective communication one needs a high level of proficiency in the use of language. our political and social circumstances make the use of english language imperative not only as a foreign language but as an official language. english language is probably the only tool that cuts across ethnic and cultural boundaries in nigeria. for effective political participation and social interaction, one must have sufficient mastery of the english language (oribabor, 2009). klein (1986) states that the fact that english language is essential for national understanding and cooperation. it is strategically important for educational advancement and for scientific and technological development. juliana (2017) submits that the role english language plays in human development in nigeria is the focal point of this paper. basically, language is the most frequently used and the most highly developed form of human communication. through language, people interact, share ideas and express their feelings. without language, man would be incapable of a sustained and result oriented thinking. education is unarguably an essential instrument for change and human development. at different levels of schooling in formal education, students are equipped with life-long knowledge and skills that would enable them realise their full potentials as human beings. however, all forms of education (formal, informal and non-formal) are realised through language; hence, language and education are inseparable. in the nigerian polity, english language plays the role of a second language, considering the multilingual nature of the country. english is also the language of instruction in the nigeria education system. not only is it the language of instruction, it is also a compulsory subject and a yardstick for evaluating a learner’s school performance. the normal teaching learning process thrives on effective communication between the teacher and the learner. no matter how expertly, learning experiences are selected and organised, the ultimate objective of the teaching-learning exercise would not be achieved if the language of instruction is unfamiliar to the leaner. this is where english language comes in. english language is indispensable to education in nigeria, thus, it is a veritable tool for human development. english language program in nigeria in recent time have drew the attention of many due to poor performance of students in both internal and external examinations. banjo (2002) submits that observations and comments in nigerian dailies and the chief examiners’ reports show that the performance of secondary school students in english language is deteriorating. many factors have been identified as responsible for the poor performance of students in the secondary schools. oribabor (2009) opines that several reasons have been advanced to explain this deterioration in the program of english language among the secondary school students. among the reasons are lack of effective home stimulation which is related to the socio-economic status of the parents, and lack of relevant facilities –books, library facilities and language laboratory. the other reasons are acute shortage of competent and qualified teachers, defects of the examination system, non-challant attitude of competent and qualified teachers, over-crowded curriculum and the growing influence of youth subculture. in a nutshell, the reasons advanced are economic, cultural, social and curricula in nature (tetteh & nuobeikaa, 2015). however, the teachers answered that the students participate in class. when teachers were asked whether there were problems in teaching english in the area, they all answered „yes‟ and outlined a numbers of problems. prominent among the problems they outlined are: (a) parents do not help their wards with school exercises at home, (b) teachers are not given in-service training, (c) there aren’t any teachers‟ handbooks for english, (d) the teacher is not motivated at all, (e) there are no teaching and learning aid materials, (f) most students cannot read english, (g) most students cannot write simple sentences, (h) most students cannot speak english well or at all in some cases. unoh (1986) also examined the situation of oral english in nigerian secondary schools. he asserts that teaching of english pronunciation in nigeria suffers from peculiar handicaps unknown to the teaching of english language or any other school subject (for that matter). for any subject to be effectively taught, there are at least two very important conditions that must be met: (i) a high degree of motivation on the part of both student and teacher; and (ii) the teachers’ competence in the subject, and his or her mastery of the techniques of imparting knowledge in it. oluwayemisi (2015) submitted that in nigeria, the teaching and learning of english is majorly done through the use of textbooks, dictionaries, chalkboards, workbooks and posters. most schools lack modern technological devices like audio and video tapes, language laboratories, e textbooks, flash cards, internet facilities, newspapers etc. thus as a http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 59-69 61 nation, there is need to confront this issue so as to empower the teaching and learning of english. the weaknesses of english language learners in higher education has been attributed to high school graduates’ lack of knowledge on the what the university truly demands, poorly executed school and english language department curricula, inflexible teaching methodology, and sparse internal and external motivation to learn (derin et al., 2020; teevno, 2011). aremu (2014) submitted that disunity and insecurity in nigeria has led to the formation of different ethnic militants among which are; maitatsine fundamentalists, the book haram and zango-kataf in northern nigeria, oodua progressive congress in yoruba land, egbesu in the defense of biafra, movement for the emancipation of niger delta (mend) as well as other militants group in the country. these problems of disunity and insecurity play a significant role in dwindling the teaching and learning english language in nigeria. akujobi & chukwu (2012) observed that, second language learners experience overwhelming challenges in learning the second language and these challenges are due to the differences between the forms and meaning of english and those of the native language. the weakness of english language learners in general has been attributed to various factors: lack of knowledge on the part of school graduates when they join the university, school and english language department curricula, teaching methodology, lack of the target language environment and the learners’ motivation as well as others (junaidi et al., 2020; khan, 2011). for effective administration of english language program in the nigerian senior secondary schools, there must be adequate professional teachers, adequate instructional materials, adequate infrastructural facilities like english laboratory and adequate funding of the program. the poor performance of students in abaji area council of federal capital territory (fct), abuja, nigeria in the recent external examination and the called by stakeholder in the educational sector in the local government area council motivated the reason for this research and secondly research gap that exist in this aspect of english language program in nigeria and in abaji area council in particular. thus; this study is investigating the challenges facing the administration of english language program in senior secondary schools in abaji area council of fct, nigeria. there have been many researches in different aspects of english language in nigeria. augustine (2016) did a study that examined the challenges facing the teaching of english language in secondary schools and joshua & lynda (2014) conducted a study that advocates for greater emphasis on the acquisition of oracy skills whereby this component of english. usman (2015) research to investigate the english as a second language teachers’ perception of a new senior secondary school english language curriculum objectives, content items, instructional materials/aids, modes of evaluation and the adequacy of the instructional personnel to successfully implement the curriculum in nigeria state while unoh (1986) also examined the situation of oral english in nigerian secondary schools. oluwayemisi (2015) observed that english language teaching and learning is faced with myriads of challenges ranging from overpopulation to inadequate human power, government inconsistent policies, lacks of essential teaching facilities, students’ laissez–faire attitude; mother tongue interference and many others. the highlighted problems are not only common scenarios of the government owned schools but also exist in private institutions although with little variance. lack of adequate language specialists as well as interlingua problem are some common features of schools in nigeria and most parts of africa. to solve these and many other problems, the paper opines that english learners must be extensive readers; teachers must reward efforts of learners so as to motivate their struggle to acquire the language skills; government as a matter of priority should make available necessary facilities that will empower teaching and learning of english and also school management should arouse the interest of english learners by providing relevant equipment and facilities for effective english teaching and learning (yuzar, 2020). according to kannan (2009), students learn basic grammar at school level for the purpose of passing only in the tests and in the examinations and not to face any real life situations. application-oriented advanced grammar is not taught in schools. furthermore, adequate practice is not given to students to learn a language. the writer fully aligns with kannan’s opinion. it is obvious that students only read to pass english language but are not totally committed to its mastery; probably because learners are only taught and expect to regurgitate the experience rather than allowing them to self-discover the intricacies involved in immersing in a foreign language (nursafira, 2020). oribabor (2009) did a paper that evaluated the appropriateness of teaching english language in some selected secondary schools etc. there is a research gap on the administration of english language program in the nigeria secondary schools. since the achievement of the objectives of english language program at the secondary schools depends on the effectiveness of the administration of the various secondary schools in the country. it is therefore http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 59-69 62 important to carry out a research to investigate into the challenges facing the administration of english language program in secondary schools abaji, abuja, nigeria. the objective of this study is to investigate the challenges facing the administration of english language program in senior secondary schools in abaji area council of fct, nigeria. this present study intended to focuses on inadequate fund, shortage of professional english teacher, inadequate english language instructional materials, inadequate english laboratory, poor capacity development of english language teachers and poor motivation of english language teacher are the challenges affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. 2. literature review educational administration is the application of educational resources to achieve educational goals. educational administration is the act and process of using resources in an effective and efficiency ways to attain the various objectives of educational institutions. educational administration deals with the planning and organizing human and materials resources to realise the goals of educational institutions. educational administration is the systematic arrangement of educational input in an operational means to achieve the set goals of educational institution. nwiyi (2018) views educational administration as concerned with integrating the appropriate human and material resources that are made available and made effective for achieving the purposes of a program of an educational institution while (osai & kalagbor, 2017) defines it as the process of identifying, mobilizing and utilizing scarce human and material resources relevant in education for the purpose of achieving specific educational goals efficiently and effectively. this process involves a careful and systematic use of methods, principles, plans and procedures necessary to achieve the educational objectives (okoroma, 2016). the term administration doesn’t refer to any single process or act. nwiyi (2018) viewed the term as a broad umbrella encompassing a number of processes such as: planning, coordinating, controlling and being involved in other management processes and contribute to formulation of policies. in order to achieve these goals, the head of the educational organisation plans carefully various programs and activities. the educational organisation may be a school, college or university. the head organises these programs and activities with co-operation from other teachers, parents and students, motivating them and co-ordinating the efforts of staff members as well as directing and exercising control over them. the head evaluates the performance and progress of staff in achieving the purpose of the educational program, provides feedback to them and brings modification in the plans and programs of the institution when required. the totality of these processes which are directed towards realizing or achieving the purposes of the school is called educational administration (nwiyi, 2018). the objectives of educational administration include the following: a) to ensure effective and efficient utilisation of resources in the educational management b) to ensure that educational wastages are eliminated from the management of education c) to ensure the all the aims and objectives of educational institutions are achieved within a set time d) to ensure that educational resources available are prudently applied for the production of educational services e) to ensure that educational plans are executed as planned. english language program in nigeria is one of the major program offered from the early child education to the higher education. english language is an important course in the nigerian educational system. the objectives of english language program in nigeria includes: a) building up english language skills and acquisition of communicative competence in secondary schools; b) enriching esl learners’ performance through newspapers; c) turning the textbook into genuine curriculum materials and not as a sacrosanct text to be used for english language curriculum; d) creating an enabling environment within the school premises for the promotion of language learning: the provision of libraries and promotion of activities in and outside the school in order to reinforce the normal efforts of teachers; e) taking a more holistic view of a language as an audio-oral–syntactico-lexical complex and so paying greater attention to the teaching and examination of english language in use as opposed to the restricted code english language extracted from the larger corpus for examination purposes only (obanya, 2002). it is a compulsory program from the basic education to the higher education. students must meet the program in every phase of the educational system. juliana (2017) opined that english is the language of education in nigeria. it is the language of instruction from upper primary education, through secondary and tertiary education in nigeria. the state of english as a second language in nigeria coupled with its numerous roles compels every nigerian citizen to http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 59-69 63 learn and to speak it. this paper therefore submits that if english language is the medium through which the concepts in education are expressed and acquired, then, it is a primary instrument for human development in nigeria. english language has not only engineered human development through education, it has also conferred on nigerians other significant privileges both on the home front and the global scene. the teaching and learning of english program in nigeria have attracted many researchers to carry out studies in it. augustine (2016) did a study that examines the challenges facing the teaching of english language in secondary schools in aniocha south local government area of delta state nigeria. the purpose of the research is to determine the basic factors that can be attributed to poor usage of the language by school leavers and graduates. the methodology of the study was the use of questionnaire to elicit response from english teachers. the questions contained in the questionnaire covered areas of perceived difficulties in the teaching and learning of english, the motivation of teachers, availability and use of teaching resources, training of teachers and exposure to modern teaching methods. findings from the study show that the problem of poor usage of english is a combination of various factors which include problem of indiscipline among students, teachers’ inadequacy to teach effectively, inadequate coverage of course contents, etc. recommendations are made. joshua & lynda (2014) conducted a study that advocates for greater emphasis on the acquisition of oracy skills whereby this component of english is totally neglected in our higher schools. it identifies and examines some of the major challenges that the teaching of oral english could face; thereby proffering some possible solutions that could improve the teaching of oral english in our secondary schools. questionnaires were used to seek teachers’ and students’ opinions concerning the problem. the research participants consisted of the teachers of english language and students, particularly, senior secondary schools students (sssi-sss iii) within four selected schools. the results have shown that interference of mother tongue, unqualified teachers and dearth of relevant teaching materials are the major challenges. the study suggested that (i) a high degree of motivation in both students and teachers, and (ii) the teachers’ competence in the subject and their mastery of the techniques of imparting knowledge in it are the basic the solutions. teachers and language instructors should identify these problems, face the challenges through practical classes and improvisation and also insist on standards. usman (2015) conducted a research that investigated the english as a second language teachers’ perception of a new senior secondary school english language curriculum objectives, content items, instructional materials/aids, modes of evaluation and the adequacy of the instructional personnel to successfully implement the curriculum in niger state, nigeria. the research sought answers to the five research questions to guide the study. a survey research method was used and a questionnaire designed patterned on likert’s five-point scale was used for data collection. the content validity of the questionnaire was established through critical examination by experienced teachers. the reliability of the questionnaire was established on the analyses of result of its administration using test-retest method on ten randomly selected experienced secondary school english language teachers. the reliability coefficient value of 0.843 was arrived at using the pearson product moment correlation coefficient statistical technique. the 0.843 r value is above the reliability coefficient acceptable level. the population in this study was two hundred and fifty english language teachers and sixty were selected for use through the simple balloting and stratified random sampling techniques. the sixty english teachers used as respondents were visited in their schools by the researcher and the respondents responded to the questionnaire there and then except for some few copies that had to be left with h.o.d., language for administration and collected on second visit. the data was analysed using the frequency counts, simple percentile and mean statistical techniques to answer the research questions and the ttest statistical technique was used in testing the paired null hypotheses. the results revealed that the english teachers’ perception of the curriculum objectives and content items was favourable except that they opined that the time allocated for the coverage of the content items was inadequate. findings on other aspects of the curriculum were that the recommended instructional materials and teaching/learning aids were neither provided nor available for procurement; teachers may be bias in the use and conduct of continuous assessment and the recommended modes of evaluation could be expensive to produce. other findings are that professional english teachers were inadequate in number and in preparation to implement the new curriculum and the available teachers should be encouraged to attend both inservice or on-the-job training on full-time or part-time basis and workshops to make them better qualified and prepared to teach the new english curriculum. unoh (1986) also examined the situation of oral english in nigerian secondary schools. he asserts that teaching of english pronunciation in nigeria suffers from peculiar handicaps unknown to the teaching of english language or any other school subject (for that http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 59-69 64 matter). for any subject to be effectively taught, there are at least two very important conditions that must be met: (i) a high degree of motivation on the part of both student and teacher; and (ii) the teachers’ competence in the subject, and his or her mastery of the techniques of imparting knowledge in it. while the aforementioned conditions are rarely achieved in the teaching of english language, they are also hardly met in the case of the teaching and learning of english pronunciation. sujatha, salaam & opoku (2017) carried out a study that to find out if the qualification of the english teachers has direct or indirect bearing on the performance of the students in english language. the topic was built on the assumption, apparently shared by most people especially our educational policy makers that any fluent speaker of english automatically becomes an effective english teacher. two secondary schools in the tamale metropolis were selected for the study. questionnaires were distributed to the students and teachers in the selected schools. the responses were analysed using descriptive survey. the study found out that teacher’s qualification does affect student’s performance. recommendations were made on how to improve on the quality of teachers already in the classroom. oribabor (2009) did a paper that evaluated the appropriateness of teaching english language in some selected secondary schools in both urban (ile-ife) and rural (ibodi) areas respectively of former oranmiyan and atakunmosa local government areas of osun state, nigeria. 150 senior secondary school students whose ages ranged from seventeen years six months to eighteen years three months were used for the study. also investigated were the attitudes of the teachers to the philosophy and implementation of the new english language curriculum. the interest of the students in the new english language curriculum was also assessed. an attitude scale and a questionnaire were used to test the relationship among the variables identified for the study. data collected in the study were analysed using percentages and t-test to test the hypotheses generated for the study. results showed that teachers in both urban and rural settings did not differ in their opinion that they were not involved in the planning of the new english language program. it was discovered by the paper that there is need to involve the teachers in both rural and urban schools settings in the identification and planning of program objectives. the non-availability of recommended instructional materials was equally discovered. the paper suggested the need for an urgent re-assessment of existing strategies for implementing the new english language program. as to whether or not teachers have been involved in the planning of the new english language program, teachers show that only four per cent, i.e., 1 of the teachers in urban area indicated that he has been involved. in contrast as shown, ninety-six percent i.e. 24 of the teachers indicated that they have not been involved. in the rural areas on the contrary thirty-six per cent, i.e., 9 of the teachers indicated that they have been involved in planning the english language program. in summary, twenty per cent of all the teachers in both urban and rural settings indicated their involvement in planning the new english language program. eighty percent of the teachers in both urban and rural settings have therefore not been involved in the planning of the english language program. it is clear, from the findings on this particular item, that most of the teachers have not been involved in the planning of the program. there is need to involve teachers because they are the people to implement the program. it must have been observed that a greater percentage or thirthy-six of the teachers in the rural area claimed that they have been involved in the planning of the program; while only four per cent of those in town claimed similar involvement. further discussion with the teachers in an interview revealed, however, that the teachers in the rural setting did not understand what is meant by involvement in planning when they answered the question. this is because they later confessed that they have never been actually involved. in short it appears that none of the teachers interviewed had actually been involved in the planning in order to ensure successful implementation of the program. findings of this study therefore indicated a major omission by not involving teachers at the planning stage (oribabor, 2009). oribabor (2009) several reasons have been advanced to explain this deterioration in the program of english language among the secondary school students. among the reasons are lack of effective home stimulation which is related to the socioeconomic status of the parents, and lack of relevant facilities—books, library facilities and language laboratory. the other reasons are acute shortage of competent and qualified teachers, defects of the examination system, nonchalant attitude of competent and qualified teachers, over-crowded curriculum and the growing influence of youth subculture. in a nutshell, the reasons advanced are economic, cultural, social and curricula in nature. juliana (2017) submitted that most often, language teachers at all levels of education in nigeria encounter many problems in their attempt at improving the teaching and learning of english language. some of the problems include: lack of resources for language teaching, inadequate knowledge of current trends in the teaching and learning of a second language, inconsistencies in the language policy provision on education, attitude and psychological problems on the part of the learners and unprofessionalism in handling the subject. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 59-69 65 from the reviewed literatures, it is clear that that issue concerning challenges facing the administration of english language program in nigeria and in abaji area council of fct, abuja is silent. based on this research gap, this study is aimed to find out the challenges facing the administration of english language program of secondary schools education in abaji, fct, nigeria. 3. method the objective of this study was to investigate the challenges facing the administration of english language program in senior secondary schools in abaji area council of fct, nigeria. the study used questionnaire as instrument for data collection. likeert’s four-point scale. 80 respondents were selected from the entire population of english teachers and school administrators in abaji. purposive research techniques were employed to select the respondents. research survey method was adopted for the study. to ensure of the validity of the questionnaire, sole lecturers of english language were given the questionnaire to crosscheck for corrections. to determine the reliability of the instrument, test and retest method was used for the study and copies of the questionnaire were administered to ten selected english language teachers in a nearby local government council two times after two weeks. pearson product-moment correction co-efficient method was used. the result collected for r was 0.78. the questionnaire was administered to the respondents through the help of english language teachers who volunteer to visit all the selected sampled secondary schools in the areas. the data collected were analysed using simple percentage, mean statistical and chi-square was employed to test the hypotheses. 4. findings h0: inadequate fund is not affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. h1 inadequate fund is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. table 4.1 the rcalculated variables n df r-cal rtable result x 80 78 0.265 0.195 significant y 80 the table 4.1 showed that the r calculated is 0.265 which is greater than the t calculated of value 0.195. this means that inadequate fund is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. h0: shortage of professional english teacher is not affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools h2 shortage of professional english teacher is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. table 4.2 the rcalculated variables n df r-cal rtable result x 80 78 0.271 0.195 significant y 80 the table 4.2 showed that the r calculated is 0.271 which is greater than the t calculated of value 0.195. this means that shortage of professional english teacher is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. h0: inadequate english language instructional materials is not affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools h3 inadequate english language instructional materials is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. table 4.3 the rcalculated variables n df r-cal rtable result x 80 78 0.280 0.195 significant y 80 the table 4.3 disclosed that the r calculated is 0.280 which is greater than the t calculated of value 0.195. this means that inadequate english language instructional material is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. h0: inadequate english laboratory is not affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. h4 inadequate english laboratory is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. table 4.4 the rcalculated variables n df r-cal rtable result x 80 78 0.267 0.195 significant y 80 the table revealed that the r calculated is 0.267 which is greater than the t calculated of value 0.195. this means that inadequate english laboratory is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 59-69 66 h0: poor capacity development of english language is not affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools . h5 poor capacity development of english language is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. table 4.5 the rcalculated variables n df r-cal rtable result x 80 78 0.283 0.195 significant y 80 the table disclosed that the r calculated is 0.283 which is greater than the t calculated of value 0.195. this means that poor capacity development of english language is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. h0: poor motivation of english language teacher is not affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. h6 poor motivation of english language teacher is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools.table 4.6 the rcalculated variables n df r-cal rtable result x 80 78 0.290 0.195 significant y 80 the table revealed that the r calculated is 0.290 which is greater than the t calculated of value 0.195. this means that poor motivation of english language teacher is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. 5. discussion 5.1 inadequate fund result collected showed that the r calculated is 0.265 is more than the t calculated of value 0.195. this means that inadequate fund is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. one of the major problem facing the implementation of english language program in the nigerian secondary schools is the problem of inadequate funding. generally, the annual budgetary allocation for the ministry of education is always below 15% and this is affecting the development of programs at the basic, secondary and higher education. according to femi (2016), the most pressing problems for nigeria’s secondary school education remains the severe underfunding. the federal government, which is responsible for sustaining public educational institutions, has over the past decade not significantly increased the share of the government budget dedicated to education, despite exploding student numbers. between 2003 and 2013 education spending fluctuated from 8.21 per cent of the total budget in 2003 to 6.42 per cent in 2009, and to 8.7 per centage in 2013. in 2014, the government significantly increased education spending to 10.7 per cent of the total budget. the poor allocation to the ministry of education is preventing the effective administration and management of the sector. this result confirms the findings of oluwayemisi (2015) who observed that lack of basic facilities and equipment is a challenge that hinders effective teaching and learning of english language. most schools and colleges in nigeria lack essential equipment which could have strengthen learners ‘skills. most schools do not have language laboratory and well equipped libraries. 5.2 shortage of professional english teacher the result collected showed that the r calculated is 0.271 which is greater than the t calculated of value 0.195. this means that shortage of professional english teacher is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. one of the major problems facing the administration of english language program in the secondary schools is inadequate professional teachers. english language teachers are inadequate in majorities of the secondary schools in nigeria and this is preventing the effective administration of the program. this result is in agreement with oluwayemisi (2015) who submits that english language teaching and learning is faced with myriads of challenges ranging from overpopulation to inadequate human power, government inconsistent policies, and lack of essential teaching facilities, students’ laissez –faire attitude; mother tongue interference and many others. the highlighted problems are not only common scenarios of the government owned schools but also exist in private institutions although with little variance. lack of adequate language specialists as well as interlingua problem are some common features of schools in nigeria and most parts of africa. 5.3 inadequate english language instructional materials the table three results revealed that the r calculated is 0.280 is more than the t calculated of value 0.195. this means that inadequate english language instructional materials is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 59-69 67 5.4 inadequate english laboratory result from table four above showed that the r calculated is 0.267 is more than the t calculated of value 0.195. this means that inadequate english laboratory is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. english language laboratories are very important for the implementation of the english language program in the secondary schools. it is unfortunate that majorities of secondary school in nigeria do not have english language labs. the inadequate of the resources is affecting the administration of english language program in the nigerian secondary schools. this result is in agreement with the discovered of oluwayemisi (2015) who observed that lack of basic facilities and equipment is a challenge that hinders effective teaching and learning of english language. most schools and colleges in nigeria lack essential equipment which could have strengthened learner’ skills. most schools do not have language laboratory and well equipped libraries. 5.5 poor capacity development of english language teachers the table five result showed that the r calculated is 0.283 which is greater than the t calculated of value 0.195. this implies that poor capacity development of english language is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. many english language teachers teaching in the nigerian secondary schools do not go for training and retraining program because the opportunities provided by the government are limited. obanya (2004) observed that the era where all that was required of a teacher was subject matter knowledge is far gone. there is utmost need for improved teacher education which is more than a necessity in the 21st century where technological development and advancement has become a main stay. the association for teacher education in europe (2006) submits that teaching is ‘a profession that requires continuing professional development, reflective thinking, responsibility, autonomy, creativity, and research and personal judgments. the result collaborates with the submission of femi (2016) who submits that majorities of nigerian teachers lack effective capacity development program to improve their skills and knowledge in the classroom. 5.6 poor motivation of english language teacher from the results displayed in the six tables, the r calculated is 0.290 is more than the t calculated of value 0.195. this means that poor motivation of english language teacher is affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. motivation is defined as a force that causes an individual to take some actions in order to achieve certain goals. many professional teachers teaching in the nigerian educational system are not happy. the state of motivation is poor and this is affecting their commitment to work. the implementation of english language program is facing program of implementation because many of the teachers teaching the program are not motivated to give their best. adelabu (2005) discovered in nigeria that teacher’s motivation is very poor and teachers are also dissatisfied with their working environment and salary conditions. the reason behind the poor motivation of teachers is that they having low salaries as compared to other professionals, poor work environment, no decision making authority, and also not giving them opportunity of develop their career. 6. conclusion english language program is one of the major subject that every student must pass it at credit level before proceeding to the next class in the nigeria senior secondary schools. it is crucial for the schools to the development of the nigerian educational sector. it is unfortunate that english language program have not been given maximum attention needed in the secondary schools education. there are many challenges facing the administration of the program in the nigerian secondary schools resulting to poor performance of students in both the internal and external exams. this study was designed to investigate the challenges facing the administration of english language program in abaji area council secondary schools of fct, nigeria. the result collected from the study led to the following conclusion that inadequate fund, shortage of professional english teacher, poor english language instructional materials, paltry english laboratory, deficient capacity development of english language teachers and meager motivation of english language teacher are the challenges affecting the effective administration of english language program in abaji secondary schools. based on these findings, the researcher hereby recommends the following: a) the government should increase the allocation for administration of english language program in the fct especially in abaji area council. b) the government should employ more professional english teachers and deploy them to various secondary schools across the fct and in abaji area councils in particular c) more instructional materials should be provided for all the secondary schools in fct and in abaji area council to aid english teachers to deliver quality instruction. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 59-69 68 d) training and retraining program should be constantly organise for english language teachers in abaji area council to help them update their teaching methods and classroom management. inservice opportunities should be provided for english teachers who want to further his/her education e) more infrastructural facilities like english laboratories should be provided for the secondary school to aid the teaching and learning of english language program f) teachers of english language should be motivated by increasing their welfares packages and provide more allowances for them. 7. acknowledgement i appreciate all the respondents, my family and my colleagues that supported me in the course of carrying out this project. i want to appreciate the editor team of reila journal for their kindness and support to publish this paper. references adelabu. 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(2020). incorporating communicative competence in assessment and english language teaching in multilingual settings. reila: journal of research and innovation in language, 2(1), 8-13. https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v2i1.3864 http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ https://www.economist.com/special-%09report/2020/03/26/africas-population-will-double-by-2050 https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v2i1.3864 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5091 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 42-51 42 discourse markers in hausa proverbs: exploring intellectual wise saying from african wisdom and culture haruna alkasim kiyawa jigawa state college of education, gumel, northern nigeria kiyawaharuna@gmail.com article history received : 2020-10-04 revised : 2020-11-05 accepted : 2021-02-10 keywords proverbs hausa proverbs discourse markers language use abstract this paper aims to explore some intellectual wise saying from african wisdom and culture from one of the three major languages in the northern part of nigeria. the use of discourse markers is one of the linguistics devices embedded in hausa proverbs. however, africa as the continent was occupied by different languages and dialectics. proverbs is an expression of a saying which combines various wisdom and culture of every human beings living on the earth. this paper utilises written document as a method and selected (36) different proverbs and analyses the discourse markers. moreover, the paper reviewed various studies that looked at proverbs' role as one of a figurative speech and the definitions of discourse markers defined by literary scholars and cultural critics who studied proverbs from different perspectives. the finding of this paper identified (19) out of (36) proverbs also indicated dms served as interpersonal functions and the relationship between the speakers’ actions and thoughts, while the remaining (17) functions as textual features for making meaning. finally, the study found that discourse markers enhance some lexical expressions under different levels, including sentence connectivity, language use, and the appearance of discourse markers in the proverbs. the study's significance shows that cultural scholars and english language educators can incorporate/integrate proverbs and highlighted the role of discourse markers to the student, enhancing their linguistics knowledge, communication skills and learning activities. 1. introduction proverbs are one of the oral traditions that has been used for social contact and interaction among society and culture (abubakar, 2015; barasa, 2017). according to mieder (2004), a prominent human philosopher who said that "proverbs belongs to wise saying and common knowledge in any language, indeed are a very effective mechanism to communicate wisdom and knowledge about human nature and world at large" (p.146). based on this assertion, this present study focuses on exploring the usage of proverbs as of the oral customs of hausa people in the northern part of nigeria. in conveying, hausa is a native language of some ethnic groups who call themselves hausawa and are referred to as hausa (s) in english. the majority of the hausa people belong to a dominant ethnic group in an area known as the hausa land in northern nigeria, such as kano, katsina, bauchi, sokoto, zaria zamfara. hausa people were believed to have settled in the northern saharan regions of west african countries (adisa, 2015; chamo, 2011; maimota, 2015). hausa proverbs are highly effective in exercising social control. they are used to maintain conformity to the accepted patterns of social behaviour, validate or justify social norms and apply social pressure, and exercise social control (sarbi, 2013). besides, the norm is meant a standard, for example, behaviour generally acceptable to society (ibrahim, 2013; ismail, 2013). this document is a version of the instructions for preparing copies for the final reila journal. the format here described allows for a graceful transition to the style required for that publication. this paper's primary purpose is to describe the role of discourse markers that appeared in the hausa language as one of the second major three languages after swahili in africa. most available literature focuses mainly on english proverbs and others. however, this paper tried to uncover the role of proverbs as intellectual wise saying from african wisdom and culture, especially in northern nigeria. there are limited studies that focus on the role of discourse markers in african proverbs, particularly in the hausa language. for example, jauro (et al., 2014) studied the influence of discourse markers in nigerian newspapers. other studies like sadeghi & heidaryan journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5091 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 42-51 43 (2012) investigated the effect of discourse markers in teaching efl students listening comprehension in iranian that discuses on english discourse markers. their finding discussed the significance of discourse markers in the proverbs, which enhances the learners reading comprehension abilities. while (yakubu 2013) also analyses the impact of discourse markers in academic report writing, it helped both teachers and their students in academic writing in the classroom context. along these lines, ibrahim (2013) clarifies some cultural material in the construction of hausa proverbs and selected five different proverbs and explains its role of connotative and denotative meaning. the paper also revealed the significance of proverbs such as; teaching good manners, norms, codes, behaviours, and beliefs on how they shape the structure of the intellectual wise saying embedded in hausa culture. on the other hand, gözpinar (2014) pointed the role of proverbs when incorporated in the curriculum of teaching different elements of culture, folklore, and multicultural varieties. these roles make it so difficult and challenging for teachers to familiar with their students as more critical ways of communicative devices, especially some foreign language teachers who have no idea of the significance of incorporating proverbs in their own culture or other culture of another target language. finally, they concluded that proverbs help to enlighten both l1 and l2 on developing multicultural awareness among the teachers and their learners. from his part, (hale, 1999) further explains the influence of discourse markers in nigerian newspapers written in the english language, not hausa proverbs. furthermore, alam and al-muthmainnah (2020) examined the wisdom, culture and language of an ethnic group, soppeng people, one of buginese, their characteristics of linguistic politeness devices, politeness strategies, and the realisation of local tradition found among soppeng people one of the buginese ethnic groups in indonesia. their study utilised ethnolinguistics which originates from politeness theories, semiotics and pragmatics. capture the data were collected through purposive sampling and snowball among native speakers in soppeng. the finding reveals that the realisation and the implication of local wisdom are primary values such as ethics and language politeness, self-image, courage, solidarity and cooperation. therefore, proverbs as a branch of oral tradition, its aesthetic values and cannot be overemphasised. this study is an effort to fill up the gap and explore to understand the practices of proverb use in the social and cultural life of the people from the african language. this study explores the function of discourse markers embedded in hausa proverbs as wise saying from african wisdom and culture as cultural linguistics medium in the social and cultural life of the hausa people. hausa language, in which there is little knowledge on it, is considered a global language, unlike english proverbs. echoing from the above explanation, this paper's main objective is to explore intellectual wise saying from african wisdom and culture and identify the discourse markers that appeared in hausa proverbs and translate the hausa proverbs into the english language. however, many studies have been conducted in the english language from different perspectives and applied different approaches. however, this paper employed descriptive content analysis to fill in the gap from one of the three major african languages after swahili to add existing knowledge in oral literary scholarship. 2. literature review studies on an intellectual wise saying of culture and tradition, particularly proverbs, have received many scholars' attention regarding many social contexts across the globe. several studies focused on proverbs and discourse markers concerning the english language from different contexts. for example, the linguistics aspect, teaching semantics aspect to enhance students' comprehension ability is mainly communicative competence. this triggered our interest to delve into the exploration of hausa proverbs focusing on the appearance of discourse marker and its translation from hausa into the english language. 2.1 hausa proverbs the hausa term for proverb is “karin magana” mieder (2004) “a proverb is a short, generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. therefore, this present study sees "proverbs are folk wisdom, which forms an essential part of the experience and way of life of the people who produce them”. furthermore, piłaszewicz (1983, p.29) mentioned other typical features of karin magana: brevity, vagueness, and conciseness combined with the expressivity of their message, which is understandable in particular for the hausa people. from his part, obasanjo (2017) also highlighted that “proverbs in most african languages are crisp, pithy and condensed means of saying much with few words” (zajak, 2017, p.182). several studies are conducted in hausa proverbs that cover a diverse area such as gender issues, cultural aspect, and linguistics pattern, to mention a few. for example, yakubu (2020) examines gender position in hausa proverbs and highlighted the class and position in african women's various ways. on the journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5091 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 42-51 44 other hand, ademowo and nuhu (2017) studied hausa proverbs' role in solving conflict management among ethnic groups in nigeria. from his part, sarbi (2013) discusses the hausa proverb's role in teaching discipline to the younger generation. 2.2. definitions of discourse markers discourse markers are said to instruct discourse participants how to consider an upcoming utterance, providing a pathway toward integrating different components of language use into one coherent discourse (louwerse & mitchell, 2003, p.202). moreover, schifrin (2001) pointed out. they are syntactically heterogeneous. that is, they are comprised of members of word classes as varied as conjunctions (e.g. and, but, or), interjection (oh), adverbs (now, then) lexicalised phrases (y, know, i mean) cited in (walrod, 2006). furthermore, discourse markers were treated as "fillers'' or "expletive" words or phrases that had no function at all, while, now they are considered to function at different levels of analysis: topic changes, formulations discourse planning, stressing, hedging or channelling (ghiad, 2009: 50) cited in (ismail, 2012, p: 931). besides, (fraser 1999) "defined discourse markers as a class of lexical expressions drawn primarily from the syntactic classes of conjunctions, adverbs, and prepositional phrases.". besides, a review of literature on similar area revealed the works on hausa proverbs and as well as discourse markers, therefore, from hausa proverbs such as (abdulkarim & abdullahi, 2015; ademowo & nuhu, 2017; adugna, 2014; aminu, 2003; ibrahim, 2013; ismail, 2013; ismail, 2012; saleh, 2014; usman, 2013). unfortunately, none of these studies focused on the use of discourse markers in hausa proverbs. in his study, ibrahim (2013) observed some cultural material in hausa proverbs' construction were selected five different proverbs and discussed their role connotative and denotative meaning. the paper also mentioned some advantages: good manners, religion, norms, codes, behaviours, and beliefs on how they shape the structure of the hausa cultures. similarly, ademowo & nuhu (2017) investigated the role of proverbs as a place of indigenous knowledge and peacebuilding in conflict management among hausa speaking people of northern nigeria as a case study. the researchers randomly selected (20) different hausa proverbs using discourse analysis to explain traditional knowledge as valuable tools in maintaining peace and peaceful co-existence among the people. it was concluded that hausa proverbs served connectivity of disseminating meaning and ideas to solve the problem of conflict and further revealed its embedded literal meanings. unlike ismail (2013), analysed some assimilation in the hausa proverbs, which include; (i) palatalisation, (ii) velarisation, (iii) labialisation (iv) voicing. the studies selected (15) different hausa proverbs and discussed in their various syllables of each proverb with (620) different syllables were categorised and explained. also, the study describes the statistical summary of the selected proverbs. the nasalisation appears (41) times, velarisation (6) times voicing assimilation, it appears only (3) times as well as palatalisation, which appears (3) times. finally, the study suggested exploring hausa proverbs from another linguistics viewpoint. further, in their study, sadeghi and heidaryan (2012) analysed discourse markers' effect in teaching efl students listening comprehension in iranian. 50 participants were selected from the undergraduate level of payamnoor university in iran. the participants randomly divided into two groups, "experimental and control groups". afiftyre-test treatment programme, research hypothesis was designed to test based on the content of an authentic conversation, tests were drowned from toefl listening test (gallagher, 2006) 600 words contains macromarkers in the texts, after conducting the pretext, a total mark was analysed using students' interpretation and recognition of dms used. the finding indicates that the introduction of dms in the iranian students of efl has a significant impact on improving their listening skills more especially in teaching foreign language in the classrooms. more so, teaching dms in the classroom enhances students' interpretations and comprehension in efl classes. in contrast, yakubu (2013) analysed the use of discourse markers in academic report writing, the objectives of their study were to show the appearance of discourse markers in the student’s final projects. data was collected through a corpus of final year dissertations, focusing mainly on the introductory sections, literature review, the methodology sections, the results and summary sections of the selected dissertations. the finding indicates that some discourse markers appeared in the introductory section, such as, also, despite, instead, but. besides, it shows that discourse markers serve as a device that guides the reader in discourse. recently, yakubu et al. (2020) examine some selected wise saying concerning hausa culture and traditions which put women as inferior subjects under the african patriarchal treatments. the study applied a feminist approach for the analysis. the finding reveals that both men and women need to be transformed into these traditional notions against women. finally, it was suggested that women must have equal rights and privileges with their men counterpart for peace, harmony, prosperity, and development, despite the apparent advantages of using proverbs from the explanation above. however, journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5091 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 42-51 45 this paper is in line with previous studies that revealed the significance of proverbs towards developing human socio-cultural values and traditions. 3. method this descriptive research applied a content analysis approach. this study aimed to describe and shows the appearance of the discourse markers embedded. the present study randomly selected samples (36) different hausa proverbs as intellectual wise saying of african wisdom and culture from previous research studies (abubakar, 2015; abdulkarim & abdullahi, 2015; aminu, 2003; ademowo, & nuhu, 2017). the data were analysed using a descriptive content analysis proposed by neuendorf (2004) to helps analyse the selected proverbs. 4. findings the purpose of the study is to describes the occurrences of discourse markers that appeared in the proverbs. the following section shows the selected hausa proverbs and their translation in the english language. the markers that appeared in hausa have underlined three categories in which dms were classified according to their appearance in proverbs. while the second category indicated their translation into the english language, the third category from the table describes their function, including textual functions in the (17) out of the total number of (36) as already discussed in the paper's method. table 4.1 hausa proverbs and their translation into english language/textual features. no hausa proverbs english translation proverbs that describes textual features 1 a dade ana yi sai gaskiya 'only truth and honest endures a while.' textual features 2 ai ciki da gaskiya wuka ba ta iya huda shi ‘the stomach that contains truth cannot be pierced evenly with a knife’ textual features 3 duniya a bita a sannu ‘world affairs should be followed with caution textual features 4 da hannau gara mannau ‘better a minute thing than none’ textual features 5 gaskiya tafi jaka ‘truth is worth more than a bag of money’ textual features 6 gaskiya tafi kwabo ‘truth is worth more than a penny’ textual features 7 gaskiya tafi dokin karfe karfi ‘honesty is worth stronger than a steel horse’ textual features 8 karya fure take bata ‘ya’ya ‘a lie falsehood only blossoms, but bears no fruit, but forever’ textual features 9 shimfidar fuska ta fi shinfidar tabarma ‘to spread face is better than to spread of the mat’ textual features 10 tsakuwa daya bata dabe ‘a single/one pebble does not make the floor’ textual features 11 a bar kaza cikin gashinta ‘do not pluck the chicken’ textual features 12 komai nisan jifa kasa zai fado ‘what goes up must come down’ textual features 13 ramin karya kurarre ne ‘the hole of lie is shallow’ textual features 14 riga kafi yafi magani ‘prevention is better than cure’ textual features 15 motsi yafi labewa ‘moving surpasses lurking still’ textual features 16 zaman lafiya yafi zama dan sarki ‘it is better to live in peace than to be a prince’ textual features 17 da hannau gara mannau ‘better a little thing than none’ textual features journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5091 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 42-51 46 the findings showed in table 4.1 categorized the hausa proverbs, their translation into the english language, and their interpersonal functions. however, brinton (1996) argues that pragmatic markets serve as a fundamental component of grammaticalisation and discourse function to coherently make written or spoken language. this assertion is in line with this paper's objective, which selected (17) hausa proverbs and analyses the appearance of discourse markers and their roles of interpersonal functions, which helped every human discourse and guided the pragmatic flow of different languages used. table 4.2 hausa proverbs and their translation into english/their interpersonal functions. no hausa proverbs translation into the english language interpersonal functions 1 abin da ka shuka shi zaka girba 'what you sow is what you reap.' interpersonal functions 2 idan baki yaci ido da kunya ‘when mouth eats the face is in shame’ interpersonal functions 3 in zaka gina ramin mugunta, gina shi gajere 'when digging a treacherous trench, it better digs a shallow for; you might fall victim into it' interpersonal functions 4 kowa ya bi za’a bi shi ‘whosoever follows in loyalty will also be followed’ interpersonal functions 5 kowa ya daka rawar wani ya rasa turmin daka tasa ‘whoever tries to imitate someone else dances without possessing the quality/experience of doing so, will end in adversity’ interpersonal functions 6 kowa ya samu rana sai ya yi shanya 'whosoever gets an opportunity should utilise it with caution' interpersonal functions 7 wanda bai yi hakuri da wahala ba ya yi na talauci 'whoever does not endure in hard work would inevitably do so in absolute poverty' interpersonal functions 8 zuwa da wuri ya fi zuwa da wuriwuri ‘arriving with a penny is better than to arrive very early’ interpersonal functions 9 kowa ya yi hakuri zai samu riba interpersonal functions 10 hannu daya baya dauka jinka ‘one hand cannot lift a hut’ interpersonal functions 11 rashin sani yafi dare duhu ‘lack of knowledge is darker than night’ interpersonal functions 12 sai an sha wuya akan sha dadi ‘enjoyment comes after struggling’ interpersonal functions 13 kaso dan’uwanka kamar kanka ‘love your neighbour like yourself’ interpersonal functions 14 iya ruwa fidda kai 'the ability to swim is the preservation of life' interpersonal functions 15 abokin barawo,barawo ne ‘the friend of a thief is a thief’ interpersonal functions 16 sauri ya haifi nawa ‘overzealous can lead retrogression’ interpersonal functions 17 rashin sani yafi dare duhu ‘lack of knowledge is darker than night’ interpersonal functions 18 kowa ya yi nigari dan akansa ‘whosoever does good is for oneself’ interpersonal functions 19 in zaka fadi, fadi gaskiya komai taka jamaka ka biya ‘whenever you intend to speak, tell the truth’ interpersonal functions the findings from table 4.2 categorised the hausa proverbs, their translation into the english language and classification of interpersonal functions. let us starts with a proverb (1) abin da ka shuka shi zaka girba literary mean 'what you sow, is what you reap' this inform the reader to be cautious and careful about doing good deeds other, but if he/she plan to fight or attach innocent people to harm people at the end she/he might be the one will receive or fallen into the terrible situation because of harm to others. similarly, the proverb (3) in zaka gina ramin mugunta, gina shi gajere, meaning ‘when digging a treacherous trench, it better digs a shallow for, you might fall victim into it’ this proverb tells us how to be careful and always someone is expected to be good to others, not to harm anyone at all cost for better leaving and peaceful coexitance. in addition to that, proverb (12) kowa ya yi nigari dan akansa meaning' whosoever does good is for oneself'. considering the meaning of this wise saying where hausa people always use this proverb to journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5091 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 42-51 47 train the young generation to world life is meaningful, both young boys and girls should think critically before deciding or measures not to engage themselves into trouble. in the same vein, another proverb (18) kowa ya yi nigari dan akansa, translation: 'whosoever does good is for oneself' however, according to brinton (1996) argues that pragmatic markets serve as essential components of grammaticalisation and discourse functions to make written or spoken language coherently. this assertion is in line with this paper's objective, which selected (19) hausa proverbs and analyses the appearance of discourse markers and their roles of interpersonal functions of discourse pragmatic flow of different languages used. table 4.3 hausa discourses makers and their translation into the english language number hausa discourse markers translation into the english language 1 a dade ana yi….. ‘endures a while.' 2 ai ciki da gaskiya… ‘the stomach that contains truth’ 3 duniya a bita…. ‘world affairs should be followed’ 4 da hannau gara… ‘better a little thing’ 5 gaskiya tafi……. ‘truth is worth more than’ 6 gaskiya tafi…….. truth is worth more than’ 7 gaskiya tafi doki….. ‘honesty is worth stronger than’ 8 karya fure take bata….. ‘a lie falsehood only blossoms, but bears no fruit’ 9 shimfidar fuska ta fi….. ‘to spread face is better than’ 10 tsakuwa daya bata….. ‘a single/one pebble does not make’ 11 a bar kaza…… ‘do not pluck the chick’ 12 komai nisan jifa……. ‘what goes up must’ 13 gaskiya tafi… ‘truth is’ 14 ramin karya… ‘the hole of lie’ 15 riga kafi.. ‘prevention is better’ 16 motsi yafi ‘moving surpasses’ 17 zaman lafiya yafi zama dan sarki 'it is better to live in peace than to become a prince' table 4.3 shows the listed hausa discourse markers appeared in the proverbs were underlined and their translation into english. it is also indicated based on their textual features, which transmitted culture, traditions, wise saying ideas and thought from one generation to another. in addition, proverbs serve as a powerful instrument for the transmission of human philosophy, cultural values, teaching social moral to both adult and young and enhancing the sensibility of individual and people around you and others. furthermore, the table below carried the listed hausa discourse makers and their translation into the english language to benefit non-native speakers of the african language. however, the essence of displaying hausa written discourse markers was extracted from the central proverbs is to make it clear for readers to know the categories and their functions to connect the ideas in the sentence structure. furthermore, the table below carried the listed hausa discourse makers and their translation into the english language to benefit non-native speakers of the african language. however, the essence of displaying hausa written discourse markers was extracted from the central proverbs is to make it clear for readers to know the categories and their functions to connect the ideas in the sentence structure. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5091 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 42-51 48 table 4.4. hausa discourse markers and their translation into the english language number hausa discourse markers translation into the english language 1 abin da ka shuka ‘what you sow’ 2 idan baki yaci ‘when mouth eats’ 3 in zaka gina ramin mugunta ‘when digging a treacherous trench’ 4 kowa ya yi nagari ‘whosoever does good’ 5 kowa ya bi ‘whosoever follows in loyalty’ 6 kowa ya daka rawar wani ‘whoever tries to imitate someone else dances without possessing or the quality experience of doing so’ 7 kowa ya samu rana whosoever gets an opportunity should utilise' 8 wanda bai yi hakuri da wahala ba ‘whoever does not endure in hard work’ 9 zuwa da wuri.. ‘arriving with a penny’ 10 kowa ya yi hakuri ‘anyone who is patient’ 11 hannu daya baya... ‘one hand cannot lift’ 12 rashin sani… ‘lack of knowledge is darker’ 13 sauri ya… ‘overzealous can lead’ 14 sai an sha wuya… ‘enjoyment come’ 15 kaso dan’uwanka love your neighbour’ 16 iya ruwa… ‘the ability to swim’ 17 abokin barawo… ‘the friend of a thief’ 18 rashin sani yafi ‘lack of knowledge is darker’ 19 in zaka fadi, fadi gaskiya ‘whenever you intend to speak, tell the truth’ table 4.4 shows three categories in which dms were classified according to their appearance in hausa proverbs. in contrast, the second category reveals their translation into the english language from the table describes their function, including interpersonal features that have (19) out of the total number of (36) they were embedded and were used by the people during conversation. the findings are in line with the view of prominent linguist walrod (2006), who explains that discourse structure helps the speaker manipulate the strength and influence of the contextual indicators, guiding the person to communicate effectively and persuasively. the results of this study described the occurrences of 19 hausa discourse markers in the above table, which highlighted their two functions, i.e., (i) textual features and (ii) interpersonal functions. it contributed to the field of literary discourse and content analysis from one of the three major african languages is in line with the view of schiffrin (1987), who argues that discourse markers contributed towards building the local coherence, which is in conjunction constructed by speaker and listener in their discourse structure, context, meaning and actions during the interaction. they served to show how and what is being said are interconnected to what has already been express, either within a speaker's turn or across speakers' turns. 5. discussion the study shows the appearance of underlined discourse markers in written hausa proverbs, which revealed the intellectual wise saying of african traditions and culture embedded the significance in developing cultural norms and values of the people, especially youth, to every society. this paper selected grouped and some majority of codes that appeared in the hausa selected discourse markers as code such as are: (i) gaskiya literary means (honesty/truth), (ii) zaman lafiya (peaceful coexistence), (iii) hakuri (patience), (iv) juriya (perseverance), (v) biyayya (obedience), (vi) mutunci (respectively), (viii) kirki (virtuosity). for example, proverb no (1) in table 4.1 (a). a dade ana yi sai gaskiya translation means: 'only truth and honest endures a while' this proverb means hausa people believe that truth is the peal of everything in life if one agreed and behave to strictly adhere practising the truth in every personal policy, social interaction with others he/she will never felt down throughout in life. similarly, proverbs that use gaskiya ‘honesty/truth’ are: (2), ai ciki da gaskiya wuka ba ta iya huda shi, translation mean: the stomach contains truth cannot be pierced evenly with a knife. this proverb revealed that anybody who honest and journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5091 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 42-51 49 trustworthy at all times he/she will not fear an untrusty person or terrible attack and is ways ready to speak the truth no matter how the situation will retaliate or bounce back to him (5) gaskiya tafi jaka ‘truth is worth more than a bag of money’ (6), gaskiya tafi kwabo, translation mean ‘truth is worth more than a penny’(7), gaskiya tafi dokin karfe karfi, translation mean: honesty is worth stronger than a steel horse’ in zaka fadi, fadi gaskiya komai taka jamaka ka biya, translation, whenever you intend to speak, tell the truth’ 30. a similar proverb that guided the younger generation to be good is (18). kowa ya yi nigari dan akansa, translation 'whosoever does good is for oneself' even though they revealed different issues concerning socio-cultural aspect and attributes of people lives experiences social interaction, but shows the significance of practising truthy in all activities of someone to be good, humble, kind and generous so that they will succeed in life. in addition to that, zaman lafiya (peaceful coexistence). for example, (16), zaman lafiya yafi zama dan sarki, translation means: 'it is better to live in peace than to be a prince', these proverbs tell us the nature of africa royal system where king typically marries many wives (4), with at least has 20-30 children, then he has (10) extra concubines, and they have children with the king, so one of the children is competing and overzealous to become a king waiting for their father to die and is expecting to be selected by the kingmakers, this implies that to leave in peace is better than to be a prince. juriya (perseverance), (3), duniya a bita a sannu, translation 'world affairs should be followed with caution', this proverb implies that life is a matter of struggle, full of challenges, perseverance, and tolerance, so people must endure it no matter how it takes everything has an end so that joys and happiness will come. another proverb, (7) wanda bai yi hakuri da wahala ba ya yi na talauci, translation: 'whoever does not endure in hard work would inevitably do so in absolute poverty'. this proverb encourages people to be patient and hardworking to get something doing instead of becoming lazy in the society he/she will become a jobless and hungry person (10), kowa ya yi hakuri zai samu riba. translation: 'anyone who is patient will profit'. this proverb also entails the young people to a patient and courageous person in his life. in the end, he will succeed in life (12). sai an sha wuya akan sha dadi, translation: enjoyment comes after struggling' this proverb deployed to call the people's attention not to be lazy. one has to struggle hard and endure the situation or circumstances that may have encountered different bitter experiences at the end will succeed in life—biyayya (obedience). this code appeared in the selected proverbs that guided people to be obedient to parents, elders, and others in their day-to-day social interaction, which creates love and affection among them. mutunci (respectively), this another code of the proverbs where the present paper utilised for easier understanding among the readers. for example, (5) kowa ya bi za’a bi shi, translation: ‘whosoever follows in loyalty will also be followed’, this proverb is calling to every individual to respect elders, parents and even the younger ones, he/she will expect such king a virtue and gesture to be respected by people in his/her community (15) kaso dan’uwanka kamar kanka, translation: love your neighbour like yourself’, this proverb is counsel to every young people both male and female is expected to adopt cooperation and do away with selfishness and show love, caring, kindness and consideration to people as he/she loves himself /herself staying with or interacts elsewhere. this study's findings revealed in table 4.1 (a) & 4.1 found that all (36) hausa proverbs contained discourse markers, and it was translated into the english language for easier understanding for nonnative hausa language speakers. furthermore, the findings in both four tables showed the hausa discourse makers and their translation into the english language. therefore, there are (36) proverbs. the study found that (17) out of (36) indicated the dms, which served as textual functions, while the remaining (19) also indicated dms served as interpersonal functions and the relationship between the speakers' actions and thoughts. based on this study's findings, the previous study of (al-yaari et al., 2013; chapetón castro & marcela, 2009), even though their study focuses on discourse markers' functions with students learning the english language in a classroom context. the study argues that these proverbs provided insightful advice to the people who acted immorally to change to be good (akinmade 2009; gözpinar, 2014). finally, they concluded that discourse markers play a significant in the connectivity and coherence in the construction of sentences. a prominent human philosopher critic such according schiffrin (1987) states that dms discourse markers help the speaker manipulate the strength and influence of the contextual indicators, which guided the person to communicate effectively and persuasively. she further listed some signs of the discourse markers as follows while emphasising that these properties are interdependent and not one can be understood without attention to the others. i.e., (1). they form structure.; (2). they convey meaning and (3). they accomplish actions. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5091 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 42-51 50 finally, this assertion is in line with the present study. therefore, dms. it appeared in the proverbs it improves human critical thinking before taking any action or decisions in their social interaction with the society. in the selected hausa proverbs, it was also indicated people to learn good things such as caution, morals, not to be lazy, arrogance, greed and ever advising individuals to be good in his/her/their lifespan (esimaje & ezirim, 2014; usman, 2013; sarbi, 2013). 6. conclusion researchers have widely studied dms even if discussions on terminology and other linguistics issues are still unresolved. however, there seems to be a general understanding that the production of coherent discourse is functional activities that require speakers to draw upon communicative knowledge and cultural norms. it was discovered that most of the studies on dms had focused their attention on english native speakers who acquire this pragmatic competence in their intermediate or adult learners in various classroom contexts. this is indicated that of the need to explore further and investigate the other african language apart from -native and non-english english learners, teachers’ cultural linguistics research to know about intellectual wise saying outside their domain. one of my goals with this exploratory study was to describe the occurrences of dms in african proverbs. the findings indicated discourse markers played a significant role in making sentence coherence and cohesion, which guided the reader to decode specific meaning and information from the proverbs analysed. furthermore, the study's findings would help the language researchers, linguistic learners, cultural scholars, and hausa language, especially those dealing with english and african proverbs as one of the intellectual wise sayings in the academic context. according to (adugna, 2014; saleh, 2014), it is essential to clear out that it was sometimes difficult to classify the dms' function. finally, this paper is limited to just appearance and translated the hausa language written proverbs into the english language to benefit non-native speakers of the african language. 7. acknowledgement the author wishes to thank the tet-fund management under the federal ministry of education abuja, nigeria, for sponsoring my phd program in applied linguistics from universiti utara malaysia (uum), and i also thank the management of jigawa state college of education pm1002, gumel, for the release of my study leave. finally, i am happy and appreciate the editor, the reviewers, and the reila journal team for their kindness and support to publish my paper. references abubakar, u. 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(2013). an analysis of discourse markers in academic report writing: pedagogical implications. international journal of academic and research and reflection, 1(3). 15-24. zając, p. (2018). słowa-klucze kultury w przysłowiach hausa. przegląd orientalistyczny, (1-2 (265-266)), 155-181. journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 46-59 46 a study of hot and cold metaphors in iraqi arabic khalid wahaab jabber 1 & hayder tuama jasim al-saedi 2 1,2 department of english, university of misan, iraq khalid_jabber@yahoo.com article history received : 2020-06-13 revised : 2020-08-09 accepted : 2020-08-09 keywords hot and cold metaphor conceptual metaphor theory dialect language abstract the present study is an attempt to explore the ways of an iraqi arabic speaker conceptualises his/her understanding of various abstract domains of emotions or feeling and attitudes through his/her experiences of concrete domains of cold and hot metaphors. lakoff & johnson’s (1980) conceptual metaphor theory is adopted to analyse the collected data. idiomatic expressions and proverbs are chosen specifically from the southern dialect where they are widely used in daily interaction. the data analysis classified the results according to their abstract and concrete domains of the sampled data. the findings of this study showed different conceptualisations of the hot and cold metaphor in iraqi arabic. the study concluded that these metaphors are used to conceive more of the abstract concepts of emotions, feelings, and attitudes. cold domain is used to conceptualise the bad habits of people, and it is also used to conceptualise some good habits, on the other hand. whereas hot domain is used to conceptualise the more intensive of emotions and attitudes. the study concluded that the sharp emotions, feelings and attitudes that are understood from the conceptualisation of hot and cold conceptual metaphors, are experienced from the more concrete domains of hard things. 1. introduction a speaker sometimes intends to use an expression figuratively when he/she feels that the literal use of language will not produce the intending effect. the figurative use of an expression, according to croft & cruse (2004, p. 193) is attention-grabbing more than literal use. it might be the conveyance of new concepts or might conjure up a complex image that cannot be attained by any other way (wisnita, 2019). the main kind of figurative usage is metaphor. the english work ‘metaphor’ derives from the greek word ‘metaphora’, in which ‘meta’ means ‘to cross’ , and ‘phor’ is to ‘carry.’ the whole word means to transfer from one thing to another (gao, 2016, p. 2630). metaphor is a device that is omnipresent in everyday language (derin et al., 2019). lakoff & johnson (2003) indicated that it is not possible for us to live without metaphor because the ordinary conceptual system of humans is metaphorically structured (zibin, 2016, p. 1). according to ferrando (2017, p. 164) the pervasiveness of metaphor, nowadays, is widely accepted as a necessary cognitive mechanism in our conceptualisation of target domain. metaphorical models, according to this view, provide coherence to many spheres of human culture, from law, politics, and economics, to religion, philosophy or science. metaphor, according to rasse et al. (2020), is a fundamental part of people’s imagination and language. in the perspective of cognitive linguistics, metaphor is the understanding of one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain, as we understand life in terms of journeys and arguments in term of war (landau, 2017, p. 62; massey & ehrensberger-dow, 2017, p. 174). lakoff (2006, p. 186) defines metaphor as a cross domain mapping in the conceptual system. whereas metaphorical expressions refer to a linguistic expression, such as word, phrase, or sentence, that is the surface realisation of such a cross mapping. moreover, in conceptual metaphor theory, the conceptual meaning construction is a matter of metaphors rising from correlation of experience (kövecses, 2015, p. 1). according to polova (2020, p. 407), a metaphor is an important means of preserving and transferring, stereotypes, associations, and standards and cultural achievements through generations. thus, metaphor and culture are connected together. the main point of metaphors is that we understand the world with it and not just speak with them (lakoff & johnson, 1980). the shared understanding, as a large http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 46-59 47 part of definition of culture, can often be metaphorical understood when the focus of understanding is on some intangible entities, such as our inner life, time, emotions, mental process, moral values, abstract qualities, and social and political institutions. the metaphors we use in these cases to understand these intangible may become crucially important in the way we actually experience the intangibles entities in a culture. moreover, metaphors may be an inherent part of cultures (kövecses, 2005, p. 2). in metaphor we live by (1980: 282), lakoff & johnson mentioned that there are three kinds of conceptual metaphors: structural metaphors, ontological metaphors and orientational metaphor. they treated them as having equal and independent status. according to lakoff & johnson (1980) ontological metaphor refers to the device that treats the abstract and vague experiences. such experiences are: events, feelings, actions, ideas, status and other intangible concepts as physical entity and material to make it easy to understand. ontological metaphors are understanding the people experiences in terms of entities and substances which means that they can refer to them, quantify them, categorise them, and reason about them in ways otherwise impossible (akuno et al., 2018, p. 42). cold and hot are one of the ontological metaphor as source domains by which we conceptualise many of our feelings or emotions, ideas, attitudes and events. further, hot (heat) and cold are two basic human expressions. people feel warm and cold as a result of temperature of the air that surrounded them. the temperature domain is used metaphorically to express our attitude towards people and things, for example, a warm welcome and a cold reception. the source domain of heat (hot) is especially common in the metaphorical conceptualisation of desires and emotions, such as hate, love, rage… etc. a person can be described, for example, as ‘burning with love’ or ‘smoldering with anger’ (kövecses, 2010, p. 20). to be specific, one of the metaphors that has experiential basis in the functioning of the human body is anger is heat metaphor. metaphorical expressions that are instances of the anger is heat metaphor can describe the heat of a hot fluid or that of fire in iraqi arabic like in english. therefore, we have such words and phrases for anger as ‘boil with angry,’ ‘make one’s blood boil,’ ‘be seething’…etc. the anger is heat is manifested from the experience that the angry person feels ‘hot.’ the experience of body heat is correlated with the experience of anger. this correlation serves the basis of the anger is heat metaphor. coldness is another emotional experience (kövecses, 2010, p. 81; kövecses et al., 2018, p. 4; forceville, 2019). coldness provides an experiential basis for the widespread of fear conceptualisation as being cold. this kind of fear conceptualisation can be seen in the expressions as ‘he had cold feet to go inside.’ emotional experience is associated with the real change in the body temperature. this means that conceptual metaphor of fear is seen to be cold natural and experiential motivated. temperature in iraqi community is come into contact with community habits, beliefs, desires, and even emotions and attitudes. because the iraqi weather is so harsh, this characteristic had a clear impact on the members of iraqi community, one towards the others. consequently, we find people describe their daily experiences in light of temperature whether it is warm or cold. the sharp emotions, desires and difficult attitudes are always conceptualised from the point of view of hot concepts, whereas they conceptualise bad emotions and attitudes in terms of cold concept and verse versa. by the same token, this pair of concrete domains is used to conceptualise the negative and positive abstract concepts using the idiomatic and proverbial metaphorical expressions. metaphors are significant features of proverbs, which is why they have varied meaning. proverbs, in fact, have been seen to be descriptions of a particular situation that can be applied to a wide range of situations (ehineni, 2018, p. 131). in this study, the researchers try to explore the way of iraqi arabic speaker to conceive his/her understanding of the abstract domains of emotions and attitudes…etc. that are realised from his/her experiences of the more concrete domains of hot and cold metaphors. in this study, the work is presented largely on the lakoffian perspective of conceptual metaphor (lakoff & johnson, 1980 and lakoff, 1993). 1.1 conceptual metaphor theory kövecses (2018, p. 124) mentioned that conceptual metaphor theory is a burgeoning field that dominates the study of metaphor. its dominance is in large because of that conceptual metaphor theory made contact with a variety of disciplines and approaches in the study of human behaviour and human mind. the basic notion of conceptual metaphor theory, which is a framework that was firstly proposed by george lakoff & mark johnson (1980), is that metaphor is not a stylistic feature of language but that thought itself is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. according to this view and to cross domain mapping, a conceptual structure is organised (evans & green, 2006, p. 286; kövecses, 2016, p. 31). in the same manner, geeraerts & cuyckens (2007, p. 190) suggested that mapping is the most fundamental idea of conceptual metaphor theory. the term ‘mapping’ borrowed from mathematics which refers to systematic metaphorical correspondences between the closely related ideas (landau et al., 2018; roodt, 2019, p. 4). http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 46-59 48 in addition, lakoff & johnson (1980) observed that metaphorical language is related to what is called the metaphor system, by other means they noticed that the conceptual domain cannot be chosen randomly to describe the relationships between the domains. from this pattern, lakoff & johnson hypothesises a conventional link at the conceptual level between the two domains. for example, love is journey is a conceptual metaphor where love is conceptually related to the domain of journey. in this view, love, the target domain, is conventionally structured in term of journey, the source domain. this operation, according to lakoff and johnson, is called conceptual metaphor (evans & green, 2006, p. 294-295). hence, asymmetrical directionality of conceptual metaphors is a feature most strongly emphasised by lakoff and johnson. ‘warm,’ for example, is meaningful to refer to a person but meaningless to refer to a cup of tea as affectionate (geeraerts & cuyckens, 2007, p. 191). furthermore, source domains, according to lakoff and johnson, are image schemas serve for the metaphorical mapping. image schemas are knowledge structures emerge from pre-conceptual embodied experiences. because knowledge structures of image schemas derived from the level of bodily experience, they are meaningful at the conceptual level. for example, counterforce image schema arises from the experience being unable to proceed because the attempt to move forward is being resisted by some opposing forces (evans & green, 2006, p. 300-301; kövecses, 2017, p. 7). therefore, an image schema of ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ metaphors appears when one visualises or experiences the source domains of hot and cold in other abstract concepts, such as emotions, attitudes and events…etc. (littlemore & taylor, 2014, p. 11). moreover, to understand the conceptual system and the corresponding between source and target domains, lakoff (2006, p. 190) proposed a metaphorical scenario as a system. he suggested that a metaphor includes understanding one domain of experience (for example, love) in terms of a very different domain of experiences (for example, journeys). in more technical way, the metaphor can be understood as mapping from a source domain (journey) to a target domain (love). in conceptual metaphor love is journey, there is what croft & cruse (2004, p. 196) and kövecses (2015: 2-3) called ‘ontological corresponding’ between source and target domain, the entities of domain of a love (the lovers, the common goals, difficulties, the love relationship, etc.), correspond systematically to the entities of the domain of a journey (the travellers, the vehicle, destinations, etc.). there is another sort of mapping of domains, lakoff called it ‘epistemic’. epistemic mappings correspond between elements in one domain and relations between elements in other domain. lakoff & johnson (1980), lakoff (1993, p. 41), as well as croft & cruse (2004, p. 196) adopted a mnemonic strategy for naming the mappings in conceptual metaphor. this strategy has a form of target-domain is source-domain, or alternatively targetdomain as source domain. additionally, to distinguish between concrete domain and abstract domain, lakoff & turner (1989, p. 94) and clausner & croft (1999, p. 14) give a clear idea about these two concepts. they state that concrete domains are mental representations, also they are representations of embodied experiences. these embodied experiences can be represented as images. abstract domain, on the other hand, cannot be represented as images and they do not have the kind of experiential of grounding (kövecses, 2017; roodt, 2019; p. 3). just as important as a metaphorical interaction between anger and heat or fire for arabic language as with english, in the mapping, the abstract domain of anger is conceptualised through the concrete domain of fire or hot. in anger is hot or fire metaphor, the conceptualisation process depends on a set of mappings or systematic correspondences that exist between anger and fire. 1.2 hot and cold metaphors in iraqi arabic iraqi arabic speakers are always used figurative language and thought to express their daily social and cultural experiences. because of the social and cultural relationships that correlate the entities of iraqi community and the community is organised as trips and big families, idiomatic and proverbial expressions play an essential role in determining the way an iraqi speaker deals with others. accordingly, idiomatic expressions and proverbs, as an ancient folklore, not so long ago, are experienced from ancestors to the children in conceptualizing social and cultural abstract concepts of emotions and attitudes...etc. by many of iraqi speakers in terms of concretes domains of hot and cold. hot and cold are two conceptualised metaphors that are commonly used to conceptualise a wide range of abstract domains negatively and positively. 2. method in this study, the researchers try to explore the way speakers in iraqi community conceptualise the abstract domains of emotions and attitudes…etc. that are realised from their experiences of the more concrete concepts of hot and cold metaphors. this study adopted the conceptual metaphor theory (lakoff & johnson, 1980; lakoff, 1993) to analyse the collected data. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 46-59 49 some idiomatic and proverbial metaphorical expressions are gathered from the iraqi community specifically the southern community dialect where such idiomatic and proverbial metaphorical expressions are largely used. for data analysis procedures, firstly, the data are translated into english and then an arab phonetic transcription are adopted in order to be cleared to the arabic readers. secondly, the research data are classified into conceptual metaphors according to their metaphorical corresponding. thirdly, the researchers begin their analysis with explaining the traditional, cultural and lexical dimensions of the data and then investigating how the speakers use these proverbs and idiomatic expressions to understand more of abstract concepts in their daily interaction by showing the set of relations between metaphorical expressions and conceptual metaphors. fourthly, a figure is drawn after each point of conceptual metaphors to illustrate to components of metaphorical mapping: source concept, target concept, mapping and mapping scope. 3. findings this part deals with analysis of expressions and proverbs depending on lakoff & johnson (1980) and lakoff (1993) perspectives on conceptual metaphor theory. twenty-five conceptual metaphors are arranged as points to be analysed one by one. 3.1 idiocy and neglegence are cold when someone is idiot, people describe him by saying this idiomatic expression ‘colder than saqa back’ /ābrd mn ṭyz ālsqh/. literally, ‘saqa’ /sqh/ is a lexical item refers to the bottom of a traditional thing, a water container, which was using to transfer and buy a cool water in popular neighbourhoods. thus, the coldest part of the ‘saqa’ /sqh/ is the bottom where water is settled in. figure 3.1 image schema of the proverb “colder than saqa back.” in iraqi arabic situation, psychologically, the lexical item ‘saqa’ /sqh/ is related to a person who has a characteristic of being an idiot, absent or marked deficiency of intelligence. iraq arabic speaker always uses an idiomatic expression ‘colder than saqa’s back’ /ābrd mn ṭyz ālsqh/ to conceptualise his understanding of the abstract domain of idiocy by linking it to the more concrete domain of cold through a set of metaphorical mapping that correspond the entities of ‘saqa back’ /ṭyz ālsqh/ of cooling in relation to entities of an idiot person. another idiomatic expression that it used to refer to the idiot person is ‘colder than ice’ /ābrd mn āṯʾlʾǧ/. because ‘ice’ is an indication to low temperature of cold where the entity of ‘ice’ being inflexible thing corresponds to the emotional entities of idiot person who does not have vitality or he/she is abnormal person (kövecses, 2000; kövecses, 2005; kövecses, 2010). the abstract domain of idiocy of a person is conceptualised onto mapping of the concrete domain of inflexibility of ice. in the same way, he/she conceptualises his/her experience of concrete domain of cold by using the proverb ‘colder than winter’s nights’ /ābrd mn lyāāly ālštʾ/, where ‘winter’s nights’ /lyāāly ālštʾ/ have a feature of low temperature on which a person has a little movement and physically be less vitality. therefore, an iraqi speaker understands the target concept domain of idiocy from his experience of low temperatures of winter’s night. furthermore, there is another proverb that is used to express that someone is idiot or neglected, ‘colder than the bottom of “alhab”’ /ābrd mn ǧʿb ālḥb/ ‘alhab,’ a folklore thing or object, is used by most of iraqi’s families to cool and purify water, it is made by pottery which has a property to make water cold. bottom is the colder place of ‘alhab’ /ālḥb/. the water in it is stagnate and cold. consequently, an iraqi speaker experiences his attitude towards a neglected person, who is not proficient in his work, from that colder place. thus, a target domain of negligence is conceptualised onto mapping of more concrete domain of colder bottom of ‘alhab’ /ālḥb/. 3.2 resolving is cold when someone is exposed to a problem or he/she faces a trouble and this problem is almost done, others would describe this case as ‘cooled down’. the iraqi speaker expresses this situation in which a trouble is solved as ‘the issue is cooled’ / brdt ālqḍyh/. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 46-59 50 figure 3.2 image schema of the proverb “problem is cooled.” the concept of a problem is related psychologically to decrease the emotional anger and bad thinking, and physiologically to the decrease of blood pressure as a reaction to a problem occurred. hence, the physiological entities of cold domain correspond systematically to the psychological and physiological issues to a person who exposed to a problem (kövecses, 2000; kövecses, 2005; kövecses, 2010). he then, conceptualises the abstract domain of solving a problem in term, of more concrete domain of cold which has a feature of decrease of temperature. 3.3 vitality is hot when someone is eager to achieve his duties, others describe him by using the idiomatic expression ‘hotter than the lover’s heart’ / āḥr mn klb ālʿāšk/. the phrase ‘lover’s heart’ /klb ālʿāšk/ refers to a person who has a high enthusiasm and energy. figure 3.3 image schema of the proverb “hotter than the lover’s heart.” lover’s heart characterises with heat that denote the case of beloved belonging to his/her lover. the emotions of love in the lover’s heart correspond to a set of entities of a person who has vitality of doing things (kövecses, 2000; kövecses, 2005; kövecses, 2010). a lover is always eager to see his beloved and do anything he/she wants, because of this, a lover is always having a vital to be expressed as high enthusiasm and energy. therefore, a target domain of vitality is conceptualised onto mapping of a set of corresponding structures of more concrete domain of heat found in lover’s heart. 3.4 composure is cold the iraqi arabic idiomatic expression ‘his blood is cold’ /dmh bard/ is used to express that someone is very quiet. figure 3.4 image schema of the proverb “blood is cold.” the lexical item ‘cold’ traditionally linked with an iraqi culture to refer to a person who is so patient or quiet. physiologically, a person’s blood, when he/she is quiet or patient, becomes very stable and he feels comfortable. the structure of blood when the person was quiet corresponds to the characteristic of composure (kövecses, 2000; kövecses, 2005; kövecses, 2010). therefore, a speaker conceptualises his feeling of abstract concept of composure onto mapping of the concrete domain of blood. 3.5 opportunity is hot when someone takes the advantage of opportunities or achieves something in an appropriate time, this case is described by expressing the idiomatic expression ‘as the iron is hot’ /mādāmt ālḥdydh ḥārh/. the noun phrase ‘iron is hot’ /ālḥdydh ḥārh/ is concerned with the fact that when the metals especially iron become hot, it is easy to change its shape. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 46-59 51 figure 3.5 image schema of the proverb “iron is hot.” the entities of hot iron being able to change its shape correspond to the characteristics of a person who is able to exploit the chances. therefore, the best chance to change the shape of the iron material is when it becomes so hot. henceforth, a speaker conceptualises his/her understanding of abstract domain of exploiting the opportunities by linking it to the more concrete domain of hitting hot iron. 3.6waiting is hot when someone is waiting another for long time, speakers describe this waiting situation by experiencing the idiomatic expression ‘hotter than cinder’ /āḥr mn ālǧmr/. because waiting is an innate emotion mostly interrelated with the psychological mechanism (kövecses, 2000; kövecses, 2005; kövecses, 2010). figure 3.6 image schema of the proverb “hotter than cinder.” for this reason, most of iraqi speakers understand the concept of waiting by comparing it with lexical item ‘cinder’ /ālǧmr/. the lexical item ‘cinder’ /ālǧmr/ has a property of high degree of heat. therefore, the speaker’s psychological mechanism of waiting corresponds systematically with the high degree of heat. thus, the concrete domain ‘hot’ is used metaphorically to express the abstract psychological emotions of ‘waiting.’ 3.7 cheating is cold when someone is deceiving the others, speakers describe this behavior by experiencing the proverb ‘buys ice from us and sells cold water on us’ / yštry mn ʿdnh ṯlǧ wybyʿlnnh māy bard/. figure 3.7 image schema of the proverb “buy ice and sell cold water.” in this proverb, a cheating behaviour is described by buying something different from the actual thing the seller wants to sell. the two unrelated materials ‘ice’ and ‘cold water’ show the speaker’s experiences of the bad habit of cheating. ‘ice’ for speakers is precious material whereas ‘cold water’ is cheaper than that. this contradiction of exchanging materials by the speaker lead to conceptualise his understanding of the abstract domain of cheating through a set of corresponding mapping of concrete domain of buying ice and selling cold water. 3.8 health is cold and hot health, in iraqi community, is also related traditionally to the culture of people and their experiences with body health. when someone has an accident or problem and others want him not to be affected, they express their thought by using the proverb ‘warm your head and cool your legs’ /dfy rāsk wbrd rǧlyk/. figure 3.8 image schema of the proverb “warm your head and cool your legs.” http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 46-59 52 according to speaker’s experiences, two unrelated things that a human being should be done to be in good health; the first is ‘warm head’ and another is ‘cold legs.’ thus, a speaker reveres the two concepts as an indication to someone, who had an accident, to keep his health and be alive. hence, a speaker conceptualises his understanding of a body to be healthy in terms of mapping of more concrete domains of warming a head and cooling legs. 3.9 satisfaction is cold the expression ‘cold water pours on the heart’ /māy bārd ynzl ʿlklb/ is used metaphorically to refer to someone who is satisfied about someone or doing something. figure 3.9 image schema of the proverb “cold water pours on the heart.” water, in iraqi community, is a fluid used always to express pure emotions and real attitudes. when someone is satisfied, a speaker expresses metaphorically that a water is pours on the heart, because heart is the container of satisfaction. the structures of water being cold, pure and soft correspond the feature of an abstract notion of satisfaction. in this case, a speaker conceptualises his/her feeling of satisfaction in terms of a set of mapping onto a concrete domain of a cold water which pours on the heart. 3.10 treason someone and gaining something are cold the proverb ‘ate it cooled and be cooled’ / āklh bārdh mbrdh/ is used metaphorically to express that someone is exposed to treason in a way that another follows smart tricks to do that. figure 3.10 image schema of the proverb “ate it cooled and be cooled.” the lexical item ‘cold’ /bard/, in iraqi culture, comes into contact with a habit of a person who has the ability to deceive and betray others. the image schema of ‘cold’ emerges from the bodily pre-experience of property of doing something intending to treason others. in this proverb, a speaker conceptualises his abstract domain of feeling treason onto a set of mapping of concrete domain of eating something cooled.sometimes, this proverb is used to express that person achieves something without being tired or discomfort. the phrase ‘ate it’ refers that a person who gets something without doing an effort or trouble because the lexical item ‘cooled’ /mbrdh/ refers to a food after cooking where a person tries to be make it to be suitable for eating. the experience of cooled eating corresponds to the entities of gaining something without efforts. in this situation, a speaker conceptualises his understanding of gaining something without effort onto a set of corresponding of eating something cooled. 3.11 underestimating grace is cold the proverb ‘the taste in the hot and the blessing in the cold’ /ālḏh bālḥār wālbrkh bālbārd/ is used to express the case of someone who has great fortune. figure 3.11 image schema of the proverb “the taste is in the hot and the blessing is in the cold.” http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 46-59 53 when a person does not know how to deal with his fortune, others describe this behaviour by telling him that the blessing in cold food as far as the taste is in the hot food and this behaviour regarded as neglecting the blessing. therefore, to keep your possessions you have to keep it from loss. thus, a speaker is advised not to throw cold food because he could make it hot. the entities of cold food correspond systematically to the thought of preserving the blessing. a speaker, then, conceptualises his/her understanding of abstract domain of underestimating the fortune or grace by linking it to the more concrete of warming food even it was cold. 3.12 calmness is cold the idiomatic expression ‘hit a cold to him’ /ṭklh bard/ is used to express the reaction of someone who is nervous. figure 3.12 image schema of the proverb “hit a cold.” the image schema of cold drink arises from a speaker’s experiences of the physiological thought that a cold drink make a nervous man relax. as a consequence, the expression ‘hit a cold to him’ /ṭklh bard/, in iraqi culture, has features of calming others. the structure of concrete domain of ‘cold drink’ corresponds systematically to the entities of making someone relax. hence, in conceptual metaphor calmness is cold, a speaker conceptualises his/her feelings of calming as a target domain through a set of mapping of concrete domain of lit someone a cold drink. 3.13 changing facts is cold and hot when a person behaves according to his/her willing not his mind, others describe him/her using this proverb ‘when he wants it hot, it is hot and when he wants it cold, it is cold’ /mn yrdh ḥārh ḥārh wmn yrydh bārdh bārdh/. figure 3.13 image schema of the proverb “hot when you want hot, cold when you want cold.” this proverb is used to express a person who has the ability to change facts and consecrates them to serve himself. the lexical item ‘hot’ /ḥār/ belongs to himself being positive fact whereas the lexical item ‘cold’ is negative fact is used against others. thus, a speaker conceptualises his/her feeling towards a person who changes facts onto mapping of concrete domains of hot and cold to be changed according to the person’s opinion. 3.14 hesitation is hot the proverb ‘hot in hot’ /ḥār bḥār/ is used to express that someone not to be hesitated to do something. the vitality of doing something comes from the idea of achieving something when it is ready, it may be come from the food because human beings prefer to eat when it is hot or shape things from iron metal when it is hot. figure 3.14 image schema of the proverb “hot in hot.” this proverb enhances people to do things without hesitation and thinking. thus, an image schema of hot domain arises from speaker’s experience of being applicable to achieve something when it is ready. the entities of hot things when it is hot correspond to entities of a person’s behaviour towards the attitudes he exposed to. for this reason, a target domain of a speaker’s hesitation or not is conceptualised through a set of mapping of concrete domain of a hot thing is being hot. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 46-59 54 3.15 sacrifice is hot when someone is eager to help others, this humanity characteristic, that an iraqi speaker is characterised with, is expressed by metaphorical expression ‘burned his blood on them’ /ḥārk dmh ʿlyhm/. the entities of domain ‘burn’ /yḥrk/ such as (damage, disappearance, heat…etc.) correspond systematically to the entities of domain sacrifice, such as (lose time, being tired, embarrassment…etc.). figure 3.15 image schema of the proverb “burned his blood” thus, the knowledge of image schema of source domain appears when someone’s bodily experiences of hot metaphor being harmful for himself to help others. under those circumstances, conceptual metaphor of sacrifice is hot is understood as the target domain of sacrifice onto mapping of the more concrete domain of burning blood to help others. 3.16 anger is hot when someone feels angry, iraqi arabic speakers describe him/her by an expression ‘this is hot pepper’ / hḏā flfl ḥār/. one of the pepper qualities is spicy, but we use hot literally to mean spicy figuratively. traditionally, there is a relation between a hot in pepper and anger, because anger causes increase in a human heat and blood. therefore, a person who becomes anger, an iraqi people describes his/her blood being hot as in the expression ‘his blood is hot’ /dmh ḥār/. there is a relation between the domain ‘pepper’ /flfl/ being an entity of high degree of heat and a target domain of anger which has a property of feeling nervous. in the same way, the relation between the domain ‘blood’ which it has a property of high pressure. therefore, iraqi speaker conceptualises his/her feeling of anger through his/her knowledge and experience of concrete domains of ‘pepper’ /flfl/ and ‘blood’ being hot through a set of corresponding mapping mentioned above. figure 3.16 image schema of the proverb “hot pepper” and “hot eye.” another expression that is used to express anger is ‘his eye is hotter than embers’ /ʿynh āḥr mn ālǧmr/. according to the biological case of human body, anger appears in a person’s eye as unconscious feeling. hence, most of iraqi speakers refers to the anger as ‘hotter than embers’ /āḥr mn ālǧmr/, because embers have a high quality of heat, a speaker conceptualises his/her understanding of it from being linked to the more concrete knowledge of the properties of hot domain that appeared in his eyes. 2.17 luck is hot luck is expressed by the traditional saying ‘if your market was hot, boil dogs and sell’ / āḏā ǧān swkk ḥār āslk ǧlāb wbtʿ/. dogs, for iraqi people, are prevented from eating, so when you are lucky you can sell even dogs. figure 3.17 image schema of the proverb “if the market is hot, boil dogs and sell.” increasing order on goods in the markets is expressed by the sellers as hot. the expression ‘market is hot’ /swkk ḥār/ has features of increasing of buying goods which identical to the characteristic of a lucky person who has an ability to be a successful seller even buying cooked dogs. this expression is used to conceptualize the abstract feeling of a person who is lucky in obtaining what he wants to do by liking it to concrete domain of buying goods even cooking dogs for buying. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 46-59 55 3.18 death is hot when a person becomes old, he/she loves to live for a long time. iraqi arabic speakers utilise the proverb ‘the soul is precious and the grave is hot’ /ālrwḥ ʿzyzh wālkbr ḥār/ to express that the life of someone is near ended. figure 3.18 image schema of the proverb “the grave is hot.” traditional thought for grave, as a container, is a hot place, dark, dismal and soil pressure. these experiences knowledge of grave, as an image schema, are corresponded to the features of the idea of a person, when the live in near ended, loves to be alive and afraid of sick…etc. thus, a speaker conceptualises the abstract domain of survival feeling and the fear of death in term of concrete domain of the entities of a grave being hot, dark…etc. 3.19 carelessness is cold the iraqi arabic proverb ‘what is hottest in me, is coldest in him’ /āḥr mā ʿndy āābrd mā ʿndh/ is used to express an event when someone cares of another person’s feeling, but he/she gets faced nothing from him. figure 3.19 image schema of the proverb “hottest in me, coldest in him.” the two expressions serve a relation of two contradictory emotions, the expression ‘what is hottest in me’ /āḥr mā ʿndy/ has an emotion of sacrifice, love, fulfillment whereas the feeling of ‘coldest in him’ /āābrd mā ʿndh/ expression is ungratefulness, careless. therefore, the image schema appeared from the speaker’s emotions experiences of hot being positive behavior towards another person even if he showed negative emotions. thus, a speaker, by uttering this proverb, conceptualises his/her comprehension the abstract domain of bad feeling as carelessness by linking it to concrete domain of ungratefulness emotions and cold. 3.20 the cuckold man is cold a person who has no emotion of sexual prowess on his wife or daughter, others describe him/her by saying the idiomatic expression ‘colder than pig blood’ /ābrd mn dm ālẖnzyr/. figure 3.20 image schema of the proverb “colder than pig blood.” traditionally, pig is characterised as cuckold because this animal has an ability to mass mating even with its mother. the knowledge of source domain is emerged from pre-conceptual embodied experiences of pig animal which hasn’t sexual prowess towards his family group. thus, the emotions entities in pig is related consciously to the entities of a person who disaffected of others who having sexual relationship with his daughter or wife. as a result, an iraqi speaker understands his emotions of the target domain of cuckold through conceptualizing the concrete domain of pig blood being colder than it. 3.21 good morals is hot this proverb ‘clearer than tear and hotter than candle’ /āṣfʾ mn āldmʿh wāḥr mn ālšmʿh/ is described to someone who is characterised by loving others and has good manners. physically, a human eyes’ tears are very clear. ‘candle’/ālšmʿh/, on the other hand, when it burns, emits from it an extreme heat that burns human fingers. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 46-59 56 figure 3.21 image schema of the proverb “clearer than tear and hotter than candle.” in this case, a speaker knowledge appeared from pre-conceptual experiences of a set of correspondence mappings between the entities of tears’ clear and candle’s heat and the emotions of a human being who having good moral habit of behavior. accordingly, an iraqi speaker conceptualises the features of tear’s clear and candle’s heat as concrete domains to understand the abstract domain of human beings’ emotions of morality. 3.22 hospitality is hot one of the best habits that iraqi people familiar with is serving food for a guest, is called hospitality. when someone hosts a friend, the food should be hot as a sign that it is newly cooked. if a food was cold a guest has to deal respectfully with this situation, he always expresses this emotion by saying the proverb ‘the dish is hotter than soup’ /ālmāʿwn āḥr mn ālšwrbh/. figure 3.22 image schema of the proverb “hotter than soup.” a speaker’s knowledge appears through his experiences of two domains, one is ‘the dish’ /ālmāʿwn/ being warmer than a second domain ‘soup’/ālšwrbh/. ‘soup’ /ālšwrbh/ has features of cold food less than the container ‘the dish’ /ālmāʿwn/. to express that the food is not delicious, a speaker conceptualises his/her understanding of the abstract domain of emotion towards hosts whether it is positive or negative by linking it to the more concrete domain of hot dish. 3.23 corruption is hot this proverb ‘i didn’t ask you to burn it but to let it be roasted’ /māktlk āḥrkhʾ bs ẖlyhā tstwy/ is used to express a person who is careless and dose not be wise to deal with attitudes, and he/she always accepts opinions without thinking. figure 3.23 image schema of the proverb “not to burn but roast.” the phrase ‘to burn it’ corresponds to the fact that do not put in the right side whereas the phrase ‘let it be roasted’ /ẖlyhā tstwy/ refers to the use of the wisdom to deal with attitudes. therefore, there is a relation between the structure of entities of source domain ‘burn’ /yḥrk/ and the speaker’s understanding of the concept of corruption. the image schema of the source domain of burning things arises from the speaker bodily pre-experiences of someone who is carless in issuing opinions. a speaker, conceptualises his feeling of a target domain of corruption onto a set of mapping of concrete domain of burn things not to let it be roasted. 3.24 useless man is cold when someone is useless, he/she is described by experiencing this proverb ‘he is not useful neither for hot nor for cold’ /mā ynfʿ lā llḥmh wlā llbārdh/. the phrase ‘he is not useful neither for hot’ /mā ynfʿ lā llḥmh/ refers to a high degree of temperature of a human body. figure 3.24 image schema of the proverb “useful neither for hot nor cold.” http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 46-59 57 the phrase describes the sharp situations that a man may be exposed to. whereas ‘nor for cold’ /wlā llbārdh/ describes a normal and peaceful life. the structure of the two domains corresponds the characteristics of a man who has no benefit in his relation with others. thus, a speaker conceptualises his attitude of a target domain of useless man onto mapping of the more concrete domains of hot and cold for man being useless. 3.25 earning is cold when someone earns money or get something without any effort, he is described by experiencing this proverb ‘on comfortable coldness’ /ʿlbārd ālmstryḥ/. figure 3.25 image schema of the proverb “on comfortable coldness.” the image schema appears from the pre-conceptual bodily experience of cold being a physical ease or relaxation to conceptualise the abstract concept of gaining something without an effort. hence, the entities of comfortable cold, like ease, relaxation, stillness…etc. correspond systematically to the person who is lucky, carless, etc. to gain something. in this case, a speaker, then conceptualises his abstract domain attitude towards a person who does not make an effort for earning something onto a set of mapping of the more concrete domain of comfortable cold. 4. conclusion in this study, the researchers tried to explore the way speakers in iraqi community conceptualise the abstract domains of emotions and attitudes…etc. the study focused on the idiomatic and proverbial expressions, specifically southern dialect language. the conceptual metaphor of cold domain is used to conceptualise the bad habits of some people. a speaker conceptualises his understanding of some emotions and attitudes towards others, like the idiocy of someone, cheating others, betraying others, underestimating grace, a man who is careless toward others, a person who does not feel sexual prowess towards his/her wife, a person who gain something without any effort and a person who is not useful to do something. cold domain is also used to conceptualise some good habits of people, such as resolve problems, a person who enjoy composure in dealing with problems, feel satisfying a person who has an ability to make other calming. on the other hand, the conceptual metaphor of hot domain is used to conceptualise the more intensive of emotions and attitudes, like a person’s vitality, exploiting opportunities, waiting others, negatively changing facts, hesitation of doing something, self-sacrifice, feeling angry and nervous, lucky, fear of death, a careless man and good morals. the study also concluded that the sharp emotions, feelings and attitudes that are understood from the conceptualisation of hot and cold conceptual metaphors, are experienced from the more concrete domains of hard things, such as iron, cinder, ice, blood, pepper, grave, ice and pig blood. finally, the study showed that the bad habits that are understood from the experiences the cold things, such as ‘saqa back’ /ṭyz ālsqh/, the bottom of ‘alhab’/ ālḥb/ whereas some good habits are understood from the experiences of cold your legs /wbrd rǧlyk /, lover’s heart / klb ālʿāšk/, cold water /māy bard/, tear /āldmʿh/ and candle /ālšmʿh/. 5. acknowledgment the researchers would like to express their great gratitude and thanks to mr. falah hussein al-sarri m.a. for his efforts in translation and interpretation of the research data. references akuno, l., oloo, p. a., & magonya, a. l. 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(2006). cognitive linguistics: an introduction. edinburgh university press. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 2 august 2020, pp. 46-59 58 ferrando, i. n. (2017). conceptual metaphor types in oncology: cognitive and communicative functions. lbérica: revista de la asociacióin europea de lenguas para fines especificos (aelef), 34, 163-186. forceville, c. (2019). developments in multimodal metaphor studies: a response to górska, coëgnarts, porto & romano, and muelas-gil. current approaches to metaphor analysis in discourse, 367, 378. gao, l. (2016). a comparative study of conceptual metaphors in english and chinese economic news headlines. creative education, 7(17), 2629. geeraerts, d. (ed). (2006). cognitive linguistics: basic readings. (vol.34). walter de gruyter. geeraerts, d. & cuyckens, h. (2007). the oxford handbook of cognitive linguistics. oxford university press. johnson, m. (1987). the body in the mind: the bodily basis of meaning, imagination, and reason. university of chicago press. kövecses, z. (2000). metaphor and emotion: language, culture and body in human feelings. cambridge university press. kövecses, z. (2005). metaphor in culture: universality and variation. cambridge university press. kövecses, z. (2010). metaphor: a practical introduction. oxford university press. kövecses, z. (2015). where metaphors come from: reconsidering context in metaphor. oxford university press. kövecses, z. (2016). conceptual metaphor theory. in the routledge handbook of metaphor and language (pp.31-45). routledge. kövecses, z. (2017). the interplay between metaphor and culture. zooming in: micro-scale perspectives on cognition, translation and cross-cultural communication, 18, 7-18. kövecses, z. (2017). levels of metaphor. cognitive linguistics, 28(2), 321-347. kövecses, z. (2018). metaphor in media language and cognition: a perspective from conceptual metaphor theory: lege artis, 3(1), 124-141. kövecses, z., ambrus, l., hegedűs, d., imai, r., & sobczak, a. (2019). the lexical vs. the corpusbased method in the study of metaphors. metaphor and metonymy in the digital age: theory and methods for building repositories of figurative language, 8. lakoff, g. (1993). the contemporary theory of metaphor. cambridge university press, p 202251. lakoff, g., & johnson, m. (1980). metaphor we live by. the university of chicago press. landau, m. j. (2017). using metaphor to find meaning in life. review of general psychology, 22(1), 6272. landau, m. j., zhong, c. b., & swanson, t. j. (2018). conceptual metaphors shape consumer psychology. consumer psychology review, 1(1), 54-71. littlemore, j., & taylor, j. r. (2014). the bloomsbury companion of cognitive linguistics. bloomsbury publishing. massey, g., & ehrensberger-dow, m. (2017). translating conceptual metaphor: the processes managing interlingual asymmetry. research in language, 15(2), 173-189. polova, o. (2020). religious metaphors in public speeches in turkish politicians. journal of history culture and art research, 9(1), 407422. roodt, v. (2019). violence as metaphor. in violence and meaning. (pp.3-26). palgrave mcmillan. rasse, c., onyska, a., & citron, f. m. (2020). conceptual metaphors in poetry interpretation: a psycholinguistic approach. language and cognition, 12(2), 310-342. wisnita , a. e. (2019). metaphor and simile in english context: do they know the differences?. reila: journal of research and innovation in language, 1(2), 55-60. https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v1i2.3066 zibin, a. (2016). the comprehension of metaphorical expressions by jordanian efl learners. sage open, 6(2), 1-15. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5968 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 52-60 52 clausal-internal scrambling in the urdu language: a derivation by phases asad ali, qaisar jabbar & humayun kiani university of lahore, punjab, pakistan masad7721@gmail.com article history received : 2021-01-21 revised : 2021-01-31 accepted : 2021-04-07 keywords scrambling minimalism xp-adjunction phase-theory theta feature abstract scrambling in clausal-internal is accounted for employing minimalist program as a theoretical framework on urdu naturalistic data in this study. for empirical evidence, an urdu corpus has been accumulated in audio-recording forms from 100 competent urdu speakers within the natural setting, taking naturalist inquiry as methodological purposes. employing minimalist program on urdu data, this study vehemently postulates that the dislocation of arguments from base to host position only hinges on the phase heads— co and vo; hence no other external devices essentially necessitate accounting for scrambling. this study highlighted scrambling in clausal-internal specifically within indo-aryan languages is universal phase-based parsimony, and it is only controlled by the exiting mechanism within the phase theory. moreover, the only merge and move operations linearize the cp in a phase-based fashion while cp is a higher phase and vp is a lower phase. no additional agrop necessitates scrambling, but one phase successively and cyclically converges into a higher phase level, i.e. cp and the derivation matches at lf and pf interfaces satisfying full interpretation (fi). 1. introduction scrambling of nominal arguments within the derivation in indo-aryan language—urdu is a ubiquitous phenomenon often considered to be unlicensed, illegitimate and free-shifting of arguments (mahajan 1990, 1994b; saito, 1985; saito & fukui, 1998; müller & sternefeld 1994; vikner, 1994; miyagawa, 1997; kidwai, 2000; simpson & bhattacharya, 2003; bhatt & dayal, 2007). all these studies, directly and indirectly, pursued the generativist paradigm that is exclusively formulated by noam chomsky (1995) under the tent of minimalism and derivation by phase (chomsky, belletti and rizzi, 2002). this is very significant that all the studies conducted on asian languages postulated various assumptions on the scrambling of arguments within the minimalist paradigm, but they violated the fundamental dictum established within chomskyyan's framework, i.e. structural dependency and uniformity. the studies conducted by mahajan (1990), kidwai (2000) and bailyn (2020) posited that scrambling is constituted by external mechanism imposed on the derivation, but chomskyyan's model did not accept this. this is theoretically inconsistent with human cognition. if we accept the external device, the basic condition of the economy will be violated because we impose an additional burden on the faculty of language. for this, it is very evident to account for the scrambling properties of languages within a minimalist program (chomsky, 1995) and the derivation by phases (chomsky, belletti and rizzi, 2002) in a true sense and spirit. phase heads within the derivation control the structural dependency and uniformity if we only view linguistic data within chomskyyan's framework. subject and object dps in urdu, like hindi, are freely dislocated within the derivation, but these remain within the cp level, and they do not even cross the cp level. it means that the shifting of arguments is uniformed. this uniformity must be controlled and legitimated by the existing machinery, not even any external device. pursuing tada's (1990) assumption of uniformity within scrambling, the present study predicts that scrambling within urdu data is uniformed and structurally convergent. the generativism model, the minimalist program (chomsky, 1995, 2008; chomsky, belletti and rizzi, 2002), has been adopted to ensure uniformity and structural dependency descriptively within urdu data. employing chomskyyan’s generative theory on urdu scrambling (1998) constitutes that phase heads (co) and (vo) legitimate uniformity in clausal-internal scrambling. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5968 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 52-60 53 the theoretical framework that has been employed in this research is the recent version of the minimalist program (mp), as laid out by chomsky (1993, 1994, 1995, 2000, 2001a) and in particular chomsky’s derivation by phase (2001b) to account for free scrambling arguments in natural languages. minimalist program (1995) methodologically consists of two basic recursive operations: merge, move and some conditions—locality, minimal link condition, and the economy imposed to ensure grammaticality. merge is the very initial operation that works on pair-fashion and constructs a pair of syntactic objects. in other words, merge combines head with its respective complement, and this hierarchically constructed structure is further merged with spec. move picks those existing items and places them in a c-commanding position. in the first step, merging items (head with complement) is purely based on feature specifications. features are classified as either interpretable or uninterpretable. they possessed semantic content or semantically contentless. for a convergent derivation, an uninterpretable feature (f) of a head is a (probe), and it must be deleted when it is placed in a local relation with another feature, 'f' of the head of xp (goal). in the latest version of the minimalist program (1995), the configuration of uninterpretable features requires triggering of overt displacement of an xp in one language but not in others. thus functional features are divided into two domains: strong features vs weak features. strong features motivate overt xp movement, while weak features do not linearize overt xp movement. english and german possessed strong wh-features that trigger overt movement but persian lacks. urdu and hindi are complex languages that have both types of features. urdu phase heads possessed sometimes strong wh-features that trigger overt movement. however, sometimes it did not need any overt movement. instead, moved elements remained in-situ dislocate (maqsood et al., 2019). thus, languages vary concerning formal features and their association. these idiosyncratic properties of language are treated in a more unified fashion in the most recent version of the minimalist program (2008). from the syntactic point of view, scrambling is a very significant research domain as it explicitly provides a syntactic representation of the i-language structure of the human faculty of language. it further tells us about the flexibility of argument shifting within the different language because the syntactic theory claimed that arguments had been frozen unless all the grammatical features will have been valued, checked and deleted. nevertheless, after satisfying the grammatical features in indo-aryan languages, some arguments move freely within the derivation. they must be accounted for uniformly within the generative theory. this is the core concern of this study. many studies have been conducted on free-shifting of arguments technically called scrambling. they claimed that this phenomenon could not be accounted for unless an additional mechanism has been imposed on the system theoretically. however, within the generative framework, if we add something external mechanism to human cognition, it will burden the human faculty of language. moreover, the descriptive mechanism will be more complex and cumbersome as mahajan (1990) adopts agrop and ip models of pollock (1989), and in 2000, kidwai claimed that scrambling is due to xp-adjunction. it is a syntactic operation just like other operations—a-movement, abar movement, wh-movement and topicalization. it must be evident that a unified and fully derivative mechanism must be required to account for scrambling within the generative framework (1995). for this purposes, this study is being attempted to develop a unified model for scrambling within the generative model. 2. literature review the displacement of constituents that adjoined to ip and vp as adjuncts has been firstly observed by ross (1967) as scrambling, and after that, further investigation of this mechanism has been developed in generative paradigm in chomskyyan's framework (1995 and subsequent works). after that, two approaches have been developed on scrambling under various models. they are demarcated into basedgenerated and movement. approaches’ on scrambling are divided into two domains based-generated and movement approaches. base-generated approach ascertained that it is free word order at least d-structure under the tent of gb theory and if we take minimalist program (1995) so scrambling is the result of operation merge. based generated approaches suggested that scrambling is a non-configurational shifting of arguments (hale, 1980; farmer, 1980 for japanese; haider, 1990 for german; t. mahajan, 1990 for hindi and urdu; kiss, 1994, 2003; miyagawa, 2001). the other claimed that scrambling is configurational and hierarchically systematic dislocation of arguments from base position to host position (saito and hoji 1983, hoji, 1985, saito, 1985 for japanese; bayer and kornfilt, 1994 for german; and neeleman, 1994 for dutch). kiss (2003) claimed that "scrambling may not affect the semantic interpretation of the sentence" (p. 228). saito (1983) and his associates agree to this proposition, but he and his associates' favour scrambling are legitimately due to movement. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5968 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 52-60 54 furthermore, tada (1990) proposed that the scrambling within the sentence-initial position in all languages hinges on reconstruction at the lf interface only. he has posited that scrambling is a uniform property of language. it can be accounted only for this if we apply a generative procedure to construct the data for empirical purposes. secondly, kitahara (2000) also favoured the generative model and predicted that it elegantly interprets the scrambling properties. bošković and takahashi (1998), working on base-generation approach, suggested that "… scrambled elements are directly base-generated in their surface positions and undergo lf movement (lowering in most cases) to the positions where they receive theta roles.” saito and fukui (1998) also proposed that scrambling is an optional operation, and this movement also requires a special merging case within the derivation. working on japanese, they postulated that it is semantically vacuous and mismatches at lf. they posited that head parameter properties of language control this type of movement, not even other aspects. for this, they provide a fully developed mechanism that incorporates english as well as japanese. now, we moved towards the movement basedscrambling. many proposals have been dedicated in this line of inquiry (ross, 1967; saito, 1985; 1992, saito & fukui, 1998; haider & rosengren, 2003; grewendorf & sabel, 1999; müller and sternefeld, 1994; mahajan, 1994; bailyn 2001, 2020; kidwai, 2000). related to asian languages, it is evident to evaluate mahajan (1990) proposal in which he has dealt with the scrambling of nominalizations within binding theory (1985), taking data of hindi language. he has suggested that the nature of scrambling can be examined with binding. according to miyagawa (1997), scramblings are of two types a-scrambling, which is adhered with a few features on t and a-bar scrambling associated with focus. miyagawa (2001, 2003) further argued that epp motivates and licenses a-scrambling. working on hindi, kidwai (2000, p. 9) claimed that scrambling is marked as "this shift marked the move away from a system of rules to a system of grammatical principles and generalized constraints on grammatical outputs." in 2000, bhatt & dayal posited that hindi and urdu language structure is sov, not svo. in this way, the scrambled arguments move on specifier or adjoined position. kidwai (2000) worked on the scrambling properties of asian languages, suggested that leftward scrambling must be a uniform characterization as an xp-adjunction operation. this leftward movement is neither semantically null nor fully optional. she claimed that scrambled elements must be analyzed to positional focus constructions in natural languages based on urdu and hindi data. she posited a mechanism of leftward scrambling theoretically employing minimalist program (chomsky, 1995). she argued that xp-adjunction is a morphosyntactic driven operation. she suggested that many issues are involved in an analysis of scrambling as (uniformly) xp-adjunction in the pf component; the key features of her analysis are not entirely compatible with mp. abnegating all the previous proposals regarding the architecture of minimalist grammar, she suggested that linguistic scholars only simplify the exiting mechanism in the grammar and neither construct a new mechanism nor eliminate any extra assumptions. however, she eliminates the need for copy deletion at lf to create the operator-variable pair—the ordering between this deletion and applying the binding theory and further the need for a reference to the l/l-bar distinction in the binding theory and copy-deletion mechanisms in the grammar. she proposed that her proposal also simplifies the economic condition of full interpretable and some extensions of its role in the grammar. despite this, the scrambling of elements within the derivation cannot be dealt only with xp-adjunction. in this paper, employing tada's (1990) assumption that scrambling is uniformed, we suggest that scrambling, especially in urdu within clausal-internal, is only controlled with the universal properties of phase heads. according to chomsky (1998), co and vo are the two-phase heads, and they linearize the derivation. in this paper, we establish how to do phases control scrambling, especially in the urdu language as well and do it necessitate any external device to account for scrambling properties in asian languages. 3. method for methodological proposes, this study adopts naturalistic inquiry (chomsky, 1984). all the data has been collected in a naturalistic setting. for this, competent urdu speaker[s] has been selected. for the selection of competent speakers/participants, demographic information has been collected by the speakers/participants for presenting them a performance. at the initial level, 100 urdu speakers have been selected and divided into four sub-groups. their natural speech has been recorded in audio form. after initial collection, data is in four sections, and the recording detail has been provided explicitly below in the table. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5968 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 52-60 55 table 3.1 total audio-recording s. no recordings minutes 1 first section 1 hs 19 min 2 second section 56 min 48 sec 3 third section 41min 33 sec 3 forth section 52 min 22 sec 4 total recording 3 h 54 min 5 total sentences 1724 the data has been represented in section 3.2 given below: table 3.2 data presentation s. no data 1 ali saeeb khaa-ta hai. ali eats an apple. 2 saeeb ali khaa-ta hai. ali eats an apple 3 zoya-ko amei-ne salgeera-ka toofa dii-aa mother gave zoya birthday gift. 4 amei-ne salgeera-ka toofa zoya-ko dii-aa mother gave zoya birthday gift. 5 *zoya-ko toofa salgeera-ka amei-ne dii-aa mother gave a birthday gift to zoya. 6 nooker-ne jaldi-se choha pakar liya the servant quickly caught the thief. 7 nooker-ne choha jaldi-se pakar liya servant caught the thief quickly. 8 mei-ne bi subho chaee pii-thi i have taken tea in the morning. 9 chaee pii-thi mei-ne bi subho. i have taken tea in the morning. 10 *pii-thi chaee mei-ne bi subho. i have taken tea in the morning. 11 jalsa logo-ne ki-aa. people conducted a meeting. 12 bna-ee kheer afshan-ne. afshan prepared custard. 13 nooker-ne toor di-aa glass the servant has broken the glass. 14 humar-ee abu amm ly-kar aye. our father has brought mangoes. 15 naii kitaab-een saab-ne kharee-die. all bought new books. for the selection of sentence out of the collected dataset, it has been developed random scale sampling. sentences have been selected randomly. the selected sentence has been analyzed according to the cp analysis to check the scrambling mechanism. each sentence is divided into two phases: the lower phase is vp, and the upper phase is the cp phase. according to chomsky (1995), these phases are headed by unique heads vo and co. they linearize the sentences and ensure the shifting of subject (dps) and object (dps) positions within their domain. 4. findings this section provides all the data explicitly, and the level of our analysis is cp. the cp contains vp the lower head, and the upper head is cp. all the scrambling from right-to-left and left-to-right is all and only constituted by these unique phase heads see the examples from the urdu language given below:1 a) [ali] [saeeb] khaa-ta hai. ali apple eat-s is sub/3p/sg obj/3p/sg v-inf aux/3p/sg ‘ali eats apple.’ b) [saeeb] [ali] khaa-ta hai. apple ali eat-s is obj/3p/sg sub/3p/sg v-in aux/3p/sg ‘ali eats apple.’ c) khaa-ta hai [ali] [saeeb] eat-s is ali apple v-inf aux/3p/sg sub/3p/sg obj/3p/sg ‘ali eats apple.’ 1 = first person 2= second person 3= third person acc=accusative case adj= adjective adv=adverb asp=aspect c=complementizer aux=auxiliary cp=complementizer projection dat= dative case d= determiner dp= determiner projection erg= ergative case inf= infinitive mas = masculine n= noun np= noun phrase, post= postposition postp= postpositional phrase nom=nominative case pl= plural p= preposition pp= prepositional phrase sg= singular t= tense tp = tense phrase v=verb vp= verb phrase v= light verb vp= light verb phrase *=ungrammatical sentences journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5968 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 52-60 56 d) khaa-ta hai [saeeb] [ali] eat-s is apple ali v-inf aux/3p/sg obj/3p/sg sub/3p/sp ‘ali eats apple.’ the data noted in (a-d) suggests that urdu is a free word order language, and shifting of arguments does not create any problems for understanding language. one most crucial point to be observed is that the function of categories did not alter dislocation. the non-configuration of categories functions after displacement is due to the pre-valuation of theta features. the theta-roles of subject and object dps have been marked while merging, and this displacement is not due to theta marking properties. instead, it is some unique aspect of the urdu language that has been ignored by scholars, especially in pakistan. mahajan (1997) posited that this shifting of arguments is not free hence; it is a case-driven movement because theta features of all the dps are marked in local position while the case is marked after theta configuration. in 2000, kidwai (2000) claimed that scrambling is not due to case-driven, while it is xp-adjunction within the derivation. chomsky (2008) revisited all previous version of the minimalist program and ascertained that it necessitates theta marking for case-feature valuation. firstly, if theta features cannot be marked within derivation, the case cannot be preceded. in this paper, we explain this free shifting of arguments purely constituted within only phase head because scrambled arguments are not crossing the boundary of cp (chomsky, 1995, 2008). e) [amei-ne] zoya-ko salgeera-ka [toofa] dii-aa. mother-erg –acc birthday-dat gift give-ed 'mother gave zoya a birthday gift.' in example (e), we have two objects direct (toofa) and indirect (zoya-ko). this is due to the nature of lexical verb as it is a ditransitive verb. it takes two objects dps. here in this example, salgeera-ka is neither unique/independent dp nor adjunct, and it is the complement of direct object dp toofa. it has a binding relationship with the direct object, but it cannot have any binding relation with the indirect object dp zoya-ko. f) zoya-ko [amei-ne] salgeera-ka [toofa] dii-aa -acc mother-erg birthday-dat gift give-ed ‘mother gave zoya a birthday gift.’ in this example (f), we noticed that the core object dp is toofa and subject dp is amei-ne, but here indirect object dp zoya-ko has been scrambled before the subject, but it did not create any ungrammaticality. this dp already valued its theta feature in the lower phase, and it did not necessitate any case feature valuation because, in the lower domain, v bears accusative case. it has already assigned accusative case in the local domain, and its displacement is due to scope sensitivity that is the only feature of cp (bhatt and dayal, 2007) as scope is the feature encoded in cp if we split the cp projection. (rizzi, 1990) in this way, it has been claimed that all the syntactic operations have been fully satisfied following all the principlestheta features, case within phases, and this shifting is only for scope sensitivity and it converges at interface levels. g) [amei-ne] salgeera-ka [toofa] zoya-ko dii-aa mother-erg birthday-dat gift -gen give-ed ‘mother gave zoya a birthday gift.’ in example (g), all the shifting and displacement of arguments are uniformed and structural within phases. within the vp phase at theta, position v has assigned theta role and case to the indirect object dp zoya-ko. nevertheless, toofa salgeera-ka has binding relation, so it cannot be separated. salgeera-ka has only one binding relation with direct object dp toofa not even with indirect object dp zoya-ka. h) zoya-ko salgeera-ka [toofa][amei-ne] dii-aa -gen birthday-dat gift mother-erg give-ed ‘mother gave zoya a birthday gift.’ i) zoya-ko [toofa] salgeera-ka [amei-ne] dii-aa -gen gift birthday-dat mother-erg give-ed ‘mother gave zoya a birthday gift.’ in these examples (h-i), we have noticed scrambling within the dps-salgeera-ka toofa and toofa salgeera-ka. if postp did not move overtly for checking the genitive case feature of dp, it could not be met at interface levels. however, in example (8), it has moved at the specifier of dp from np's specifier position. in example (9), salgeera-ka postp did not move overtly, but it meets interface level no ungrammaticality is observed. we question that how the genitive case has been valued. one possibility is that salgeera-ka here can be an independent dp, not a complement of toofa. the second option is that salgeera-ka is not adjunct neither within dp nor cp level. it is the complement of the nominal phrase, and it has binding relation with a direct object. in example (8), salgeera-ka did not bind with zoya-ko despite local. j) [nooker-ne] jaldi-se [choha] pakar liya servant-erg quickly rat catch -ed 'the servant quickly caught the rat.' in example (j), we have an adjunct jaldi-se that is free. it can freely be placed either at pre or post position within verb, but no ungrammaticality has journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5968 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 52-60 57 been observed. it can be said that in asian languages, adjunction flexibility-rightward or leftward is observed. subject dp is nooker-ne, and object dp is choha. here in this sentence, we have only one direct object, not even an indirect object. if we alter the position of adjunct jaldi-se, we only notice semantic scope sensitivity, not even syntactic problem. see the example (7-9); the semantic properties of the sentence have been shifted, but syntactically all the mechanisms have been fulfilled mutually within phases. k) [nooker-ne] [choha] jaldi-se pakar liya servant-erg rat quickly catch -ed 'the servant caught the rat quickly.' in the example (k), the direct object has been shifted overtly, but it is very difficult to assess what case does direct object dp possess? it can only be observed that -ne that has been attached with nooker makes it clears that it is neither subject dp nor object dp, but if we have two such dps which do not have any overt case markers, how can we determine the case to mark subject and object position. one solution is theta features that ensure the arguments of what role they will play within the derivation of the agent, theme, patient, and experience. in this cp, paker selects choha to make vp, and null v selects this whole vp as a compliment. the epp feature of v triggers a lower object whose theta feature has already been marked and puts it specifier position, and v has another potential, it possesses genitive case and agentive role (agent) it introduces its external argument, i.e. nooker-ne and marked its theta role of the agent within the local domain. here at this position, our first phase has successfully been completed. the displacement of lower object dp to overt specifier position is due to only the phase head of vp. dummy v light verb bears edge feature, and it regulates the further computation recursively. in the derivation, we have an unvalued case feature that must be valued, and t selects vp as complement and triggers lower caseless dp nooker-ne overtly and takes it at specifier position, and this place, t assigns nominative case from head to specifier. in this way, no syntactic feature has been left unchecked and unvalued within two phases, but only c, the head of cp, bears scope features, finite feature, focus feature and wh-feature. in urdu, except for finite feature, all other features are strong features due to these lower dps moves. 5. discussion scrambling is viewed in sov languages as an extra operational device mahajan (1990) and kidwai (2000). they posited additional devices to account for scrambling, particularly in hindi. firstly, all the studies on the cognitive faculty of language-focused that humans' output is uniformed and hinges on some unified structure. a general theory of language is a generative paradigm (chomsky, 2008) accounts for all the languages within the minimalist program (1995; 2002), and according to this theory, every individual is wired with a genetically endowed bio-program device that regulates the input and output on pairfashion like pf and lf, not any external mechanism necessitates to regulate it. so, if we view the data of all the languages whose word-order is either svo or sov within one and only principled theory of generativism, we must licitly concede that scrambling is also the by-product of the human speaker[s] who are also installed genetically the same bio-program that is encoded within the speakers’ of english, urdu, persian and italian languages. therefore, scrambling must be uniformed and structural dependent within the language, and any additional device is unacceptable to account for scrambling. it is viewed as natural as a normal human speech in any language because it is also considered fully grammatical and acceptable by all the speakers of that particular language. many scholars endeavoured to account for this phenomenon in various languages—hindi (kidwai, 2000; mahajan, 1990), japanese (miyagawa, 1997), korean (saito and fukui, 1998) and less attention is paid to urdu languages. hindi and urdu are similar languages according to general properties like phonology, morphology, syntax, and even semantics. scrambling is due to some morphological reason like case valuation (mahajan, 1990). the case is the essential property of language. due to the strong feature, derivation cannot be computed unless the strong feature will not be eliminated from the derivation (chomsky, 1995). for case valuation, mahajan (1990) put forth the assumption of structural case marking as the structural case marking is controlled by agrsp2 and agrop3. the point is that we suppose that these are the projections with grammatical features within the derivation. we have similar other functional categories that regulate the derivation. they are c, the clausal head and the v lower phase head. both of them have some grammatical and strong features that must be eliminated within the derivation. for capturing the uniformity within chomskyyan’s framework (2002), scholars tried to develop a unified system for scrambling. based on korean datasets, 2 agreement subject phrase= it is the projection that possesses some grammatical features that control the moving of subject position within the derivation. 3 agreement object phrase= the projection that regulates the objects and structural case marking of the object within the derivation. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5968 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 52-60 58 saito (1988) suggested that it is optional, and mahajan (1990) suggested it as “case drove and verb agreement," and that is marked by additional device pollack model of ip and agrop. later, kidwai (2000) assumed that it is xp-adjunction like other types of movements—topicalization, wh-movement etc. however, the question is that the data presented in section 4 demonstrates that agreement and case play no role if the argument dps displace from base position to host position. the second motivates that xp-adjunction is not marked theta set from the external head rather internal head and not even case as well; hence if we take scrambling as adjunctions, our data shows that all the dps valued theta roles and case within a unified framework of minimalism. within the domain phase heads cp and vp, how these grammatical features have been valued, marked and deleted, the option is these are marked by unique phase heads within the phase-based theory chomsky (2002) satisfying the interface condition and economic condition. the present study finds that scrambling within sov languages like urdu can be dealt with by employing minimalism without taking any additional device, keeping in view the economic condition and interface condition. scrambling is not ungrammatical in all sov languages. if we want to account for the data of indo aryan languages, we must observe that two categories are phase heads c and v within the phase theory of chomsky (2002). they uniformly control scrambling as both possess epp and case feature. therefore, no agrsp and agrop entail the grammaticality of neither any pure or scrambled sentence in urdu. in sov languages c and v bear strong features, and if any strong feature remains in the computation unvalued, the derivation cannot be converged and cannot be mapped at the interface level. v firstly assigns theta-feature to argument dps, and it has the potential to assign accusative-case from head to complement position. c also bears epp and multiple other features like---q-feature, focus-feature, scope-features, and finiteness. these features are also valued and deleted before spell-out (chomsky, 1995), and no strong feature exists in the computation after spell-out. it is also evident that no additional agrop (mahajan, 1990) is obligatory to account for scrambling, and it has been eliminated because agrop is not a head that is a syntactically indivisible bundle of formal features (matushansky, 2006 p. 70). chomsky (1986) and tada (1993) favoured structural dependency and uniformity within the clausal-internal. if we follow the traditions, every module of language must follow some abstract system at any level. system means an abstract underlying structure. according to the socio-linguistic point of view, myers-scotton (1997) postulated that mixed languages, what she calls codeswitching, codemixing and borrowing, must follow uniformity of condition. ali, jabbar and malik (2020) add that the ideas of mixing/switching and borrowing originated in sociolinguistics; it is thought to be an absurd and haphazard use of language, but later thought to be an unconscious effort of the mind and a part of human competence. if it is accepted that every module of language is systemic, we must follow the hypothesis of uniformity and structural dependency within even scrambling as it is the output of an individual. every individual only speaks grammatical sentences and strings. generativist theory (1995) has developed a unified mechanism for monolingual speakers and bilingual speakers (malik, 2017). those scholars also follow the uniformity and structural dependency within the clausal internal. the same theory can be applied to account for scrambling, too, with no additional device. to control uniformity within clausal internal is linearized by the phase heads, and they are c and v. these phase heads universally operate within monolingual data, bilingual data, and scrambling within this study. 6. conclusion scrambling within clausal-internal is paralleled to case-driven and verb-agreement (mahajan, 1990) and xp-adjunction operation (kidwai, 2000) within generativist theory. here in this study, it has been predicted that scrambling is neither case-driven nor verb-agreement nor xp-adjunction; it is the motivation of strong phase heads (co) and (vo). they license scrambling within the derivation, and no additional devices—ip, agrop and xp-adjunction are essential because if we put the additional burden on human cognition, it will theoretically halt the system. in this way, the system will make crashes and map dis-uniformity within the derivation. human speech is a by-product of involuntary actions (ali et al., 2020) so, scrambling is not dis-uniformed, structural dependent, systemic and human cognitive faculty regulates all types shifting of argument positions only satisfying interface conditions-pf and lf. 7. acknowledgement any agency or grant did not support this research. i want to thank dr. nazir ahmad malik and dr. muhammad athar khursheed for their motivation and guidance in conducting this research. i dedicate this research to my mother-shahnaz fazal elahi. i would also like to thank my ever-supporting world aqsa shehzadi who provided me immense help and hand in this research study. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5968 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 52-60 59 references ali, a., jabbar, q., & malik, n.a. 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(1989). verb movement, universal journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.5968 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 52-60 60 grammar, and the structure of ip. linguistic inquiry, 20(3), 365-424. rizzi, l. (1990). relativized minimality. the mit press. ross, j. r. (1967). constraints on variables in syntax. saito, m. (1992). long distance scrambling in japanese. journal of east asian linguistics, 1(1), 69-118. saito, m. (1985). some asymmetries in japanese and their theoretical implications (doctoral dissertation, na cambridge). saito, m., & fukui, n. (1998). order in phrase structure and movement. linguistic inquiry, 29(3), 439-474. simpson, a., & bhattacharya, t. (2003). obligatory overt wh-movement in a wh-in-situ language. linguistic inquiry, 34(1), 127-142. tada, h. (1993). a/a-bar partition in derivation (doctoral dissertation, massachusetts institute of technology). vikner, s. (1994). scandinavian object shift and west germanic scrambling. studies on scrambling: movement and non-movement approaches to free word-order phenomena, (pp, 487-517). new york. mouten de-gruyter. instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 108-119 108 interpretation strategies and interpretation performance in interlingual and bilingual subtitling: a case of iranian ba translation students ghasem modarresi 1 , kaveh jalilzadeh 2 & raheleh zolfaghary 3 1, 3 department of english, quchan branch, islamic azad university, quchan, iran 2 department of foreign languages, istanbul university-cerrahpassa, turkey qasem.modarresi@gmail.com article history received : 2020-11-27 revised : 2020-12-05 accepted : 2020-12-24 keywords interlingual subtitling bilingual subtitling interpretation performance abstract the researchers in interpreting studies have underrated the importance of interpretation strategies in interpretation courses at the university level in the iranian context. as a mixed-method study, the present study mainly aimed at discovering the subtitling strategies used in interlingual subtitling and bilingual subtitling by translation students. the researchers selected 30 homogeneous students majoring in translation studies which were divided into two experimental groups. during the treatment phase, the researchers worked with each group's students on subtitling strategies on a comedy film, following peterson's (2005) strategies. the results of the post-tests confirmed that there was a significant difference for interlingual subtitling since the students’ scores increased significantly from the mean score of 24.53 to the mean score of 27.66 as well as for bilingual subtitling since the students’ scores increased significantly from the mean score of 22.80 to the mean score of 27.13. however, the results revealed no significant difference in students' interpretation scores for interlingual and bilingual subjects. the results of the interviews also supported the effectiveness of audio-visual activities on oral translation. translation students should pay attention to how they foster their interpreting competence and find the type of subtitling that is more beneficial. 1. introduction subtitling occupies an absolute position in the target culture (karamintroglou, 1999). the researchers cannot either ignore or underestimate the role of this kind of translation in the target culture, especially our culture. not noticeable numbers of research works have been dedicated to this area of study because it is a widespread phenomenon which involves the whole world during the last two decades (gottlieb, 1992). subtitling is, indeed, accounted for different with literal written ones. subsequently, it can be claimed that this area of study occupies the primary position in our country and many other countries. it will be more common and crucial in target cultures and translation studies as media blockbusters, especially movies, continue to seize the mind of those cultures' people and even control their daily reactions. among the various types of screen translation, subtitling has become increasingly necessary because of several factors. first, the rising demand for international tv programs to feed the accelerating number of television channels has led to a growing interest in subtitling as a relatively cheap way of translating audio-visual languages (o'connell, 2007). in addition, the demand for authenticity among audiences is increasing, with a greater awareness of foreign languages in general and in particular the english language (szarkowska, 2005). in several countries subtitles are also used to revive and teach minority languages, boost the literacy of the mother tongue, teach immigrant groups the official language of a nation, and encourage foreign language skills. another pattern for many countries is the rise in the replacements of tv programs to the deaf and hard of hearing (o'connell, 2007). the correct translation of the original messages is essential in subtitling since hasty translation can misunderstand it (jalilzadeh, modarresi, & rohani, 2020). indeed, the use of strategies in subtitling can yield a better translation. for example, the study conducted by khakshour forutan and modarresi (2018) showed that the most applied strategies in the subtitled version were substitution, cultural and direct translation while the most applied strategy in the dubbed version was an omission. the study's significance lies in the fact that it is possible to offer better, more comprehensible and more loyal translation through an in-depth perception of strategies used in interpretation. when we consider translation students' interpretation performance, we can improve future works' quality and identify the common mistakes and strategies committed and happened in their performance to avoid incorrect and inappropriate cases. today, one of the most critical research areas in interpretation studies concerns attempts to incorporate psychological trends into teaching and learning interpretation. for example, http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ mailto:qasem.modarresi@gmail.com journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 108-119 109 modarresi (2019) showed that getting involved in translation tasks activates cognitive processes. davies (2004) remarked in teaching translation, specific needs, context information, personality and learning styles of students should be considered for the development of pedagogical resource and technique to enhance students’ translation skills and results. the major problem encountered by trainers working with the translation students on films and news taken from english-speaking countries is that they expose students to the films. the students become frustrated since they cannot understand the message because of a lack of vocabulary knowledge fast speech. the previous research on subtitling has not focused on comparing different subtitling types, and they look at subtitling as a unitary concept. however, investigating different types of subtitling is what the current study mainly pursue. an important research domain in interpretation is the number of exposure students could have in interpretation training courses. indeed, it works on the original films accompanied by subtitles have always been an effective strategy in such courses. the teachers and researchers have different perspectives on the use of subtitling types and techniques in this regard. the study mainly tried to compare the interpretation strategies that are used in interlingual subtitling and bilingual subtitling. interlingual subtitling is between two languages. this type is “diagonal, in the sense that the subtitler crosses over from speech in one language to writing in another, thus changing mode and language” (gottlieb, 1998, p. 32). bilingual subtitling refers to where subtitles "are provided simultaneously in two languages" (gambier, 2003, p. 12). the researchers believe that subtitling types may influence the translators' strategies while working on this aspect of subtitling can contribute to the betterment of subtitling, enhancing students' performance in interpretation courses. when reading speed and the rate of structured presentation, it is difficult to generalize. according to luyken et al. (1991), adult viewers' reading speed hovers around 150 to 180 words per minute. however, the complexity of the linguistic and factual details found in the subtitles depends on extensive variation. when the lexical density is high, information usability appears to be low, requiring additional subtitles of exposure time. moreover, readability is said to be influences by genre of film. 1.1 interpretation: an overview nearly for the last fifteen years, interpretation has deeply determined itself as a complete profession separate from translation (darwish, 2003). darwish (2003) stated, “despite being older than translation, interpreting has always been somewhat confused with translation, and interpreters have for a long time lived in the shadows of translators” (p. 1). it has elaborated during this century. consecutive and simultaneous are various types of interpretation that can be considered a stressful profession (mendez, 2001). as-safi (2001) defines interpretation similarly as "interpreting comprises in conveying to the target language the most accurate, natural equivalent of the source language oral message" (p. 12). the article was written in the official publications of the european communities also defines interpretation as spoken versions offered by interpreters that express, in other words, the content and meanings of the statements by the original speaker. interpreting is divided into two main major modes: consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting. in consecutive interpreting (ci), the interpreter listens for a few minutes to a speech section, takes notes, and then delivers the whole segment in the target language. "a few minutes the speaker returns, the translator delivers the next section and the process continues until the end of the speech" (gile, 1995, p. 42). simultaneous interpreting is often referred to as listening and speaking concurrently’ or ‘holding the spoken message while simultaneously formulating and articulating the translated message (mizuno, 2005). according to hulme (2000), simultaneous interpreting amounts almost precisely to what is referred to as articulatory suppression in studies of short-term memory. simultaneous interpreting is a demanding and complex task that uses the working memory to its extreme (osaka, 2002). the literature shows that interpreting interpretation is not easy and needs quantitative rubrics (khoramy & modarresi, 2019). 1.2 subtitling and interpretation subtitling has been used since 1929 when the first talkies reached europe (baker, 1998). subtitles evolved out of the intertitles used as devices to convey the actors' dialogue to the audience. karamitroglou (1999) conducted a study on subtitling types and found that intertitle could be a replacement shot for a part of a film that contained verbal information in the original language. bot (2005) carried out a study on subtitling, and in his study, he stated that texts were printed on cardboards and were later filmed and inserted between sequences of the film. it seems that the invention of talking films in 1927 led to the gradual disappearance of intertitles, and the problem of language transfer took on new dimensions; as a result, dubbing was born. however, subtitling as a cheaper method of language transfer developed further. the technique of inserting subtitles onto the film was improved over the years. 1.3 theoretical framework of the study the study followed the theoretical framework suggested by gambier (2003), who classified different types of audio-visual activity including 1) interlingual subtitling, where subtitles are provided in the target language, 2) bilingual subtitling, where subtitles are provided simultaneously in two languages, 3) intralingual subtitling for the hard of hearing, increasingly a regulatory requirement, 4) dubbing, which covers 'lip-synchronization' or 'lip-sync', where http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 108-119 110 a tl voice-track, 5 replace the sl voice track) voiceover, used mainly for documentary or interview, 6) subtitling, subtitles projected above the stage or on the seatbacks at the opera or theatre, 7) audio description, and a mainly intralingual audio commentary the action on the stage or film for the visually impaired. the present study selected two of these audio-visual activities, including the first and second ones, which were the most critical audio-visual activities. the researchers posed four questions to carry out the present study, including: a) does instructing pedersen's (2005) strategies affect ba translation students' oral translation using interlingual subtitling? b) does instructing pedersen's (2005) strategies affect ba translation students' oral translation through bilingual subtitling? c) is there any significant difference between ba translation students’ oral translation by means of interlingual and bilingual subtitling? d) what do the students think about the influence of types of audio-visual activity on their oral translation performance? 2. method the present study used a mixed-method study using a quantitative experimental study complemented with the qualitative interview method to yield more in-depth findings. 2.1 participants/corpus the researchers selected 30 students (both male and female students) majoring in translation studies participated in this study from the tabaran university of mashhad and the imam reza university of mashhad. the reason for selecting the students from two universities was the few translation students in each university. the students studied interpretation two as a two-credit course, and they already had passed their interpretation one. the researchers selected interpretation two since they had already experienced the course, and all are nearly at the same level of proficiency. the students were in their semester five or six. their language proficiency level was assessed through preliminary english test (pet) including listening skills. therefore, given one standard deviation above and below the mean, students whose scores obtained from pet were between 16 and 12 were selected to participate in the study (since 14+2=16 and 14-2=12). therefore, out of 40 students, 30 students were remained to participate in the study. having selected students at the same level of language proficiency, the researchers started his research work. moreover, four of the students were interviewed after the treatment based on availability sampling. as the study's corpus, the researchers employed a comedy movie named "good kids” directed by chris mccoy (2016) to be worked in the treatment phase in both groups. the reason for selecting this film was the genre of the films, which was a comedy and the language level of the film was not so difficult for the students. 2.2 instrumentations as the first instrument of the study, the researchers used the preliminary english test (pet). pet developed by cambridge esol, is part of a group of examinations called the cambridge main suite, and it is equivalence with english qualification b1. the test includes three main sections: reading/writing, listening and speaking. the listening part consists of 4 parts ranging from short exchanges to more extended dialogues and monologues. the listening section's objective was to assess candidates' ability to understand dialogues and monologues in both informal and neutral settings on a range of everyday topics. the listening part included 25 items and lasts 35 minutes. based on the measurement scales proposed by pet, each item carries one mark, which gives a total of 25 marks. the second instrument was the pre-test taken from the original films in the english language appropriate for intermediate english learners. the third instrument was the post-test taken from the same film used in the pre-test. the pre-test and post-test difficulty levels were approximately the same, and each clip had about five minutes long. for the fourth instrument of the study, to assess students' performance on interpretation, the researchers utilized wu's (2010) interpretation assessment criteria as a comprehensive, objective assessment in this regard. there are five primary criteria in this rubric including 1) presentation and delivery, 2) fidelity and completeness, 3) audience point of view, 4) interpreting skills and strategies and 5) foundation abilities for interpreting. each of these categories consists of sub-categories, as evident in the framework. the primary reason that the researchers selected the rubrics was that it could match the four basic constructs that a good interpreter requires, including language competence, interpreting skills, background knowledge, and personal aptitude. this questionnaire's scoring procedure is between 12 and 48 since there are 12 properties, and for each one, the maximum and minimum scores are 4 and 1, respectively. the study's last instrument was semi-structured questions, requiring the participants to reveal their views of the influence of training interpretation strategies on their performance on interpretation courses. two experts in translation who had been teaching translation courses at the ferdowsi university of mashhad and the islamic azad university of quchan checked the questions' content validity. the researchers, having received the experts' feedback, revised the questions in terms of their validity. the study's findings from the interviews also showed that the question items possessed dependability since the finding revealed consistency. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 108-119 111 2.3 procedure the researchers decided to undertake the study during the class hour by the prior agreement with the instructor at tabaran university and the imam reza university of mashhad. during the first session, they distributed the pet to students, and the data were gathered. the treatment phase was planned to last for one term. there were two experimental groups in this study; one group was provided by interlingual subtitling, and the other group was provided by bilingual subtitling during the course. thus, the present study was experimental. regarding the assessment of students' interpretation performance in their pre-test and post-test performance, participants were provided sufficient and clear instructions in advance as to how to carry the task of interpreting. it was particularly crucial before the pretest, for very few subjects were expected to try such a task previously. the video clip for pre-test and posttest were played on a video projector, and participants listened to it through a good quality and translated it in front of two raters. the students were asked to come to the class two by two, and the two raters assessed their performance on interpretation. in this way, the researchers took care of inter-rater reliability of scores using the rubrics suggested by wu (2010) for measuring the students’ performance. during the treatment phase, the researchers worked with each group's students on subtitling strategies following peterson (2005). they examined the subtitling in terms of the four strategies including 1) official equivalent based on which st equivalence has already been established in tl, 2) specification-based on which the st element is retained in its untranslated form and instead more information is added to clarify the meaning, 3) substitution based on which st word replaced with something else, and finally, 4) omission based on which st word is removed, bringing nothing as its substitution. the teacher worked on the strategies through interlingual subtitling and bilingual subtitling and tried to see which of the subtitling types help students improve their interpretation performance. finally, the students were interviewed based on availability sampling from the two groups. the persian language questions were written to gather the participants' responses to the effectiveness of subtitling types. the students were required to reply to the persian language questions since using their native language could express themselves more quickly and precisely. their writings were, then, translated into english, analyzed, and categorized. the writing task resembled a semi-structured interview, in which subjects could express their thinking with very little interference. the pupils had approximately ten minutes to talk about their perspectives. 3. findings 3.1 interlingual subtitling and interpretation as for the first research hypothesis concerning the effect of instructing pedersen's (2005) strategies on ba translation students' interpretation employing interlingual subtitling, the researchers opted for paired sample t-test. two raters measured the students' scores on the pre-test and post-test of interpretation out of 48 based on wu (2010) assessment rubrics for interpreting. the correlation coefficient between the two raters' scores was .52 and .76 for the pre-test and post-test scores that were acceptable. the results of descriptive statistics are first reported: table 3.1 descriptive statistics for interlingual subtitling mean n std. deviation std. error mean pair 1 pre-test 24.53 15 3.02 .77 post-test 27.66 15 4.20 1.08 as displayed by table 3.1, the results revealed that the mean score for students’ performance on the pretest was 24.53 with the standard deviation of 3.02, and the mean score for students’ performance on the posttest was 27.66 with the standard deviation of 4.20. following this, the results of paired sample t-test are reported below: table 3.2 paired samples test for interlingual subtitling paired differences t df sig. (2tailed) mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pair 1 pre-test interlingual post-test interlingual -3.13 3.11 .80 -4.85 -1.40 -3.89 14 .002 http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 108-119 112 to figure out if there is a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores for interlingual subtitling, having checked the column labelled sig. (2-tailed) table 3.2 revealed a significant difference in the mean scores on the dependent variable for each of the two sets of scores. because of the value in the sig. (2-tailed) the column is less than .05 (which is .002), there is a significant difference between the two sets of scores. since the mean scores of students following the treatment (m=27.66) were more than their mean scores before the treatment (m=24.53), it was concluded that the students improved in their interpretation scores. the researchers used eta squared to determine the instruction's effect size, as the most commonly used formula: t2 / t2 + (n -1). as table 2 shows, in this study, t=-3.89. therefore: (-3.89)2 / (3.89)2 + (15-1) = 15.13/29.13= 0.51. the guidelines (proposed by cohen, 1992) for interpreting this value are: .01=small effect, .06=moderate effect, .14=large effect. therefore, the effect size of .51 is large. that is, intervention in the interlingual group had a large effect on the students' interpretation performance. during the treatment phase, the researchers worked with the students on the strategies used in subtitling following the guidelines suggested by pedersen's (2005) strategies, including official translation, specification, substitution and omission. some samples are presented below based on the strategies extracted from the films worked in the class. table 3.3 interlingual subtitling: specification english source translation pedersen’s strategy subtitled version remember, the prickliest. cactus can still give you water. specification مي هنوز سمندون، که بده آب بهتون تونه کاکتوسه، همون )منظورش شدن قشنگتر براي اما شده( عوض ترجمه i will you buy shit specification واست آت و آشغال میخرم table 3.4 interlingual subtitling: substitution english source translation pedersen’s strategy subtitled version whatever drugs everyone is on seem to be working pretty well. substitution هست موادي هر مرد هي اين رو اينکه مثل جواب داره خوب االغ میده i mean, did we not get invited to any graduation parties? substitution که اينه منظورم تونیم نمي چرا واقعا فارغ مهموني هیچ تو داشته شرکت التحصیلي باشیم؟ 3.2 bilingual subtitling and interpretation the second research hypothesis concerning the effect of instructing pedersen's (2005) strategies on ba translation students' interpretation using bilingual subtitling, the researchers opted for paired sample ttest. two raters measured the students' scores on the pre-test and post-test of interpretation out of 48 based on wu (2010) assessment rubrics for interpreting. the correlation coefficient between the two raters' scores was .68 and .59 for the pre-test and post-test scores that were acceptable. the results of descriptive statistics are first reported: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 108-119 113 table 3.5 descriptive statistics for bilingual subtitling mean n std. deviation std. error mean pair 1 pre-test 22.80 15 2.56 .66 post-test 27.13 15 2.69 .69 as shown in table 3.5, the results revealed that the mean score for students’ performance on the pre-test was 22.80 with the standard deviation of 2.56, and the mean score for students’ performance on the post-test was 27.13 with the standard deviation of 2.69. following this, the results of paired sample t-test are reported below: table 3.6 paired samples test for bilingual subtitling paired differences t df sig. (2tailed) mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pair 1 pre-test bilingual post-test bilingual -4.33 3.22 .83 -6.11 -2.54 -5.20 14 .000 to figure out if there is a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores for bilingual subtitling, having checked the column labelled sig. (2tailed) table 3.6 showed a significant difference in the mean scores on the dependent variable for each of the two sets of scores. because of the value in the sig. (2tailed) the column is less than .05 (which is .000), there is a significant difference between the two sets of scores. since the mean scores of students following the treatment (m=27.13) were more than their mean scores before the treatment (m=22.80), it was concluded that the students improved in their interpretation scores. the researchers used eta squared to determine the instruction's effect size, as the most commonly used formula: t2 / t2 + (n -1). as table 4.9 shows, in this study, t=-5.20. therefore: (-5.20)2 / (-5.20)2 + (15-1) = 27.04/41.04= 0.65. therefore, the effect size of .65 is large. that is, intervention in the bilingual group had a large effect on the students' interpretation performance. during the treatment phase, the researchers worked with the students on the strategies used in subtitling following the guidelines suggested by pedersen's (2005) strategies, including official translation, specification, substitution and omission. some samples are presented below based on the strategies extracted from the films worked in the class. table 3.7 bilingual subtitling: official equivalent english source translation pedersen’s strategy subtitled version something cool official equivalent کار يه باحال چیز يه باحال last year you were only a janitor official equivalent يه فقط تو پیش سال بودي ساده دربون http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 108-119 114 table 3.8 bilingual subtitling: omission english source translation pedersen’s strategy subtitled version if you were the last bitch on earth omission … you filthy omission …. 3.3 interlingual vs bilingual subtitling and interpretation the researchers examined the difference between the students' interpretation performance concerning interlingual subtitling and bilingual subtitling using ancova formula to find the third research question's answer. to measure students' scores on interpretation, the current study opted for wu (2010) assessment rubrics that are user-friendly and comprehensive, including all aspects required for an interpretation to be regarded as useful in terms of quality. before, running one-way ancova, the linearity for each group, the homogeneity of regression slopes between the covariate and the dependent variable for every group and the assumption of the equality of variance was checked. first, the general distribution of scores for each of the groups was checked. there appeared to be a linear (straight-line) relationship for each group. indeed, there has been no indication of a curvilinear relationship. moreover, the sig or probability value for the interaction term (shown above as group*diff) was .110, safely above the cut-off. there had been no violation of the assumption of homogeneity of regression slopes. then, the descriptive statistics of the two groups were calculated as follows: table 3.9 descriptive statistics for both groups group mean std. deviation n interlingual 27.66 4.20 15 bilingual 27.13 2.69 15 total 27.40 3.47 30 as shown in table 3.9, the means score of the interlingual group was 27.66, with the standard deviation of 4.20, and the mean score of bilingual groups was 27.13 with the standard deviation of 2.69. the number of participants in each group was 15. table 3.10 test of ancova source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 96.41a 2 48.20 5.10 .013 .275 intercept 55.04 1 55.04 5.83 .023 .178 difference 94.28 1 94.28 9.99 .004 .270 group 2.45 1 2.45 .26 .614 .010 error 254.78 27 9.43 total 22874.00 30 corrected total 351.20 29 a. r squared = .275 (adjusted r squared = .221) http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 108-119 115 the results obtained from ancova showed that the groups did not differ significantly. since the value in this column was more than .05 (here, it was .61); therefore, the result was not significant. there was no significant difference in the students’ interpretation scores for subjects in the interlingual and bilingual groups after controlling for scores on the pre-test administered before the intervention. in the following, two pictures from the films worked with students in the two experimental classes illustrate the comparison between bilingual subtitling and interlingual subtitling. figure 3.1 interlingual subtitling figure 3.2 bilingual subtitling 3.4 results obtained from the interviews as for the last research question of the study regarding the students' thought about audio-visual activity's influence on their interpretation performance, the researchers held interview sessions with four students based on convenience sampling. two students were selected from the interlingual group, and two students were selected from the bilingual group. to gather the relevant data after the eligible candidates were identified, they were contacted, and the purpose of the study was explained to them. after accepting to participate in the study, the candidates were invited for an in-depth interview using an initially prepared set of open-ended questions for a semi-structured interview. as the participants were asked the predetermined questions, they were free to response as far as they believed necessary. based on their responses, relevant follow-up questions were asked to probe deeper into the necessary details of the topic of interlingual and bilingual subtitling. the medium of communication in the interview was english. the interview protocol was audio recorded with the participants' permission. the details regarding the venue and timing of the interview meeting were arranged based on the participants' convenience and preferences. the students in the interlingual group believed that there are some advantages to watching subtitled foreign language programs. first, watching subtitled programs fosters conversational skills. second, such programs improve interpretation skills. however, these benefits only apply if the subtitles meet the quality requirements. one of the students stated, "the use of persian language with the spoken version of the words http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 108-119 116 had the benefit for us to make the association between the words in both languages simultaneously". the bilingual group students believed that this type of subtitling's main advantage is that using this kind of subtitles allows them to learn words, expressions, and idioms they do not understand. the translation is automatic and instantaneous (typically to your mother tongue from the second language you are trying to learn). one of the students said that "comparing the two languages simultaneously was a bit difficult at first since we must process the notions in two languages separately in our mind. sometimes we lagged behind the subtitling, but the point was that seeing the two phrases at the same time helped to make connections between the two languages and to remember the words better." 4. discussion the present study results revealed that subtitling contributed to improved interpretation performance for undergraduate students learning interpretation courses. as for the first research question of the study concerning the effect of instructing pedersen’s (2005) strategies on ba translation students’ oral translation by means of interlingual subtitling, the results showed that interlingual subtitling affects the interpretation performance since the students at this group improved after the treatment phase and the students’ scores increased significantly from the mean score of 24.53 to the mean score of 27.66. moreover, as for the second research question of the study regarding the effect of instructing pedersen's (2005) strategies on ba translation students' oral translation using bilingual subtitling, the results confirmed that bilingual subtitling affects the interpretation performance since the students at this group improved after the treatment phase and the students’ scores increased significantly from the mean score of 22.80 to the mean score of 27.13. however, as for the third research question of the study regarding the significant difference between ba translation students' oral translation through interlingual and bilingual subtitling, the results showed no significant difference between the two groups. the results indeed confirmed that each of these subtitling types had some influence on the students' performance. the effect size of bilingual subtitling was a bit larger than that of interlingual subtitling. finally, as for the last research question of the study regarding the students' perspectives of the influence of types of audio-visual activity on their oral translation performance, the results of the interview with the students revealed that all types of translation have specific constraints; no doubt, screen translation is not an exception. what makes subtitling different from other types of translation is that it involves both technical and contextual constraints. gottlieb (1992) used different terminology and explained that a subtitler is faced with formal (quantitative) and textual (qualitative) constraints. textual constraints imposed on the subtitles by the film's visual context, whereas formal constraints are the space factors (a maximum of 2 lines and 35 characters) and the time factor. the study results are in line with the previous study conducted by sponholz (2003) who concluded that although interlingual subtitles are always perceived as a supplement to a film, they are the most effective audio-visual language transfer mode. the study is also aligned with the previous study carried out by szarkowska (2005) who confirmed that among audiences there is a growing demand for bilingual subtitling as the authentic materials leading to the better knowledge of foreign languages in general and english language in particular. the present study showed that working on interpretation can be enjoying and challenging while improving interpreting competence. indeed, subtitling is valuable for the acquisition of foreign languages (broddason, 2006). finally, subtitles serve to preserve and revive minority languages, and they are an essential language-learning tool for immigrated groups (o'connell, 2007). subtitling can also be used as the assessment tools for evaluating students' interpreting performance. new assessment tools such as computerized dynamic assessment (modarresi & alavi, 2014) can increase the subtitling domain. the research introduced the applied strategies based on pedersen's model (2005) in two subtitling types and determined their subtitling usage. as for the omission strategy, interlingual translators were more inclined to employ this strategy than bilingual strategy. to produce a more favourable translation, interpreters focus on substitution strategy to consider the cultural and social factors that create conditions governing the county's audio-visual media. the study results showed that the students should become aware of these strategies and become competent in interpreting tasks during the courses of interpretation presented to them in their academic studies. since there is no other similar research work, as far as the researchers know, the present study is not just the same as or even partly identical with any other study in our country. there are some studies dealt with avts or translation of cultural words. akef and vakili (2010) which considered culture-specific items in the translation of savushun by sedighi and tabrizi (2012) who investigated the effect of norms on audio-visual translations, and alavi, karimnia, salehizadeh (2013) performed a skoposbased study to investigate the translation of taboos from english into persian. the present study also revealed that as interlingual subtitling, the translators could use more such strategies as an omission in their works since the two languages are not presented simultaneously to the viewers. contemporary translation research focuses on theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, whereby the causal relationship between translation training and translation students' instructional factors is examined (holmes, 2004). http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 108-119 117 indeed, according to holmes (2004), attention to such factors is required "if the discipline is to grow and flourish" (p. 190). the findings of the current research project make a strong case for expanding this focus and embracing the future perspective of students' interpreting performance. as announced by chesterman (2000), the most potent model of translation is the causal model. the present study concluded that the instructional aspects of interpretation affect interpretation performance. the widespread use of subtitling in foreign language settings has been prominent in the interpretation courses. students and learners would like to watch films with subtitles. in our country in which the english language is presented just in a classroom setting and in other countries in which the english language is presented as a second language, learners prefer subtitling to other forms of audio-visual materials. for instance, as concluded by kurz (1997), a survey of television viewers in the netherlands revealed that "64% of adult respondents chose to subtitle overdubbing" (p. 168); giving an even higher survey figure, kilborn (1991) reports that 82% of viewers in that country preferred subtitling for foreign language programs. as for the interpretation courses, the results revealed that students' majoring in translation studies are not mostly aware of the translation strategies employed in translation and interpretation performance. the current study highlighted the role of such strategies, and the researchers of the current study found out that translation instruction has an enormous impact on students' performance on interpretation. students could learn interpretation strategies based on the most recent translation model specific in interpreting, such as the one employed in this research and work on subtitling and its different types. in this way, they can foster their interpreting knowledge and be critical of the translations provided by the people involved in interpreting tasks and practices. official, specification, and substitution strategies were other strategies which their applications were noticeably different in number. the translator was mostly inclined to use substitution for st items which could be taboo (cultural). however, due to the reasons mentioned above, registered translators had to follow a range of rules and limitations. the researchers concluded that to achieve a perfect translation work that can fulfil all of the planned objectives, a translator, in addition to linguistic knowledge, should have information about some extra-linguistic matters called socio-linguistic competence. customs and beliefs are examples of problematic items that a translator should be aware of to present outstanding translation work. if there was a united cultural setting globally and among different languages, the translation act would be much more comfortable enough to replace the source text item with its equivalent in the target text. nevertheless, some cultural-specific items are unknown in another culture and challenge the translation process. the difference between interlingual subtitling and bilingual subtitling mainly is due to the limitations issued by governmental policy or in the context of society rooted in cultural and religious norms. based on which the interlingual subtitling has the chance not to transfer some taboos into persian. from an instructional perspective, some items were not compatible with cultural, political or governmental ideologies. translators applied omission strategy to avoid any misperceptions and violate social norms. this type of strategy was used in bilingual subtitling more than interlingual subtitling. however, it is possible that this strategy was used irresponsibly, i.e. without justifying reason is an extreme condition in order to evade any translation crisis points. however, in interlingual subtitling, translators due to comparative linguistics' presentation felt free to transfer most of the items. of course, another reason for applying omission was the lack of translational competence because some of the translators are not necessarily academically educated. 5. conclusion what can be concluded is that strategies application procedure was different between interlingual and bilingual versions of the segments worked in the classroom. in interlingual subtitling, mostly the total number of strategies use was different from that of bilingual subtitling. several obscene phrases and sentences and some culture-specific items were censored in interlingual completely, translated in bilingual subtitling since both languages were presented simultaneously. the translator has no choice but to render the message. the study offers practical implications for translation students and translation teachers. as for the translation teachers, they are mostly recommended to make use of subtitling strategies in the classroom and gain mastery over different types of interpreting strategies and techniques and do not take the interpretation courses as a routine work focusing just on listening and asking students to translate the segments into the persian language. translation students should pay attention to the ways that foster their interpreting competence and use audiovisual materials such as subtitling and find the type of subtitling that is more beneficial to them. research into audio-visual translation is somehow novel concerning the number of related literature found in our country's academic journals and websites so that the translation teachers can act as researchers to conduct more indepth studies in this regard. references akef, k., & vakili, t. (2010). a comparative analysis of culture specific items in two english translations of savushun. jels, 2 (4), 157-168. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 108-119 118 alavi, s. y., karimnia, a., & salehizadeh, s. (2013). translation of taboos from english into persian: a skopos-based study. elixir ling. & trans, 54, 12289-12292. as-safi, a. b. (2001). lexicalization and modalization of prepositions in english-arabic translation. international journal of arabic-english studies, 2 (2), 1-17. baker, m. (1998). routledge encyclopedia of translation studies. london: routledge. broddason, t. (2006). the instructional value of subtitles. informal learning and digital media: constructions, contexts, consequences.: university of southern denmark, 21-23. chesterman, a. 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(2002): nou no memo-cho: wakingu memori (working memory: the sketchpad in the brain). tokyo: shinyosha. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ journal of research and innovation in language available online at: http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/reila vol. 2, no. 3, december 2020, pp. 108-119 119 pedersen, j. (2005). how is culture rendered in subtitles. challenges of multidimensional translation: conference proceedings, 32, 1-18. sedighi, a., & tabrizi, s. n. (2012). on audio-visual translation: the effect of norms of dubbing taboos into persian movies after the islamic revolution in iran. journal of language and translation, 3 (1), 37-49. sponholz, c. (2003). teaching audio-visual translation theoretical aspects, market requirements, university training and curriculum development. unpublished thesis, retrieved october 12, 2008, retrieved from http://isg.urv.es/library/papers/thesis_christine _sponholz.doc szarkowska, a. (2005). the power of film translation. translation journal, 3(3). retrieved october 2016 from: http://accurapid.com/journal/09av.htm. wu, s. c. (2010). assessing simultaneous interpreting: a study on test reliability and examiners assessment behavior (unpublished phd thesis). the school of modern languages, newcastle university. http://ojs.journal.unilak.ac.id/index.php/ http://isg.urv.es/library/papers/thesis_christine_sponholz.doc http://isg.urv.es/library/papers/thesis_christine_sponholz.doc http://accurapid.com/journal/09av.htm journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6064 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 17-25 17 english language teachers' perceptions and practices on learner autonomy in nepalese context prakash bhattarai tribhuvan university, kathmandu, nepal prakash.766671@gse.tu.edu.np article history received : 2021-02-01 revised : 2021-02-02 accepted : 2021-04-07 keywords learner autonomy perception practice language learning learner centeredness abstract learner autonomy is the ability and responsibility of learners to take control of their learning. motivation, the chance to work independently and/ or collaboratively, access to the internet and library, and challenging tasks promote learner autonomy. this study explores english language teachers' perceptions and practices on learner autonomy and finds the difference in the perceptions and practices by their sex, level, qualification, and type of school they teach. one hundred thirty-three (133) teachers teaching at tulsipur sub-metropolitan dang, nepal, were selected using the fishbowl technique. data drawn with the questionnaire's help were analysed via univariate (frequency, percentage, and median) and bivariate (t-test and cohen's d) analysis. from the analyses, it was found that english language teachers teaching at different levels are aware of the what, why, and how of learner autonomy, and they promote learner autonomy by engaging and encouraging students to be involved in the tasks which promote learner autonomy. perceptions on learner autonomy do not differ by their sex, level, qualification, and type of school they teach. likewise, practices on learner autonomy also do not differ by the sex and level of the teachers, but their practices differ by the type of school where they teach and their qualification. 1. introduction learner autonomy is the capacity of learners to be autonomous and responsible for one is one learning. holec (1981 as cited in xhaferi & xhaferi, 2011) defines learner autonomy as "the ability to take charge of one's learning. " similarly defining learning autonomy, little (1995) states that learner autonomy is "essentially a matter of the learner's psychological relation to the process and content of learning--a capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decisionmaking, and independent action. " it is a learner who is responsible for his/her learning. the learner should direct one's learning taking the decisions which are related to his/her learning. in this line, dickinson (1987, p. 11) believes that learner autonomy is a "situation in which the learner is responsible for all decisions concerned with his or her learning and implementing those decisions." the fundamental topics in foreign language education are learner autonomy and learner responsibility (yagcioglu, 2015). being responsible for all of the decisions concerned with learning means "determining the objectives, defining the contents and progressions, selecting methods and techniques to be used, monitoring the procedure of acquisition and evaluating what has been acquired" (holec, 1981 as cited in borg & al-busaidi, 2012). benson and voller (1997, p. 2) hold that autonomy consists at least five phases, "for situations in which learners study entirely on their own; for a set of skills which can be learned and applied in self-directed learning; for an inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional education; for the exercise of learners' responsibility for their learning; for the right of learners to determine the direction of their learning." this shows that learners themselves should be responsible for taking charge of every learning aspect to be autonomous. najeeb (2013) writes, "taking charge of one's learning is a prerequisite of learning and learning itself is impossible without the learner taking charge" (p. 1239). it suggests that learner autonomy is based on the idea that if students are involved in decisionmaking processes regarding their language learning, they are more responsible and enthusiastic about their learning. such enthusiasm leads them to be successful language learners. in other words, if students take charge of their learning, they learn the language more efficiently and faster than the situation where they are forced to do it. recent developments in the field of language teaching and learning have modified teaching-learning styles. this has made teachers have a paradigm shift in mailto:prakash.766671@gse.tu.edu.np journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6064 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 17-25 18 second language teaching and learning from traditional methods to modern ones. in a traditional classroombased on teacher-centeredness, a teacher is an authority; as a source of knowledge. the teacher makes decisions on what to teach and when. in other words, students have no or minor role in deciding what to learn and how to learn. a teacher is considered authoritative, whereas learners are passive listeners who are supposed to listen attentively to what they have been poured into. learner autonomy, on the other hand, is based on the principle of learner-centeredness. the modern approaches and methods of language teaching in general and english language teaching, in particular, put learners in the centre of teaching-learning activities. they focus that learners cannot learn the language until and unless they become active in their learning. to make learners active and take charge of their learner, the teacher's role should be facilitator and/or counsellor. the teacher guides the students to accept responsibility for their learning, guides them to be reflectively engaged in planning, monitoring, and evaluating their learning (asmari, 2013). this statement shows that the teacher has to guide the students to accept the charge of their learning. the teacher has to help learners learn how to learn, equip them with the means necessary to self-direct their learning, raise the consciousness of good language learners about the learning, and make the strategies explicit and systematic so that they are available to improve the language learning abilities of other learners as well (kumaravadivelu, 1994). in this line, little (1995) states, "it is often argued that the pursuit of learner autonomy requires a shift in the role of the teacher from a purveyor of information to a facilitator of learning and manager of learning resources." the teacher's role is to facilitate learners to take decisions on their learning, motivate them, provide feedback and manage resources. the teacher of autonomous leaner(s) has these characteristics: is aware of her influence on the learning process, understands pedagogy, is skilled in management (camilleri, 1999 as cited in joshi, 2011). the teacher can play a crucial role in promoting learner autonomy in the classroom and outside the classroom. in the classroom, a teacher can promote learner autonomy by providing such tasks, which promote learner autonomy and motiving them to accomplish the tasks on their own or in collaboration with their friends. a teacher can guide or facilitate the learners where necessary. a teacher can encourage the students to use different self-access resources like library/internet to promote learner autonomy outside the classroom. learner autonomy brings a change in teachers' roles from authoritative to the facilitator, counsellor and manager, where the responsibility of teachers is to create conditions for learners where they can work on their own, reflect on their progress and self-evaluate their work (neupane, 2010). in one sentence, what can be said is a teacher has an essential role in promoting learner autonomy both in and outside the classroom. the perceptions and practices of teachers on learner autonomy vary from teachers to teachers. some teachers view that learner autonomy should be/can be promoted, providing opportunities to the learners to take charge of their learning. the teachers who favour learner autonomy opine that students can do a lot on their own if they are facilitated or guided. the teacher's task is to provide learners with the opportunities and resources which promote their autonomy. on the other hand, some teachers opine that students cannot learn independently since they are reluctant to their learning. learner autonomy, as discussed earlier, is the ability of learners to take charge of their learning where the students take every decision regarding their learning which may be pretty impossible. the students who are used to learning with the help of their teachers may find it challenging to learn independently. various studies have been conducted on teachers' perceptions of learner autonomy. balçıkanlı (2010) examined the views of 112 student teachers of english in turkey. the results suggested that the student teachers were positive about involving students in decisions about a wide range of classroom activities. similarly, joshi (2011) conducted a study using a mixed methodological design to determine learner perceptions and teacher beliefs about learner autonomy in language learning. he found that the learners make a good practice of autonomous activities, and the teachers have also suggested the learners be autonomous. the teachers, as well as the learners, were found highly positive towards autonomous learning. in a similar vein, reinders and lazaro (2011) interviewed 46 teachers working in self-access centres and saw autonomy as equality and respect between teachers and learners and empowerment. the students were not seen to value or be ready for autonomy. they also found some institutional constraints on promoting autonomy. nakata (2011) identified a gap between teachers' positive views about learner autonomy and their reported classroom practices in encouraging learners to be autonomous. borg and al-busaidi (2012) studied the beliefs and reported practices regarding learner autonomy of 61 teachers of english. the findings highlighted a range of ways teachers conceptualised learner autonomy, though it was commonly seen in terms of independent and individual learning strategies. the study also shed light on both teachers' positive theoretical dispositions to learner autonomy journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6064 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 17-25 19 and their less optimistic views about the feasibility of promoting it in practice. a survey among 60 teachers conducted by asmari (2013) collected the opinion of teachers regarding the practices and prospects of learner autonomy in their classrooms. the study's findings stressed that it is crucial to provide learner training together with the studies and make it an integral part of the teaching process to help learners become autonomous. borg and alshumaimeri (2019) examined the beliefs, practices, and constraints related to learner autonomy reported by 359 teachers (mainly expatriate) working on an english preparatory year programme (pyp) at a university in saudi arabia. the teachers believed that promoting learner autonomy was a desirable goal and described how they tried to achieve this goal in their teaching. most were, however, less optimistic about the feasibility of promoting learner autonomy and explained this about curricular, societal and, above all, learner factors (such as lack of motivation and independence and low proficiency in english). these studies have highlighted the role of teachers in promoting learner autonomy and their perceptions of it. they have pointed out that teachers have a crucial role in promoting learner autonomy. despite their essential roles, they have different perceptions and practices on it. moreover, these studies have revealed the higher level /tertiary teachers' perceptions and reported practices on learner autonomy. however, these studies have not found the difference in the perceptions and practices by sex, level, type of school and qualification of english language teachers. keeping these things in mind, this study aims to explore english language teachers' perceptions and practices on learner autonomy and find the difference in the teachers' perceptions and practices by sex, level, type of school, and qualification. this study tries to answer a) are english language teachers aware of learner autonomy?, b) how do they perceive it?, c) how do teachers practice/promote learner autonomy in their classroom and d) is there is any difference in the perceptions and practices by sex, level, qualification of teachers and type of the school they teach. 2.method this quantitative study's population was english language teachers teaching at the primary and secondary level in both private and community schools at tulsipur sub-metropolitan, dang, nepal. after calculating the sample size, 133 teachers were selected randomly using the fishbowl technique. the selected teachers were sent a questionnaire (which was in microsoft form) via facebook messenger. the questionnaire was divided into three sections: background information, perceptions on learner autonomy, and learner autonomy. the background information section was to know the respondents' background like sex, level, type of school where they teach and qualification. likewise, perceptions on learner autonomy section, which had ten statements, explored the teachers' perception on learner autonomy and practices on learner autonomy section, which had eleven statements, was to explore the teachers' practices on learner autonomy. after receiving the data from the teachers, teachers’ perceptions and practices on learner autonomy were analysed in univariate analysis: frequency count, percentage and median, whereas bivariate analysis (ttest) was calculated to find the difference in perceptions and practices on learner autonomy (dependent variables) by sex, level, type of school and qualification of the respondents (independent variables). statistical package for social science (spss) was used for both the analysis-univariate and bivariate analysis (t-test). moreover, to find out the effect of the difference, cohen's d was calculated manually. 3. findings this section deals with english language teachers' perceptions and practices on learner autonomy and the difference in perceptions and practices by sex, level, type of school, and teacher qualification. 3.1 english language teachers' perceptions on learner autonomy different ten statements related to learner autonomy were given to the respondents to explore their perceptions of learner autonomy. the respondents had to select one option (strongly agree, agree, unsure, disagree and strongly disagree) for each statement. table 1 shows the responses made by the respondents summarised under their frequency, percentage and median. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6064 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 17-25 20 table 3.1. teachers' perceptions on learner autonomy no. statements responses median strongly agree (5) agree (4) unsure (3) disagree (2) strongly disagree(1) n % n % n % n % n % 1. i have good knowledge of learner autonomy. 28 21.1 95 71.4 10 7.5 4 2. learner autonomy means learners can make choices on how they learn. 40 30.1 84 63.2 8 6.0 1 0.8 4 3. the teacher has an important role in supporting learner autonomy. 47 35.3 81 60.9 5 3.8 4 4. learner autonomy has a positive effect on language learning. 50 37.6 81 60.9 1 .8 1 0.8 4 5. motivation plays a vital role in promoting learner autonomy. 67 50.4 59 44.4 7 5.3 5 6. self-access centres/ resources like the library, internet promote learner autonomy. 64 48.1 60 45.1 9 6.8 4 7. learner autonomy is promoted through regular opportunities for completing different tasks independently. 38 28.6 91 68.4 4 3 4 8. cooperation and collaboration among the students promote learner autonomy. 59 44.4 66 49.6 8 6.0 4 9. the tasks that are done outside the classroom too promote learner autonomy. 29 21.8 94 70.7 9 6.8 1 0.8 4 10. students cannot learn without a teacher. 2 1.5 7 5.3 8 6.0 84 63.2 32 24.1 2 table 3.1 reveals that most respondents, 95 (71.4%), agreed, and 28 (21.1%) respondents strongly agreed that they have good knowledge of learner autonomy. the median (4) indicated that teachers have good knowledge of learner autonomy. similarly, most of the respondents, 84 (63.2%) agreed and (40) 30.1% of respondents strongly agreed that learner autonomy means learners can choose how they learn. this data and median (4) showed the teachers perceive that learners can choose how they learn to be autonomous. among the respondents, 47 (35.3%) respondents marked that they strongly agree, 81 (60.9%) marked on agree. the median value (4) displayed that teacher has a vital role in supporting learner autonomy. in response to the 4th statement, 50 (37.6%) respondents strongly agreed, and 81 (60.9%) agreed with the statement, and the median value is 4. it indicated that learner autonomy has a positive effect on language learning. in a similar vein, it was found that motivation plays a vital role in promoting learner autonomy since 67 (50.4%) respondents strongly agreed that 59 (44.4%) agreed on promoting learner autonomy. the median value that is five also indicated this finding. likewise, among the respondents, 64 ( 48.1%) strongly agreed, and 60 (45.1%) agreed regarding the role of self-access centres/ resources, and the median value is four which indicated that self-access centres/resources like the library, internet promote learner autonomy. it was found that learner autonomy is promoted through regular opportunities for completing different tasks independently because a majority of the respondents, i.e. 91 (68.4%), agreed on the statement 'learner autonomy is promoted through regular opportunities for completing different tasks independently'. this result is indicated by median value (4) too. similarly, 59 (44.4%) respondents strongly agreed, 66 (49.6%) agreed, and the median value is four which showed that cooperation and collaboration among the students promote learner autonomy. a majority of the respondents, i.e. 94 (70.7%) respondents agreed on the 9th statement, and the median is four, so the researcher concluded that the tasks that are done outside the classroom promote learner autonomy. in a similar vein, 84 (63.2%) disagreed, 32 (24.1%) strongly disagreed, whereas 8 (6.0%) remained unsure, 7 (5.3%) agreed, and only 2 (1.5%) strongly agreed with the statement 'students cannot learn without a teachers' and the median value is 2. this data indicated that students could learn without a teacher. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6064 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 17-25 21 3.2 english language teachers' practices on learner autonomy different statements related to learner autonomy were given to the respondents to investigate their practices on learner autonomy. the respondents had to select one option (always, sometimes, never) for each statement revealing their practices on learner autonomy. table 3.2 shows the responses made by the respondents summarised under their frequency, percentage and median. table 3.2. teachers' practices on learner autonomy no. statements responses median always (3) sometimes (2) never (1) n % n % n % 1. i provide all necessary support to promote learner autonomy. 66 49.6 65 48.9 2 1.5 2 2. i give a chance to my students to make decisions on their learning. 78 58.6 53 39.8 2 1.5 3 3. i encourage my students to use the library and the internet for their learning. 98 73.7 34 25.6 1 0.8 3 4. students are encouraged to read extra materials/texts. 104 78.2 28 21.1 1 0.8 3 5. i assign the tasks which are challenging in nature and encourage them to complete them independently. 61 45.9 70 52.6 2 1.5 2 6. i encourage my students to learn collaboratively. 79 59.4 53 39.8 1 0.8 3 7. i encourage my students to be involved in outside classroom tasks. 77 57.9 56 42.1 3 8. i promote learning by doing. 107 80.5 23 17.3 3 2.3 3 9. i make my students study the subject on their own before they come to class. 97 72.9 35 26.3 1 0.8 3 10. i encourage my students to have self-correction/ peer correction of their errors 82 61.7 51 38.3 3 11. students are given a chance to assess their tasks themselves. 92 69.2 40 30.1 1 0.8 3 table 3.2 shows that 66 (49.6%) respondents marked that they always provide the necessary support to promote learner autonomy, and 65 (48.9%) marked in sometimes. the median (2) indicated that teachers sometimes provide all necessary support to promote learner autonomy. similarly, 78(58.6%) marked always, and 53 (39.8%) sometimes marked in the second statement. a majority of the respondents marked 'always', the median (3) suggested that teachers always give their students a chance to make decisions on their learning. it was found that teachers always encourage their students to use the library and internet for their learning with the median value's help (3). likewise, 104 (78.2%) respondents marked that students are always encouraged to read extra materials/texts. in response to the 5th statement, 61 (45.9%) respondents marked 'always', and 70 (53.6%) marked 'sometimes'. this data and median (2) indicated that teachers sometimes assign challenging tasks to the students and encourage them to complete independently. students are always encouraged to learn collaboratively, indicated by the data79 (59.4%) respondents marked 'always' and median (3). it was found that teachers always encourage students to be involved in outside classroom tasks since most of the respondents, 77 (57.9%), marked 'always' and the median is 3. in a similar vein, most of the respondents, i.e. 107 (80.5), marked that they always promote learning by doing. the median value (4) of this data revealed that teachers promote the principle of learning by doing to promote learner autonomy. a majority of the respondents marked that they always make their students study the subject matter on their own before they come to class. the median (3) showed that teachers always make their students study independently before they come to class. in terms of error correction, teachers always encourage their students to have self/peer correction of their errors, which helps promote learner autonomy. this finding is made based on the data, i.e. 82 (61.7%) respondents always do the task, 51 (38.3%) do it sometimes, and the median is 3. in the same way, in the statement 'students are given a chance to assess their tasks themselves, 92 (69.2%) marked that they do it continuously, 40 (30.1%) do it sometimes, and only 1 (0.8%) never does it. from this data and median value 3, it was concluded that students are given a chance to assess their task themselves by the teachers. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6064 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 17-25 22 3.3 difference in perceptions on learner autonomy by sex, type of school, level and qualification this section deals with analysing the differences in perceptions on learner autonomy by the sex, type of school, level and qualification of the english language teachers. t-test was done to determine the statistically significant differences in learner autonomy perceptions between male and female teachers, teachers teaching in private and community school, teachers of primary level and secondary level and teachers having bachelors and masters qualification. then, the strength of statistical difference was measured by cohen's d. table 3.3 summarises the value of the t-test and cohen's d. table 3.3 differences in perceptions on learner autonomy variables n mean std. deviation t df sig. (2 tailed) d sex of the respondents male 90 40.62 2.59 -0.11 131 0.19* 0.01# female 43 40.67 2.44 type of school private 37 40.22 2.28 -1.19 131 0.23* 0.24## community 96 40.80 2.62 level basic 49 40.35 2.23 -1.01 131 0.31* 0.18# secondary 84 40.81 2.70 qualification bachelor 46 40.52 2.02 -0.39 131 0.70* 0.07# masters 87 40.70 2.78 here, *= no statistically significant # weak effect ## modest effect table 3.3 shows that regarding the sex of the respondents, the t-value is -0.11, degree of freedom (df) is 131 and significance level is 0.19, which is (p> 0.05). it shows no statistically significant difference in perceptions of learner autonomy between male and female teachers. moreover, the calculated value of cohen's d is 0.01, which signifies the weak effect in the difference. here, it can be concluded that the difference in perceptions on learner autonomy between the male and female teachers is weak. similarly, regarding the type of school, the t-value is -1.19, degree of freedom (df) is 131 and significance level is 0. 23, which is (p> 0.05). it accepts the null hypothesis that there is no statistically significant difference in learner autonomy perceptions between teachers teaching at private schools and community schools. moreover, the calculated value of cohen's d is 0. 24, which signifies the modest effect in the difference. here, it can be concluded that the difference in perceptions on learner autonomy between the teachers teaching at private schools and community schools is modest. likewise, regarding the level of teachers, the tvalue is -1.01, the degree of freedom (df) is 131, and the significance level is 0. 31, which is (p> 0.05). it suggests no statistically significant difference in perceptions of learner autonomy between teachers teaching at the primary and secondary levels. moreover, the calculated value of cohen's d is 0.18, which signifies the weak effect in the difference. here, it can be concluded that the difference in perceptions on learner autonomy between the teachers teaching at the primary level and secondary level is weak. in a similar vein, regarding the qualification of teachers, the t-value is -0.39, degree of freedom (df) is 131 and significance level is 0.70, which is (p> 0.05). it suggests there is no statistically significant difference in perceptions on learner autonomy between teachers having bachelor's and master's qualifications. moreover, the calculated value of cohen's d is 0.07, which signifies the weak effect in the difference. here, it can be concluded that the difference in perceptions on learner autonomy between the teachers having bachelor's and master's qualifications is weak. 3.4 difference in practices on learner autonomy by sex, type of school, level and qualification this section deals with analysing the differences in practices on learner autonomy by the sex, type of school, level and qualification of the english language teachers. t-test was done to determine the statistically significant differences in learner autonomy practices between male and female teachers, teachers teaching in private and community school, teachers of primary level and secondary level and teachers having bachelors and masters qualification. then, the strength of statistical difference was measured by cohen's d. table 3.4 summarises the value of the t-test and cohen's d. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6064 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 17-25 23 table 3.4 difference in practices on learner autonomy variables n mean std. deviation t df sig. (2 tailed) d sex of the respondents male 90 28.84 2.68 -0.83 131 0.40* 0.16# female 43 29.23 2.12 type of school private 37 29.86 1.91 2.99 89.71 0.004** 0.54## community 96 28.62 2.64 level basic 49 28.77 2.56 -0.70 131 0.50* 0.12# secondary 84 29.08 2.50 qualification bachelor 46 29.96 2.36 3.41 131 0.001** 0.62## masters 87 28.45 2.45 here, *= no statistically significant, **= statistically significant, #= weak effect, ##= moderate effect table 3.4 shows that regarding the sex of the respondents, the t-value is -0.83, degree of freedom (df) is 131 and significance level is 0.40, which is (p> 0.05). it shows no statistically significant difference in practices on learner autonomy between male and female teachers. moreover, the calculated value of cohen's d is 0.16, which signifies the weak effect in the difference. here, it can be concluded that the difference in practices on learner autonomy between the male and female teachers is weak. similarly, regarding the type of school, the t-value is 2.99, degree of freedom (df) is 89.71 and significance level is 0. 004, which is (p< 0.05). it shows a statistically significant difference in practices on learner autonomy between teachers teaching at private schools and community schools. moreover, the calculated value of cohen's d is 0. 54, which signifies the moderate effect in the difference. here, it can be concluded that the difference in practices on learner autonomy between the teachers teaching at private schools and community schools is moderate. likewise, regarding teachers' level, the tvalue is -0.70, the degree of freedom (df) is 131, and the significance level is 0. 50 which is (p> 0.05). it suggests no statistically significant difference in practices on learner autonomy between teachers teaching at the basic and secondary levels. moreover, the calculated value of cohen's d is 0.12, which signifies the weak effect in the difference. here, it can be concluded that the difference in practices on learner autonomy between the teachers teaching at the primary level and secondary level is weak. in a similar vein, regarding the qualification of teachers, the t-value is -3.41, degree of freedom (df) is 131 and significance level is 0.001, which is (p< 0.05). it suggests a statistically significant difference in learner autonomy practices between teachers having bachelor's and master's qualifications. moreover, the calculated value of cohen's d is 0.62, which signifies the moderate effect in the difference. here, it can be concluded that the difference in practices on learner autonomy between the teachers having bachelor's and master's qualifications is moderate. 4. discussion this study displayed that english language teachers have good knowledge of learner autonomy. most of them are aware of the basic concepts of learner autonomy. "teachers cannot promote learner autonomy if they are unaware of it" (neupane, 2010), and for them, learner autonomy means the situation where the students can make choices on how they learn. learners make decisions on what and how to learn. it means if the learners cannot make decisions, "they can never be successful in learning new things" (yagcioglu, 2015, p. 428). nevertheless, it does not mean that there is no role of teachers in promoting learner autonomy. foreign language teachers have a responsibility to foster learner autonomy (benson, 2011). though teachers do not have traditional roles in traditional classes, teachers have essential roles in supporting learner autonomy, as this study's respondents agreed. their role is to guide, facilitate and manage both students and resources. this finding is similar to the finding made by joshi (2011) and borg and alshumaimeri (2019). it means the concept of learner autonomy has changed the role of teachers from authoritative to the facilitator, counsellor and manager. voller (1997, as cited in asmari, 2013) identifies three roles for teachers willing to work on an autonomous pedagogy: the teacher as facilitator, the teacher as a counsellor, and the teacher as a resource. the teacher is responsible for presenting his/her learners with the demands outlined in the curricular guidelines for their learning, within which they can set their own goals (dam, 2011). as the findings of this study suggest, teachers perceive a positive role of learner autonomy in language learning. learner autonomy facilitates second/foreign language learning. if students are autonomous, they learn a language on their own effectively. zhang and li (2004) pointed out that autonomous learners achieve high scores in a language test. it shows that learner autonomy is a significant factor for the development of language proficiency. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6064 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 17-25 24 several things promote learner autonomy, as the respondents of this study agreed. the teachers are aware that motivation, self-access centres like library/ internet and cooperation and collaboration among the students promote learner autonomy. this finding is similar to the finding made by borg and alshumaimeri (2019) and borg and al-busaidi (2012). "motivation is essential for affecting the manifestation of learner autonomy" (bozkurt & arslan, 2018; p.120) both in and outside the classroom. chan, spratt and humphreys (2002) support this idea by claiming that higher motivation levels enable learners to participate more in autonomous learning activities outside the classroom. moreover, teachers perceive that regular opportunities for completing different tasks independently and the tasks done outside the classroom help promote learner autonomy. it is the teachers' responsibility to create conditions for learners, where they can work on their own and teachers, need to monitor their tasks (neupane, 2010). evaluating the tasks done by the students independently, the teachers have to provide feedback to the students. to sum up, english teachers are aware of what learner autonomy is, why and how they have to promote learner autonomy. as the english language teachers are aware of the what, why and how of learner autonomy, they provide tasks and opportunities which promote learner autonomy in their classroom. in other words, they encourage and motivate students to be involved in learner-centred tasks. as this study showed, teachers sometimes provide all necessary support to promote learner autonomy, whereas they always give students a chance to make decisions on their learning. students are always encouraged to read extra materials/texts and use the library and internet to learn. this finding is similar to the finding made by xhaferi and xhaferi (2011). likewise, the use of the internet and library sources promotes learner autonomy. teachers always encourage students to learn collaboratively, be involved in outside classroom tasks and have selfcorrection/ peer correction of their errors, whereas they sometimes assign the task challenging in nature and encourage students to complete independently. teachers make students study the subject matter on their own before they come to the class and promote learning autonomy. english teachers' tasks in their english class reveal that they practice learner autonomy as they have perceived it. it means their perception of learner autonomy matched with their practice. the teachers should always provide all necessary support and assign challenging tasks to the students to promote learner autonomy since they have been doing these tasks sometimes. from the findings of this study, what can be concluded is english language teachers encourage their students to do tasks that promote learner autonomy on the one hand, and they use such tasks and activities in their classroom on the other. the bivariate analysis showed that english language teachers' perceptions on learner autonomy do not differ by their sex (male and female), level in which they teach (primary and secondary), type of their school (private and community) and qualification of the teachers (bachelors and masters) and the difference found is weak. it means teachers, irrespective of their sex, level, type of their school, and qualification, perceive learner autonomy, and no other aspects of teachers affect their perceptions. similarly, english language teachers' practices on learner autonomy do not differ by the sex and level of the respondents and the difference found is weak, but practices on learner autonomy differ by type of school where they teach, and their qualification and the difference found was moderate. it means teachers, irrespective of their sex and level, practice learner autonomy but the type of school they teach and their qualification affect their practices on learner autonomy. 5. conclusion due to the paradigm shift in english language teaching approaches and methods, several changes can be seen in our english language class in terms of pedagogy, the role of teachers and students, and technology use. the shift has forced english language teachers to change their traditional role to facilitator and students to take charge of their learning. it means students should be autonomous enough to learn the english language on their own. teachers' role is to provide students with opportunities to be involved in the tasks that promote learner autonomy. learner autonomy is based on the principle that learning can happen if only learners are willing to learn themselves. there is a well-known proverb,' we can lead a horse to water, but we cannot make it drink'. as the essence of this proverb suggests, it is teachers' job to provide favourable situations, and some input promotes learner autonomy, and students have to make all the necessary efforts to learn independently. promoting learner autonomy in the nepalese context may be difficult for the teachers in the initial days due to several teachers' constraints both in and outside the classroom. nevertheless, it can be made possible with the efforts of all the stakeholders of education. first and foremost, the curriculum should be designed as per the principle of learner autonomy. similarly, teachers should be given a certain level of autonomy in the selection of pedagogy and content. though this study showed that english language teachers practice learner autonomy as its essence, journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6064 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 17-25 25 teachers should be provided training pieces that help them be updated with recent trends and solve the challenges they face in promoting learner autonomy. moreover, learners should be given a chance to decide on their learning, but teachers should scaffold and monitor them. references asmari, a. a. 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(2004). a comparative study on learner autonomy between chinese students and west european students. foreign language world, 4, 15-23. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i3.5598 vol. 3, no. 3, december 2021, pp. 226-235 226 a closer look on disjunctive coordination: the so-called nonconstituent disjunctive coordination matlotlisang mokapane lemohang tjabaka national university of lesotho, roma. lesotho ltjabaka@gmail.com article history received : 2020-11-30 revised : 2021-02-15 accepted : 2021-12-12 keywords disjunctive coordination co-ordinands non-constituent logico-semantic type taxis abstract english disjunctive coordination is a clause complex that has two coordinands. many scholars and researchers dealt with this phenomenon using different standard theories. however, there is still a controversy in literature whether non-constituent coordination exists or not; therefore, this research determines whether the disjunctive coordination constituents are nonconstituents. the paper also describes the relationship between the disjunctive co-ordinands, coordinated phrases, or clauses joined by conjunction /or/. the article further aims to describe the structure of the disjunctive coordination and the category label of the disjunctive coordinator. the systemic functional grammar and minimalist program framed this study. this qualitative paper purposively and conveniently selected from facebook and whatsapp groups for the national university of lesotho's students; 13 structures were chosen from the whatsapp group, while 15 were taken from facebook. results reveal that the disjunctive coordination constituents are not non-constituents. what seems prevailing or irregular at the phonetic form (pf) results from the movement and deletion of duplicate syntactic elements. this deletion of the syntactic features is done to satisfy the economic considerations. it is also reflected that the disjunctive co-ordinands have taxis and logico-semantic type relations or relationships. the paper further divulges that the structure of the disjunctive coordination is the complementiser phrase (cp), and the category label of the disjunctive coordinator/or/ is the complementiser (c). that is, it belongs to the c category. 1. introduction english is one of the official languages in lesotho. it is the west germanic language spoken in an inner and outer circle. the inner circle refers to places where english was initially brought up. the outer circle refers to the former colonies of britain and the usa, where english is used as a foreign language (samida and takahashi, 2011). therefore, english is spoken as a second language in lesotho, a post protectorate of britain (samida and takahashi, 2011). english has now gained a global status; thus, considered an international language (crystal, 2003). crystal affirms that politicians use english; most people use it in restaurants; predominant advertisements, movies and series are published in english. kamwanganalu and muyo (2003:41) also note that english is used primarily as a language of diplomacy, international business transactions, government, administration and education. lesotho accepted britain's orientalist and anglicist models (pennycook, 1994 cited by tlebere, 2006:2). the orientalist model means policies that support education in local languages, while the anglicist model supports education in english. theoretically, lesotho also adopted received pronunciation. however, what practically prevails is the notion of englishes. kamwanganalu & muyo (2003:45) postulate that south african black english much influences lesotho's english, also known as south africanisms, like other linguistic structures, the syntax of lesotho english is affected in many ways, including the syntactic features of indigenous languages. english language teaching and learning, starting from high school, concentrate more on improving the learners‟ communicative competence than the language structure in question. at the high school level, learners are taught different sentences, including simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences. amongst them, compound sentences termed coordination or nonconstituent constructions in this study pose a challenge to some learners. as observed, they fail to understand why disjunctive coordination constructions are claimed to have co-ordinands that have equal value. the reason is that in some structures, the disjunctive coordinator is followed by a single or two words, which is not the case with the initial co-ordinand. as a result, the question that remains is whether the coordination constituents, in 227 particular, disjunctive coordination constituents are non-constituents or not. a closer look at the tertiary level reveals that students admitted at the national university of lesotho (nul) are less proficient in english. this claim is maintained by ekanjume-illongo (2015: 1157), who affirms that the english department at the nul has been complaining about the poor quality of the students they admit as far as english is concerned. to support this claim, ekanjume-illongo and moratomaleke (2020) observed and identified various errors that include lexical and syntactic errors in the nul students‟ academic writing. the students fail to construct correct sentences, either written or spoken. therefore, despite the students' majors, they are all introduced to communication and study skills (maleke, 2011:1-2). in addition to this course, the department of english also offers grammar and syntax as linguistics courses to student teachers and humanity students. types of clauses and kinds of sentences which include compound sentences, form part of both grammar and syntax courses; however, the two courses' descriptions fail to articulate anything about the relationship between disjunctive coordinands. furthermore, different syntactic structures are explored in syntax. however, as observed from the relevant literature, less is said about the structure of disjunctive coordination. therefore, the students do not even have a chance to practise them. apart from the education system in lesotho, syntax plays a pivotal role in the academic and business world as people are expected to construct grammatically acceptable sentences. amongst the syntactic structures, disjunctive coordination is included. nonetheless, some of the texts generated by basotho have parallel coordination structures. there is a paucity of literature on the co-ordinands relations in line with the literature. there is also a debate whether coordination constructions are non-constituents or not. for instance, some scholars such as oehrle (1999:252) found the so-called non-constituent coordination to be an awkward name for an "elegant" structure with two or more constituents of the same kind coordinated. on the contrary, haspelmath (2000) argues that many languages, including english, permit non-constituent coordination. stemming from a theoretical point of view, kubota (2020) claims that the non-constituent coordination seems problematic for common kinds of syntactic theories where the notion of the constituency is regarded as primitive. echoing the above shed of light, the current researcher, therefore, intends to explore the relations that exist between english disjunctive co-ordinands and the syntactic structure of the so-called nonconstituent disjunctive coordination drawing from the parallel perspective. it will help the high school teachers explain the arrangement of words that constitute the disjunctive coordination to their learners. this study further articulates the syntactic structures of the disjunctive coordination at both phonetic form (pf) and logical form (lf). it brings out the claim on whether disjunctive coordination is indeed non-constituent or not. 2. literature review coordination is one of the syntactic aspects studied globally. this syntactic element is described by bruening (2015) as one of the most exciting topics since the earlier generative grammar era. according to haspelmath (2000), coordination has the following semantic types: conjunctive, adversative, casual and disjunctive coordination. disjunctive coordination, which is crucial in this paper, is seen as nonconstituent coordination and is sub-divided into interrogative disjunctive and standard disjunctive (haspelmath, ibid). drawing from the minimalism point of view, sailor and thoms (2014) researched the non-existence of non-constituent coordination and non-constituent ellipsis. in their study, sailor and thoms noted that the non-constituent coordination encompasses neither coordination of non-constituents nor ellipses of nonconstituents such as left ellipses. however, such sentences are created using move-and-delete operation where the second conjunct is a complete verbaliser phrase (vp) or complementiser phrase (cp) reduced by ellipses following the movement of the pronounced material out of the ellipses. they, therefore, concluded that both movement and ellipses are operations that work on constituents. the relevance of sailor and thoms's study in the current study is that the focal point is on the notion of coordination having the non-constituents. despite their study‟s relevance to the current one, their study did not explicitly interrogate the structure of the disjunctive coordination at both phonetic form (pf) and logical form (lf), which is the concern of the present study. instead, they paid attention to the structure of the second conjunct. in addition to the form of the disjunctive coordination, the heart of the present study is on the category label of the disjunctive coordinator, which is not remarkably emphasised in their study. unlike earlier generative grammar approaches that considered the non-constituent a sub-type of conjunction reduction general rule, bruening (2015) conducted a study on a non-constituent caused by prosody, not a movement. in this study, bruening (2015:10) also perceives ellipsis as the source of the non-constituent construction targets a specific category and “deletes all but the head of that category.” bruening‟s study serves as a foreground to the current study as the two studies highlight the notion of the so-called non-constituent constructions. despite his study‟s influence on this study, bruening's work did not articulate anything about the structure of the disjunctive coordination, which is the interest of the current study. the present researcher, therefore, describes the structure of disjunctive coordination. 228 the study also establishes the relationship between the disjunctive co-ordinands or coordinated clauses. another study was conducted by asante (2018) on the syntactic phenomenon of coordination in nkami, a member of the niger-congo language of ghana. unlike the english language, which has coordinator "and", nkami language has two distinct coordinators: "kple" and "eye" for phrasal and clausal conjunctive coordination correspondingly. in this language, both syndetic and asyndetic coordination strategies connect coordination constructions. as for the disjunctive coordination, asante observed that nkami has bee/be translated as "or" coordinator to state alternative. this disjunctive coordinator is multi-functional as it can function as a coordinator, purposive clause linker, complementiser and preposition. there is a close resemblance between his study and the present one concerning the function of disjunctive coordination. however, there is still a relative difference as asante's study draws from a diverse viewpoint since no theory guides or frames his study. furthermore, his research has not identified the relations between the disjunctive co-ordinands. as a result, the purpose of the present study is to extrapolate and describe the relationship between the co-ordinands and the structure of the socalled non-constituent disjunctive coordination. kubota (2020) studied non-constituent coordination in japanese as constituent coordination analysis in hybrid type-logical categorial grammar on a hybrid calculus. it was observed that previous approaches within syntactic theories "equate nonconstituent coordination with coordination of fullfledged clauses at some level of grammatical representation." he noted that delete-based approaches coupled with the movement-based approaches are the sources of non-constituent constructions. however, movement is not supported as it poses a problem. for this reason, the nonconstituent coordination does not appeal to the movement. a look at the generativists and the nongenerativists point of view reveals that movement and deletion operations are not embraced in the latter perspective. this calls for a debate concerning nonconstituent coordination. therefore, the current research combined the two perceptions, including the structure and meaning. from these two combinatory views, the parallel viewpoints, the researcher seeks to find if disjunctive coordination encompasses the nonconstituent. unlike in english, conti‟s (2018) studied disjunctive clauses with o…o “either… or” in spanish and clausal co-subordination. it has been found that o… o clauses demonstrate traces of desententialisation; they are mutually dependent. contrary to the spanish subordinate clauses, o… oclauses share illocutionary force, mood and tense. this implies that all the clauses are co-indexed and depend on the similarity matrix of clausal operators, as is the co-subordination (dependent, but not embedded). even though conti‟s (2018) study focused on a different language to the present study, it has some relevance to the current research as it articulated the notion of disjunctive clauses, which relates to the syntactic relation: disjunctive coordination. he also argued for desententialisation, which is equivalent to non-constituent construction. however, his study focused on correlative markers. furthermore, conti's study seems to have centred mainly on the disjunctive coordination at the phonetic form (pf). the reason is that those disjunctive clauses marked with o… o "either… or" reflect both subordinate and coordinate clauses. if ever he had focused on those constructions at the logical form (lf), different results would have been anticipated. for this reason, the present study concentrates on the structure of the disjunctive coordination at the level of both pf and lf. these reviewed studies relate to the present paper, concentrating on non-constituent coordination. some draw from the syntactocentric perspective, others from the communication-and-cognition and hybrid perspectives. some of the scholars in reviewed literature focused on issues that are not the concern of the present study, for instance, the causes of the nonconstituent coordination. however, those studies shed some light on which areas to investigate concerning coordination. therefore, they paved the way for the present study to fill some methodological and theoretical gaps. 3. method this paper is exploratory qualitative research. the researcher employed the qualitative approach to use soft data rather than complex data (neuman, 2013). neuman (2013) states that exploratory analysis is used when the researcher has limited knowledge about the research topic. the researcher was not wellinformed about the non-constituent disjunctive coordination; therefore, the study adopted an experimental research design. according to johnson and christensen (2019), exploratory research is descriptive and attempts to generate ideas about phenomena. in this study, the researcher tries to discover essential factors, including the structure of the disjunctive coordination and the relationship between the disjunctive co-ordinands. the study is exploratory as it further generates new ideas for further research. 3.1 data collection data were extracted from the social media where the former and the current national university of lesotho (nul) students discussed emerging issues, including covid-19, business and syntax matters. singer et al. (2020) suggest that whatsapp and other smartphone-based messaging applications are platforms for qualitative methodologies mostly found to access adolescents. singer et al. (2020) further indicate that using different technological platforms may increase interest to give an additional level of information; and have practical implications for data 229 collection, quality and analysis. consequently, data were purposively and conveniently taken from the nul whatsapp group chats such as syntax groups and phuthalichaba savings and the facebook group and/or pages like the nul newsletter the nul faculty of humanities and the nul research innovations chats. since the researcher is a member of these groups, it was easy to access the data. the researcher identified and read posts and comments on covid19, business and syntax issues. many students use more conjunctive coordination than disjunctive coordination. this observation is also supported by haspelmath (2000), who avers that disjunctive coordination is rarely used in various languages. the researcher purposely noted only the disjunctive coordination, not the conjunctive coordination or any other types of coordination. the goal was to align the data with the objectives of this study. correlative coordination "either…or" constructions were also included as the second conjunction is the disjunctive coordinator "or". however, the study exclusively used disjunctive coordination, which is the concern of this study. data were collected in november 2020 and in may 2021. twenty-eight disjunctive coordination constructions were composed. thirteen of these were disjunctive constructions were collected from whatsapp group chats. fifteen of the constructions were extracted from the stated facebook group chats. data were analysed using theoretical analysis as it provides a foundation for a better understanding of non-constituent disjunctive coordination (tan, 2016). the disjunctive coordinate structures were also analysed through syntactic representations such as a tree diagram and bracketing notation under the terms suggested by the minimalist program. 3.2 theoretical framework this paper is framed by the systemic functional grammar (sfg) and minimalist program (mp). the sfg is a theory proposed by michael halliday (1985). the theory is adopted as it views language as a resource for making meanings (bavali and sadighi, 2008). in this theory, the following concepts describe the relationship between clauses: taxis, logicosemantic type and recursion. as a result, the current study uses taxis and logico-semantic type to describe the relations between the disjunctive co-ordinands. the second espoused theory is the minimalist program (mp) initiated by noam chomsky (1995). it is also employed in this paper as the sfg is not syntactically and formally oriented; so, it fails to account for the structural issues. bavali and sadighi (2008) pin-point that the mp highlights some erroneous forms accounted for by the mp's copy theory, unlike the sfg, which lacks a similar device. the theory was also adopted as the structures are derived from the bottom-up. it also has the operations select; merge, move and copy. these operations were adopted in this paper. 1 the derivational uniformity principle was applied in this article. razaghi, rahavard and sadighi (2015) describe the derivational uniformity principle as structures derived by transformations and sameness. through this principle, deletion of duplicate elements can be done. therefore, through the selection and merge operations, the structures of the disjunctive coordination are illustrated, showing whether the non-constituent disjunctive coordination exists or not; and the category label of the disjunctive coordination is identified. 4. findings this section presents findings obtained from the data collected. it has been shown that the data was collected from the former and current nul students' whatsapp (wa) and facebook (fb) group chats to reflect their experiences on the concept of the disjunctive coordination constructions, as illustrated in table 4.1. 1 minimalist program is a syntactic theory initiated by noam chomsky (1993). the theory is developed from the government & binding. hornstein (2018) states that drawing from the gb, mp has eliminated derivational levels, instead of having four, which are deep structure (dp), surface structure (ss), phonetic form (pf) and logic form (lf). derivation uniformity principle incorporates move, copy and merge operation. 230 table 4.1 disjunctive coordination from wa and fb whatsapp facebook 1. the editor said he‟ll be done tomorrow or wednesday… 2. … it is still easier or cheapest. 3. … inbox for any clarifications and/ or guidance. 4. once you have deposited or transferred the m150 into our account, visit our website… 5. … when you hit with unforeseen circumstances like loss of a job or when your circumstances change. 6. above is a guide or procedures to register… 7. take the picture and send it here, or you can use your laptop. 8. … is this sentence correct or incorrect? 9. … do i write the same programme in both or i can write different programme? 10. they want to use vaccine or chloroquine. 11. i will continue to help basotho using my witchcraft or chemistry of basotho. 12. will the english lecturers incorporate the notion of covid-19 or malaria in the exam? 13. will you be there or not? 1. … are those requirements considered or you look at the diploma qualifications? 2. will it be offered during the course of his year or next year…? 3. does ma in english language and linguistics have parttime or it‟s only full time? 4. 4 … is it possible for me to go for phd or i have to start from ma first, or it will depend on my academic performance? 5. we should use sanitisers or running water. 6. you don‟t follow the covid-19 measures or you are all expelled from the residents. 7. … there is either a shortage of certain medication or a shortage of medication of a certain concentration. 8. it‟s either we as pharmacists feel inclined to cut a table into quarters, which is not allowed, or we send the patients to private pharmacies, which we often do. 9. … you indirectly become a shareholder in the businesses which phuthalichaba will create or invest in… 10. … you can join phuthalichaba from anywhere in lesotho or anywhere in the world… 11. … i am passionate about this thing or that thing. 12. he might be wrong or right… 13. … it is either on the same level with, or beats some of the international brands… 14. … members have the flexibility to increase or decrease their contributions. 15. these compulsory savings are debited from your bank, which is charged m15.00 or any other amount, depending on the bank. table 4.1 demonstrates the disjunctive coordination constructions collected from wa and fb. as shown, there are 13 collected constructions from the wa and 15 from the fa, amounting to 28 disjunctive co-ordination constructions. amongst 28 constructions, three of them are “either…or” contrastive co-ordination) constructions. however, such data are not used in this study, for the concern lies strictly on disjunctive co-ordination. the identified constructions align with the outlined study's objectives. as stated earlier, the present study intends to determine whether the disjunctive coordination constituents are nonconstituents. the paper also seeks to describe the relationship between the disjunctive co-ordinands. the paper further aims to describe the structure of the disjunctive coordination and the category label of the disjunctive coordinator. therefore, this section is divided into three sub-sections: a) the disjunctive coordination constituents b) the relationship that exists between the disjunctive co-ordinands c) the structure and the category label of the disjunctive coordinator. 4.1 the disjunctive coordination constituents one of the issues that intrigued the researcher's interest is determining if the disjunctive coordination constituents are non-constituents. from the evidence in the current study, most of the secondary or final coordinand lacked the subject or other constituents. at the pf, they seemed to be incomplete or dependent. however, this feature does not label the disjunctive coordination as non-constituents. the view is seen in example (1) below. (1) a. will the english lecturers incorporate the notion of covid-19 or malaria in the exams? (wa) b. … is this sentence correct or incorrect? (wa) c. will it be offered during the course of the year or next year…? (fb) d. we should use sanitisers or running water. (fb) 231 examples in (1) depict the disjunctive coordination constructions. from the data, it has been observed that the second co-ordinands in all structures lack the sentence's subject. the pronounced group of words were only phrases but not clauses or sentences. 4.2 the relationship that exists between the disjunctive co-ordinands in this study, the second objective is to describe the relationship between the disjunctive co-ordinands. the data were also extracted from the nul currents and formers students' whatsapp and facebook group chats. consequently, this sub-section discusses the findings on the relationship between the disjunctive co-ordinands. it was evidenced that the disjunctive coordinands did have a relationship as they had tactic and logico-semantic relationships. the tactic relation is defined by halliday (2004) as the relations between co-ordinands that are coordinated and have either equal or unequal status. as for the logico-sematic relations, the meaning of the initial co-ordinand is expanded from the secondary co-ordinand (jomaa and bidin, 2019). the constructions that portray the two relations are demonstrated in example (2). (2) a. they want to use vaccine or chloroquine. (wa) b. … take the picture and send it here, or you can use your laptop. (wa) c. you don’t follow the covid-19 measures or you are all expelled from the residents. (fb) d. … is it possible for me to go for phd or i have to start from ma first, or it will depend on my academic performance? (fb) examples in (2) reflect the disjunctive coordination constructions. all the sentences in examples (2) had taxis or tactic relations from this evidence. looking at the pronounced constructions at the phonetic form (pf), the (2) a. had unequal status as the second pronounced co-ordinand was composed of just a word or phrase. however, (2) b, to d. had equal status since the second co-ordinands conveyed a complete thought just like the first co-ordinands. they had subjects and predicates. the data also illustrated that the disjunctive coordination had logico-semantic relations as all first co-ordinands in the examples (2) had been expanded through the second co-ordinands. in (2) d., on the other hand, the initial co-ordinand was expanded through the second and the third coordinand. 4.3 the structure and the category label of the disjunctive coordinator the study describes the structure of the disjunctive coordination and the category label of the disjunctive coordinator/or/. therefore, from the experiences of the nul former and current students, the following sentences in example (3) were used for the researcher to describe the structure of the disjunctive coordination and the category label of the disjunctive coordinator/or/. (3) a. i will continue to help basotho using my witchcraft or chemistry of basotho. (wa) b. the editor said he’ll be done tomorrow or wednesday. (wa) c. … do i write the same programme in both or i can write different programme? (fb) d. does ma in english language and linguistics have part-time or it’s only full time? (fb) examples in (3) demonstrate disjunctive coordination. from these examples, it was observed that the structure of the disjunctive coordination is complementiser phrase (cp) and the vp as affirmed by thoms and sailor (2014). the present study found that the disjunctive coordinator/or/'s category label belongs to the complementiser (c). 5. discussion this section presents a discussion on the relationship between the disjunctive co-ordinands and the structure of the disjunctive coordination. it also identifies the category label of the disjunctive coordinator or. the present study views these coordinands as the syntactic elements equivalent to the clause complex. this perception is supported by yuniar (2018), who vows that a clause complex is the grammatical and semantic unit established when two or more clauses are linked by tactic and logicsemantic relations. this implies that the clause complex is not composed of clauses but extended by adding further clauses. in clause complex, the same element is repeated by iteration, commonly as recursion in minimalism. therefore, taxis and logicosemantics describe the disjunctive coordinates relations. 5.1 logico-semantic type logico-semantics emanates from the logical meaning to show the relationship between a primary and secondary member of a clause. the present study defines the primary element of the clause as the initial clause or co-ordinand, while the secondary element of the clause is seen as the second or the final clause or co-ordinand. according to jomaa and bidin (2019), in logico-semantic relations, the meaning of the primary clause is expanded or projected through the secondary one. the secondary co-ordinand extends the initial clause by "elaborating, extending or evaluating”. this inter-connection can be identified between the disjunctive co-ordinands in example (4). (4) you do not follow the covid-19 measures, or you are all expelled from the residents. (fb) example (4) demonstrates the regular disjunctive coordination “you don’t follow the covid-19 measures, or you are all expelled from the residents”. the construction is the regular disjunctive coordination as the two co-ordinands are coordinated by the disjunctive coordinator or, and both coordinands convey a complete thought. 232 from the given evidence, the disjunctive coordinands “you don’t follow the covid-19 measures and or you are all expelled from the residents” have logico-semantic relations. according to halliday (2004), the clauses linked by logico-semantic relation mean relational structure: one unit is interdependent on another. this view is also supported by conti (2018), who perceives disjunctive clauses as typically co-subordination, meaning that one element of the clause depends on the other. similarly, the co-ordinand “or you are all expelled from the residents” is an expansion of the primary coordinand “you don’t follow the covid-19 measures” to convey a complete thought. the first co-ordinand would be spoken in tone 3 level followed by the second co-ordinand in tone 1 to show cohesiveness (halliday, 2004). therefore, the first co-ordinand depicts that there is more to come in the form of expansion because it extends beyond and adds some new element, so the use of or fits here adds the meaning of an alternative. the implication in example (4) is that the subject "you” has two alternative actions; either the alternative of not following the covid-19 measures or being expelled from the residents; that is, one of the actions is true. equally important, asante (2018) maintains that the disjunctive coordinator in the nkami language also states the alternative. moreover, this construction “you don’t follow the covid-19 measures, or you are all expelled from the residents” is a clause complex composed of two co-ordinands separated by a comma to mark the intonation break in a sentence (halliday, 2004). nevertheless, this result goes beyond the previously reviewed studies as they did not say anything about the relationship between the co-ordinands. 5.2 taxis another relationship that the co-ordinands have is taxis. this relationship shows that two co-ordinands are coordinated and have equal or unequal status. in addition to the logico-semantic relations, the two disjunctive co-ordinands have taxis relations. the proof of this relationship is evidenced in example (5). (5) will the english lecturers incorporate the notion of covid-19 or malaria in the exam? (wa) example (5) reflects the non-constituent disjunctive coordination "will the english lecturers incorporate the notion of covid-19 or malaria in the exams?” from this evidence, it is observed that the co-ordinands “will the english lecturers incorporate the notion of covid-19 and malaria in the exam” hold a para-taxis relationship. this relationship demonstrates that co-ordinand “will the english lecturers incorporate the notion of covid-19” and “malaria in the exam” have equal status, that is, before some phrases in the secondary co-ordinand were moved and deleted. the first coordinand was: “will the english lecturers incorporate the notion of covid-19 in the exam?” while the second co-ordinand was: “will the english lecturers incorporate the notion of malaria in the exam?” this implies that the first co-ordinand initiates and the second one continues. the co-ordinand "will the english lecturers incorporate the notion of covid-19” also demonstrates hypo-taxis relationship, meaning that it is a dominant unit that the second co-ordinand malaria in the exam depends on (halliday, 2004). conti (2018) also attests to this view that spanish disjunctive clauses signalled by o… o are dependent. therefore, this observation seems to apply to english disjunctive coordination at the phonetic level. 5.3 the structure of the disjunctive coordination and the category label of the disjunctive coordinator one other significant aspect that intrigued the current study is the structure of the disjunctive coordination and the category label of the disjunctive coordinator. since the sfg fails to account for the structure of phrases, clauses, and sentences, the minimalist program (mp) was adopted to fill the gap. it should be noted that these two theories have different views on the stated phenomenon: coordination. as stated earlier, the sfg views coordinands as clause complex made through iteration. this iteration is equivalent to the mp's recursion. according to fasold and connor-linton (2006), coordination is one of the recursive devices. these recursive devices allow various infinite sentences and expressions that are indefinitely long. most importantly, similar grammatical processes can apply more than once for recursion (fasold and connorlinton, 2006). the grammatical processes applied in this study are select and merge operations to generate the disjunctive coordination structures. 5.4 select and merge the operation selected refers to choosing a syntactic element from either numeration or array. at the same time, a merge is an operation in which two selected syntactic elements or constituents are combined to form one more prominent constituent (al-horais, 2013). it is worth noting that clauses within the mp are generated from the bottom-up: that is, the structure is formed from bottom to top, where lower constituents of the structure are built before the higher ones (radford, 2009). as a result, this paper's syntactic representations are analysed from the bottom up. looking at the evidence, the structure of the disjunctive coordination is a complementiser phrase (cp), as given in example (6). 2 (6) the structure of the disjunctive coordination at the logical form (lf) (the hierarchy is adapted from adger, 2003. 2 unlike the predecessors of the minimalist program, which analyse the structures from the top down, the mp's structures are generated from the bottom up (radford, 2009); that is, the first object to be selected from the numeration or array appears at the lower constituent. 233 figure 5.1 the structure of the disjunctive coordination example (6) reflects the structure of the disjunctive coordination "we should use sanitisers or running water” at the lf. building on sailor and thoms‟s (2014) study, the structure of the second coordinand is cp. the evidence from the current study reveals a similar observation as the structure of the secondary co-ordinand “, or we should use running water” is also cp. however, the present study departs from their reflection and focuses on the structure of the whole construction: the disjunctive coordination. the first word selected from the array is noun (n) water and merges with an adjective (a) running to form the adjectival phrase (ap) running water. another element selected from the array is verb (v) use and merges with the ap running water. the resultant phrase is vp use running water. this vp further merges with tense (t) should, and the resultant constituent is an intermediate projection (bar) t should use running water. to form the tense phrase (tp), we should use running water, pronoun (p) we is selected from the array and merged with the t-bar. since the speaker aims to construct the disjunctive coordination, the disjunctive coordinator or is selected from the array and merges with the tp we should use running water. the resulting constituent is cp, or we should use running water. the n sanitiser merges with the cp, or we should use running water to form the v-bar sanitiser, or we should use running water. it is worth noting that the constituents p we, t should and v use are not moved or internally merged, but they are externally merged through the application of the external token merge (c.f. krivochen, 2012:8). the implication is that, instead of moving an element, another instance can be drawn from the array. a similar syntactic element can be drawn as many times as possible to satisfy the conceptual-intentional system. therefore, in the primary co-ordinand, we should and use are also externally merged, and the whole structure is the cp we should use sanitisers, or we should use running water at the lf. drawing from this structure at the lf, example (3) further proves that the disjunctive coordination does not comprise the non-constituent as the lower constituent still has the same instances "we”, “should”, and “use”. this view is also shared by sailor and thoms (2014) that the secondary coordinand is a complete vp or cp, and in the case of the current study, it is the complete cp. consequently, sailor and thoms conclude that the non-constituent coordination structures do not exist. the reflection implies that the coordination is symmetrical because both combined co-ordinands have similar syntactic units and equal status. as a result, the current study also exudes that non-constituent disjunctive coordination does not exist. 234 on the notion of the disjunctive coordinator "or” category label, the study labelled it complementiser (c). following sailor and thoms (2014), who similarly labelled the coordinators as the complementisers, tallerman (2020) defines a complementiser as a functional element. he states that the construction introduced by a small functional element is known as the complementiser phrase. according to radford (2004) and aarts, chalker and weiner (2014), one of the roles of the complementisers is to mark the embedded clause. therefore, these features prove that coordinators are also complementisers because the coordinator "or” signals the type of the coordination and the beginning of the second co-ordinand. the view that the disjunctive coordinator functions as the complementiser is confirmed by asante (2018). 5.5 derivational uniformity principle the derivational uniformity principle incorporates move, copy and merge. this principle explains what happens to some of the constituents at the pf. some elements are not pronounced to avoid unnecessary duplication. for this reason, duplicate elements of the lower co-ordinands are moved and deleted as the principle highly supports the economy of words. example (7) illustrates the non-constituent disjunctive coordination at the pf. (7) [cp tp [p they vp [v want tp [t to vp [v use [n vaccine cp [c or tp [p they vp [v want tp [t to vp [v use [n chloroquine]]]]]]]]]]]] example (7) exemplifies the structure of the nonconstituent disjunctive coordination "they want to use vaccine or chloroquine” at the pf. the n chloroquine merges with the v use forming the vp use chloroquine. this vp subsequently merges with the t to in order to form the t-bar to use chloroquine. to form the vp want to use chloroquine, the t-bar merges with the v want. this vp want to use chloroquine further merges with the p they, and the resultant constituent is tp they want to use chloroquine. the tp they want to use chloroquine merges with the c, or the resultant constituent is cp, or they want to use chloroquine. from this analysis, it should be noted that or is still a member of the c at the pf. the cp also merges with the n vaccine. as indicated, the derivational uniformity principle supports the economy of words. the lower copies v use, t to and v want to move from the lower co-ordinand and re-emerge in the higher co-ordinand. their lower copies are then deleted later to avoid duplication of words. however, the present researcher's perception differs from bruening (2015) and kubota (2020), who claim that prosody and movement respectively are sources of the so-called non-constituent construction. following sailor and thoms (2014) on the notion that there is neither nonconstituent coordination nor ellipses that caused the non-constituent coordination, the current study maintains that for economic considerations, what happens at the pf after the move and delete, the copies of moving elements are given the privilege in terms of pronunciation (chomsky, 2000, 2001 cited by al-horais, 2013). therefore, disjunctive coordination has no non-constituent coordination. 6. conclusion based on how the disjunctive coordination becomes the non-constituent disjunctive coordination, this research concludes that the disjunctive coordination where or is used does not become the non-constituent. it means that is the disjunctive coordination has no irregular constituent at the lf. the co-ordinands still have equal status. therefore, the operations select and merge prove that english is a symmetrical language as far as the disjunctive coordination construction is concerned. however, at the pf, the elements from the lower co-ordinands are moved to the higher co-ordinands and deleted later to satisfy the economy principle coined with the derivational uniformity principle. those operations, including move, copy and merge, do not cause the disjunctive coordination to become the nonconstituent. therefore, this study prefers to call such construction at the pf a reduced coordination. in line with the relationship between the coordinands, the researcher also concludes that the disjunctive co-ordinands have taxis and logicosemantic relations (extension through alternation). the structure of the disjunctive coordination is cp. this structure makes the distinctive coordinator or to belong in the c category. one of the emergent issues is that use of the two theories does not necessarily mark their difference as far as coordination is concerned. however, the first one (sfg) enhances the mp as it lacks the concepts that account for the structure of the sentence. 3 references aarts, b., chalker, s., & weiner, e. (2014). oxford dictionary of english grammar. (2 nd ed.). university press. adger, d. (2003). core syntax: a minimalist approach. university of london. al-horais, n. (2013). the minimalist program and its new insight to the concept of universal grammar. journal of universal language, 14(2), 79-112. http://dx.doi.org/10.22425/jul.2013.14.2.79 asante, r.k. (2018). co-ordination in nkami. ghana journal of linguistics, 7(1), 1-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/gj/.7i1.1. 3 the paper concludes that the disjunctive coordination where the disjunctive coordinator or is used does not have the non-constituent as the structure at both the pf and lf are generated similarly. operation move, copy and merge determine the syntactic elements to be pronounced. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/gj/.7i1.1 235 bavali, m. and sadighi, f. (2008). chomsky‟s universal grammar and halliday‟s systemic functional linguistics: an appraisal and compromise. journal of pan-pacific association of applied linguistics, 12(1), 1128. bruening, b. (2015). non-constituent coordination: prosody, not movement. university of pennsylvania working papers in linguistics, 21(1), 1-10. conti, c. (2018). disjunctive clauses with o. o „either. or‟ in spanish and clausal consubordination. folia linguistica, 52(1), 75-105. https://doi.org/10.1515/flin-2018-0001. crystal, d. (2003). english as a global language. (2nd ed.). cambridge university press. ekanjume-illongo, b. (2015). the teaching of english as a second language: the case of the national university of lesotho. journal of language and research, 6(6), 1157-1164. http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0606.01. ekanjume-illongo, b. and morato-maleke, m. 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(2003). some characteristic features of englishes in lesotho, malawi and swaziland. per linguam: a journal of language learning= per linguam: tydskrif vir taalaanleer, 19(1_2), 39-54. krivochen, d.g. (2012). internal merge beyond explanatory adequacy. [s.n]. kubota, y. (2015). non-constituent coordination in japanese as coordination: an analysis in hybrid type-logical categorial grammar. linguistic inquiry, 46(1), 1-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/ling_a_00174 maleke, e.m. (2011). usage and metalinguistic knowledge of subordinate clauses among nul. (unpublished ma thesis). national university of lesotho. neuman, w.l. (2013). social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches. (7th ed.). pearson. oehrle, r.t. (1999). intensionality in non-constituent conjunction. http://www.let.rug.nl/hoeksema/oehrle.pdf radford, a. (2009). an introduction to english sentence structure. cambridge university press. razaghi, m., rahavard, s. & sadighi, f. (2015). economy, simplicity and uniformity in minimalist syntax. international journal on studies in english language and literature, 3(1), 1-6. sailor, c., & thoms, g. (2014). on the non-existence of non-constituent coordination and nonconstituent ellipsis. in proceedings of wccfl (vol. 31, pp. 361-370). samida, d. k., & takahashi, j. (2011). world englishes: what is an international language for the world?. journal of hokkaido bunkyo university, 12(3), 49-59. singer, b., walsh, c. m., gondwe, l., reynolds, k., lawrence, e., & kasiya, a. (2020). whatsapp as a medium to collect qualitative data among adolescents: lessons learned and considerations for future use. gates open research, 4(130), 130. https://doi.org/10.12688/gatesopenres.13169.1 tallerman, m. (2020). understanding syntax. (5th ed.). routledge. tan, y. (2016). gpu-based random number generator. in: gpu-based parallel implementation of swarm intelligence algorithms. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0809362-7.50010-8. tlebere, m. m. (2006). an investigation of feedback to secondary schools from the cambridge overseas school certificate (cosc) english language examinations in lesotho (unpublished doctoral dissertation). yuniar, r. (2018). logico-semantic relations of clauses used in analytical exposition written by the third semester students of english department. journal of research on applied linguistics language and language teaching, 2(1), 121-128. https://doi.org/10.31002/jrlt.v1i2.247. https://doi.org/10.1515/flin-2018-0001 https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-809362-7.50010-8 https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-809362-7.50010-8 https://doi.org/10.31002/jrlt.v1i2.247 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6129 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 61-70 61 nepalese efl teachers’ digital literacy for online teaching mohan singh saud far western university, dhangadhi, nepal mssaud35@gmail.com article history received : 2021-02-10 revised : 2021-02-12 accepted : 2021-04-18 keywords digital literacy efl teachers online teaching global pandemic face-to-face teaching abstract the face-to-face mode of delivery had significantly been affected by the covid19 pandemic. due to its spread, the government had suspended the traditional classroom teaching system, requiring its alternative online teaching instead. accordingly, english teachers needed to be prepared with the necessary digital literacy skills for effective online teaching. considering this situation, this study sought to survey the digital literacy skills of secondary school level english teachers of nepal to check their preparedness for online delivery. a questionnaire was prepared through google docs and circulated to english teachers through emails and messenger. data was collected using the snowball-sampling method. altogether, 426 english teachers across the country participated in this study. this study found that secondary school-level english teachers possess the necessary digital literacy skills like word processing, the use of the internet, downloading, online presentations, and hence, are prepared for an online teaching mode. 1. introduction the outbreak of the covid-19 global pandemic has greatly affected almost all aspects of life across the world (e.g. physical distancing, mental stress, travel restrictions, unemployment, local services and suspension of face-to-face classes) (macintyre et al., 2020; aliyyah et al., 2020). among such changes, this crisis has brought an enormous challenge to education systems worldwide at all levels of teaching, forcing many governments to order educational institutions to suspend in-person classes and recommend a shift to online distance teaching (daniel, 2020) instead. the fear of spreading coronavirus to the children was the main reason to close the schools worldwide to break the chain of transmission (uscher-pines et al., 2018; abdulamir & hafidh, 2020). the global spread of the covid-19 has caused the suspensions of face-to-face classes requiring online teaching and learning (moorhouse, 2020). in this context, dhawan (2020) argues that online learning can be a panacea in the covid-19 crisis. to continue the education system during this crisis, online teaching is the only option and necessity. the covid-19 pandemic has forced efl teachers to go for online teaching as an alternative to previous face-to-face classroom teaching. many efl teachers had not been prepared for the online mode of instruction before covid-19, as they did not feel any need at that time, but now the situation requires this approach (macintyre et al., 2020). acquiring digital literacy is an essential prerequisite in online teaching contexts. there has been a growing interest in the use of information and communication technology (ict) in english as a foreign language (efl) due to the widespread application of computers and technology in education (dashtestani & hojatpanah, 2020). proper knowledge about computers is, of course, a prerequisite for efl teachers and students in technology-enhanced language teaching and learning. son et al. (2011) define computer literacy as "the development of knowledge and skills for using general computer applications, language-specific software programmes, and internet tools confidently and competently" (p. 27) concerning language teacher education. in the twenty-first century, computer skills are as necessary as language skills to both teachers and learners for effective online teaching and learning. computer literacy underlies digital literacy, which is defined as "the ability to use information and communication technologies to find, evaluate, create, and communicate information, requiring both cognitive and technical skills" (digital literacy task force, 2013, p. 2). online teaching can be purposeful and effective when efl teachers command digital literacy in a teaching environment. the necessity of developing digital literacy has come abruptly due to the sudden outbreak of the covid-19 worldwide. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6129 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 61-70 62 2. literature review nepal’s educational system has traditionally been face-to-face teaching and learning. only the highly infrastructured private schools in urban areas have adopted computer assisted language learning (call) to some extent only, as my observation and experience shows. the government-aided public schools rarely adopt call due to the lack of computer-based facilities and computer literacy among teachers. however, the covid-19 pandemic has dramatically affected the face-to-face classroom teaching and learning environment worldwide, including nepal. covid-19 resulted in lockdown, staying in isolation, social distancing, the necessity of wearing masks, and so on. due to the lockdown and the spread of the covid-19, the nepal government has stopped traditional classroom teaching and encouraged its alternative, online teaching. in this context, most of the schools in urban areas have started online teaching for students with internet access with the computer or mobile telephones. however, online teaching and learning have still been a dream for students from remote rural areas, yet unattained. as school courses have been designed for a face-toface mode of instruction, efl teachers need to adapt them to make them suitable for online teaching. in this scenario, this study examined the nepalese efl teachers' digital literacy, which could be helpful to shift to online instruction. due to the suspension of traditional face-to-face classroom instruction in schools, the courses had to be delivered through online mode exclusively. considering this issue, this study aimed at examining the efl teachers' digital literacy and sought to determine if they were ready for online teaching in the context of nepal, especially during covid-19. therefore, this study can be pretty significant for the efl teachers to be prepared for online teaching as an alternative to traditional face-toface classroom teaching. nonetheless, technological knowledge is needed for efl teachers as the twentyfirst-century teacher knowledge along with pedagogical and content knowledge (see the technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) model of mishra and koehler (2006). however, this study surveyed efl teachers from school levels only having their computer application skills with the internet access and facilities, as data was collected through the online system. there have been some research studies into the digital literacy skills of english language teachers around the world. to review some, son et al. (2011) reviewed the skills of indonesian english language teachers and found that their frequency of using computer applications in the classroom was minimal despite having positive attitudes towards call. mudra (2020) studied the benefits from and barriers to digital literacy from the efl teachers’ and learners’ perspectives and found that there were both benefits and barriers of digital literacy for young learners in learning english. this study was conducted in the indonesian educational context. similarly, dashtestani and hojatpanah (2020) studied the digital literacy of efl students in a junior high school in iran and found that they had a low to moderate level of digital literacy. moreover, some studies have been conducted on teachers’ perceptions of literacy and use of technology in classroom practice (lawrence & calhoun, 2013), teachers’ perceptions about the use of computers in efl teaching and learning (aydin, 2013), efl teachers’ use of the internet in teaching language (chen, 2008), including perceptions of the level of digital literacy (çam & kiyici, 2017). these studies guided me in my research concerning finding out the digital literacy skills of the efl teachers in the context of nepal and determining whether they were prepared for online teaching during covid-19 and other such crises. however, the covid-19 pandemic crisis has demonstrated the need for the readiness of efl teachers to practise online teaching for the continuation of the education system. the case study conducted by basilaia and kvavadze (2020) in a private school in georgia about implementing online education confirmed that the quick transition to the online form of education was successful. atmojo and nugroho’s (2020) study in indonesia showed that online learning did not run well due to the lack of preparation and planning. most of the studies have been on other issues rather than digital literacy, such as language teachers' coping strategies during the covid-19 shifting to online teaching (macintyre et al., 2020), perceptions of school teachers of online learning during the covid19 pandemic (aliyyah et al., 2020), teaching activities and challenges during covid-19 pandemic (atmojo & nugroho, 2020), and university student's readiness for online learning (chung et al., 2020). as these studies show, little research has been done on the digital literacy skills of the efl teachers in the world. although a few studies have focused on using ict with teaching language in nepal (acharya, 2014; thapaliya, 2014; rana et al., 2018), there has been no research on school-level efl teachers' digital literacy in nepal. in this context, the current study sheds new light compared to existing studies, especially in nepal. 3. method 3.1 research design this study was set out to examine the school level efl teachers' digital literacy in nepal and determine whether they were ready for online teaching. to achieve this objective, this study employed a journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6129 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 61-70 63 quantitative survey research design. the survey tool was adapted from questionnaires created by son et al. (2011) and cote and milliner (2018), making it suitable to examine the nepalese school level efl teachers’ digital literacy, which would help them to be ready for online teaching during the covid-19 pandemic and other such crises (see appendix). then it was shown to the experts to judge its reliability. 3.2 participants a total of 426 nepalese efl teachers participated in the study. the snowball sampling technique was used with an online survey tool to collect data as it was hard to find the potential participants during the covid-19 crisis and the lockdown period though this way of collecting data cannot be considered random and representative of the target population. the total number of participants was 426 efl teachers teaching in different schools in nepal from primary to secondary levels. in terms of gender, 336 participants were males while 90 were females. in terms of age groups, 239 were below 35 years of age while 13 participants were above 50. regarding provinces, the majority of the participants were from bagmati province (n = 117). regarding their academic qualifications, most of the participants (n = 322) held master's degree and 20 m.phil./phds. none of the participants were undergraduates. similarly, in terms of years of experience, 82 participants had less than five years of experience, and 36 participants had more than twenty years of experience. with the working area, 227 participants were from rural areas and 119 from urban areas. the majority of the participants (n = 222) were permanent employees working in the government sector (n = 319). this demographic information can be shown in table 1 below. table 3.1 participant profile (n = 426) variable category number percentage % gender male 336 79% female 90 21% age below 35 years 239 56% 35-40 years 111 26% 41-45 years 41 10% 46-50 years 22 5% above 50 years 13 3% province province 1 40 9% province 2 26 6% bagmati 117 27% gandaki 28 7% province 5 58 14% karnali 45 11% far western 112 26% academic qualification plus two/intermediate/pcl 0 0% bachelor’s 83 19% master’s 322 76% m.phil./phd 20 5% teaching experience less than five years 82 19% 5-10 years 155 36% 11-15 years 113 27% 16-20 years 40 9% more than 20 years 36 9% working area urban 199 47% rural 227 53% employment status permanent 222 52% temporary 185 43% part-time 19 5% employment sector government 319 75% private 107 25% journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6129 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 61-70 64 3.3 data collection and analysis procedures the survey questionnaire was administered via google docs between september 2 to 23, 2020. the survey was shared through personal email contacts and via social media networks, asking the respondents to forward it to other school level efl teachers they knew. after three weeks in the field, the web survey received 426 responses from all the seven provinces of nepal. data collected in this way was analysed in terms of the simple statistical method of percentages. 4. findings this study aimed at examining the digital literacy of the nepalese school level efl teachers. the following sections present the study results collected through an online survey system using google docs in terms of themes with statistical percentage. 4.1 ownership of digital devices all respondents have digital devices. as evidenced in table 4.1, the majority of the teachers own a smartphone (70%). a high percentage possesses a laptop (68%). only 16 teachers own other devices. table 4.1 digital device ownership (n = 424) device number percentage % desktop computer 79 19% laptop 289 68% tablet 39 9% smartphone 295 70% others 16 4% the ownership of the digital devices is the first requirement for efl teachers to conduct online teaching. considering this issue, this study checked whether they have such devices or, if yes, which type of devices they possess. the result showed that almost all the participants had one or another digital device for online teaching. it shows their preparedness for online delivery. 4.2 computer skills of the efl teachers efl teachers were asked whether they could perform the tasks related to digital skills. overall, they were very confident at completing the computerrelated tasks. however, the tasks that involved installing a software programme, resizing photographs, and recording and editing sounds had the highest number f 'no' responses, although they were below 50% (table 4.2). table 4.2 computer skill related questions questions yes % no% 1. can you properly turn on and shut down a computer? 99% 1% 2. can you start and exit a computer programme? 98% 2% 3. can you scan a disk or file for viruses? 84% 16% 4. can you create a basic microsoft word document? 92% 8% 5. can you send and receive attachments through email messages? 97% 3% 6. can you move a file from a hard drive to a usb drive? 92% 8% 7. can you download and save files from the web? 97% 3% 8. can you change the font style and size in a document? 94% 6% 9. can you copy, cut and paste inside a document? 96% 4% 10. can you make slides for the presentation using powerpoint? 88% 12% 11. can you search for information using a web search engine? 94% 6% 12. can you change monitor brightness and contrast? 89% 11% 13. can you minimise, maximise and move windows on the desktop? 90% 10% 14. can you perform file management, including deleting and renaming files, etc.? 91% 9% journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6129 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 61-70 65 15. can you install a software programme? 73% 27% 16. can you write files onto a pen drive/cd? 82% 18% 17. can you resize a photograph? 66% 34% 18. can you use a video conferencing tool on the web? 79% 21% 19. can you record and edit sounds? 64% 36% 20. do you understand the basic functions of computer hardware components? (e.g. keyboard, cpu, hard disk) 92% 8% regarding the level of digital skills on a scale of one to four, efl teachers were asked to rate their digital skills and application (table 4.3). the majority of the participants rated their computer literacy, digital literacy and typing skills as adequate and reasonable. it is essential that efl teachers need digital literacy to smooth use of online devices that can be used while teaching online. the higher the level of digital literacy, the better for effective online delivery of the class. therefore, it was considered better to check to what extent the efl teachers possess digital literacy, and the result showed adequate digital literacy skills for effective online teaching. table 4.3 efl teachers’ self-assessment of digital skills what is your level of digital skills and their application? excellent (4) good (3) adequate (2) poor (1) computer literacy 12% 57% 30% 1% digital literacy 8% 54% 36% 2% current typing skills 14% 48% 37% 1% when asked to rate their level of knowledge about the use of computer/digital skills, many efl teachers self-assessed to have basic or intermediate skills (table 4.4). only a few had lower application skills, while some were advanced. it means that the efl teachers in nepal have digital skills like word processing, internet and email, presentation applications, web search engines, downloading and installing programmes, online presentation and discussion, online chat and multimedia applications. the majority of them had intermediate knowledge about the use of digital skills, which seems to be enough for their effective online teaching. table 4.4 level of knowledge about the use of digital skills how would you rate your knowledge about the use of computer/digital skills? none (1) basic (2) intermediate (3) advanced (4) word processing 3% 51% 33% 13% internet 1% 42% 40% 17% email 2% 38% 38% 22% presentation applications 8% 42% 37% 13% web search engines 7% 43% 34% 16% downloading and installing programmes 5% 40% 36% 19% online presentation and discussion 8% 42% 36% 14% online chat 1% 32% 39% 28% multimedia applications 6% 46% 34% 14% table 4.5 summarises efl teachers’ responses to the question who taught you how to use a computer in the first place? although they learned from a range of sources, most of them learned from formal training (41%). informal self-learning seems to be typical as 34% of respondents reported learning by themselves. efl teachers learned computer skills from one or another source. as the table shows, the majority learned computer by training. since efl teachers' preparedness requires computer skills, it was considered that it was necessary to check from which sources they gained computer knowledge. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6129 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 61-70 66 table 4.5 learning source (n = 426) who taught you how to use a computer in the first place? number percentage % trainer/teacher 176 41% family 20 5% books 2 1% colleagues 24 6% friends 36 8% youtube videos 21 5% self/yourself 147 34% 4.3 efl teachers’ readiness for online teaching efl teachers need access to the internet along with a digital device. table 4.6 reflects that most respondents have computers/laptops to facilitate online teaching with their email accounts and internet access. for online teaching, efl teachers needed computer access and usage. therefore, the questions presented in table 4.6 were asked to check whether they had computers and/or laptops and emails and internet access without which online teaching could never be imagined. the majority of them responded that they had all this access. it means that they were prepared for online delivery of lesson during the covid-19 pandemic. table 4.6 computer access and usage related questions question yes % no % 10. do you have a personal computer or a laptop to facilitate online teaching? 80% 20% 15. do you have an email account? 99% 1% 17. do you have a computer/laptop with access to the internet at home? 75% 25% the covid-19 pandemic has compelled schools to prepare for online teaching as far as possible. the majority of the respondents (54%) responded that their schools had not provided online teaching (table 4.7). although 78% of the participants responded that they were not involved in online teaching before this pandemic, they have been involved in it during this period. most of the efl teachers in nepal think that online teaching is not a burden for them. table 4.7 online teaching related questions question yes % no % 16. has your school made provision for online teaching? 46% 54% 18. are you involved in online teaching during this pandemic period? 62% 38% 23. were you involved in online teaching before covid-19? 78% 22% 26. do you think online teaching is a burden for efl teachers? 17% 83% when asked whether efl teachers were ready for online teaching during the covid-19 pandemic and other such crises, most of the respondents (88%) replied ‘yes’ (table 4.8). it means that without digital preparedness, online teaching could never be possible. the main concern of this study was the same. from the result, it became clear that most participants were prepared for online teaching during the pandemic. when the government-run online mode of teaching, they became involved in it as they made themselves ready for it. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6129 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 61-70 67 table 4.8 efl teachers’ readiness for online teaching question yes % maybe % no % 19. are you prepared for online teaching during the covid-19 pandemic and other such crises? 88% 11% 1% 4.4 efl teachers’ involvement in online teaching regarding using a digital device for online teaching, efl teachers have one or more devices, as table 4.9 shows. the majority of them (68%) use a laptop. table 4.9 digital device used for online teaching which device do you use for online teaching? number percentage % desktop computer 41 10% laptop 286 68% smartphone 259 61% none 16 4% in response to the question what type of communication tool do you use in online teaching activities?, the majority of efl teachers responded that they use zoom (91%) although they also use other tools (table 4.10). it means that different communication tools were used in online teaching by the efl teachers while online classes were run. the most common among them were zoom, microsoft teams, google meet and messenger. the majority of them used zoom as it was easier to operate. without the use of any one of these tools, online teaching could not have been conducted. table 4.10 communication tool used in online teaching what type of communication tool do you use in online teaching activities? number percentage % zoom 382 91% microsoft teams 92 22% google meet 150 36% messenger 190 45% other 16 3% 4.5 online teaching in nepal regarding the necessity of online teaching in nepal, most of the respondents replied that it is the digital age demand (65%), while some of them had mixed responses (table 4.11). with the future of online teaching in nepal, most of them (76%) responded that it was just an alternative to continue the education system during a pandemic or similar crises, although some responded with both options (table 4.11). as nepal is one of the least developed countries, online teaching is not so more accessible. there is a lack of internet access in all parts of the country. therefore, online teaching is not so easier as it is imagined. only a few people, mainly in the urban areas, have internet access. nonetheless, it is the demand of the digital age and technological development. table 4.11 necessity of online teaching in nepal what do you think about online teaching in nepal? number percentage % necessity 149 35% compulsion 82 19% the demand of the digital age 275 65% journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6129 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 61-70 68 regarding the future of the online teaching system in nepal, it cannot replace the traditional face-to-face classroom teaching as there are no such infrastructures for the effective use of online mode. therefore, it can just be an alternative to continue the education n system during a pandemic or other similar crises. it can still take a long period to use the online mode of teaching. table 4.11 future of online teaching system in nepal what do you think about the use of an online teaching system in nepal? number percentage % replacement of the traditional face-to-face classroom teaching 127 30% just an alternative to continuing the education system during a pandemic or similar crises 323 76% the majority of the respondents doubt (49%) whether online teaching can be relevant and effective in the context of nepal (table 4.12). what can be inferred from this is that online teaching may not be relevant and effective in nepal due to the lack of infrastructures and the easy access on the internet to all the places. then face-to-face mode of delivery is the only way in the formal education system in schools of nepal. table 4.12 effectiveness of online teaching in nepal question yes % maybe % no % 28. can online teaching be relevant and effective in the context of nepal? 33% 49% 18% 5. discussion the study results indicate that school level efl teachers in nepal have adequate digital literacy for online teaching during the covid-19 pandemic and other such crises. they have prepared themselves and are ready for the online mode of instruction. interestingly, 53% of respondents were from rural areas of nepal. most of them possess a laptop and/or smartphone as the digital devices used for online delivery. they have good computer skills in the primary application of tools. although most of them took training to learn computer skills, some selflearned during lockdown and pandemic periods. efl teachers in nepal are ready for online teaching with digital devices and internet access even though they were not involved in online teaching before the covid-19 pandemic. this pandemic has made them ready for online instruction. however, most of them reported that their schools had not made any provision for online teaching, presumably because of the weakness of the school management system and administration. nonetheless, some schools have started online instruction in the areas where there is access to electricity, the internet and digital devices for learning. those efl teachers involved in the online delivery of content mainly used zoom as a communication tool for teaching-learning activities, while some used messenger. teachers have mixed opinions regarding the necessity of online teaching in nepal, most of them responding that it is a requirement of the digital age in the 21st century. since nepal had adopted the traditional face-to-face mode of teaching, the online mode can be an alternative to continue the education system during a pandemic or similar crisis, as responded by most participants. the majority of them doubted that the online mode could be relevant and effective in the context of nepal. their doubt is as expected because nepal is a country with remote mountain, hill and plain areas, where there is still no access to electricity, telephone networks and the internet in most of these regions. all teachers and students do not have access to the internet in all areas. because of this reason, online teaching cannot be effective in the context of nepal. therefore, their doubt can be justifiable. this study is different from the previous studies as cited above (e.g. mudra, 2020; dashtestani & hojatpanah, 2020) in that all the other studies reflect simply efl teachers and students digital literacy skills necessary for online teaching and learning in any season, but this study explored the digital literacy skills of the efl teachers in the context of nepal. classes were never online in nepal, but due to the covid-19 pandemic, all the schools were closed due to lockdown by the government. it resulted in hampering teachinglearning activities. the only way to continue the teaching-learning process was through online teaching only. therefore, efl teachers needed to be prepared for online delivery of instruction which was not the need in other situations. hence, this study is significant. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6129 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 61-70 69 nevertheless, this study tries to overcome some limitations. firstly, data were collected through snowball sampling, which could not be as representative as it should have been to cover the target population. secondly, responses were received only from those efl teachers who had access to the internet and were younger (56%), below 25 years of age groups. thirdly, as this questionnaire adopted a digital google docs format for the survey inviting teachers to respond via email and google form mode, it required some digital literacy to respond and submit the questionnaire. 6. conclusion this study has surveyed the nepalese efl teachers' digital literacy skills necessary for online teaching at school level education. due to the global pandemic of covid-19, face-to-face classes have been suspended, making teachers compelled to be prepared for an online teaching mode. as online instruction requires basic computer skills and digital knowledge, efl teachers have to prepare themselves with these skills to run through a distance mode of teaching using technology. this study found that most secondary school-level english teachers had prepared themselves for online instruction with necessary technological skills. they were prepared for online instruction because they got a chance to learn digital skills at home due to lockdown, although most schools had no provision for this teaching mode. school administrations must make provision for online teaching until the coronavirus pandemic is controlled. schools cannot be closed, and teaching-learning activities cannot be suspended for so long as it would seriously affect children's learning. yet, this study implies that all teachers in general and english teachers specifically need to be prepared with digital literacy and skills for online teaching. their readiness for online teaching can open the door for running teaching and learning activities. through teacher readiness, they might compel the government and the schools toward this mode of instruction with necessary infrastructures and management. the effectiveness of online teaching in rural nepal merits further research. 7. acknowledgement i would like to thank the three anonymous reviewers for their constructive feedback to 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(2018). school practices to promote social distancing in k-12 schools: review of influenza pandemic policies and practices. bmc public health, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889018-5302-3 https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2020.1755205 https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2020.1755205 journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.11005 vol. 4, no. 3, december 2022, pp. 320-334 335 exploring oral presentation performance: level of mastery and common problems of efl students from selected university anselmus sahan*, benyamin kau abi, maria w. wisrance & yanuarius seran timor university, timor, east nusa tenggara province anselsahan@gmail.com article history received : 2022-01-25 revised : 2022-05-07 accepted : 2022-08-13 keywords pronunciation fluency, oral presentation mispronounced lack of fluency efl students abstract this study aims to explore the efl students’ performance in oral presentation by categorize their level of mastery, and to reveal if there are any common problems during the performance. this descriptive quantitative study purposively invited 24 students as the samples from the third semester of english study program at timor university. the data were based on students’ performance on 10 selected texts which recorded to measure their oral presentation after an internal workshop. the analysis and the scoring were based on harris’ (1969) five components in scoring speaking and with brown’s (2004) six oral proficiency scoring categories. however, this study focusing only on the pronunciation and fluency categories to be in line with the scoring rubric of competence in the 2021 academic regulation of timor university. the results showed that the students have mastered the oral presentation because their average score is 82 based their right answer is 144/150. this average scores then analysed using the academic regulation of timor university (2021) showing the majority of the students is categorized excellent (19 out of 26 students). nevertheless, two major problems in common this study manage to reveals were mispronounced/wrong pronunciation (13%) and lack of fluency (5%). the result implies that these two common problems should be put in attention during the process of learning oral performance i.e., english presentation in public. further studies are suggested to investigate the impact of practice in improving students’ oral presentations through specific workshop. 1. introduction the importance of oral presentations in the development of students' communication and presenting abilities is demonstrated by the fact that oral presentation skills are an essential skill taught and tested at the tertiary level of education. a presentation is an activity when someone demonstrates, describes, or explains something to a group of people (widyastuti and mahaputri, 2015). typically, in this activity, a presenter will give a talk about an interesting subject, either with or without visual aids (ahmad & lidadun, 2017). in other terms, presenting skill refers to the ability to capture the attention of the audience and arouse excitement in them through ideas or the presenter's performance. in contrast, yusoff (2010) defined a student's communication skills as their capacity to make a compelling oral presentation to a particular audience. none is argued that one of the skills needed in tertiary settings is the ability to master oral presentations. to keep up with the demands of the modern expectation, most colleges have begun to incorporate oral presentations as part of their course evaluation including timor university. the university believes, employers in the future favor candidates who can articulate their ideas clearly in spoken english. when all oral presentations are marked as evidence that students' speaking abilities could meet the needs of the industry, this has become more difficult (hadi et al., 2020). unfortunately, graduates nowadays do not possess the degree of oral presenting abilities that are desired. they can’t speak, read and write (koran, 2015 and rao, 2019). however, when the situation faced them with have face to face or doing presentation with the client they have no experiences. furthermore, ur (1996) and tanveer (2007) in saputra, komariah and natsir (2017) exposed that many efl students express inability and mailto:anselsahan@gmail.com 336 sometimes even acknowledge the failure in speaking foreign language such incorrect pronunciation, lack of confidence to share their opinions and ideas, lack of imagination and critical thinking, inhibition, nothing to say, the low of participation, use of mother tongue and feeling of shyness and anxiety, afraid of speaking because they were fear of making mistake while practicing. oral presentation is also a frightening problem of our students in the english study program of timor university. although the texts to be memorized have been given before, they could not memorize them well. in addition, some who could memorize well failed to present it using accepted pronunciation and fluency because they were nervous and anxious, even, they lack of practice. our students were also frustrated and afraid of the assessment given. although preparation has been done well for their oral performance, they always made astonishing result. for example, some of them just stood in front of the class because they did not remember the sentences of their texts. fitriani, apriliaswati & wardah (2015) stated that the students got impede to develop their speaking ability because of the psychological problems such as lack of self-confidence (20.11%), anxiety (21.27%) and pronunciation (16.25%). we realize that oral presentation is the realization of speaking. it is a way of practicing the language orally that can measure and portrait the students’ mastery in speaking. this skill deals with the students’ ability to speak out orally a certain topic. in reality, however, they were difficult to master pronunciation because they had low motivation, lack of confidence, unconducive environment, did not use english as their primary language, and had no enough ability in pronunciation and less attention (antaris & omolu, 2019). they claim that these problems are influenced by native language, lack of motivation, lack of practice, students’ environment, and low self-confidence. moreover, ramasari (2017) revealed that the students made of three types of pronunciation error, namely pre-systematic, systematic, and post-systematic. furthermore, the students’ dominant error made was pre-systematic error which was caused by three sources of students’ competence error in learning english as foreign language namely interference, intra lingual, and developmental. despite some of the well known previous studies on students’ oral presentation e.g., brooks & wilson, 2014; živković, 2014; murillo-zamorano & montanero, 2018; joughin, 2007; brooks & wilson, 2014, it seem none of them focusing on evaluating students’ oral presentation from efl students in the eastern indonesia, which the findings of this study could lead to a new information on process of learning english that ended by evaluating the students speaking skills through oral presentation in the end of internal workshop session. further, to measure the level of mastery of the students’ oral presentation, the department prepared ten titles of short texts and asked them to do an oral presentation during the class they enroll and the workshop they attended during the semester. they were given a free chance to choose a story to be presented orally in the crowd. to analyze the data of students’ pronunciation and fluency, this study applied rubric tool to assess a set list of criteria and objectives test as proposed by harris, 1969; brown, 2004; kurniati, eliwarti & novitri, 2015, which can be modified to only focus on pronunciation and fluency components. the result will be used to categorize their level of mastery on pronouncing words and expressing them fluently, clearly and correctly. therefore, this study attempts to gain ground on how fluency and accuracy should be treated in sla among efl students from eastern indonesia. 2. literature review some previous studies related to oral presentation have been done by many educational researchers. they view oral presentation as a learning activity that can lead students to experience some stress when the audiences are actively judging their performances and they should reply to audiences’ questions (al-nouh, abdul-kareem & taqi, 2015). it could also help the students to improve their speaking skill, increase their spirit, improve their public speaking skill, accuracy and fluency in speaking ability (yahay & kheirzadeh, 2015 and fitria & salwa, 2018). so, oral presentation can be used to improve the students to memorize a text, present it orally, and utter it fluently and accurately using high spirit. in addition, it is one of the learning techniques that is usually used in every subject material being learnt. according to alhebaish (2012), oral presentation can prepare the students to use language effectively in their daily communication. this statement signifies oral presentation as a formal conversation that should be structured, prepared, and guided to help students to present their task. some educational experts and researchers have divided oral presentation into different types. in different way, dekdouk (2013) divides oral presentation into three types: controlled, guided, and free depending on a number of factors such as the choice of the topic, grammar, vocabulary, method of presentation, the time allocated to the presentation, and the most important is learners’ proficiency levels. controlled-oral presentations fit with beginner because the teacher should limit the topics and time allocation, permit their students to use simple tools in their presentation such as a paper to read since they are young and have no knowledge about technological equipments. while 337 guided-oral presentations require the students to get lower-intermediate or intermediate level of language proficiency. it means that they are not expected to use sophisticated structural and lexical items at this stage. instead, they should be guided to the appropriate level of grammar and lexical items and the allocation of time. on the basis of the results of the previous studies, definitions of oral presentation and types of oral presentation, the act of oral presentation is still a great problem for students to master. the most problems they face in oral presentation are pronunciation and fluency. in oral presentation, they cannot pronounce the words correctly. in fluency, they sometimes repeat the pronunciation of some words many times. both problems are influenced by lack of practice. further, to solve the problem, there is only a certain technique that can help them to develop their speaking performance is by forcing them to act oral presentation in the classroom. it can be applied to all subjects they join during a semester. therefore, we did a free presentation typebased test. therefore, before handing this test, we came to classroom and observed the lecturers’ ways of teaching english and evaluating the students’ competence on oral abilities. we found that certain lecturers did not always practice the oral presentation based final tests. they claimed that they did not have time to ask their students to do the oral presentation. in addition, they stated that oral presentation just belonged to speaking subjects. however, they did not realize that oral presentation could change the students’ behavior in speaking. therefore, we dared to carry out this oral presentation test in grammar subject. 3. method this descriptive quantitative study tried, to collect and analyze information from efl students’ oral presentation, to find out if there is any common problem during the presentation and to explore their mastery in two different aspects e.g., pronunciation and fluency in their english oral presentation. twenty five (25) students from the third semester of english study program from timor university joined oral presentationbased workshop on november 25-26th 2021 as the participants. these 25 students also enrolled in composition and essay writing classes during the semester. moreover, to obtain the valid data, the study used oral test by asking the participant to present orally in the end of the workshop day based on the selected 10 texts during the workshop and their composition and essay writing classes. these texts were taken from a book entitled “let’s write english” (revised edition) written by wishon & burks (1980). the titles of the texts assigned to the students are: (1) human beings (221 words) (2) academic life (312 words) (3) a sundial (273 words) (4) the industrial revolution (419 words (5) hodja (209 words) (6) inventions (280 words), (7) roman legions (258 words) (8) food and our weight (200 words) (9) agricultural development (180 words), (10) air pollution (219 words) to analyze the data of students’ pronunciation and fluency, this study applied rubric tool called assessment rubric. it is a scoring tool used to assess a set list of criteria and objectives test. it functions to assess the students’ ability in oral presentation in english as proposed by harris (1969), brown (2004) and kurniati, eliwarti & novitri (2015), which deal with five components in scoring speaking, namely pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. however, this study focuses only on pronunciation and fluency components, categorizes their level of mastery on pronouncing words and expresses them fluently, clearly and correctly. moreover, to score their oral presentation mastery, this study uses the scoring rubric of competence level as set up in the 2021 academic regulation of timor university. this scoring rubric loads the minimum completeness criteria. it is applied to measure the students’ passing grade (see table 3.1). it deals with five levels of mastery that categorize the students’ competence: table 3.1. mastery level of the students’ answers no range of score quality letter quantity number mastery level 1 80-100 a 4 excellent 2 70-79 b 3 good 3 60-69 c 2 enough 4 50-59 d 1 poor 5 0-49 e 0 bad 338 4. results this study aims to explore the third semester of english study program from timor university oral presentation by categorizing their level of mastery, and to reveal if there are any common problems during the performance in two parts of oral presentation (pronunciation and fluency). to result will be based on the data, during the oral test based on the selected 10 texts during the workshop and their composition and essay writing classes. these texts were taken from a book entitled “let’s write english” (revised edition) written by wishon & burks (1980). the titles of the texts assigned to the students are (1) human beings (221 words) chosen by student numbers 1 and 4, (2) academic life (312 words), chosen by student numbers 2 and 6, (3) a sundial (273 words), chosen by student numbers 3 and 5, (4) the industrial revolution (419 words), chosen by student numbers 7, 8 and 9, (5) hodja (209 words), chosen by student numbers 10, 11 and 12, (6) inventions (280 words), chosen by student number 13, 14 and 15, (7) roman legions (258 words), chosen by student number 16, 17 and 18, (8) food and our weight (200 words), chosen by student number 19, 20 and 21, (9) agricultural development (180 words), chosen by student numbers 22 and 23, and (10) air pollution (219 words), chosen by student numbers 24 and 25. 4.1 students’ level of mastery to find out the level of master on their oral english oral presentation, we recorded to picture the whole story of their performance experiences. the results of the data analysis exposed in the figure 4.1. figure 4.1 students’ average score figure 4.1 shows that the total number of the students’ score is 2,133 based on the total number of the score is divided with the total number of the students (25 people). the result of the division is 82. this average score indicates that the students experiencing an excellent oral presentation during the test which consists of more than two hundred words in average. to analysis of this study count showing, their abilities on listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation are really not so bad as a third semester student who had attended the workshop or the class they enroll. to get the students’ scores, the researchers counted their right or wrong answers divided with the total number of the word of the essay given to be memorized and presented (150 words). for example, a student whose score is 96 is got by counting his right answer (144 right answers) divided with 150. the result of this count directly shows that the students only made 6 wrong answers in average. the effectiveness of oral presentation on learners’ speaking accuracy and fluency improvement can be due to the opportunity of learners in repeating the task. in the current study, the participants were expected to present twice (one as a rehearsal) throughout the workshop sessions. this strategy helps the learners can become familiar with the content they should produce during the first performance of a task and that they have enough attentional resources to devote during second performances of the same task to selecting and editing appropriate output, which may lead to improved language production. the results of the whole score analyses can be seen in the following figure. 2,133 820 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 series 1 339 figure 4.2 students answer figure 4.2 reveals that each student has potentials to make wrong expressions in both pronunciation and fluency. for example, 2 students (numbers 5 and 10) whose score is 96 made 144 wrong and 6 wrong answers; 6 students (numbers 4, 8, 13, 14, 17 and 24) who got 90 made 135 right and 15 wrong answers; 9 students (numbers 1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 11, 18, 19 and 25) who got 85 made 128 right and 22 wrong answers; 2 students (numbers 6 and 21) who got 80 made 120 right and 30 wrong answers; 1 (number 26) student who got 76 made 114 right and 36 wrong answers; 3 (numbers 12, 16 and 23) students who got 70 made 105 right and 45 wrong answers; 2 students (numbers 15 and 22) who got 65 made 98 right and 52 wrong answers; and 1 student (number 20) who got 60 made 90 right and 60 wrong answers. on the basis of data presented in figure 4.1, we would like to present their level of mastery. this level of mastery is analyzed using the scoring criteria stated in the academic regulation of timor university. the results of the data analysis will be shown in the figure 4.2. figure 4.3 students’ performance on the basis of the 2021 academic regulation of timor university, figure 4 reveals that there are 19 students (numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19, 21, 24 and 25) whose scores are ranged from 80-100, 4 students (numbers 12, 16, 23 and 26) whose scores are ranged from 70-79, and 3 students (numbers 15, 20 and 22) whose scores are ranged from 60-69, but none is ranged from 50-59 and 0-49. seen from the quantity perspective, it can be asserted that their level of mastery is categorized excellent because 19 of 26 students’ scores are on this level. 4.2 students’ common problems on oral presentation as seen in figure 4.1, the students’ overall score showed that they have mastered oral presentation. then, in figure 4.3 showed that they still expressed wrong pronunciation and fluency as the common problems during the oral presentation. therefore, this data presents their performance on oral presentation which is still experiencing mispronounced/wrong pronunciation and lack of fluency or wrong fluency. 144 135 128 120 114 105 98 90 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 right answers wrong answers scores total 340 figure 4.4 students performance figure 4.3 also reveals that the students made 3,061 (or: 78%) right answers and 513 (or: 13%) wrong answers on pronunciation while 144 (or: 4%) right answers and 182 (or: 5%) wrong answers on fluency. it indicates that they still find difficulties on pronunciation. moreover the data in figure 4.3 in details showed us that, ten students whose oral presentation contains many wrong expressions in pronunciation and fluency. student no.4 made 130 right and 10 wrong pronunciations while 5 right and 5 wrong fluencies. student number 6 made 118 right and 20 wrong pronunciations while 2 right and 10 wrong fluencies. student number 15 made 90 right and 40 wrong pronunciations while 8 right and 12 wrong fluencies. student number 16 made 105 right and 25 wrong pronunciations while 0 right and 20 wrong fluencies. student number 17 made 130 right and 10 wrong pronunciations while 5 right and 5 wrong fluencies. student number 20 made 90 right and 40 wrong pronunciations while 0 right and 20 wrong fluencies. student number 21 made 118 right and 20 wrong pronunciations while 2 right and 10 wrong fluencies. student number 21 made 90 right and 40 wrong pronunciations while 8 right and 12 wrong fluencies. student number 22 made 90 right and 40 wrong pronunciations while 8 right and 12 wrong fluencies. student number 23 made 105 right and 25 wrong pronunciations while 0 right and 20 wrong fluencies. student number 25 made 100 right and 30 wrong pronunciations while 14 right and 6 wrong fluencies. 5. discussion the results of the present study showed that the students’ average score is above the scoring criteria as stated in the academic regulation of timor university. therefore, they have mastered oral presentation and their level of mastery is excellent (82). however, mispronounced and lack of fluency were found as the common problems they faced and still the difficult to overcome during the oral presentation . the findings regarding these two common problems also similarly with some previous studies namely khalidah, gultom and harini (2013) which found that most of efl students are poor in pronouncing english words correctly and lack of fluency. wageyono and wangi (2020) also found that the students’ average score on english oral performance are good however their pronunciation and fluency is poor. moreover, simarmata and pardede (2018) showed that the students’ average score considered “enough” in pronouncing english vowels and consonants but their fluency are below standard. furthermore, moedjito, jaelani, and asrobi (2019) exposed that word pronunciation accuracy might become the most influencing factor than meaningful vocabulary or lexical accuracy which made efl speakers’ utterances more intelligible. moreover, antaris and omolu (2019) also revealed that the students were difficult to master pronunciation and fluent in english because they had low motivation, lack of confidence, inconducive environment, did not use english as their primary language, had no enough ability in pronunciation, and less attention. another similar finding also revealed by iswara, azib and rochsantiningsih, 2012; megawati, et al., 2018) showed students’ speaking fluency in academic speaking class as well as pronunciation are the weakness point of non-english students in mastering speaking skill or oral performance. dealing with oral presentation, melvina and alicia (2016) and putri, sudarsono and husin (2019) applied oral presentation to measure the students’ abilities in oral speaking. on oral presentation, according to melvina and alicia (2016), the students had some 341 problems in delivering and content of presentation. while putri, sudarsono and husin (2019) revealed that oral presentation technique could develop the students’ abilities to share their own ideas or opinions about a certain topic in front of people and they can practice their speaking skill as well. melion and thompson, (1980, p. 503; ) in suliman (2022) state that if oral presentation is guided and organized, it will give the students a learning experience and teach them an important skill which will be beneficial to esl/efl in all their education subject and later in their work. brooks & wilson (2014) and živković (2014) also state that oral presentation skills are highly needed among the workforce market around the world. it is also a meaningful tool for speaking and listening skill development. in addition, it helps develop cognitive and social skills, share and obtain knowledge, as well as promote independent learning and active learning environments. duklim and musigrungsi (2018) add that successful presenters are also required to use verbal and non-verbal communication appropriately, understand the topic of the talk, and organize the content well. therefore, liang and kelsen (2018) accentuate that clarity of content, appropriate language use, and responding to questions are the criteria to evaluate students’ oral presentation performance. they claim that without a complete understanding of what constitutes a good presentation, students may not be aware of their strengths and weaknesses as a guideline to make a better oral presentation. however, there are still many problems that need teachers’ serious attention to face. despite the use of oral activities to raise students english skill, which this study has similar opinion with, this study agreed that the ability to perform oral presentations is one of the skills that students need to acquire throughout their learning years. doing english presentations is always challenging among students, particularly non-efl students who use english as their second, third or foreign language. previous studies highlighted that second language learner usually struggle to complete oral presentation tasks. this study’s result identifies the difficulties faced when making oral presentations difficulties encountered by 155 students at 25 efl students from timor university manage to reveals that the main difficulties faced by students during their oral presentations were mispronounced and lack of fluency. the analysis of this study would enable the students to identify their problems faced during oral presentations, which could assist them in overcoming the issues, thus, preparing them well in oral presentation skills during the tertiary level of education before embarking into the workforce environment. on the part of instructors, they could set up adequate practice activities for students to have enough confidence, before the actual presentation. based on the discussion above, there is an apparent relationship between the common problems faced during the oral presentation and their causes. if the students do not thoroughly prepare for the presentation, they will be unable to practice their presentation skills, including voice control and language usage, like grammar components. therefore, this can also lead them to forget what mispronounced and lack of fluency, making them feel less confident in presenting in front and the audience. having less confidence to speak in public will hinder their opportunities to acquire more experience in an oral presentation. as such, students should be aware that conducting enough practice is crucial in assisting them with a better oral presentation (aziz, 2022). on the part of instructors, they could set up adequate practice activities for students to have enough confidence before the actual presentation (al harun et al., 2016). this implies that the teaching and learning process of all subjects in the english study program of timor university should consider oral presentation based instruction as one of the major strategy to increase students’ speaking skill and to prepare the students aware on the modern demanding. having conducted this study in the area of speaking ability which is seeing from the students’ oral performance, the study came up with other potential issues for investigation. first, accuracy, complexity and fluency are three components of speech which are not independent of each other; thus, it is more beneficial if further research considers all three components at the same time and not stop on mispronounce and fluency. second, there are some factors that can affect components of speech such as pretask activities, planning time, task repetition, the role of confidence and background knowledge. further research is needed to explore the effectiveness of these factors on speaking ability 6. conclusions after analyzing the data and discussing the results of this study, it can be concluded that the majority of the students have an excellent oral presentation skill. however, most of them still experiencing the common difficulties during the oral presentation e.g., pronunciation and fluency. indeed, these are crucial to both students’ comprehension of others’ speech as well as to their own intelligibility. developing and 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(2014). the importance of oral presentations for university students. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 5(19), 468-474 http://dx.doi.org/10.30595/jssh.v2i1.2160 http://ejournal.unp.ac.id/index.php/selt/article/view/6966/5500 http://ejournal.unp.ac.id/index.php/selt/article/view/6966/5500 http://dx.doi.org/10.26418/jppk.v8i3.32315 https://doi.org/https:/doi.org/10.31539/leea.v1i1.32 https://doi.org/https:/doi.org/10.31539/leea.v1i1.32 https://doi.org/10.33541/jet.v8i1.3293 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.9260 vol. 4, no. 3, december 2022, pp. x-x 344 language selection to attract customers’ attention: verbal branding and representation of specific ethnicity junaidi junaidi universitas lancang kuning, pekanbaru, indonesia drjunaidi01@yahoo.com article history received : 2022-01-31 revised : 2022-12-16 accepted : 2022-12-28 keywords verbal branding language selection ethnicity meaning ethnolinguistics abstract words can motivate individuals to take action. in culinary sector, distinct ethnic verbal branding is one of the techniques to identify a restaurant brand. specific phrases or words are selected to establish a powerful brand. this study aims to analyze the language selection for verbal branding and ethnicity representation in restaurants that use ethnic brands in pekanbaru, one of the metropolis cities with the largest economic activities in sumatera island. six restaurants were selected for their popular atmosphere, service, and cuisines authenticity specific to ethnic brand. this qualitative research was conducted from the perspective of cultural studies using an ethnolinguistic approach to collect data from threemonth observations and interviews with the owners of purposively-selected restaurant to help understand the phenomenon. the results indicated that, lexically, the names of the restaurants contained ethnic words directly associated with certain ethnicities and are chosen to create a memorable brand. the analysis of associative meaning reveals that the restaurant brand represents an ethnicity with its uniqueness to produce strong branding which attracts customers. the combined lexical and associative meaning shows that restaurant branding represents not only the restaurant owners’ place of origin or ethnicity but also the authentic menus that define their culinary business. research implications suggest the effectiveness of incorporating local words and ethnic representation in the restaurants’ names to bring in economic benefits and international branding. 1. introduction there has been an emerging trend of eating for pleasure instead of survival among many people in developing countries (kwon, 2015) and urban society in big cities. over and above meeting physiological needs, food is related to social interaction and psychological expression (conner & armitage, 2006). food is not simply an object to be consumed, it can even be an agent of social change (karaosmanoğlu, 2020). these phenomena have motivated restaurant owners to create ethnic branding to attract more crossethnic customers. culinary industry in big cities has increased awareness of this shifting trend of eating as entertainment, and therefore introduced the respective ethnic cuisine to these customer segments. ethnic restaurants are perceived as ones that offer their customers the experience to taste local cuisine or ethnic food specific to a country or region, in an ambience made similar to the original place (marinkovic et al., 2015). according to kwon (2015), ethnic food is the authentic food from one ethnic group or area that is culturally and socially acceptable to people outside the ethnic group. chen et al. (2021) mention that as the ethnic restaurant industry expands, effective marketing methods to attract customers in today’s competitive market are critical. baker & kim (2018a) mention that customer communication encompasses not only what is said but also the language selection and body language that supports the message. despite the growing popularity of ethnic restaurants in recent years, attracting customers from other ethnic groups has been the fundamental challenge to expanding the ethnic restaurant enterprises (zhang & hanks, 2018). as the capital city of riau province, pekanbaru is one of enormous centres of economy and trade and services in sumatra island with a high rate of migration and urbanisation growth. pekanbaru is selected for research because it is currently developing into a multiethnic trading city where various ethnic groups seize this opportunity to seek fortune in different ways that 345 include opening restaurants. some restaurants in pekanbaru are famous for their ethnic culinary to attract customers to taste food from different places. this trend of ethnic restaurant industry seems promising due to the growing migration and demography (kwon et al., 2010). ryu & zhong (2012) convey that the consumers of ethnic restaurants prefer experiencing different cultures and are eager to try new dishes. the owners of ethnic restaurants must build consumer trust, which involves three important stages in food preparation from preparation to presentation and consumption (youn & kim, 2017) and consider verbal branding potential when giving names to their ethnic restaurants in order to engage their customers. as reported by previous study, brand image, which is defined as the consumer's cognitive or emotional view of individual brands, is the most extensively researched dimension in business (rodríguez-lópez et al., 2020). therefore, naming a restaurant is the most important part of building a food brand. brands must include their name, logo, design, and other symbols to convey the essence and uniqueness of the product they are representing (susanto, 2015). naming not only exhibits the identity of a place but also specifies the importance of displaying the characteristics or variety of the food industry. the name of a restaurant may infer certain ethnic groups that characterise and identify food served in the industry. also, naming is a process of using the earliest language as a language tradition. as mentioned by fitrisia et al. (2018), there are two kinds of naming processes: common meaning and proper meaning. while common meaning is the process of naming common objects and thus forming common nouns, proper naming is the process of selfnaming to form nounself (proper nouns). in this research, proper naming is more related to cultural studies particularly the culinary industry which allows potential customers to acknowledge which restaurant to go to get their choice of food. language selection for a brand name transcends literal meaning it encompasses specific culture. therefore, bridging language and culture in the process of naming takes a linguistic science related to culture, namely ethnolinguistics. in compliance with abdullah (2013), ethnolinguistics is a linguistic science that focuses on language dimensions, such as social and cultural. fishman (2017) expresses that ethnolinguistics can be interpreted as one of several established studies of language ecology. here fishman mentions that ethnolinguistics dissects and sorts out the utilisation of language, ways and patterns of thought in terms of patterns of language use, ritual languages, and discourse creation. abdullah (2013) enunciates that the most important orientation in ethnolinguistic studies needs an understanding of lexical semantics. in doing so, the choice of brand name implicates the selection of language applied in the name itself. surprisingly, only little research has investigated the language selection for verbal branding, especially for ethnic restaurants that apply an ethnolinguistic approach. given the call for more research to examine the importance of this topic, this study aims to analyse language selection for verbal branding and representation of ethnicity in restaurants that employ ethnic brands in pekanbaru. as attested by the perspective of cultural studies using an ethnolinguistic approach in three-month observation and in-depth interviews with each restaurant owner, this study offers important contributions to current business practices for restaurant branding. this study contribute to the reduction of gaps in the current literature, which may add to the body of knowledge on restaurant branding with ethnic names, especially for language selection areas that involve a linguistic element. restaurants selected for this study have specific ethnic names that represent the corresponding ethnic groups, namely kimteng for chinese ethnicity, sultan resto for riaucoastal malay ethnicity, pondok patin for riaumainland malay ethnicity, bare solok for minangkabau ethnicity, pemuda semarang for javanese ethnicity, and koki sunda for sundanese ethnicity. therefore, incorporating semantic approach in revealing ethnic identity is appropriate in researching the naming process in the culinary industry in pekanbaru. the next contribution offered in this study is that other restaurant owners allow to implement this discovery as new insight into developing not only marketing strategies using language but also to understand beyond meaning and symbol in the selected ethnicity. therefore, this study may explain the language selection can be applied in culinary service to attract attention of the customer in positive ways based-knowledge from specific ethnic. 2. literature review language is the earliest cultural product created by humans. in congruent with keraf (2004), when reviewed from the history of language development up until the present day, the function of language can be derived from the growth motive of the language itself which may include language functions to express meaning as well as a tool for communication, social integration and adaptation, and social control. therefore, language was born in a variety of forms while representing the ethnicity in which the language grows. kridalaksana (2008) notes that language variety is a variation of language depending on usage, which varies according to the relationship between the speakers, the interlocutors, the persons being spoken of, and the medium of speaking. based on meaning, there are two types of language variety: spoken language and written language. spoken language is the way people communicate through speech or spoken words. it is the primary means of communication for most people and is frequently implemented in face-to-face interactions, 346 telephone conversations, and other forms of verbal communication. meanwhile, written language is usually more formal and structured than spoken language and tends to be more standardised and uniform across cultures and regions. both spoken and written language are important tools for communication and play a central role in our daily lives. they enable us to convey information, express our thoughts and feelings, and interact with others in various contexts. language as a means of communication facilitates shared communications and mutual understanding between people of different cultures despite differences in language and customs. more specifically in food industry, language can play a role in ethnic identification by helping identify and categorise foods associated with certain ethnicities. verbal branding alludes to using language to create and strengthen brand identity, image, and reputation. this involves developing a unique and consistent voice and tone for a brand and using specific words and phrases that reflect the brand's values and personality. effective verbal branding requires careful planning and consideration of the brand's target audience, as well as brand's positioning and value proposition. creating a consistent verbal identity that aligns with the brand strategy and resonates with the target audience is noteworthy. in the context of this point, the researcher examined the variety of written language in ethnic branding. between language and culture, the naming process needs to be bridged with linguistics related to culture. wardhaugh & fuller (2021) explain that language and ethnography are interrelated. ethnography describes the social structure, community activities, and material and symbolic sources that describe the conditions of a particular society. meanwhile, language is an important source to observe, especially the way it is implemented in social activities, religion, songs, and others. this is the background for the emergence of ethnolinguistic studies. the ethnolinguistic research on ethnic restaurants highlights the important role of language and culture in shaping ethnic dining experience and the way ethnic restaurants serve as the sites for language learning and cultural exchange. language help people express what they mean to say or do. in linguistics, the study of meaning is called semantics. palmer (2008) states that semantics is derived from greek language which means to signify. verhaar (2001) adds that semantics is a branch of linguistics that discusses meaning or the relationship between linguistic forms and entities in the world. furthermore, regarding language and meaning, especially the lexical approach and associative meaning, cruse (1986) expounds that the contextual approach assumes that the suitability of relationship with the context fully reflects the semantic characteristics or "identity" of the lexical element. chaer & muliastuti (2009) mention different types of meaning: lexical, grammatical, contextual, referential, non-referential, denotative, connotative, conceptual, associative, and words terms, idioms, and the meaning proverbs. in analysing the naming of ethnic restaurants in pekanbaru, the researcher would take two types of meaning: 1) lexical meaning: the meaning of the base (such as the word research) in a paradigm, apart from any meaning it may obtain as part of a sentence (such as researched, researching). 2) associative meaning: the meaning that a lexeme or word has regarding the relationship between the word and aspects outside of language. a crucial component of marketing for any company, particularly an ethnic restaurant, is verbal branding. using descriptive words and language, verbal branding develops a distinctive and enduring brand identity that connects with customers. verbal branding in the context of ethnic restaurant may include employing language and terminology unique to the restaurant's culture or cuisine as well as incorporating cultural characteristics into branding and marketing materials. numerous studies have been performed on verbal branding for the ethnic culinary industry. in one research, ethnic restaurants may make their patrons grasp more authenticity and connection with their culture by using culturally distinct language in their branding. this can be especially enticing to people looking for authentic ethnic food. another study reported that using cultural-specific language and imagery for restaurant branding may contribute to creating a sense of belonging to a place and cultural identity, which is a key element in luring and keeping consumers. a previous research relevant to this study was conducted by santosa (2020) who explored the naming of coffee shops in surabaya which engaged the themes of feeling, and performed a semantic study through interviews with the owners to understand the motives and concepts of the coffee shop. in addition, rahayu et al. (2019) examined the naming of tourist attractions in karanganyar regency using semantic studies and linking them to the historical values of the surrounding area using interviews. it was found that the naming conveyed a relationship between language and culture of people in karanganyar. a study by erkmen & hancer (2019) entitled “an examination of other customers, brand image, trust, and restaurant attributes" examined the role of other customers to explain the relation with a brand. applying quantitative research using structural equation modelling, the findings supported the sequential link for restaurants, namely experience attributes, brand relationship, and brand preference. while all restaurant attributes except other customers explain customers' satisfaction, service quality and other customers played a significant role in forming the brand image in the minds of restaurant customers. 347 these studies reveal that verbal branding is a powerful tool for creating a unique and memorable brand identity in the ethnic restaurant industry. 3. method this research was conducted within the framework of analysing the meaning of lexical semantics in the concept of culture. theoretically, it used ethnolinguistic approach with a qualitative descriptive analysis. the location of this research is the culinary industry in pekanbaru, as the capital cities of sumatera island. the researcher conducted three-month observations and in-depth interviews to gather the data. six restaurants in pekanbaru city were purposively sampled as the object of this research based on their names which conveyed ethnic food branding and their popularity in pekanbaru. these restaurants also represent the dominant ethnic groups in pekanbaru in which ethnic restaurant is an emerging trend. kimteng represents chinese ethnicity, pemuda semarang represents javanese, bare solok represents minangkabau, sultan resto represents riau-coastal malay, pondok patin represents riau-mainland malay, and koki sunda represents sundanese ethnicity. the researcher interviewed the restaurant owners or senior employees who have worked at the restaurant for more than five years. interviews were recorded to acquire candid responses. the informants were allowed to review the accuracy of their answers. data from the interviews and observations were grouped based on the ethnic naming, which was the focus of this study. furthermore, the data is described and analysed to get the lexical semantic meaning of the naming by chaer (1999)’s theory. after that, the researcher drew conclusions by virtue of the results of the study. 4. results and discussion this study examines the language selection in the naming process of the culinary industry in pekanbaru in conformity with the existing ethnic naming by glancing at the lexical and associative meaning as initiated by chaer (1990). the following section elaborate the ethnic food and cultural representation of each restaurant. 4.1 pondok patin pondok patin is one of the restaurants in pekanbaru city which carries the ethnic name from riaumainland malay. run in a modern management, pondok patin is the provider of traditional food with good quality and excellent services to consumers (doni, 2016).this restaurant has the slogan "you have not been to pekanbaru unless you visit pondok patin," which means tourists should visit this well-known restaurant for its mainstay menu of patin (catfish). pondok patin consists of two meaningful words. first, the word "pondok" according to the great indonesian dictionary v (kbbi v) carries four meaning: 1) n. buildings for temporary places (such as those built in the fields, in forests); teratak: at the edge of the forest that was about to be cleared was set up several fruits 2) n. house (a derogatory term): if you do not mind, please stop by for a moment at – my house. 3) n. a residential building with tiled walls and thatched roofs (for several families to live in). 4) n. madrasas and dormitories (places to recite the alqur'an and study islam): in that area, several are managed in modern. in this context, "pondok" refers to points 1 and 2 the lexical meaning in point 1. n is certainly about identity, referring to an object built on a piece of land. meanwhile, point 2 refers to the lexical and philosophical meaning of a house or culinary brand that one wants to build. in an associative sense, “pondok” is a remarkable place, rich in traditional elements that give modest and humble impression. pondok patin restaurant is designed with a concept of a rural malay house, namely a wooden stilt house that gives out simple but exquisite impression. as a simple and unpretentious place, pondok patin has become the main attraction for its customers. second, "patin" or catfish, is a species of fish associated with kampar river and kampar-malay ethnicity. kampar is one of the regencies in riau province where catfish is a leading national commodity and has become an icon of the district (nurman et al., 2019). interviews with the owner of pondok patin revealed that "patin" is selected as the restaurant’s name to provide a distinctive brand to attract customers. accordingly, potential buyers of pondok patin restaurant would instantly know that this restaurant provides typical menus of river cuisine from kampar. a variety of traditional dishes from kampar malay includes sour spicy baung (tropical catfish), salai fish (smoked fish), pantau fish, and giant prawns strengthen the identity of this restaurant. therefore, when combined, “pondok patin” represents kampar culture as part of riau-mainland malay. from the explanation above, restaurant owners would persistently attempt to create a distinct impression of their restaurant. on top of naming restaurants with unique ethnic-associated words that highlight regional characteristics, restaurant owners need to create a restaurant atmosphere that is no less interesting. pondok patin has accomplished this cultural representation by selecting the words pondok and patin as the restaurant brand. additionally, interesting experiences, delicious special food, friendly service, and a comfortable place give a positive impression on each customer (megawati, 2012). one of the unique element of pondok patin is the food presentation. instead of asking customers to order from the menu, the waiters bring all food and dishes listed in the menus to the customers’ table so that they can taste all of them. 348 kim and jang (2019) mention that affluent millennials, access to worldwide travel, ethnic variety, cultural experience, and more media exposure have contributed to the rise in demand for ethnic cuisine. as a result, from year to year, pondok patin always attract visitors and even survive competition from other culinary businesses, such as cafes and restaurants that offer the same culinary specialities (sari & hendri, 2020). 4.2 sultan resto sultan resto is a restaurant that has strong malay elements. customers can enjoy the atmosphere of a dining area with accurate malay touch. to enhance the restaurant's appearance, sultan resto has a room designed mostly with wooden interior. every corner displays old photographs of historic pekanbaru city. apart from the unique concept of the room, a unique ritual is usually carried out. before customers enjoy their meal, the waiters at the sultan resto will read some malay rhymes as an opening. for branding purposes, the name sultan resto consists of two words. “sultan” means king, and “resto” is the short for restaurants. according to the great indonesian dictionary v (kbbi v), sul. tan is a noun which means king or his majesty, for example sultan yogya and sultan johor. lexically, “sultan” denotes the highest position of a social structure as the king. sultan may be selected to reflect the cultural heritage of malay region and historical importance of the area, especially siak. alternatively, sultan can convey luxury to denote an upscale dining experience although the researcher’s observation found that malay specialties in sultan resto are relatively affordable. in associative meaning, the word "sultan" in riau malay culture certainly signifies siak sultanate, which is the basis of the existing riau malay culture and the establishment of riau province. for this reason, it is certainly not surprising that siak sultanate has become part of cultural identity for riau province. the results of interviews with the owners and employees of the sultan resto further strengthen this. culinary industry are apparently eager to represent the cultural heritage of siak sultanate in their restaurant building and menu. the culinary industry is trying to revive the traditions that once existed in the siak sultanate by designing the restaurant in authentic malay design and serving the customers with authentic malay cuisine. regardless of specific reasons behind the name of sultan resto, branding and marketing efforts need to align with the restaurant’s name and identity. this can involve using culturally specific language and imagery in marketing materials and highlighting the unique aspects of the culture and cuisine that the restaurant represents. in this way, the lexical meaning found is in line with the ethnic and cultural concepts carried out and becomes the mission of the culinary industry. to conclude, restaurant owners can use their unique ways to market their products so that consumers are able to feel the emotional side of the products offered. this could be the beginning of a branding success in marketing products or food at the sultan resto restaurant. it is important to consider a restaurant's name carefully, as it can significantly impact a business's overall branding and marketing efforts. when choosing a name for an ethnic restaurant, it is important to consider the culture and cuisine that the restaurant represents, as well as the target customer and overall business goals. 4.3 kimteng the name kimteng is associated with chinese ethnic background. it is a coffee shop that serves coffee and other beverages, as well as food from a specific ethnic group in china. chinese ethnic coffee shops often focus on displaying the culture and serving a variety of cuisine of a particular ethnic group in china. chinese ethnic coffee shops may offer a range of cultural experiences, such as music and dance performances or classes and workshops on traditional crafts and skills. in china, the appeal of many international and ethnic cuisines has been promoted through increased globalisation, international trade, foreign investments and outbound tourism (wang et al., 2016). the name kimteng is derived from the founder’s name. lexically, "kim" is the surname and "teng" is the last name or given name. in proportion to the arrangement of writing chinese names, the surname is written in first then followed by the nickname.vin associative meaning, kimteng is not simply the name of the founder. over time, kimteng has transformed into a particularly strong image and brand, building on its specific characteristics. this is evident from the results of interviews with the manager of kimteng. pursuant to its history, kimteng has undergone several change. it was started with yu hun coffee shop which kimteng co-managed with his brother, then changed to kedai kopi nirmala, and again to kedai kopi segar which became its official name. however, the name kedai kopi segar is unpopular. the failure of the name suggests that linguistic branding may take numerous shapes, including the language used in marketing and advertising materials, the tone and style of communication, and the words and phrases to describe the brand and its products or services. for the local community, the mention of kimteng coffee shop is more familiar because it contains the owner's name. finally, kimteng is succeeded by kim teng’s grandson, mulyadi, who officially established kimteng as the coffee shop's name because kimteng has been closely associated with the coffee shop and it is a way to remember his grandfather's struggle to establish and build the coffee shop. 349 4.4 bare solok “bareh” is a word derived from minang language. factually, “bareh" denotes "rice" in indonesian. in relation to the lexical meaning in the great indonesian dictionary, "rice" is a noun word which means either rice that has been peeled off (which becomes rice after being cooked), or grains (such as corn, coffee). meanwile, “solok” is a noun word which means a valley between two mountains, a city in west sumatra province where rice is produced, or a district in west sumatra province, whose capital is arosuka. therefore, on the authority of the lexical meaning, it has been emphasised that the naming of bare solok restaurant is faithful to the concept of rice (food) originated from solok. in associative meaning, solok area adverts to the names of districts and cities within the province of west sumatra. solok region produces the best quality of rice in west sumatra, which is well known outside of west sumatra. rice as the main raw ingredient of restaurant industry is indisputably the most important factor. in some cultures, rice is perceived as a symbol of prosperity and abundance (wijaya, 2019). for example, in parts of asia, it is common to throw rice at weddings as a way of wishing the newlyweds a prosperous life together (wijaya, 2019). this indicates that using the best raw ingredients may produce the best cuisine. this statement was reinforced by the owner of the bare solok culinary industry when interviewed. furthermore, language can be used to communicate information about the food production process, such as the ingredients and how to cook it, which may be related to certain ethnic traditions. this choice of language allows assisting in promoting ethnic food, for example, by employing terms in the language the food is from or by a language that can be translated into other languages to attract consumers from various ethnic backgrounds. 4.5 pemuda semarang pemuda semarang restaurant combines the word “pemuda” with “semarang”. "pemuda" is the indonesian translation of an english word "young". according to the great indonesian dictionary v (kbbi v), “pemuda” connotes with people who are still young, young people, cadets, -the hope of the nation. semarang lexically alludes to the capital city of central java province, a city known for its diverse culinary delights, with a wide selection of local and international dishes available. the term "pemuda" in associative denotes "youth" conveys energy, enthusiasm, and a sense of optimism about the future. this term can be associated with physical vitality and mental agility. associatively, pemuda semarang restaurant may be established or ] owned by young people in semarang. however, based upon the interview with informants from the restaurant, the naming of pemuda semarang refers to the owner of the chilli recipe at the restaurant from semarang the first time. meanwhile, the owner of pemuda semarang restaurant is from palembang in sumatra island instead of semarang in java island. this information conveys the associative meaning that pemuda semarang was not necessarily established by young people in semarang but they still serve menu which is specific to javanese cuisine. with this regard, selecting language elements to serve as the branding of an ethnic restaurant should align with the brand personality and values. baker & kim (2018a) assert that the approach of spelling or pronouncing a brand name in a foreign language, in harmony with branding literature, may act as a key cue that sparks connections with certain origins. 4.6 koki sunda the term for "koki" and "sunda" carries its own meaning in the great indonesian dictionary v (kbbi v). "koki" is a noun word which means a chef or an expert in culinary arts. "sunda" is also a noun word which refers to an ethnic group that inhabits the area of west java, or the language spoken by the sundanese. combined, the lexical meaning of “koki sunda” is a cook who comes from the sundanese ethnicity. as reported by an interview with one of the employees in koki sunda, the name of koki sunda has accurately elicited that the chef of this restaurant is from sunda. in sundanese language spoken in west java, the term "koki" refers to a type of food made by mixing rice with other ingredients, such as vegetables, meat, or seafood, then wrapping the mixture in banana leaves and cooking over the fire or on the stove. likewise, in associative meaning, if the cook is from sunda, the dishes are sundanese dishes. when traced directly to the culinary industry, the menu served in koki sunda is typical sundanese cuisine, from fresh vegetables to tamarind soup. sundanese cuisine is known for the use of various herbs and spices, as well fresh, local ingredients. some popular dishes from sundanese cuisine include sate maranggi (grilled satay), nasi timbel (rice wrapped in banana leaves), and lalapan (fresh vegetables served with spicy sauce). associatively, the sundanese ethnicity is amid the dominant malay ethnicity in pekanbaru. as specified by baker & kim (2018b), an ethnic restaurant should concentrate on the distinctive components that convey its ethnic identity through language selection on the menu as well. overall, the language selection plays an important role in promoting and introducing ethnic foods to consumers and reinforcing the culture and traditions associated with these foods. 4. conclusions this study examines language selection for verbal branding and ethnic representation in restaurants that utilise ethnic brands in pekanbaru, one of sumatra island's major cities. the analysis reveals that the names of six culinary industry places in pekanbaru 350 represent certain ethnicities. the representation in terms of lexical and associative meaning does not solely imply the place of origin or ethnicity of the owner of the culinary industry; it associates the menu selections with ethnic and cultural aspects which characterise each restaurant. in addition, it is a form of building and developing the brand of the culinary industry itself. in conformity with this research, it is expected to bring great benefits, theoretically and practically. the theoretical benefit is that it can classify the ethnic naming in the ethnolinguistic realm on the development of the culinary industry in pekanbaru city. regarding the practical benefits, it is expected that future researchers will be more mindful of the importance of names, especially in the culinary industry which is growing rapidly. however, this study is not without limitations. it generally analysed six ethnic restaurants in pekanbaru and there were rooms for more many questions for further investigation. future studies need to be conducted to establish ethnic restaurants with a more varied range of ethnicities in several regions using an ethnolinguistic approach. references abdullah, w. 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(2018). online reviews: the effect of cosmopolitanism, incidental similarity, and dispersion on consumer attitudes toward ethnic restaurants. international journal of hospitality management, 68, 115-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2017.10.008 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i2.6335 vol. 3, no. 2, august 2021, pp. 96-104 96 the teachers’ roles in reducing the interference of l1 in audio-lingual classrooms: a qualitative case study in malaysian primary school mohammad naim rahim 1* & sayed ali reza ahmadi 2 1 kunduz university, kunduz. afghanistan 2 universiti teknologi malaysia, johor bahru. malaysia mnaim.rahim@gmail.com article history received : 2021-03-14 revised : 2021-03-18 accepted : 2021-08-16 keywords l1 l2 teachers’ audio-lingual method role model orchestra leader motivator abstract this research article explores the teachers’ roles in reducing l1 (first language) interference in audio-lingual classrooms. the main concern of the audio-lingual method is to focus less on grammar and teaching it inductively. there is also an emphasis on pronunciation in this method. using tapes, visual language aids, and new materials are presented in an interactive model. the teacher presents a new structure using communicative models, and there is less focus on l1. the study applies a qualitative case study and uses observation and interview data collection techniques in a particular primary school of malaysia during the english language sessions. the thematic analysis technique is performed to categorize the significant findings into three main themes: teacher as a role model, teacher as an orchestra leader, and teacher as a motivator. the data from classroom observation is triangulated to determine how the data is closed to the interview. the finding shows the problems of using l1 in teaching l2 (second language) since the interference of l1 negatively impacts learning l2. the study contributes to the perspective that english teachers in audiolingual classrooms are expected to understand their objective roles. the result also implies the teachers' significance to accept that using l1 in maxim spoils learning l2, especially in an audio-lingual classroom. 1. introduction the concept of foreign language teaching and learning has emerged broadly in the world today. teaching english as one of the international languages has been divided into many other subbranches, like teaching english as a foreign language (efl) or teaching english as a second language (esl). it is currently discussing traditional or modern language teaching methods and the use of postmethods and 21st-century learning modules in efl education (rahim, 2021). in primary time, language teaching methodology (ltm) has also become an issue for most institutions where language teaching and learning is a cornerstone. indeed, the 21st century is the age of intelligence and meaningful communication where mostly the political, economic, or cultural borders do not matter (harari, 2019). as such, communities across the world seek better ways to communicate effectively. in this regard, the concepts of teaching language and how to teach a foreign language have become a great business and attractive educational phenomenon globally. however, while language teaching methodology is focused, traditional methods align with e-learning in language teaching classrooms, even during the covid-19 pandemic. one of the typical traditional methods in schools and universities is the audio-lingual method which needs further investigations to address its potentials and limitations in foreign language classrooms. initially, the theory of underlying language audiolingualism is derived from the structural approach to language, which is developed by fries in the 1950s. saricoban (2016) has also indicated that structural linguistics is a reaction to the traditional approaches which have linked the study of language to philosophy. according to nita and syafei (2012), it is not easy for students to communicate english. they have to think more when speaking because they need to produce the correct sentences and appropriate words, even with good pronunciation. since students are exposed to learn the english language in the context of l1, on the other hand, there is a classic perception of learning a second language interfering with l1. indeed, without using the second language in an authentic way of communication, it is impossible to learn it, primarily if l1 is used in a second language classroom. therefore, this particular case study intends to explore the roles of teachers in reducing the interference of l1 in an audio-lingual classroom. https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i2.6335 mailto:mnaim.rahim@gmail.com 97 in addition, hashemi and kew (2020) indicated that english teachers must focus on teaching the english language rather than teaching about the english language using l1 in the language learning process through blended learning approaches. indeed, using traditional methods of language teaching and learning facilitate teachers to teach about language. english language textbook evaluation also shows that there is always an emphasis on teaching specific skills in language classrooms, which focuses less on students' communication competence. a study in terms of the skills in english textbooks indicate that it covers all four skills of language learning, but the evaluation shows a considerable focus on reading, grammar, and vocabulary (rahim, mohammadi, & hashemi, 2021). however, the integration of technology enhances this objective as teaching the english language is to communicate efficiently. learners can make themselves understood and use their current proficiency to the fullest through the use of social media and ict potentials since the growing technology of the world is transforming the paradigms, including the students' needs, the layout of the classrooms, and the stakeholders' requirement for employability (rahim & zare, 2021). according to hornby (2000), teaching means instructing, providing learners with the knowledge, skill, and language input. hence, teachers should potentially motivate the learners to interact using their obtained knowledge and skills of the language. besides, burnkart (1998) stated that language learners should avoid confusion due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary and observe the social and cultural rules in each communication context. since the interference of l1 in a second language classroom damages the social and cultural aspect of the language and abuses the fact that language is purely learned byproduct of language itself. therefore, the interference of l1 in learning l2 will reduce the production of a second language. this reality makes teachers think of how using target language teaching ability could be mastered and applied in the classroom. many students are still afraid of using english, and even they cannot speak english in malaysia (badrasawi et al., 2020). the reason for using l1 accordingly by the instructors as a tool is to make sure that the students learn about the language. it does not work while the purpose of second language teaching and learning is to develop communicative competencies. when the teachers produce l1 in the classroom, students face a lack of l2 input to produce the appropriate language. they feel a lack of vocabulary, sentence structures, oral communicative skills, and pronunciation. in contrast, the teacher can teach pronunciation through various activities to engage the student in using l2. the audio-lingual method is one way to solve this problem. this method can drill students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. richards and rodgers (2001) also stated that the audio-lingual method advises that the students are taught a language directly without using their native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. thus, teaching english as a second language improves learners' communicative skills and produces the language appropriately. the audio-lingual method does not focus on teaching vocabulary but the teacher drills the student in using grammar and pushes the students to parrot the utterances spoke out by the teachers to train their pronunciation. according to nita and syafei (2012), in an audio-lingual method, the teacher's role is central and active; it is a teacherdominated method. the teacher models the target language, controls the direction and pace of learning, monitors and corrects the students' performance. the teacher is also responsible for providing the students with a good model for imitation because the students are imitators of the teacher's model. according to saricoban (2016), the teacher's role is teacherdominated because the teacher becomes a model like a native speaker and the students have to repeat what their teacher says. therefore, the students follow the teacher's directions and respond accurately and as rapidly as possible. the results of a study by mohammadi et al. (2019) also indicated that the majority of the teachers in the primary schools of malaysia switch to students' l1 to accommodate low proficiency learners and explain complex concepts such as grammar and vocabulary to the learners. according to this study, 80 per cent of the participant agreed to minimize the interference of l1 in second language learning classrooms. since l1 is a barrier to learning l2, it also prevents the student from acquiring valuable input in the l2 (krashen & terrell, 1983). the study also shows a research gap that there is a lack of teachers’ understanding in the primary schools of malaysia to focus on their potential roles in reducing the interference of l1 in teaching l2. as a result, it is crucial to explore the teachers’ roles in reducing the interference of l1 in an audio-lingual classroom. this will provide an accurate understanding for efl and esl teachers to focus on their potential roles in teaching l2 by applying the audio-lingual method. therefore, this particular study applies a qualitative case study to address the objectives and fulfil the research gap in exploring the teachers’ roles in reducing the interference of l1 in learning l2 using the audio-lingual method. this qualitative case study is conducted since the research design enables the study in exploration of the issue within malaysian primary school through various data sources in this case (observation and interview) and it undertakes the exploration through a variety of lenses to reveal multiple facets of the phenomenon (creswell & poth, 2017). this research method also helps in generating an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of the 98 teachers’ roles in reducing the interference of l1 in learning l2 in the real-life context. the participants are english language students and the teacher who are purposefully selected from a particular primary school in malaysia. according to elmusharaf (2012), the purposeful sampling technique is broadly used in qualitative research to identify and select an in-depth understanding of the cases related to the perspectives of the discipline practitioners. classroom observations (field notes) and interviews are used as data collation techniques. according to creswell and poth (2017), field observations and interviews are techniques where the researcher/s observes and investigates the participants in real locations and situations, such as workplaces, homes, and institutions (malaysian primary school). these techniques help the study to understand the participants' behaviour, habits, needs, social relations, and perceptions in their teaching and learning environment. the data analysis technique is thematic since thematic analysis aims to code, pattern, categorize, and identify the themes in the crucial data and use these themes to address the research (clarke & braun, 2013). this is much more than simply summarizing the data; an excellent thematic analysis interprets and makes sense of it. therefore, thematic analysis is performed to answer the main research questions; 1. what are the teachers’ roles in an audio-lingual classroom? 2. how to reduce the interference of l1 in learning l2? this also contributes to enriching the body of existing literature as well as provides an indepth understanding of the teachers’ roles in reducing the interference of l1 in learning l2 using the audiolingual method for educators in the field and language experts. 2. literature review 2.1 what is audio-lingual method? many studies in language teaching and learning have indicated that no single method is proper rather an integration of approaches. each language teaching and learning method, including traditional methods and e-learning, has its barriers and opportunities. as rahim and sandaran (2020) indicated that elearning is said to enhance efl education, there are still barriers and opportunities for the use of this approach that needs to be investigated. therefore, english teachers, training experts, language professionals, and linguists in malaysia should realize to use which method while teaching english as a second or foreign language. one of the methods initiated in the mid-20th century is audio-lingual. according to larsenfreeman and anderson (2018), the audio-lingual method urges students to drill short patterns and many other interactions where students are supposed to listen, repeat, and memorize. the researcher focuses on creating outputs for learners in dramatic ways to member the inputs based on music, imitation, and drills. on the other hand, some studies have investigated that the audio-lingual method has been extracted from linguistic and psychological theories. for example, brown (2001) indicated that mimicry drills and pattern practices are the two leading psychological indicators by which learners could effectively comprehend the outputs. therefore, the audio-lingual method is recognized as the scientific method developed by enhancements in psychology and linguistics (rahim, 2021). hence, audio-lingual substitution drills are mechanical exercises that reinforce structural patterns and practice. for instance, the teacher repeats a dialogue sentence. then the learners supply a prompt. moreover, the environment of the class is a significant variable using the audio-lingual method. tavakoli (2017) stated that creating a secure and relaxed class environment where students never feel threatening leads to successful learning outcomes. class management, seating arrangement, sight, and design also play a pivotal role in learning and teaching. despite the replacement of the audio-lingual method by up-to-date methods such as communicative language teaching (clt) and its by-products approaches, the current study has shown that the audio-lingual method still functions better in efl and esl classrooms. since the children are keen to learn communicatively via gestures, music, repetition, and group work in the primary schools of malaysia (mohammadi et al., 2019). besides other contextualized methods, the audio-lingual method also assists primary school children to learn using the teacher's body language, picture description, and drills (larsen-freeman & anderson, 2018). 2.2 reducing the interference of l1 in learning l2 using audio-lingual method audio-lingual is a method by which second language (l2) teachers could reduce students' first language (l1) in a second language classroom. this approach seemed to be effective since students are pushed to use l2 purposefully. however, there are many debates on using l1 in l2 classrooms, either by teachers or students (mohammadi et al., 2019). many interconnected factors, such as culture, context, setting, and aptitude, have dramatically come in as various variables, including or excluding the l1 in teaching and learning l2. according to phillipson (1994), sometimes english teachers teach an englishonly classroom for political or practical agendas where students vividly experience the complete exclusion of l1. such concepts ignore bilingual education theories, as pennycook (1994) also explained that the concept of bilingual education nowadays seems to be not sufficient and is no longer effective. 99 as english language educators, we had also experienced the situation when our students used l1 (persian) in our english classes at the universities of afghanistan. they naturally quit using l2 (english). we believe that once students use l1, they perpetuate it naturally and ignore speaking in l2. a study on the blended learning approach in efl education indicates that using l1 in l2 classes could endanger teachers' knowledge. phillipson (1994) stated that if a teacher uses l1 in teaching an l2, there is a risk of having higher l1 communicative competence by the students where the teacher's abilities to control the class and arguments could be diminished. one of the remarkable notions that belief in maximum use of l2 is the relationship between l2 comprehensible input and l2 proficiency (krashen, 1985). according to krashen (1985), any part of l2 should be taught and learned communicatively. since the more the students are exposed to l2 communication, the more they are aware of language production. 2.3 problematisation of using l1 in learning l2 there are many debates whether the first language (l1) has a dominant role in learning a second language (l2). for instance, mitchell and myles (2004) stated that learning l2 is extensively different from l1. they believe that each language possesses its own syntactic, semantic, cultural, and contextual connotations. therefore, learners should learn l2 within their values. in the context of malaysian primary schools, the english language is taught through the influence of l1. however, students should be qualified for muet, the malaysian university english test that helps schools prepare for university admissions. thus, it is crucial to explore the teachers’ roles in reducing the interference of l1 in an audiolingual classroom to provide an authentic understanding of the issue in primary schools of malaysia. from the behavioristic perspective, l1 plays both positive and negative roles in learning l2, but more focus is on the opposing side. for example, ellis (1994) stated that most errors made by l2 learners cause using l1 as a source of content. learners directly translate the concepts with the same collocations and connotations, even sometimes with the same cultural values. these adaptations defunctionalise l2 language awareness. moreover, there are some theoretical concepts in second language acquisition on the disadvantages of using l1 in learning l2. these concepts vividly show the importance of l2 isolated from l1. one of the influential pioneers in this field is krashen (1985), whose monitor model's theory suggests five concepts about learning a second language: a) the acquisition-learning hypothesis b) the natural order hypothesis c) the monitor hypothesis d) the input hypothesis e) the affective filter hypothesis first, the acquisition-learning hypothesis states that adults can develop competence in a second language in two distinct and independent ways: acquisition and learning. while the acquisition is a subconscious process in which learners acquire a language 'naturally' through authentic communication; and learning is conscious that refers to developing formal knowledge of a language. according to krashen (1985), like children, adults still can acquire a second language. the natural order hypothesis claims that grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order (krashen & terrell, 1983). the monitor hypothesis explicitly states that l2 learners depend only on the acquired system to generate utterances and that conscious learning can only be used as a monitor to make changes to the utterances generated by the acquired system, either before or after they are produced. furthermore, monitor use is said to be very limited since three requirements have to be met to use the monitor: (1) the learner has enough time; (2) the learner is thinking about correctness; (3) the learner knows the rule. while the monitor hypothesis indicates a central role for acquisition in developing second language competence, the input hypothesis answers how acquisition takes place. it states that acquisition occurs when acquirers understand input that is a little beyond their current level of competence. they can move from stage i to the next stage, i + 1, by understanding input containing i + 1 (i represents their current competence). the affective filter hypothesis says that attitudinal factors, such as motivation, relate to subconscious language acquisition and that learners with optimal attitudes will obtain more input and acquire more. in addition, krashen and terrell (1983) recognized that the l1 could be used as a short-term solution to meet the immediate needs of learners in l2 communication before they acquire sufficient l2 competence, they acknowledged that falling back on the l1 could have a negative influence on l2 learning, for example, errors emerging as a result of the inconsistency between the l1 and l2 rules. furthermore, unlike behaviourists who claimed that interference was caused by the negative transfer of learners' knowledge of their l1, krashen and terrell (1983) adopted newmark's ideas. they interpreted interference as the result of a strategy for communication that learners used when they did not have sufficient knowledge of the l2. they also believed that the disadvantages of falling back on the l1 outweighed the advantages in the long run. moreover, the cure proposed by krashen and terrell (1983) for interference, the acquisition, is coming only from comprehensible input. this seems to indicate that the primary responsibility for l2 100 teachers in their teaching is to provide sufficient comprehensible l2 input. they further explained that l1 interference occurred because the second language performers have to talk "too early" before having the time and input to build enough competence to use acquired competence (krashen & terrell, 1983). therefore, to overcome l1 interference, they suggested that learners should wait for sufficient competence to build up through input before communicating in the l2 rather than using the l1 as a temporary substitute; that is, the l2 should be acquired separately from learners' l1 to avoid the negative influence of the l1. krashen's (1985) view that input at the appropriate level of difficulty is sufficient for l2 acquisition to take place has been regarded as inadequate in more recent theories. 3. method the study has applied a qualitative case study using observations and interview data collection techniques. this type of study aims to understand the subject being studied (creswell & poth, 2017). the sample size is kept into one class observation during three sessions to spend more time and extract more accurate information regarding the teachers’ roles in reducing the interference of l1 in an audio-lingual classroom. according to creswell and poth (2017), a small sample size still adds credibility to the sample when a potential purposeful sample is to consider his/her motivation for participation. the sampling method, therefore, is purposeful sampling. the participant of the study is an english teacher and students in sekolah kebangsaan nusa perintis (1), gelang patah, johor, malaysia. this school is located in a rural area and is established in 2003. since the study is a part of the master degree project, the school is introduced with an official letter by the universiti teknologi malaysia, where the researchers pursue their postgraduate studies. the teacher has been teaching english for three years. the teacher graduated from one of the teacher training colleges in malaysia to teach english as a second language (tesl). this research is conducted among year 2 gamma school students. their proficiency level is intermediate. they also came from a rural area, and their mother tongue is malay. this qualitative case study has executed an observation checklist and structured interview as a data collection technique. the observation checklist is adapted from christine (2007) that suits the topic of the study as nunan (1992) indicated that there is no substitute for direct observation as a way of finding out about language in classrooms. the observation checklist contains aspects based on the roles of the teacher in the audio-lingual classroom. the structured interview, according to mcdonough and mcdonough (1997), performs well as the principal research tool for gathering information about what respondents know, which in this study is used to get accurate information about the teacher's opinion and the teachers’ roles in reducing the interference of l1 in the audio-lingual classroom. the researcher determined the interview questions before the interview session. this is to get the information from the teacher’s point of view of the topic. the interview session is conducted after the observation sessions. the data collection is carried out during the english language period. the duration of the class is 60 minutes. the checklist contains aspects based on the three prominent roles of the teachers in the audiolingual classroom. the adapted checklist is given to three different observers. the observers have observed the observable behaviour of the teacher and filled in the information in the checklist form. the data is collected utilizing non-participant observation since being a non-participant observer allows the researchers to sit back and record what transpired in the whole class without disrupting the natural environment of the classroom (mcdonough & mcdonough, 1997). a video recorder was used to record the classes observed. after the observation, an interview was carried out to get insight information from the teacher. the interview questions are also focused on three main roles of the teacher in the audio-lingual method. the interview session is audio/video recorded so that the researchers collected the best data from the teacher. it is also to ensure the data collected is genuine and no irrelevant information is added. essentially, the multiple sources of data or the use of mixed methods enhance the credibility of a research study by triangulation (creswell & poth, 2017). the audio and video of the observation and interview are transcribed to analyze the data. the data from three classroom observations are compared to determine how the data is relevant to the interview. this is done to ensure the data from observation is consistent and valid. after that, the data from both instruments, observations checklist, and interviews are triangulated. findings from the different sources are validated through a triangulation process (miles & huberman, 1994). the researchers compared both data in a table form to find the similarities between the teacher's beliefs and classroom practices. this is to find the emerging themes from both sources of data. the data of the study are categorized into three main themes based on the roles of the teacher in reducing the interference of l1 in an audio-lingual classroom. 4. findings and discussions based on the transcription and analysis of the data from observation and interview in an audio-lingual classroom, the findings and discussions from both data sources are compared to ensure the triangulation process. the result is also thematically discussed into three main themes: teacher as a role model, teacher as an orchestra leader, and teacher as a motivator. 101 4.1 data triangulation to validate the credibility of the data based on the observations and interview, the study used the data triangulation technique and compared the findings to identify how the data from the observations are relevant to the interview. table 4.1 classroom observation checklist no. items yes no remarks 1. the teacher instructs in english.  the whole lesson ask the students to sing and make an act of “feeling hungry doo..doo..doo feeling you”. 2. the teacher gives feedback to students in english.  looking to the individual task. 3. the teacher checks students’ comprehension in english.  ask questions to the students when they presented. 4. the teacher explains new words in english.  explain the word stealstaking other student’s things without permission. 5. the teacher discusses tasks given in english.  ask the students to do a thinking map about the cat's feelings. the teacher gave the last exercise (rearranging) to the students to write a number and write them in a paragraph based on the story posted on the board. 6. the teacher translates the instruction in l1.  7. the teacher sets rules when assigning group activities.  discussed quietly model the map and ask the students to do the map. 8. the teacher monitors the students during a group activity.  go group by group 9. the teacher penalizes the students if they make a mistake.  10. the teacher praises the students.  the teacher says very well after the students read. ask students to give a clap to themselves. 11. the teacher gives rewards to students.  teacher gave the students rewards (pencil) when students read the story with actions. teacher gave stickers to the students in the groups that showed cooperation. teacher gave a sticker to the group that presented first, second, and third. lastly, the teacher gave a presentation to a boy and two girls. 12. the teacher corrects the students’ mistakes.  13. the teacher emphasizes to the students to use english.  the teacher asks the students to discuss in english by saying, "english please. this is an english class.” the table above presents the findings from the observations checklist. there are also field notes indicating the activities during the observations in an audio-lingual classroom for each item observed. the checklist from the observations and field notes shows three themes of activities performed by the teacher in an audio-lingual classroom: the teachers’ roles in an audio-lingual classroom; teacher as a role model, 102 teacher as an orchestra leader and teacher as a motivator. in addition, the findings from the interview indicate that the teacher perceived three roles in an audio-lingual classroom to reduce the interference of l1 in learning l2. the interview findings show that the teacher highlighted the roles of a teacher in an audio-lingual classroom as a role model. the teacher stated that “in an audio-lingual classroom, i provide students with repetition, language content models, and provide them with the context of learning (grammar in context)”. regarding how a teacher acts as an orchestra leader in an audio-lingual classroom, the teacher stated "controlling students’ language behaviour”. this indicates that the teacher acts as an orchestra leader by correcting the students’ language mistakes. the teacher also reflected on how a teacher performs as a motivator in an audio-lingual classroom to reduce the interference of l1 in learning l2. the teacher stated that “direct the students to the language and respond positively positively". this shows that the teacher performs as a motivator by positive reinforcement of the students’ response in an audiolingual classroom. figure 4.1 data triangulation the figure above indicates the triangulation of the findings from data sources that shows that both observations and interviews lead to the same result. therefore, the study confirms the principle of validation in scientific research and discusses the findings thematically below. 4.1.1 teacher as a role model according to o'malley and chamot (1995), the role of a language teacher is to model the language function. in this study, the finding from observations and interviews shows that the teacher acts as a role model in teaching l2. the teacher models l2 throughout the class. the instructions are giving entirely in l2. the discussions of the tasks are also illustrated in l2. the teacher also provides explanations in l2. for example, the teacher explained, "the word steal as taking other student’s thing without permission”. adding to it, the teacher also perceived that teaching and learning must be conducted in l2 to promote the use of l2 and said that "students learn best from example, so i try to speak in english as much as i can inside or outside the classroom". directly, this will reduce the interference of l1 inside or outside of the classroom when learners are communicating with the l2 teacher. furthermore, the teacher also modelled l2 through the drilling and repetition techniques in the story reading stage. in this audio-lingual classroom, drilling (repetition) is one of the key principles as habit formation of the language. this is supported by larsen-freeman and anderson (2018) that learning l1 is a process of habit formation; the more often something is repeated, the stronger the habit and the greater the learning. the finding from the observations shows that the teacher repeated the song with actions many times so that the students infused the formation of the language learning. the teacher also said, “i usually use drilling technique only for grammar" in the interview. this finding mirrors the research conducted by shafie and nayan (2010) in the tertiary level of english education stated that the roles of university english teachers are role models. studies also indicated that traditional teaching and learning approaches are also intensively substituted with the new technology-integrated teaching and learning schemas, which shifts the roles of the teachers, particularly during the covid-19 pandemic (rahim & bilal ali, 2021). 4.1.2 teacher as an orchestra leader larsen-freeman and anderson (2018) stated that teachers should be like orchestra leaders conducting, guiding, and controlling the students' behavior in the target language. the finding of the current study also shows the role of the teacher as an orchestra leader where the teacher controls students’ language behaviour by conducting the lesson in l2, guiding the students to use l2 and controlling the students’’ behaviour in the target language. based on the observations, the teacher controlled the language used (l2) by the students during the class. for instance, the teacher asked the students to discuss english by saying, "english please. this is an english class”. besides, the teacher also ensures the students employ l2 in the lesson where the teacher said that she does not encourage them to speak in l1 and encourage the learners to use l2. these are the teacher excerpts from the interview “yes, firstly, i don’t encourage them to speak in their mother tongue”, "secondly, i encourage them to speak in english even though they make mistakes". 103 in addition, the role of the teacher is also to guide the students to use l2 as the teacher corrects the students’ sentences by asking them to repeat the correct sentence. the excerpt from the interview is “i will just correct their sentence or i will repeat their sentence back using the correct sentence structure and i ask them to ask me back”. the teacher also controlled the students’ behaviours in l2 to ensure that the students speak l2 in the classroom by reminding them. the teacher said, "if they speak bahasa malaya...eeeeermmm. i usually don’t allow them to speak in malay. but i will remind them”. thus, the result from the observations and interview shows that the teacher acts as an orchestra leader in reducing the interference of l1 in an audio-lingual classroom. 4.1.3 teacher as a motivator in an audio-lingual classroom, the use of positive reinforcement is encouraged. it is to boost the student’s confidence to develop the second language. larsen-freeman and anderson (2018) stated that positive reinforcement helps the students to develop correct habits. the findings from the observations and interview show the teachers’ roles as a motivator. the teacher uses positive reinforcement like giving compliments and rewards to the students. it is to reinforce the formation of l2 patterns among the learners in the lesson. during the observation, the student's responses are positively reinforced by giving compliments and rewards. the teacher complimented the learners by saying “very good” after the students read. the teacher also asked students to clap their hands when their classmates actively participated in the presentation. the teacher also gave pencils as a reward when the students read the story. the teacher gave stickers to the group after the presentation. teachers also gave set stationery to three of the students for completing their tasks early. this shows that the students are motivated in using l2 all the time in the lesson. during the interview, the teacher also said that “i usually give a compliment to make learners see more motivated to use english”. the teacher also added, "i usually will give them like sticker first if they can collect like ten stickers, they will get one reward”. compliments and rewards are positive reinforcement to the students (larsenfreeman & anderson, 2018). a study on second language speaking anxiety among malaysian postgraduate students at a faculty of education revealed that students lack motivation while speaking in english (badrasawi et al., 2020). therefore, the current study's findings also indicate that the teacher acts as a motivator since the teacher is directing the students to use l2 by positive reinforcement. as a result, the teachers’ roles are highlighted as motivators. 5. conclusion the study explored the teachers’ roles in reducing the interference of l1 in an audio-lingual classroom. it has also integrated the underpinning theories to clarify how the interference of l1 impacts learning l2. the observations and interview are compared for validating the findings and triangulation purposes. the results concluded the teachers’ roles as a role model, as an orchestra leader, and as a motivator to reduce the interference of l1 in learning l2 by applying an audio-lingual method. this contributes to the reduction of using l1 in teaching l2 classrooms since l1 negatively impacts learning l2. therefore, the study recommends that prospective educators and language experts consider their potential roles in an audiolingual classroom. 6. acknowledgement this research was not possible without the help of our fellow friends at utm malaysia. therefore, we thank our colleagues in utm and the teacher and the students of the primary school in johor bahru who have provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations/conclusions of this paper. references badrasawi, k. j., solihu, a., & tunku ahmad, t. b. 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(2017). is fluency being neglected in the classroom? tehran: samt. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.082311 https://doi.org/10.31849/utamax.v3i1.6166 https://doi.org/10.31849/elsya.v3i2.6295 https://doi.org/10.31849/utamax.v3i2.5934 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i3.6165 vol. 4, no. 3, december 2022, pp. 252-261 252 the impact of self-conversation recording to improve efl students’ fluency: a quasi-experimental research md. zohorul islam green university of bangladesh, dhaka, bangladesh zohorul@eng.green.edu.bd article history received : 2021-02-13 revised : 2022-06-26 accepted : 2022-07-19 keywords fluency conversation recording repetition peer feedback efl classroom abstract this article aims at exploring bangladeshi efl students’ use of self-conversation recordings and their effectiveness in improving oral fluency. it also explores using task-based language teaching (tblt) to enhance students' speaking performance. the study followed a quasi-experimental research design to check the improvement in the student's oral fluency and accuracy. the sample has been selected purposively. the study sample was 50 efl students studying in the first semester at the department of english at the green university of bangladesh. students' speaking data were collected using a pre-test at the beginning of the semester and a post-test at the end of the semester. the data were then analyzed using the statistical software spss. the result of the study shows that the selfconversation recording by the students can improve their fluency with grammatical accuracy, and the achievement in the fluency of the students from the experimental group was considerably higher than the control group. the average n-gain score of the experimental group students was better than the control group students (.0424>0.205). however, the mean score achieved in the pre-test in the experimental class and control class was (52.14 <59.16), the mean score achieved in the post-test by the experimental group was higher (72.33 >67.40). the paired sample t-test indicates a significant improvement with a tvalue of -14.237 and p. value = .000<0.005. based on the findings, the study recommends that the instructors of the efl classroom can use self-conversation recordings to improve their students’ fluency. 1. introduction higher study in bangladesh requires students to speak english in many fields, keeping in mind global education, career opportunity, and international communication (rahman & singh, 2020; rahman et al., 2019;). one of the major reasons for teaching english in the first semester at the university level is to improve the communicative skills in which students will be able to fluently participate in class and other aspects of their life. although english is taught as a compulsory subject from grade 1 to grade 12, many students lack basic speaking skills, which is a crucial factor in pursuing higher education. many students suffer from shyness, fear, and other anxieties about speaking english at the university (chowdhury & kabir, 2014). a university student's success at the department of english in bangladesh is mainly dependent on speaking fluent english because the medium of instruction is only english. therefore, universities include speaking courses in the first-year curriculum to furnish the student's speaking proficiency in english (farooqui, 2014). speaking in a foreign language is always considered a difficult task for a learner. proper exposure to a speaking environment helps foreign language learners overcome some difficulties. corona virus disease (covid-19) created a situation where universities started to conduct the teaching-learning process using online tools (islam, 2021; mondol & mohiuddin, 2020). the current practices in the online classes posed several problems in creating a proper environment where newly admitted students could be given a platform to improve their speaking skills at the university campus. given this situation, the instructors focused on the tasks that involved different components of speaking english, such as accuracy and fluency. hence, several activities have been designed by the teachers to mitigate the challenges posed by the online classes to make the students involved in speaking tasks as much as possible. however, the ‘new–normal during the covid-19 pandemic forced teachers to assign more and more homework where students were asked to record their conversations using smartphones and submit them to the teachers using google classroom. this study intended to see how the https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i3.6165 253 students developed their oral skills to produce conversation fluently and accurately by practising and recording. although the previous studies (wicaksono, 2017; yanju, 2017) up to this point have undermined the importance of conversation recording for fluency in foreign language contexts, most of the studies were done concerning face-to-face classes. this study presents a new direction to engage the students in english conversation using modern technologies. the activities were designed following the task-based language teaching (tblt) method, which enables the students to prepare language tasks using the instruction of the teacher, but the involvement of the teacher is limited during the whole process (harmer, 2007). to provide a framework for understanding the success of using the self-conversation recording, this study draws comparisons between the experimental and control groups. the purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the self-conversation recording of the students to improve their oral fluency in spoken english. another purpose of this study was to find out how conversation recording helps the students and draw a comparison between two groups where one group used the conversation recording (experimental group), and another group participated in the regular classroom activities (control group). the researcher used two central research questions for this study. the research questions for this study are: 1) is there any significant difference between the experimental and control group in their oral fluency? 2) does the use of the self-conversation recording in task based language teaching (tblt) improve efl students’ oral fluency? 2. literature review several studies have been conducted to assess the improvement of fluency and accuracy of the efl students in the classroom. notable studies on fluency were conducted by putri & rahmani (2019); lou et al. (2016); rachmawaty and hermagustiana (2015); septiyana (2019); albino (2017); and de jong et al. (2017). in these studies, the authors primarily focused on improving the efl students' oral fluency in the classroom context using the tblt method. the abovementioned research highlighted the problems of the efl students' oral fluency and accuracy and explored the possible solutions. for example, albino’s (2017) 8 weeks case study of the tblt method audio recorded the learners’ improved fluency such as speed of speech, grammatical accuracy, utterances, and development in interactional languages. findings revealed that students felt encouraged to communicate in the target language and appreciated the tblt method. 2.1 fluency and accuracy fluency in a language means a speaker must have an automatic speech production speed (brand & gotz, 2011). while we talk about fluency in a language, we tend to look for the accuracy and fluency of a speaker at the same time. these expectations of having both accuracy and fluency at the same time sometimes create a burden on the students. past studies have indicated that the students in a foreign language classroom struggle to adapt to the speaking process because of their inexperience in using it in daily conversation (rachmawaty & hermagustiana, 2015). in a speaking context, many fail to properly distinguish the fluency and accuracy of the speaking process. harmer (2007) clarifies the distinction between fluency and accuracy, saying, “a distinction is often made between accuracy and fluency….we need to make a clear difference between ‘non-communicative’ and ‘communicative' activities; whereas the former is generally intended to ensure correctness, the latter is designed to improve language fluency (p.142)." although many studies have tried to focus on accuracy and fluency as different components of the speaking process, a student needs to achieve fluency and accuracy at a reasonable pace because they complement each other (harmer, 2007). fluency depends on speech rate or number of filled and unfilled pauses, number of errors, and use of formulaic language (albino, 2017). the study of albino (2017) further suggests that '… when engaged in tasks, learners tended to develop their speaking fluency by maximizing their speed of speech production, increasing grammatical accuracy, elaborating on their utterances, and developing interactional language" (p. 7). while talking about the general notion of fluency, de jong et al. (2013) mention that, 'in a broad definition, fluency can be seen as overall (speaking) proficiency, whereas fluency in the narrow definition pertains to smoothness and ease of oral linguistic delivery" (p. 893). about the role of a speaking class, rachmawaty & hermagustiana, (2015) stated that "one of the goals in an efl speaking class is improving students' communicative skill so they can express themselves using the target language appropriately based on its social and cultural context" (p. 2). their research further states that the target language can be fully achieved when the students start to notice the rules and learn how to apply them through using different speaking activities. rachmawaty & hermagustiana (2015) investigated the speaking fluency of low-level students using the retelling technique. six treatments were provided to improve the fluency of the efl students. the researcher analyzed the speaking transcripts, which showed that the technique improved the 254 students' vocabulary and comprehensibility. putri & rahmani (2019) conducted a study where they explored students’ perception of using video recording to enhance the accuracy and fluency of the pre-service teachers. this mixed method study occurred at the university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka jakarta. the pre-test and post-test quantitative data were analyzed using the paired sample t-test. the post-test result of the study shows that the video recording technique enhanced the students' speaking ability (fluency and accuracy). the technique received favourable responses from the students. 2.2 task-based language teaching (tblt) task-based language teaching (tblt) is a process where students learn by actively doing something central to the learning process (harmer, 2007). tblt promotes the idea that students learn best when they complete a task by following the teacher's instructions and later receive feedback that helps them correct the errors. tblt method is designed to help the students to enhance their ability in foreign language learning by doing tasks assigned by the teachers. ellis (2009) illustrates how the tblt method can be helpful to the students acquiring a foreign language in an efl classroom. the tblt approach has been proven successful in language classes compared to other teaching methods (sumarsono et al., 2020). the tblt approach has three stages: pre-task, task cycle, and language focus (harmer, 2007). harmer defines the process as follows; a) pre-task: at the beginning of an activity, the students receive information about the topics and some important words, which will help the students to understand the task and prepare. b) task cycle: the students start working, and the teacher distances himself/herself to not interfere in the work but monitors the activities of the students. students do their planning, designing, and researching for their speaking tasks in the task cycle. additionally, students prepare a report or notes for their activity at this stage. c) language focus: students receive feedback on their work from the teacher regarding word choice, sentence construction, expression, and other language features. the feedback from the teachers and their peers helps the students to evaluate their work and make necessary corrections. malihah’s (2010) research argues that the attitude and response of the teacher toward the efl students' learning play essential roles. this study points out that the teacher should not force the students to speak and put them in deep anxiety; instead, they should create situations using the tblt method where students are engaged in meaningful tasks to improve their speaking proficiency. this study recommends that the tblt is the meaningful method where learning occurs through performing a series of activities as steps towards successful task realization. a study by lou et al. (2016) investigated the effects of task-based language teaching (tblt) on non-english-majored graduates' oral performance, where 65 students from yangtze university participated. the participants were divided into control and experimental group for the research. the experimental group received treatment under tblt instructions, and the control group was taught using 3ps. the pre-test of the study showed no significant difference between the experimental and control groups. however, the post-test result showed that the students enrolled in the tblt approach had greater fluency, accuracy, and complexity in terms of word choices than those of the 3ps method. the study of septiyana (2019) investigated the steps of designing speaking materials using tblt for the islamic economics students of iain metro and the perception of the students toward the materials. this five-month study found that the materials can be designed following the steps of potency and problem, data collection, product design, design validation, design revision, and testing. the study concludes that task-based language teaching for speaking is reasonable and beneficial for the students. the effectiveness of tblt in an efl context was proven successful in several studies in the past. according to malihah (2010), meaningful tasks can be a helpful tool to develop the speaking ability of the students. this study also shows that when the students work with their peers in pairs or a group, they can communicate with each other using the target language. a similar study on the success of tblt by aliakbari & jamalvandi (2010) suggested that "task-based language teaching (tblt) has proved itself beneficial and effective in bringing about real situations of language use to take place and in satisfying communicative needs of learners" (p. 15). septiyana (2019) argues that the students enthusiastically accept the tasks designed using the tblt method. 3. method this study was conducted using experimental research to analyze the effectiveness of conversation recording for the student's fluency. the researcher taught two speaking classes in a semester where 82 students were enrolled in two different sections. among them, 50 students were selected using the purposive sampling technique. students selected as the sample were then divided into experimental and control groups. the experimental group was given the task of recording their conversations along with the other classroom activities. however, the control group did not receive such tasks and participated only in the 255 regular class activities. the data used in the research were collected at the beginning of the semester using a pre-test and at the end of the semester using a post-test. the students were asked to submit their audio recordings in google classroom and were assessed using the standard assessment system prescribed by the university. however, gradual progress was recorded by the instructors to find out the effectiveness of the selfconversation recording technique. after a regular interval, students were given speaking tasks for conversing with their pair and submitting the recordings in the google classroom. a total of 11 pairs and one group of 3 students submitted 120 recordings throughout the semester. it is crucial to mention here that the tasks were compulsory for the students who were in the experimental group. 3.1 treatment and instruments students received their tasks which consisted of topics from daily life. the teachers then gave the instructions following the tblt method to the students. a sample discussion took place in the class to ensure the students understood the topics and what was expected from them in the conversation (pre-task of tblt). each group received different topics from the teacher and had one week to prepare for the task and record the conversations (task-cycle of tblt). students were given strict instructions regarding grammatical accuracy and fluency. students were also encouraged to re-record their conversation as frequently as needed to make a fluent conversation. however, since the target was to improve the students' fluency, regular day-to-day life topics were assigned to them. below is a list of 10 topics that were assigned to the students. 1) covid-19 2) dream 3) university education 4) department of english 5) traffic jam in dhaka city 6) online class 7) social media 8) importance of social work 9) climate change 10) reading for pleasure each pair was asked to prepare a conversation of a minimum of 10 minutes, and the group of 3 members was asked to record 15 minutes of conversation using zoom video conferencing. students submitted their work in the designated google classroom for peer feedback and feedback from the teacher (language focus of tblt). the fluency and accuracy were measured using the guideline provided by the university, but the researcher had the liberty to change the design if necessary. the following classification was used to measure the data of the students. the following rubric was used to assess the student's oral fluency. classification: • excellent= student always speaks fluently with few hesitations and makes rare/no grammatical errors. • good= student mostly speaks fluently with few hesitations and makes few grammatical errors. • average= student speaks hesitantly, takes a long pause, and makes a few grammatical errors. • below average= student speaks hesitantly and makes many grammatical errors. • poor= student has an understanding of the english language but fails to speak fluently with accurate grammar. • failing= student is unable to find appropriate words while talking, stops hastily, and uses poor grammar. the researcher collected and preserved the data from the pre-test and post-test conducted on the experimental and the control group. the data were then quantified to have an understanding of the improvement of the control and experimental group for comparison. at first, the pre-test data were compared to understand the initial competency of both groups. the average score of the experimental group and control group were measured. after the post-test, another analysis was done to see the average improvement of the groups to have a clear view of the differences in achievements. in addition, the researcher used spss to determine the significance of the study and the effectiveness of tblt in improving the oral fluency of efl students. since this study used a quasi-experimental design, the researcher did not explore all the variables of the acquired data. the study was conducted based on two variables. firstly, the self-conversation recording of the efl students was the independent variable (treatment). secondly, improving oral fluency as the dependent variable (outcome). the analysis process included descriptive quantitative analysis (mean, median, and mode); dispersion (variance and range); and standard deviation. normalized n-gain score (average) was measured to identify the improvement of the students. the following formula was used to obtain the n-gain score: 256 normalized gain (n-gain) = post-test scorepre-test score maximum scorepre-test score 4. findings aiming to examine whether conversation recording for improving the oral fluency of the efl student is effective or not, this study answered the articulated problems by presenting the descriptive results of the pre-test and post-test data. the descriptive data of both experimental and control groups were then compared to identify the progress. table 1 shows the statistical data of the control group's pre-test and post-test achievements. the table shows that the highest pre-test score for the control group students was 68, and the lowest score was 40, with an average of 59.16. whereas the highest post-test score for the control group students was 85, the lowest score was 50. the average score in the post-test of the control group student was 67.40. also, the normality results using the n-gain formula in the control group of students was 0.205. table 4.1: descriptive statistics of the control group statistic pre-test post-test mode 65 70 median 60 70 mean 59.16 67.40 max 68 85 min 40 50 range 28 35 varian 58.557 75.250 st. dev 7.652 8.675 based on the statistics in the table of the control group, it can be stated that improvement happened in the students' oral fluency but not to a great extent. the difference between the post-test and pre-test averages is only around 8%. the highest pre-test score for the experimental group of students was 67, and the lowest score was 30, with an average score of 52.14. on the other hand, the highest score for the experimental group of students was 95; the lowest was 50. moreover, the normality result using n-gain in the experimental group was 0.424. table 2 represents the statistical data of the experimental group. table 4.2: descriptive statistics of the experimental group statistic pre-test post-test mode 35 70 median 55 75 mean 52.14 72.33 max 67 95 min 30 50 range 37 45 varian 108.573 86.650 st. dev 10.420 9.309 according to the results, the experimental group significantly improved oral fluency. the selfconversation recording technique helped the students to improve their ability to converse more fluently. the mean score of the experimental group in the pre-test was 52.14 and 72.33 in the post-test. the average score of the experimental group students improved significantly. results in table 4.3 show the significance of conversation recording by the students in pre-test and post-test scores, where t=--14.237, p= 0.0, meaning that students' post-test scores are higher than the pretest scores. the average difference between the pre-test and post-test is 20.19% which indicates that the student's oral fluency improved to a great extent. table 4.3: paired sample t-test of the pre-test and post-test score of the experimental group mean sd t-value p-value pair 1 score before treatment score after treatment 20.19 7.091 14.23 0.000 the collected data show that participants in the experimental group efficiently improved their speaking abilities through smartphone conversation recording during the covid-19 pandemic. moreover, because the students did not have classroom exposure, conversation recording created an easy-to-use environment to boost their confidence in conversational english. 257 5. discussion the researcher used the self-conversation recording technique in the tblt method of teaching to improve the oral fluency of the students. by introducing the self-conversation recording technique in one of the classes (experimental), the researcher observed that the students were motivated to submit a near-perfect conversation recording. there have been some positive outcomes from the study. 5.1 effectiveness of conversation recording to answer the first question of the research, which asked, “is there any significant difference between the experimental and control group in their oral fluency?” descriptive data in table 1 and 2 prove that the achievements in post-test of the experimental group students are higher than control group students where conversation recording was not introduced. during the pre-test, the researcher observed that the control group had 16 students with more than 60% mastery of the standard set by the rubric. however, in the experimental group, 11 students alarmingly scored below 50% in the pre-test. it was also observed that the experimental group had 14 students scoring 'average' or 'below average' in the pre-test. hence, these 25 students needed additional support to achieving standard english fluency. however, when the post-test scores were evaluated, according to the rubric, the experimental group had four students who achieved excellent scores compared to the control group's two students. sixteen students from the experimental group managed to score more than 70% in the post-test. on the other hand, students from the control group had 12 students who achieved more than 70% score in the post-test. descriptive analysis in table 1 and 2 also illustrated that the mean score of the post-test in the experimental group was higher than the mean score of the post-test score in the control group (72.33>67.40). hence, the effectiveness of using the conversation recording to improve the fluency of efl students is noteworthy. the researcher wanted the students to engage in english conversation outside the classroom through the assigned tasks, which turned out to be a successful technique. towards the end of the study, students made significant progress in communicating in english with the teacher and their peers. therefore, the objectives of the speaking class were achieved as rachmawaty & hermagustiana (2015) stated that an efl speaking class ensures that the learners improve their communicative skills to express themselves using the target language. the research findings also indicated significant achievements of the experimental group than the control group because the average n-gain score from the experimental group students, compared to the control group students, was higher (.0424>0.205). the achievement of the students from the experimental group shows the importance of practising the task multiple times or, in this case, recording the conversation several times. the researcher understood that the students have access to digital devices where they can easily record conversations. the recordings can be quickly deleted, and practice sessions can make the conversation sound natural and error-free. during the initial instructions, the researcher emphasized smooth and error-free conversation and asked the students to record as many times as possible to submit a 'perfect' recording. students were given reasons behind each task and were told to record multiple times to improve their oral fluency. however, the students were asked to submit the final version of the recording in google classroom, where students received feedback from the teacher and their peers. an observable change was noticed after the first few tasks in the fluency of the experimental group of students. at first, the recording consisted of several grammatical inaccuracies with uneven fluency from the students. over time, the teachers identified those, and students received specific feedback. as a result, the students made fewer grammatical inaccuracies towards the end of the trimester. as stated in the study of de jong et al. (2013), fluency is seen as overall speaking proficiencies (smoothness, ease of oral linguistic delivery). this study also found that the students in the experimental group gradually developed all these features to be considered fluent speakers of english. the researcher infers that the feedback in the google classroom as well as in the online classroom created an impact on the student's fluency and accuracy. many students shared the positive aspects of conversation recordings during the feedback sessions. moreover, the positive peer feedback in the google classroom may have played an essential role in the student's motivation to submit well-furnished works. the students were motivated to submit good work without the teacher's interference during their tasks. as malihah (2010) argued, the teacher should not force the students to speak and put them in deep anxiety; instead, they should create situations where students are engaged in meaningful tasks to improve their speaking proficiency. based on the one-to-one discussion with the experimental group of students, the researcher found that the precise instruction at the beginning of the task activated the students as they found them adequate to gather materials on the topic. students had the complete liberty to prepare the content on their own. according to islam (2021), the effectiveness of an online class depends mostly on how enthusiastically students participate in the tasks. the students' enthusiasm to prepare for their own tasks helped them achieve success. although this study followed the audio conversation recording, the result confirms the finding of putri & rahmani's (2019) study, which explored students' use of video recording to enhance their accuracy and fluency with positive results. 258 5.2 task-based language teaching to improve oral fluency of efl students to answer the second question of the research, which asked, "does the use of the self-conversation recording in task-based language teaching (tblt) improve efl students’ oral fluency?” the paired sample t-test (table 3) proves that the difference between the pre-test and post-test scores was significantly higher because of the use of task-based language teaching. the researcher of this study decided to adopt the task-based language teaching (tblt) approach, where students would be engaged in several speaking activities. the tasks were designed following the tblt method's phases of pre-task, task cycle, and language focus (harmer, 2007). when the pre-test phase took place, several students failed to speak for a few minutes, and fluency was a big concern, along with grammatical inaccuracies. several students failed to achieve the minimum score. the above-mentioned figures (table 4.2 & 4.3) can be examples of how introducing self-conversation recording in the tblt classroom can improve the students' fluency. since the covid-19 pandemic forced the teachers to conduct classes online, the involvement of the teachers was limited, and having a conversation at the university premises where students had the chance to converse with their peers stopped because of the 'stay at home policy. at the beginning of the activity, students were given thorough guidelines about the topic along with some study materials related to the topic to help them understand the task and prepare. this phase enabled the students to understand the content they needed to bring into their conversations. since this part is mostly teacher-centric, the researcher ensured that the topic was comprehensible to the students. for example, while assigning the topic "covid-19" for conversation, the researcher asked the students to prepare on the mechanisms of how the virus spreads, the scenario of covid-19 in bangladesh, the prevention methods, and the role of the young generation in raising awareness about this deadly disease. another example of providing the task requirements to the students can be the topic "online class", where the teacher wanted the students to converse on the necessity of online classes, platforms of online classes, benefits of online classes, and problems of online classes. the researcher intentionally assigned tasks from familiar topics because the course's main objective was to improve the student's ability to converse fluently. during the task cycle, students got a few days to prepare the content they had to discuss during the conversation. since the covid-19 pandemic forced the classes to be held online, the researcher used google classroom as the cms (course management system) to share the class materials and the students used it as an interactive platform. however, although materials were provided related to each topic in the google classroom, students gathered ideas from the internet and other sources. zoom's online platform enabled the students to record the conversation in pairs, even though covid-19 did not let them meet face-toface. the most significant advantage of recording conversations online is that the students could do it whenever they did not need a common place to meet and record; instead, they could do it from their homes. this point helped the students to record the conversation multiple times in the task cycle. students did their planning, designing, and researching to complete their task cycle phase. according to albino (2017), the student's engagement in tasks helps develop speaking fluency as they maximize their speed of speech, grammatical accuracy, and utterances and start to form complex sentences. echoing the findings, this research also found the same results from the students’ works. the process enabled the students to prepare the task without much intervention from the teacher, which helped them internalize the process of speaking through several practices. another merit of using the tblt method, rather than the communicative model, is activating the learners to achieve the speaking goals. because in the tblt method, the teacher's role is precise and, to some extent, limited during the task. the researcher provided insight into the topics, and then the students worked to complete those tasks without help from the teachers. although the most widely used language teaching system, the communicative method often promotes the idea of speaking logically and coherently while having a conversation in a hypothetical situation (littlewood & william, 1981); however, the communicative method requires a lot of involvement from the instructor to set up specific situations which became hard in an online classroom during the covid-19 pandemic. as observed in this study, efl students can get rid of speech anxiety with the tblt method. students may feel anxious initially to speak in a foreign language, but once they get the opportunity to research and converse with their peers with a plan, they can improve their speaking ability. recording conversations can boost the confidence of the students who do not have exposure to situations where they need to speak in english for a few minutes. through recording, students gradually get familiarized with the mechanism of the speaking process. since the topics of the conversation were familiar to all the students, they could contribute to the conversation spontaneously. the hesitation in speaking a foreign language eventually fades away after practice. these results supported the findings of namaziandost et al. (2017) and pietri (2015), where it was noticed that foreign language learning happens best when the students are motivated. 259 the final phase of the tblt method (language focus) was initiated in the designated google classroom, where the students posted the recordings in the ‘stream’ section that can be viewed by the teacher and all the enrolled students in the class/section. the process inspired them to become linguistically conscious while recording the conversation, as their works were being viewed by their classmates. the researcher encouraged the students to provide feedback on their peer's works in the comment section of google classroom. moreover, the researcher had the opportunity to listen to the recording multiple times to identify the language problems in the conversations. feedback was given based on word choice, sentence structure, pronunciation, flow, and other language attributes. the positive feedback from peers and the constructive feedback regarding the language can be a beneficial experience for the students to improve their fluency in english. as rodriquez and mosquera (2020) observed, combined treatment and feedback help the students display better results in an efl classroom. in this study, the application of the task-based language teaching method to improve the fluency of the efl students gained favourable responses from the students, as it emphasizes students' communication skills through real-life topics. students had the opportunity to pay attention not only to the language but also to the mechanisms of applying it in real-life situations. the tblt method helps the students to understand the topic, improve their learning experience, and link language learning in the classroom to language use outside the classroom (bygate, 2020; yudayni & ardiasih, 2020). this study also confirms the results of previous studies by septiyana (2019), sumarosono et al. (2020), and aliakbari and jamalyandi (2010), where the use of task-based language teaching was proved effective. 5.3 implications this study has implications for the students, teachers, policymakers, and curriculum designers. additionally, this study has implications for future research. 1) firstly, efl students can observe the benefits of self-conversation recording to enhance their ability in terms of oral fluency in a foreign language, especially during the online teachinglearning process. 2) secondly, the study's findings motivate the teachers to apply self-conversation recording techniques for improving the students' speaking capabilities. 3) thirdly, policymakers or curriculum designers of efl-speaking classrooms can adopt this strategy in the course syllabus to offer the students opportunities to practice the foreign language outside the classroom when face-to-face interactions are suspended due to the covid-19 pandemic. 4) finally, for further research, this study complements the existing literature on improving the oral fluency of efl students using the tblt method. 6. conclusion and recommendations to recapitulate, self-conversation recording for fluency had a significant impact on the students’ speaking ability in the experimental group. students' ability to converse fluently in the recordings transformed them into better speakers in other situations. this study revealed that the average fluency improvement of the experimental group was higher than the control group's average improvement. the experimental group's mean score achieved in the posttest was higher than the control group (72.33 >67.40). hence, it can be argued that the self-conversation recording clearly impacted the experimental group’s fluency. the margin of average improvement is also a significant finding of this study. the average n-gain score of the experimental group students was better than the control group students (.0424>0.205). since the students had the opportunity to record multiple times before submitting the final version of the conversation, students were also able to pick up new vocabulary and complex words. efl teachers can use the self-conversation recording technique to improve the students' fluency in their classrooms. moreover, the tblt method can be a helpful tool to improve the students' speaking ability not only at the tertiary level but also at other levels of education. there are some gaps in the study to be fulfilled by future researchers. firstly, this study was conducted using a small sample size. as a result, the finding can only be applied to a classroom with a similar number of students. future researchers can work with a larger sample size to identify the effectiveness of conversation recording in task-based language teaching. secondly, this study was conducted during the covid-19 pandemic, meaning the classes were held online. investigation in the face-to-face classes about the effectiveness of this method can be explored in further studies. lastly, upcoming researchers should determine the amount of time the students need to overcome specific grammatical inaccuracies in their speech. references albino, g. 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(2020). task-based materials design for academic purposes: learners’ english writing skill improvement. studies in english language and education, 8(1), 258-275. https://doi.org/10.24815/siele.v8i1.18169 https://doi:10.2991/iconelt-17.2018.5 https://doi.org/10.26417/ejis.v3i4.p56-61 https://doi.org/10.24815/siele.v8i1.18169 siti awaliyah mansyur ecolinguistics journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i2.6285 vol. 3, no. 2, august 2021, pp. 105-114 105 eco-critical discourse analysis of the indonesian president’s statement at the 21st conference of the parties in paris siti awaliyah mansyur, iwa lukmana, retty isnendes, & wawan gunawan universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung. indonesia awaliyahmansyur@upi.edu article history received : 2021-03-04 revised : 2021-03-19 accepted : 2021-08-13 keywords ecolinguistics critical discourse analysis ecological discourse analysis eco-critical discourse analysis environmental issue climate change abstract this study investigates the representation of the environmental, ecological, and climate change issue in the indonesian president’s joko widodo statement at the cop21, 2015. the data was taken from the transcript published by the indonesian ministry of environment and forestry's official website. it is selected according to the popularity of the president and to learn about his ecological view based on the way he represented the country's ecological issue at the global event. the analysis was carried out within an eco-critical discourse analysis framework, which started by investigating the ideology using fairclough's three-dimensional model. then, the ideology was judged using the ecolinguistics perspectives proposed by stibbe (2015a, 2020). the result shows that president joko widodo’s ecological-ideology can be regarded as 'prosaic: environmental problem solving', of which this study concludes that his speech can be defined as a 'beneficial discourse' that has to be promoted widely to raise the awareness of language use regarding an environmental issue. 1. introduction the development of the economic, industrial, and other aspects of life, such as technology and productivity, could create more ecological concerns that affect the system of life. wang et al. (2019) state that the rapid development of people's economic levels instantly improved the standard of living. thus, people have to pay more attention to these changes. one of the examples of these changes is the growth of the needs. this phenomenon makes the people, one way or another, have to fight to fulfil their needs. however, to survive, it depends on how they use the system of life to maintain the ecology of other organisms and prevent any environmental issues that could happen, e.g. climate change. thus, one of the ways that researchers and/or scientists can do this is by raising the ecological awareness of the society (gong & liu, 2018; stibbe, 2015a). furthermore, there are some ways to raise the ecological consciousness regarding climate change, one of them is done in linguistics and language use. according to fløttum (2014), linguists and language experts can engage with other fields, such as sociology, climatology, and psychology. these interdisciplinary works can encourage people, either as hearers or readers, to use language as a speaker or writer better, also known as the fundamental aims of ecolinguistics studies (fill, 2001). ecolinguistics is defined as a new branch of linguistics study that investigates the way language is being used to represent the ecosystem, ecology and ecological phenomenon from the ecological and sustainability perspectives (song & tang, 2020). hence, some research can focus on how ecological systems, environmental phenomena, and living or nonliving things are represented in written or spoken language (see mliless & larouz, 2018; pearce, 2016; stibbe 2007; wang et al., 2019). therefore, the role of linguists in the ecological issue is needed. halliday (1990: 199) stated that “classism, growthism, destruction of livings, pollution and the similarity are not just the issue to be solved by the biologist, physicist, and scientist, in fact it is also the problem for the linguists or the linguistic community”. particularly, when it comes to climate change, the united nations (un) organises its annual conference called the conference of the parties (cop), also known as the united nations climate change conference. this conference is especially held to gather country leaders, activists in environmental issues, and people from different occasions, such as economists and politicians. these attendees usually present their ideas and the actions taken by their countries regarding climate change issues through some remarks and speeches or statements. one of the leaders who shared his idea of climate change was the indonesian https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i2.6285 106 president, joko widodo (jokowi). moreover, president joko widodo, popularly known as jokowi, is the seventh president of the republic of indonesia, winning a second five-year term in 2019. in the world's third-largest democracy, president jokowi was able to defy expectations for political leaders, despite being raised amid poverty with a background in the furniture export trade (prasodjo, 2021). he has a big role in developing indonesia in many ways because of the ambitious development aims. prasodjo (2021) states that president jokowi aims goals in many areas, such as massive infrastructure projects, universal healthcare, and a revamping of indonesia’s educational system. in 2021, president jokowi attended the conference of the parties 21st in paris, where he presented his statement regarding climate change using bahasa indonesia (indonesian language). the 21st cop was widely known as the pivotal event in the international effort to bridle climate change and its risks (gjerstad, 2017). other researchers have worked on other remarks of president jokowi using different frameworks as follows.  sinaga et al. (2014) analysed joko widodo’s speech at the apec event using the system of transitivity and cda proposed by halliday and fairclough;  gusthini (2019) studied the use of javanese english pronunciation in joko widodo’s pronunciation using vowel and consonant theory proposed by fromkin;  noor (2020) tried to disclose joko widodo’s ideology through his speech using halliday’s transitivity theory;  the last and the recent one comes from baihaqi et al. (2020), where they analysed joko widodo’s language use and personality in his remarks regarding the covid-19 issue. based on the previous studies mentioned above, this study tries to reveal the representation of ecological issues in president jokowi’s speech and/or to see the speech from ecolinguistics. on the other hand, little did the researchers ever analyse statements or speech using the critical discourse analysis (cda) framework for ecolinguistics research. thus, this study is expected to fill the gaps in the ecolinguistics perspective, critical discourse analysis, and eco-critical discourse analysis. particularly, this study tries to show climate change as one of the ecological issues through the analysis of speech carried out within the eco-critical discourse analysis framework proposed by stibbe, 2015a, 2020). the first data was analysed using critical discourse analysis (fairclough, 2001, 2003, 2013) to reveal the ideology. therefore, in terms of the perspective of ecolinguistics, the ideology will be judged by the ecosophy proposed by stibbe (2015a, 2020) to determine the type of discourse jokowi's speech belongs to (destructive, ambivalent, or healthy discourse). consequently, the study's result aims to increase the critical language awareness in using language to represent ecological issues on text in any particular context. 1.1 critical discourse analysis critical discourse analysis (cda) is one of the methods that deal with social and cultural issues. haryatmoko (2016) states that cda experts such as van dijk, fairclough, kress, van leeuwen, and wodak have all agreed that cda is a research methodology oriented in the social and cultural issues. it is a methodology that mainly focuses on critically investigating the ideology of certain social events according to how they are expressed, revealed, and signed in any discourses (wodak & meyer, 2001). furthermore, in fairclough's view about cda, discourse is a process of social practice with internal and dialectical relations (fairclough, 2001). fairclough adds that in analysing discourse, the analysis process does not solely deal with the text but also with the production process, interpretation, and social condition or social context (fairclough, 2001). hence, fairclough (2003) suggests that interdisciplinary theories are needed in cda study to learn about the ideology of some particular institution or the members of an organisation. according to fairclough (2001, 2003, 2013), the way to realise the representation and the ideology of some entities on discourse could be done by analysing the data into a three-dimensional model, i.e. textual analysis, discursive practice analysis, and social practice analysis. this model is also divided into three stages, i.e. description, interpretation, and explanation (fairclough, 2013). the illustration can be seen below. 107 according to figure 1.1, the first stage is textual analysis or description level. on the textual analysis, the data is being described based on the analysis of the text. fairclough (2001) defines text as a product of the process of text production. any sort of textual feature is possible to have significant potential to be analysed in discourse analysis, some of the examples are analysing the vocabulary, grammar, cohesion, text structure (fairclough, 1992b), and some more additions such as visual image, speech, lexical choice, syntaxis, and metaphor (haryatmoko, 2016; jørgensen & phillips, 2002). in other words, any sort of linguistics data is possible to be analysed in the textual analysis. the textual analysis becomes an important stage in critical discourse analysis because this phase could show the intention and the identity of the writers or speakers, e.g., in metaphor analysis. the second level is the discursive practice analysis. this phase emphasises the process of interpreting the textual analysis result with the production, distribution, and consumption of the text (fairclough, 1992b). according to fairclough (2001), the interpretation is produced by combining what is within the text and the interpreter's head. thus, this process requires a deep comprehension of the meaning of the text that is being analysed, and the intention of the writer or the speaker, i.e. the intention is filled with sincerity or not, is it expressed explicitly or implicitly, and how the writer correlate their utterances based on their institution (fairclough, 2003). the next level is the social practice analysis. the explanation of ‘the consideration whether the discursive practice reproduces or restructures the existing order of discourse and its effect to the social practice” (jørgensen & phillips, 2002: 69). fairclough (2001, 2013) states that this phase has threedimensional levels used to investigate the social effect and the determining factor of the discourse, i.e. societal, institutional, and situational. the ideology can be found in this phase because its relationship with the discourse will be seen. fairclough (2001) believes that there is some embedded value that will become real and operated socially as the part of the institution and the society and the assumption that discourse could convey ideology which works along with some particular power relation. fairclough (2001) then adds that this phase will involve some specific perspective to discover the ideology of the discourse. in conclusion, the three-dimensional models that are introduced and developed by norman fairclough (1992b, 1995, 2014) seems to require the researchers not to focus on the textual aspects merely, but also link the analysis with the other aspect like text productions and socio-cultural context as it would help the researcher to reveal the ideology of the objects. jørgensen & phillips (2002) simplify this model by stating that there are three things to be focused on, i.e. (a) linguistics aspect of the text; (b) the process which relates to the text production and the text consumption; (c) the broader social context practice. 1.2 eco-critical discourse analysis ecolinguistics is defined as the study focused on critically analysing language that potentially increases the destruction of the ecological aspect of life and aims to find a way to inspire humankind to protect nature (fill & penz, 2018). dash (2019: 381) says, “ecolinguistics provides linguistics needs that can preserve the ecology through the language and maintain the ecological sustainability by using, developing, and advancing the language and ecology all together at the same time”. particularly, ecolinguistics study aims to fulfil its principles that mankind and other organisms can live together in peaceful coexistence and interdependence ecosystem (song & tang, 2020). furthermore, stibbe (2015b) introduces one of the main focuses of ecolinguistics study, termed ecolinguistics discourse analysis, or eco-critical discourse analysis (fill & muhlhausler, 2001). therefore, the use of these terms is interchangeable. stibbe (2015a) defines this focus as the combinations of critical discourse studies and ecolinguistics study or how researchers analyse some ecological issues using the methodologies of critical discourse analysis. on the other hand, fill & muhlhausler (2001) more likely called this an approach that focuses on analysing texts such as political speeches, greed ads, and environmental issues. even though they use different terms, it focuses on the same study, linguistics aspects, and ecological issues. figure 1.1. three-dimensional-model (fairclough, 2013: 133) 108 stibbe (2015a) explains that when it comes to ecolinguistics and critical discourse analysis, the study aims to reveal the representation of ecological issues in discourse and increase critical language awareness, as proposed by fairclough (1992a). this can be done in three ways: general education, raising awareness of the negative impacts of the discourse, and promotion of the positive discourse (stibbe, 2015b). according to stibbe (2015a, 2020), three types of ecological discourse are listed below. a) destructive discourse is the type of discourse whose ideology works against the ecosophy. thus, this type needs to be stopped because it could potentially raise harmful impacts to the ecology system or ecosystem. b) ambivalent discourse is the type of discourse that has an ideology that is partially working under the ecosophy, though half of it is still problematic. the part that works instead of the ecosophy needs to be fixed, while the positive aspects will be kept and developed. c) beneficial discourse is the ideology of actively and fully encouraging people to protect the ecological system or ecosystem. consequently, this type needs to be promoted more in society. the type of discourse in the perspective of ecolinguistics will be learned just after the researchers discover the ideology of the discourse they are working on (stibbe, 2015a). 1.3 ideology and ecosophy critical discourse analysis believes that ideology is the main entity to be revealed in analysing particular discourse. as bloor & bloor (2007) state, one of the objectives of cda is to investigate how ideology is being frozen in the language and find the way to melt it or break the ice. to simplify it, fairclough (2013) states that ideology is a matter of representation. in other words, it is about how some entity is being represented, which potentially carry an ideology in it. in terms of ecolinguistics study, the ideology of some discourse is being judged by the ecological philosophy (ecosophy), which was first used by (naess, 1995). in the present day, this term is mostly known to be used by the ecolinguistics discourse analysis' expert arran stibbe. he states that every linguist and researcher has their ethical principles, which consist of norms, values, views, and vision, to evaluate the ecological and language issue; it is what we call ecosophy (stibbe, 2015a). thus, from the ecolinguistics perspective, the researchers' ideology in their studies will be judged by their ecosophy. 1.4 climate change climate change is considered one of the main challenges humans face in this century (ereaut & segnit, 2006; maslin, 2014) because it brings fear and is obscure to mankind (adeleke & omoboyeje, 2016). maslin (2014) states that climate change has become a challenge alongside poverty easement, environmental degradation, and global security challenges. according to the latest assessment of the ipcc (intergovernmental panel on climate change), it is cleared that human influences to the climate’s system (ipcc, 2018). ereaut & segnit (2006: 5) illustrate this by acknowledging that “the use of electricity, gases, driving car, getting on the airplane, and the greenhouse emission are warming the earth and changing the climate”. it is to be noted that this problem is not merely an issue to be solved by the scientists but also concerned with the other occupations or experts from other fields, such as sociologists, geopolitics, policymakers, etc. (maslin, 2014). in other words, if this change is to be avoided, there must be some transdisciplinary cooperation between the experts, the scientists, the government, and society itself. 2. method this is qualitative research where the technique describes and interprets the analysis in the forms of passage and paragraph. besides, the data is being analysed by using eco-critical discourse analysis proposed by stibbe (2015a, 2020). in this research, four main stages are taken by the researchers. the first stage is gathering the range of texts (speech) presented by jokowi in cop21. ever since the speech is formatted in the video (mp4), the researchers first watched the video and then read the transcript, provided on the indonesian ministry of environment and forestry’s official website (kemenlhk, 2015). thus, the speech transcript is the primary data in this study which comprises approximately 400 words. this speech is chosen based on the popularity of president jokowi, nationally and internationally. thus, the researchers think it would be genuinely interesting to learn about environmental issues and phenomena' ecological views or ideologies. the next stage is working on the linguistics detail, i.e. critical discourse analysis using fairclough's threedimensional model (2001, 2003, 2013). it started with textual analysis, of which this study chose to analyse the lexical choice, cohesion, transitivity patterns (process and participant types) in the clause and sentence forms. at this level, the researchers describe the text itself. then, on the second level, discursive practice analysis or process analysis, the researchers give interpretation according to the analysis of the text, the production, and the consumption of the text. finally, on the last level, the ideology is being found based on the explanation of the social practice analysis, which is analysed by three levels of stages, i.e. situational (the context and situation where the speech is being presented), institutional (the influence of any institutions in spreading the speech and news about this event), and societal context (the ideology of the speech 109 is being accepted or not by any societies is depending on the societies’ ideological views) (fairclough, 2001). according to stibbe (2015a), the third stage in ecocritical discourse analysis study is finding the ideology in the text. thus, as mentioned earlier, the third level from the three-dimensional-model method holds a significant role in this study. the last stage is to view the analysis from the ecolinguistics perspective, the ideology that is exposed than being judged according to the ecosophy proposed by (stibbe 2015a, 2020) to define the type of ecological discourse. this ecological discourse is divided into three types of ecological discourses, i.e. (a) destructive discourse; (b) ambivalent discourse: (c) beneficial discourse. therefore, after learning about the type of ecological discourse from the data, it is important to decide whether the discourse should to be cancelled to avoid the negative impact the discourse holds (if it is destructive discourse), or the other way around, it can be promoted and spread in the society (if it is beneficial discourse). 3. findings and discussion 3.1 textual analysis textual analysis is the stage where the researchers focus on the linguistics aspects of the data. the linguistics aspects in this study focus on sentence structure, lexical choice, transitivity system, and nominalisation. the structure of the sentence on jokowi’s speech is the declarative sentence. jokowi uses third-person and first-person narratives, i.e. ‘saya’ (i) and ‘kami’ (we). however, he mostly uses ‘indonesia’ to represent the whole country in general. on the other hand, he also uses respective or polite references to address the leaders and the other attendants or audience of the event, such as ‘ketua’ (chairman), ‘yang mulia’ (your honor), and ‘para kepala negara/pemerintahan’ (dear world leaders). furthermore, when it comes to the ecological terms, jokowi uses simple lexical choice to represent the environmental situation in indonesia, e.g. pemilik hutan terbesar (the owner of some largest forests), memperhatikan lingkungan (caring to the environment), kebakaran hutan (burning forests), restorasi ekosistem (ecosystem restoration), and so on. the last point discussed in jokowi's speech is transitivity patterns, i.e. process and participant types. it is found that the predominant use of this pattern is used in the material process. the material process is defined as related to action and event or something happening, also regarded as ‘doing word’ (eggins, 2004; halliday & matthiessen, 2014; thompson, 2013). he represents the environmental issue as the participant goal, while humankind is the participant actor. the example can be seen in table 3.1. table 3.1 describes how jokowi uses the domination of participant actors in the material process. it is seen that the actor 'every party' and 'developed countries' happen to be entities that are supposed to contribute to the climate change phenomenon. it is to be done to achieve the paris agreement which is functioned as the adverbial or circumstances cause of purpose in this context. another example can be seen below, where jokowi points out that indonesia, referred to as his country, is represented as the participant actor in the material process. another example can be seen below. table 3.1 the use of transitivity patterns on participant actor’s role untuk mencapai kesepakatan paris semua pihak [saya ulangi] semua pihak harus berkontribusi lebih dalam aksi mitigasi dan adaptasi terutama negara maju circ: cause-purpose actor [sayer pr: verbal] actor pr: material goal actor translation to english to achieve the paris agreement every party [i repeat] every party need to contribute more in the action of mitigation and adaptation especially the developed countries circ: cause-purpose actor [sayer pr: verbal] actor pr: material goal actor 110 table 3.2 above shows that indonesia has an active role as a participant in the material process. this is identified by using the verb 'commitsto decrease, establish, and solve' related to the climate system. this indicates that indonesia, as the participant actor, is doing something in this process which are the things that relate to the climate system and to prevent climate change. besides that, indonesia refers to the citizenship of people in this context. thus, the role of human beings as an actor and doer is represented on this example. besides that, the analysis of transitivity patterns allows the use of nominalisation also seen. this study finds that jokowi. the example of nominalisation can be seen below. table 3.3 the use of nominalization on jokowi's statements no. sentence 1. pengalihan subsidi bbm ke sektor produktif 2. peningkatan penggunaan sumber energi terbarukan hingga 23% dari konsumsi energi nasional tahun 2025 3. pengolahan sampah menjadi sumber energi 4. penerapan one map policy 5. perlindungan keanekaragaman hayati laut translation to english 1. alteration of fuel subsides into productive sectors. 2. an upgrade on the use of renewable energy sources to 23% of national energy consumption in 2025 3. preparation of the waste into the energy sources 4. implementation of one-map-policy 5. protection of marine biodiversity the bold words on these examples of nominalisation on jokowi's statement, as seen above, indicate the use involvement of certain meaning elements, which fairclough (2003) regards as semantic elements of clauses. by using nominalisation, the speaker, i.e. jokowi, cannot show the agent of certain events. however, he manages to let the listener and reader understand that the doers of all those nouns, e.g. peningkatan (upgrade), pengolahan (preparation), and perlindungan (protection), are referred to the actions that the government undertakes in indonesia. it has also been mentioned that he mostly uses indonesia as the main doer of any practical actions to solve the climate change issue. as a result, the choice of linguistics aspects in jokowi's statement could be defined as his art of speech to link the event’s themes with the specific condition of the environment in indonesia. by doing so, he manages to lead the audience to be on his side, i.e. thinking about indonesia's environmental condition. hence, the textual analysis shows that maintaining the material process in the text could indicate the consciousness of someone is representing some entity. 3.2 processing analysis this is the second level where the researchers interpret the textual analysis with the text's production, distribution, and consumption. this dimension is also focusing on the experiences of the speaker. first of all, jokowi has been known for his concern about environmental issues, which makes the speech more meaningful for the indonesian readers because he used to be regarded as "president blusukan" by the indonesian societies, meaning he is a president who is willing to deal with the environmental problems directly, for instance, his action in getting into the drainage to clean up the rubbish. in other words, he has been known as someone who highly behaves as an environmental-friendly person. therefore, from the production element, the current study finds that jokowi, as the representative of his country, indonesia, is the main producer of the text. table 3.2 indonesia the active participant in the material process indonesia berkomitmen menurunkan menetapkan mengatasi demise moratorium perikanan illegal actor pr: material goal translation to english indonesia commits to decrease to establish to solve the emissions the moratorium the illegal fishing actor pr: material goal 111 on the first textual analysis, it is written that he uses ‘kami’ (we), ‘saya’ (i), and ‘indonesia’, which is found many times in the speech. for example, he states, ‘pemerintah yang saya pimpin, akan membangun indonesia dengan memperhatikan lingkungan’ (english: the govt which i lead, will build indonesia with regard to the environment). this implies that the country which he leads is willing to spread more awareness of the environmental crisis. besides that, from the two examples of transitivity patterns on the textual analysis, the participant and process show that he wants the environmental phenomenon to become the main focus of his speech and his country is willing to take apart or contribute to the climate change crisis and awareness. it is also mentioned earlier in the textual analysis phase that jokowi mostly uses material processes in his speech. this means that he wants the audience to learn about what he and the government of indonesia are doing now regarding climate change actions. this is in line with what wang (2010) has stated that material process as a process of doing is a right choice in addressing what the government has achieved, what they are doing and what they will do in different aspects of affairs, nationally and internationally. particularly, this purpose is probably to show his power as one of the leaders who attended the event to talk about the country he leads or as the president of indonesia. besides it, this could also show that he is a part and a member of society. the fact that jokowi mostly talks about his country as the representative of indonesia shows that he particularly shares his expressive value about the environmental issue. this could be interpreted as his way to share his own and personal experience in the discourse, e.g. saya mengharapkan kita semua menjadikan bumi ini menjadi tempat yang nyaman bagi anak cucu kita, menjadikan bumi menjadi tempat yang sejahtera bagi kehidupan mereka (translation: i am hoping we can make our earth becomes a cozy place for our future generations, and a becomes a decent place for them to live). nevertheless, when it comes to the distribution of the text, jokowi and his govt are not merely the only parties who distribute the text. the media also had a big role in distributing the text, which was done by spreading the news after jokowi presented this statement. it was widely spread by the national mass media, such as national-tempo, antara-news, and news-detik. consequently, the consumption of this news among the society could encourage the readers to learn more about what jokowi is doing internationally, introducing and talking about the national condition. however, it is all depending on the way every humankind interprets the point of his speech, which can be accepted or the opposite of it, rejected. finally, based on the textual analysis and the interpretation, jokowi has his way of maintaining the local coherence of the text. his ability to introduce the environmental crisis from one specific place, i.e. his country, to the global scale shows this. besides, he is not merely talking about one issue as the event's main theme: climate change. still, he also talks about other aspects of the environment according to his knowledge and experience. in the end, he wishes humankind which he refers to as 'every party' (see example 1), to take responsibility for the climate change issues. 3.3 social analysis this dimension is the phase where the ideology of jokowi regarding ecological discourse is revealed. it is learned by the reasons why his statement is written as it is. fairclough (2001, 2003, 2013) divides it into situational, institutional, and social aspects. firstly, jokowi states his statements in cop21 are what he has to do since he is invited as one of the speakers at that event. situationally, jokowi represents indonesia's environmental condition by elaborating the whole situation of the country instead of mainly focusing on the climate change issue. apparently, he starts his words by stating that ‘…sebagai negara dengan penduduk muslim terbesar di dunia, indonesia menegaskan bahwa islam mengajarkan perdamaian, islam mengajarkan toleransi’ (english: …indonesia, as the country with the world’s largest muslim population, claims that islam preaches peace and tolerance). this shows that he wants the audience to first learn about indonesian society, which gives a positive image to the country. this statement could also be regarded as the way jokowi represents the social events that occur in indonesia. after that, he introduces some information about his country by stating that ‘indonesia as a big country is susceptible to the climate change effect because of its geographical condition’. indonesia is indeed a country with some islands. thus, mentioning this information could help the audience note that indonesia is a country that can be easily affected by climate change, meaning it also has some main concerns about environmental issues in general. particularly, he mentions and quotes some ‘environmental disasters that have occurred in indonesia’, such as forest fires and dryness. these incidents certainly have a big impact on the climate system. maslin (2014) stated that forest destruction could influence the climate system, leading to climate change. at this part, jokowi might express and represent the environmental disasters, but he does not mention the particular doers of this phenomenon prominently. fairclough (2003) explains that the prominent presence of agents or doers on a text has a big role in telling the reader and the listener the entities accountable for the events, such as the persons and the place. institutionally, jokowi’s statement is written quite visionary and persuasive. it is mentioned earlier that he talks about indonesia's environmental condition by giving some descriptions in detail. in terms of climate 112 change, he says that it is a global problem of which every country has the responsibility to take practical actions to face this phenomenon immediately. this indicates that the statement's content is formatted to embrace the audience in one system to work together in facing and solving climate change. therefore, to reach the audience's ecological views, jokowi always tries to fit in by using lexical choice, process types, and sentence structure by focusing on national and global issues. nevertheless, the fundamental analysis shows that jokowi widely emphasises how indonesia commits to doing some changes, such as restricting its law and public policy regarding indonesian environmental conditions to prevent climate change for the sake of the country itself and globally. for instance, the changes can be done by focusing on emission reduction, mitigation, and adaptation. additionally, it has been explained in the climate change section above, where the researchers write that climate change is a global issue that should be solved by different sectors in life, not only by scientists. this is what jokowi tries to say, and he hopes every party can work together to face and prevent climate change. as a global issue, climate change is not solely a phenomenon to be fixed and solved by one party, such as the government, but other parties like the society and the experts of other disciplines (fløttum, 2014; fløttum & gjerstad, 2017). hence, it clearly shows that jokowi's speech mainly focuses on environmental issues and climate change as on every new point he talks about, and he is perfectly maintaining the topic. therefore, based on dryzek's (2013) types of ideology found in environmental discourse, the ideology that jokowi holds more likely belongs to the prosaic one, which focuses on environmental problemsolving. this ideology tends to focus more on “taking the political-economic status based on what is said and given but in need of adjustment with the environmental problems, especially via public policy” (dryzek, 2013: 15). considering the identity or position that jokowi held at that year could explain why he has this ideology. as a president, he had the responsibility to embrace every circumstance that occurs in his country. one of those conditions is shown in this study, his concern about the environmental issue in indonesia and the world, nationally and globally. in conclusion, to see and judge this ideology from the ecosophy and ecolinguistics perspectives developed by (stibbe 2015a, 2015b, 2020), the ideology that the researchers found in jokowi's speech could be defined as beneficial discourse. this consideration is seen by the content and how it is connected to the broader context of the speech. some of the ecosophy categories are in accordance with jokowi's ideology that we learned from the analysis. he is not merely talking about the ecological and environmental issues for one generation, but he also mentions that it has to be kept and maintained for the next or future generation. he reminds the other audiences, who are apparently some world leaders, to work together to prevent climate change and be more concerned about the environmental crisis. these examples are in line with stibbe (2015a, 2020) categories of ecosophy, such as now and the future (concerning keeping and maintaining the ecosystem sustainability for the generation), and care (showing more care to the ecosystem). it has been shown on the other points as well that jokowi mentions about the environment in general then goes deeper to the climate change prevention to show his concerns and indonesian societies' concerns about the ecological and the environmental issues. lastly, based on the previous studies regarding jokowi’s speech or statements, such as language use and ideology, this study finds that jokowi's ecological view is also to be learned by indonesian society in particular. however, even if the current study focuses on ecological views or ideology, the whole analysis shows that his speech is still related to the political aspect. it is learned that the statement was presented before world leaders and politicians from all over the world, which happens to meet in one event regarding an environmental issue that the global world is facing right now. 4. conclusion embarking on the above findings and discussion, this study concludes that jokowi's speech could be used as an example to raise the awareness of the ecological and environmental issues that the world is facing now. jokowi encourages people from different occasions and countries to love the earth more and work together to prevent and stop climate change. besides, climate change is a challenge that has to be faced by the government, organisation, media, and the environment (taylor, 2013). this action needs to be done not solely for the current generations but also the future generations. this is considered by ecolinguistics perspectives that have been mentioned on the previous point that his speech is regarded as beneficial discourse, following what stibbe (2015a, 2020) says that this kind of discourse has to be promoted and spread in society to raise the language used in representing and treating the environment and ecosystem. furthermore, when it comes to the theories (cda and ecolinguistic) being employed in this study, the researchers highly hope that this study can help more scholars learn about another methodology to investigate how language is being used in representing some entities. besides, it can also be noted by other scholars that three-dimensional-model cda that is proposed by fairclough (2001, 2003, 2013) is an approach that is not merely focusing on discovering some hidden ideologies regarding political, social, and cultural issues but also uncovering other aspects of life, e.g. ecological and environmental issues. thus, for 113 future projects, some scholars and researchers can focus on how climate change or other environmental issues are being represented in indonesia's mass media using eco-critical discourse analysis or ecolinguistics perspectives proposed by stibbe (2015a, 2020). 5. acknowledgement the researchers would like to express their biggest 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(2010). a critical discourse analysis of barack obama’s speeches. journal of language teaching and research, 1(3), 254–261. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.1.3.254-261 wodak, r., & meyer, m. (2001). methods of critical discourse analysis. sage publications, ltd. http://ppid.menlhk.go.id/informasi_kemenlhk/browse/46 http://ppid.menlhk.go.id/informasi_kemenlhk/browse/46 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i2.6797 vol. 3, no. 2, august 2021, pp. 79-86 79 anti-racist text and talk: a critical discourse studies approach to black feminism philip p. limerick centre college, danville, ky. usa philip.limerick@centre.edu article history received : 2021-05-17 revised : 2021-05-30 accepted : 2021-08-07 keywords critical discourse studies black feminism anti-racism discourse analysis pragmatics abstract while racist discourse has received much attention in critical discourse studies (cds), there is a dearth of scholarship on the anti-racist text and talk. a critical observation is that the anti-racist movement, and hence, discourse, often exclude women. with the goal of contributing to this gap in the cds literature, the current analysis examines black women's discourses concerning anti-black racism in general and black feminism in particular. four youtube videos that feature both conference talks and news programs surrounding the topic of black feminism are analysed for recurring themes using thematic analysis and discourse structures from the perspective of critical discourse analysis. findings reveal that the primary themes that emerged are the inclusion of black women, police brutality and unaccountability, and black feminism defined, with various subthemes. in addition, the discourse structures examined are lexical choice, presupposition, pronominal choice, and the use of tag questions, among others. this study serves to further our understanding of the linguistic manifestation of ideologies through discourse concerning anti-racism and black feminism. 1. introduction while racist discourse has received much attention in critical discourse studies, there is a dearth of scholarship on anti-racist text and talk (van dijk 2020). anti-racist movements, and hence, discourse, often exclude women (cooper, 2018). with the goal of contributing to this gap in the cds literature, the current analysis examines black women's discourses concerning anti-black racism in general and black feminism in particular. 1 the framework of critical discourse analysis (cda) aims to analyse "structural relationships of dominance, discrimination, power and control as manifested in language" and to "investigate critically social inequality as it is expressed, constituted, legitimised, and so on, by language use (or in discourse)" (wodak and meyer, 2009, 10). the data employed for this study come from four youtube videos that feature both conference talks and news programs surrounding the topic of black feminism. this paper will first provide the necessary background for the analysis, including fundamental 1 i acknowledge my positionality as a white man in addressing issues of black feminism. particularly, i understand that my position is one of privilege and that i am not affected by the ramifications of the themes discussed. my main intention is to amplify black feminist voices. theoretical terms and previous research on (anti) racist discourse. next, the methodology for the analysis will be discussed, followed by the analysis and discussion of results that emerged from the video data. the final section concludes the article and offers avenues for future research. for the purpose of providing the relevant background, it is important to discuss key terms such as (anti) racism and black feminism. racism in the current paper is defined as a system of social domination based on race/ethnicity (bonilla-silva 1997; van dijk 2005). that is, racism is not merely a matter of individual prejudicial attitudes or beliefs but is part of the structure of society (bonilla-silva 1997). there has been a large body of scholarship dedicated to discourse and racism, particularly in europe, the u.s., and latin america (see, for example, bonillasilva and forman, 2000; wodak and van dijk, 2000; casaravilla, 2003; van dijk, 2003, 2009; courtis et al., 2009; courtis, 2012; limerick, 2020). several discursive strategies have been identified, such as positive-self presentation, negative-other presentation, the denial of racism, and apparent sympathy, among many others, and primary findings generally indicate subtle forms of racism (but see, e.g., moore & bell 2019 on overt racist speech on u.s. campuses) as seen and heard through the denial of racial discrimination and the negative presentation of minorities and immigrants in the press, media, political discourse, etc. https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i2.6797 mailto:philip.limerick@centre.edu 80 (van dijk, 2003). anti-racist discourse, however, has received less attention. following van dijk (2015:77), anti-racism is defined in the present analysis as a social system that “consists of a subsystem of antiracist social practices (protests, etc.) based on a subsystem of anti-racist social cognition (anti-racist ideology and anti-racist attitudes)". he further highlights that anti-racist discourse is one of the main anti-racist practices and the way in which anti-racist cognitions are acquired and reproduced (van dijk 2015: 77). van dijk (2015, 2020) has extensively analysed anti-racist discourse in brazil, specifically debates concerning anti-racist policies in the brazilian government such as affirmative action and the statute of racial equality, and outlines several discourse structures and strategies. for example, van dijk (2015:80) highlights the importance of selfpresentation in debates by afro-brazilian anti-racists, stating that initial discourse regarding different social and ethnic identities (e.g. black, militant, university rector, etc.) serves to legitimise their participation in the debate and to give them credibility. additionally, their participation in specific organisations (e.g. the government, a worker's movement) also serves this function. notably, such self-presentations also "guide the way the hearers will understand and interpret the discourses of the speakers" (van dijk 2015:80). other discourse structures highlighted by van dijk (2015) are the description of the group (e.g. use of the pronoun nós ‘us' to indicate membership in the afro-brazilian community), 'us vs. them' polarisation between racists and anti-racists (and blacks vs whites), arguments that carry implications and presuppositions, such as implying that opponents of the statute deny racism in brazil, or simply presupposing that brazil currently suffers from racial inequality (e.g. we are fighting for equality), as well as the use of metaphors, statistics or the ‘numbers game’, and international comparisons, among other semantic structures.2 black feminism was established in the 1970s and has been discussed by several intellectuals (e.g. lorde 1984, hooks 1984, smith 1995, collins 2000, simien 2004). according to simien (2004), black feminism is the belief that “african american women are status deprived because they face discrimination on the basis of race and gender. having to bear the burdens of prejudice that challenge people of color, in addition to the various forms of subjugation that hinder women, african american women are disadvantaged doubly in the social, economic, and political structure of the united states” (simien 2004:83). some of the primary themes treated in previous black feminism 2 for a more detailed analysis of anti-racist discourse in brazil, see van dijk (2020). see also limerick (2020) for an analysis of anti-racist (and more generally, anti-populist) discourse in the u.s., specifically surrounding the central park five case. scholarship have been (a) intersectionality (crenshaw 1991; collins 2004), (b) gender inequality within the black community (collins 2000; hooks 1984), and (c) collective membership or solidarity among black women concerning political activism (wilcox, 1990). the term intersectionality was coined by kimberlé crenshaw (1991), and it denotes the idea that we must consider all types of oppressions simultaneously (rather than just one independently) (collins, 2004). for example, we must engage with race, class, and gender when addressing oppression systems and marginalised people (crenshaw, 1991). as golashboza (2016) points out, for instance, racial ideologies are not only racialised but are also classed and gendered. the current study is informed by previous research in (critical) discourse analysis as well as pragmatics and will address discourse structures such as lexical choice, presupposition (van dijk, 2015, 2020), and person-reference and identity (de fina 1995, 2003; limerick, 2017) as manifested in discourse. this latter issue will particularly examine the notions of solidarity or group membership and identification (martín-rojo, 1997) and personalisation or personal participation in a topic (de fina, 1995) through the use of pronominal choice. in addition, we explore pragmatic functions, specifically the conducive use of tag questions (moore & podesva, 2009) by speakers in black feminist discourse. the following research questions guided the analysis: a) what recurring themes emerge in black feminist discourse? b) what discursive strategies and discourse structures are used in the anti-racist discourse of and about black women? 2. method the data for the present investigation come from four youtube videos of black feminist discourse that were yielded by the search term “black feminism”. the only restriction was in relation to the timeframe and interest in relatively recent discourse; thus, out of fifteen relevant videos identified from the search term, we selected four videos that were uploaded within the past five years (2016-2019). furthermore, the videos displaying primarily academic discourse were excluded due to the fact that there already exists extensive analyses of black feminist theory and academic discourse, as shown by the academic literature referenced in the previous section. two of the videos feature informal conference talks/panels, whose titles and speaker names are below in (a) and (b). the other two videos consisted of news programs, seen in (c) and (d). a) #sayhername: stories and strategies to end mass criminalization” (charlene carruthers) (university of new england 2016) 81 b) “black feminism & the movement for black lives” (barbara smith, reina gossett, charlene carruthers) (national lgbtq task force 2016) c) pbs news hour: “an 'unapologetic' black feminist on accelerating the pace of change” (pbs news hour 2019) d) france 24 news: “the 51% percent the rise of black feminism” (france 24 english 2017) in order to explore common themes across the videos, the current study involved the qualitative method of thematic analysis (braun & clarke 2006), which enables one to create themes based on recurring discourse topics systematically. following khan et al. (2019), the primary concern in the present study was not to obtain a large sample size but rather to obtain a selective sample that yields analytically useful interpretations (see also baker 2006 for similar methodological perspectives). 3. findings 3.1 call for inclusion of black women one of the main themes observed across the four videos analysed was simply that of the call for the inclusion of black women. the following excerpt from the video “black feminism & the movement for black lives” by barbara smith illustrates an aspect of this theme, specifically the idea of making space for black women to be more visible, active, and expressive: (1) we just wanted to make a space for ourselves in this world...we saw that we had to talk about all the kinds of oppressions that affected our lives, not just one...and we definitely had a critique and were reacting to the single-issued politics of the white women's movement, the bourgeois white women's movement...um we were also critical of ah the black ah movement by that time it was uh black nationalism and black power, not civil rights, ah of course inflected by but it had moved onto another stage and those politics were generally male-defined and, we also were critical of the single-issued focus of the new gay liberation movement, so we were just trying, as i said, to carve out a place for ourselves but we also understood that if we were successful and if we were able to do that then we would have carved out a space for every other kind of individual, every other kind...” [national lgbtq task force 2016, 04:59] in terms of discourse structures, we see the use of a presupposition with the phrases ‘wanted to make a space’ and ‘trying [...] to carve out a place’, the presupposition being that is that there was/is not a space for black women. additionally, the first-person plural pronouns ‘we’ and ‘ourselves’ are used, indicating that the speaker is included in this group and sees herself in solidarity with other black feminists (martín-rojo, 1997; de fina, 2003). the final part of (1) shows a proposition that constitutes a sub-theme in the data, namely that if black women can be free/included, then everyone can be free/included. moreover, a noteworthy discourse strategy seen here is the criticism of other movements, such as the feminist movement, the black power movement, and the gay liberation movement. specifically, these movements are characterised with words/phrases that indicate their limitations, specifically regarding their inability to represent black women. the speaker (barbara smith) uses the descriptors ‘bourgeois white' 'male-defined, and 'single-issued' to highlight the classed, racialised, and gendered nature of such movements, which ultimately exclude black women. in doing so, she legitimises and highlights the unique importance of the black feminist movement. another aspect of the inclusion of black women is seen in the following excerpt from charlene carruther's discourse, in which she uses the specific name of a black woman to emphasise the need for inclusion: (2) rekia boyd unfortunately and and and tragically, tragically, is one of many transgender and cisgender black women who have been criminalised, incarcerated or killed under systems of state violence, one of way too many, just one of many, the list of names is long, right? and she is one of many[...] if we want to be serious about the work of dr. king or we want to celebrate his dream of living in a better world, rekia boyd has to be included in what that dream is, right? the taking of her life has to be included in what that dream is, and as i said, the list of names is long, and their stories are, while they are painful, they also hold profound and essential notes of resistance [university of new england 2016, 16:24] in this case, the speaker refers to rekia boyd, a transgender black woman killed by police in chicago. in reference to mlk and his dream, charlene uses rekia boyd as a concrete illustration of what the inclusion of black women should look like while also emphasising that rekia boyd is just one of many black women that has suffered state violence and that the list of names is long. charlene also draws attention to the stories of such women, highlighting that, despite being painful, the stories themselves comprise significant sources of resistance. moreover, her discursive strategy of using a tag question (right?) is noteworthy. the function of using this tag question in this context is not to confirm, question, or mitigate (as it is a rhetorical question), but rather to assert confidence in the previous proposition and to draw the listener's attention to it to persuade and encourage the audience to take a stance of alignment (du bois, 2007). this function is similar 82 to what moore and podesva (2009) call conducive meaning in that the tag question "encourage[s] the hearer to agree with a proposition" and that the speaker may be "enlisting support for a contentious claim (moore & podesva 2009:458-459). from a broader perspective, brittany cooper appeals to identity in stating that it is difficult at times to be both black and feminist simultaneously, but that what will save us is taking on both of those identities, thus drawing the listener to consider the importance of the inclusion of blacks and feminists, more specifically black women: (3) i'm a black feminist, capital b capital f, i'm unapologetically black, and i'm unapologetically a feminist and look, depending on what circles you're in, it is hard to be both those things at the same time, but i think being both those things is the thing that will save us [pbs news hour 2019, 0:25] because both blacks and feminists are often excluded and unrecognised, it is “hard to be both those things” in some circles. brittany alludes to intersectionality here, drawing attention to both racialised and gendered marginalisation and identities. additionally, a presupposition emerges from the lexical choice of save, namely that we are currently not safe and that issues on the ground require attention. black feminism, then, according to cooper, is a powerful force shaping and improving the future of humankind. cooper also exhibits a high use of the first-person singular pronoun ‘i’ (e.g. i think), reflecting an evaluative stance (biber & finegan, 1988; du bois, 2007). another illustration of the demand for the inclusion of black women theme is seen in a news report from france. the reporter, annette young, emphasises the view from black women that white women are not recognising (hence not including) black women's struggle in the feminist movement. (4) ...they say that their struggle is not being recognised by white women. in fact, they are facing double discrimination on both grounds of colour and gender. [france 24 english 2017, 0:14] this excerpt is from the news program "the 51%", which appeared on france 24. the initial headline at the beginning of the clip read "equality in trump's america: the rise of black feminism". discursively, "their struggle isn't being recognised" generates a presupposition that there, in fact, exists a struggle for black women, and the lexical choice of “struggle” represents a common discourse strategy in anti-racist discourse, namely the use of metaphor (van dijk, 2020) moreover, the phrase "double discrimination" highlights intersectionality and the simultaneous oppression of race and gender for black women. interestingly, while not a primary focus of his study, van dijk (2020) emphasises the intersectional discourse about black women in brazil and finds the exact phrase being used. this suggests that "double discrimination" is a common phrase used to refer to black women in different discourse genres as well as national contexts and may be a general property of black feminist discourse. 3.2 police brutality and unaccountability the second major theme that emerged from the video data was that of police brutality. to begin, i present an excerpt from brittany cooper in which she highlights the frequent killing of blacks by police as well as the unaccountability of police: (5) we keep on relitigating basically the 1860s in this country, we have racial animus the likes of which we have not seen in my lifetime, a resurgence of law enforcement engaging black folks that are often deadly and often with impunity [pbs news hour 2019, 1:37] cooper's lexical choice of 'animus' to describe the racial situation in the u.s. also emphasises the hostility and spiteful attitudes toward blacks. additionally, the use of the lexical items ‘relitigating’ and ‘resurgence’, particularly the reprefix, highlights that racism is cyclical and systemic.3 moreover, one subtheme of police and police brutality was the notion of safety and that black women don't feel safe around police: (6) the police don't keep us safe, and i should say all of us are safe; the police keep some people safe, right? if you're, you're more likely to be safe if you're a property owner, if you're white, if you're able-bodied, if you're cisgender, if you are a citizen, if you are christian, all these, these certain things that hold privileges and power in society right? but they surely don't keep me safe i don't feel safe at all uh with the police and i don’t feel safe with myi don't feel that my family is safe with the police or my friends as well [university of new england 2016, 29:08] in the above excerpt, one again identifies an evaluative stance by the speaker in using first-person singular pronouns 'i' and 'me' upon expressing that the police do not keep her safe and that she does not feel safe with the police. additionally, she demonstrates a high level of involvement by conveying an individualised and personalised experience (…do not keep me safe; i don’t feel safe) (de fina 1995; 2003). at the same time, however, the use of the first-person plural us at the beginning of the excerpt reflects her collective identity as part of a group of marginalised people, precisely one that is not kept safe by the police. like barbara smith's discourse presented in excerpt 1, charlene is conveying solidarity with other 3 many thanks to an anonymous reviewer for pointing out this particular lexical and morphological function. 83 black women in particular and other minorities more generally (martín-rojo 1997). such patterns of referential switching to either personalise or generalise experiences are common in discourse (de fina 2003; limerick 2017). 3.3 black feminism defined the third main theme that emerged from the dataset was black feminism defined. this theme comprises any appeal to black feminism itself, in description or definition. in other words, what notions, expressions, and topics fall under the umbrella of black feminism as described in discourse about black feminism, primarily by black women. for the first illustration, this excerpt appears after a question from the moderator of the panel who simply asks “what is black feminism?” a prominent sub-theme that appears is intersectionality, as exemplified in the excerpt below: (7) i think the thing that i think about when i think about black feminism is this moment of, just heightened violence ah for black women who are trans, um the highest documented homicides ever happened this past year and the year before was the highest before that...and so when i think about black feminism i think about, how we cannot um get rid of gender norms and transphobia and the gender binary without getting rid of everything else that co-constitutes it [...] we can't, we can't afford to take in this, what i think is like an assimilationist push that transphobia can happen without addressing anti-black racism, right? [national lgbtq task force 2016, 7:18] in this case, reina gossett gives her perspective on what she personally associates with black feminism, namely the intersection of race, gender, and sexuality and specifically black trans women and the problem of transphobia and its associated violence. speaking to anti-racism, in particular, reina highlights that it is impossible to dismantle transphobia without also engaging with anti-black racism. in terms of discursive strategies, we again see referential switching (from 'i' to 'we'), in which she begins with a more personalised view ("i think") and shifts to a collective viewpoint (we) in emphasising the plethora of issues that need to be addressed. we see intersectionality echoed in propositions from barbara smith such as “we saw that we had to talk about all the kinds of oppressions that affected our lives, not just one…” [national lgbtq task force 2016, 5:01]. in this context, barbara specified that many people in the black feminist movement's beginnings, in addition to being black women, also identified as lesbians, working-class, and poor. hence, she draws attention to the necessity of addressing not just one type of oppression, but the intersection of many simultaneously. a second subtheme for black feminism defined is that of full dignity (valuing and respecting someone for their own sake), represented across all four videos of the dataset, and illustrated explicitly with the discourse of charlene carruthers below: (8) charlene: i think black feminism requires us to expand, how we think of womanhood outside of binaries, and all that good stuff all that language that people in this room know, but essentially this idea that we should all be able to live within our full dignity, and i believe that, there are so many issues that are black feminist issues, the occupation of palestine is a black feminist issue, right? because, because what is happening, what is happening due to the israeli occupation, they, there have been streams, scores of reports of the sterilisation of women from east africa, that is a black feminist issue, right? [national lgbtq task force 2016, 09:56] a core idea of black feminism, as reflected in the videos, is the freedom to live within one’s full dignity, regardless of one’s identity, which in the case above specifically points to gender identity as well as less visible groups such as east african women. again, we see the use of the tag question ‘right?’ with the intention of conducing (moore & podesva, 2009) the audience to align or agree with the preceding propositions. 4. discussion 4.1 what recurring themes emerge in black feminist discourse? the primary themes that emerged from the video data were the following: the inclusion of black women, police brutality and unaccountability, and black feminism defined. numerous sub-themes were also observed, such as making space in the world, reference to specific black women, safety, intersectionality, and full dignity. in a much broader sense, the discourse analysed made a connection to (anti) racism more generally (and not only to black feminism or black women in particular). it reinforces the importance of understanding racism as systemic rather than on the level of individual prejudice (bonilla-silva 1997; van dijk 2005; among many others). this was seen, for instance, through the major theme of systemic police brutality observed in the videos. furthermore, the current data reflects and lends support to van dijk’s (2015) notion of anti-racism. in the context of the videos examined, we observed anti-racist social practices through conference talks and news reports concerning black feminism in particular and antiracism more generally. these social practices were based on anti-racist social cognitions (ideologies and attitudes) on the part of the speakers. 84 4.2. what discursive strategies and discourse structures are used in the anti-racist discourse of and about black women? numerous discourse structures/discursive strategies were analysed in the videos, namely lexical choice, presupposition, pronominal choice, and the use of conducive tag questions. examples of lexical choice included “save” and “animus”, denoting the seriousness of racism for black women and the need to be rescued from it. other lexical choices such as “single-issued” and “male-defined” denoted criticisms of other social movements. regarding presuppositions, one of the recurring ones was that there was/is not a space for black women in the world. in terms of pronominal choice, first-person plural pronouns were used to convey solidarity with black feminists (martín-rojo 1997; de fina 2003). first-person singular pronouns conveyed an evaluative stance as well as an individualised and personalised experience (e.g. do not keep me safe; i don’t feel safe) (de fina 1995; 2003). finally, the use of the tag question “right”? was used for conducive meaning (moore & podesva 2009) or to persuade the listeners to align or agree with the previous proposition made by the speaker. importantly, many of these anti-racist discursive strategies and themes counter and show resistance to the narratives heard in racist discourse. for example, as stated in the introduction, the denial of racism is a major strategy noted in studies of discursive racism (e.g. bonilla-silva & forman 2000; van dijk 2003; zavala & zariquiey 2009). the current data show overt opposition to this idea by highlighting the existence and reality of systemic racism in the u.s. and beyond. moreover, in contrast to the ‘apparent’ sympathy for marginalised people often seen in racist discourse (van dijk 1997), the black feminist discourse here reflects genuine sympathy and compassion for minorities (e.g. we would have carved out a space for every other kind of individual, every other kind; rekia boyd has to be included; etc). as the first study (to the best of my knowledge) to examine black feminist language from a critical discourse studies perspective, the current analysis begins to fill a gap in the field and to serve as a base for future work by establishing some key properties and structures of black feminist discourse. 5. conclusion this preliminary analysis revealed a number of themes that emerged in black feminist discourse as well as discursive strategies employed from a discourse analytic perspective. the findings contribute to the analysis of anti-racist discourse, an understudied topic in critical discourse studies. this study serves to further our understanding of the linguistic manifestation of ideologies through discourse concerning anti-racism in general and black feminism in particular. crucially, the discourse analysed in the videos reflects an essential notion concerning black feminism, that of intersectionality, through the discussion of double discrimination, transphobia against black transgender women, and utterances such as “all kinds of oppressions […] not just one”. while some of the strategies, functions, and themes examined apply to many types of discourses more broadly, other properties reflect black feminist discourse in particular, such as reference to specific black women, intersectionality, solidarity with other black feminists, the notion of double discrimination, criticism of other movements, and the idea that if black women can be free, everyone can be free. such properties are consistent with the key topics of black feminist scholarship, which were discussed in the introduction. there are many avenues for future research and opportunities to expand upon the current study. first, an analysis of a larger number of videos would give a more representative view of black feminist discourse and how it ties to anti-racist discourse more generally. this would also potentially reveal additional themes and discursive strategies not discussed in the current paper. additionally, it would be beneficial to examine the responses and reactions to the videos by analysing the youtube text comments that appear with each video. in this way, we could uncover how the content is perceived and what types of attitudes emerge as a result of listening to black feminist discourse. finally, future work should consider the potential pedagogical applications to anti-racist discourse analysis to amplify marginalised voices and educate others for social change. it is our hope that, through watching and reflecting upon the media examined in this paper and others with similar discourse themes and strategies, anti-racist and black feminist cognitions can be further acquired and reproduced (van dijk 2015). references baker, p. 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"i segregate you because your lack of education offends me": an approach to racist discourse in contemporary peru. in t. a. van dijk (ed.), racism and discourse in latin america (pp. 259-289). lanham: lexington books. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6829 vol. 3, no. 2, august 2021, pp. 115-123 115 simile as an effective literary device in the vietnamese-english translation equivalent nguyen huu chanh viet nam national university, ho chi minh city. viet nam nguyenhuuchanh06@gmail.com article history received : 2021-05-21 revised : 2021-05-28 accepted : 2021-08-07 keywords simile translation training translation education literary work figure of speech abstract many vietnamese writers have recognised the utility of literary devices to beautify the artistic features in written texts. like other rhetorical devices, simile plays an essential role in bringing meaningful values close to the readers. the research aims at identifying the usage of simile in the translation equivalents between vietnamese and english in de men phieu luu ky and its translated version diary of a cricket. from analysing 108 sentences by the descriptive qualitative research, the findings showed that (1) the high frequency of using the complete form of simile to express the figure of speech. (2) the imbalance in the translation rate between two languages and the most popular simile word of like usage in english translated text. (3) the variables of comparative words and themes used in the target text show the same meaning in the source text. those conclusions shed light on the quality improvement on the target text, especially in both translator's training and further translation education. 1. introduction the translation is not an easy task, but translating from one language to another entirely different system is a big challenge. according to nguyen (1997) in his research "tieng viet khong son phan", he described a vietnamese sentence with the subject (chủ ngữ) producing a topic (đề) and the predicate (vị ngữ) making a comment (thuyết). the subject varies from nouns, pronouns, compound nouns, or noun phrases. the predicate is understood as a verb or verb phrase for example, ba tôi là một cán bộ hưu trí. the translation process has enhanced its quality by analysing the nature of english and vietnamese sentences and made more significant contributions to the translation industry. regarding the study about the contrastive analysis between english and vietnamese, nguyen (1967) mentioned in his research about a contrastive grammatical analysis of english and vietnamese in which sentences and grammatical points are carefully examined. to be specific, some dependents and independent clauses are introduced. translation in literary proses has been an increasing concern to the vietnamese translator in recent years since it requires an in-depth knowledge of both languages when the texts are expressed in written form. the problem is the language system, namely english as an analytical language and vietnamese as an inflectional one. the ultimate goal of the study is to figure out how the simile is applied by displaying some related studies. it compares the vietnamese version of de men phieu luu ky and translated text of diary of a cricket in terms of translation equivalents by giving some typical notes within the source and target text and finally illustrating some significant findings to the translator's training and translation education. in recent times, there has been more discussion about expressing a language in direct and non-direct ways. for the former, meanings can be understood through words and sentences, but for the latter, the underlying meaning should be put in a context following figures of speech (li et al. 2010; thahara, 2015; azizah, 2019; wisnita, 2019); de mendoza ibáñez, 2020; nguyen, 2021). in literature, writers usually use figures of speech to show their ideas since they think about more than what a word infers to become a good author (nguyen, 2021). the aspects of word sound are also a crucial factor that requires writers to consider. the sound has a significant impact on the literary text with well-chosen words because it strengthens a mood and becomes more forceful. when doing a translation process, prose with a successful and famous reputation domestic and internationally, a writer or author is professional enough to contribute the exact meanings into the target text. translation does not mean rewriting a text but coveys an original meaning and suits the target culture that the author attempts to reach (nguyen, 2021). besides, the translator cannot always get in touch with the author, so discover the original culture. the translated version needs to be associated with words and meanings (newmark, 1998) and agrees between two translations (hassan, 2011). hassan stated 116 that the translator coined a platform to bridge the diversity of cultures and countries. by so doing, the two most important features are propositional and pragmatic issues. for the latter, the content of principles and theories aims at augmenting the text, and then the translation quality significantly improves. a simile is a phenomenon that compares two opposite objects by using "like" or "as" in the sentence (kandenan, 2017). this function word is the recognised point to express simile (richards & schmidt, 2010; azizah, 2019 & myers, 1994). although there is no apparent difference between utilising like and as within a sentence, most studies mentioned like rather than as a figure of speech which creates a question about whether the existence of like and as a gap in simile happens. writers use similes in their writings to show an object in a more meaningful idea. it is understood since it coins a strong impression on the readers. this figure of speech makes this comparison surprising though the two objects are different. the purpose of similes is to coin noticed pictures and make the readers more understanding about the line of the poem. the application of stylistic devices is commonly used to achieve the human’s purposes in a particular way. the language users need to be aware of the factors, including the choices of words and how they are applied within the appropriate contexts that constitute the whole idea. those are expected as a gap that intends to be mentioned in the discussion. in literature, writers usually use figures of speech to show their ideas since they think about more than what a word infers to become a good author. there are many ways to define what a figure of speech is. according to richards & schmidt (2010), it is concerned about "a word or phrase" in an exact scenario and implies a meaning altogether different from the original words exposed. a sentence can be understood either literal and figurative meaning. for the latter, the writer aims at creating a more robust image for the readers. as stressed previously, a translation technique between two languages is a powerful tool frequently employed in acquiring the original meanings; therefore, there is no question why the issue has been brought into the research field by some scholars worldwide. wisnita (2019) had surveyed 40 questions understanding and using the simile in language learning with 60,92%. besides, the evaluation of the current instructors has also been added, thanks to this investigation. however, the paper just covered part of the simile, not more specific details in the literary work and how it could be transferred to another language other than english, leading the researcher to explore the veiled area. another research, namely the technique of simile in the novel by thahara (2015), carried out with descriptive qualitative research, showed 14 translation ways utilised in the novel, and literal translation became predominant when translating from english to indonesia. from the findings of this study, it is necessary to know whether the vietnamese language was also applied in the same procedure of translation or not. in other words, whether the communicative and cognitive functions were mentioned in the vietnamese language. hence, the paper was implemented to meet the wonders mentioned above. most importantly, in nguyen dang liem's massive study, many pieces of research analysed english and the vietnamese language features. according to his study (in volume 1) in 1966 about the english grammar using the tagmemic and transformational approach. he showed his explanations in kernel sentences, known as the grammatical hierarchical level's strings in simple, compound, and complex sentences. the words within the vietnamese language focus on word order and function words. this understanding opens a new direction to make comparisons from a single meaningful unit to an essay. the subsequent analysis about grammatical points (in volume 3) in 1967 figured out that the construction in vietnamese and english sentences is the same. the grammar also affects in terms of necessity but not sufficiency in writing an english text. when considering contrastive analysis, it is vital to present the deep structure, and surface structure stated in the sentence. moreover, he continuously researched phonology in two languages (in volume 4) in 1970 and concluded that the linguistic features in contrastive analysis need to be centred, which contributed to the whole studies in two languages. in addition to the mentioned studies, there were also several researchers to determine detailed similarities and differences of the points as mentioned earlier, namely the analysis of proverbs relevant to plants applied in teaching career conducted by bui thi phuong thao (2011), the research of negative sentences in the basic structure, starting from the formulations of l2 and then their equivalent in l1, by chau thi khanh linh et al. (2017). frank nhat trinh's study in 2002 mentioned the english and vietnamese collocations by figuring out different subtlety dimensions, the variations, and details of mixtures of words in two languages. vo tran mong thu (2010) study noted that vietnamese people do not frequently use noun phrases like english, especially in legal writing texts. furthermore, the study a contrastive analysis: idioms of comparison in english and vietnamese by nguyen dinh tuan illustrated the similarities and differences between two languages by displaying several words in the shape of idioms with two essential features: semantic and structural. every culture is not distinguished and unique, creating a gap to perform the same viewpoints (nguyen, 2011 & bui, 2011). thanks to that biological and cultural characteristics, the vietnamese and english sometimes have similar observations through concepts and matters. this study is closely associated with the researcher's study since the illustrations compare english and vietnamese idioms. the two objects are compared: 117 thing thing, person thing, thingperson, person person. moreover, the study named a contrastive analysis of passive voice in english and vietnamese by nguyen thi diem quynh (2010) showed that vietnamese people prefer sentences inactive while english tend to use more passive forms. the sentences emphasise the fact, the action, or its result, so the recipients are mainly focused. to understand vietnamese sentences, it is vital to depend on the semantic meaning and grammatical features. besides, the english subjects agree with the verbs while the vietnamese ones do not. from the points mentioned above, this study aims to research the translation equivalent in vietnamese – english under the book de men phieu luu ky by to hoai, a very well-known book and its translated version by dang the binh, published by kim dong publishing house. for children to adults who are always a big fan of to hoai, de men phieu luu ky is one of the best well-known literary works suggested for those who enjoy their childhood memory. with a simple but attractive writing style, to hoai always reminds every person of lively imagining their past with sweet and unforgettable things. each word touches the reader's heart since those are a piece of their past life. once the study was conducted successfully, new translated ways of thinking with the focused formulations and themes were discovered, which contributed significantly to the translator techniques when doing a translation job. the study concentrates on improving the translation process's quality of the target text in english from a vietnamese version. therefore, this study primarily focuses on (1) looking at an overview of the background of the study with like and as (2) checking that whether using the simile is a valuable figure to understand the meaning in english (3) reconfirming the way of translating english language vocabulary effectively. a simile is collected and tested by looking at the vietnamese words and their english translations in the book to compare and contrast based on the usages of simile in two versions. 2. method in order to mainly focus on using the simile to enhance the writers' ability and bring the equivalent ideas in the source text into the target language, the books were used, namely de men phieu luu ky and its translated version diary of a cricket. simile is collected and tested by looking at the vietnamese words and their english translations in the book to compare and contrast in all dimensions of the use of simile in english literary work. the author himself has read and consulted many books in some vietnamese publishing houses and internet search for references to select the sources and materials. the study employed qualitative research in which the data is analysed to understand the phenomena (hollis, 1994) since this type is expected to gain indepth knowledge of the data and avoid the early judgment during the data analysis (atieno, 2009). according to beidel, frueh, & hersen (2014), the method aims to make the data more straightforward but still preserve the level of difficulty of the text. it is necessary to review the previous knowledge to support the validity and reliability of the current study (cropley, 2019). therefore, the key objective of this research is to investigate a description of the study context through simile; explore whether the judgments of this rhetorical device is a reasonable way to comprehend english words and interpret english vocabulary appropriately. moreover, all the words in the description are critically described to substantially contribute to the contextual context, enhance the speaker's skills, and recommend improved techniques for interpreting words in various situations. the accuracy of the analysis is also clearly seen. the data will then be evaluated in groups, tables in which figures such as proportion and occurrence counts will be measured. with the detailed and clearly stated evidence of data and active work spirit, this study is assured to bring the best attempt from the researcher: (1) the story and writer are well-known not only in vietnam but also around the world. besides, the writer has already possessed over 100 short and long stories with much experience. (2) the translator has much experience to bring the most corrected version from the source text to the target text since he has also had some publications in english translation. (3) the publishing house has been long with identified reputation nationwide. this publishing house has been established in 1957 and is prestigious in serving books for children and introduce vietnamese culture to the world. according to the data from the publishing house, the book has already begun its first publication in 80 years with numerous reprints and translations of up to 20 languages. hence, the researcher hopes that the study will give an accurate outlook about the problem addressed. 3. findings from the data taken from the book de men phieu luu ky and its translated version, diary of a cricket, and the methodology described above, the following points illustrate how the vietnamese language was expressed in the english version with simile’s application. there were three areas to be addressed. first, the formulation of simile in both versions was presented by giving two pie charts, one in vietnamese comparison and the other in the target language. table 3.1 added in this section aimed to illustrate each investigated element's order to support the typical rule used in the original and translated version. secondly, table 3.2 in this section showed the distribution of vietnamese and english sentences to serve as evidence within the study, while figure 3.3 displayed the 118 number of sentences translated from the source to the target language. finally, figure 3.4 showed the variables of words used in the target text, and figure 3.5 mentioned the most frequent theme that simile was applied in translation equivalent. 3.1 the structural feature of using simile in two languages table 3.1 the arrangement of the simile’s form former comparative words latter x like or else y as the data coding mentioned, there were three sets of comparisons: x is the left part or components of the comparative word (like, or else), while y is the latter part. this structure was set up as follows: figure 3.1 components (x, y) within the sentences in the vietnamese version for figure 3.1, the writer (to hoai) utilised the simile in his original book while, for figure 3.2, this figure of speech was expressed. when discussing the distribution of the simile in the original text of de men phieu luu ky, it was noted that the proportion of x deletion is 8%, while the sentence with y's omission accounted for 10%. the remaining figure of complete comparison ranked first 82%. the data meant that people tended to use the complete structures of simile to express the whole meaning. figure 3.2 components (x, y) within the sentences in the english version regarding the translated version, the result also stayed the same as the original text, in which the complete set of similes was preferred. to be more specific, it was noted that the percentage of x deletion is 4%, while the sentence with y's omission accounted for 2%. the remaining figure of complete comparison ranked first 94%. from the data, it meant that the vietnamese and english languages used simile in a complete form. 3.2 the comparison between translated sentences in two languages table 3.2. the number of investigated sentences types response count per cent response vietnamese 61 56% english 47 44% 3% 8% 89% no x no y full set 4% 2% 94% no x no y full set 119 to ensure the validity and reliability of the data analysis, the number of limited sentences with simile were investigated to show the balance in the data. there were 108 sentences in the investigation. of the 61 sentences in vietnamese and 47 sentences in english were investigated in this study, the percentage is 56% and 44%, respectively, to calculate the equality of the two versions. figure 3.3 translation rates between english and vietnamese version the number of translated sentences was limited during the data analysis, which was displayed in the chart (5 sentences) compared to the 42 untranslated sentences, accounting for nearly 90% of untranslated sentences. since the characteristics of this comparison are the similarities and differences in vietnamese and english, the translation equivalent was mainly focused. of 47 investigated sentences, the matching sentences were just 5, showing the low possibility of using simile equivalent in two versions. 3.3 the comparative words and themes utilised in the target text to express simile in the vietnamese language figure 3.4 comparative words utility in the context regarding the expression of simile, the were some types, namely, like and as. those variables were used in english, but the vietnamese version stated the same meanings, which are counted to contribute to the overall results. there were many illustrations for this type, but the high possibility of using like was predominant, accounting for 80%. the following percentages were as with 20 %. the english translator preferred to use like in comparisons to express the simile in vietnamese. this shed light on how simile was translated in vietnamese and english so that more and more translators utilised this word in the translation process. figure 3.5 simile sentences distribution in each chapter translated untranslated translated 5 42 0 10 20 30 40 50 translated 80% 20% like as 15 2 0 4 24 6 0 2 7 0 6 11 1 5 8 3 0 9 4 0 n u m b e r o f se n te n ce s chapter in the whole book vietnamese english 120 as illustrated in figure 3.5, the blue and red columns were put in pairs from chapter 1 until 10. in chapter 3 and 7, there were rarely limited or almost no simile within the content, namely 0-1 and 0-0, respectively. besides, the sentences with simile were not equal between vietnamese and english. for example, there were 24 sentences in vietnamese, but only eight sentences in english consisting of simile. chapter 1 consisted of 15 in the source text but only 6 in target one. hence, the chapter distribution in english and vietnamese were not equivalent. in other words, the simile in chapter 5 ranks first. there are 108 sentences counted in de men phieu luu ky and diary to a cricket. the figure of the speech is delivered unevenly within the chapters. regarding the content, the chart showed that the concentration was on the first and fifth chapters. the finding stated that the description of a cricket with independence when it was young and the unforgettable story during its lifetime present more simile than any other content. besides, when the cricket got problems with food and water during its adventures, it realised more value in life. 4. discussion as stated in the findings, the result reconfirmed that the power of simile in the literary work, which has already been mentioned by li et al. (2010); thahara (2015); azizah (2019); wisnita (2019); de mendoza ibáñez (2020) in their previous study, so this would suggest the typical figure of speech that the translators would use in their professional work. what is more, there are some of the points to address over from the study. firstly, both the writer (to hoai) and translator (dang the binh) aims at conveying the correct and meaningful ideas from the source to the target language. the translator and author's ultimate purpose is to embed the aesthetic function and sometimes creativity in their writing, which can be mentioned surprisingly. this feature is agreed with pierini (2007) when he carried out the study about simile itself. the explanation here is understandable since it can cause misunderstandings about discussing the same images or features but holding contradicting viewpoints. that is why the study also agrees with larson (1984) that something is hardly translated literally. besides, when translating to a foreign language, ways of thinking need to be considered to control the learners' using words (geng & wei, 2015; hermans, 2003; newmark, 1989). this process is clearly described in translation in any type by using contrastive analysis, which means predicting, describing, contrasting, and selecting the way we analyse the story. according to fisiak (1981), contrastive analysis was defined as "a sub-discipline of linguistics concerned with comparing two or more languages or subsystems of languages to determine both the differences and similarities between them". de men phieu luu ky and diary to a cricket are from two language systems that create a gap of understanding and transferring, but they still have shared points that connect to the other parts of the world. secondly, the author and translator have the same ways to use the forms of simile no matter of the language system, an inflectional or analytical one. in other words, the missing of any of the two parts are mostly not frequently accepted. hence, this suggests another rule to use the simile in the literary process. besides, the most beneficial feature when the complete set of simile is used in both languages is the expressions of the mentioned object, since it possesses the ideas mentioned, a means to transfer, and an indicator of the target ideas emphasised. this view is also agreed with pierini (2007). in addition, for the grammatical structures, one of the essential components to produce a well-translated text is using suitable grammar structures. translating requires a wide range of knowledge of structures with strict rules. within a sentence, articles, adjectives, nouns, verbs, adverbs, tenses, etc., are combined in several ways, so they must be based on specific and default grammatical frames. translating without context caused several limitations in the target text (li et al., 2010). some of the semantic and stylistic equivalences are not preserved. the translation process needs to be put in a particular context to arise the special terms and ideas that enable translators to be more straightforward to catch the underlying meanings of the text. that is the reason why word and choices of word meanings are also a noted point. when translating, it is compulsory to obtain the right words as they play a crucial role in conveying the source text's original meanings. regarding the translating styles, including free, literal, and literary, the skills and performances in word selection are critical when dealing with complicated texts. secondly, from the statistics, not all the sentences (vietnamese), including simile, are translated with the same comparison in the target language (english), which means that each language has its way to express simile although this figure of speech is used in two languages. this finding suggests that the simile's definition is sometimes not the same between two languages due to the cultural and historical features. the ultimate goal here is to preserve the figurative meanings from each language system. the reason for the above point is from the study of sam & catrinel (2006); kendenan (2017); carston & wearing (2011), and song (2020). sometimes, the simile is confused with metaphor in some cultures since they hold the functions of comparisons. in other words, an image or idea means one thing in a particular culture but refers to another thing in different cultures. however, with the findings in this study, the simile is precisely determined through the comparison marker "like" so that no more confusion is left. in addition, when it comes to the frequency of like and as in the vietnamese and translated text, the result has already illustrated the higher possibility to use like within the translated 121 version. as usual, the two-letter word is prefered with the shorter time to write, but it contrasts this view. with three main functions, including preposition, conjunction, and adverb, one usage is less than like (an adjective as well). in this way, the more the word like is mentioned in the translated text, the more meanings the story conveys. since the readers from different cultures read the book, they need to consider an image or a scenario in how the vietnamese characters think. therefore, the advantage is understanding vietnamese culture from spending time reading the book. the variation of like usage makes the readers aware of what simile is placed because not all the word like is functioned similarly. thirdly, the simile is only in some of the topics, namely in limited circumstances that require expressing the characteristics of the characters or intend to bring a lesson from a memorable story. this finding is entirely new since the researcher found no previous studies that take this into account. hence, it suggests that the simile is easily applied in the themes with ups and downs emotions or doing something that takes time to complete. in order to do so, it is necessary to possess characteristics of language. for language characteristics, one of the two elements that constitute a sentence by english language standards is the meaning components of lexical items. it is frequently considered as a phenomenon of differences in a language. from the discussion above, the paper has already gone through some of the significant findings that contribute to translating a literary work. the paper has found the status of current translation and given recommendations toward the translation techniques so that the translators themselves could apply for their careers. when doing a translation process, a translator must activate the background knowledge with a figure of speech so that an idea is equally transmitted. this process is understood since vietnamese is quite challenging to learn, especially for understanding semantics views in the literary process. the translator needs to research how to make an animal in the most creative way and even suitable to vietnamese context, but foreign readers can still imagine in a complete view. he or she must choose the appropriate figure of speech, simile as an example, to do it successfully. besides, culture varies from country to country, so the translator needs to study carefully before translating using a simile. for example, the readers can understand vietnamese life with specific things like cricket and other animals in vietnamese fields and rivers. besides, cricket's characteristics toward life and nature are also expressed when an animal is personalised to overcome ups and downs. however, there are still some limitations that need to be taken. since the number of investigated sentences are not big enough, the appropriateness in the macro scale is not entirely accepted. secondly, the study is just only implemented in a book with a translator, whereas there are many other skilled and professional translators in viet nam. those factors have left the researcher to continue his scientific research on this issue in his lifetime. for future studies, it is hoped that the other figures of speech are unveiled, namely metaphor, hyperbole, and personification. currently, more and more vietnamese texts are translated, so it is a must to have a standard rule to translate the texts effectively, which preserves the real message from the author. for all discussions above, the study determined some of the typical ways to improve the translated texts, in which some points are agreed upon and established new findings. 5. conclusion this study's predetermined purpose is to discover the noticeable features of simile when using in vietnamese and applying under the translator's writing. the findings have illustrated the critical roles of using simile in the literary context. although there are differences in the language system, vietnamese and english also show the same functions to compare the literal and figurative meanings in different scenarios. however, when comparing the source text and english version, not all the vietnamese sentences using simile are equally translated into english, which means that two languages have their writing styles to show the original meaning since the utility of simile depends on how the ideas are transferred. to do effective translation, the translators themselves must obtain the theoretical background and relevant knowledge of the subject. by doing so, the more we research and practice, the more refined the target text is. the above analysis generalises the functions of simile in vietnamese literature and its translation. having completed this translation helps us learn many things. doing a translation not only includes translating each word by its meaning but also involves many various activities. besides, from the findings, it is clear that the simile also appears in some of the most frequent contexts that require simile for more illustrations, as mentioned above. the exciting thing here is that the vietnamese version prefers to use a complete set of similes, which means that 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(2016). conclusion: making introductions. in the first book: twentieth-century poetic careers in america (pp. 154-168). princeton; oxford: princeton university press. retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1dr359b.10. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1dr359b.10 journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i2.6318 vol. 3, no. 2, august 2021, pp. 124-134 124 perceptions of english language students on the relevance of ‘efl’, ‘esl’ and other such terms in contemporary turkish contexts chinaza ironsi near east university, north nicosia, northern cyprus. turkey solomon.chinaza@neu.edu.tr article history received : 2021-03-11 revised : 2021-04-14 accepted : 2021-08-09 keywords english as an international and intranational language non-native speaker english as a foreign language english as a second language world englishes north cyprus abstract over the years, there has been an ongoing debate on the relevance of certain terms like esl, efl. several linguists have argued that these terms do not represent a wide range of language users under varying circumstances, given their various proficient language competence levels. in a bid to unveil the extent to which this presupposition applies to the use of esl and efl terms. a group of 36 participants from a school in north cyprus was purposively chosen for this quantitative study. four research questions were to be investigated. questionnaires were used to collect vital data from the participants on their perceptions on terms like esl and efl. after analysis, results were collected, analysed and used to make cases for redefining the concepts of esl and efl terms, especially within the turkish-cypriot setting. a notable finding of this study was that the participants believed that terms like efl esl do not adequately define their language status. they further suggested that more appropriate terms should be used. the study suggested using english as an international and intranational language instead of the former terms, among other suggestions. this study adds to the corpus of research showing that while acronyms like efl and esl are relevant in english language education, more emphasis should focus on improving learner's four language skills which directly impacts their performance and production of the target language. 1. introduction over the years, the concepts of english as a foreign language and as a second language have been debated widely. according to kachru (1985), the spread of language resulted in the classification of countries under such terms as efl esl and enl. he explained that the spread of english gave rise to varieties of english that those regions speak though it is a variety and not a different language. previously, many language users could be classified under these terms according to the manner and way they acquired the language, but in most cases, literature has argued that these terms do not define or categorise them properly (mauranen, 2018; kubota, 2018). the relevance of such terms regarding language teaching and learning continues to resurface in language literature as the debate increases. while the debate is ongoing on the usage and essence of these acronyms in the growing contemporary society, the call for a further critique of this issue arises in fast-growing english as foreign and second language countries. it is evident in studies that the categorisation of countries and individuals using such acronyms has not been thoroughly justified (alogali, 2018; bolton, 2018). there is evidence in research to show that esl and efl countries have engaged in rigorous researches in the english language more than others in english as a native language country (bolton, 2018; kachru, 2019). many believe that while efl and esl countries have recently produced numerous researches in language education, such societies have produced individuals with great linguistic and communicative competence in the english language (bolton, 2019; rezaei, khosravizadeh & mottaghi, 2019). arguably, the categorisation of an individual in an esl/efl country with linguistic and communicative competence under such categories opens up the need to revisit this issue. previous studies have continued to debate these issues as numerous authors and specialists appear never to see a need for them. with these terms and the descriptions, they allude to english language speakers and users, they feel it is time to look into the possibility of creating newer terms, which would more accurately reflect the present state of english language usage around the world, like in turkish cypriot communities (crystal, 2004; sharifian, 2009; kirkpatrick, 2010). importantly, it is critical to state that the english language is common in turkey as much turkish use it for various https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i2.6318 125 purposes, especially for communication and everyday tasks. it is reported in the literature that more than 30 million people in turkey speak english, and more than 60 million are still learning and acquiring the language (coksun, 2011), which suggests that in the streets of istanbul, ankara, nicosia, and kyrenia, lots of people make use of the english language daily. though many consider and categorise turkey as an efl country, the constitution recognises english as the second language (esl) after the turkish language. (bahia, 2008). this is visible among a vast number of english speakers of turkish origin in turkey. however, many believe that time has come for such classification or categorisations to be redefined as they no longer represent the true language status of a society like turkey. while a lot has been written about esl and efl enl acronyms and how they apply in contemporary societies, numerous scholars are beginning to have a different opinion on this subject matter (mauranen, 2018; bolton, 2019). furthermore, turkey has carried out numerous researches within language education with a growing populace of english speakers whose competence is near-native (coksun, 2011); yet they are classified under the acronyms of esl and efl. as this topic resurfaces again, there is a need to reinvestigate the relevance of such terms in our contemporary society, especially within the turkish-cypriot context. it is evidenced in previous studies that scholars may perceive themselves as near-native or having communicative and linguistic competence, yet the definition of near nativeness is yet unclear (white & genesee, 1996; sorace, 2003). it may seem that very limited scholars are concerned with these issues as it affects language learners, as very little study exists on the opinions of language learners on the usage of acronyms like esl and efl. also, in recent times, it is obvious that numerous novel language related-researches carried out by notable authors within this context have emerged, yet a number of these authors are classified using such acronyms as mentioned above. although this topic has been discussed in previous times without implementing authors' suggestions in research, continuous discussions on this topic may be considered a possible way of researching this topic to gain global attention. moreover, although research has illuminated several inconsistencies with regards to the use of these acronyms, no study has to date re-examined this issue as it relates to this context. despite decades of research on this topic and its relevance in language education, notable authors like braj kachru, andy kirkpatrick, david crystal, to mention but a few, have constantly debated on this topic. it may seem relevant to hint that many authors have conducted numerous studies in the broader literature, yet this problem is still insufficiently addressed. having stated these, we argue that previous research can only be considered a first step towards profoundly understanding researchers views on the inequalities and inconsistencies regarding the use of such acronyms. at the same time, there is a need to investigate the learners' opinions concerning the use of such acronyms in describing their language status. one way to sort this out is to investigate the perceptions of language learners within the turkish context on their views on the usage of such acronyms in recent times. 1.1 theoretical framework there have been two schools of thought concerning the true owners of the english language: the "idealist" and the "pragmatist" (jenkins, 2006). it is based on these ways of thinking that ideas like esl, enl, and eil emanates. the previous recommends that the ownership be ascribed to local speakers (enl), while the last contends that english is never again exclusively claimed by the local speakers (eil) even as the vast majority of its advocates are generally of esl and efl origin. as for their tolerance for the new varieties of english, the former treats them as deviations and suggests that speakers of the newer varieties should look to native speakers for the standard-setting and language pedagogy, yet it is thought as superfluous to see native speakers as models or the proprietors of english language.
 as graddol (2006), one of the devotees to the idealist hypothesis, prior stated that, "the very truth that english is a universal language implies that no nation can have authority over it. he further stated that it is just global to the degree that it is not their native speakers (nss) language. others possess it." what graddol holds is the conviction that in communicating in english, there are no local speakers in light of english's special status in the contemporary world, and english is not in its purest form rather a variety or mix of other languages. this presupposes that terms like efl and esl should be redefined given these arguments, as mentioned earlier. aside from graddol's contention, there has been a thoughtful discussion on how elt pedagogy should treat local or native speakers. holliday (2005) contends that "competence" in communicating in english is never again controlled by birth, however by the ability to utilise the language appropriately. crystal (2004) even recommends that we uproot "local or native speakers" with "ability", "association", and "legacy" in a bid to reinstate that language has shifted from where it was centuries ago to a global form. however, the pragmatist theories and numerous other elt experts give their backings to the nonnative speakers nnss and award students in the outer and expanding circles academic motivation to guarantee their ownership of language and thus justifying the use of terms like esl and efl (qions, 2004; matsuda, 2019; berns, 2019; bahia, 2008). similarly, as macias (2010) suggests, if english students cannot claim ownership of language, they probably would not see themselves as real speakers of that language. however, numerous nnss, as noted by holliday (2005), still lean toward a model of the 126 english variety related to nss. they seem hesitant to claim nativeness to the language. she proposes that this hesitance could be identified with students' "decline in confidence" as non-native instructors and teachers are scared by the notion of the native speaker standard. these and many more are the debates that have sustained the use of concepts like esl, efl, and enl to distinguish between varieties and speakers. aside from macias's presumption of students' decline of confidence, another progressively confused explanation behind nnss' reluctance to claim nativeness of english is found in holliday's book (holliday, 2005). the study breaks down the multifaceted nature of her email interviewee by suggesting that the native speaker notion is so profoundly established in the tesol and that it is difficult to eradicate. concepts like esl and enl could be revisited. if we consider macias's view and let language learners remain where they are— emphasising that they do not have to wind their tongue in a twisted way that is consummately okay to keep your accents—eventually, we would frightfully annoy the students since it may be their wish to attain such desired pronunciation peak. so, these still open up these glaring cases for terms like esl and efl as used in most cases to classify learners and speakers. besides, in matsuda's (2003) study, she found that students in japan learning english see english as a worldwide language that could be utilised universally; however, from macias’s supposition to matsuda's discoveries, it may be inferred that the idea of nativeness may be certain issues to be considered on such topics that bother on esl/enl/efl acronyms. this study hinges on these different schools of thought to suggest that though there have been calls for reviews on these acronyms as it concerns language users, numerous aspects of the debate need to be considered in resolving this issue of nativeness and non-nativeness of the english language, which is the sole aim of this study. 2. literature review considering turkey as an efl country, a recent newspaper report states that according to article 3 of the constitution of turkey, turkish and english are seen as the two official languages of the country though in 2012; the ministry of education added kurdish to the academic program of the primary schools, other languages like abkhaz, adyghe, standard georgian, laz, and others were added in 2013 and 2017 respectively. the ministry of education decided to include arabic in 2015 as language courses offered in colleges and universities. because all these languages are spoken in turkey, english is the 3rd most spoken language in turkey and second among turkish – cypriots. english is taught in school as an elective course though it is officially recognised as the second language after turkish. it is taught in schools and used for international trade. it is glaring to see many turkish citizens learning the language for trade and tourism. many tourist destinations are around and within some cities in turkey and turkish occupied cyprus. 2.1 concepts of esl, efl, and enl as braj kachru 1985, a teacher of linguistics, a cycle shows the spread of english. this cycle is shaped with three circles. it is reported in the literature that the inner circle is enl, english as a native language, the outer circle, incorporates esl, english as a second language, the expanding circle incorporates efl, english as a foreign language (mauranen, 2018; kubota, 2018; alogali, 2018). previous and recent studies indicated that native language users like britain, america are classified in enl circles, regions colonised by the british like asia and africa are in the esl circle (kirkpatrick, 2012; pennycook, 1994). so, we can say, as per kachru's model, that turkey takes place in the efl circle, the expanding one because english is used only for education and tourism in turkey and turkish occupied cyprus. in reality, language use regarding the english language is changing as the english language community and users keep growing from 17% in 2008 to 45% in 2018. (sari & yusuf, 2009). this change in dynamics in language use has given rise to the need for review or redefining the way some of the speakers are being classified using esl/ efl terms. macias (2010) thought that approach or policy, regardless of whether they express certainty or nonexistent issues, influence the idea of language and the teaching and learning to a setting. studies claim that second language acquisition classrooms are not secluded from outer political concern, and "what occurs in the classroom is personally connected to social and political powers" (pennycook, 1994; bolton, 2019). consequently, sifakis (2007) suggested that the worldwide spread of english and the expansion in english speakers directly impact the english language itself and the english language classrooms. from this ideological point of view, it has been recommended that english language learning and teaching have been ruled by the 'perfect local speaker' or ideal native speaker and at such the ongoing use of terms like efl and esl, which are used to create a category which connotes standards of approved varieties of english (mauranen, 2018; matsuda, 2019). as it were, the ns has been held up as a benchmark for information and knowledge about language (crystal, 2004; mauranen, 2018; kubota, 2018) and represents an ideal in language teaching and learning. subsequently, the ns belief system has had a remarkable effect on the english language approach and policy as they view enl as superiors, thus sustaining the use and ideologies behind the terms like esl and efl (rezaei, khosravizadeh & mottaghi, 2019). studies show that english has spread worldwide today, and there is no uncertainty that it is the most broadly instructed, read, and communicated language that the world has ever known (kirkpatrick, 2012; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/constitution_of_turkey https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/english_language https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ministry_of_national_education_(turkey) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/abkhaz_language https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/adyghe_language https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/georgian_language https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/laz_language 127 matsuda, 2019). given the various settings where it is utilised, literature shows that endeavours have been made to explain the worldwide scene, depict and characterise its users and uses, which ought to be carried out in the right context by clearly and logically considering a lot before assigning acronyms like efl, esl and enl status to language users (alogali, 2018; bolton, 2018). interest in this subject started with kachru's (1992) model of three concentric circles of users of english as discussed in earlier paragraphs: the inner, outer and expanding circle. this model has brought issues to light about the multifaceted nature of the english language, especially among these varying classes of enl esl and efl. besides, it shed light on the risky qualification or characteristics attached to native speakers (ns)/nonlocal speakers (nns) of english, which has become an issue of worry among many applied linguists and english language educating (elt) experts. the ns argument picked up more energy in the 1990s when the point at which the hidden political and ideological ramifications on the notions of ns were uncovered. work by kachru (1985) on the "native speaker misrepresentation" combined with the overall spread of english as an international language (eil) and other issues related to the use of terms like esl, efl, cultivated discourses about the status and the changing discourse on the ownership of language. in a word, the rise of another worldview of reference in english (see, for example, sharifian, 2009) has tested the ns picture in many discussions about the idea of 'native speakers and, by suggestion, addressed english language strategy/policy and what ought to be educated and learned for the sake of english. given that english is utilised overall basically by non-native speakers (nns) to speak with nns, kirkpatrick and saunders (2005) posited that it appears to be reasonable to question whether all who learn it need to endeavour towards the ns competence and whether the ns competence ought to be set as the benchmark for classification. in some scenarios where the use of language as a second language has overtaken the native language, like in singapore and malaysia, what becomes the essence or relevance of such classifications like esl, efl, enl(). furthermore, english is instructed by nns to nns (kachru; nelson, 2001; kachru, 2019); consequently, the importance of the ns perfect is generally questioned. it would, in this manner, appear that the worldwide spread of english has become a significant issue for both the instructors and students of english and with the expanded spread of english, native-like capability or competence is seen as an unreasonable standard for non-local speakers. subsequently, it has been suggested that the teaching of english ought not to concentrate on ns standards, strategies, and culture, as is the case in most institutions (crystal, 2004; matsuda, 2019). in any case, this thought has had little effect on the teaching and learning of english and in english as a foreign language (efl) classroom, as the spotlight still will, in general, be on the perfect monolingual native speaker and a particular variety of english, namely; british english (be) or american english (ae). from a practical perspective, sari and yusuf (2009) suggested that the customary spotlight on a native speaker variety does not cater to the requirements of the international english language community. undoubtedly, today, the objective of language learning would be to negotiate diverse english varieties and not to imitate native speakers. they further opined that from a pedagogical perspective, questions had been expressed concerning whether a solitary ns variety encourages clarity in global settings and contributes towards intercultural interactions. it is well evidenced in a study that language learners often exhibit anxiety issues while trying to learn native speaker competencies, thus affecting their test scores (ironsi, 2020a). research has shown evidence of racial abuses among language instructors due to their non-native status, which in most cases do not define their teaching competence (ironsi, 2020c). other studies though that the more varieties of language students are presented to, the higher their degree of comprehension, though the position of this assertion is yet to be established in practical terms (qions, 2004; alogali, 2018; bolton, 2018). from this, sharifian (2009) suggested that it would follow that there is no need to reevaluate the concurrent english language worldview and hold onto eil to view esl and efl in the appropriate viewpoint instead of misconstruing concepts and ascribing nativeness and non-nativeness in a manner that does not define the users. consequently, elt should focus on joining eil uses of english regarding non-native speakers worldwide regardless of whether they are interacting with other native or non-natives. studies have acknowledged that the focus should be to design and implement effective strategies, approaches, and teaching methods to ensure the successful online or face-to-face teaching of four language skills (ironsi, 2020a). in light of the dialogues above, other notable authors still consider it reasonable to question why in language pedagogy, despite the developing research in the eil worldview, there are still spotlights on nativespeaker english (kirkpatrick, 2010). in the first place, the very idea of eil and the numerous names used to indicate the realisation of english(es) on the planet appears to cause some perplexity. for instance, matsuda et al. (2010) bring up that eil may infer an arranged and unitary assortment called international english, which it is not. sharifian (2009) likewise makes a characterisation on international english which may recommend a specific assortment or variety of english, and eil, which does not allude to a specific variety. kachru (1985) clarifies this characterisation by 128 expressing that english as an international language is spread and not disseminated; henceforth, it is diversely completed in different settings. nevertheless, others believe that the new post-regional englishes is a delusion made in ad hoc circumstances, and therefore cannot be systematised (james, 2008; kubota, 2018; alogali, 2018). in turkish cypriot classrooms, international tests are utilised to set the benchmark for english in language courses. the ministry of national education in turkey also stated that the fundamental reference instrument created by the council of europe in 2001, the common european framework for languages: learning, teaching, assessment, sets gauges concerning the native speakers. lastly, in the educational program, the public spotlight on british and american culture and writing emphasises the significance of the two varieties and the sustenance of terms like esl and efl in such social orders, even though nns are accomplishing more as far as research and publication in the pedagogy of language teaching/learning is concerned (kirkpatrick, 2010). this is viewed as unsuitable as mehmet (2014) suggested that many schools in trnc are beginning to organised their locally recognised university language assessment instead of tesol, toe fl, and others. holliday (2005) believed that the term esl (or efl) likewise has hints of the social prevalence of societal superiority, with be and ae speakers as judges of what seems to be "right" in english-language utilisation. this is particularly so in "esl and efl nations, for example, singapore, india, the philippines, nigeria, kenya, and so forth., which have advanced their very own image of english. he suggested that it is worthy of note that parts of non-native english are gradually being characterised and that non-native standards are gradually picking up more recognition. as anyone might expect, the aim of a typical turkish cypriot is not to talk like a local speaker of english yet to talk and use the informed assortment or variety of turkish english. to talk like a local speaker would mean a loss of compatibility and distinguishing identity from one's compatriots. in my view, we should, at that point, maybe replace such "dangerous" abbreviations as esl and efl. this is in line with the assertion of kirkpatrick (2007), who opined that the myth of the "native speaker" as the main substantial and dependable wellspring of language information ought to be dropped since a great part of the world's verbal communication happens by methods for languages that are not the users "native language" yet their second, third language. he believed that it is also a reality that there are presently more non-native than local speakers of english. we need a world perspective on english, which perceives that it never has a place solely with its native speakers. (bahia, 2004; mauranen, 2018; kubota, 2018) there have been cases where non-native speakers acquire language due to immigration become more proficient yet considered non-native speakers (nns). previous studies have argued that there is a need for clarification on these terms as it does not fully represent some of the language users who are still considered as non-native since language acquisition was through learning or as a result of immigration (macias, 2010; tahmasbi, hashemifardnia & namaziandost, 2019; matsuda, 2019). another study reports that most of these language users who have acquired great competence in a foreign language are in most cases considered as near natives, which yet does not represent them in any manner (brulhiaux, 2010; matsuda, 2019). it is well documented in studies that there are cases of language users who are very proficient in language use, who understand the language from a holistic point of viewhaving a clear understanding of both communicative and sociolinguistic aspects of language are still classified under these acronyms (crystal, 2004; bahia, 2008; berns, 2019), they emphasised that most of these language users are academic doctors and professors who understand the language even more than the users, yet are considered as non-native and thus classified under such terms. while the categorisation may be worthwhile, the diversities among native speakers should be examined critically. sharifian (2009) states that a variety of a particular language is best described as a variety form. she believed that no language in the world ever existed on its own without being derived from other varieties. others argued that even as british english (be) is considered as a native, yet it would be true to consider it as a variant form in the real sense, with regards to its origin from the anglo-saxons and norman (macias, 2010; mauranen, 2018). this is also applicable to american english (ae) as they are not exiting in their purest form to be considered native. these arguments suggest that there are clear indications that some of these terms like esl and efl should be fading away, given these aforementioned debates that have been ongoing for decades. on the other hand, skutnabb-kangas (2001) suggested that the globalisation of english or english as an international language has become why these terms are still relevant, especially among the enl countries. other studies posit that excessive power and control have been ascribed to enl and at such a reason for the continuity in the usage of such terms like esl and efl, making them linguistics dictators of our time. this explains why a supposed native of a particular language is still considered native when he/she has lost the linguistic and communicative competence of his native language. kirkpatrick (2007) made these glaring arguments when he suggested that the time has come for these concepts to diminish their usage as many of them no longer describe language users appropriately. though he was writing in general terms 129 and not with regards to the turkish cypriot situation, imagine a turkish cypriot who was born, bred in turkey and has acquired the turkish language, and afterwards travelled to the united kingdom and lived for years, thus acquiring british english (and in most cases, speaks like native english man), the concepts of esl and efl makes it difficult to classify these language users under a particular group. much more, acknowledging that this language user has forgotten his native turkish language makes it difficult to put him under the enl classification. however, whether they use it as a first, native, second, or foreign language, people tend to adjust their english when talking to someone for whom english is not the first language, yet speaking the language in a manner to express themselves (rezaei, khosravizadeh & mottaghi, 2019). sharifian and kirkpatrick (2011) opined that language is best described as a variety of another and at such if it is american english, british english, nigerian english, singaporean english, or turkish english; all of these are best seen as a variety of others after all the enl countries cannot claim that their respective languages are in their purest form, so why the classifications under esl and enl? are these concepts politically motivated? what is their relevance in contemporary societies like turkey, northern cyprus, singapore, and other fast-growing englishspeaking countries? while linguists and scholars in the field of language teaching have written less on this topic, especially within turkey and northern cyprus, there is a need to revisit these issues as the number of english language learners is rapidly increasing. the way they perceive themselves could have considerable input on their motivation to learn the language. these and many are the core points of this article that intend to examine and elicit pre-service teachers' perceptions of such acronyms like esl and efl in the contemporary turkish and turkish cypriot society. in light of the discussions on english language, ideology, and language policy, it seemed desirable to carry out a small-scale attitudinal and perception-based study concerning efl pre-service teachers’ perceptions towards the english language and such terms as efl and esl. this study foresees that attitudes of prospective teachers towards english are particularly important because they: a) reflect the convictions and qualities that are predominant in a specific setting, b) give experiences into future efl practice and instruction approach, c) impact the decision of variety as a language model, d) reflect language philosophy which will help unveil if there is still any need to attach speakers and countries with english statuses when the statutes do not define them any longer. considering these, the study decided to investigate the following questions, they are; a) what is the level of relevance of esl/efl terms to students? b) do these terms define the variety of english they speak? c) what is the importance of english varieties to learners? d) what should a variety of english be taught and learned? 3. method 3.1 research design babble (2010) defined quantitative research as a systematic investigation of phenomena that involves gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. this study was carried out through a quantitative research design by using questionnaires for data collection. this design is fit for this study as it will assist in obtaining scientific statistic data and information on the opinions of the pre-service teacher on the use of terms like esl and efl. 3.2 participants the participants for this study were pre-service teachers enrolled in an english language primary classroom in a private university in north cyprus. the participants comprised 36 efl turkish/turkishcypriot pre-service teachers. a purposive sampling method was used to choose the participants of the study. they gave their consent to participate in the study to give their opinions on the relevance of such terms as esl and efl. 3.3 data collection and instrumentation to be able to answer the research questions posed earlier, a questionnaire was distributed to the participants. the questionnaire comprises (a)statements ranked on a likert scale 1-4 to answer research questions 1 and 3); b) a set of y / n questions to answer research question 2; and finally, c) a few open-ended questions to answer research question 4. the questionnaire consisted of 20 items adapted from phyllis (1987), which were modified, face, and construct validated by two experts in language education to ensure that the items meet the study's requirements and ensure that the format and structure are well designed. the questionnaire was piloted with 20 students, and a cronbach alpha index of 0.92 was obtained, confirming its ability to measure what it purports to measure. 3.4 data analysis the questionnaire was analysed by a statistical package for social sciences (spss ibm) program version 23. a descriptive analysis comprising the mean scores, standard deviations, and frequency distributions was used to interpret the questionnaire data. 130 4. findings rq 1: what is the level of relevance of esl efl terms to students table 4.1 mean responses of participants on the level of relevance of esl and efl terms to them items n mean sd esl and efl is very relevant in language teaching and learning 36 2.11 1.16 esl and efl is slightly relevant in language teaching and learning 36 2.02 1.03 esl and efl is relevant in language teaching and learning 36 2.00 1.00 esl and efl is not relevant in language teaching and learning 36 3.93 3.68 table 4.1 presents the mean responses of participants of the relevance of the terms esl and efl. the table shows that a mean score of 2.11, 2.02, 2.00 was obtained, which was below the cut off average of 3.00, which indicates that some of the students thought that these terms are still relevant in language teaching and learning. the results also obtained a mean score of 3.93, indicating that most participants thought these terms were irrelevant to language teaching and learning. rq 2: do esl and efl terms define the variety of english they speak? table 4.2 frequency distribution of participants’ opinion on research question 2 items yes % no % does esl define the english you speak? 12% 82% does efl define the english you speak? 25% 75% table 4.2 presented participants' opinions when asked to indicate if acronyms like esl and efl define the english they speak. the table further presents the percentage of participants who made known their opinions on using these terms. the table above indicates that 12% and 25% of the participants agreed that terms like esl and efl define the language they speak, whereas 82% and 75% of the participants believed that these terms do not define their english. rq 3: what is the importance of english varieties to learners table 4.3 mean responses of participants on the importance they attach to english varieties items n mean sd english variety is very important to learners 36 2.66 1.61 english variety is slightly important to learners 36 2.17 1.28 english variety is important to learners 36 3.01 2.98 english variety is not important to learners 36 3.75 3.43 the result above presents the participant's viewpoints regarding the importance they place on english language varieties. the result unveils that when participants were asked to indicate how important english varieties are to them, an average mean response of 2.66, 2.17, 3.01, and 3.75 was obtained, indicating that participants somewhat think english varieties are still important to them. it is still pertinent to note that many participants thought that english variety was not important to them as a mean score of 3.75 was obtained, which indicates so. rq 4: what variety of english should be taught and learned? 131 table 4.4 mean responses of participants on the variety of english that should be taught and learned in sla classrooms items mmean sdssd american english should be taught and learned 2.04 1.46 british english should be taught and learned 2.56 1.92 world english should be taught and learned 3.45 3.02 results from table 4.4 indicated that when participants were asked which variety should be taught in the classroom, ae obtained a mean response of 2.04, be obtained a mean score of 2.56, which was below the cut-off of 3.00. however, we (world english) obtained a cut-off of 3.45, which indicated that the participants thought that world english should be taught and learned in sla classrooms. 4. discussion from the short review and the result above, these key findings emerged; the present study confirms that although some students perceive these acronyms as relevant other think otherwise. at least our findings hint that while it is widely debated that such acronyms do not represent a large number of language users recently, the negligence of these conclusions to an extent makes these acronyms relevant in today's language literature. this is in tandem with the assertions of similar studies, which opine that these terms still have some relevance in some language teaching context and are used in distinguishing a speaker from another (sari & yusuf, 2009; maadditionally8; kubota, 2018). additionally, comparing our results with a similar study, it may seem that our results further align with the discoveries of studies that uncovered that these terms are still indirectly useful to language learners as some still assume that varieties of english language define a speaker to a large extent (macais, 2010; bolton, 2018; kachru, 2019). furthermore, it may seem that further validation of instructors’ decisions in choosing what to teach, for example, in language policy decisions, what to teach in respect with varieties, may not be indicated in clear terms to the language instructor. however, most language instructors accept teaching a particular variety of english that they conform to and accept. knowingly or not, these instructors use these terms directly and indirectly during language lessons, thus suggesting that these terms, in a way, are still in use and somewhat of relevance to language teaching. though we speculate that regardless of the relevance of these terms in recent times, and as our result has shown, there may be a possibility of change when these terms are redefined and generally accepted by linguists worldwide. another promising finding was that there was a notion that such acronyms do not define some language users, which is directly tied with the view of some authors in language literature which affirm that that time has come for such terms to be redefined or completely erased to address language speaker and user appropriately as they represent (kirkpatrick, 2010; david, 2014; rezaei, khosravizadeh & mottaghi, 2019). frankly, these authors have argued that these terms are no longer adequately representing most speakers who fall under this classification, especially the near natives, supposed esl and efl language teachers, academic doctors, and professors of nnest origin who have a good knowledge of the language both in communication and linguistic perspectives. however, we acknowledge that researchers have considerable discussions on the relevance of such acronyms, yet their arguments have not been given appropriate consideration. we speculate that this might be due to the politics of language dominance, making the english language an international language and a language of trade, politics, entertainment, and even scholarly research. nonetheless, we believe that it is well justified in this study that although there could be relevance attached to these acronyms, scholars recognise that they may no longer be relevant in their context as they do not represent their language status. this is largely seen in the study as a further novel finding that these acronyms do not represent the variety of languages they speak. this is an important finding in the understanding that though such acronyms have dominated the language learning space for a long time, most language users and learners do not agree that such acronyms define their language of use. the experiment results found clear support for the assertion of previous studies of kirkpatrick (2010), which reveals a need for these terms to be erased or redefined as they no longer represent or define its speakers across the world. a similar pattern of results was obtained in the study of crystal (2014), who believed that lots of language users do feel that these terms are no longer needed in language teaching on the basis that they seem racist and also, they do not cover a wide range of very competent users globally. however, in line with kirkpatrick's (2010) and coksun (2010) ideas, who demand a complete change of these terms, as we have argued elsewhere, these terms may no longer be relevant in language literature. 132 together, the present findings confirm that these acronyms do not represent a wide range of global users. our results demonstrate two facts. first, it is clear that some language users still place some relevance to these acronyms, which may be alluded to its dominance over the years. secondly, it was obvious that language users have clearly shown that such acronyms no longer represent them or their language status and thus should be abolished in language literature. though the applicability of these new results is largely dependent on scholars’ consensus on this, the result has revealed that our results are consistent with research showing that such terms should be redesigned to fit the present realities of language users globally, which have changed over the years. our results also provide evidence to show the preference for world english rather than american or british english. notable authors in broader language literature have recognised the need for a re-focus on world english or english as an international language which would invariably erase english as a second or foreign language (kirkpatrick, 2010; coksun, 2010; crystal, 2014). these results go beyond previous reports to show that while american and british varieties of english have been popularised in our educational institutes, language learners prefer teaching and learning of world english against other varieties. though it may seem difficult to make some valid conclusions, it may seem that some of the participants may view this topic of little relevance to the entire language learning process. nonetheless, it may be extremely intriguing to see that in the initial piece of the examination, some of the participants recognise the relevance of varieties yet express their 'normal' support for learning varieties of english, although some objected to the use of such acronyms in language teaching and learning. we speculate that their response may be a viewpoint suggesting that be it esf or efl, acquisition of language skills or language performance and production is largely independents of these arguments. rational as it may seem, researchers in broader literature have recognised this debate among scholars, which makes it an important issue to discuss in research much more when supposedly nnest are making notably novel researches that contribute to the pedagogy of language teaching and learning, there is a need to revisit this issues from the angle of the learners. 6. conclusion when questions about the relevance of the terms esl and efl, the pre-service teachers believed that these terms should be erased as there are still many arguments on this issue. given this, the study argued that while these terms are still in use, they should be redefined with better terms to describe language users as such. more so, it can be deduced that if the language is for communication and both native and non-native speakers have attained equilibrium in the use of language for communicationwhere what is being communicated is intended, then terms like such do not have much essence among both nns and nss. the study also summarised that the varieties of which language learners speak do not describe the groupings upon which they are classified. this conclusion is made on the standpoint that in esl/efl countries, some or most language users who have native or near-native competence cannot be described by these terms like esl or efl. the study deemed it unfitting to make such descriptions as the language users with both linguist and communicative competence like the ns, and in some cases where the language used is an academic professional in the field of language, knowing the depths and heights of the language, makes it difficult to ascribe such terms to these categories of language users of nns origin. equally, the study emphasised that such terms should be redefined as most language users who have issues of accents and pronunciations see themselves as poor victims of this classification, which in most cases, reduces the zeal for language learning. the study also stated that varieties of english are of less importance to pre-service teachers as they aim towards achieving communicative competence regardless of the variety of accents they use. the study summarised that eiil should be a better acronym if esl and efl cannot be redefined or completely erased. more language users of supposedly esl and efl origin see themselves as international and global language users. they reviewed both the theoretical issues underpinning our study and the results of our investigation on the opinions of pre-service teachers on such terms as esl and efl. the position of this study is so clear in line with the varying arguments that these terms and acronyms may need to be redefined or completely erased to accommodate language users who see such terms as mere acronyms and not a description of who they are language users. this will mend the notion of most language users on issues of ns and nns and assist in creating a conducive linguistic atmosphere for foreigners willing to learn english. this will also enhance language teaching/ learning among preservice teachers in the turkish cypriot setting. the problem seems never to have been more diversified. maybe the hope in its answer also has a multifaceted nature: various perspectives and voices from nearby settings are fundamental for gaining insights into points of view on the multifaceted english language concerning the relevance of those terms (esl, efl) discussed. references alogali, a. 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(2011). english as an international language: an overview of the paradigm. retrieved on november 20, 2012, from: http://www. arts.monash.edu.au/eil/lecture-2011. sharifian, f. (2009). english as an international language: perspectives and pedagogical issues. multilingual matters / channel view publications, uk. web. skutnabb-kangas, t. (2001). the globalization of (educational) language rights. international review of education, 47 (3), 201-219. sorace, a. (2003). near-nativeness. the handbook of second language acquisition, (pp,130, 151). wiley tahmasbi, s., hashemifardnia, a., & namaziandost, e. (2019). standard english or world englishes: issues of ownership and preference. journal of teaching english language studies, 7(3), 8398. learning. white, l., & genesee, f. (1996). how native is nearnative? the issue of ultimate attainment in adult second language acquisition. second language research, 12(3), 233-265. instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6910 vol. 3, no. 2, august 2021, pp. 87-95 87 rainbows amid downpours: university students’ goals in learning english during digital experiments cathy mae dabi toquero, swen joshryll c. acebes, jaizele b. melitante & nikki t. tuble college of education, mindanao state university-general santos city. philippines cathymaetoquero@gmail.com article history received : 2021-05-30 revised : 2021-06-07 accepted : 2021-08-12 keywords online learning covid-19 learning goals learning english higher education learning aspirations abstract university students are susceptible to the constantly shifting online milieu during the pandemic. linguistic isolation can present more difficulties as students lack authentic social communication in classes online. this study examined the hopes and goals of university students in their english learning course during emergency remote learning. third year pre-service teachers of a state university in the philippines served as participants in this study. through content analysis of 28 student-responses of the english modules, the research findings demonstrate the significance of hopes and goals of the university students in learning english during the pandemic. amidst the digital experiments, students portray hopes and goals of developing their pedagogical skills in english and broadening their linguistic skills despite linguistic isolation. students' goals in the course are to improve their language skills, develop in-depth knowledge in english, achieve better grades, and become effective potential teachers. as they aim to achieve those goals amid metaphorical downpours, university students reflect on the purpose of the course to equip them for lifelong learning that may develop ethical value, morality, and sense of vocation in their chosen profession. despite having to confront the difficulties of learning online, their hopes and aspirations spark a burning desire to engage in intellectual and linguistic battles in learning english during pandemic and post-pandemic. academic implications include for teachers to integrate authentic assessments for experiential language learning and for students to sketch a visual career plan outlining how students may achieve their goals as future educators. 1. introduction on march 11, 2020, the world health organization director-general proclaimed sars-cov-19, a novel coronavirus that causes covid-19 infection, a pandemic, compelling the worldwide community to respond immediately (who, 2020). as a result, a pedagogical paradigm occurred, allowing for the online delivery of teaching and learning activities via emergency remote teaching (ert) methods (hodges et al., 2020). emergency remote teaching (ert) is a temporary, short-term workaround for converting traditional courses to online learning platforms in the interest of conformance. it is not intended to be a longterm answer to developing higher education's online learning platforms (nae, 2020). as a result, covid-19 presented numerous opportunities and challenges for educational institutions to strengthen their technical knowledge systems. additionally, the expansion of covid-19 has compelled millions of students to switch to online communication. the government and policymakers have closed schools until further notice. as a result, students must adjust to a new normalcy. although technological advancements have enabled many previously unthinkable feats, the transition to emergency learning has not been as seamless as students and teachers wish. confronting the shortcomings of digital learning may be depressing and upsetting for teachers and students alike. as a result, the transition to ert sparked worries among some students about equality and impediments. an individual's access to educational opportunities should have no bearing on situations outside their control (salami and bassett, 2014). similarly, onyema et al. (2020) examined the impact of covid-19 on education in several countries. they stated that many students use technology to complete their education during covid-19. compared to face-to-face instruction, this revolutionary shift to online learning amid pandemics continues to receive negative reviews as a poor or ineffective technique for accomplishing quality learning. mailto:cathymaetoquero@gmail.com 88 about (2020) also discovered that e-learning affects both internal and external aspects affecting english language instructors, including "motivation, behaviors, responsibilities, and autonomy" (p. 26). further, before the pandemic, according to forson and vuopala's (2019) research, students’ favored online teaching and learning over face-to-face training. thus, the flexibility of the online option over the other has a positive effect on this choice. however, as the pandemic arrived in 2020, enormous stress and difficulties are documented in recent research (son et al., 2020; toquero, 2020) concerning student experience in classes done virtually. nonetheless, kauffman (2015) mentioned that online classes provide convenience and flexibility that traditional face-to-face classes cannot, which is critical for learners during this time as they are juggling work, school, and family responsibilities. almost all courses now include an online component, frequently utilising web-based technology to facilitate the distribution of course materials such as syllabi and assignments (e.g., bozkurt et al., 2020; allen & seaman, 2011). researchers discovered that students who have more hope are more likely to have a successful job, stronger friendships, and increased creativity (zakrzewski, 2012). hence, students continue to discover silver linings in the challenges associated with remote learning. moreover, students strive to persevere and demonstrate constructive behavior, reactions, and attitude to overcome the daily hurdles of remote learning, viewing education as a worldwide common good. indeed, the covid-19 pandemic has accelerated and significantly altered the nature of schools and education (vial, 2019). additionally, the global pandemic of covid-19 compelled higher education institutions throughout the united states to implement emergency remote teaching (ert), which required students and faculty to immediately adapt to a new form of teaching and learning (gelles et al. 2020). even if the pandemic instilled fear, students now require a sense of success regardless of the conditions. thus, notwithstanding the disadvantages encountered by university students and the difficulties encountered during the move to a more current learning system, learning should continue. locally, toquero (2021) asserted that the philippines is unprepared to implement online schooling. since many schools in the philippines operated in a traditional classroom format before covid-19, the government is currently striving to provide education through alternate delivery methods during this crisis. however, the time has come for the country's educational system to tackle its most difficult challenge to date: emergency remote education. taking a closer examination in the local context, the researchers examined how university students cope in a remote learning environment. this research study sought to examine university students' aspirations for english learning during academic year 2020-2021. the research study aimed to analyse the hopes and goals of the pre-service teachers in learning english during the digital experiments. for this reason, qualitative research was undertaken through a content analysis using the students' ged 113 module introduction in english. section 2 provides insight into the research methods in the research study, including the study participants—the research instrument employed, how researchers analyzed the data, and the data gathering procedure with its ethical considerations. section 3 discusses the hopes of students in learning english and the goals of students in learning english. section 4 discusses the study's findings and their importance in filling in the existing literature gap. finally, section 5 offers the conclusion of the paper with recommendations for future research. the paper is categorised hereafter. 2. method during the digital experiments, the researchers used a qualitative research approach to elicit information about the pre-service students' aims for learning the pedagogy of the english language. the research endeavored to ascertain the students' intentions for english learning during modular education in emergency remote sessions through content analysis. content analysis is a type of research approach used to elicit patterns from recorded speech. the researchers conducted content analysis by collecting data systematically from a collection of texts, which may be written, oral, or visual (luo, 2019). additionally, researchers employed content analysis to ascertain the presence, meanings, and linkages of particular words, topics, or concepts. 2.1 participants the participants in this study were pre-service teachers from mindanao state university (msu) in general santos city. the participants comprised 28 pre-service students who were third-year pre-service teachers from the college of education. the participants came from one section, and the students' data selection was reliant on the voluntary submission of the module introduction. ethical considerations were considered in the research methods and stages of this research study. the respondents voluntarily participated in this research endeavor, ensuring the respondents' identity be kept private, and only answers were used in this study. the research took place at mindanao state university in general santos city, philippines, located in the tuna capital of the philippines. it is one of the best performing institutions in the country. the university is divided into seven colleges: the college of agriculture, the college of business and 89 accountancy, the college of education, the college of engineering, the college of fisheries, the college of natural sciences and mathematics, and the college of social sciences and humanities. 2.2 research instruments the researchers employed content analysis to interpret the pre-service teachers' opinions/views on goals in learning english during the digital experiments. the researchers utilized the ged 113 module under the course titled: "teaching english in the elementary grades." structured questions were utilized about the goals of the students in learning english during a pandemic. 2.3 data gathering procedure ethical considerations are prioritized in the research stages of this endeavor. the respondents voluntarily participated in this research, ensuring the respondents' sensitive information with utmost confidentiality as only answers were used in this study. additionally, no other details about the respondents' identity were revealed to avoid trampling on their privacy. the researchers utilised the ged 113 module and employed content data analysis. due to the pandemic, third-year pre-service teachers volunteered to hand in their accomplished ged 113 module via the telegram application. in every learning endeavor, the outcomes are the most anticipated part. in the module, pre-service teachers were expected to investigate theories related to teaching english as a second language by analysing linguistics, psycholinguistics, and pedagogical approaches. pre-service teachers should be able to distinguish beginning and intermediate students' language learning requirements and capabilities. furthermore, ged 113 focused on preparing preservice teachers to learn the children's grammar structure and fluency pedagogy and principles. the course is delivered using the english language through listening, reading, writing, and speaking. the preservice teachers can also investigate second language acquisition theories, pedagogical considerations, and language teaching methodologies associated with teaching english as a second language to improve the learners' communication skills. these theories are thoughts founded on principles and evidence in excelling at language learning. moreover, through the module, students retain more information, mainly when applied to real-world tasks or problems. it allows the student to explore and be creative in learning. the overall goal of the course is to help students build their future learners’ language proficiency, gain an in-depth understanding of pedagogical principles in english, and improve their performance in english language communication. despite linguistic isolation, students portray hopes and goals to expand their english pedagogical skills and strengthen their linguistic skills. the difficulties that arise due to the current learning model and their hopes and dreams spark a burning desire to engage in intense discussions in the english language amid the event of a pandemic and post-pandemic. 2.4 data analysis the researchers used student responses which were analyzed through document reviews to elucidate the notions behind the themes. document analysis is a subset of qualitative research in which the researcher examines documents to give them a voice and meaning concerning a specific evaluative issue (bowen, 2009). moreover, module content themes consisted of repeatable words that assisted the researchers to interpret the questions and ensuring that the comments are examined systematically according to content analysis principles. thus, bowen (2009) defines document analysis as a process of viewing documents to gather empirical data and increase comprehension. additionally, due to the numerous ways document analysis can aid and enrich research, critical points were painstakingly recorded. the researchers showed their findings with meticulous analysis. the researchers then documented the themes, codes, and classifications that emerged from the data. in figure 2.1 shows three sample works that detail the hopes and goals of some pre-service teachers who voluntarily participated in this research endeavor. figure 2.1. pre-service teachers’ hopes and goals in learning english during the pandemic 90 3. findings the continuing public health crisis may lead to an increased career displacement and broadened success gaps among university students. moreover, with the introduction of covid-19, the education standard places an unsustainable environment that confronts the educational systems at risk. nonetheless, the students' hopes in learning english during the pandemic (table 3.1) show that they are eager to learn in the new delivery of instruction. apply knowledge and skills. out of 28 students, the results show that 27 students hope to apply the knowledge and skills they can acquire from the english course. students are hopeful of acquiring learning despite the challenges that they face in online environments. student 12, for example, hopes that the "course can be a big opportunity to improve" to improve her "communicative language skills and literacy in the english language." become an effective teacher. it can be observed from the result that the pre-service teachers under the english subject are adamant about becoming effective future educators. (student 1: i am hoping that i will become an effective teacher after taking this course subject, especially in teaching english to the learners as their second language). the students want to gain adequate strategies and techniques in teaching their students in the future. despite the limitations to actual learning experiences, the students believe that the english course can give an immense opportunity for learning during the pandemic. table 3.1. content analysis of hopes of students in learning english during the pandemic category descriptive codes specific examples frequency % hopes of students in learning english during covid-19 apply knowledge and skills communicative language and literacy develop my english language skills accumulate appropriate knowledge of the subject. acquire adequate strategy and technique in teaching. 27 96% become an effective teacher effective pedagogy i hope that this course can build me to become a successful english teacher someday. i hope that i can learn new and some fresh ideas to teach effectively to my students someday if i will become an educator. i hope that we can use the topics, approaches and methods in teaching when we are in the field. 18 64% experience engaging activities fun learning experience i hope that activities (e.g. online debate, literary writing, etc.) will help us develop our linguistic abilities. i hope that this will be a meaningful and fun-filled semester despite the situation i hope that i will read and encounter more literary pieces that i can use in teaching my future students. 13 46% successful lesson delivery convenient & easy lessons i hope that learning this course would be easy for me. i hope that this course may not be too hard for online learners 8 29% understanding teachers considerate teachers i do hope that our instructor can be flexible and considerate to her students i hope that the teacher may be more considerate, especially in giving complex tasks and setting deadlines. 9 32% personal growth confidence & positivity i hope that i will harness my love for the english language and literature after this course. accumulate appropriate self-esteem whenever i know the subject. to share any ideas in regards 6 21% experience engaging activities. at the same time, it is a continuous challenge for the teachers to engage the students in the classes online. the students themselves are hopeful that they can experience enjoyable and meaningful activities in learning english during the pandemic. student 16 mentioned that she wants to experience a “series of fun and data-friendly activities.” the student echoed such sentiment since she, including some concerns of the students, has limited load allowance for internet surfing. consequently, the teachers need to provide language activities that can engage the students in their classes while not neglecting the concerns of the students who do not have regular internet connections. successful lesson delivery. the students emphasised the essential information they can obtain from the course and hoped for convenience and comfort in their learning experiences in the online classes. student 16 argued that their teachers should not 91 give "too much school works." such sentiment stems from the subject overload and the bombardment of modules per subject every week or two for the entire semester. understanding teachers. some students hope for considerate and empathetic teachers to understand their situation. (student 23: may the teacher be understanding in dealing with learners who have problems connecting to virtual classes.). personal growth. students are optimistic about the course, and a few emphasised their hopes to gain wisdom and values in learning english. student 7 said that she hopes that the english course can motivate her to become an effective student. english and are looking forward to a free pandemic future (table 3.2). the students under this study experienced unique circumstances since they dealt with hiatus in their learning during the onset of the pandemic. however, they have goals that keep them going in their classes online. table 3.2. content analysis of goals of students in learning english for post-pandemic category descriptive codes specific examples frequency % goals of students in learning english during the pandemic expand english language competence knowledge and skills to develop more understanding about teaching english in elementary grades. my goal is to expand my vocabulary about the english language 24 86% effective pedagogical mastery strategies and methods my goal is to learn effective strategies in teaching english. my goal is to develop a new and unique teaching strategy and approach in teaching the english language. 6 21% gain indepth knowledge gain more knowledge my goal is to finish this course with a lot of knowledge acquired that can really help me in teaching someday my ultimate goal is to learn something new. something that has never been taught before. 17 61% effective future teachers efficient educator to be an effective english teacher after taking this subject my goal is to become an efficient and effective language teacher after the course. 10 36% achieve better grades high remarks my goal is i pass this subject and get a good grade stay motivated and achieve my goal, which is to have high grades in this course. 15 54% reflect one’s becoming instil values to develop moral imagination, ethical values, and a sense of vocation my goal is to cultivate values that i can apply in my entire life as a lifelong learning process. 11 39% expand english language competence. the students shared their goals of acquiring pedagogical knowledge and skills. (student 7: to gain much information on this subject to be aware, especially of what happened right now in our society). they look forward to a future that can maximise the opportunity for their future learners to create a better world. effective pedagogical mastery. only 6 out of the 28 students have made the goal of attaining english teaching mastery their entire focus. (student 9: my goal is to learn effective strategies in teaching english). students want to become better at strategies and approaches that will aid them in delivering quality learning in the teaching environment. this mastery will assist each student in developing their algorithm for learning english and devising a personal strategy for mastering the target language's knowledge. gain in-depth knowledge. learning english is exciting for the students since they want to experience authentic learning activities and gain a deeper knowledge of the english pedagogy. the students aim to develop higher-order thinking skills to teach in a meaningful way for their future learners. effective future teacher. a significant number of students have aspired to become effective teachers by imparting knowledge to future english learners. (student 10: to be an effective english teacher after taking this subject). they want to become effective teachers, so after taking this course subject and learning pedagogical knowledge and skills, they are adamant that they can be fully equipped as english teachers. the skills needed for effective teaching involve more than just expertise in the academic field. this will bring ways to teach effectively and understand a new way of looking at the world. achieve better grades. half of the participants wish to improve their grades because they have completed all required activities for the course material. 92 (student 25: stay motivated and achieve my goal, which is to have high grades in this course). regardless of how students' learning style changes, achieving a higher grade is always a goal. students strive to improve their performance in the english academic field because it is significant for acquiring recognition. reflect one’s becoming. 11 students out of 28 are motivated to develop moral values as they learn english principles and processes. (student 18: to develop moral imagination, ethical values, and a sense of vocation). fewer students have significant reasons to believe in their ability to develop moral character through learning english. they reflect on their lives, behaviors, and beliefs. this is increasingly believed to be critical in teaching students academic concepts and assisting them in taking appropriate actions for a better world. 4. discussion this research analyzed the university students’ goals in their english learning during the pandemic relative to emergency remote learning. students’ hopes and ambitions spark the heart-burning fire of learning to undertake this scholarly effort in silent battles. one of the english requirements for these university students is to develop their english communication abilities. walqui et al. (2018) said unequivocally that oral language development is vital for all english learner educational programs. it promotes the possibility of collaborative learning activities and positive speaking. as university students desire to become competent teachers in their field, they wish to improve their future learners’ english language proficiency by learning more about teaching strategies in teaching english to elementary graders. students comprehend how learning english may help them create a better world in their future activities. thus, university students must employ various learning and cognitive strategies to practice their english language skills (bifuh-ambe, 2011). universities can increase the amount of studying time to provide english learners with language and academic enrichment opportunities. however, the lack of motivating participation in remote virtual orders (aboagye et al., 2020) and social interactions with peers and teachers in an online world prevents university students from reaching their aspirations. as a result, during the covid-19 pandemic, peer approaches seem promising to the capability of the students to learn english. according to a comprehensive meta-analysis conducted by huang et al. (2018), peer-support interventions demonstrated the most significant impact for preventing depression and generalised anxiety disorder amongst college students compared with other group approaches. based on the study's findings, students expect considerate and empathetic teachers to understand their situation when dealing with problems in virtual classes. due to subject overload and the bombardment of modules per subject every week or two in an entire semester, university students find it challenging to handle the classes, which adds to their already existing household difficulties. as a result, the university students clamour the teacher's understanding for better and improved english language acquisition. according to samson and collins (2012), teachers who are aware of and appreciate these distinctions can better respond in ways that foster a reciprocal learning environment. furthermore, as pre-service teachers, they plan to gain an in-depth knowledge of english teaching methods and techniques to do an excellent job teaching english to young students in the future. this is why they need to see the link between education theory and practice; hence, students will be able to witness how teachers employ practices to adapt to the different needs of k-12 students (sevimli-celik, 2020). the content knowledge of pre-service teachers affects how they interpret the content goals they expect to achieve in their course learning (kang & kline, 2020). the focus should be on professional development since they need to do better and raise their academic performance standards. to meet the challenging demands, pre-service teachers must be capable and willing to continually upgrade their content knowledge, skills, and practices (ayeni, 2011). on the other hand, the students’ encountered distance learning difficulties since many of them cannot manage their time effectively during their classes online. students find it challenging to balance their time from studying and doing extra work in their homes. thus, according to sari and megayanti (2021), students depended merely on their discipline in controlling their learning time at home to continue their distance learning. theoretically, the variable of time management has direct influence on students learning outcomes. a strong emphasis on effective and efficient time management has also been identified as a critical component of success (nasrullah & khan, 2015). to conduct distance education, students relied totally on their discipline in regulating their academic time at home, where they practiced controlling their educational time independently in their personal space (sari, & megayanti, 2021). when this aspect of time management is neglected during emergency remote learning, negative consequences for learning outcomes are unavoidable, most notably for university students' ability to learn english for future pursuits. additionally, farbman (2015) proposes that english learners should use this effort to concentrate on linguistic enrichment and to acquire lacking academic materials. additionally, students needed to be better informed to deal with the pandemic's effects and polymers with courses and skills across the board to meet their english language learning objectives. lemberger and clemens (2012) highlight that a program aimed at assisting students with their histories can substantially impact students' progress in learning english, as they feel 93 included, healthy, and supported. thus, maintaining interaction between students can foster an enthusiasm for learning and progress, which is necessary for efficient and fruitful online english study. in any case, it would be preferable to give secure, temporary, effective, and continued access to quality education during a crisis than to reconfigure a sophisticated education environment to accommodate urgent and high-priority english learners. the english subject demands participatory teaching approaches that motivate and empower learners to make positive behavioural changes and contribute to sustainable development. as a result, education for sustainable development encourages the development of abilities such as critical thinking, scenario planning, and collaborative decision-making (kioupi & voulvoulis, 2019). one of the study's findings shows that university students desire a dynamic and engaging activity that would enhance their learning experience while also navigating their attention during a pandemic. students must be involved and accountable for their educational achievement, allowing students to participate actively and be accountable for their educational success (ciobanu, 2018). the support for their development may allow them to gain some wisdom despite their shortcomings. coping styles are observed in response to substantial trauma or hardship, and these are necessary for the process of discovery. self-related benefits include developing an attitude of gratitude, experiencing unanticipated personal growth, and gaining new clarity about the future (august & daapkewicz, 2021). hence, learning english necessitates participatory teaching and learning methods that motivate and empower learners to support sustainable development. despite their dedication to the english course during a pandemic, students’ performance in learning english have been significantly hampered by a lack of opportunity. likewise, despite many instructors' valiant efforts to ensure their students’ access to education during school closures, existing weaknesses in the school structure have been highlighted, such as a widespread shortage of financial resources. while faculty members transitioned to ert as quickly as possible, students encountered comparable difficulties. certain students lack access to resources such as computers, webcams, and a secure internet connection (neuwirth et al., 2020). in addition, despite the shared joy of implementing online language instruction on short notice as a response to the pandemic, this transition in teaching delivery configuration has presented a number of challenges to language educators and administrators in both english as a second language (esl) and english as a foreign language (efl) contexts (chung & choi, 2021) that may affect students’ learning performance. hence, sustainability in education highlights the necessity of innovative and sustainable educational techniques. it also encourages teaching, learning, and assessment strategies that enable students to build the skills and confidence necessary to be successful lifelong learners (blewitt, 2004). thus, adedoyin & soykan (2020) indicated that one of the issues students experience during this pandemic is accessibility. in other words, students who do not possess the means necessary to access broadband are the most underprivileged, as this is the primary reason for their lack of english language learning. lack of access to fast, affordable, and dependable connection speeds hampers online learning, particularly for rural and vulnerable people in pakistan (wains & mahmood, 2008). students who access the web via their cellphones cannot participate in online classes since a big chunk of online content is unavailable to them. students' social marginalisation, as a result of limited internet quality and utilisation, and a shortage of cutting-edge technology, had an adverse effect on organisational response and students' capability to partake in digital learning (zhong, 2020). nonetheless, despite their academic difficulties, university students can excel in english when teachers consider their students' social hopes and educational goals. hope enables students to keep going (britzman, 2021). as a result, students must take ownership of their learning, as this is one of the trademarks of more substantial knowledge. 5. conclusion in conclusion, the research findings indicate a significant notion on university students' attitudes about english learning during the epidemic. the findings about university students' aspirations demonstrate how learning english can prepare them to be effective teachers in their future undertakings and supplement their personal development as practical students. their hopes also partake in the ongoing delivery of emergency remote learning. an empathetic teacher can assist them in using their obtained knowledge and abilities to improve their communicative language skills and literacy in the english language. university students’ aim to widen their english language competencies, gain in-depth knowledge about it, and learn various and innovative learning strategies that they can apply in their future teaching. students also aspire to improve their grades to become an effective future educator. likewise, university students' english learning enables them to reflect on their personal development to build ethical value, morality, and the sense of mission that they have chosen to pursue. this study has its limitations, particularly in 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(2012). how to help students develop hope. greater good: the science of a meaningful life, 1-2. zhong, r. (2020, march 17). the coronavirus exposes education’s digital divide. the new york times, 18. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/17/technolo gy/china-schools-coronavirus.html http://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-thehttp://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-theinstructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i3.6774 vol. 3, no. 3, december 2021, pp. 159-169 159 clausal-internal switching in urdu-english: an evaluation of the matrix language frame model asad ali, qaisar jabbar, nazir ahmad malik, zumra noreen, humayun kiani & ly ngoc toan university of lahore, punjab, pakistan masad7721@gmail.com article history received : 2021-05-11 revised : 2021-06-04 accepted : 2021-11-06 keywords matrix language code-switching naturalistic bilingualism system morphemes abstract the core of this paper is to employ the matrix language frame (mlf) model on urdu-english clausal-internal switching to identify whether the matrix language frame model potentially accounts for the bilingual linguistic competence efficiently. for this, a qualitative methodology has been adopted for this study. for empirical evidence, data has been taken from eighty urdu english bilinguals within a naturalistic setting after categorizing them into four groups, and each group has 20 participants. after conducting audio-recording through non-participant interviews in an informal setting, the collected data was transcribed. the mlf model posited that two languages are fused in a single intra-cp of a mixed string. the linearly dominant language is matrix language (ml) that incorporates only late outsider system morphemes. odd is embedded language (el) that supplies content morphemes satisfying the system morpheme principle (smp) uniformly and morpheme order principle (mop). the present study ubiquitously scrutinizes that naturalistic data of urdu-english bilinguals highlights the innovative results: it predicts that matrix language (ml) is unidentified in intra-cp, no late outsider system morphemes linearize a code-switched sentence, unparalleled constituent and clausal structure, system morpheme principle (smp) and morpheme order principle (smp) provides the illegitimate output and computes ungrammatical sentences hence; the matrix language frame model redundantly and inconsistently accounts for urduenglish naturalistic data and its principles have failed to compute urdu-english naturalistic data. 1. introduction the study‘s primary aim is to evaluate urduenglish clausal-internal switching, theoretically employing the matrix language frame model (myers-scotton & jake, 2015; myers-scotton & jake, 2017). the mlf model roughly posits those two paralleled languages— matrix vs embedded are involved in code-switching sentences within the clausal domain, pursuing uniformity condition. for evaluating the uniformity condition and asymmetrical hypothesis (matrix vs embedded), this study takes urdu-english intrasentential codeswitching data. the mlf model will be applied to the urdu-english corpus as urdu is the head-last language with sov word order while english is the head-first language with svo word order. it is crucial to account for both languages whose word order is entirely contradictory in one sentence. both differ based on their formal properties, such as word order, typological structure, case-marking, and phonological representation. it is very significant to conduct in this domain of study to explore the formal properties of languages, even in code-switching domains. language mixing/switching is also the product of human beings and is conceived to be a natural expression, systemic, and fully convergent with the human cognitive faculty of language (chomsky, 2021). this study externalizes the exact internal operative mechanism that regulates urdu-english bilinguals under the matrix language frame model (myers-scotton & jake, 2017) as bilinguals are diverse individuals in nature. they develop their multiple-contact nature by conceiving mixed input simultaneously within a natural setting. it is the flexibility of human cognition and the universal process to integrate the items of two languages in a single cp. myers-scotton (2015) articulated the uniform structure principle (usp) to account for bilingual linguistic competence's uniformity and asymmetrical nature. she and her associates have tested several languages. according to myers-scotton (2017), this is a ―production-based and comprehensive‖ model that 160 regulates the clausal structure, constructs constituent structure. myer-scotton (2002) claimed that any segment of language from constituent to clausal level must be uniform and well-formed, as she postulated that ―a given constituent type in any language has a uniform abstract structure, and the requirements of well-formedness for this constituent type must be observed whenever the constituent appears. in a bilingual speech, the structures of the matrix language are always preferred.‖ (jake, myersscotton, & gross, 2005). asymmetrical hypothesis posited that two linearly contrary languages involved within a single cp and process paralleled each other. therefore, myersscotton (2015) clearly distinguished between two paralleled languages calling one matrix language (ml). it is the most dominant language. it provides a critical and significant role within a code-switched sentence, while the other is embedded language (el), as it is considered less dominant. its only function within the cp is to insert contentive materials to fill the empty slots. still, the universal abstract morphosyntactic frame of the sentence is formulated by only one language, myers-scotton (2017), called ml. further, under the matrix language frame model (myers-scotton & jake, 2017), morphemes are categorized into different domains—content and system morphemes that operate within monolingual competence and bilingual linguistic competence within the cp as well as intra-cp layers. all those morphemes that assign and receive theta roles (thematic roles) are called content morphemes, and those that do not assign and receive theta roles are called system morphemes. nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, and some adverbs are content morphemes, while some functional material like tense inflexions and some functional words are examples of system morphemes. for conjoining the morphemes together, myers-scotton (2002) proposed some universal principles—morpheme order principle (mop) and system morpheme principle (smp). the morpheme order principle (mop) has typically been designed to order the morphemes within the constituents and clauses. it predicts that morphemes within a bilingual constituent and clause must follow the matrix language (ml) order at any cost. the second core of the mlf model is system morpheme principle (smp), and it ascertains that one type of morpheme, system morpheme with ―grammatical relations outside the maximal projections of their head,‖ is inserted from the only one language, i.e., matrix language (ml) within a bilingual constituent (myers-scotton, 1997, p. 83) many studies have been dedicated in this line of inquiry to evaluate the matrix language frame model (1993; 1997; 2013 and 2017) to test the validity and compatibility of the model within various domains of language. the recent studies conducted on, igboenglish by ihemere (2017), cree-english by al bataineh, hussein (2019), spanish –english by balam, parafita couto & stadthagen-gonzález (2020), and pashto-english by aslam, saleem & afridi (2020) all fully support the assumptions and stipulations of the matrix language frame model within nominal and verbal domains. still, the current study is different in nature of code-switching. the primary aim of this study is to scrutinize the clausal-internal switching that is frequently observed in urdu-english interactions within a formal and informal setting of everyday routine. after inspecting several cs literatures on diverse language, pairs instigate to scrutinize the asian language pairs—urdu-english clausal-internal switching under the most influential model—matrix language frame model (jake & myers-scotton, 1997; 2005; myers-scotton, 1992; c. myers-scotton & jake, 1995; myers-scotton & jake, 2017). the naturalistic data predicts that the mlf model generates ungrammatical sentences, but its principles are fully satisfied. the principles do not restrict and control the code-switching in urdu-english. the most active language is matrix language (ml), and the rest of the language is embedded language (el). however, both are identified through the pre-determined principles of the mlf model, and the most critical item is the clausal head of (cp) is co. it is called late outsider system morphemes as it has “grammatical relations outside the maximal projections of their heads‖. the maximal projections are redundant according to urduenglish code-switching data. hence, later outsider system morphemes do not linearize urdu-english clausal-internal switching‘s typological structure. 2. literature review code-switching (cs) is an exciting line of inquiry to formulate the formal properties of the languages that participate in a code-switched sentence. this nature of speaking and communicating among individuals, and communities was observed by myersscotton and her associates (1992; 1998). contact phenomenon frequently occurs in language switching and mixing among individuals and communities. unlike borrowing conceived to satisfy the grammatical integration (phonological, morphological, and syntactical) of a single word from one language into another language. code-switching (cs) involves the co-occurrence of elements from one language into another instead of phonological integration, only fulfilling another type of integrations—syntactic and morphological. it is what we call code-switching (cs). this integration criterions (ic) was primarily proposed by shan poplack (1998). the term code switching (cs) was initially coined by haugen at the thirteenth annual round table meeting on linguistics and languages at georgetown university, held in 1962. the research in 161 code-switching (cs) did not emerge until the late 1960s and early 1970s. it was primarily considered an absurd, haphazard, and misused form of language. then, many scholars tried to construct the formal properties of the two languages that take part in a sentence. many researchers formulated their assumptions and stipulations in various frameworks and language pairs. however, the researchers, i.e., albataineh & abdelhady, 2019; ali, jabbar & malik, 2020; aslam, saleem, & afridi, 2021; balam, parafita couto, & stadthagen-gonzález, 2020; gonzálezvilbazo & lópez, 2011, 2012; khan & khalid, 2018; macswan, 2005a; macswan, 2019; malik, 2017; maqsood, saleem, aziz, & azam, 2019; shim, 2016; van gelderen & macswan, 2008; zahra et al., 2021, agreed on one core dictum that no additional mechanism that is external to human cognition is a ―cs-specific constraint. however, empirically, all support such external mechanisms on their respective models except malik (2017) and ali, jabbar & malik (2020), and they have empathetically and vehemently claimed that no additional toolkit[s] is necessary to account for cs data except two halve of discrete lexicon[s]. the end product of human cognition is only one expression, even in monolingual or bilingual linguistic competence. it is the core theoretical assumption because of the isolable nature of the computational system of human language as presented within the minimalist program (chomsky, 2021). shim (2016) studied code-switching patterns in two typologically different languageskorean english and japanese-english to determine the placement of objects and verbs. suggesting the results that the placement of complement is constrained by the roles of heavy vs light verbs ‗as some parametric variation is encoded to functional categories according to the minimalist framework (chomsky, 2021), which determines the placement of complement in mixed data. gonzález-vilbazo & lopez (2011; 2012) suggested that neither the claim of myers-scotton (1995) nor macswan (2008) is persuasive and posited narrow hypothesis (nh) according to nh, ―v hypothesis v determines at least three crucial grammatical properties of the selected vp: linearization, focus/background, and prosodic structure.‖ so, the light verb possesses some properties— word order, prosody, and feature spreading ―the light verb is little v, and as a phase head, it controls the grammatical properties of its phase.‖ (p. 848). little v has a conjugation feature according to the chomskyian framework (1995); features must be matched and valued before being spelt out. so, if the feature of little v has been checked and deleted even in monolingual and bilingual data, the derivation must be successfully converged. lópez et al. (2012), working on phase theory, suggested that a phase-headedness property in sentential level constrains code-switching, but ―code-switching within the word is possible. we have also shown that the phase system explains how it can happen (p. 15). according to them, complementizers (c) and light verbs (v) are the phase heads, and one phase is completed on one stage, and after this, the first phase will be converted into the upper second phase satisfying features and operations within phase theory. khan and khalid (2018) tried to apply the matrix language frame model on pashto-english to test this model. he has ascertained that the model thoroughly explains and delineates bilingual linguistic competence because two languages have interacted in one sentence. these two languages must be separated. they also claimed that english-pashto bilingual data is fully compatible with the matrix language frame model (khan & khalid, 2018, p. 13). forker (2019) tested the matrix language frame model on snazhi-russian intrasentential codeswitching data and postulated that ―ml and el are straightforwardly identified‖ in the snazhi-russian code-switching (p. 18). balam, parafita couto & stadthagen-gonzález (2020) studied spanish-english code-switching in bilingual communities and explored that―bilingual compound verbs are consistently preferred over estar bilingual compound verbs‖ (balam, parafita couto & stadthagen-gonzález, 2020, p. 1–16). balam, parafita couto & stadthagengonzález (2020) methodologically used the acceptability task and language background questionnaire for conducting the study. however, this study focused on pure natural data from urdu-english bilinguals. zahra et al. (2021) endeavoured to test the matrix language frame model on urduenglish online news. they claimed that ―code-switching was permissible even when it led to structural asymmetry‖ (zahra et al., 2021, p. 265). zahra et al. (2021) furthermore predicted that ―the data supported matrix language frame's morpheme order principle (m and system morpheme principle (smp), and no counter-example appeared against mlf model‖ (zahra et al., 2021, p. 265). nevertheless, one point is to keep in mind is that zahra et al. (2021) did not take raw data of urduenglish. as linguistics is a natural science, we must deal with the scientific method. in this study, the researchers only take urduenglish naturalistic data within an informal setting so that natural speech can be evaluated to externalize the exact operative mechanism of bilingual linguistic competency. ali, jabbar & malik (2020) tried to account for bilingual data under the theoretical tent of functional head constraint (belazi, rubin & toribio., 2011, p. 222–237). they suggested that the model presented by belazi, rubin & toribio (2011) is inconsistent if urdu-english data is tested. the functional heads are unrestrictive to linearize a codeswitched sentence. hence, the model proposed by 162 belazi, rubin & toribio (2011) generates ungrammatical sentences. in this way, the minimalist constraints-free model is also empirically incompatible with urduenglish bilingual linguistic competence. in short, it can be suggested that the models developed to account for the bilingual data are inconsistent in various pairs of languages. the issue of data, the researchers, apply, or the principles of the model are not fully established. urdu is a vibrant language regarding its case marking system, the flexibility of word order, and phonological matrices. this study, however, takes urdu-english raw data to test the validity of the most influential model—the matrix language frame model (c. m. myers-scotton & jake, 2017, pp. 340– 366). it is essential to present the core and basic interpretation of the matrix language frame model (2017). for this, see the proceeding section. 2.1 theoretical framework this section briefly constitutes the matrix language frame (mlf) model proposed by myers scotton (jake et al., 2002; myers-scotton & jake, 2000; myers-scotton & jake, 2015; 2017). 2.2 matrix language frame model the mlf model is typically designed to account for bilingual clauses' basic grammaticality that reveals cs (mixed clauses). in 1993, myers-scotton criticized the previous studies on linguistic constraint imposed on code-switching (cs) on two grounds, i.e., either these studies are theoretically redundant, or their mechanism is too much dependent on existing monolingual syntactic models. in her book duelling languages, myers-scotton (1992) proposed the matrix language frame model (hereafter mlf) as a bilingual production and comprehensive approach in code-switching. this model is too much distinct from previous linguistics models—a descriptive and only close to surface level. nevertheless, the mlf model is dedicated with its explanatory power and provides the periphrastical solution for how language is accessed and retrieved before it takes the final form (myers-scotton & jake, 1995, p. 47). the properties of structural conflicts are handled to favour only one of the participating languages. according to jake and her associates (2002, p. 72), this model intensively highlights generalization on theoretical prospective regarding the nature of linguistic competence and also about operations, from input to output, that occurred in language production and comprehension processes. this view is conceptually termed the uniform structure principle ‗(usp) and its corresponding asymmetrical hierarchies that show how the linguistic model fits linguistic competence. 2.3 the uniform structure principle it states as ―a given constituent type in any language has a uniform abstract structure, and the requirements of well-formedness for this type must be observed whenever the constituent appears. in a bilingual speech, the structures of the ml are always preferred, but some embedded structures are allowed if ml clause structure is observed ‗(jake et al., 2002, p. 8–9). when the uniform structure principle (usp) is applied to bilingual speech, it provides insight to the first hierarchy, which puts that both the languages involved in bilingual speech do not participate equally; one language crucially sets the morphosyntactic frame. this frame is called the matrix language (ml). at the same time, the second hierarchy is the distinction between the roles of content morphemes (similar to lexical elements) and system morphemes (similar to functional elements). the language that provides content morphemes is embedded language (el). the above-mentioned matrix language hypothesis (jake & myers-scotton, 1997, p. 83), which structurally follows two principles in code-switching to determine the uniform abstract structure of intrasentential code switching (cs) given below: 2.4 the morpheme order principle it states that mixed constituent consists of matrix language + embedded language lexemes. this constituent consisting of singly occurring embedded language lexemes and any number of matrix language morphemes, surface morpheme order (reflecting syntactic surface relations) will be that of the matrix language. 2.5 the system morpheme principle it predicts that the constituent all system morphemes which have grammatical relations external to their head constituent‖ (i.e., which participate in the sentence‘s thematic role grid) will come from the matrix language. (c. myersscotton & jake, 1995) these principles are the hypothesis to determine the ml vs el in an intra-cp. matrix language (ml) intensively ensures the morphosyntactic frame of the complementizer phrase (cp). the role of matrix language is significantly very ostensive. the remnant contributions of the ml and el in mixed cp are articulated in place of morpheme type and order systematically following the two testable principlesmop and smp stated above. further explication of mixed cp, el islands can occur in the bilingual cp; el islands are structurally grammatical at phrasal level constituents in the el. though el morphemes entirely construct el islands, its position in mixed constituent is under ml control. moreover, the matrix language (ml) structurally frames the entire bilingual cp. so, the matrix language provides the abstract grammatical frame of a bilingual cp. 163 2.6 4-m model the matrix language frame (mlf) model primarily accounts for the division of various morpheme types-content vs system demarcating the participating languagesmatrix vs embedded uniformly. however, it does not entirely handle them in mixed data. the new model is reformulated within the 4 m model because it divides four morphemes‘ types and clearly distinguishes them at abstract levels. envisaging briefly, the 4-m model gives the unified classification of morphemes into four types—content, system morphemes, early system morphemes, late bridge system morphemes, and late outsider system morphemes. the 4-m model additionally provides two other features to classify morphemes. (1) [±thematic role assignment], (2) [±conceptually activated] (3)[±referring to grammatical information outside of its xmax] following the matrix language construct of the mlf model, the 4-m model unveils the distribution of morphemes in classic code-switching. fortuitously, the 4-m model also explains the distribution of morphemes in many other language contact phenomena and is also typically applicable to monolingual data, for instance, in aphasia and speech error. the 4-m model maintains all the previous characteristics, i.e., classification of inserting morphemes and the participating languages—ml vs el along with the same principles-smp vs mop. however, a slight modification has been reconstructed that is late outsider system morphemes must come from ml instead of all system morphemes. 4-m model re-classifies the morphemes into four categoriescontent and system. further system morphemes can be sub-divided into three types early system morphemes, bridge system morphemes, and late outsider system morphemes. 3. method for methodological purposes, this study adopts qualitative methodology because it is a theoretical study, and for this, all the data has been collected within a naturalistic setting (chomsky, 2021). for data collection, eighty competent, balanced bilingual speakers have been selected. for the selection of bilingual speakers, a scale of balanced bilingual speakers (bbs) has been adopted from macswan (2005). the speakers have been put into four groups, and each group consists of 20 participants. their natural speech has been recorded in a casual setting outside the classroom in the university of lahore (chenab campus), gujrat because the students use informal language in a casual setting, so we have to get a pure expression. their speech has been recorded in the audio-recording form. the collected data is in audio-recording forms, and after that, it has been transcribed to get a cp layer. the population of data collection is gujrat and its surrounding areas. people of this area are highly qualified as this city has a highly developed system of education. a public university—the university of gujrat and various private university campuses have been launched to educate the people. many reputed school systems have been established at the lower level in gujrat. due to this, students have mixed input and develop bilingual linguistics competency at the initial level. the parents of the children are mostly educated and qualified. our participants are university students from graduate level, and they efficiently speak urdu and english as well. four hours of conversational data in the audio-recording form was taken from 80 bilingual urduenglish speakers. the conversations were recorded in the university of lahore gujrat campus. all participants involved were adults, enrolled in the graduate department in arts and social sciences, ranging in age from about 22 to 26, and both boys and girls were included. the unit of analysis in this study is intrasentential code-switching. intrasentential switching is a contradictory term with intersentential switching: the former hinges on switching between languages within the clause, while the latter involves switching between clauses or sentences. in this study, we will focus on intrasentential switches within the clause and take intra-cp as our unit of analysis. it will be explained as a clause consisting of linguistic items (content vs system) of both language morphemes within a single cp. the following are examples of utterances containing bilingual clauses from urduenglish codeswitching given below. table 3.1. data collection and its interpretation sr. no naturalistic datasets figure 1 total recording time 4h 2 total sentences 1728 3 total unmixed sentences 925 4 total unmixed sentences 803 164 4. findings in this section, all the study's significant findings have been reported and presented. this research study has employed, scrutinized, and tested the matrix language frame model on urdu-english clausal internal switching corpus. the study predicts that matrix language frame model (2017) is descriptively, empirically, and theoretically inadequate, invalid and redundant, taking evidence from urdu-english mixed datasets. 4.1 switching within complementizer and nominal layers (1) she said that app the method of chomsky-koiss thesis meiapply kar-in gye. you/2p/pl -erg this in v-inf will she said that you would apply this method of chomsky in this thesis. in (1), we have an interesting example from urduenglish data. it consists of two cps: the matrix and the other are embedded. the embedded cp is purely urdu as the late outsider system morphemes come from the matrix and linearize the whole cp. the clausal head c is taken from english. it is neither preposition in urdu nor is it bridge system morpheme. it is a system morpheme-late outsider system morpheme. it heads the whole cp. so, we can say that all the constituents and principles are fully satisfied, but the sentence is grammatical. if we take that as a system morpheme, the linear order of the whole cp is that of english, but the embedded cp is purely urdu, and the late outsider system morphemes and light verb are derived from matrix language. it is very tough to identify the matrix language in this mixed sentence. we, therefore, predict that the system morphemes do not linearize the whole cp as a grammatical layer within clausal internal switching of urdu-english. (2) afshan-ne kaha keh her patient is severely vomiting afshan-erg said that afshan said that her patient is severely vomiting. in (2), we have a mixed sentence; the cp is confined into two clauses--matrix and embedded, but the embedded clause is purely english as matrix language supplies the late outsider system morpheme and linear order. the embedded clause is that of english, not urdu. in this intra-cp, urdu's clausal head is supplied, i.e., keh (that). here keh is neither preposition nor bridge system morphemes as it is the outsider of the maximal projection. according to the definition of myers scotton (2017) of late outsider system morphemes, they are external to maximal projection. the clausal head, -‖keh‖ ‗is taken from urdu. however, contrary clausal head selects embedded language tp how it can be matched, and valued features as languages have their distinct and parametric properties that map the typology of the language. therefore, the issue of example (2) is crucial. the matrix language frame model generates grammatical sentences as ungrammatical. according to the matrix language frame model, example (2) must be ungrammatical but fully grammatical and natural expression, taken from the bilingual community and spoken by a bilingual speaker[s]. it is forcefully predicted that identifying the matrix language in urdu-english is a very tough task; the data gives us a new horizon in code-switching, not matrix language universal, and two languages did not systemize parallels within intra-cp. (3) the sindhi shalwar-kameez humara national dress hai. sindhi shirt-trouser/3p/sg our is/3p/sg the sindhi shirt and trouser is our national dress. in (3), two languages are participating. however, one is dominating according to the potential assumption of mlf, that language is labelled as ml language, and it is the requirement of the nature of human cognition as every human being possesses one and only one computational system of human language (chl). it is the language supplies the late outsider system morphemes, according to the mlf model; in this sentence, our focus is not the clause structure; we only focus on the nominal phrase that is the sindhi shalwar-kameez. it is subject to dp, and it is fascinating to note the internal structure of this mixed dp. shalwar-kameez is a compound noun, sindhi is an adjective, and it is projected np, but a purely urdu np is merged with purely english dp-- the. in this nominal phrase, the‘ is not an adjective, preposition, or bridge system morpheme; it is external to maximal projection, so it falls into late outsider system morphemes. now, the issue is that the nominal phrase is purely english word order typologically, but the clause structure is purely hinges on urdu. what is the matrix language in this intra-cp? 165 nevertheless, the sentence is grammatical. the structure of phase—the sindhi shalwar kameez and clause—the sindhi shalwar kameez humara national dress hai, is contrary. the matrix language is english at the phrasal level, while the matrix language is urdu at the clausal level. despite this contrary structural mapping, the sentence is fully grammatical. the phrasal and clausal structure is unparalleled. the linear order of all the constituents must be uniform and under the control of the matrix language only. however, in this sentence (3), the matrix language is english at the phrasal level, and at the clausal level, the matrix language is urdu. the very tough task is identifying the matrix language as all principles formulated by myers scotton (1992) are satisfied. (4) i hope that app in sab studentoo-ko english parha-ee gye. you/2p/pl these/pl all -acc teach-inf will i hope that you will teach english to all these students. in (4) cited above, we have a sentence in which two cps are involved one cp-i hope is purely english while the second is mixed one, but our concern is to analyse the mixed intra-cp in which items of two languages are involved. the embedded cp—app in sab student-o—ko english parha-ee gye (you will teach english to all these students) is a mixed one, and it has the items of both the participating languages, but the clausal head is purely inserted from english, and it selects the purely urdu tp as a compliment. myers scotton (2017) has postulated that the morphemes external to the maximal projection are pocked into late outsider system morphemes slots but here, c, that is supplied by english, and the rest of the clause belongs to urdu; hence no ungrammaticality is noticed, and matrix language is not well defined in this cp. (5) app apne knowledge-ko apply kar-ien. you/2p/pl your/2p/pl -erg v-inf you should apply your knowledge. in (5), let us have another mixed sentence from urdu-english cs data. it is a purely natural sentence and spoken in a natural setting. in this sentence, tense inflexion ien and ‗do‘ construction verb ‗kar‘ is inserted by one language, i.e., an ml and the rest of the language is el that is supplying content morphemes-lexical verb apply it has been inflected into ml frame set by the ml. this sentence is fully grammatical and fulfils the descriptive requirement of the mlf model. the non-finite verbs are the better candidates that freely occur in the ml frame with the ‗do‘ verb strategy. here, we have another interesting point to reveal that the constituent apny knowledge ko is a whole dp but has english—knowledge n and the case assigner ‗ko‘, but according to the 4 m model preposition, it is a bridge system morpheme it makes a bridge between two items. however, how are the urdu preposition ―ko‖ constructs a bridge in this constituent? the documented example is a counterexample to the bridges system morphemes. it has some ambiguities. if we take the ―ko‖ as a case marker, it is the late outsider system morpheme, and in pro-drop languages, celtic is used to mark the case. if we take ―ko‖ as a case marker or preposition, the mlf and 4-m model does not account for the data documented in this study. in this sentence, the status of ―ko‖ is not fully determinable and predictable if we apply the mlf. (6) covid-19-ki situation-mei all the business crashed all over the world -acc -in in the covid-19 situation, all the businesses crashed all over the world. in (6), we have another exciting example to evaluate the potential postulation of the matrix language frame model. in the above-stated example, the linear order of the sentence is that of english. we noticed a chunk covid-19 ki situation mei it is fully grammatical, and the order of this constituent is that of urdu it is contrary to a clausal linear order of the sentence. myers scotton claimed this is called el islands, and they must be under the control of the matrix order. in example no (6), we observe covid-19 ki situation ‗mei‘, as an adjunct and is under control of english word order, but the issue is that the order of the morphemes of this constituent is not that of english, but it consists of urdu linear order. the crucial items—ki and mei are taken from urdu. the accusative case marker other is the preposition. it is the apparent violation of the morpheme order principle and system morpheme principle. it is also noticed that two contrary systems operate within a constituent level and clausal level. in this way, the uniform structure principle (usp) has been violated. 166 (7) study-k duran, some students have to support their families. -acc during during the study, some students have to support their families. the above-cited example (7) is noted as a mixed cp of some adjunct. in this cp, we have an adjunct— ‗study-k duran‘ it is a very interesting constituent. its linear order shows an urdu constituent but can be embedded into english matrix cp. in this cp, the clausal structure of the whole cp is that of english, but one adjunct whose word order is that of urdu has been embedded into this matrix cp. it is a clear violation of the morpheme order principle, system morpheme principle, and uniform structure principle. the matrix language is unidentified in the clausal structure. 5. discussion code-switching within the matrix language frame model (myers-scotton & jake, 2017) is a contested research domain, but a little focus has been paid to deal with asian language pairs. being indoaryan languages in asia, urdu is a dynamic language in lieu of its case-marking system, phonological matrices, morphological layers, and syntactic pattern. code-switching and language contact phenomenon emerged in (sankoff, 1998) within the ground-breaking research articles published by sankoff (1998) and her associates (belazi, rubin & toribio, 2011; myers-scotton & jake, 2000; sankoff, 1998; sobin, 1984). the research on the contact phenomenon has claimed that language mixing/switching is not haphazard use of language, but it must be as systemic and unified as monolingual speech. myers scotton (1995) proposed a unified language production and processing model with structurally converging two languages into one sentence. she first claimed that mixing is uniform, secondly categorized the participating languages on the involvement within the sentence, and thirdly classified the linguistic items—content and system morphemes of the participating languages. she always posited that one language is linearly superior in mixing/switching phenomenon what myers-scotton predicted matrix language (ml) and other is less dominant, i.e., embedded language (el). every model is based on empirical evidence in natural science, and the empirical data to evaluate the matrix language frame model has been presented in the previous section. the real urdu-english dataset reveals that the assumption of the matrix language frame model to generate, produce, and process the language[s] in a unified way fails and generates some ungrammatical strings. at the same time, the core principles (smp and mop) are fully satisfied. the data demonstrated that clausal head complementizer (c) is free being a late outsider system morpheme, and it did not control the whole intra-cp layer. the causal head from urdu freely and flexibly selects either english tp or urdu tp. however, it did not control the whole cp. at the same time, the results of the most recent studies predict that the matrix language frame model (2017) fully posits fruitful results. it applies to all the human cognitive domains like psychology, psycho-linguistics, socio-linguistics, second language acquisition, and bio-linguistics. ali (2020) predicts that human language regulates an involuntary action like heart-beating, winking of eyes, and naturally growing hair. code-switching (cs), however, falls in the domain of involuntary potential of putting linguistic items in such a distinctive fashion to construct a meaningful expression constituting content vs system morphemes from diverse languages. the matrix language frame model (1997) postulated that system morphemes linearize the whole cp. however, many counter-examples have been reported in a considerable amount of data within many languages like spanish-english. macswan (2005) has postulated on theoretical as well as empirical grounds that no additional mechanism is necessary to regulate the bilingual linguistic competence and no ml construct is universal to account for switching at the word level. late outsider system morphemes did not potentially linearize the mixed cp of any language. however, macswan (2005b) did not ever deal with urdu-english codeswitching data. the matrix language (ml) is not superior within urdu-english as it is unidentified within the clausal and constituent levels. the data of this study reveals that no late outsider system morphemes map the structure and word order of the whole cp. the assumptions and argumentations presented by ihemere (2017), al-bataineh and abdelhady (2019), balam, parafita couto & stadthagen-gonzález (2020), and sanwal (2020) conducted under the matrix language frame model fully support the postulation of the matrix language frame model (2017). the principles—system morpheme, morpheme order, uniformity, and asymmetry formulated within matrix language frame model (2017) are fully testable and evaluated within various language pairs, i.e., spanish-english, pashto-english, snazhi-russian, so forth. they posited that the matrix language frame model is consistent and utterly compatible with intrasentential code-switching. the clause is headed by some morpheme in monolingual and bilingual speech. the issue is to determine the clausal head of a code-switched sentence. the head of the clause determines the word order of the language. if any language inserts a clausal head, that language must construct the morphosyntactic frame of the whole intra-cp. the rest of the language supplies the content morphemes to provide the semantic 167 interpretation of the languages. in this way, two participating languages have been separated within a bilingual cp, and two languages must be identified as matrix language (ml) vs embedded language (el). within the clausal level, it can be observed the constituent level, the same pattern of switching is observed in the whole clause from constituent level to clausal. the clausal level is a fascinating domain in code-switching. many scholars have presented their assumptions on the clausal level in urdu-english under the theoretical tent of the minimalist program (1995). ali, jabbar & malik. (2020) have posited that code-switching is unrestrictive, and no functional material fully linearizes the order of a code-switched sentence. the fusion of two participating languages within a cp layer did not constitute paralleled typological order of the sentence, but only a single linear order of every mixed sentence is observed in any language pair. ali, jabbar & kiani (2021) postulated that the uniformity of clausal internal layer is controlled by phase heads c and v as both is the phase heads within phase theory (chomsky, 2021). maqsood et al. (2019) claimed light verb only constrains verbal borrowing under the theoretical tent of the minimalist program (1995). she also claimed that nominal borrowing is irrestrictive of any external constraints. however, as a whole, she and her associates ascertained that borrowing is all and only accounted for if grammatical constraints are imposed on the verbs borrowing. this study potentially accounts for the data presented by maqsood et al. (2019), as when we talk about borrowing; it means the fusion of two linguistic items in a single distinct domain like verbal, nominal, or any other layer. matrix language (ml) and embedded language (el) are identified in borrowing as the influence of the matrix language is dominant on embedded language (el), so the system morphemes determine the strategies of borrowing. according to myers-scotton (2013), verbal borrowing/mixing adopts do-verb construction to incorporate the content morpheme into the matrix language. do-verbs constructions must be taken from ml. based on empirical evidence from urdu-english naturalistic data, this study predicts that whatever the concurrent models presented, the languages roles within an internal layer of sentence and morphemes participation within the morphosyntactic frame of intra-cp do not appear sufficient to account for urdu english data. urdu complementizer being the clausal head freely and flexibly selects with contrary phifeature tp of english language is the legitimate violation of smp and mop. on the constituent level, many internal layers of urdu-english switching also predict that similar issues have been reported. determiner head (d) from english selects with pure urdu np. both are a legitimate violation of the matrix language frame model (2017). this model is considered the most influential model that descriptively represents the abstract level of bilingual linguistic competence. with concrete and unbound arguments from urduenglish clausal switching, this research study claims that the matrix language frame model (2017) is neither productive nor processing. its principles are redundant and inconsistent with human language faculty. therefore, the mlf model generates grammatical sentences as ungrammatical and ungrammatical sentences as grammatical within urdu english clausal-internal switching. the crucial morpheme, i.e., late outsider system, does not potentially linearize the cp layer of the mixed sentence; hence, no matrix language is universal at the constituent level and in clausal construction. unparalleled constituent and clausal constructions are observed in urdu-english clausal-switching. 6. conclusion with solid empirical evidence and arguments from naturalistic data of urdu-english, this study vehemently predicts that the bilingual linguistic competency cannot uniformly be accounted for employing the matrix language frame (myers scotton & jake, 2015; myers-scotton & jake, 2017; myers-scotton, 2013). the matrix language frame model‘s hypotheses and principles are inconsistently impermissible to predict a fruitful result in urdu english clausal-internal switching. the principles and hypotheses are invalid and redundant to generate a fully convergent derivation inserting content and system morphemes from two diverse languages. the invalidity and inconsistency have been noticed in urdu-english naturalistic data's constituent and clausal-internal levels. the head (system morpheme) of the constituent and head (system morpheme) of the clause are contradictory to embedded language, so it is very uncertain about identifying the matrix language (ml) and embedded language (el) within clausal-internal switching of urdu-english naturalistic data. 7. recommendation many studies have been dedicated to testing the matrix language frame model (myers-scotton & jake, 2017). various language pairs have been reported unprecedented results in various domains and aspects. many languages have supported the assumption and principles formulated to test and identify the two participating languages. however, a few language pair reports that the mlf model is inconsistent with mixed dataset and bilingual linguistic competence. for recommendations to future researchers, this study provides a framework and guideline to pursue in various languages pairs other than urdu-english naturalistic data. theoretically, this model is considered redundant because it demarcated 168 the human linguistic competency into two impressible halves. future researchers tried to develop or modify the matrix language frame model based on empirical data from diverse language pairs from different aspects. this study is limited to only one pair of languages, so future scholars must follow other language pairs to point out the principled violation of the matrix language frame model. clausal-switching is an exhilarating domain to evaluate bilingual linguistic competence and the descriptive apparatus that is adapted to account for linguistic unmixed and mixed data. future researchers may notice and explore the scrambling (ali, jabbar, & kiani, 2021, p. 52–60) of constituents within the clausal domain applying the matrix language frame model. 8. acknowledgement i want to thank my ever-supporting love-aqsa shahzadi and the anonymous reviewers who helped, guided, and supported me in conducting this research study. their arguments are constructive and motivating for me. references al-bataineh, h., & abdelhady, s. 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(2021). testing matrix language framework model on urdu-english online news entity: a creative approach. multicultural education, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4460350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2007.05.003 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4460350 journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i2.6816 vol. 3, no. 2, august 2021, pp. 135-145 135 the effectiveness of differentiated instruction in improving bahraini efl secondary school students in reading comprehension skills ahmed hussein ahmad eid saleh mansoura university, mansoura. egypt ahmedeid581@gmail.com article history received : 2021-05-19 revised : 2021-05-21 accepted : 2021-08-12 keywords efl reading comprehension skills differentiated instruction secondary school students abstract this study aimed at investigating the effectiveness of differentiated instruction (di) in improving reading comprehension skills in the efl secondary stage in bahrain. the study adopted the quasi-experimental research design using thirtysix 2 nd year secondary students to be the study participants. the participants were divided into two groups: an experimental group that received the (di) training and a control group that received the conventional way. a reading comprehension skills questionnaire and a pre-post efl reading comprehension test was used in the study to collect the data. results showed that the experimental group outperformed the control group in the efl reading comprehension test. the findings indicated that the di strategies helped to develop students’ efl reading comprehension skills. in addition, it revealed that using various materials for teaching reading comprehension skills to match students' different needs and abilities helped enhance their reading comprehension proficiency. a number of recommendations and suggestions for further research was presented. 1. introduction foreign languages play an essential role in the process of communication among societies. they also contribute to developing them being aware of the differences among cultures. because of the spread of democracy, education, technology, and the global village where we live, learning foreign languages became a necessity. and to deal with tourists and foreigners in banks, hotels, and foreign companies, learning foreign languages is fundamental to enhancing good communication skills. therefore, learning english is necessary and considered the central core of communication between populations in a multicultural society full of foreigners and residents worldwide. the main aim of teaching english as a foreign/second language in bahrain, according to the ministry of education, is to provide the society with graduated citizens who are able either to use language skills fluently, in work or to conduct higher research in different fields or to be prepared to join one of the famous universities abroad. thus, bahrain's ministry of education always provides both teachers and students with the aims of teaching english as a foreign language. therefore, there is a need for several methods and strategies to facilitate teaching english to students to gain comprehension and fluency like native speakers. baecher (2011) stated that implementing di is the best way to achieve english language proficiency. furthermore, gibson (2013) agreed that di nowadays is a vital tool to engage students and address the different needs of all students. in the last few years, educationalists and researchers all over the world have become interested in the issue of 'differentiated instruction' as an instrument to help teachers observe individual student differences and to ensure all students' progress towards achieving the targeted learning outcomes (ehrman, leaver& oxford, (2003); dahlman, hoffman & brauhn 2008; dornyei 2003; valiande & koutselini 2009; vibulphol 2004). this study is based on vygotsky's (1962) sociocultural theory, constructivism, tomlinson's (1999) theory of differentiated instruction, gardner's multiple intelligences and the learning styles. mavidou & kakana (2019) stated that there is an increasing interest in research for differentiated instruction as a vigorous way of supporting different students in their knowledge acquisition and skills while, on the other hand, it also breaks down the obstacles that prevent their distinctive abilities to show their maximum potential as students effectively. 136 murley (2010) reported that teachers carry the heavy responsibility of engaging to the immense learning varieties in their classrooms. these learning varieties are the reasons for many problems during teaching and assessments. each student has his favourite learning styles and multiple intelligences. as a result, the “one for all” attitude to assessment is not reliable. effective learning is rarely to occur if all children in a classroom are doing the same thing. teachers cannot satisfy students' different needs if every student is reading the same story and completing the same task. academic needs are central. however, they are not the single needs students have. students still require quality education to satisfy their educational requirements and varied needs. if teachers do not fulfill students' fundamental needs, core curriculum and teaching do not matter (tomlinson & mctighe, 2006). a framework was set by tomlinson (2001) for differentiating or tiering tasks. it was based on three main parts; content (the learning input presented by the teacher), process (the way the teacher has structured the activity), and product (what should students produce). instructors have widely approved this framework to establish the many ways an activity can be adjusted for diverse students. however, other differentiated activities depend on students' multiple intelligences, learning styles or preferences rather than on levels of english language proficiency. according to tomlinson (2000), differentiation includes the efforts of teachers to address variance among students in the classroom. whenever a teacher reaches to an individual or small group to vary his or her teaching, the teacher is differentiating instruction. levy (2008) and tomlinson (1999) added that differentiation could be practised in the content, process, product and learning environment. content or "input" involves what teachers target to teach and how the students will achieve the level of knowledge and understanding. tomlinson and allan (2000) also mentioned that differentiating the content is to supply various ways to get the "facts, concepts, overviews or principles, attitudes, and skills related to the subject, as well as materials that represent those elements" (p. 7). differentiating the process of teaching and learning or "how" the students get the information is another area of differentiation. to differentiate the learning process, selections would better be given in expressing the thoughts and facts (benjamin, 2006; knowles, 2009; levy, 2008; and tomlinson, 2001). in addition, the differentiated process has to match the content directly and help the students acquire the knowledge and skills (tomlinson & strickland, 2005). the product is the third area to applying differentiation. levy (2008) declared that differentiating content, process, and product must be the ground of the students' strengths, needs, and learning styles and of the students' readiness, interests, and learning profiles. the students present what they have learned in the "output". teachers can differentiate the products by supplying a diversity of things students utilise to prove what they have learned due to study (knowles, 2009; levy, 2008; and tomlinson, 2001). the last area to differentiate concerns the environment. teachers can implement environment differentiation by modifying the classroom organisation to allow students to move between groups. the learning environment also plays a vital role in improving the students' achievement (tomlinson, 2000). therefore, a differentiated teacher is the one who builds his instruction mainly according to the student's differences, not on a preplanned fixed curriculum. the teachers should prepare and design lessons suitable to the students' interests and abilities using several ways of presenting the lessons and with different difficulties to match their students' diverse needs and learning profiles. many studies were conducted such as li (2004); fuchs et al. (2005); habboush (2010); al udaini (2011); el khateeb (2012); ghorab (2013); bahlool (2013); chen & herron (2014); and silva & cain (2015) which verified that there is a strong relationship between reading comprehension skills and academic success. however, students in bahrain showed low achievement levels in reading fluency and reading comprehension. for this reason, students are rarely motivated, and their academic achievement is negatively affected. the researcher used some tools such as reading assessments to measure students' performance, checklists that documented students' reading skills, surveys that indicated students' attitudes towards reading, and the pilot study to ensure the problem's existence. the primary purpose of reading is to comprehend the text being read, so if reading is without a purpose, comprehension does not occur. according to the researcher, developing reading skills is a way to understand a language better. al aila (2015) stated that reading is the most important skill a student can develop and that learning to read is an important skill every student must develop to be successful in school. in all subject matters, students have to be able to read and comprehend what they are reading. according to cheung & slavin (2011), good reading skills are the foundation for a proper education. in addition, kuhail (2017) stated that the process of comprehending involves decoding the writer's words and then using background knowledge to construct an approximate understanding of the writer's message. according to farrell (2009), we cannot teach all students to read using one method or combination methods. on the contrary, teachers should be aware of the multiple methods for teaching 137 reading. consequently, before selecting any valuable methods of teaching reading comprehension skills, they need to be aware of their students' current interests, learning profiles, strengths, challenges, and goals. as a result, the researcher believes that di can be an appropriate approach for teaching reading. moats (2001) stated that many students who have a deficiency in their reading skills might have difficulty in other content areas, are less able to complete high school, and may struggle in higher education. most of the students are not motivated to read. reading in school is something unexciting, useless, or challenging for them. in addition, there was nearly no time spent reading outside of school. they became more interested in video games, television, mobile applications, sports, and entertaining activities instead of reading. the interest to enhance reading comprehension skills is unreachable if students are not involved in reading. regarding the significance of differentiated instruction in today’s different classrooms, the present study aimed at studying the effectiveness of differentiated instruction in improving the secondary efl students' reading comprehension skills. this study concentrated on the correlation between di and reading comprehension and di-based lesson plans to develop reading comprehension skills. teachers and curricula designers in bahrain and the gulf area are in dire need of the results of this study to develop their strategies and curricula to match students’ needs and varied abilities, and to narrow the gap between students’ current reading comprehension level and the required performance. the more teachers and educationalists are aware of their students’ needs and varied abilities, the more they are able to provide updated and differentiated methods and strategies that help improve students’ performance. furthermore, it studied the effect of using di on specific reading comprehension skills such as (skimming a text, scanning a text, recognising the main idea of a reading text, recognising supporting details, differentiating between facts and opinions, identifying reference words and relating them to what they refer to, and inferring the meaning from the context). in addition, this study included more strategies and techniques than some of the other conducted studies, such as graphic organisers, tiered activities, kwl, learning stations, and learning contracts, to achieve accurate results. moreover, the study intended to prove the relation between di strategies and improving reading comprehension skills and provide the educationalists with a wellplanned program to help them apply suitable techniques that match their students’ varied levels. thus, the current study is characterised by its accurate results and varied techniques and strategies used. it also provides teachers and curricula designers with the required reading comprehension skills needed for secondary students in bahrain. the current study revealed that using di effectively improved reading comprehension skills and helped students enhance their reading performance. it also proved the relation between applying di strategies and techniques and improving selected reading comprehension skills. finally, this is leading research to be carried out in bahrain, including the gulf area, that helps with di's teaching and comprehension. 2. method this research used a quasi-experimental study that examined the effectiveness of using differentiated instruction (di) to enhance the reading comprehension skills of second-year secondary-stage students. two intact groups from al-iman school in bahrain were randomly selected: one served as the experimental group, and the other served as the control group. the experimental group was taught using di, while the control group was taught using the regular strategy. the study participants were thirty-six second-year "al-iman school "secondary students in bahrain. two intact classes were randomly selected (control and experimental), and each group consisted of eighteen students (n=18). the experimental group included one class of 18 students and was provided with di. the other class of 18 students acted as the control group, and regular daily teaching was provided. a reading comprehension pre-test was given to the two groups to ensure that they were homogeneous before the di was implemented. to achieve the aims of the study, the researcher designed and used two tools: 1-a reading comprehension skills questionnaire (rcsq) was used to identify the most appropriate reading comprehension skills for second-year secondary students. this questionnaire involved 14 items investigating the importance of each skill, which was emphasised in the present study, followed by three open-ended questions about the skills used in implementing the present study. the researcher derived the skills involved in the questionnaire in its initial form from different sources such as teachers’ opinions, literature review concerning the area of reading comprehension skills and sub-skills, the teacher’s book, a checklist of the suitable reading comprehension skills, and the jurors. to test the validity of the questionnaire, rcsq was submitted to a group of jury of 22 efl professors, teachers, and supervisors from different arab countries to evaluate students’ efl reading comprehension skills performance. the jury was kindly asked to identify the degree of importance of each skill and the appropriateness of the skills suggested. in addition, they were asked to modify, exclude, or add reading comprehension skills as they consider fit. 138 2-a reading comprehension skills test (rcst) was used to assess the two groups’ reading performance before and after implementing the di. the test consisted of one passage of six paragraphs that was prepared to measure seven reading comprehension skills (skim a text, scan a text, recognise the main idea of a reading text, recognise supporting details, differentiate between facts and opinions, identify reference words and relate them to what they refer to, and infer the meaning from the context). the pre-posttest consisted of 14 items; each group of questions measured one of the most critical seven reading comprehension skills. the test was presented to a group of jury members to determine whether the test items represent what they are supposed to represent and whether they are linguistically and scientifically appropriate. some of the items and phrases were removed, others were added, and modifications were made according to the opinions of the jury members until the test was written in its final version. the researcher used the paired samples t-test (spss, version 23) to measure mean, the standard deviation of scores, and the significance of the "t" test for the differences independent and independent samples between both groups in the pre-post reading comprehension skills test and the overall score and the comprehension skills. it was also used to evaluate the effect size of the experimental treatment on enhancing the students' reading comprehension skills before and after the treatment. 3. findings results of the study are reported in terms of the hypotheses. 3.1 verifying the homogeneity of the experimental and control group the test aimed at identifying homogeneity of the experimental and control group in the reading comprehension skills test. table 1 represents the results: table 3.1 the mean scores of the experimental and control group in the prereading comprehension skills test table 3.1 shows that both the experimental and control group are homogeneous. there is no significant difference between the mean scores of both groups in the reading comprehension skills test. 3.2 verifying the first hypothesis: the first hypothesis stated, "there is statistically significant difference at the 0.05 level between the mean score of the experimental group in the premeasurement and the post measurement of the reading comprehension skills in favour of the post measurement". testing the reading scores: in order to use paired samples t-test, data must meet the following requirements: a) continuous dependent variable (i.e., interval or ratio level) reading skills the pre-test measurements n mean sd critical value(t) sig skimming the experimental group 18 2.11 1.45 3.08 0.001 the control group 18 3.56 .40 scanning the experimental group 18 3.61 1.45 1.78 0.001 the control group 18 3.78 .84 recognising the main idea of a reading text the experimental group 18 .75 1.09 4.61 0.000 the control group 18 1.88 .11 recognising supporting details the experimental group 18 2.22 1.64 3.51 0.000 the control group 18 3.38 .30 identifying reference words the experimental group 18 1.37 1.19 4.75 0.001 the control group 18 2.66 .59 inferring the meaning from the context the experimental group 18 1.19 1.64 3.12 0.000 the control group 18 2.70 .46 differentiating between facts and opinions the experimental group 18 1.00 1.45 4.07 0.001 the control group 18 3.00 1.82 total the experimental group 18 14.83 6.45 6.20 0.001 the control group 18 20.30 4.16 139 b) related samples/groups (i.e., the subjects in each sample, or group, are the same. this means that the subjects in the first group are also in the second group.) c) random selection of sample from the population d) a normal distribution (approximately) of the difference between the paired values for 30 participants or fewer samples. e) no outliers in the difference between the two related groups for samples of 30 participants or fewer. the collected data from the pre/post-tests met all these criteria as follows: a) the dependent variable is continuous as it is an interval. b) the same students took each of the two tests. c) students were selected randomly. d) spss calculated scores of students in the two tests to check their normality, as shown in table 1. table 3.2 test of normality for the reading pre/post-tests tests of normality group kolmogorov-smirnov a shapiro-wilk statistic df sig. statistic df sig. pre 2.00 .135 18 .200 * .946 18 .362 post 2.00 .296 18 .200* .592 18 .447 *. this is a lower bound of the true significance. a. lilliefors significance correction the significance of the pre-test is (0.200) according to kolmogorov-smirnov test and (0.142) according to shapiro-wilk test. a) the significance of the post-test is (0.200) according to kolmogorov-smirnov test and (0.447) according to shapiro-wilk test. b) the significance of each of the two tests is more remarkable than (0.05), which means that the scores of the two tests follow the normal distribution. c) there were no outliers in the scores of the students in the two tests. in order to check the validity of this hypothesis, the researcher calculated students’ reading scores in the pre/post-tests using paired samples t-test (spss, version 23). table 3.3 represents the results. table 3.3 comparing the reading performance of the experimental group students on the reading comprehension skills pre-post test sig critical value(t) post test pre-test n skills sd mean sd mean 0.05 4.08 .47 3.88 1.57 2.33 18 skimming 0.05 1.68 .94 3.77 1.23 3.11 18 scanning 0.05 4.61 .23 2.00 1.02 .88 18 recognising the main idea of a reading text 0.05 3.79 .38 3.83 1.23 2.88 18 recognising supporting details 0.05 4.25 .59 2.66 1.14 1.38 18 identifying reference words 0.05 4.12 .64 3.77 1.45 2.11 18 inferring the meaning from the context 0.05 5.07 1.28 3.38 1.23 1.11 18 differentiating between facts and opinions 0.05 7.20 3.16 23.30 5.45 13.83 18 total as shown in table 3.3, there is a significant difference at 0.05 level between the scores of the experimental group students in the post-test (m=23.30, sd=3.16) and in the pre-test (m=13.83, sd=5.45); t (17) = 7.20, p = 0.000.000 this means that there are statistically significant differences between students' scores of the post-test and those of the pre-test, in favour of the post-test, which has the higher mean (23.30). these results show that the significant difference was in favour of the reading comprehension skills post-test, which means that using di strategies effectively improved the 140 experimental group's performance in the targeted reading comprehension skills. moreover, these results revealed that there is a strong relationship between di and improvement of comprehension. the more students are exposed to di, the stronger their comprehension was. in addition, students who are taught through di have done better in tests. the following figure (1) points out the differences between the mean scores of the pre and the post-test: figure 3.1. the differences between students’ scores of the post-test and those of the pre-test figure 3.1 shows a difference between the scores of the experimental group in the pre and post-reading comprehension skills test in favour of the post-test. this result reveals that the experimental group students' reading comprehension skills improved after applying di strategies through the treatment. 3.3 verifying the second hypothesis the second hypothesis stated, "there are statistically significant differences at the 0.05 level between the mean scores of the control and experimental group in the post administration of the reading comprehension skills and in each separate skill in favor of experimental group". the following table points out the results. in order to check the validity of this hypothesis, the researcher calculated students’ reading scores in the experimental and control group using paired samples t-test (spss, version 23). table 3.4 represents the results. table 3.4. the results of differences between the mean scores of the control group and the experimental group of the reading comprehension skills sig critical value(t) the experimental group the control group n skills sd mean sd mean 0.000 6.26 .47 3.88 1.18 2.00 18 skimming 0.000 5.59 .94 3.77 1.29 1.55 18 scanning 0.00 0.15 .22 2.00 0.97 2.00 18 recognising the main idea of a reading text 0.00 5.36 .38 3.83 1.21 2.22 18 recognising supporting details 0.003 3.26 .59 2.66 1.07 1.72 18 identifying reference words 0.000 3.94 .64 3.77 1.41 2.33 18 inferring the meaning from the context 0.000 4.31 1.28 3.38 1.33 1.50 18 differentiating between facts and opinions 0.000 6.76 3.16 23.30 5.39 13.33 18 total note. significant at 0.05 as shown in table, there is a significant difference between the scores of the students in the post-test of the experimental group (m=23.30, sd=3.16) and the post-test of the control group (m=13.33, sd=5.39); t (34) = 6.76, p = 0.05. the significance of t is (0.05), and this means that there are statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the control and experimental group in the post-test, in favour of the experimental group, which has the higher mean (23.30). these results show that the significant 0 5 10 15 20 25 the pre test the post test 141 difference favoured the experimental group who outperformed the control group in the reading comprehension skills post-test. this proves that using di strategies effectively improved the experimental group's reading comprehension in the targeted skills. moreover, these results revealed that there is a strong relationship between di and improvement of comprehension. the di program was the reason for the difference between the performance of the experimental and the control group. figure 3.2 the difference between the control group's mean scores and the experimental group of the reading comprehension skills. figure 3.2 shows a difference between the experimental and the control group scores in the postreading comprehension skills test in favour of the experimental group. this result reveals that the experimental group students' reading comprehension skills improved after applying di strategies through the treatment. 3.4 reflective table 3.5 questions to consider questions to consider reflections what did you learn in this course? i really feel like i learned many things with this course and (di) strategy. why do you believe we are studying using di? i think we are studying this way because every learner has different levels and interests. did you give your best effort on this most recent course? i gave my best effort because it was interesting and useful to be with others and learn using di strategies. were the strategies, skills and procedures you used effectively for improving your reading comprehension skills? the strategies, skills and procedures used were effective for improving most of our reading comprehension skills. did these activities help you learn more than others we have done? why? of course, we learnt through these strategies more than others did because it was challenging, and most activities cope with our abilities and interests. if you could study using the di strategy over, what would you do differently? i would select the most difficult exercises and activities to have more challenges. what resources do you have that can help you learn new material? there were a variety of reading resources that our teacher provided us. what class activities or assignments help you learn the most? jigsawthink pair share and learning contracts. what do you believe the teacher could have done differently to help you learn easier? i think the teacher could provide us with more sessions for more practice. what is one thing the teacher did for this course that you really liked? i really liked his sense of humour during teaching and his continuous feedback. did you do an effective job of communicating my learning to others? i can tell my teacher when i know something and help other students in my group. 0 5 10 15 20 25 of control group of experimental group 142 according to the students' answers to the given reflective log questions, students revealed an excellent appreciation for their improvement after applying for the di strategies program. it copes with the second hypothesis, which stated statistically significant differences at the 0.05 level between the mean scores of the control and experimental group in the post administration of the reading comprehension skills and each skill in favour of the experimental group. 4. discussion di is viewed as an essential factor that affects learning language in general and improves reading comprehension skills. the current study investigated the effectiveness of di in improving reading comprehension skills, considering the different and varied abilities and profiles of students. in order to do so, the researcher raised the following questions; a) what are the reading comprehension skills necessary for efl secondary stage students in bahrain? b) what are the features of di? c) what is the effectiveness of using some selected di strategies to improve reading comprehension skills for efl secondary stage students in bahrain? 4.1 the reading comprehension skills necessary for efl secondary stage students in bahrain reading is the primary skill that helps students gain knowledge. it surges the ability of students to focus and develop critical thinking. additionally, it develops positive feelings, satisfaction, and efficiency. furthermore, it is an essential skill for students of english as it lets them progress in other academic fields. without comprehension, reading is simply following words on a page from left to right while sounding them out. the words on the page have no meaning. further, reading is an essential means by which new information is seized, and new language skills are acquired. moreover, many foreign language learners often have read as one of their most important goals in their language learning experience, and various educational aims served by topics help reading receive this particular focus. however, most efl secondary students in bahrain lack some reading comprehension skills such as skimming, scanning, identifying reference words, inferring meaning from context, differentiating between facts and opinions, and other skills. it is mainly because students consider reading an arduous task and need much effort. furthermore, some students have some difficulties with language learning. also, reading comprehension skills are neglected inside the efl classroom as teachers give little attention to reading activities inside classrooms to improve students' reading comprehension skills. the previous studies almost agreed that there were deficiencies in students' reading comprehension skills. most reviewed studies investigated the primary reading comprehension skills, not the reading subskills. however, few previous studies were carried out in the arab countries and the gulf area. nevertheless, the current study included more techniques than some of the other studies to achieve accurate results. the research used different approaches for differentiated instruction. 4.2 the features of di di is not an instructional strategy or teaching model. it is a way of thinking about teaching and learning which considers students’ readiness, interest, and learning profile. it is a way of thinking that challenges how educators typically envision assessment, teaching, learning, classroom roles, time, and curriculum. when teachers differentiate their instruction, they consider student characteristics, readiness level, interest, and learning profile. these characteristics may be moulded by a learning style, intelligence preference or gender. students' level of readiness, interests, and learning preferences can be accommodated by adapting the content, processes, and products. these adaptations encounter the varied individual needs of students and make them spend most of their time in school. many students in the mixed-level classroom were generally not engaged enough in learning the language proficiently and lack most of their reading comprehension skills. the main reason for this is that most teachers cannot meet students' individual needs and follow one main whole classroom instruction most of the time. in addition, many english language teachers in bahrain are highly qualified and experienced. however, a significant number of teachers still use traditional instructions such as content memorising and teacher-centered instruction. they depend more and mainly on textbooks and cumulative assessment and overlook diversity (souleles, 2013). fairbairn & jones-vo (2010) reported that there are many attempts to implement differentiation by many teachers in the english classroom, as they believe in its effectiveness. then they find out that it is a very perplexing and overwhelming mission to do. according to tomlinson & imbeau (2010), and in order to differentiate effectively, the teacher should fully understand the students' differences, learning styles, and abilities and the suitable approaches of di and assessment. the current study suggested using some di strategies to improve student’s proficiency level and academic achievement. it also proved the effectiveness of di in improving the reading comprehension skills required for efl bahraini secondary students. 4.3 the effectiveness of using some selected di strategies in improving the reading comprehension skills 143 most of the previous studies investigated the effectiveness of some strategies at different school levels and grades in improving reading comprehension skills. most of these researches concentrated on assessing the effect of learning approaches on the students ' reading comprehension. all these studies proved the effectiveness of these approaches and strategies in improving reading comprehension. very few studies showed little or no gap between students who learned to utilise literacy approaches and students who studied using a conventional reading approach (baier, 2005). the current study revealed that there is a strong relationship between di and improvement of comprehension. the more students are exposed to di, the stronger their comprehension was. in addition, students who are taught through di have done better in tests . these findings asserted that teaching by di had a positive effect on reading comprehension skills. it is because students were educated according to their desires, expectations, and learning profile, according to those findings. using differentiated instruction (di) effectively improved bahrain efl secondary students' reading comprehension skills as the experimental group students outperformed the control group students in the post administration of the reading comprehension skills test. this agreed with the findings of some previously mentioned studies. however, the present study results revealed more need to give more interest to differentiating reading comprehension activities so that no learner is left behind. the high increase in the experimental group's post-administration scores was mainly due to engaging students in specific differentiated activities during the treatment, such as (tiered activities, learning centres, learning contracts, a jigsaw and graphic organisers). in addition, the di activities helped the students enjoy learning and enhance their attitude towards reading according to their feedback on the reflective log. further, most of the previous studies agreed on this issue. participants made positive comments during the treatment implementation. for example, some of them agreed that practising di activities helped them organise their ideas more quickly. others said that through using the di activities, they gathered these ideas and developed good reading comprehension skills for different texts. furthermore, participants liked reading through di activities more than just reading individually. therefore, di was highly influential in enhancing students' reading comprehension skills and providing varied opportunities for interaction and discussion in the classroom throughout varied activities. in addition, all students agreed that they had a sense of responsibility and accomplishment. they did not hesitate to participate in answering some questions; shy students had positive participation in the classroom, they participated, and at the same time, they could maintain discipline. moreover, di positively impacted their interaction with each other that they learned in a teamwork environment. they were all winners due to some di techniques used, such as think-pair-share and flexible grouping. in other words, the student learned enthusiastically, happily, and eagerly. 5. conclusion the current study concluded that improving reading comprehension skills among bahrain secondary school students could be achieved using differentiated instruction. it presented evidence that using differentiated reading activities can motivate their reading efficiently. the study results were in agreement with some of the results of the previously mentioned studies. it was apparent that the proposed differentiated instruction strategies and activities were fruitful in encouraging nearly all the students to participate in the reading process. this strategy helped them understand the reading text better and consequently answer the questions appropriately. they felt at ease in the different stages of the used strategy and while answering the reading comprehension questions, and eventually, they improved their reading comprehension skills. 6. recommendation the current study recommended that teachers shift from standard teaching methods to differentiated teaching based on the genuine involvement of the students in the learning process, enriching the curriculum with differentiated teaching that enhances the use of english by students both within and outside school. they also should understand the individual differences and learning styles of the students when selecting teaching activities. supervisors should conduct training programs that improve and develop the performance of english teachers in teaching reading comprehension skills and carry out secondary grade model lessons to show teachers how to teach reading using di. in addition, the ministry of education has to include new methods and strategies in teaching english depending on differentiated instruction and provide curricula that are more effective for secondary stage students equipped with current teaching and learning trends that match the students' varied learning profiles and levels. the study also recommended for the faculty of education to provide the faculty-student teachers with the required strategies and methods that enable them to differentiate their instruction to respond to the differences among students and cooperate with the syllabus designers and ministry of education to develop the curricula to cope with the 21 st -century skills and differentiated instruction strategy. 144 7. suggestion for further research in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of this topic, further research may be considered, including the following: a) evaluation of bahrain secondary stage textbooks from the perspective of teachers and supervisors to identify how and what to differentiate. b) conducting a study on the effect of di on improving other language skills. c) evaluating the teachers’ attitudes towards applying di and its impact on 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(2004). beliefs about language learning and teaching approaches of pre-service efl teachers in thailand [doctoral dissertation, oklahoma state university]. https://www.culi.chula.ac.th/publicationsonline /files/journal/xefyjthu31604.pdf https://iugspace.iugaza.edu.ps/handle/20.500.12358/17593 https://iugspace.iugaza.edu.ps/handle/20.500.12358/17593 http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12358/18553 https://www.culi.chula.ac.th/publicationsonline/files/journal/xefyjthu31604.pdf https://www.culi.chula.ac.th/publicationsonline/files/journal/xefyjthu31604.pdf journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6107 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 1-16 1 mispronunciation and substitution of mid-high front and back hausa vowels by yorùbá native speakers sale maikanti 1, yap ngee thai 2, jürgen martin burkhardt 3, yong mei fung 4, salina binti husain 5 & olúwadọro ̣̀ jacob oludare 6 1, 2, 4, 5 universiti putra malaysia, serdang. malaysia 3 sunway university, selangor. malaysia 6 university of ibadan, oyo. nigeria yong@upm.edu.my abstract history received : 2021-02-06 revised : 2021-02-08 accepted : 2021-04-18 keywords front back vowels hausa yorùbá abstract the mid short vowels: /e/ and /o/ are among the vowels shared between hausa and yorùbá but differ in hausa mid-high long, front and back vowels: /e:/ and /o:/. the phonemic differences in the two languages have caused learning difficulties among the yorùbá native speakers to achieve their second language learning desire and competence. yorùbá-hausa learners mispronounce certain disyllabic hausa words due to the substitution of vowels in the first and second syllables. thus, both lexical and grammatical meanings of the hausa words are affected. this study examined the production of the 12 hausa vowels by level 1 and level 3 students who were learning hausa as a second language to determine if there was a significant difference in how level 1 and level 3 students pronounced the short and long mid-high, front and back hausa vowels. 88 yorùbá native speakers were recruited using purposive sampling. twentyfour different wordlists extracted from bargery's (1934) hausa-english dictionary and prepared in carrier phrases were audio-recorded. it was a mixedmethod, and the results were discussed within the theoretical framework of flege and bohn's (2020) revised speech learning model and corder's (1967) 'error analysis model'. the results of the mann-whitney u test revealed that participants in level 1 generally performed lower than level 3 participants in the pronunciation of mid-hausa vowels due to substitutions. such errors have pedagogical implication in learning hausa as a second language, and if not addressed accordingly, the standard of hausa will continue to fall at an undesirable and alarming rate. 1. introduction despite the government's efforts to encourage the learning of hausa as a second language in the college of the education system in nigeria, there are concerns over the number of yorùbá native speakers learning hausa as a second language who mispronounce certain hausa words through incorrect vowel substitutions. this poses many learning difficulties with pedagogical implications to the learners, teachers, language experts and other stakeholders in the education sector in nigeria. hence there is a need to identify and address such problems for language survival and development. teachers in the area of phonetics and phonology, and second language learning are well-trained and able to understand and assist students with their pronunciation difficulties. in an attempt to succeed in identifying and solving these learning challenges faced by learners of hausa as a second language in the college of education system in nigeria, the pronunciation of yorùbá native speakers concerning the mid-high, front and back hausa vowels was compared between two different groups (level 1 and level 3) who were studying hausa as a second language. this study sought to find out and address specific mispronunciation difficulties experienced by the yorùbá native speakers in vowel pronunciation. the study also sought to determine the natural development between the two groups in terms of second language learning, and more specifically, to improve the learning of hausa vowels in the school with a focus on problematic sounds for the beginners in level 1, as well as sounds considered difficult for the advanced group in level 3. among the focus of the case study is to allow journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6107 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 1-16 2 a researcher to investigate a “case” on individual or group of peoples’ behaviour, organisation, and school performance (david & ronald, 2009; yang, 2013; yin, 2014). in doing so, the research would bridge the existing gap(s) in literature. 2. literature review sloat, hoard, & taylor (1978), uzoezie (1992), opoola (2002) considered vowel as a speech sound produced by shaping and reshaping the oral cavity, which enables the free flow of air from the lungs. in a related development, sani (1989) said that it is a speech sound of which production does not obstruct the free flow of air, but the vibration of the vocal cords is essential. as vowel is considered a sound other than a consonant, the articulation does not involve obstruction of airflow that passes from the larynx to the oral cavity (sani, 2005; roach, 2002); it is seen to have been playing vital roles in a language. meanwhile, all vowels are voiced, but not all consonants are voiced. vowel production is determined by the position of the tongue, lips, and lower jaw, in addition to the size and shape of the mouth and pharynx. however, as vowels are categorised as either close or open, high and low, they are also classified either as front or back, up or down. the position of the lips could also be rounded or unrounded. the length of the vowels influences the phonetic realisation of vowels and their qualities in the utterances. short vowels are considered more open, more central, and less rounded compared to long vowels. in hausa, for instance, short vowels are realised with the same quality as long vowels in the word-final syllable and become shorter if preceded by a glottal stop, noun or pronoun in the next preceding syllable (caron, 2015). vowel length differentiates the meaning of words with the exact spelling and tone patterns in the same phonetic environment. while vowel length relates to the quantity of time taken to produce a particular vowel sound, the length of the vowel is indicated in the phonetic transcription by the use of a colon [:]. in hausa, for instance, vowel length or vowel quantity distinguishes one word from another. there are many pairs of words in hausa with the same tone patterns and the exact spelling in the orthography, but with different vowel length in the same phonetic environment, prompting a difference in meaning (sani, 2005). 2.1 hausa and yorùbá: a historical background hausa and yorùbá are two different languages that originated from different linguistic backgrounds. they form two out of the three major languages in nigeria, with hausa spoken majorly in northern nigeria as a lingua-franca with high population density, including parts of the west african sub-region (gordon, 2005) and yorùbá spoke in south-western nigeria. while hausa is a chadic language under the afro-asiatic language phylum, yorùbá, on the other hand, is from the niger-congo language family. as the current population of hausa users in nigeria is put around 53,700,000, that of yorùbá is approximately 42,000,000 (eberhard, gary, & charles, 2020). hausa is among the languages spoken as a second language in the western world such as great britain, the united states of america, germany, and china (blench, 2014), just as yorùbá is also spoken in countries such as benin republic, togo, republic of cuba, and brazil (olusola, 2015). speaking yorùbá in such areas is in addition to speaking the language in some parts of the delta, edo, kwara and kogi states of nigeria (olúwadọro ̣̀ & abiola, 2016). since yorùbá belongs to the niger-congo phylum of african languages, it is considered the second largest language in nigeria after hausa, with an estimated population of about 16 million speakers (williamson & blench, 2000; blench, 2019). figure 2.1 hausa and yorùbá languages family the standard hausa has five pairs of monophthongs comprised of 5 short vowel phonemes such as /i/[i], /e/[e], /a/[a], /o/[o], /u/[u]; 5 long vowel phonemes: /i:/[i:], /e:/[e:], /a:/[a:], /o:/[o:], /u:/[u:], and 2 diphthongs: /ai/[ai] and /au/[au] (sani 2005, 2007). the standard yorùbá on the other hand, has 7 oral vowel phonemes: /i/[i], /e/[e], /ẹ/[ɛ], /a/[a], /o/[o], /ọ/[ɔ], /u/[u], and 5 nasal vowel phonemes: in[ĩ], ẹn[ɛ]̃, an[ã], ọn[ɔ]̃, un[ũ] (arokoyo, 2012; eme & uba, 2016). the short mid-high, front and back vowels /e/ and /o/ are amongst the shared vowels by hausa and yorùbá languages, whereas, the long mid-high, front and back vowels /e:/ and /o:/ are peculiar to only hausa. the phonemic differences in the two languages constitute learning difficulties among yorùbá native speakers. the present study was limited to the analysis of only the short and long mid-high, front, and back journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6107 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 1-16 3 hausa vowels such as /e/, /e:/, /o/ and /o:/. this was because, despite the fact that such vowel phonemes do not belong to the same group for them to be all in front or back, yet, they are mid-high vowels, and relate to each other. figure 2.3 hausa vowel chart (adapted from sani, 2005) figure 2.4 yorùbá vowel chart (adapted from akinola, 2014) despite many kinds of researches comparing hausa with other languages (e.g. abubakar, 2014; ata, 2015; abubakar, maikanti, & ago, 2014; keshavarz, & khamis, 2017; mahmoud, 2017; maiunguwa, 2015; malah & rashid, 2015; mohammed, 2011; salisu & grema, 2018) as well as studies comparing yorùbá with other languages (e.g. adekunle, 2014; akínkùgbé, 1978; arokoyo, 2012; adejubee & kammelu, 2010; babarinde, 2017; eme & uba, 2016; igboanusi, 2006; ilòrí, 2010; ojo, 2004; olusola, 2015), to date, studies related to mispronunciation of hausa vowels by yorùbá speakers have received scant attention. therefore, the current study intended to address the gap in hausa learning by the yorùbá native speakers, among other factors that triggered this research. most studies on hausa (e.g. abubakar, 1999; ata, 2015; baba, 1998; fagge, 2012; jaggar, 2001; leben, 1970; newman, 1995; 2000; and sani, 2005) focused on hausa l1 grammar and phonology, paying less attention to comparative studies associated with hausayorùbá l2 learning. there is a need to fill the existing gap. many studies (e.g. hao, 2012; leung, 2008; qin & mok, 2013; so, 2010; so & best, 2010; tao & guo, 2008; wang, jongman & sereno, 2003; wong, schwartz & jenkins, 2005; wu, munro & wang, 2014; yang, 2018; and zhang, 2007) focused on the perception of speech sounds, rather than production. studies on perception and productions (e.g. abdullahi, 2018; flege, bohn and jang, 1997; koerich, 2002; maiunguwa, 2015; yang, 2018) indicated that perception outperformed research on production. similarly, there has been little research focussing on production alone, particularly on the pronunciation of hausa vowels by yorùbá native speakers for reference and documentation. additionally, research on second language phonology is one of the less-studied areas in recent times (diettes & johanna, 2014; thomson & derwing, 2015; abdullahi, 2018). this is because learning new sounds, particularly vowels, is regarded as one of the most challenging tasks for second language learners to achieve in a short amount of time. hence, there is a need to examine the yorùbá native speakers’ pronunciation of hausa vowels, particularly the disyllabic hausa words, to understand the errors committed to learning more clearly. this research is relevant to the needs and aspiration of the stakeholders in education in nigeria because, production of hausa vowels is characterised by errors committed by the yorùbá native speakers, coupled with the paucity of research on pronunciation problems faced by the yorùbá native speakers. it is against this background that the present study compared the performance of level 1 and level 3 students on how they produced the 5 short: /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/; 5 long: /i:/, /e:/, /a:/, /o:/, /u:/, and 2 diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ hausa vowels. this was to determine whether there was a significant difference between the short and long mid-high, front, and back hausa vowels: /e/, /e:/, /o/ and /o:/ produced by the yorùbá native speakers who were learning hausa as a second language. the students in the present study attended the college of education to study hausa as l2 and spent at least three years to obtain the nigeria certificate in education (nce) as the minimum teaching qualification to teach at the primary or secondary school level (public or private), in the absence of trained hausa l1 teachers (national policy on education, 2004; nigeria certificate in education minimum standards for languages, 2012). the level 1 participants were entry-level students, whereas the level 3 participants were exit-level students preparing to graduate from the nce program. this was to ascertain the natural development associated with language learning between the two identified (non-experienced vs experienced) groups. the level 2 students who were in the second year were journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6107 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 1-16 4 intentionally excluded from the study to enable the researchers to draw a conclusion based on the performance of only two groups. this study aimed to improve the teaching and learning of hausa as a second language not only in yorùbá land but also in igbo land, including other countries where hausa is studied as a second language. 3. method this research employed a mixed data collection method. both quantitative and qualitative data methods were used to examine how and why the yorùbá native speakers mispronounced the mid-high front and back hausa vowels when learning hausa as a second language. the selection of participants was based on purposive sampling. it was necessary to recruit participants who were purely yorùbá native speakers with yorùbá language and cultural backgrounds, who were also hausa learners and willing to participate in the study voluntarily. a total of eighty-eight (88) participants were selected. to ensure that only the right participants were recruited for the present study, the participants were screened. this enabled the researchers to identify those who were non-native speakers of yorùbá but could speak the language. since case study research is not meant to be generalised, there is no universal rule concerning the number of sample selections, as this depends on the objectives of the research (sharp et al., 2012). one of the problems associated with learning hausa, igbo or yorùbá land was related to the student's enrolment in schools. many students do not develop much interest to study hausa in a college of education system compared to other courses such as law, medicine, accountancy, and other professional courses. this accounted for the low enrolment number of the yorùbá speakers in the south-west of nigeria to learn hausa as a second language. of all the 88 participants recruited in this study, 40 were in level 1, while 48 were in level 3. 48. these numbers represented the students’ enrolment in all the chosen schools. while the acceptable sample size for qualitative research is between 10 to 15, holton and bernett (1997) also added that “one of the real advantages of quantitative methods is their ability to use smaller groups of people to make inferences about larger groups that would be prohibitively expensive to study” (p. 71). in the case where the population is small, creswell (2014) recommended using the entire population as the sample. twenty-four different wordlists comprising the target and non-target vowels extracted from bargery's (1934) hausa-english dictionary and prepared in carrier phrases served as the research instrument. in the first and second syllables of hausa words with cv.cvv and cvv.cv disyllabic forms, the 12 hausa vowels (10 monophthongs, two diphthongs) were examined accordingly. for instance, ‘ƙégé’ consists of short /e/ in the first syllable, while ‘ƙágé’ on the other hand involves a similar short /e/ in the second syllable. besides, as ‘bébé’ has a long /e:/ in the first syllable, ‘bègé’ involves a similar long /e:/ in the second syllable. the fact that standard hausa has ten monophthongs (5 short and five long vowels in addition to the two diphthongs) (sani, 2007), every vowel was accounted for in the first and second syllables of hausa words. all the hausa vowels used in the stimuli were also tone marked to guide the participants in the production task. besides, putting the wordlists in carrier phrases restricted the participants from identifying the specific items being examined by the researchers. as a result, they did not need to put extra effort into the production task. since the focus of this study was to investigate the mispronunciation and substitution of mid-high, front and back hausa vowels in the first and second syllables, only words containing two syllables were selected. meanwhile, the size of the data needed for analysis also depends on the nature of the research. the data used in this study were converted to numbers following the migrant and seasonal head start technical assistance centre (2006), that numeric data for quantitative research could be large or small depending on the research focus. as the instrument's validity was to ensure that the tool measured what it was supposed to measure, it also explained how well the data collected covered the area of investigation (field, 2005; ghauri & gronhaug, 2005; terhadoost, 2016). in ensuring that only the actual disyllabic hausa words were used for the data collection, the wordlists used were extracted from bargery’s (1934) hausaenglish dictionary and were further re-examined by two experts (linguists) from two different universities. the data collection took place after obtaining the necessary ethics approval from the authority concerned. the participants were duly informed that their participation in the research was optional. those who agreed to participate were given a production task to perform, and enough time was given to every participant to read the wordlists aloud in a carrier phrase until they had completed the task. since reading the stimuli could only be done once without rehearsal, a conducive atmosphere was created to perform the task in a natural and relaxed manner, while one of the researchers personally conducted the audio recordings. the production tasks and recordings were done in soundproof booths in the language laboratories and staff offices. the measure was to avoid interruption or unnecessary background noise that could affect the quality of the speech sounds recordings. any form of interference with the speech production while the recording was taking place could render the data journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6107 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 1-16 5 unclear and unfit to meet the desired quality of the study. additionally, to ensure a smooth data collection process, participants were organised and allowed to enter the venue one by one to perform the task during break or lecture-free hours. the production of 12 hausa vowels: /i/, /i:/, /e/, /e:/, /a/, /a:/, /o/, /o:/, /u/, /u:/, and 2 diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ contained in the pronunciation of disyllabic hausa words by yorùbá native speakers were audio-recorded and examined. in a language, vowels determine the pronunciation and meaning of lexical and grammatical words of that particular language (shehu and njidda, 2016). besides, it was also to determine whether there were errors in pronunciation of certain hausa disyllabic words produced by the yorùbá native speakers. two hausa native speakers rated the performance of each participant. '1' mark was awarded for every correct pronunciation of the vowel in the first syllable, and '0' mark for the wrong pronunciation. similarly, the '1' mark was recorded for every correct pronunciation of the vowel in the second syllable and the '0' mark for the wrong pronunciation. any missing word(s) or those which could not be pronounced correctly were given the '0' mark. while the total mean scores were used for the quantitative analysis, one of the researchers served as the third rater transcribed the speech sounds for in-debt analysis. a mann-whitney u test was conducted to compare and determine if there was a significant difference in the performance of level 1 and level 3 participants in the production of hausa vowels in the first and second syllables. choosing to perform a non-parametric test for this study was that the data was not normally distributed to meet the parametric requirement. the difference between variables such as frequencies and mean scores were described using quantitative data (hopkins, 2008). this enabled the researchers to determine whether there was a statistical difference between the two sampling groups using the spss statistical tool. an analysis was carried out based on patterns of errors committed by the participants across the two groups. the relationship between two or more scores obtained from the participants in research using the same instrument has different names such as inter-observer reliability, inter-rater agreement, inter-rater concordance, and ‘inter-rater reliability’ (gwet, 2008). in an attempt to determine the level of agreement between the two raters used in this study, inter-rater reliability using pearson correlation was conducted based on the mean scores obtained by the participants, according to items on each syllable. this was to ensure the data collected correctly represent the variables measured, which shows the closer the participants' scores by different raters, the higher the reliability of the data collected (mchugh, 2012). 4. findings 4.1 production of /e/ and /e: / in the first syllable the results revealed no significant difference between the two groups in the production of mid-high short front unrounded /e/ vowel, especially in terms of their performance in the first syllable (u = 820; p >.138). however, the mean rank indicated that the yorùbá native speakers in level 3 performed better than their counterparts in level 1. meanwhile, the mannwhitney u test results indicated a significant difference between the performance of level 1 and level 3 participants in the production of mid-high long front unrounded /e:/ vowel in the first syllable (u = 676; p <.001). the mean rank also showed that the yorùbá native speakers in level 3 performed much better than the yorùbá native speakers in level 1. table 4.1 mean rank for /e/ and /e:/ in the first syllable ranks hausa vowels group of participants n mean scores sum of ranks short /e/ level 1 40 41.00 1640.00 level 3 48 47.42 2276.00 total 88 long /e:/ level 1 40 37.40 1496.00 level 3 48 50.42 2420.00 total 88 the results presented in table 4.1 disclosed that the mean ranks for the production of /e/ and /e:/ by level 3 participants in the first syllable were better than the performance of level 1 participants. 4.2 production of /o/ and /o:/ in the first syllable the mann-whitney u test conducted indicated no significant difference in the performance of level 1 and level 3 participants in the production of mid-high short back vowel /o/ in the first syllable (u = 768; p >.063). however, the mean rank revealed that yorùbá native speakers in level 1 performed much better than the yorùbá native speakers in level 3. the performance of the two groups was also compared using a mannwhitney u test, and the result pointed out a significant difference in the production of the mid-high long back vowel /o:/ in the first syllable (u = 724; p <.006). the mean rank, therefore, revealed that the yorùbá native speakers in level 3 did better than the yorùbá native speakers in level 1. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6107 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 1-16 6 table 4.2 mean rank for /o/ and /o:/ in the first syllable ranks hausa vowels group of participants n mean scores sum of ranks short /o/ level 1 40 49.30 1972.00 level 3 48 40.50 1944.00 total 88 long /o:/ level 1 40 38.60 1544.00 level 3 48 49.42 2372.00 total 88 table 4.2 contains the results indicating that, while the mean rank for the production of /o/ in the first syllable by the participants in level 1 was better than the performance of level 3, the mean rank for the production of /o:/ by the participants in level 3 was, better than that of level 1. figure 4.1 level of performance in the first syllable figure 4.1 shows the level of performance of the participants in level 1 and level 3 in general. 4.3 production of /e/ and /e:/ in the second syllable the results of the mann-whitney u test displayed a statistically significant difference in the production of mid-high short front unrounded /e/ in the second syllable (u = 628; p <.001) between the two groups. the mean rank revealed that the yorùbá native speakers in level 3 performed significantly better than the yorùbá native speakers in level 1. the mannwhitney u test comparing the two groups demonstrated that there was a statistically significant difference in the performance of level 1 and level 3 participants in the production of mid-high long /e:/ in the second syllable (u = 756; p <.007). the mean rank revealed that the yorùbá native speakers in level 3 did better than the yorùbá native speakers in level 1. table 4.3 mean rank for /e/ and /e:/ in the second syllable ranks hausa vowels group of participants n mean scores sum of ranks short /e/ level 1 40 36.20 1448.00 level 3 48 51.42 2468.00 total 88 long /e:/ level 1 40 39.40 1576.00 level 3 48 48.75 2340.00 total 88 as illustrated in table 4.3, the results revealed that the mean ranks for the production of /e/ and /e:/ by the participants in level 3 in the second syllable were better than the performance of their counterparts in level 1. 4.4 production of /o/ and /o:/ in the second syllable the mann-whitney u test revealed that there was no significant difference in the production of mid-high short back vowel /o/ in the second syllable (u = 780; p >.075) between level 1 and level 3 participants. the mean rank indicated that the yorùbá native speakers in level 3 performed better than the yorùbá native speakers in level 1. the results of the mann-whitney u test also stated that there was a statistically significant difference in the production of mid-high long back vowel /o:/ in the second syllable (u = 832; p <.041) between the two groups. the mean rank indicated that the yorùbá native speakers in level 3 performed better than the yorùbá native speakers in level 1. table 4.4 mean rank for /o/ and /o:/ in the second syllable ranks hausa vowels group of participants n mean scores sum of ranks short /o/ level 1 40 40.00 1600.00 level 3 48 48.25 2316.00 total 88 long /o:/ level 1 40 41.30 1652.00 level 3 48 47.17 2264.00 total 88 the table 4.4 displays the mean ranks for the production of /o/ and /o:/ vowels by the participants in level 1 and level 3 in the second syllable. 0 20 40 60 /e/ /e/ /e:/ /e:/ /o/ /o/ /o:/ /o:/ []% []% []% []% []% []% []% []% l e v e l o f p e r fo r m a n c e l1 blue l3 green mid-high front and back vowels journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6107 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 1-16 7 figure 4.2 level of performance vowels in the second syllable figure 4.2 try to shows the level of performance of the participants in level 1 and level 3 in general. table 4.5 performance summary of mid-high front and back vowels syllable midhigh front p sig midhigh back p sig first /e/ .138 no /o/ .063 no ,, /e:/ .001 yes /o:/ .006 yes second /e/ .001 yes /o/ .075 no ,, /e:/ .007 yes /o:/ .041 yes the figures 4.1 and 4.2 show the performance levels of the two groups for the production of mid-high front and back vowels of hausa. 5. substitution substitution is one of the major types of phonological interference caused by the language contact phenomenon, and it also shows how target sounds are replaced with the equivalent sounds available in the learner's mother tongue to facilitate speech in a new language (akinlabi, 2007). accordingly, substitution tends to preserve sounds from deletion where a word is reshaped closer to the input form (hock, 1991; hussain, mahmood & mahmood, 2011). in substitution, an item is replaced with the phonetically close phonemes in the recipient’s language. studies (e.g. adekunle, 2014; miao, 2005; and ojo, 2004) have shown that in second language learning, a foreign phoneme either is replaced with the closest alternative sound or realised as an entirely different output. when sounds are substituted or realised as different phonemes in pronunciation, they all manifest some minimal changes at the segmental level (adekunle, 2014; broselow, 1999; kenstowicz, 2007; silverman, 1992; ufomata, 2004). in this section, vowel substitutions are presented in the substitution matrix (see tables 4.6 to 4.9). note. the vowel phones exclusive for hausa have been underlined; vowel phones exclusive for yorùbá were in italics, whereas shared vowel phones remained in bold. phones used by yorùbá speakers for substituting hausa vowel phonemes (dash = no substitution). putting dash (-) in the substitution matrix refers to the correct pronunciation of hausa phonemes by yorùbá speakers in the study, which means there was no erroneous substitution. the frequency counts under level 1 participants, four and above, were considered absolute errors committed by the participants; and less than four were regarded as human errors. this figure represented 10% of 40, the number of level 1 participants creswell (2014). in the case of level 3 participants, the frequency counts of 5 and above were confirmed errors committed by the participants, while less than five were considered human errors, which happened by accident. using five as the benchmark also represented 10% of 48, being the number of level 3 participants. the following tables illustrate the different substitutions according to the syllable in each group. table 4.6 vowel substitution matrix for level 1 in the first syllable hausa and yorùbá vowels combined yorùbá vowels only s/n hausa vowel i i: e e: a a: o o: u u: ai au ɛ ɔ ĩ ɛ̃ ã ɔ̃ ũ 1. /e/ 4 7 1 3 2. /e:/ 2 12 1 2 3. /o/ 17 1 4. /o:/ 1 3 5 1 1 0 20 40 60 /e / /e / /e :/ /e :/ /o / /o / /o :/ /o :/ []% []% []% []% []% []% []% []% le v e l o f p e rf o rm a n ce l1 light green l3 pink mid-high front and back vowels journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6107 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 1-16 8 the error counts presented in the above table were converted into percentages, taking into account the most frequent occurrence from highest to the lowest in the ranking. as observed from the substitution matrix, a mid-high short, back and rounded vowel /o/ was substituted with the mid-high long, back, and rounded vowel [o:] 17 (43%). the mid-high long, front and unrounded vowel /e:/ was replaced by a mid-high short, back, and unrounded vowel [e] 12 (30%). next, it can be seen that the mid-high short, front and unrounded vowel /e/ was substituted with a mid-high long, front and unrounded vowel [e:] 7 (18%). a mid-high long, back and rounded vowel /o:/ was replaced with a midhigh short, back, and rounded vowel [o] 5 (13%), while the mid-high short, front and unrounded /e/ was substituted with a high, short, front and unrounded [i] 4 (10%). table 4.7 vowel substitution matrix for level 3 in the first syllable hausa and yorùbá vowels combined yorùbá vowels only s/n hausa vowel i i: e e: a a: o o: u u: ai au ɛ ɔ ĩ ɛ̃ ã ɔ̃ ũ 1. /e/ 5 2 4 2. /e:/ 3. /o/ 1 28 4. /o:/ 2 the error count for the substitutions of vowels by level 3 participants, the mid-high back, short and rounded vowel /o/ was substituted with the mid-high back, long and rounded /o:/ 28 (58.3%). similarly, the mid-high short, front, unrounded vowel /e/ was substituted with a mid-high long, front, and unrounded [e:] 5 (10.4%). table 4.8 vowel substitution matrix for level 1 in the second syllable hausa and yorùbá vowels combined yorùbá vowels only s/n hausa vowel i i: e e: a a: o o: u u: ai au ɛ ɔ ĩ ɛ̃ ã ɔ̃ ũ 1. /e/ 3 4 9 1 2. /e:/ 5 4 1 1 3. /o/ 20 4. /o:/ 1 1 3 considering the errors count observed from the above table, the mid-high short, back and rounded vowel /o/ was substituted with mid-high long, back, and rounded vowel [o:] 20 (50%). regarding the /e/ vowel, evidence showed that it was mispronounced as [e:] 9 (22.5%). this group also evidenced that a midhigh long, front unrounded /e:/ was substituted with a high, long, front and unrounded [i:] 5 (12.5%). in addition, while the mid-high short, front unrounded /e/ was mispronounced as [i:] 4 (10%), the mid-high long, front unrounded /e:/ was also replaced with a high, long, front, and unrounded [i:] 4 (10%). table 4.9 vowel substitution matrix for level 3 in the second syllable hausa and yorùbá vowels combined yorùbá vowels only s/n hausa vowel i i: e e: a a: o o: u u: ai au ɛ ɔ ĩ ɛ̃ ã ɔ̃ ũ 1. /e/ 3 2 2. /e:/ 2 1 3. /o/ 15 4. /o:/ 2 journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6107 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 1-16 9 in a related development, as depicted in table 4.9, only the substitution of /o/ vs /o:/ took centre stage in this group. however, as observed under serial number 3, the mid-high, short, back, and rounded vowel /o/ was substituted with a mid-high, long, back, and rounded vowel [o:] 15 (31.3%). while 4 was 10% of 40 for level 1, 5 was 10% of 48 for level 3 participants. table 4.10 below indicates vowels substituted with their frequencies in descending order. table 4.10 substitution rank in descending order for the first and second syllables first syllable second syllable level 1 level 3 level 1 level 3 rank order vowel phoneme freq. vowel phoneme freq. vowel phoneme freq. vowel phoneme freq. 1. /o/ → [o:] 17 /o/→ [o:] 28 /o/ → [o:] 20 /o/ → [o:] 15 2. /e:/ → [e] 12 /e/ → [e:] 5 /e/ → [e:] 9 3. /e/ → [e:] 7 /e:/ → [i:] 5 4. /o:/ → [o] 5 /e/ → [i:] 4 5. /e/ → [i] 4 /e:/ → [e] 4 table 4.11 realisation of phonemes by the participants in level 1 and level 3 level 1 level 3 s/n hausa vowel first syllable second syllable first syllable second syllable nonreplaced vowel 1. /e/ [e:], [i] [e:], [i:] [e:] * 1 2. /e:/ [e] [i:], [e] * * 2 3. /o/ [o:] [o:] [o:] [o:] 0 4. /o:/ [o] * * * 3 table 4.11 summarises hausa vowel phonemes and their realisation according to yorùbá speakers’ pronunciations in level 1 and level 3 based on a syllable. table 4.12 easy and difficult hausa vowels for yorùbá learners level 1 level 3 first syllable second syllable first syllable second syllable easy difficult easy difficult easy difficult easy difficult /e/ /o:/ /e/ /e:/ /e/ /e/ /o/ /e:/ /e:/ /o:/ /o/ /e:/ /o/ /o/ /o:/ /o:/ 0 4 1 3 2 2 3 1 table 4.12 summarises the hausa vowels, which were considered easy, and vowels that were also regarded as difficult for the yorùbá native speakers to pronounce in disyllabic hausa words in the first and second syllables. meanwhile, tables 4.13 and 4.14 below show that the first column contained the serial number. the second column displays the hausa vowel phonemes. the next column shows the replaced vowels due to errors. the fourth column contains the hausa words with the correct pronunciation and their real meaning, while the fifth column contains the wrong pronunciation as a result of vowel substitution by the participants, especially in the first and second syllables. lastly, the sixth column displays the new meaning of the affected words after the substitution. please note, tables 4.13 and 4.14 showing * signifies vowel not substituted, and the meaning remained the same. ** refers to the vowels substituted, and yet words retained their meaning. these are illustrated in table 4.13: journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6107 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 1-16 10 table 4.13 realised hausa words by level 1 participants first syllable s/n hausa vowel replaced vowel correct pronunciation real meaning learner pronunciation old/new meaning num. replaced 1. /e/ [e:], [i] /ƙégé:/ fish dorsal fin * * [ƙé:gé:], [ƙígé] fish dorsal fin 2 2. /e:/ [e] /bé:bé:/ deaf and dumb **[bébé:] deaf and dumb 1 3. /o/ [o:] /ɗôkí:/ help [dó:kí:] 1 4. /o:/ [o] /nó:má:/ farming **[nómá:] farming 1 second syllable 1. /e/ [e:], [i:] /ƙá:gé/ allegation **[ká:gé:] [ká:gí:] allegation 2 2. /e:/ [i:], [e] /bè:gé:/ appeal [bè:gí:́] **[bè:gé] appeal 2 3. /o/ [o:] /dó:gó/ name of person [dó:gó:] tall/long 1 4. /o:/ * */nó:nò:/ cow milk *[nó:nò:] cow milk 0 the above table shows the substituted vowels and the ones substituted with, in the first and second syllables according to the pronunciations of level 1 participants. table 4.14 realised hausa words by level 3 participants first syllable s/n hausa vowel replaced vowel correct pronunciation real meaning learner pronunciation old/new meaning num. replaced 1. /e/ [e:] /ƙégé:/ fish dorsal fin **[ké:gé:] fish dorsal fin 1 2. /e:/ * */bé:bé:/ deaf and dumb *[bé:bé:] deaf and dumb 0 3. /o/ [o:] /ɗôkí:/ help [do:kí:] 1 4. /o:/ * */nó:má:/ farming *[nó:má:] farming 0 second syllable 1. /e/ * */ƙá:gé/ allegation *[ká:gé] allegation 0 2. /e:/ * */bè:gé:/ appeal *[bè:gé:] appeal 0 3. /o/ [o:] /dó:gó/ personal name [dó:gó:] tall/long 1 4. /o:/ * */nó:nò:/ cow milk *[nó:nò:] cow milk 0 the table above shows the vowels substituted and the ones substituted with in the first and second syllables. considering the cv.c syllable arrangement within the same syllable, table 4.13 (first syllable) involved the combination of 1 ejective plus 1 plosive sounds, 1 plosive plus 1 plosive sounds, 1 implosive plus 1 plosive sounds, as well as 2 nasal sounds, all with vowels between them (refer to serial number 1 4). concerning the syllable arrangement of cv with another consonant across word morpheme, table 4.14 (second syllable) therefore, comprised of 3 plosive sound plus the /k/, and 1 nasal plus the /k/ sound associated with the carrier phrase (… kuma) (see serial number 1 4). formulating the results of the present study was to confirm the research problems so far identified. 6. discussion the data for the present study revealed that, except the mean rank for the mann-whitney u test of /o/ (u = 49.30 vs 40.50; p > .063), showing level 1 did better than level 3 participants in the first syllable, all other results indicated that level 3 participants performed better than level 1. these have been confirmed considering the mean ranks and the p values for /e/ (u = 41.00 vs 47.42; p >.138), in the first syllable, as well as /o/ (u = 40.00 vs 48.25; p >.075) in the second syllable which were statistically non-significant. while the mean rank and the p values for /e:/ (u = 37.40 vs 50.42; p <.001) in the first syllable indicated level 3 did significantly better than level 1 participants, and the two groups were not the same statistically, the results for /e/ (u = 36.20 vs 51.42; p <.001), /e:/ (u = 39.40 vs journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6107 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 1-16 11 48.75; p < .007), /o:/ (u = 41.30 vs 47.17; p <.041) in the second syllable, as well as /o:/ (u = 38.60 vs 49.42; p <.006) in the first syllable all showed the performance of level 3 outperformed that of level 1 participants and they were statistically different (see table 4.5). some vowels were correctly produced by some participants, while other vowels were wrongly produced. the mispronunciation of l1 vowels by the l2 speakers has to do with differences in vowel inventory, leading to negative transfer. substitution, which is considered a change of unfamiliar phoneme(s) with the familiar sounds, occurs in many languages across the globe, including african languages (hussain, mahmood & mahmood, 2011; kennedy, 2017). in this study, certain sounds were substituted with other vowels in the same environment. meanwhile, participants' performance concerning vowel substitutions was discussed according to syllables, taking into account the pattern of substitution such as vowel shortening, vowel lengthening, and vowel raising. 6.1 substitution due to vowel shortening substituting /e:/ with [e]: the participants' pronunciation in level 1 revealed how a mid-high, long, front and unrounded vowel /e:/ changed to a mid-high, short, front and unrounded [e] in the first syllable. as contained in the pronunciation of the participants, the /e:/ in hausa word /bé:bé:/ (hh) was substituted with [e], thereby changing the pronunciation to [bébé:] (hh) ‘deaf and dumb’. such sound change was due to vowel shortening. the long hausa /e:/ being shortened by yorùbá speakers enable them to pronounce the hausa word to the best they could, since /e:/ does not exist in yorùbá. however, it may not be an underestimation if the pronunciation of a long /e:/ by the yorùbá speakers is considered neither long nor short, but an intermediate since /e:/ does not exist in yorùbá, but may exist as an allophone of /e/. similar to what was obtained in the first syllable, the pronunciation of level 1 participants in the second syllable, /e:/, was substituted with [e]. it was also regarded as vowel shortening, significantly where the vowel changed its quality from /e:/ to /e/. the pronunciation of the hausa word changed from /bè:gé:/ (lh) to [bè:gé] ‘an appeal’. even though the meaning was retained, the pronunciation has changed due to using the wrong vowel in the second syllable. this, therefore, has implications for the learning of hausa as a second language, especially for the yorùbá native speakers. (note: a word-final vowel can be pronounced with an optional glottalic closure, which would shorten the [e] sound due to the first consonant of the next word in the carrier phrase.) the results acquired concur with the study in linda (2011), who disclosed the igbo speakers learning english replace /з:/ with /e/ as in /girl/ [gel]. similarly, keshavarz and khamis (2017) investigated the problems faced by hausa native speakers when producing english vowels and revealed how english /з:/ was pronounced as /e/ in words such as /girl/ with 40% frequency. this mispronunciation was due to negative transfer since /з:/ in english does not exist in hausa. adegbite & akindele (1999) discussed english learning by the yorùbá speakers identified certain phonological items that show variation in the learners' speech. according to their study, there is a distinction between short and long vowels and changes in vowel qualities that are also responsible for the errors committed by the yorùbá speakers pronouncing english words. substituting /o:/ with [o]: the long mid-high back-round hausa vowel /o:/ erroneously substituted with the mid-high, short, back, and rounded [o] is best explained under vowel shortening process, especially between /o:/ vs /o/. it is also the case of a change in vowel quality where a mid-high, long back vowel /o:/ was made to become short [o] in the environment between nasal sounds /n/ vs /m/. the phonetic approximation and changing the quality between long and short vowels explained why a significant number of yorùbá speakers in level 1 in the first syllable pronounced /o:/ as [o]. instead of the learners pronouncing the hausa word /nó:má:/ (hh) ‘farming’, they mispronounced it as [nómá:] (hh) ‘farming’, thereby replacing the first syllable /o:/ with [o] despite the meaning remained the same. a similar result was discovered in adekunle (2014), who investigated the foreign vowels in the speech-form of yorùbá-english bilinguals. the study disclosed english /ɔ:/ being substituted with [o] in the first syllable according to yorùbá speakers’ pronunciation of english word such as ‘laws’ for [los]. 6.2 substitution due to vowel lengthening substituting /e/ with [e:]: this study has established that /e/ was substituted with [e:] by participants in level 1 and level 3 according to their pronunciation in the first syllable. the hausa word /ƙégé:/ (hh) ‘fish dorsal fin’ being mispronounced as [ké:gé:] (hh) ‘fish dorsal fin’ by the yorùbá speakers affected only the pronunciation, but the meaning remained the same. this was due to the vowel lengthening, which changed the vowel from short to long. in yorùbá, for instance, vowel length might fluctuate depending on the tonal environment. as such, yorùbá speakers can pronounce a vowel either long or short since vowel length a times does not change the meaning. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6107 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 1-16 12 further, in the second syllable, participants in level 1 substituted /e/ with [e:] as contained in hausa word /ƙá:gé/ (hh), which was mispronounced as [ká:gé:] (hh) ‘allegation’. alternating /e/ with [e:] is also a case of vowel lengthening. even though such vowel change did not influence the meaning of the affected word(s), the pronunciation has changed. more so that, yorùbá does not have phonemic vowel length. in some cases, it does not change the meaning of a word, whether a vowel is pronounced short or long. the syllable-final vowels are pronounced long instead of short. this is why most learners pronounced /e/ instead of [e:] at the syllable-final position. substituting /o/ with [o:]: the substitution of /o/ with [o:] by the participants in level 1 and level 3 in the first syllable changed the pronunciation of hausa word from /ɗôkí:/ (fh) ‘help/assistance’ to [dó:kí:] (hh) ‘it has no meaning’ or [dò:kí:] (lh) 'to heat something/someone. in this regard, the replacement of /o/ with [o:] was due to vowel lengthening and change of vowel quality, from short to long. the two sounds have different duration in terms of their production. some yorùbá native speakers erroneously lengthen the short hausa /o/ to [o:] despite the vowel length does not exist in yorùbá. supporting this argument, fiyinfolu (2019) says vowel length or change in vowel quality is a contributing factor to the cause of intelligibility problem in second language learning (p. 201). the erroneous lengthening of short hausa /o/ to [o:] by the yorùbá learners may also be explained by a falling tone on /o/ in /ɗôkí:/. yorùbá does not have a falling tone, and the mistake indicates that yorùbá speakers perceive a hausa falling tone as more extended than a low or high tone, which causes them to lengthen the short /o/. the pronunciation of level 1 and level 3 participants changed the hausa /o/ to [o:] in the second syllable. hausa word affected in this case is /dó:gó/ (personal name), mispronounced as [dó:gó:] (tall/long). meanwhile, it was an issue of vowel length in the second syllable, as previously discussed. the meaning of the affected word changed from noun to adjective as a result of the vowel change. while the former is a noun, the latter is an adjective, and the noun is a derivative of the adjective. the lengthening of /o/ has to do with the word-final position, which tends to be pronounced long by default in yorùbá. supporting this discovery, flege & bohn (2020) noted that shared sounds are always challenging to produce by l2 learners compared to the unshared sounds, hence, the replacement of /o/ with /o:/ in the second syllable. 6.3 substitution due to vowel raising substituting /e/ with [i]: replacing the mid-high, short, front, and unrounded vowel /e/ with the front, high, short, unrounded vowel [i] by level 1 participants in the first syllable can be discussed under vowel raising from /e/ to /i/. a raised vowel is a vowel phoneme in which, during the production, the body of the tongue is lifted or pushed towards the soft palate (forghema, 2019). as observed in the present study, this affected the pronunciation of word such as /ƙégé:/ (hh) 'dorsal fish pin' to become [kígé:] (hh) ‘it has no meaning’. the result obtained is an instance being recorded in kennedy (2017) where /e/ was realised as [i] as contained in the following english-bemba word such as /endʒɪn/ mispronounced as [injini] ‘engine’. according to kennedy, it was a case of vowel adaptation, especially from another language. in a related development, samson, abdullahi, & olagunju (2014) revealed how yorùbá speakers mispronounced english word due to vowel substitution. the pronunciation of english words by yorùbá, changed from /ezampul/ to [igzæmpl], was due to the substitution of /e/ with [i] the first syllable. substituting /e:/ with [i:]: as observed from data in the present research, it was discovered that in the second syllable, participants in level 1 substituted /e:/ with [i:]. this led to the change in the pronunciation of a word from /bè:gé:/ (lh) to [bè:gí:́] (lh) ‘it has no meaning’. vowel raising from /e:/ to /i:/ took place where mid-high, long, front, unrounded vowel /e:/ changed to high, long, front unrounded vowel /i:/. the process caused the yorùbá speakers to mispronounce /i:/ for /e:/. substituting /e/ with [i:]: furthermore, in the second syllable, /e/ was substituted with the hausa [i:] by participants in level 1. this changed the pronunciation from /ƙá:gé/ (hh) ‘allegation’ to [ká:gí:] (hh) ‘it has no meaning’. this is also a case of vowel raising from /e/ to /i:/ in the second syllable as observed in the data, where vowel raised from midhigh to the high position and vowel lengthening occurred the pronunciation of the participants as yorùbá speakers.with the acute shortage of reading materials for the study of hausa as a second language, the research serves as reference material to l2 teachers and learners. the study adds to the body of existing literature, particularly in linguistics and second language learning. similarly, the research would also assist the hausa language curriculum developers to redesign a new school curriculum by focusing more on vowels to minimise problems of mispronunciation, particularly in hausa language learning. the present study's findings could assist yorùbá native speakers to quickly identify and correct the mispronunciation they make when learning hausa. it can significantly assist the yorùbá native speakers to understand how to read and write in hausa and speak the language fluently for inter-personal relation and socio-economic development. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.6107 vol. 3, no. 1, april 2021, pp. 1-16 13 therefore, the methodology used in this study could assist researchers to carry out studies in other related african languages, such as in the area of syntax and morphology, which may not necessarily be in hausa. 7. conclusion all the hausa vowels were examined in pronunciation. vowels such as /e/, /e:/, /o/, and /o:/ were generally identified as difficult vowels for the yorùbá native speakers in level 1 to produce in the first syllable, while /e/ and /o/ were also difficult for them in the second syllable. similarly, in the second syllable, apart from /o:/, which was easier to produce by the participants in level 1, /e/, /e:/, and /o/ were considered difficult for them in pronunciation. these resulted in the learners committing many errors in their pronunciation due to substitution. while level 3 participants considered /o/ as a difficult vowel for them in the second syllable, /e/, /e:/, and /o:/, on the other hand, was easy to produce, especially in the pronunciation of disyllabic hausa words (refer table 4.12). however, the most frequent vowel substitution among the participants in level 1 in the first syllable included /o/ → [o:], /e:/ → [e], while for /o/ → [o:] was the only one for the participants in level 3. similarly, in the second syllable, while /o/ → [o:], and /e/ → [e:] were considered more frequently substituted among the participants in level 1, /o/ → [o:] was more substituted compared to other vowels. meanwhile, the substitution of /o/ with /o:/ was the only one that cut across the two groups both in the first and second syllables, whereas alternating /o/ with /o:/, and /e/ with /e:/ affected only the first syllable of level 1. considering the experience/exposure of level 3 due to acculturation and teaching practice over their counterparts in level 1 made them commit fewer errors. other linguistic reasons for the substitution identified in this study included shortening and lengthening of vowels and vowel raising. the outcome of this research is in line with the suggestions of flege & bohn’s (2020) ‘revised speech learning model’ (slm-r) and corder’s (1967) ‘error analysis model’. accordingly, while the ‘revised speech learning model’ predicts that shared sounds between the source and target languages are difficult to learn and produce by the l2 learners, the ‘error analysis model’ says such sounds being shared are easier to produce compared to the unshared sounds, which are difficult for the participants, particularly in terms of second language (l2) learning. this is because individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings of their native languages to the target language, especially when speaking or listening. 8. recommendations teachers should make practical efforts early to aid students in identifying these problematic sounds and how to tackle them. the teachings should engage the attention of teachers at the appropriate levels. students themselves should concentrate on these problem areas and devise means on how to tackle them. teachers should also publish books that focus on these key areas to assist learners with reading materials. references abdullahi, j. 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(2007). a phonological study of second language acquisition of mandarin chinese tones. unpublished m.a. thesis, university of north carolina. instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i3.7961 vol. 3, no. 3, december 2021, pp. 170-180 170 vietnamese efl teachers’ perceptions and practices of reflective teaching as a tool for professional development duong minh tuan nam can tho university, can tho city. viet nam dmtuan@nctu.edu.vn article history received : 2021-09-29 revised : 2021-11-07 accepted : 2021-12-23 keywords perceptions practices reflective teaching teacher development efl teachers abstract growing professionally is considered a crucial goal that language teachers may wish to achieve in their teaching careers. although tools for professional development can be varied in different contexts, reflective teaching as an essential and ongoing job is likely to be among the most common ones. the contributions of reflection on pursuing teacher professional development have been proved in numerous studies. however, research on the views and implementation of such a tool by efl teachers in the vietnamese context is insufficient. to narrow this gap, this descriptive study was conducted to investigate vietnamese efl teachers’ perceptions and practices of reflective teaching as a tool for teacher professional development. a mixed-methods design was employed to collect both quantitative and qualitative data for the study. specifically, quantitative data were obtained through a questionnaire, and qualitative data were attained using a semi-structured interview. as regards participants, twenty-five university efl teachers in the mekong delta of vietnam participated in this study. the results indicated that the participants held positive perceptions towards reflective teaching and perceived it to be “very significant” to teacher professional development. nevertheless, it was found that their overall level of reflective practices was identified as “average”. by comparison, a statistically significant difference between the participants’ perceptions and practices of reflective teaching was observed. the results also showed that the participants’ strategies of reflecting on their teaching practices were not diverse, with sharing classroom experiences with colleagues and conducting peer observation being the popularly used ones. 1. introduction central to educational research in the 21st century has been the multi-faceted issue of teachers' professional development because it is seen as a significant attribute to the emergence of a high-quality education system. in the vietnamese context, a drive to motivate efl teachers to engage in professional development activities has in recent years been a conspicuous matter of concern among educational policymakers and language educators. vietnamese efl teachers at the tertiary level are expected to well equip themselves with precise knowledge of the subject matter, pedagogy, and soft skills so as to train university students to be able to use english effectively after graduation in response to a time when vietnam is on the way of regional integration and global participation. to achieve this, there is a strong need for efl teachers to take charge of developing their professionalism since this is found to influence their students’ learning and learning outcomes. one common tool for maintaining professional development and accordingly enhancing qualities necessary to teachers of english is reflective teaching (li, 2008; qing, 2009). reflective teaching as a powerful paradigm in foreign language education has been of particular interest to those who would like to grow professionally on their own (mathew et al., 2017). according to nguyen (2017), the development of the ability to reflect on teaching and practise reflection is an essential determinant of the recognition of a capable reflective teacher. increasingly evident is the impact of reflective teaching on efl teachers' selfdirected professional growth. as claimed by qing (2009), reflective teaching has decidedly been considered an effective path towards teachers' professional development as it helps to bring about 171 positive changes in their teaching practices and thus in their careers. in addition, engaging in reflective practise can help teachers make pedagogical decisions that desirably benefit their students' learning outcomes (rahimi & weisi, 2018). in vietnam, notwithstanding the widespread agreement on the significant role of reflective teaching, few studies have been conducted to investigate how it is perceived and practised by teachers of english, especially those working in higher education contexts. as stated by nguyen et al. (2015), reflection is deemed to be one of the essential elements in the standards for teachers, but it has yet to be fully explored and has been considered a novel concept in the context of vietnam. nguyen (2011)’s study revealed that surveyed teachers’ reflection on their teaching practice was primarily driven by the technical dimension, also known as a less deep reflection level, in which much emphasis was placed on formal supervision and collegial support as significant strategies for reflective teaching. to contribute to bridging this gap, the present study is intended to first investigate the perceptions of vietnamese efl teachers towards reflective teaching and subsequently explore how they practise this tool to enhance their professionalism. in addition, to provide a fuller picture of the situation, the study also seeks to identify strategies that teachers use to conduct reflective teaching in their teaching contexts. it is expected that results gained from this study would give an account of how reflective teaching is perceived and practised by vietnamese efl teachers, whereby further research-based evidence can be added to the existing body of knowledge concerning the nature of reflective teaching. besides, this study is of the significance that it can provide educators and policymakers with relevant information for their decision-making in executing plans and strategies of teacher professional development. 2. literature review 2.1 definitions of reflective teaching reflective teaching is originally coined by dewey (1933), who refers to it as "an active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of grounds that support it and the conclusion to which it tends" (p.9). he claims that teachers have to be critical of their teaching practices to become effective practitioners. pennington (1992) describes reflective teaching as "deliberating on experience, and that of mirroring experience" (p.47). she also proposes the idea of reflective orientation, which is advocated as a means of promoting the achievement of classroom goals and boosting both teachers' and learners' confidence and self-motivation. roberts (1998) simply defines reflective teaching as thoughtful practices; it is assumed to be nothing more than mindful teaching. however, this conception is regarded as a weak version of the conception of the term. this is because, according to wallace (1998), thinking more about teaching does not always lead to improvements in reality. another definition of reflective teaching suggested by qing (2009) shows that reflective teaching is a valuable means for teachers to collect and examine data about what they have done in the classroom, from which they can gain an understanding of their teaching practices and improve their teaching qualities. more recent is a somehow similar conception put forwards by ferdowsi and afghari (2015). in their study, they state that reflective teaching is a teaching approach that demands teachers to obtain information about their classroom practices and attend closely to their teaching behaviour and instructional strategies in critical ways. farrell (2015) identifies reflective teaching as a three-level model which comprises descriptive reflection (focus of teacher skills), conceptual or comparative reflection (the rationale for practice), and critical reflection (examination of sociopolitical, moral, and ethical results of practice). of the three levels, critical reflection is considered by some scholars as the most important one, and as such, teachers are inclined to have a stronger desire to achieve this level in comparison with the others. tabassi et al. (2020) view reflective teaching as teachers’ critical reflection on their perception and performance of teaching so as to enhance the quality of their classroom practices. more generally, reflective teaching can be seen as “either an approach or a method for improving the quality and depth of student learning, where it focuses on practitioners and their practice, and it also allows teachers to value, utilise, and learn from experience" (gupta, 2019, p.39). in this research, reflective teaching is defined as a multi-faceted approach that requires teachers to continuously evaluate and adjust their teaching practices. to be specific, such an evaluation involves teachers in observing, understanding, and analysing different aspects of their teaching, which is followed by proper adjustments. 2.2 components of reflective teaching having attracted much attention for about a decade, six components of reflective teaching proposed by akbari et al. (2010) are constituted as a valid and reliable model for elucidating teachers' reflective practices, as summarised in table 2.1 below. 172 table 2.1 summary of six components of reflective teaching (akbari et al., 2010) components description practical cognitive affective metacognitive critical moral implementing the actual practices of reflection using different tools, such as journal writing, lesson reports, observation, group discussions, and surveys and questionnaires developing professionally as teachers by conducting action research, engaging in conferences and workshops, and reading literature relevant to their specialism attempting to understand learners, especially their emotions and attitudes in behaving in class focusing on teachers’ personal beliefs and personalities, their definitions of teaching practices, and their identity as teachers looking at teaching from socio-political perspectives emphasising moral issues concerning justice, empathy, and values the practical component deals with teachers’ use of reflection tools and their actual practices of reflection. various tools employed for the reflection purpose consist of journal writing, lesson reports, observation, group discussion, and surveys and questionnaires, to name but a few. regarding the cognitive component, professional development needs are the focus of reflective practice. the need to grow professionally involves teachers conducting different cognitive activities, such as doing action research, attending conferences and workshops, and reading the professional literature. the affective component is concerned with teachers’ attempts to reflect on their students, especially in regard to students' emotional behaviours and attitudes in the classroom. another element emphasises the metacognitive aspect of reflection in which teachers reflect on their personal beliefs and personalities, their perceptions of teaching practices, and their identity as teachers. the critical component refers to the social-political aspects of pedagogy that address teachers’ reflection on the political importance of their practice and introduction to such topics as race, gender, and social class. in relation to the moral component, reflection is performed around the notion of morality and on moral issues like justice, empathy, and values. 2.3 strategies of reflective teaching to undertake reflective teaching effectively, it is necessary for teachers to triangulate and critically examine relevant information garnered from as many directions as possible or through varied strategies whose characteristics of contextual applicability and feasibility are of paramount importance. brookfield (1995) suggests four lenses as fundamental tools for critical reflection, which are autobiographies, students’ eyes, colleagues’ experiences, and theoretical literature. these lenses are connected with the processes of self-reflection, student feedback, peer assessment, and involvement in reading scholarly literature, respectively. reflection can also be collaboratively implemented through sharing ideas about teaching practices with teachers working in the same context (farrell, 1999). one of the ways of sharing is that of getting a group of teachers talking with one another about how they manage classroom disciplines, correct students’ assignments, and teach a particular subject. as a prerequisite for sharing in that way, teachers could conduct a formal analysis of their teaching and problems they regularly encounter. the results collected are the foundation for doing later experiments and finding out what things work for each individual. in addition, teachers could gain data about their teaching situations and then discuss relevant findings with a group in a professional manner after the data are analysed, evaluated, and interpreted with reference to their contexts. however, this is by no means an easy job for teachers as it requires critical thinking and knowledge of methods for collecting classroom data. furthermore, reflection could be done using selfobservation either with audio or video cameras, and another way is to be observed by a colleague or a group acting as a mirror in describing all the happenings worthy of attention in class. this latter way allows teachers to send their messages of teaching beliefs to their colleagues as observers, especially to themselves. keeping a journal, be it a personal or a shared one, is one common strategy to conduct reflective teaching, on which teachers can write all aspects of their work. if a journal is for sharing with a group, constructive comments can be written on it by other group members for the betterment of its author’s teaching practices. conducting action research is the last reflection tool proposed by farrell (1999), which involves teachers in working on a specific project by themselves or with other people as a group. reflection here occurs when teachers have an opportunity to look back on things that have been causing dilemmas during their classroom practices. as to the design, the research project starts with identifying the problem and continues with figuring out the possible reasons behind that problem. these are followed by devising potentially workable measures, using these measures and evaluating them based on the results found, and subsequently making implications for future research. 173 qing (2009) suggests five fairly analogous modes for reflective teaching in efl contexts. to begin with, teachers can apply peer observation in gaining access to a variety of teaching styles and opportunities to have a critically objective reflection on their own teaching. before observation, teachers should spend time having a discussion with each other on all relevant aspects of the lesson that need observing, such as the nature of the class, materials to be taught, teaching methods, and possible patterns of classroom interaction. another way of participating in the reflection process is to use written records of experiences, including self-reports and teachers’ diaries. with respect to the former, an inventory or a checklist of teaching practices should be used, on which teachers rely to figure out what has happened in the class after each lesson. this can be performed individually or in groups. as regards the latter, it is widely agreed that keeping a frequent account of teaching experiences through writing a journal or a diary is a viable tool deemed as a basis for later reflection. despite requiring a large amount of commitment, this is believed to provide teachers with a greater chance of better understanding not only themselves but their learners, which in turn is a rewarding experience for those involved. the following way of reflection is through the use of video recordings. by implementing this, implementers can have an accessible source to obtain valuable data of essential classroom events, which can be afterwards reconsidered and analysed for their reflection. another strategy of reflective teaching is the application of reflective inquiry groups. specifically, after identifying an issue of concern in class, teachers can bring it to a group of staff members for discussion. this is followed by a feasible plan to address that issue and improve subsequent teaching practices. finally, also included in farrell (1999)’s implications for reflective teaching, action research is a tool that should be taken into consideration. qing further recommends that cognitive learning styles should be discovered so that teachers can better understand their students, which may offer them different perspectives on problems facing their students in class. this is likely to be associated with a need for reflection on what possibly causes these problems, by which significant changes can be made accordingly. besides, according to dikilitaş (2015), action research is a reflective teaching approach that could substantially enhance efl teachers’ selfefficacy beliefs. 2.4 reflective teaching in efl contexts by virtue of the agreement on the significance of reflection in professional development among many researchers and educators, a large body of research has been done on teachers’ reflective teaching in different efl contexts, especially since dewey (1933)’s concept of the term was introduced. ansarin et al. (2015) conducted a study to investigate one hundred iranian efl teachers’ levels of reflective teaching, specified as pre-reflection, surface reflection, pedagogical reflection, and critical reflection. the roles of gender, years of experience, and qualifications in the reflection process were also investigated. to obtain data for the study, a 53-item questionnaire was designed and administered to the participants online. the results indicated that iranian efl teachers’ reflective teaching was mainly at the pedagogical level, with the lowest proportion reflecting at the pre-reflection level. the critical and surface reflections ranked second and third, respectively, in terms of popularity among the poll sample. a significant relationship between qualifications and the two levels of pedagogical reflection and critical reflection was observed in the study. the same pattern was repeated for years of experience. then, one year later, in iran, faghihi and sarab (2016) did a study whose aim was to find out sixty efl teachers’ levels of reflection inferred from their perceptions and practices. two instruments employed to collect data for the research were a questionnaire and classroom observation. as for the latter, the teachers’ questioning practice was observed as an indication of their degrees of reflection. the study showed different results compared to those of ansarin et al. (2015)’s in the sense that the participants were of the level of description, which is regarded as the lowest level of reflection. this was because they tended to depend on their own reflectivity in teaching. the researchers, therefore, suggested that teachers should engage themselves more in uncovering their students’ learning styles and critical characteristics of the teaching context so that they could achieve higher levels of reflective teaching. in turkey, kömür and gün (2016) studied the levels at which english language teachers selfreflected on their practices of reflective teaching using a 29-item questionnaire designed based on akbari et al. (2010)’s the english language teaching reflection inventory. the questionnaire was comprised of five distinct components: (1) practical, (2) cognitive, (3) learner, (4) metacognitive, and (5) critical. the participants were thirty-seven teachers working at different state schools in muğla province, ranging from primary to high schools. when it comes to the results, the participants actively participated in reflective teaching, and they mostly reflected on the meta-cognitive and learner components. the study also further suggested that turkish teachers were aware of the importance of understanding their students’ learning styles and preferences in their reflection processes. implemented from a different angle, fakazli and gönen (2017)’s research sought to examine eight efl university instructors’ perceptions towards reflective practices, focusing on the implementation of different reflective teaching tools, namely reflective diaries, 174 reflective video analyses, and reflective peer sessions. data were gained through written reflections, a questionnaire, and a semi-structured interview. it was concluded from the study that all the participants showed a consensus on the important role that reflective teaching play in teacher development, and they held positive views about the application of the surveyed tools of reflection in their teaching settings. the participants further assumed that different tools of reflection should be applied systematically. motallebzadeh et al. (2018) reported on an investigation into the relationship between iranian efl teachers’ reflective practices and their teaching effectiveness. there were 115 participants being involved in the study by using convenience sampling. as for research instruments, the english language teaching reflection inventory and effective teaching questionnaire were used to gather data for the study. the results revealed that there was a positive relationship between the two variables mentioned, whereas the opposite was true of that between teachers’ level of teaching effectiveness and experience. moradkhani (2019)’s study was of certain contributions to the reflective teaching domain as it aimed to examine efl teachers’ perceptions of two reflection approaches: teaching journals and peer observation. the participants included two cohorts of ten and eleven efl teachers who attended two separate practicum courses. data collected for the study were based on the participants’ submission of five teaching journals and five observation forms throughout the course. focus group interviews were also used to obtain further information on their perceptions of reflection experiences. research results showed that the participants had a preference for peer observation over teaching journals. they suggested that teachers should have chances to receive feedback on journal entries and conduct classroom observation before keeping their journals. besides, establishing criteria to guide writing journals was also necessary to help teachers further benefit from the two reflection approaches. more recently, cholifah et al. (2020) carried out a study to explore two in-service teachers’ use of reflective teaching tools. an in-depth interview was employed as the research instrument for data collection. it was found that there were individual differences between the two participants in their preferences for implementing reflection in teaching practices. the results also manifested that peer observation and student feedback were the most utilised tools by the participants, followed by teaching journals and video/audio recordings. the reasons behind the participants’ use of these tools were twofold. that is, the tools were believed first to allow them to identify their students’ learning needs and second to have opportunities to discuss with other teachers, which in turn could help them come up with more effective teaching plans. in the same year, another study was conducted by sunra et al. (2020) with the aim of investigating efl teachers’ perceptions and practices of reflection in teaching. seven indonesian efl teachers at a junior high school in makassar were recruited as participants of the study through the purposive sampling technique. the qualitative method was designed to collect data for the study using a semi-structured interview, a focus group discussion, classroom observation, and documentation of teaching records. it was found that the participants perceived reflective teaching as an evaluative process to their classroom practices. they all agreed that reflective practice was one of the characteristics of an effective language teacher, and it could enhance the quality of teaching and learning. nevertheless, their practices of reflection were not at a satisfactory level due to some challenges facing them during the reflection process, two of which were teaching workload and inadequate knowledge of reflective teaching. in short, reflective teaching, which is considered a contributory element of teachers' professional development, has been an issue of interest to many researchers and educators. as shown in the aforementioned studies, different theoretical frameworks were adapted to elaborate efl teachers' perceptions, practices, and levels of reflective teaching in varied contexts. some divergences in the extent to which teachers reflected on their teaching practices were also recorded. in addition, two of the studies (ansarin et al., 2015; motallebzadeh et al., 2018) did not share a consensus on the relationship between efl teachers' reflective practices and years of experience. regarding similar points, as commonly perceived by efl teachers, reflective teaching had a role to play in improving the quality of teaching and learning. besides, the surveyed teachers in moradkhani (2019)’s and cholifah et al. (2020)’s studies showed a preference for peer observation over other reflection approaches like teaching journals. 3. method 3.1 research questions to gain evidence on vietnamese efl teachers’ perceptions and practices of reflective teaching as a tool for their professional development, the present study sought to answer the following research questions. a) what are vietnamese efl teachers’ perceptions of the significance of reflective teaching in teacher development? b) to which extent do vietnamese efl teachers reflect on their teaching practices? 175 3.2 participants the participants included 25 efl teachers at different universities in the mekong delta of vietnam, with 14 females (n=14, 56%) and 11 males (n=11, 44%). their ages ranged from 27 to 42 years old. they were selected to participate in the study using convenient sampling. regarding their educational attainment, all of them earned a master’s degree in teaching english as a foreign language and had knowledge of reflective teaching. while most of these participants, namely 64%, had at least five years of teaching experience, 36% were low-experienced teachers with only 1 to 5 years in service. 3.3 research instruments the present study employed a mix-methods approach to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. by using the mix-methods approach, rich and diverse sorts of data can be obtained to elaborate the research topic more fully (fraenkel et al., 2012). two main research instruments were employed in this study, namely a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview. the questionnaire consisted of three parts. part 1 was aimed to collect the participants’ demographic information. in parts 2 and 3, most of the items were presented according to a 5-point likert scale, ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree and 1=never to 5=always in turn. part 2 was comprised of 10 items investigating how vietnamese efl teachers perceive the significance of reflective teaching in professional development. to this end, results gained from the questionnaire were subjected to spss (version 20.0) for data analysis in terms of mean (m) and standard deviation (sd). part 3, with 29 items were adopted from akbari et al. (2010)'s english language teaching reflection inventory dealing with the teachers' practices of reflective teaching in their teaching contexts. an open-ended question was also provided in this part to ask the teachers to give their opinions as free responses. the reliability of the questionnaire was checked using the scale test. the result showed that the reliability coefficient of this instrument was fairly high (α=.77). as for the interview, six participants were randomly chosen to be interviewees. in each interview, in addition to the main interview questions, probing questions were used to collect extra information from the participants so that more profound insights into their perceptions and practices of reflective teaching could be drawn out. in this study, the overall mean scores obtained from the descriptive statistics tests were interpreted as follows: table 3.1 interpretation of mean scores ranges of mean scores perceptions practices interpretation of mean scores 1.0 to approximate 1.8 1.8 to approximate 2.6 2.6 to approximate 3.4 3.4 to approximate 4.2 4.2 to 5.0 very insignificant insignificant average significant very significant very low low average high very high as seen from table 3.1, the participants who have mean scores ranging between 1.0 and approximate 2.6 are regarded as having negative perceptions towards reflective teaching. specifically, the mean cores from 1.0 to lower than 1.8 and between 1.8 and under 2.6 denote that the participants perceive reflective teaching as “very insignificant” and “insignificant”, respectively. the mean scores from 2.6 to approximate 3.4 mean that the participants consider reflective teaching as “averagely important” in their professional development. above this level is classified as “significant” when the participants’ mean scores of perceptions lie between 3.4 and approximate 4.2. the mean scores from 4.2 onwards manifest that the participants regard reflective teaching as a “very significant” contribution to enhancing their professionalism. similarly, different ranges of mean scores show different levels of the participants’ practices of reflective teaching, including “very low” (1.0 approximate 1.8), “low” (1.8 approximate 2.6), “average” (2.6 approximate 3.4), “high” (3.4 approximate 4.2), and “very high” levels (4.2 5.0). 4. findings 4.1 vietnamese efl teachers’ perceptions of the significance of reflective teaching in teacher development to elucidate vietnamese efl teachers’ perceptions of the significance of reflective teaching in teacher development, data gained from the questionnaire and the interview were analysed. regarding quantitative data from the questionnaire, the descriptive statistics test was run to check for the overall mean score of the participants' perception of the extent to which reflective teaching is significant to the process of teacher growth. table 4.1 displays the results of this test. 176 table 4.1 descriptive statistics for the participants’ perceptions of reflective teaching variable n min. max. mean sd perceptions 25 3.50 4.70 4.19 .29 as can be seen from table 4.1, the overall mean scores of the participant's perceptions of the significance of reflective teaching are 4.19 on a scale of 1.0 to 5.0 (sd=.29). the one-sample t-test was performed to compare the mean scores and the test value 4.2. the result showed that no significant difference between these variables was observed (t=.20, p=.84). it could be concluded that the participants perceived reflective teaching as “very significant” to teacher development. to gain further understanding of the participants' perception of the significance of reflective teaching, qualitative data from the interview were analysed. the results revealed that all the six interviewees agreed on the importance of reflective teaching in teacher development and considered it an integral part of their teaching practices, as shown in three of the interviewees’ responses. “i think that reflective teaching is indispensable in the process of growing professionally as teachers of english. it is definitely important although practising it is not an easy task.” (teacher 2) “i believe that reflecting teaching is a significant tool for professional development, and it should be routinely practised by all teachers of english.” (teacher 5) “from my own perspective, reflective teaching plays an important role in teacher development. therefore, in educational organizations, especially universities, teachers should have a high level of awareness of practising reflective teaching.” (teacher 6) as part of enhancing teachers’ professionalism, almost all the participants stressed the values of reflective teaching in strengthening students’ learning outcomes. specifically, they agreed that reflective teaching would offer them opportunities to reflect on their teaching beliefs and classroom practices, through which they could know what aspects of their teaching should be deployed and what part of their work need modifying. in addition, by making the most of strengths and minimising weaknesses, they believed in the likelihood of an enhancement in their effectiveness of teaching, which would directly affect their students’ learning. the following responses from two of the interviewees reflected these opinions in detail. “thanks to reflective teaching, we [teachers of english] can identify our strong and weak characteristics. analysing these characteristics, we can know what we should do inside and outside the class to be better teachers. furthermore, once we develop ourselves to be more competent through reflective practices, we can better facilitate our students’ learning.” (teacher 2) “reflective teaching undoubtedly contributes to teacher development, which is likely to have positive effects on students’ learning outcomes. therefore, i suppose that reflective teaching is closely associated with the possibility of teachers’ continuous practices of promoting their students’ learning outcomes.” (teacher 4) to sum up, the results from the questionnaire and the interview indicated that the participants had positive perceptions towards reflective teaching in helping teachers develop professionally. in other words, they regarded reflective teaching as “very significant” in the process of teacher development. additionally, they highly valued the effects of reflective practices on students’ learning outcomes. the majority of them believed that students could benefit from teachers’ improvement in the level of reflective teaching. that is, the higher their level of reflective teaching is, the more benefits they can bring to their students. 4.2 vietnamese efl teachers’ practices of reflective teaching the degree to which the participants have reflected on their teaching practices was measured using the questionnaire and the interview. in the quantitative stage, the descriptive statistics test was performed to identify the overall mean scores of the participants’ reflective practices. the results from this test are presented in table 4.2. table 4.2 descriptive statistics for the participants’ practices of reflective teaching variable n min. max. mean sd practices 25 2.59 3.62 3.23 .30 as shown in table 4.2, the participants’ overall mean scores for their practices of reflective teaching were 3.23 on the 1.0-5.0 scale (sd=.30). to identify whether there was a significant difference between the mean scores and the test value 3.4, the one-sample ttest was employed. the result signified a significant discrepancy between them (t=-2.90, p=.01). therefore, 177 it can be inferred that the participants' level of engagement in reflective teaching was "average". in the qualitative phase, the interview was employed to gain more data on strategies the participants employed to reflect on their teaching practices. the results from the interview showed that the interviewees undertook reflection in two main periods, which were during and after their teaching, as specified in the responses below. “i am always aware of what i am doing in class, especially things that i am doing well and things that need improving. in addition, after each lesson, i often spend some time thinking back on what i have done and answering myself the questions of whether i am satisfied with my teaching and what should be done for the betterment of my subsequent teaching performances.” (teacher 1) “i am always concerned about whether things that are happening in class can help me achieve the objectives of the lesson and whether there are any aspects of my teaching that need to be modified. my reflection is not limited to thinking about what i am doing in class, and i also reflect on what i have done for my students after i finish my teaching.” (teacher 5) of the strategies of reflective teaching reported by the interviewees, sharing classroom experiences with colleagues was the most popular (five out of six), followed by conducting peer observation (four out of six) and collecting feedback from students (three out of six). these results were reflected in the following responses. “i regularly share my classroom experiences with my colleagues and talk to them about my successful and unsuccessful aspects of a particular lesson… also, i sometimes observe my colleagues’ lessons so that i can learn about things that they have done effectively.” (teacher 2) “after taking notes of what i have done in class, i often have a discussion about my teaching with my colleagues and ask for their suggestions or advice, when necessary, to improve my classroom performances… i sometimes collect my evidence on my past teaching experiences through informal conversations with my students... besides, at my university, peer observation is mandatory, and this is a good opportunity for me to reflect on my teaching experiences.” (teacher 6) surprisingly, only one interviewee said that keeping teaching journals was used as a strategy for reflecting on her teaching experiences, and two respondents sometimes undertook reflection through doing action research. the other four interviewees admitted that doing action research was not their prioritised choice for reflective teaching practices. they explained that this was because they did not have time to engage in such a strategy, and they viewed it as difficult work, as said by the following interviewer. “i know that doing action research is a good tool for reflective teaching because, to the best of my knowledge, it can help teachers address certain problems occurring in class. however, it is kind of difficult work and requires much time for conduction. therefore, to be honest, carrying out action research is not my preferred choice.” (teacher 2) when being asked about in what ways they employed to improve their teaching, more than half of the interviewees claimed that they often read books about language learning and teaching to widen their knowledge of teaching methods. however, there were just two interviewees reporting that they sometimes attended conferences or workshops on english language teaching. in short, it is evident from the results of the questionnaire that the participants’ level of reflective practices was identified as “average”. in addition, as can be seen from the results of the interview, the participants had their own ways of practising reflective teaching, but the strategies employed for their practices in this regard were not diverse. the popular strategies were sharing classroom experiences with colleagues and conducting peer observation, with keeping teaching journals and doing action research being recorded as by far less used ones. 5. discussion it is acknowledged that reflective teaching can benefit language teachers in many ways, one of which is that of helping them grow professionally. as for the effects on student learning, reflective teachers are likely to bring positive changes to their students’ learning outcomes as they are able to “plan more effective lessons, persist when students face challenges, and search extensively for appropriate strategies and materials to improve student achievement” (baleghizadeh & javidanmehr, 2014, p.30). drawing on the results of this study, it could be concluded that the participants had positive perceptions of reflective teaching and highlighted it as a very significant tool for teacher development. in addition, they viewed reflective teaching as a useful tool for teachers’ recognition of their strengths and weaknesses whereby appropriate modifications can be made to enhance teaching and learning outcomes. this finding is consistent with those of fakazli and gönen (2017)’s and sunra et al. (2020)’s, showing that efl teachers under survey were sufficiently aware of the importance of reflective teaching in strengthening their professionalism. futhermore, sunra et al. (2020) concluded in their study that reflective teaching is an indispensable attribute of an effective teacher, and it could help to 178 improve the quality of teaching and learning. it can be inferred that reflective teaching has recognised values in, but is not limited to, various efl contexts like vietnam. nevertheless, in this study, the extent to which the teachers reflected on their teaching practices was not very high but at the average level instead. compared to other studies (faghihi & sarab, 2016; fakazli & gönen, 2017; sunra et al., 2020), the current study had a different result. that is, faghihi and sarab (2016) and sunra et al. (2020) concluded in their research that the teachers did not have a desirable level of reflective teaching practices since they had the lowest and unsatisfactory levels of reflection, respectively. a reason behind these results may be due to the participants did not have a deep understanding of reflective teaching, making it be an unexploited area in the teaching process. likewise, nguyen (2011) found that the teachers under survey did not deeply understand the concept of reflective teaching until they partook in a reflection process initiated by their institution. as such, the quality of their reflection on teaching became more technical, with much dependence on formal supervision and collegial support. this was in sharp contrast to the result revealed in fakazli & gönen (2017)’s study, which indicated that the teachers actively got involved in reflective teaching by using different reflection tools, with metacognitive and learner components attracting their most attention. these tools included reflective diaries, reflective video analyses, and reflective peer sessions. in the current study, given that all the participants were teachers at the tertiary level and had knowledge of reflective teaching, their level of reflective practices was not very desirable. furthermore, there was a statistically significant discrepancy between their perceptions and practices of reflective teaching (t=13.56, p=.00). it can be implied that although the participants perceived reflective teaching as “very significant” to teacher growth, they did not practise such a tool in a satisfactory manner in reality. this disparency may be attributable to several factors, such as overloaded teaching schedules and inadequate knowledge of reflective teaching, as pointed out by cholifah et al. (2020). thus, it is recommended that the teachers should be well-prepared for better understanding the concept of reflective teaching and take more selfinitiated actions towards reflection in their teaching practice. besides, teachers should have more encouragement and support from their institutions in this regard so that they can make use of reflective teaching to the fullest. also, teachers should be given more rights to make decisive decisions in the practice of reflective teaching. regarding reflective teaching strategies identified from the interview, while sharing classroom experiences with colleagues was ranked first in terms of popularity, keeping teaching journals was used the least. this result was different from that of cholifah et al. (2020)’s in the sense that, in their study, participating in peer observation and receiving student feedback were the most utilised reflection tools. in the present study, as identified in akbari et al. (2010)’s six-component model of reflection, the participants’ practices of reflective teaching were just at the practical level. they tended to prefer practising reflective teaching on a collaborative basis as they preferred to share their records of teaching performances and discuss issues regarding their teaching with one another. the result also differs from that of kömür and gün (2016)’s, which showed that the teachers mainly reflected on the metacognitive and affective components of reflective teaching. meanwhile, the participants in the present study did not give enough attention to these components, partly explaining why the level at which they practise reflective teaching was not high. for instance, although more cognitive strategies, such as doing action research, were considered effective tools for teachers to practise reflective teaching, they were not generally favoured by the participants. it was also found that the teachers restricted themselves to using strategies (e.g., sharing classroom experiences with colleagues and conducting peer observation) that are of their preferences. some strategies, such as keeping teaching journals and doing action research, were taken for granted, albeit with their recognised effectiveness, as they are perceived to be hard and time-consuming to implement. however, these accounts for not utilising such optimal strategies of reflection are not insolvable barriers in case teachers are substantively assisted by authorities in the reflection process, and teachers themselves have to make commitments to reflective teaching as an inherent element of teacher development. 6. conclusion reflective teaching has been regarded as an integral component of teacher development. according to gupta et al. (2019), reflecting on classroom events “enables teachers and teacher educators to understand how they use their knowledge in classroom situations and how they combine theory and practice in a more effective manner” (p.37). in general terms, it can provide teachers with information to reflect on their pedagogical behaviours and beliefs regarding their teaching practice whereby changes can be made for better educational outcomes in improving the quality of teaching and learning (burhan-horasanlı & ortaçtepe, 2016; kramer, 2018). faghihi and sarab (2016) state that reflective teaching can be undertaken when efl teachers are provided with ample opportunities for reinforcing their professional knowledge and for engaging in reflective teaching practices. this study suggests that, from the objective perspective, there should be institutional 179 policies as stimuli to support teachers to enhance their levels of participation in reflective teaching. organising workshops or seminars, for example, helps to offer teachers professional development platforms where they can reflect on and share their teaching experiences with their colleagues and educators in the field. subjectively, teachers should be more active in the reflective teaching process, showing their reflective practices by doing specific actions and employing different strategies rather than putting limits on themselves in this process. although this study has achieved its aims, the results generated from a limited sample of participants may not offer strong generalisations to other efl contexts. hence, this research should be replicated with larger groups of participants in various efl contexts to provide more substantial evidence on how reflective teaching is perceived and practised by efl teachers. the results from such research may also provide a fuller picture of contextual factors affecting teachers’ performances of reflection in their teaching. references akbari, r., behzadpoor, f., & dadvand, b. 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(1998). action research for language teachers. cambridge, england: cambridge university press. instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i3.6902 vol. 3, no. 3, december 2021, pp. 146-158 146 populist strategies in the political advertising discourse of the french national front rana n. khoudary lebanese university, fanar, lebanon rana.khodary@ul.edu.lb article history received : 2021-05-29 revised : 2021-08-06 accepted : 2021-10-28 keywords political discourse populism cda metaphor speech acts abstract this study investigates the discourse of the french right-wing political party national front (fn) through a qualitative critical discourse analysis approach examining their electoral campaign material from 2011 until 2017. the findings reveal that the fn adopts typical populist tropes and strategies to broaden its electoral base and win popular support. at the core of their discourse lie binary conceptualisations constructing an in-group (the fn, the people) and an outgroup (political individuals and entities, immigrants) in a scheme of opposition, typically attributing positive qualities to the former and negative values to the latter. the linguistic construction of the self and the other was achieved through the use of metaphor and speech acts, in addition to other discursive strategies involving the appeal to negative emotions. in accordance with van dijk‟s ideological square, metaphors reveal a sharp polarisation in the depiction of the self and the other, mainly through the fn's positive self-presentation in terms of benevolent and optimistic metaphors. in contrast, the other is mainly portrayed through war metaphors. similarly, through the use of speech acts, the fn blames, accuses and criticises the other, holding it accountable for the french people‟s grievances, while the self (in the person of the fn‟s leader marine le pen) is assertive, firm and determined in its defence of the nation and the people. linguistic strategies are ultimately reinforced through semiotic representations, enhancing the us/them dichotomy. 1. introduction one of the most debated topics in current world affairs revolves around the electoral success of populist parties in established democracies during the past decade. the trend came to the foreground with the rise of trump and his victory in the 2016 us presidential elections, in parallel with the outcome of the brexit referendum in the uk and the advance of far-right political parties to the forefront of the political scene in many countries globally including holland, italy, hungary, austria, poland and brazil. while populism is a fluid concept, it is essentially based on the antagonistic relationship between the 'people' on the one hand and a perceived 'elite' involving elected officials, politicians in power, or larger ruling bodies that are believed to be usurping the privileges due to the people (mudde, 2004; laclau, 2005; curini, 2018). in the politics of fear, wodak (2015) outlines the emergence and increasing prominence of right-wing populist parties in europe, pointing out their considerable current involvement and growing influence in mainstream political life. as noted by van dijk (1997), “virtually all topics and issues relevant in current political science … seem to have a prominent discursive dimension” (p. 43). studies on language and power have indeed demonstrated that various social “institutions construct a representation of the world, rather than reflect an objective reality” (mayr, 2008, p. 139; fairclough, 1989; van dijk, 1993; chilton, 2004) and that specific linguistic and discursive strategies have been established to maintain power and privilege. what motivated this study was thus an interest in investigating the populist phenomenon in modern democracies from a linguistic perspective, mainly as it was observed that far-right parties often tend to rely on emotional campaigns exploiting the fears of the public. this appeal to negative emotions has been noted by nai and maier (2018), who argue that "anxious citizens are likely to pay more attention to information and campaigns … which makes them easier targets for persuasion" (pp. 4-5). 147 the case of a progressive western european country such as france, historically renowned for its liberal values, is particularly interesting. although many studies have been conducted on the ideology of the french far-right political party the national front ('le front national') under the mandate of its founder jean-marie le pen (marcus, 1995; davies, 1999; jamin, 2009), little attention has been paid to the evolution of the party‟s political stances and discourse since the takeover of his daughter marine le pen who has manifestly attempted to soften up the radical image associated with her father, notably by dismissing him, and more recently by rebranding the party as the national rally (rassemblement national) in a further attempt at dissociating the new direction it has taken under her leadership from its controversial origins. this paper aims to examine the discourse of the national front (henceforth referred to as fn) under marine le pen's current leadership, as evident in their electoral campaign material. in light of the considerable advances achieved by the fn and which brought it to the forefront of the french political scene in recent years, the main concern of this study involves the discursive construction of a dichotomised opposition between the self and the other in the party‟s discourse through particular linguistic strategies typical of right-wing populist discourse. the questions that drive the analysis, in particular, revolve around the use of metaphors and speech acts as persuasive devices holding the potential to impact considerably the formation of public opinion. 1.1 political discourse like many other types of institutional discourse, political discourse is a complex human activity that deserves to be the subject of a critical investigation, particularly by virtue of the central place it occupies in the organisation and management of society (chilton, 2004). in their various forms, most political activities, including political speeches, interviews, advertising and electoral campaigning, are essentially discursive in nature (van dijk, 1997). the importance of political campaigns has recently come to the foreground, given their potential to attract the public‟s attention, influence their beliefs and opinions, and mobilise them to take action (curini, 2018). the persuasive function of political discourse, in particular, has specifically received much attention (chilton, 2004; cap, 2006; van dijk, 2006; mayr, 2008). according to sornig (1989), the purpose of political language indeed "is not so much to inform as to make people believe, and in the end, to act upon their beliefs, [thus] he/she who sounds like one of us is the one we most easily trust” (p. 109). 1.2 populism as pointed out earlier, the last decade has witnessed the rise of right-wing populist movements which are achieving remarkable electoral success at local and national levels in europe and the rest of the world. while this new reality must be acknowledged, some have described the evolution of these movements as a "worrying development" (oudenampsen, 2011, p. 117). following mouffe, oudenampsen argues that late 20 th century developments in europe gave right-wing populists the opportunity to redefine and reshape the political landscape along new cultural lines in addition to the existing socio-economic and ideological ones. in their study of the 2016 us presidential elections, social scientists oliver and rahn (2016) highlight the populist appeal of trump‟s rhetoric, particularly in terms of the „manichean‟ and „apprehensive‟ outlook he promoted and which served to gain him extraordinary electoral support. their findings align with wodak‟s (2015) study of the politics of fear which outlines the ways in which populist right-wing politicians exploit the public's anxiety and insecurities to subvert the status quo. several studies have been recently conducted on the populist zeitgeist, examining the various manifestations of populism and the recurrent leitmotifs and common argumentative and rhetorical strategies adopted by populist parties across the globe. stoica (2017) discusses the political myths typically used in populist discourse, which rely on the creation of narratives enabling the public to conceptualise complex messages in an accessible way, outlining specifically the notions of unity, the saviour, the golden age, in addition to the conspiracy myth. kaya and tecmen‟s (2019) study investigates the existential crisis amplified by populist discourse in europe, capitalising on the issue of "civilisational identity" by pitting the european culture against islam. other studies have examined the discursive strategies employed by populist parties in various geographical and political contexts. bonikowski and gidron (2016) explore the discourse of us presidential campaigns, including both democrat and republican candidates from a sociological perspective, while sengul (2019) studies right-wing populist discourse in australia from a political communication approach. several research studies have further been dedicated to the populist phenomenon in the european context. cervi et al. (2020) explore the construction of the other in the discourse of italian interior minister matteo salvini by creating an anti-immigrant narrative. bos and brants (2014) examine the relationship between populist political rhetoric and media representations in the netherlands. jagers and walgrave (2007) define populism as a political communication style by studying the discourse of six political parties in belgium. salgado (2019) investigates the role of social media in disseminating populist discourse and communication styles in portugal. 148 with the broad attention populism has received in international scholarship, nevertheless, no study has to our knowledge specifically attempted to explore the discursive strategies employed by the french fn political party in their electoral campaigns, particularly over the past decade. 1.3 the french national front the national rally (rn), known as the national front (fn) until june 2018, is a french political party founded in 1972 and chaired by jean-marie le pen until the takeover of his daughter marine le pen in january 2011. the fn emerged in the french political landscape in the 1980s and distinguished itself for its populist appeal (williams, 2006). while initially a marginal far-right party, it gradually achieved critical electoral successes, culminating in marine le pen's qualification for the final round of the 2017 presidential elections in which she obtained 33.90% of the votes against emmanuel macron. under marine‟s leadership, the party has attempted to distance itself from its fascist origins as she undertook to present a softer, more modern image and broaden the party‟s base. this strategy was met with success as it increased the fn's popularity and led to several electoral advances and victories. drawing on moffitt‟s (2016) definition of populism as a “political style”, this study proposes to investigate the elements that constitute the fn‟s political campaigning style in terms of linguistic and discursive strategies, shedding light on the implications of the use of such strategies and the potential repercussions they could have on public opinion. 2. method this research adopts a critical discourse analysis (cda) perspective to study the discourse of political advertising. cda is a multidisciplinary approach that views language as a form of social practice (fairclough, 1989, 1995). one of the main concerns of this approach revolves around the potential of language to manipulate users‟ perceptions, leading to the formation of certain world views, thus its significance for the study of political discourse. within cda, the socio-cognitive approach propounded by van dijk (1998) is relevant to this research since it views discourse use and production in terms of mental models carrying and promoting specific representations of social beliefs and knowledge. in particular, van dijk's (1997) notion of the ideological square will form the core of the analysis in terms of binary conceptualisations that construct a 'us' vs 'them' dichotomy, typically emphasising 'our' qualities and good deeds as opposed to 'their' negative attributes and actions. as noted by wodak (2009b), this “binarity serves important functions in politics by including some and excluding others („othering‟) and/or by defining a distinct group of victims and a group of perpetrators who can be blamed for something („scapegoating‟)” (p. 585). most importantly, what needs to be underlined is that the influence that can be achieved through such polarisation is “first of all a control of the mind, that is, of the beliefs of recipients, and indirectly a control of the actions of recipients based on such manipulated beliefs.” (van dijk, 2006, p. 362). 2.1 theoretical framework the binary collective representations underlying the ideological square can be realised at various linguistic and discursive levels, including lexicosemantic choices, rhetorical strategies, pragmatic devices and semiotic techniques (van dijk, 2006; wodak, 2009b). the main dimensions that will be investigated in this study are metaphors at the rhetorical level, and speech acts at the pragmatic level. the choice of the metaphorical dimension was motivated by the ability of metaphors to frame social phenomena and events, as well as their persuasive potential. as for speech acts, they are also particularly relevant to the study of political discourse by virtue of the various functions they can perform, namely, cautionary, promissory, accusatory, etc., all of which can also be exploited to influence public opinion and guide the electorate's actions and decisions. another strand of cda will also inform a section of the analysis, drawing on the discoursehistorical approach of wodak et al. (2009), which is concerned with a contextualisation of discourse within broader historical contexts. in particular, this paper will draw on the notion of topoi employed in the discursive construction of national identity. additionally, and since the data mainly consists of election campaign posters, this study will also examine semiotic representations since, “like linguistic structures, visual structures point to particular interpretations of experience and forms of social interaction” (kress and van leeuwen, 2006, p. 2) and can “express (ideological) meanings and contribute to the overall meaning of texts” (mayr, 2008, 10). it is important to note that while the main focus of this study is not centred on semiotic representations, visual elements will be discussed where they are seen to contribute to the message being communicated. 2.2 the data in her work on right-wing populist discourse, wodak (2015) outlines the vital role of performance in right-wing populist parties' public strategies, making considerable use of mainstream media and social media platforms. in an earlier study of the fn's evolution under the mandate of its original founder, davies (1999) had already noted the party's "modern" outlook: "it was the first french political party to have its internet web site, and its output of publicity material is not only unremitting but impressive in its 149 scope and production quality" (p. 6). davies argues that this could be a residue of the party's earlier days when it was cast out as a racist and fascist movement, thus "publicity, advertising and propaganda are important concerns for the fn – a political formation devoid of favourable media coverage and thus forced to rely on posters, slogans” (p. 224). the data under study comprises material from the fn's political advertising campaigns, mainly 61 preelection posters and brochures, including campaign slogans and conference posters. the material was obtained from the fn's facebook account. it involves the period since marine le pen's takeover in january 2011 up until the last french presidential elections in 2017, with a specific focus on pre-election material (namely, the 2012 presidential elections, the march 2015 departmental elections, the december 2015 regional elections, and the 2017 presidential elections). all the items posted on the fn‟s social media platform within this time frame were included in this study, with the exception of a few that did not incorporate a linguistic component and only consisted of visual elements. the dates provided for each item figure as they were posted. unless otherwise indicated, the researcher has emphasised the data to highlight relevant lexical choices 1 . 3. findings and discussion this study adopts van dijk's (1997) framework for the analysis of the fn's political advertising material, particularly regarding strategies of positive selfpresentation and negative other-presentation. as specified earlier, this paper will investigate the use of metaphor and speech acts, in addition to the use of rhetorical topoi, which serve to induce a sense of fear. oliver and rahn (2016) offer a valuable overview of the central premises of populist movements: “populists in established democracies claim they speak for the „silent majority‟ of „ordinary, decent people‟ whose interests and opinions are (they claim) regularly overridden by arrogant elites, corrupt politicians, and strident minorities” (canovan 1999, 5). populism also defines the “people” by appeals to economic and social nationalism (gerteis and goolsby 2005; jansen 2011). here, the nation, or "heartland," is the primordial basis for a shared identity (taggart 2000). this construction of a "we" is also facilitated by the invocation of the people's enemies, both internal and external. (p. 191) 1 the acronyms used in the posters refer to rival political parties, namely ps (parti socialiste), ump (union pour un mouvement populaire), and umps (a term coined by fn politicians in reference to the ump and the ps to denounce their alleged interchangeability). an examination of the fn‟s political advertising material does indeed reveal a dichotomised opposition between the „us/we‟ and the „other‟. 'us': the people, the nation. one of the central premises of populism revolves around a “commitment to the „people‟” (taggart, 2000, p. 91). this strategy has been noted in relation to the fn, whose main concern since its inception has consistently involved the welfare of the french nation and people (davies, 1999). the focus on the people in fn campaign discourse is quite evident: a) the people first (le peuple d‟abord, 1 may 2013) b) our 7650 candidates are women and men of the people (nos 7650 candidats sont des femmes et des hommes du peuple (11 march 2015) c) the closing statement of the lead paragraph of the fn‟s charter of political engagement is a direct echo of lincoln‟s famous pledge: „government of the people, by the people, for the people’ (gouvernement du peuple, par le peuple et pour le peuple, 1 april 2015) more specifically, the populist claim to be “the will (or the voice) of the people (the vox populi argument of democratic discourse)” (van dijk, 1997, p. 29) is reflected in the fn electoral discourse: a) the voice of the people, the spirit of france (la voix du peuple, l‟esprit de la france, conference slogan ahead of presidential elections, february 2012) b) in contrast with the „chaos‟ brought forth by the ruling parties, the fn presents itself as “an alternative voice: that of common sense and the interest of the french people” (une autre voix: celle du bon sens et de l‟intérêt du peuple français, 6 march 2015). c) the fn's charter's final clause offers their pledge to 'consult the population on all important matters‟ (consulter la population … sur tous les sujets importants, 1 april 2015), thus giving power and a voice to the people. d) ultimately an electoral slogan prior to the presidential elections claims the fn speaks „in the name of the people‟ (au nom du peuple, 7 december 2016, 8 april 2017) the other component of the „us‟ construct is the nation. the concept of a nation has been defined as an “imagined political community” (anderson, 2006), a mental construct which is communicated through discourse, “predominantly in narratives of national culture. national identity is thus the product of discourse” (wodak et al., 2009, p. 22). the notion of the 'nation' as a 'heartland' that must be protected against dangerous outsiders has been identified as the main concern for right-wing populists (wodak, 2015). this typically leads to scenarios where the others ('them', who could be strangers either from within society or outside) threaten the homeland ('we'). 150 it is significant to make the connection in this context between the nation as a family and the concept of patriotism. in his brief account of the metaphor of the nation as family, lakoff outlines the image of a „patriot‟ (from latin pater, „father‟) who loves his fatherland (as cited in musolff, 2016, p. 28). this takes particular significance with the frequent references to patriotism and the „patriots‟ in fn electoral material. following her election as president of the fn, marine le pen immediately delineates her outlook as a „patriotic revolution‟ (révolution patriotique, 14 january 2011). similar associations are evident through fn members‟ self-reference as „les patriotes‟ and „les candidats patriotes‟ (11 march 2015), in addition to the predication „the patriots in power‟ in the run-up to the presidential elections (les patriotes au pouvoir, 8 july 2016). finally, the fn‟s proposal to save french manufacturer alstom relies on the appeal to „economic patriotism‟ (sauver alstom grâce au patriotisme économique, 26 sept 2016). the pivotal position the „nation‟ occupies in fn discourse is quite evident in the lead paragraph of the „charte d‟engagement politique‟ which encapsulates the central notions essential for the survival of the nation: sovereignty and independence (le fn défend la souveraineté nationale et l‟indépendance de la nation, 1 april 2015). as for the last post before the 2017 presidential elections, it offers a simple, brief, three-word slogan in monochrome text, against a blank background: „choose france‟ (choisir la france, 5 may 2017), with „la france‟ graphologically foregrounded in bold font. as noted by davies (1999) in his study of the fn, “the party‟s emphasis on the nation as a key ideological tenet dates from its formation in 1972" (p. 66). in this context, it is significant to remember that while the party has undergone a rebranding process as of june 2018 (from front national to rassemblement national), it is quite revealing that the 'national' element remained the constant that ensured the continuity between the two directions. ‘the other’: political opponents, the eu, immigrants a central feature of populism is its divisive nature (oudenampsen, 2011, p. 124) as it characteristically creates an “antagonism of „us versus them‟” (greven, 2016, p. 1). discussing the discursive strategies employed in right-wing populist rhetoric, wodak (2015) highlights the characteristic campaigning strategies that rely on creating fundamental dichotomies based on positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation. while the self ('us/we') is thus set in binary opposition to the 'other', otherness can be multidimensional. as outlined by hoheneder (2011): the extreme right reinvented community by exclusion, by igniting nationalist feelings and directing them against everything alien: against immigrants and asylum seekers, against the political elite and european integration. … the argument worked because it offered an explanation for almost every problem on earth. for shrinking welfare budgets (lazy immigrants), for rising costs of housing and food (the european currency) and unpopular politics (corrupt politicians). (pp. 166-7) an examination of the data reveals that the „other‟ in fn political discourse essentially takes three main forms, along the lines laid out by hoheneder: political opponents, the european union, and the immigrant population in france. a universal strategy adopted by politicians to win electoral support relies on attempts at discrediting the opposing party to minimise their chances of achieving victory (cabrejas-peñuelas & díez-prados, 2014). this can be accomplished in various ways, though typical strategies essentially include highlighting other parties‟ perceived failures, such as economic inefficiency, weak stances against crime or terrorism, and corruption (curini, 2018). apart from denouncing opponents‟ policies on issues such as unemployment, unsuccessful financial policies, laxity towards immigration (e.g. 6 march 2015; 18 april 2016), fn discourse often relies on argumentation ad hominem, i.e. discrediting opponents through an attack on their character or personal attributes (wodak, 2015). this is evident in the following posters: accusing the ump (7 march 2015) and former president sarkozy (19 july 2016) of mendacity and hypocrisy; levelling charges of racism against ps members (11 march 2015); and presenting an unflattering semiotic depiction of presidents sarkozy and hollande as zombie-like figures (21 april 2015). all of these examples do indeed confirm the tendency of right-wing populists to vilify the „others‟ and undermine their credibility (wodak, 2015). while the fn‟s relationship with europe has been ambivalent since the early days of jean-marie le pen (davies, 1999), evidence from election campaign posters produced over the past decade suggests that the fn‟s hostile attitude towards the european union has far from subsided. indeed, in the fn‟s discursive construction of the harmful „other‟, the eu figures predominantly as a malicious, abusive and ultimately toxic entity as the following posters reveal: a) the eu is semiotically portrayed as a patronising figure, abusing its power over a seemingly subservient and defenceless france (28 october 2014) b) france is depicted as incurring major financial losses due to the eu‟s plans to support the euro (21 april 2015) c) the headline „how the european union is wrecking you‟ provides alarming figures 151 (comment l‟union européenne vous ruine, 6 april 2016) d) the eu is described as „poisoning us‟ (l‟union européenne nous empoisonne, 18 april 2016) traditionally the most easily constructed category of 'other', immigrants inherently pose a challenge by virtue of their difference. while this makes them an easy target for wariness and suspicion in relation to native populations, "populists often use emotionally exciting language, for example, hyperbolic exaggerations or metaphors to arouse the emotions of their audience and to raise prejudices against immigrants" (kienpointner, 2005, p. 226). in his study on conservative elite discourse and racism, van dijk (1993) notes how the consequences of immigration are often “portrayed in terms of social, economic, and cultural catastrophe, and hence as a fundamental threat to white society.” (p. 90) this is confirmed by rydgren (2007) who argues that, for the radical right, immigrants are a threat to ethnonational identity; second, they are a major cause of criminality and other kinds of social insecurity; third, they are a cause of unemployment; and fourth, they are abusers of the generosity of the welfare states of western democracies, which results in fewer state subsidies, etc., for natives. (p. 242) consequently, immigrant groups typically receive more attention for potentially negative practices and their repercussions than for any positive contributions they may offer to society. hence, particularly in a populist context, "negative portrayals highlight those negative consequences that provoke strong popular resentment and scapegoating" (van dijk, 1993, p. 85). an overview of some key fn posters and slogans indeed reveals recurrent patterns in relation to the issue of immigration which is depicted respectively as a heavy financial burden (21 april 2015); an explosive device (24 april 2015); and a source of 'tension', associated with 'exorbitant costs', 'unprecedented regression', 'violence' against women (namely assault, rape and harassment), 'criminal networks‟ that are exploiting migrant children in europe (child trafficking, forced labour and prostitution), and ultimately „terrorism‟ and the islamist „threat‟ (18 march 2016). 3.1 topoi one of the most common strategies adopted in constructing the 'other' involves appealing to negative emotions by tapping into feelings of insecurity and social unease. discussing the centrality of fear to modern societies, wodak (2015) draws on the work of sociologist and media expert dick pels who identifies a broad range of social and political concerns that appeal to the voters. these include the fear of unemployment, loss of cultural values, threats to national security, suspicion towards immigrants, disillusionment with the ruling class, etc. while the reasons behind various types of crises are manifestly diverse, wodak notes the nearly uniform response of right-wing populist parties which tend to provide simplistic answers typically through the framing of 'others' as being responsible for all the grievances of the „people‟, arguing that such strategies lead to a "normalisation" of discriminatory rhetoric which is conducive to a climate of fear (wodak, 2015). as emphasised by reyes (2011), "fear is perhaps the most effective emotion to trigger a response" and "is often developed in political discourse by a process of demonisation of the enemy, and that process is linguistically realised by attributes (such as negative moral attitudes)" (p. 790). in her study of the discursive strategies employed in right-wing populist rhetoric, wodak (2015) discusses the use of topoi such as the topos of threat, the topos of urgency, the topos of saviour, etc. in the process of constructing the fearful other. the following section will investigate the common topoi found in fn electoral discourse, namely in terms of recurrent “leitmotifs” (wodak, 2009a, p. 119) that operate as ready-made statements typically used as basic arguments not requiring justification (van dijk, 2013). 3.1.1 topos of danger while wodak (2015) demonstrates that the topos of threat is frequently employed in the context of migration in order to intensify the idea of the dangerous 'other', an investigation of fn campaign material reveals that the topoi of danger and threat are evoked frequently in relation to various 'threats‟. at the lexical level, this is achieved through the use of terms such as chaos, the explosion of unemployment, attacks against the family policy, increased insecurity, the islamist threat (6 march 2015); the explosion of immigration (24 april 2015); health in danger, the umps harms health severely (19 march 2016); the eu is poisoning us (18 april 2016). at the semiotic level, immigration is graphically depicted as a time bomb (24 april 2015, above), while a genetically modified corn ear is held by a person dressed in a protective suit with gloves and goggles as if exposed to a hazardous substance (18 april 2016, above). such depictions resonate with earlier studies on the discourse of the fn and its core values. according to davies (1999), “the focus has remained the structure of party discourse: the emphasis on the nation and on the threats that, in the fn‟s view, jeopardise national integrity” (p. 221). 3.1.2 topos of numbers in addition to the topos of threat, van dijk (1993) highlights another strategy which he terms the „numbers game‟ and which is typically used in the 152 negative representation of immigrants: “this rhetorical use of quasi-objective figures, convincingly suggesting how many “come in” every day, week, month, or year, is one of the most compelling scare tactics in the formation of public opinion.” (p. 107). as noted by davies (1999), the founder of the fn jean-marie le pen knew well how to exploit figures: “from nothing more than a set of complex official statistics, the fn leader [was] able to create an ambience of fear and unease” (p. 158). a cursory examination of the fn data reveals that marine le pen adopts a similar strategy as she conveniently selects and presents alarming figures about unemployment (18 march 2016), the economy (21 april 2015), the european union (6 april 2016), immigration (18 march 2016), and the islamist threat (2 july 2015). interestingly, these posters reveal that the topos of numbers no longer revolves exclusively around immigration as the scope of perceived threats has been ostensibly expanded. 3.1.3 topos of saviour with the overwhelming existence of perceived dangers and threats, the need for a 'rescue narrative' becomes urgent. thus, the topos of the saviour protecting 'us' against 'them' is another feature commonly found in right-wing populist discourse (wodak, 2015). wodak notes that the saviour figure often takes the shape of a „charismatic leader‟ who employs „aggressive rhetoric‟. while it is common for politicians to adopt theatrical elements in their political performance and communications (greven, 2016), an examination of the fn electoral advertising material reveals a recurrent semiotic representation featuring a powerful and evocative image of the fn‟s leader. prior to the regional elections of 2015, the fn published a poster of marine le pen, confident, radiating positivity and optimism, with the buoyant predication „force for the future‟ (force d‟avenir, 5 june 2015). with the promise of a better future and the implication of salvation from „chaos‟ and the multiple threats facing the french nation, marine is indeed presented as a saviour endowed with redeeming powers. other posters present marine in a similar light, alternatively glorious, authoritative, protective, welcoming, but suggestively, always in a christ-like posture with her arms wide open (17 october 2014, 8 july 2016). drawing on butterwegge‟s study of right-wing populist and extremist movements which successfully gathered electoral support by depicting themselves as taking an anti-establishment stance, wodak (2015) notes the construction of the leaders‟ image “as saviours, saving „the people‟ from threat and danger (mostly from „outside‟), and as saving the welfare state for „us‟.” (p. 28). evidence of this feature was also found in a poster published prior to the 2017 presidential elections and referred to earlier in this study, proposing to „save alstom thanks to economic patriotism‟ (sauver alstom grâce au patriotisme économique, 26 september 2016). these findings are aligned with stoica‟s (2017) discussion of the ethos of populism and the rhetorical strategies it relies on in a bid to communicate messages that can be effortlessly grasped by drawing on recognisable narratives that appeal to the public. 3.2 metaphors in conceptual metaphor studies, a metaphor is framed as a cognitive operation that involves a transfer of meanings from one experiential domain to another, the source domain being typically familiar from personal or social experience (lakoff & johnson, 1980; kövecses, 2002). metaphors are a crucial element of human life as they enable us to understand and interpret the world. more importantly, metaphors "play a central role in the construction of social and political reality" (lakoff & johnson, 1980, p. 159). while chilton (2004) identifies metaphorical reasoning as a central feature of political discourse, van dijk (2000) further highlights the critical potential of metaphors to manipulate meaning and influence the construction of social representations of inand outgroups. discussing the significance of the use of metaphor in political discourse, musolff (2016) argues that far from simply creating associations by referring to certain concepts, metaphors have an additional function that can serve "to make an emotional and persuasive appeal, and/or to reassure the public that a perceived threat or problem fits into familiar experience patterns and can be dealt with by familiar problem-solving strategies” (p. 4). the following section will discuss the use of metaphor in the fn‟s political advertising discourse by identifying two broad categories frequently employed in the data under investigation. 3.2.1 positive metaphors an examination of the metaphorical element in fn discourse reveals a general trend towards positive self-presentation, with predominant themes such as hope, spring, revolution, awakening variously associated with its leader, individual members or the party at large. in the first poster issued following marine‟s appointment as president of the fn, the inauguration of her era is hailed as being no less than a „patriotic revolution‟ (vers la révolution patriotique, 14 january 2011). for labour day celebrations a few months later, another hopeful slogan was selected to promote further the idea of a dramatic change and a revival, indeed, a 'social spring' (avec marine, pour un printemps social, 8 april 2011). along the same lines, a conference organised by the fn ahead of the 2012 french presidential elections bore the sanguine title of „cape hope‟ (cap espérance, february 2012). as for the youth wing of the fn, they unequivocally declared 153 themselves, under the leadership of marine le pen, to be the embodiment of „french awakening‟ (jeunesse fn: nous sommes le réveil français, 25 april 2013). it is significant to note the distinctively positive mood during the first few years of marine le pen‟s mandate (2011-2013), which subsequently undergoes a dramatic shift as the focus is transposed to the topos of threat, thus the need for defence and protection. indeed, as the data below reveals, from 2015 onwards, positive self metaphors are often presented in direct opposition to negative ones depicting the other. a poster presented in a letter format as a direct address to the french citizen foregrounds the sense of immediacy and highlights the message's urgency (6 march 2015). faced with the 'chaos' generated by the ruling political parties, the fn proposes in the personal 'letter' to 'transform the legitimate revolt of the french into hope’ (transformer la légitime révolte des français en espoir), presenting itself as „the wind of renewal‟ (le vent du renouveau) and offering an „alternative voice‟ (une autre voix) representing the interests of the french people. similarly, following the constant threats posed by the allegedly disastrous policies of the umps and the rising threat of immigration highlighted previously, a compelling poster referred to earlier features marine le pen as a „force for the future‟ (force d‟avenir), arms wide open in a christ-like posture, with a confident smile, simultaneously protective and full of promise (5 june 2015). in the same seemingly redemptive vein, le pen proposes in another poster a list of steps designed to lead france on „the path towards national recovery‟ (le chemin du redressement national, 19 march 2016). this metaphor resonates with previous literature on political metaphor, suggesting a conceptualisation of political leadership and action through movement or journey metaphors (chilton, 2004, p. 52). ultimately, a powerful visual metaphor is presented in a poster issued in the wake of the 2016 british referendum, depicting chained hands breaking free in juxtaposition to the words: „brexit, and now france!‟ (24 june 2016). the metaphorical associations are clear: following the brexit vote, a new hope was restored with the promise of „freedom‟ from the shackles imposed by the european union. 3.2.2 negative metaphors studies of manipulation in political discourse have pointed out the tendency towards the use of metaphors drawing on the topoi of danger and disaster, often with detrimental effects. as highlighted by kienpointner (2005), “politicians in general, and especially right-wing populists, can often be accused of using metaphors to arouse dangerous emotions such as fear and hate in the population.” (p. 229). an analysis of the data reveals that the most prominent metaphorical field evident in the fn‟s discourse relates to the metaphors of war, aggression, fighting and destruction. in a campaign poster immediately preceding the departmental elections of 2012, all political parties in france are depicted as being united in their motion „to fight the fn‟ (lutter contre le front national), a message dramatically rendered as a list of 13 points (all including the item above repeated consecutively) exclusively targeting the fn (2 march 2015). furthermore, in stark contrast to the positive tone of the fn‟s proposal discussed above (6 march 2015) promising to lead the dissatisfied french population to a better place („hope‟, „wind of renewal‟), the second half of the poster is dedicated to the umps who are attributed extremely negative values linking the outcomes of their policies to ‘chaos’ (repeated twice) and accusing them of „complete failure‟ (en échec total). a list of items follows, outlining the failings of the previous and current administrations in highly metaphorical terms: rising unemployment levels are rendered as an „explosion‟ (explosion du chômage); economically, a decrease in purchasing power is depicted as a „collapse‟ (effondrement du pouvoir d‟achat); socially, family policy is perceived to be under „attack‟ (attaques contre la politique familiale); a sense of increasing „insecurity‟ (augmentation de l‟insécurité) conjures up feelings of vulnerability to potential threats and the absence of protection, as the nation is portrayed in a state of passive „submission‟ to the european union (soumission à l‟europe de bruxelles) and also in a critically 'weak' position in relation to immigration and the 'islamist threat‟ (faiblesse face à l‟immigration et à la menace islamiste). a subsequent poster issued in the following month and referred to earlier develops the last point further, linking the ump and the ps to an existential threat facing the french nation (24 april 2015). under their auspices, the poster implies that the immigration process (visually represented as a time bomb with the fuse ignited by both parties) will explode and blow up the hexagon (symbolically depicted by its map). this resonates with the findings of van dijk's (1993) study of the representation of immigration as being “out of control” with the concomitant image of the “explosion of a demographic time bomb that must be feared” (p. 108). finally, the metaphor of the nation as a person (musolff, 2016) is evident in the poster proposing “to give france back its freedom” (19 march 2016), offering a poignant depiction of a country forcefully held prisoner: „european conventions are imprisoning our country‟ (les traités européens emprisonnent notre pays) and „france cannot remain a prisoner to ancient european treaties that harm our country‟ (la france ne peut rester prisonnière aux anciens traités européens qui font du mal à notre pays). thus, the predominance of war metaphors relating to aggression (fight, attack), danger (threat, explosion, 154 time bomb), destruction (collapse, chaos), and the consequences and repercussions of war (insecurity, imprisonment) serves to construct a permanent threat albeit in various guises (political opponents, the eu, immigrants, islam…). this corresponds with the findings of previous studies on populist discourse, namely that “right-wing populists strategically and tactically use negativity in political communication", including reference to "violent metaphors" (greven, 2016, p. 1). in conclusion, this examination of the data provides substantial evidence that fn political discourse does rely on the strategies of positive selfpresentation and negative other-presentation reflecting van dijk‟s (1997) ideological square where “we, our people and our actions and properties will tend to be described in metaphorical meanings that derive from conceptual fields with positive associations, whereas the opposite is true for the description of our political opponents or enemies” (p. 36). these findings resonate with kaya and tecmen‟s (2019) discussion of the process of othering which populists engage in by capitalising on fear as a tool to mobilise the public and gain support. they also correspond with cervi et al.'s (2020) findings concerning the communicative force of right-wing populist politicians‟ discourse and the dichotomous representations they resort to in order to legitimise their anti-immigrant stances. 3.3 speech acts speech act theory attempts to account for how speakers use language to accomplish intended actions and is thus of particular relevance in the context of political discourse where, in the process of what fairclough terms the “manufacture of consent" (1989, p. 4), politicians constantly strive to influence opinion, promote their agenda and persuade voters to support them in the electoral process. for this purpose, they commonly resort to making promises, issuing warnings, making accusations, discrediting opponents, etc. however, all of these are often achieved by means of indirect speech acts. in their discussion of the pragmatic dimension of discourse, chilton and schäffner (2002) note that many of the speech acts produced in political discourse are not performed explicitly but rather communicated as implicit accusations, blame and criticism of others. the analytical framework adopted in this paper is based on searle‟s (1979) speech act classification, particularly in terms of: a) assertives which commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition. b) directives whose purpose is to get the hearer to perform an action. c) commissives that commit the speaker to a future course of action. in his analysis of the language of fear, cap (2006) notes the “complex directive force” of speech acts of assertion, which in addition to indicating the speakers‟ firm commitment to the truth of their claims, can also function as a crucial persuasive device (p. 28). the following section investigates the speech acts most commonly used in the fn‟s electoral campaign material, particularly in terms of slogans. a „petition‟ launched by the fn questioning france‟s financial contribution to the european union is based on an assertive speech act challenging the latter‟s authority: „it is not up to the european commission to decide for us!‟ (ce n‟est pas à la commission européenne de décider pour nous!, 28 october 2014). subsequently, the campaign for the 2015 french departmental elections (6 march 2015) provides substantial evidence of directives: first, through an exhortation: „let us defend social justice, sovereignty, the identity of france and the unity of the republic!‟ (défendons la justice sociale, la souveraineté, l‟identité de la france et l‟unité de la république!); followed by a prohibitive: „no abstention!‟ (pas d‟abstention!); and an ultimate appeal inciting people to take action: „vote!‟ (votez!). the argument concludes with a commissive offering the promise that the people will have 'elected representatives‟ (vous aurez des élus!) rather than an unwanted class of political figures imposed on them, provided they vote for the fn. in the run-up to the regional elections of december 2015, the fn draws on the topos of danger discussed earlier, highlighting the perceived threat of immigration (24 april 2015). the semiotic representation of immigration as a time bomb is accompanied by a double speech act involving simultaneously an assertive (warning about an imminent „explosion‟) and a directive highlighting the urgency of taking immediate action, reinforced through the use of graphological foregrounding („il est urgent d‟agir‟). another poster is designed to attract further electoral support based on a directive in the form of an invitation to join the fn (adhérez!), reinforced at the semiotic level by the accompanying photo discussed earlier, presenting a smiling marine in a welcoming posture with her arms wide open (5 june 2015). the topos of threat emerges again in an alarmist poster (2 july 2015) about the growing number of salafi mosques in france, followed by a call for action through a double directive: „sign the petition to demand their closure‟ (signez la pétition pour exiger leur fermeture). a few months ahead of the regional elections of december 2015, the fn issues another forceful call for voters to actively participate by reminding them of the need to register for the forthcoming elections (22 155 july 2015). the message, communicated through the use of directives, is brief but clear: although formulated in the infinitive form, it presents an indirect speech act with the illocutionary force of exhortation, urging voters „to stop enduring, to act!‟ (cesser de subir, agir!); in other words, actively taking matters into one‟s hands (implicitly, by voting fn) rather than passively suffering the repercussions resulting from the outcome of the elections. while this echoes an earlier message communicated during the departmental elections campaign (6 march 2015), this slogan is all the more effective due to the juxtaposition of the antithetical verbs „subir‟ and „agir‟. finally, an appeal to voters for the 2017 presidential elections is presented in an engaging question/answer format, the answer obviously consisting of a directive inciting voters to „support‟ marine (convaincus par le discours de vérité de marine? soutenez-la!). the claim about the candidate‟s discourse being the „truth‟ is semiotically reinforced by the accompanying picture of marine in an assertive posture, with a direct gaze, commanding and confidence-inspiring (9 february, 22 june 2016). another dimension of speech acts evident in fn campaign slogans relies on the use of binaries formulated in terms of strong categorical assertions (yes/no for…) capitalised for emphasis and affirming unequivocal support for france while rejecting the „other‟ in its various manifestations (political opponents and their policies, the european union and its multinational initiatives, islamism, etc.) table 3.1. yes/no assertives in fn political posters yes no oui la france! (4 april 2012, french presidential elections 2012) non à l‟islamisme (15 january 2011) dites oui à la france! (23 april 2014, eu elections) oui au patriotisme! oui aux départements! non à valls et aux mensonges de l‟ump! (20 march 2015, french departmental elections) pour nous, c‟est non! (loi el-khomri, 27 february 2016 and 10 march 2016) je dis non au chômage en masse je dis non à la justice des multinationales je dis non à la ruine de l‟agriculture française je dis non au boeuf aux hormones je dis non aux ogm (26 october 2016) the data above reveals the significant predominance of assertives in fn political campaigning discourse, contesting existing policies, warning about their potential repercussions, and offering a categorical rejection of the status quo along with a strong affirmation of the fn‟s devotion and commitment to the nation. significantly, le pen‟s speech act of rejection acquired particular prominence at the start of her active political involvement in the departmental and regional elections of 2015, where she initiated a distinctive tradition setting herself up against the various parties in power and depicting herself as the voice of the opposition as evident for instance in the poster referred to below. as cap (2006) argues, "assertion (strong, undeniable) is an indispensable element of the "us and them" rhetoric" (p. 19), primarily as it serves to reinforce the speaker's credibility and encourage the audience‟s active engagement. thus, in addition to the use of directives that propose a course of action aiming to „redress‟ the balance (le chemin du redressement national, 9 march 2016), the use of assertives adds a further directive force enhancing le pen's appeal. finally, these strategies were complemented by the presence of commissives offering a pledge to serve and „protect‟ the people if elected. 156 4. conclusion this paper has examined the discourse of the fn through an investigation of their electoral campaign material. what has emerged from this study is that the fn adopts typical populist tropes and strategies to broaden its electoral base and win popular support. common themes revolve around the people (central pivot, vox populi argument, etc.), the nation (a core notion at the heart of populist discourse) and most importantly, the other (a complex construct that is a necessary component of populist discourse and that may involve any perceived threat that poses a challenge to the integrity of the people and the nation). a crucial strategy at the core of fn discourse involves the linguistic and discursive construction of the self and the other through the use of strategies typical of right-wing populist discourse involving the appeal to emotions (particularly the feelings of fear and insecurity). while the „self‟ refers primarily to the fn, who claims to be the people's representative and the nation's defender, the people occupy a predominant position as it is with their best interests in mind that the fn proposes to fight the 'other'. as for the other, it variously takes the form of political opponents (the ps, the ump, and most recently president macron since his election), the european union, which is perceived to be a nefarious entity detrimental to the wellbeing of the french nation, as well as the overall process of immigration (invariably depicted as a threat, with primary associations to terrorism). the study of the fn‟s use of metaphor reveals a sharp polarisation in the depiction of the self and the other, in accordance with the ideological square, largely through the fn's positive self-presentation through benevolent and optimistic metaphors. in contrast, the other is portrayed chiefly through the use of war metaphors. similarly, through the use of speech acts, the fn blames, accuses and criticises the other, holding it accountable for the ills befalling the nation. at the same time, the self (in the person of le pen) is assertive, firm, and determined in its defence of the nation and the people. finally, both linguistic strategies are reinforced through semiotic representations enhancing the us/them dichotomy. overall, the fn consistently promotes itself as the „resistance‟, indeed “a front of refusal” (davies, 1999, p. 135) as evident in the poster published following the outcome of the last presidential elections and promoting the fn as the „sole opposition‟ (contre le gouvernement macron… la seule opposition, 25 july 2017). in that sense, marine le pen can be seen to continue the tradition established by her father in her unwavering emphasis on the nation, its people and values, and the need to protect and defend them. however, what has also emerged is that the fn is taking a slightly different direction under her leadership. as evident from her recent initiative to rename the party the 'national rally' (june 2018), in the process of offering a more modern outlook and appealing to a broader base, le pen has significantly distanced herself from the radical image of the old fn. apart from the bold move that led to the suspension of her father's membership to the fn, the party he founded, she has also adopted different stances, for instance, towards immigration. indeed, while le pen clearly shares her father's aversion to this phenomenon, she has nevertheless approached the matter from a different perspective. jean-marie le pen's rejection of the 'foreigner' was largely based on ethnic grounds, bringing him broad accusations of racism and fascism. nevertheless, marine's own objection focuses instead on the social and economic repercussions of uncontrolled immigration, such as unemployment, reduced welfare, and the threat of terrorism. whether due to marine le pen's charismatic presence or the reforms she has brought about since her appointment in 2011, the fn has evolved from being the most unpopular political party in france to becoming one of the main political forces in the country, enjoying great popularity notably among the french youth. what remains an important point of contention that deserves consideration nevertheless are the implications of the growing influence of a political party based on polarisation and driven by an exclusionary agenda, especially in the eventuality of marine le pen achieving victory in the next french presidential elections. finally, the new direction the party has taken under le pen's leadership certainly offers promising prospects for future research on the evolution of the fn and its discourse. subsequent studies can be conducted to explore the impact of the use of social media in political campaigning on the french electorate. on a broader scale, while the european political scene has received much attention, further research deserves to be dedicated to the investigation of the populist phenomenon in different contexts, expanding the scope to include south american and asian nations. 5. acknowledgement this research was made possible thanks to a sabbatical leave granted by the lebanese university during which this study was conducted. references anderson, b. 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(a. hirsch, r. mitten & j. w. unger, trans.). edinburgh university press. instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.9216 vol. 4, no. 2, august 2022, pp. 243-251 243 covid-19 hoax news in indonesian context: looking beyond the essence using content analysis yusri yusri *, mantasiah rivai, & muhammad anwar universitas negeri makassar, makassar, indonesia yusri@unm.ac.id article history received : 2022-01-26 revised : 2022-07-21 accepted : 2022-08-03 keywords content analysis mass trauma hoax news covid-19 symbols abstract the hoax has been widely discussed in many studies employing various approaches, and one of the hoaxes massively spread recently is news about covid-19. this qualitative study aims at investigating the essence of hoax news related to covid-19 in the indonesian context using a content analysis approach. the main source of data was 50 hoax news collected from turnbackhoax.com, which is one of the credible anti-hoax news sources in indonesia. the present study collected the news from 1st january 2022 until 30th march 2020. they were then analysed and interpreted qualitatively. the research findings revealed that hoax news circulated during this pandemic era mostly had the purpose of sparking public panic, especially panic buying and panic moving. to trigger such a condition, writers of hoax news frequently used symbols such as time markers (time signals) and quantifiers and involved famous figures. this implies that hoaxes are not only spread during political events or other important occasions but also when most humans in the world experience mass trauma, which in this case is due to the covid-19 pandemic. 1. introduction hoax news is a topic that many researchers have extensively studied through various approaches. many earlier studies investigated hoaxes from a linguistic perspective. previous studies on hoax news focused on investigating the meaning of each word or sentence and the purposes of their usages based on linguistic theories like discourse, critical discourse analysis, and cognitive linguistics (volkova et al., 2017; walsh, 2006; pérez, 2012; marbun, 2020). besides linguistics, psychology also widely discusses hoax news to explain what motivates people to spread hoaxes (rahayu et al., 2019; ilahi, 2018) and other social theories such as social network analysis (ginting, manongga, & sembiring, 2018). besides various approaches, hoax news has also been studied within different disciplines. some researchers studied hoaxes related to politics, like how they affect the electability of a politician or a political party and how they are used to bring down political opponents (utami, 2018; chua et al., 2016; park & rim, 2019; allcott & gentzkow, 2017). besides politics, the hoax is also widely discussed in the religious sector. in this case, the hoax news usually contains information that aims at disuniting societies with different faiths and reports about religious events, and some studies focused on how to identify hoaxes related to religion like martinkova (2008), salam (2018), wimmer (1998), tulung & kalampung (2019). hoaxes related to the academic world are generally referred to as academic hoaxes. some researchers who have investigated this topic are ravitch (2014), epafras, djalong & kaunang (2018), grech (2019), and glass & shaughnessy (2015). some studied hoaxes about academic policies, while others explored hoaxes related to sciences or health. the existence of studies related to hoaxes in politics, religion, academics, and other sectors show that hoax has become a big issue frequently found in all aspects of life. hoax is highly related to the use of social media as it becomes the main media to share them (santoso et al., 2017; suyanto et al., 2018; assiroj et al., 2018; arif, 2016) like facebook, whatsapp, telegram, instagram. broadcasting hoax news involves some parties, including 1) a person who intentionally creates and spreads the news, 2) readers who also share the news, and 3) readers who only read without sharing the news. readers who share the news usually do not have sufficient knowledge to accommodate them in analysing the materials' accuracy (ilahi, 2018). as explained before, hoaxes are generally spread before the general election, including the election of the regional head. in addition, hoaxes are usually circulated in national and international incidents. covid-19 can be categorised as a non-natural disaster faced by all countries, including indonesia. it became one of the biggest problems in the era as it led to thousands of victims in many countries, and the world mailto:yusri@unm.ac.id 244 health organization (who) had put this case as a pandemic meaning that covid-19 was a disease spreading widely all around the world. in other words, this disease has become a shared problem worldwide. a problem faced by communities when this incident happened was that many hoax news spread that raised confusion in societies, and it was generally difficult for them to differentiate between facts and fakes. one of the negative impacts of hoax news is that the public will panic and tend to act negatively, which disadvantages society. the panic occurs due to uncontrolled anxiety after receiving the hoax news (prasetijo et al., 2017; putri et al., 2019; zannettou et al., 2019). an example of hoax news spread in indonesia during the covid-19 pandemic was “indonesia’s president is to regulate lock-down as soon as possible.” this hoax triggered panic among societies; hence many of them hoarded food and other daily necessities. this study aimed to analyse the meaning of each word or sentence in hoax news related to covid-19 using a content analysis approach. the difference between the current study from the earlier ones is the situation in which the hoaxes spread. most previous studies investigated hoaxes in political events or daily lives like health and education. while in this study, the hoaxes were spread when most humans in the world experienced mass trauma caused by covid-19. the findings of this study can be a comparison to other kinds of hoaxes circulated in different situations. 2. method this qualitative study employed a content analysis approach to investigate the essence of hoax news in the indonesian context. this approach focuses on explaining how discourse messages are organised, used, and understood. it also shows the variations of strategies and messages used by the writers in formulating hoax news. data used in this study were 50 hoax news about covid-19 circulated in indonesia from 1st january 2020 to 30th march 2020. they were obtained from the site of the indonesian hoax news collection (https://turnbackhoax.id/) managed by fafhh (antidefamation, incitement, and hoax forum). before the hoax news is posted on this site, it must be verified and confirmed to ensure the reliability of the content. the validity of this site had been attested in earlier studies which also used it as their source of data (asidiky & puspa, 2020; ginting, manongga, & sembiring, 2018; mustika, 2018; pudjajana et al., 2018; epafras, djalong, & kaunang, 2018). the data were analysed using the conventional content analysis technique. we used theory and previous research findings to analyse data as a guideline for initial coding. in conventional content analysis, coding categories are derived directly from text data (walia, 2015). in ensuring the validity of the meaning from the researchers’ interpretation, two expert validators were involved to re-interpret the research data. creswell (2012) explains that to ensure the validity of the coding process, we can involve "external auditor” as expert validators. the expert validators are linguists who have been wellexperienced in conducting and publishing research articles related to content analysis in a qualitative study. 3. results this study aimed to investigate the essence of hoax news related to covid-19 in the indonesian context. in analysing the hoax news, the first step was to divide the collected hoax news into several different topics. this division was based on the similarity of the topics discussed in the news. it was to identify what topics are often reported as hoax news related to covid-19. 3.1 topics of hoax news based on fifty data (hoax news) analysed in this study, in general, the topics can be divided into four main groups. more details can be seen in figure 3.1: figure 3.1. topics of hoax news 16 12 8 5 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 topic 1 topic 2 topic 3 topic 4 topic 1: people infected with covid-19 topic 2: closing public spaces topic 3: government policy topic 4: relevance between covid-19 and religion https://turnbackhoax.id/ 245 data depicted in figure 3.1 shows that most hoax news circulated among societies were under two main topics, namely hoaxes about people infected with coronavirus and the closing of public places as a solution to prevent the widespread of the coronavirus. the following are some examples of news titles about the topics: 3.1.1 topic 1: people infected with corona virus (16 news) the hoax news on this topic focused on announcing people who had tested positive for covid-19. “ratusan warga china yang menetap di indonesia menuju singapura karena virus corona” (hundreds of chinese citizens residing n indonesia are heading to singapore due to corona virus) title 1 source: helsyanto (2020) jokowi positif corona” (jokowi is positive for corona virus) title 2 source: khairil (2020) “dosen kedokteran gigi ui meninggal karena covid-19” (a dentistry lecturer of ui has passed away due to covid-19) title 3 source: khairil (2020) the data shows that some people mentioned infected with this virus were the crucial people of the country like the president, ministries, and other famous figures. for example, hoax news in title 2 mentions the president of the indonesian republic (joko widodo), and hoax news in title 3 mentions a dentistry lecturer at the university of indonesia. both president and dentistry lecturer are categorised as important figures. in addition to mentioning important people, hoax news on this topic also uses quantifiers to exaggerate the number of people infected with covid-19. title 1 informs that hundreds of chinese citizens got infected. the use of the symbol of quantifier tends to make the readers panic. 3.1.2 topic 2: closing of a public place due to corona virus pandemic (12 news) besides related to people infected with covid-19, other news that has triggered societies’ panic was about the temporary closing of public places like markets, supermarkets, and offices as a solution to prevent the spread of coronavirus. some examples of the titles in the second topic are: “antisipasi corona, seluruh bumn dki ditutup” (anticipating corona, all dki state-owned corporations are closed) title 4 source: syafitrah (2020) “pasar wameo dan karya nugraha di tutup selama 1 minggu” (wameo and karya nugraha markets are closed for 1 week) title 5 source: khairil (2020) ”pandemi corona, anies baswedan : universitas di jakarta diliburkan, kecuali universitas pancasila” (corona pandemic, anies baswedan: universities in jakarta are closed, except the university of pancasila) title 6 source: khairil (2020) the use of quantifiers can be seen in the hoax news titles 4 and 5. in title 4, “all (seluruh)” means that covid-19 affected all corporations in jakarta. whereas, title 6 informs anies baswedan meaning that it used symbols of an important or famous figure. involving a famous figure in the news aims to make the reader more trusting of the news. 3.1.3 topic 3: government policy (8 news) to prevent the spread of covid-19, the central and regional governments issued some policies. this matter then was also taken as material for hoax news. some examples of news titles categorised in group 3 are: “joko widodo, presiden republik indonesia, memberlakukan kerantina parsial terbatas” (joko widodo, the president of republic of indonesia, imposes the limited partial quarantine) title 7 source: syafitrah (2020) “apd dari china dibeli dengan uang pribadi prabowo” (ppe from chine was purchased using personal funds from prabowo) title 8 source: helsyanto (2020) the involvement of important figures as a symbol in hoax news can be found in hoax news titles 7 and 8. title 7 informs about joko widodo, who imposed a policy, and title 8 informs about prabowo subianto, one of indonesia's ministers. involving a famous figure in the news aims to make the reader more trusting of the news. 3.1.4 topic 4: relevance between corona virus and religion (5 news) other exciting data were the news correlated religious issues and this pandemic, like the trigger for covid-19 and the power of a high priest to solve covid-19. some titles in this topic are: “foto perempuan muslim uighur yang dizalimi dan doanya memicu azab virus corona” (the photo of perverted uighur moslem woman whose supplication has triggered the corona virus doom) title 9 source: khairil (2020) 246 “di tanya soal virus corona korlap fpi: hanya imam besar kami yg punya penangkal virus corona,karna imam besar kami cucu nabi” (asked about the corona virus, fpi corps: only our high priest who has the corona virus antidote, because our high priest is the grandson of the prophet) title 10 source: khairil (2020) “sholat jum’atan di china menjadi lautan manusia, orang islam di wuhan tidak satupun yang kena virus corona” (jummah pray in china became a sea of people, none of moslems in wuhan infected with corona virus) title 11 source: rahayu (2020) the three news titles above correlated the incident of the coronavirus pandemic with islam. the first news informed that the coronavirus was a punishment from god because some people wronged a muslim woman from uighur, and the supplication of the woman resulted in the corona virus pandemic. the idea in the news was connected with a belief in islam that god will more easily answer the supplications of a person who has been wronged. a person whose honour, wealth, life, religion, or one of its rights is oppressed will have his supplications not rejected. there is a similar pattern found in topic 4 with other hoax news. the involvement of important figures as a symbol in the hoax news can be found in titles 12 and 13. title 12 informs about uighur moslem woman, a famous woman, whereas title 13 informs about fpi corps. fpi is an islamic defenders front, and the news's subject is the organisation's head. moreover, title 14 uses the symbol of the quantifier. a sea of people is a phrase that means that there are many people. 3.2 hoax news potency to trigger public’s panic as explained before, most hoax news taken as the data in this study had the purpose of triggering society’s panic. to understand further how hoax news stimulates panic among people, some data were analysed using a linguistic approach: a conventional content analysis. 3.2.1 data 1 title of hoax news pasar-pasar tradisional di tanjung karang & teluk betung mulai besok ada yang tutup 3 hari sd 5 hari (there are traditional markets in tanjung karang and teluk betung closed starting from tomorrow for 35 days) explanatory information there was a chain message shared through whatsapp stating that some markets in tanjung karang & teluk betung, lampung would be closed because the government would spray steriliser. the following is the fragment of the hoax news that potentially trigger societies’ panic: “untuk saudara” yg mau beli obat/ vitamin utk persediaan di rumah,,,,belilah sekarang, karna stok obat vitamin yg lg dibutuhkan saat ini stoknya sdh menipis,, distributor farmasi obat”an & expedisi byk yg diliburkan. beberapa pasar” tradisional di tjk.karang & teluk betung mulai besok ada yg tutup 3hr sd 5hr karna mau d semprot/disterilisasi, dr pemerintah,,,, jadi yg mau beli sayur”an belilah sekarang,,,” (for you who want to buy drugs/vitamins for stock at home, buy now, because the supply of the vitamin needed at the moment is running low in stock. many pharmacies, drug distributors and expeditions are off. some traditional markets in tjk. karang and teluk betung starting tomorrow are off for 3 to 5 days for spraying / sterilization from the government. so if you want to buy vegetables, you must buy now). data 1 source: khairil (2020) here, the writer used a time signal to trigger societies’ panic like “belilah sekarang (buy now)” and “mulai besok (starting tomorrow)". the phrase "buy now" is repeated twice, meaning the writer stressed the communities to immediately buy drugs, vitamins, or even materials for the leading food. another time signal is the phrase "starting tomorrow" in the sentence "some markets are off starting tomorrow". that day was the last chance for communities to purchase stuff they would need. based on the data analysis, it can be concluded that the purpose of the writer of the hoaxes was to make societies panic or frightened, which potentially triggered panic buying among those who trusted the news. 3.2.2 data 2 title of hoax news pasar wameo dan karya nugraha ditutup selama 1 minggu (wameo and karya nugraha market are closed for 1 week) explanatory information news circulated among the societies stated that wameo and karya nugraha markets were to be closed to avoid crowds and to be sterilised. the following fragment of the hoax news that potentially triggers societies’ panic: “assalamu alaikum … info dari pedagang pasar wameo dan karya nugraha dari hasil rapat tadi siang di pasar wameo bersama wali kota bau bau, mulai pekan depan atau senin depan pasar wameo dan nugraha di tutup selama 1 minggu , untuk menghindari kerumunan orang , dan pasar mau di bersihkan”(“assalamu alaikum, … 247 this information comes from the merchants of wameo and karya nugraha markets, based on the meeting conducted this afternoon in wameo market with the mayor of bau bau, starting next week or next monday, wameo and nugraha markets will be closed for 1 week, to avoid crowd, and the market will be cleaned). data 2 source: kominfo (2020) the data shows similarities to the previous one as the news writer used time signals to trigger panic among societies. the time signals, in this case, are 'starting next week" and "for one week". this news was spread on saturday night so the sentence "starting next week or next monday" means the societies would only have a-day chance to purchase their primary needs in those markets, because starting monday, both markets would be closed for one week. therefore, the points emphasised in the news are that the societies had one day for shopping for their one week needs. based on the data analysis, it can be concluded that hoax news also potentially provokes panic buying. 3.2.3 data 3 title of hoax news pemerintah indonesia memberlakukan lockdown mulai tanggal 20 maret 2020 (indonesia governments implement lockdown starting march 20, 2020) explanatory information a narration was shared through whatsapp and facebook, mentioning that the government was to lockdown indonesia on friday, 20th march 2020. a link showing the conference video of minister of foreign affairs, ri, retno marsudi, was also attached to the message. following is the fragment of the hoax news that potentially triggered societies’ panic “akhirnya, indonesia berlakukan lockdown mulai tengah malam nanti, jumat (20/3/2020) pukul 00.01 wib”. (finally, indonesia is to implement lockdown starting this midnight, friday (20/3/2020) at 00.01 wib) data 3 source: kominfo (2020) the fragment above also used time signals that potentially trigger people's panic, like "starting this midnight' followed by date and time (friday, 20/3/2020, at 00.01 wib. the decision to lockdown in the hoax news was made on 19/3/2020 at 13.00 wib. the point emphasised in this news is that the duration of the lockdown remained at 11 hours only. it triggered panic, both panic buying and doing other activities outside the house. 3.2.4 data 4 title of hoax news dki jakarta mulai besok lock down warga di luar jakarta tidak dibolehkan masuk kecuali ada izin polisi (dki jakarta starting tomorrow lock down the societies outside jakarta to enter the city except receiving a permit from the polices). explanatory information in social media and whatsapp group chat, information stating that “dki jakarta starting tomorrow lock down the societies outside jakarta to enter the city except receiving a permit from the polices” was spread. following is the fragment of the hoax news that potentially triggered societies’ panic “dki jakarta mulai besok lock down warga di luar jakarta tidak dibolehkan masuk kecuali ada izin polisi”. (“dki jakarta starting tomorrow lock down the societies outside jakarta to enter the city except receiving a permit from the polices”). data 4 source: syafitrah (2020) the component potentially triggering societies’ panic from the news is the time signal and information of persons. the time signal refers to the phrase "starting tomorrow", which means that society did not have much time to perform activities as usual. besides the time signal, in the news, the use of information about the person can be seen as in the phrase "residents outside jakarta". the panic that could arise here is the panic moving to immediately go to jakarta, considering that the following day, it would not be allowed to enter the city. 3.2.5 data 5 title of hoax news pasar kodya cirebon ditutup mulai 20 maret 2020 (kodya market, cirebon is closed from march 20, 2020) explanatory information whatsapp shared the news that kodya market in cirebon would be closed on 20th march 2020. following is the fragment of the hoax news that potentially triggered societies’ panic “mulai besok, jum’at 20 maret 2020 semua pasar wilayah kodya tutup serentak slama minimal 3 hari kedepan krn ada penyemprotan”. (starting tomorrow, friday, march 20, 2020, all markets in the region of kodya will be closed simultaneously for at least 3 days ahead for spraying”). data 5 source: khairil (2020) the last datum also shows similarities to previous data in that the writer emphasised the time signal of the hoax news that had the potential to trigger panic among communities. the time signal in the hoax news can be noticed in the phrase 'starting tomorrow. the time signal 'tomorrow' clearly means "in a moment", in this case, at least 2 hours. as a result, the societies believed that they were informed that the remaining time they 248 had to shop in the market to fulfil their primary needs three days ahead was 24 hours for maximum. besides that time signal, there was also information about the place that triggered panic. the information about the place can be found in the phrase “all markets in the region of kodya”. it means the communities would have no alternative places for shopping for three days ahead. therefore, the potential emerging panic was panic buying. 4. discussion there were various topics of hoax news circulating at the beginning of the covid-19 pandemic, like persons who were confirmed positive for covid-19, lockdown or temporary closure of public places, and government policies. they were different from hoaxes circulated before the election of the regional head or the general election on social media, which were susceptible to bringing negative impacts to the unity of the nation like religion or tribal issues. hoax generally aims to provoke moslems as the dominant societies in the country or societies from particular tribes. hoax news created for political purposes apparently may raise dangerous issues for national and social lives (astrika, 2019; hasfi, santosa, & lukamantoro, 2017). creating hoaxes has several motives like to cause panic or fear in the community. this point is in accordance with the findings of several previous studies conducted by shiddiq (2020), marbella et al. (2021), and yunus & rezki (2020), explaining that people who easily believe in hoax news have the potential to feel anxious, panicked, and afraid when reading it. nevertheless, dharmastuti et al. (2020) proves that there is evidence that hoaxes might make people more anxious. there are still few current pieces of literature about the effects of hoaxes on human health during the covid-19 pandemic. the youthful, internet-dependent millennial generation has the highest level of anxiety. moms or women from the millennial generation are already tech savvy. the pandemic undoubtedly exposes them to scams. this study's findings also exhibit that several symbols are used in hoax news to provoke panic in readers. these symbols include time markers or modalities, quantifiers that exaggerate a quantity, and important figures (as objects discussed in the news). using time markers (time signals) on hoax news can trigger panic in readers. the time marker in the data indicates that people do not have much time to do something, like shopping at a store or market and travelling to a place. there are several symbols of time markers widely used in hoax news, such as "starting tomorrow", "now", "1 week", and "just a few days". the concept of this time marker in linguistics can also be defined as a modality. lyon (1969) explains that modality is related to the content of speech that is believed, doubted, expected, or assumed by the speaker. the concept of modality in this hoax news tends to be a trusted modality. it can be noticed from the time markers, which refer to certainty or something that will happen. halliday (1992) explains that to make the public understand the meaning and intention of the news text, we can add the concept of modality to the news text. it shows that the use of the time marker potentially makes readers easier to believe the information and triggers their panic. another symbol found in some hoax news is quantifiers. quantifiers are words to indicate the quantity of a noun. however, the quantifier used here tends to exaggerate the quantity of the object it explains. readers' panics tend to be triggered when they see victims in large numbers. there are several quantifier symbols that are generally used in hoax news, such as "hundreds", "all", "most", "many", and other quantifiers. this phenomenon can be explained through conformity theory. panizza, vostroknutov, & coricelli (2021) and mofakhami explain that conformity behaviour is the tendency to change one's beliefs or behaviour to conform to the behaviour of others. people's trust or belief in hoax news can potentially change when they see the number of people or other objects. li et al. (2021) shows that the results reveal that panic buying can be explained as a response to both environmental stimuli. li et al. (2021) proves that societal influence and social norms, as well as estimated vulnerability and severity of a pandemic event, might encourage consumers' perceptions of scarcity and affective responses, which in turn prompts impulsive panic buying and it can be occurred as influenced by numerous people. numerous people can be seen clearly through the concept of quantifier. another factor that potentially triggers panic is the involvement of important figures to be objects discussed in the news. the involvement of important figures or famous figures causes people easily believe the news. when a figure like jokowi as president of the republic of indonesia is replaced with another person not well known, readers may not believe the news. even some readers will think that the news is not essential. previous research conducted by tanase et al. (2021) and dan et al. (2021) show that news readers will respond differently when the figures discussed in the news are public or important political figures. this point is also explained through the concept of framing theory by chong (2007), which states that the public will tend to be more easily influenced when the objects discussed in the news are well known by the readers. based on the discussion above, there are several symbols used in hoax news which potentially raise different responses than hoax news without symbols. the symbols used in hoax news include time markers, quantifiers, and famous figures. the reader's response can be in the form of panic or fear. this finding is related to the previous study conducted by dharmastuti et al. (2020) showing that any hoaxes during this pandemic can make people more anxious. one indication of health anxiety is experiencing panic and 249 paranoia together with palpable physical symptoms. several maladaptive behaviors resulted from the hoax exposures, including overstating the need for medical advice, delaying hospital treatment, and over-storing logistical activities. this is supported by scott (2022) proving that during the covid-19 pandemic, hoaxes in social media could heighten social anxiety and fear. it could then impact other aspects of daily emotional stability. the findings of this study should be considered in preparing anti-hoax news media campaigns for the public, that the public should not easily believe the news circulating on social media no matter how convincing they are. moreover, one of the interesting topics which should be needed further study is the correlation of hoax spread in the societies and its mental-health impacts quantitatively. 5. conclusion this qualitative study employed a content analysis approach to investigate the essence of hoax news in the indonesian context. the findings of this study reveals that hoax covid19 news circulated in the era primarily aimed at triggering societies’ panic, especially panic buying and panic moving. the findings of this study also show that to trigger people's panic, the news writer usually used symbols such as time signals, quantifiers, and famous figures. the novelty of this study emphasises that hoaxes are not only spread during political events or other important occasions but also when most humans in the world experience mass trauma, which in this case is due to by covid-19 incident. there are some symbols written in the hoax news which can potentially trigger panic behaviour. references allcott, h., & gentzkow, m. 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(2020). official and unofficial media information and the public panic during the covid-19 pandemic in china: an empirical analysis. rev argent clínica psicológica, 29(5), 1538-1551. https://doi.org/10.24205/03276716.2020.1151 https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/953/1/012151 https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/frxt8 https://doi.org/10.2991/aicosh-19.2019.50 https://doi.org/10.22146/jsp.34614 https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/p17-2102 https://doi.org/10.4172/2375-4435.1000124 https://doi.org/10.1177/1367877920912257 https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410615688-26 https://doi.org/10.15408/sjsbs.v7i3.15083 https://doi.org/10.1145/3309699 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.7420 vol. 4, no. 1, april 2022, pp. 1-14 1 languaging, corrective feedback, and writing accuracy among low proficiency l2 learners sabariah abd rahim 1* & paramaswari jaganathan 2 1universiti malaysia sabah, sabah, malaysia 2universiti sains malaysia, penang, malaysia sab@ums.edu.my article history received : 2021-07-30 revised : 2022-02-13 accepted : 2022-02-22 keywords written ‘languaging’ written corrective feedback low proficiency l2 learners writing accuracy l2 writing abstract low proficiency l2 learners make frequent grammatical errors and apply inappropriate english language use and writing conventions despite learning the language for years. to reduce the grammatical and non-grammatical errors in the low proficiency l2 learners’ writing, teachers provide written corrective feedback (wcf). however, a strong claim on wcf's adverse effects on l2 learners’ language development has prompted mixed responses on the wcf’s effectiveness. numerous studies on wcf's effectiveness were conducted, and the findings showed inconclusive results. the present study aims to examine the ‘written languaging’ (wl) effect of written corrective feedback (wcf) on low proficiency l2 learners’ writing accuracy. wl is a mediational tool used to enhance the wcf’s effectiveness. the study was conducted on 47 low proficiency l2 university students for five weeks to elicit wl of wcf's effects on low proficiency l2 learners’ writing accuracy, where a multiple-case research approach was used to collect and analyze the data of the study. an error ratio was applied to measure the overall accuracy of writing. the wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to determine whether wl's provision on the wcf affects the writing accuracy of the low proficiency l2 learners' new writing text. the finding shows that wl's provision on the wcf did not facilitate the low proficiency of l2 learners' writing accuracy because the l2 learners' writing accuracy could improve only with teachers' wcf. the study is significant to the pedagogical teaching of writing development for lower proficiency l2 learners, particularly in applying the mediational tool in the provision and processing of wcf and the complementary pedagogical strategy to wcf. 1. introduction to be competent in a language, one must master writing skills (buyukyavuz & cakir, 2014) because writing enhances the learners' ability to comprehend ideas and concepts (voon foo, 2007). however, for some learners, especially second language (l2) learners, writing is a skill that is difficult to master (mastan & maarof, 2014). the difficulties to write have been shown in studies on problems and difficulties learners face while writing the target language (e.g., busch, 2010; chen, 2002; daud, 2012; erkan & saban, 2011; hisham, 2008). writing with accuracy is a daunting task for many l2 learners, especially the low proficiency l2 learners, who always need their teacher to correct them since they have limited ability to perform in l2. therefore, teachers must give feedback in the writing classroom because it guides students in their writing development (ene & kosobucki, 2016; ferris & robert, 2001; gower, philips & walters, 1995; hyland & hyland, 2006). teachers also need to ensure that students are engaged with the feedback given by deliberating the feedback either through oral or writing expression so that they understand and can internalize the feedback given so that it can be applied in the revision or new piece of writing (bitchener & storch, 2016). for the low proficiency l2 learners, written corrective feedback (wcf) is necessary. however, a strong claim on wcf's adverse effects on l2 learners' language development (truscott, 1996) has prompted mixed responses on the wcf's effectiveness. although the claim was made years ago, studies on the role of wcf have continued to interest l2 acquisition (sla) and l2 writing (slw) scholars since then. there is growing evidence of the positive relationship between wcf and writing accuracy over time. however, the findings have been inconclusive, and this has prompted further investigations into how wcf’s effectiveness can be improved for low proficiency l2 learners to interpret teachers’ wcf accurately. 2 for low english proficiency learners, applying similar errors in the revision writing despite getting wcf from their teachers is unavoidable (silver & lee, 2007). their ineffective use of writing strategies and lack of metacognitive knowledge in english are among the reasons they have writing problems (hyland, 1998). despite getting the wcf, these learners still have errors in their writing. thus, they need to engage with the wcf provided by their teachers to enhance uptake and retention (lee, 2013) to positively affect their writings (jerry, mohd jan & samuel, 2013; kassim & ng, 2014a, 2014b). however, for the low proficiency l2 learners to successfully uptake and retain the corrections provided for subsequent written tasks, they need to notice and process the wcf. this area of how l2 learners notice and process wcf receives little attention in wcf research (jonsson, 2012; kim, 2013). nevertheless, it has been studied a lot in the field of oral corrective feedback (ocf), where studies have shown that l2 learners' understanding of the corrective feedback provided is often different from teachers' objective (egi, 2007; kim & han, 2007; mackey, gass & mcdonough, 2000). therefore, noticing and understanding teachers’ corrective feedback does not necessarily show that l2 learners have accurately interpreted teachers' corrective feedback. other pedagogical writing tools or strategies promoting the need to notice and understand the wcf should be applied so that learners' engagement in noticing and understanding the wcf can be enhanced to improve l2 learners' writing accuracy. thus, we suggest that l2 learners need to language or ‘languaging’ the wcf provided by their teachers to improve their writing accuracy. the low proficiency l2 learners generally make frequent grammatical and non-grammatical errors and apply inappropriate use of the english language despite learning the language for years (normazidah, koo & hazina, 2012; singh, singh, nur qistina & ravinthar, 2017). despite getting constant corrective feedback from teachers in oral or written form for the language and writing errors they make in the writing tasks, the writing accuracy of the low proficiency l2 learners in an english course at a local university in east malaysia, is relatively low. this group of l2 learners was given a ‘written languaging’ (wl) to encourage them to engage more with the given corrective feedback, which in this study is the wcf. the wl applied in this study would function as a tool to enhance the wcf’s effectiveness. it is recommended that l2 students be allowed to ‘languaging’ the corrective feedback given to them (suzuki, 2012; moradian et al., 2017) to allow them to identify differences and discrepancies between their interlanguage and the target language (english) and learn about english writing features that they are not aware of or forget (suzuki, 2009b, 2012; swain, lapkin, knouzi, suzuki & brooks, 2009). wl prompts l2 learners to think and reason thoroughly about the errors found in their writing (suzuki, 2012), which influences them to do the task efficiently and increase their attention to achieve self-regulatory abilities. studies have shown that the wcf received by l2 learners becomes more effective when l2 learners apply wl, resulting in improved writing accuracy. therefore, this notion of applying wl of wcf to improve writing accuracy underpins this study's rationale. furthermore, studies on wl of the wcf of l2 learners writing in the malaysian context are still not advanced. thus, this study's findings will benefit the pedagogical teaching of writing development in malaysia, particularly in applying the mediational tool in the provision and processing of wcf and the complementary pedagogical strategy to wcf. the study aims to elicit whether the wl of the wcf affects the low proficiency l2 learners' new writing text’s accuracy. it attempts to answer this research question: does the wl of the wcf of low proficiency l2 learners’ writing text affect their new writing text's accuracy? 2. literature review 2.1 sociocultural theory the theoretical framework of the study is sociocultural theory (sct). according to sct, learners' l2 development is enhanced when a social interaction between a novice (l2 learner) and an expert (l2 teacher). this interaction acts as a form of assistance that an expert offers to a novice; it can be in a physical (as in dictionary) or symbolic (as in language) form (bitchener & ferris, 2012). in sct, this form of assistance is called mediation and tools. wcf is considered a physical form of assistance or a tool in sct (bitchener & storch, 2016) that teachers (the experts) provide for the errors found in the writing of l2 learners (the novices). from the perspective of sct, learners play an active role in learning. therefore, they will respond and take advantage of the assistance offered, which is the wcf, by applying the correct forms of the errors found in their writing. it will eventually lead to the learners' l2 development. sct also highlights the role of mediation in language learning, which can be achieved via material or symbolic tools. the material tools, like the wcf, enable actions to take place. l2 learners edit the errors in their writing following the correction given by their teachers (wcf), which shows that the errors' editing has occurred. the symbolic tool, on the contrary, enables and shapes the action of editing the errors. ‘languaging’ is an example of a symbolic tool that l2 learners use to communicate with the experts (the teachers) and organize their actions (wells, 1999). as a mediational tool, ‘languaging’ facilitates the formation of ideas that enable high-level cognitive 3 processes, such as self-regulation (bitchener & storch, 2016). the theory also asserts that a novice will get appropriate assistance from an expert if they collaborate. however, not all assistance forms are helpful and supportive of l2 development (lantolf & thorne, 2006). it is assumed that excessive assistance will result in l2 development inhibition (bitchener & storch, 2016). thus, it is essential to provide an ‘appropriate’ amount of assistance that is just enough for learners to perform beyond their current capabilities. 2.2 writing accuracy to write accurately means to write with no errors (arnold, 2008; khorasani & sadzadeh, 2015), and the language produced in writing should conform to the norms of the l2 (skehan, 1996). l2 learners, who produce fewer writing errors, write more accurately as they become more proficient in the language (arnold, 2008; wolfe-quintero, inagaki, & kim, 1998). however, for low proficiency l2 learners, writing accurately can be a daunting task. therefore, getting wcf from teachers is crucial because it enhances l2 learners' language learning development and motivation (hyland & hyland, 2006). there is growing evidence showing the positive relationship between wcf and writing accuracy improvement over time (bitchener & ferris, 2012). with wcf, l2 learners notice the errors found in their writing (long, 1996). however, noticing alone does not guarantee learners’ accurate interpretation of teachers’ wcf (kim, 2012). to interpret teachers’ wcf accurately, l2 learners need to ‘languaging’ the wcf to uptake and retain the corrective feedback for future writing tasks. in this study, they need to ‘written languaging’ (wl) the wcf received. suzuki (2012) proposed that wl provides the platform for l2 learners to think and reason thoroughly about the errors they make in their writing. wl influences learners to do the task efficiently and heightens their attention to achieve their self-regulatory abilities. in his study on wl's effect in response to indirect wcf on enhancing learners' writing accuracy over revision, the finding shows that wl generated by indirect wcf affects learners' writing accuracy significantly (suzuki, 2009a). he obtained a similar result when exploring wl's effectiveness in response to direct wcf on l2 japanese students’ writing accuracy over revision tasks (suzuki, 2012). later, moradian et al. (2017) conducted a similar study on two groups of low-intermediate iranian efl students, and the study also revealed that wl enhances the efficiency of wcf, resulting in significant effects on the students' writing accuracy. all these show that wcf received by l2 learners become more effective when l2 learners apply wl. 2.3 written corrective feedback and ‘written languaging’ written corrective feedback (wcf) is a form of feedback commonly employed pedagogically in writing class. although it receives criticism from many researchers (e.g., krashen, 1982, 1984; santa, 2006; truscott, 1996, 1999, 2007), it is still regarded essential in l2 writing because wcf helps l2 learners improve their writing performance (ferris, 2010; razali & jupri, 2014; ganapathy, tan & phan, 2020), and it affects students' learning of l2 knowledge field (hyland & hyland, 2006). studies have shown that wcf does have a facilitative effect on l2 learners' writing accuracy (e.g., forrester, 2014; jerry, mohd jan & samuel, 2013; kassim & ng, 2014). however, it is not enough to only provide l2 learners with wcf and hope to improve their writing accuracy. if these learners merely copy their teachers' wcf, they will become passive learners, where they can neither recognize nor correct their errors (williams, 2003). l2 learners need to engage with the wcf provided by their teachers to enhance uptake and retention (lee, 2013) to positively affect their writings (jerry, mohd jan & samuel, 2013; kassim & ng, 2014a, 2014b). however, for l2 learners to successfully uptake and retain the corrections provided for subsequent written tasks, they need to notice and process the wcf. this area of how l2 learners notice and process wcf receives little attention in wcf research (jonsson, 2012; kim, 2013). in addition, studies have shown that l2 learners' understanding of the corrective feedback provided is often different from teachers' objectives (egi, 2007; kim & han, 2007; mackey, gass & mcdonough, 2000). therefore, noticing and understanding teachers' corrective feedback does not necessarily show that l2 learners have accurately interpreted teachers' wcf. other pedagogical writing tools or strategies promoting the need to notice and understand the wcf provided should be applied so that learners' engagement to notice and understand the wcf can be enhanced---to improve l2 learners' writing accuracy. in relation to this, l2 learners need to ‘written languaging’ (wl) the wcf provided by their teachers to improve their writing accuracy. ‘languaging’ is a concept proposed by swain (2006a, 2011) to state that learners use language (‘languaging’), either through oral (‘oral languaging’) or written form (“written languaging’), to intervene cognitively complicated tasks and processes like l2 learning. it is a "process of making meaning and shaping knowledge and experience through language” (swain, 2006a, p. 98). according to the sct, l2 learners are active recipients of feedback because they play an essential role in processing the wcf they received (bitchener & storch, 2016). ‘languaging’ enhances l2 learners’ cognitive abilities (moradian, miri & nasab, 2017). it 4 deliberates new knowledge or ideas into a concrete linguistic output that can be used and refined. studies have also shown that 'languaging' enable l2 learners to engage in self-scaffolding to solve problems relating to l2 linguistics forms and structures (knouzi, swain, lapkin & brooks, 2010; negueruela, 2008; suzuki, 2012; swain, kinner & steinman, 2011; watanabe, 2014). learners enhance their language knowledge and experience significantly through the ‘languaging’ process (al ajmi & holi ali, 2014; swain et al., 2011). moreover, studies have shown that ‘languaging’ significantly affects language learning (e.g., knouzi et al., 2010; suzuki, 2012; swain, 2006a, 2010; moradian et al., 2017). therefore, the implementation of ‘languaging’ or (wl) as a complementary pedagogical strategy to wcf should improve l2 learners’ writing accuracy. 3. method we chose a qualitative, multiple-case research approach for this study because it provides a holistic and in-depth explanation of the issues concerned by allowing us to explore beyond the quantitative statistical results and investigate current real-life phenomena through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of conditions or settings, and their relationships (zainal, 2007). also, qualitative, multiple-case research examines the problems studied within the context in which the problems occur (yin, 2014; zainal, 2007). this research approach explores or describes the problems in a real-life setting and explains their complexities in real-life situations that may not be shown through experimental or survey research (starman, 2013). two groups were studied for this multiple-case study research study: the treatment and control groups. the treatment group (tg) was asked to wl or write comments/opinions on the wcf done by the teachers. the control group (cg), on the other hand, only did the revision essay by making any changes or corrections in response to the wcf provided by the teachers. they did not have to wl the wcf provided. the cg acted as the baseline measure of the study. this stage was necessary for the study because it provided findings that could be compared between the two groups to determine whether wl's provision on the wcf (as the treatment) affected the participants’ writing accuracy in a subsequent essay, namely writing tasks 2 and 3. the cycle was repeated for each of the timed essays because it helps us to examine in-depth and understand better the problem studied in this study: will the participants’ writing accuracy in the subsequent writing tasks 2 and 3 be improved by the provision of wl on the wcf provided by the teachers, or their writing accuracy can solely be improved with revision. to make sure the participants understood the teachers’ wcf, they were provided with a list of error codes and brief descriptions (see table 3.1) to refer to during the revision and intervention sessions---an intervention session where the participants were asked to wl or give comments/opinions on the wcf provided by their teachers (for the tg), and a revision session where the participants were asked to revise their essay based on the wcf provided by their teachers (for the cg). the study was conducted for five weeks. during the five weeks of study, the participants needed to complete the writing tasks, where they were asked to do three in-class writing tasks with different prompts. we implemented the intervention examined, namely the wl task application on the teachers' wcf in weeks 2 and 4. table 3.1 shows the time of the data collected and treatment. table 3.1 data collection and treatment timeline time data collected treatment (wl) week 1 in-class writing task 1 week 2 comprehensive direct wcf+wl √ week 3 in-class writing task 2 week 4 comprehensive direct wcf+wl √ week 5 in-class writing task 3 storch (2010) and duff (2006) argue that studies done in natural and authentic contexts have more significant pedagogical relevance for language teachers. therefore, the study used the prompts adapted from the textbook used for the course taken by the students, i.e., q: skills for success-reading and writing 3 (ward & gramer, 2015). based on the prompts, the participants were asked to compose a five-paragraph essay in each writing session. table 3.2 shows the prompts for each writing task. 5 table 3.2 in-class writing tasks’ prompts in-class writing task week prompts expository essay 1 1 write a five-paragraph essay about your favourite dish. expository essay 2 3 write a five-paragraph essay describing a risk you have taken. new-expository essay 5 choose a topic below and write a five-paragraph essay on the chosen topic. a. the types of food that people love to eat in your hometown. b. the lessons you get from a risk you had taken. s the researchers conducted a pilot study on the writing tasks and the wl task before the actual inclass writing task 1 to examine the feasibility of the prompts used in the writing tasks and the wl task instructions. for the actual study, the researchers asked the participants to wl the wcf provided to see whether the intervention had caused the change in the writing accuracy, where the writing became more accurate (grammatically and non-grammatically) in the new essay writing of the participants’ writing overtime. 3.1 the participant we collected the study data from 47 low proficiency l2 learners who took the reading and writing in english course at the time of the study at the centre of promotion of knowledge and language learning (ppib), universiti malaysia sabah (ums). a purposive opportunistic sampling, a non-probability sample, was applied to select the study’s participants. according to creswell and clark (2011), purposive sampling involves identifying and selecting individuals or groups of knowledgeable and experienced individuals about the issues or problems studied. they should also be available and can communicate their experiences and opinions coherently in a deliberative manner (bernard, 2011). the researchers purposely selected these participants for this study because they were directly involved with the experience of getting corrective feedback for their writing task since they took the reading and writing in english course for that semester. they could be the best sample that can demonstrate the wl's effect on the wcf's efficacy on the writing accuracy of low proficiency l2 students. thus, the study participants' selection is opportunistic, that the familiarity and convenient access to information and participants had become an advantage to complete the study's data collection on time. the participants have also learned and were exposed to english grammar, such as the parts of speech, subject-verb agreement, and tenses, in the communicative english grammar (level 1) and oral communication in english (level 2) in their first year of the study in ums. reading and writing in english is the level 3 of the foundation course that is compulsory for the participants to take in the second year of their study at ums. the english foundation courses (i.e., communicative english grammar, oral communication in english and reading and writing in english) are offered to students with muet bands 1, 2 and 3. malaysian university english test (muet) is an english proficiency test administered by the malaysian examination council (mec) for malaysian students who wish to pursue a first-degree program at any local university. in muet, students are tested on the four skills, namely speaking, writing, listening, and reading. the total score obtained for muet will determine the students' muet band, either band 1 (the lowest proficiency) or band 6 (the highest proficiency). in this study, the participants had obtained muet bands 2 and 3, and are described as a not fluent and modest user of the english language because they can hardly use the language, make frequent grammatical errors, have limited understanding of the language, and have limited ability to function in the language (muet, 2015). muet bands 2 and 3 are equivalent to cefr (common european framework of reference) a1 and cefr a2 or ielts (international english language testing system) bands 2 (intermittent user) and 3 (extremely limited user). 3.2 the instrument the instrument used in this study was writing tasks. the writing tasks of the study were analyzed for writing accuracy. an error ratio was applied to measure the overall accuracy of writing. this assessment measure was used to study the effectiveness of corrective feedback (see chandler, 2003; karim, 2013; truscott & hsu, 2008; van beuningen et al., 2012). the error ratio used to measure the writing texts' overall accuracy is the total number of errors divided by the total number of words written. the result is then multiplied by 100. a 100word ratio is used to interpret the total number of errors in percentages (it provides error rates in students' writings per 100 words). the errors in this study refer to grammatical and non-grammatical 6 errors. the errors’ accuracy rate of the writing tasks was calculated and compared based on other studies on the effects of wcf on the grammatical and nongrammatical accuracy of l2 writings (see karim, 2013; van beuningen et al., 2011). table 3 shows the grammatical and non-grammatical errors. the wilcoxon signed-rank test of spps was also applied to measure the differences between the writing tasks' error ratios of the cg and tg. the wilcoxon signed-rank test is a non-parametric test used to analyze repeated measures data where the participants are assessed for more than two occasions or conditions. the test was used to elicit the significant differences in the error ratio of the participants' writing tasks across occasions, which in this case, the writing tasks 1, 2, and 3 of each group (cg and tg) that were conducted in a different time, namely writing task 1 (wt1) was conducted in week 1, writing task 2 (wt2) in week 3, and writing task 3 (wt3) in week 5. the differences in the participants’ writing error ratio will determine whether the intervention (the application of wl of the wcf) affects the participants’ writing accuracy over time. in addition, the participants' total errors (the minimum and the maximum number of errors) and the total number of words (the minimum and the maximum number of words) of each writing task were analyzed descriptively using spss and then compared manually in this study. to simplify each error category's counting, we applied (with permission) a coding system used in ferris, liu, sinha, and senna's (2013) study. table 3.3 shows the coding system. table 3.3 coding system used in marking of the timed writing tasks error type code description vt verb tense is incorrect vf verb phrase formation is incorrect wf word form (part of speech) is incorrect art article is missing pl noun plural marker is missing, unnecessary or incorrect agr subject and verb do not agree in number (singular/plural form) prep wrong preposition wo word order in a sentence is incorrect ww wrong word (meaning is incorrect for sentence) wc word choice (use of the unsuitable word) com comma missing or unnecessary sp spelling error ap apostrophe (‘’) missing or unnecessary ss sentence structure error mw missing word(s) in the sentence ref pronoun reference vague or unclear pro pronoun used is incorrect for the sentence ro run-on sentence (two or more sentences incorrectly joined) cs comma splice (two sentences joined only with a comma) frag sentence fragment (incomplete sentence) the study's intra-rater and inter-rater were also calculated to ensure consistency in implementing the assessment measures employed in analyzing the participants' writing texts. a rater checked some of the participants' writings a second time to check the scoring's reliability after the first rater, a native english speaker, had done the initial scoring and analysis. then another rater would check some of the participants' writing individually, and this was to ensure excellent inter-rater reliability. the raters have a degree and master's degree in teaching english as a second language (tesl) and have also been teaching english language skills for more than five years. 4. result tables 4.1 and 4.2 show the mean (m) and standard deviation (sd) for the number of words, total errors, and error ratio of the participants of cg (n=22) and tg (n=25), respectively. 7 table 4.1 mean and sd for the number of words, total errors and error ratio (n=22) for the cg writing task 1 writing task 2 writing task 3 m sd m sd m sd words 218.77 60.802 265.14 70.72 249.05 63.707 total errors 22.55 8.359 25.55 10.866 15.59 9.179 error ratio 1.77 0.813 1.77 0.869 1.82 0.853 table 4.1 illustrates that the participants in the cg produced, on average, 218.77 words in their first writing task (wt1) (sd=60.802) with total errors of 22.55 (sd=8.359), and the error ratio for this group was 1.77 (sd=0.813). the words number, on average, had increased to 265.14 words (sd=70.72) in their writing task 2 (wt2), with total errors of 25.55 (sd=10.866) and an error ratio of 1.77 (sd=0.869). although the words number they produced had increased in wt2, the total errors that occurred, on average, had also increased to 25.55 (sd=10.866). nevertheless, the error ratio for these two writing tasks, i.e., wt1 and wt2, remained the same (1.77, sd=0.869). in writing task 3 (wt3), the number of words and the total errors, on average, had decreased to 249.05 (sd=63.707) and 15.59 (sd=9.179), respectively. on the other hand, the error ratio, on average, had increased to 1.82 (sd=0.853). table 4.2 mean and sd for the number of words, total errors and error ratio (n=25) for the tg writing task 1 writing task 2 writing task 3 m sd m sd m sd words 199.48 69.792 201.68 50.586 236.56 82.265 total errors 25.60 10.344 25.76 11.054 17.24 9.139 error ratio 2.16 0.800 2.12 0.781 2.12 0.781 in table 4.2, the mean and sd of the number of words produced, the total error found, and the error ratio of wt1 for the participants of the treatment group (tg) were 199.48 (sd=69.792), 25.60 (sd=10.344), and 2.16 (sd=0.800) respectively. in wt2, the number of words produced, on average, was 201.68 (sd=50.586), and the total error was 25.76 (sd=11.054). the error ratio of wt2, on average, was 2.12 (sd=0.781): a slight increment from the error ratio in wt1. the number of words in wt3, on average, had increased from 201.68 (sd=50.586) (wt2) to 236.56 (sd=82.265). the error ratio of wt3, nevertheless, remained the same, i.e., 2.12 (sd=0.781). perhaps this was due to the average number of words produced in wt3, i.e., 236.56: the average number of words produced in wt3 was more than the average number of words produced in wt2. the rise in the number of words produced in wt3 might have affected the error ratio. table 4.3 and 4.4 illustrate the minimum and the maximum number of total words and errors of each writing task for the cg participants (n=22) and tg participants (n=25), respectively. table 4.3 the minimum and maximum number of words and total errors (n=22) for the cg writing task 1 writing task 2 writing task 3 min max min max min max words 128 322 150 396 117 377 total errors 10 41 7 48 2 34 table 4.3 shows that the minimum total number of words of the cg participants' writing task 1 (wt1) was 128 words, and the maximum total number of words was 322 words. the minimum and the maximum total number of words were then increased in writing task 2 (wt2), i.e., 150 words and 396 words, respectively. however, the total number of words in the cg participants' writing task 3 (wt3) 8 had decreased to a minimum of 117 words and a maximum of 377 words. for the total number of errors found in the cg participants' writings: the minimum total number of errors of the wt1, wt 2, and wt 3 had decreased gradually, i.e., from the minimum of ten errors in the wt1 to seven errors in the wt2, and two errors in the wt3. nevertheless, the maximum total number of errors in the cg participants' writings shows inconsistent results. the maximum number of errors in the wt2 had increased from 41 in the wt1 to 48 in the wt2. then the number decreased to 34 errors in the wt3. table 4.4 the minimum and maximum number of words and total errors (n=25) for the tg writing task 1 writing task 2 writing task 3 min max min max min max words 110 448 120 330 126 516 total errors 9 55 10 56 7 46 table 4.4 illustrates the results for the tg participants' writing tasks: the minimum total number of words in the wt1 was 110 words, and the maximum total words were 448 words, whereas, in wt2, the minimum total number of words was 120, which then increased to 126 words in the wt3. the maximum total number of words in the wt2 was 330 words (the number has decreased compared to the wt1 maximum total number of words, i.e., 448 words). however, the maximum total number of words in the wt3 had increased to 516 words (higher than the maximum number of words produced in the wt3 of the cg participants, i.e., 377 words). the total number of errors in the cg participants' writing tasks and the tg participants' total number of writing task errors show inconsistent results. the total number of errors in the wt2 had increased to a minimum of ten errors and a maximum of 56 errors compared to a minimum of nine errors and a maximum of 55 errors that occurred in the wt1. the total number of errors was then decreased to a minimum of seven errors and a maximum of 46 errors in the wt3. the wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to determine whether or not the provision of ‘languaging’ on the wcf affects the writing accuracy of the tg participants' new writing texts (wt2 and wt3). the test was also used to determine whether the writing accuracy of the cg participants' new writing texts (wt2 and wt3) have improved only with the teacher's wcf and the revision texts of the wt1 and wt2. the wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to investigate any changes in scores when the same individuals are subjected to more than one condition. to see the changes, the researchers compared the following combinations: a. total error: wt1to wt2 wt1 to wt3 wt2 to wt3 b. total words: wt1to wt2 wt1 to wt3 wt2 to wt3 c. error ratio: wt1to wt2 wt1 to wt3 wt2 to wt3 table 4.5 and table 4.6 show the results of the wilcoxon signed-rank test of the cg and the tg, respectively. table 4.5 wilcoxon signed-rank test for the total error, total words and error ratio of the cg participants’ writing tasks for the cg total error wt2 – total error wt1 total error wt3 – total error wt1 total error wt3 – total error wt2 z -0.906 -2.615 -3.396 asymp. sig (2-tailed) 0.365 0.009 0.001 total words wt2 – total error wt1 total words wt3 – total error wt1 total words wt3 – total error wt2 z -2.614 -2.260 -0.860 asymp. sig (2-tailed) 0.009 0.024 0.390 total error ratio wt2 – total error wt1 total error ratio wt3 – total error wt1 total error ratio wt3 – total error wt2 z -0.467 -3.491 -3.337 asymp. sig (2-tailed) 0.641 0.000 0.001 9 table 4.6. wilcoxon signed-rank test for the total error, total words and error ratio of the tg participants’ writing tasks for the tg total error wt2 – total error wt1 total error wt3 – total error wt1 total error wt3 – total error wt2 z -0.543 -2.901 -2.784 asymp. sig (2-tailed) 0.587 0.004 0.005 total words wt2 – total error wt1 total words wt3 – total error wt1 total words wt3 – total error wt2 z -1.129 -2.328 -1.957 asymp. sig (2-tailed) 0.259 0.020 0.050 total error ratio wt2 – total error wt1 total error ratio wt3 – total error wt1 total error ratio wt3 – total error wt2 z -0.135 -3.829 -4.014 asymp. sig (2-tailed) 0.893 0.000 0.000 the wilcoxon signed-rank tests (see table 4.5) were conducted with a bonferroni correction applied, resulting in a significant level set at p < 0.017. median (iqr) total errors for the wt1, wt2, and wt3 were 21.50 (15 to 27), 24.50 (17 to 32.50), and 15.00 (8.75 to 20.25), respectively. table 4.5 shows no significant difference between the total errors in wt1 and wt2 running trials (z=-0.906, p=0.365). however, there was a statistically significant reduction of total errors in the wt1 and wt3 (z=-2.615, p=0.009) and in the wt2 and wt3 (z=-3.396, p=0.001) trials. the median (iqr) total words for the wt1, wt2, and wt3 of this group were 216.00 (162 to 279.50), 262.50 (222.25 to 327.00), and 251.00 (196.50 to 298.75), respectively. table 4.5 illustrates a significant reduction of total words in the participants' wt1 and wt2 (z=-2.614, p=0.009) trials. however, there was no significant difference between the total number of words in wt1 and wt3 (z=-2.260, p=0.024) and wt2 and wt3 (z=-0.860, p=0.390) running trials. next, the median (iqr) error ratio for the participants' wt1, wt2, and wt3 was 10.70 (8.23 to 13.55), 8.95 (6.45 to 14.35), and 6.85 (3.8 to 8.98), respectively. based on the wilcoxon signedrank test, there was no significant difference in the error ratio of the cg participants' wt1 and wt2 (z=0.467, p=0.641). however, there was a significant difference in the error ratio of wt1 and wt3 (z=3.491, p=0.000) and the error ratio of wt2 and wt3 (z=-3.337, p=0.001) running trials. table 4.6 shows the wilcoxon signed-rank test for the tg participants' writing. the wilcoxon signedrank tests were conducted with a bonferroni correction, resulting in a significant level set at p < 0.017. median (iqr) total errors for the wt1, wt2, and wt3 were 23.00 (19 to 30.50), 23.00 (17 to 31.50), and 11.00 (11.00 to 21.50), respectively. there was no significant difference between the total errors in wt1 and wt2 running trials (z=-0.543, p=0.587). however, there was a statistically significant reduction of total errors in the wt1 and wt3 (z=-2.901, p=0.004) and wt2 and wt3 (z=2.784, p=0.005) trials. for the total number of words in writing, the median (iqr) total words for the wt1, wt2, and wt3 of this group were 194 (156 to 220.50), 200 (166 to 231), and 225 (172.50 to 284.50), respectively. nevertheless, there was no significant reduction in total words in the participants' wt1 and wt2 (z=-1.129, p=0.259) trials. also, there was no significant difference between the total number of words in wt1 and wt3 (z=-2.328, p=0.020) and wt2 and wt3 (z=-1.957, p=0.050) running trials. next, the error ratio: the median (iqr) error ratio for the participants' wt1, wt2 and wt3 was 13.30 (10.75 to 15.95), 12.70 (9.35 to 14.65), and 6.7 (5.6 to 9.4), respectively. based on the wilcoxon signed-rank test, there was no significant difference in the error ratio of the tg participants’ wt1 and wt2 (z=-0.467, p=0.641). however, there was a significant difference in the error ratio of wt1 and wt3 (z=-3.491, p=0.000) and the error ratio of wt2 and wt3 (z=3.337, p=0.001) running trials. based on the findings shown in tables 4.5 and 4.6, it seems that the participants' writing in both groups (tg and cg) has improved in terms of total errors and error ratio. using the wilcoxon signed-rank test, the results showed a significant improvement in the number of total errors. the error ratio (in the writings of both tg and cg) was found in the wt3 compared to the total number of errors found in the wt1, and the same result was also yielded in the wt3 when compared to the total errors of the wt2. it seems to indicate that with or without the assistance of the wl task, the tg and cg participants' writing accuracy could improve solely with teachers’ wcf. therefore, does the wl of the wcf of low proficiency l2 10 learners’ writing text affect their new writing text's writing accuracy? the finding shows that the provision of 'languaging' (wl) on the wcf of the writing texts does not facilitate the writing accuracy in the new writing text of low proficiency l2 learners, which is the participants of tg of the study. 5. discussion and suggestions the study investigated the effects of wl as the complementary pedagogical strategy to the wcf on the low proficiency l2 learners' writing accuracy. the writing and wl tasks were used to collect the data, and 47 l2 learners participated in the study. the study found that the provision of wl on the teacher’s wcf of the writing tasks does not affect the low proficiency learners’ writing accuracy. it does not facilitate the writing accuracy of the low proficiency learners' new writing text. studies on the effect of the mediational tool, such as wl, in the provision and processing of wcf, have illustrated that l2 learners' writing accuracy can be improved significantly (bitchener, 2008; bitchener & knoch, 2008; bitchener, young & cameron, 2005; ellis, sheen, murakami & takashima, 2008; suzuki, 2009a, 2009b, 2012; moradian et al., 2017). however, most of the studies conducted were on learners with intermediate or advanced proficiency levels. for a low proficiency learner, who makes frequent grammatical errors and has limited ability to function in the language, teachers' wcf is essential. the wl of the wcf has supposedly helped the participants internalize the english language's grammar and writing conventions that will result in minimal or zero errors in the new writing text. however, for this study, the finding seems to suggest that the provision of wl of the wcf on the low proficiency l2 learners’ writing texts does not facilitate the writing accuracy of the new writing text. the wilcoxon signed-rank test results also indicate that the writing accuracy of the low proficiency l2 learners of this study could improve solely with their teachers' wcf. the study has also shown that despite truscott's opposition to the application of corrective feedback in an l2 class, l2 learners need cf, especially when the l2 learners' proficiency level is low. low proficiency l2 learners need teachers' corrective feedback to solve their language-related problems, whether grammatical or non-grammatical. as advocated by the sociocultural theory (sct), learners' l2 development is enhanced if there is a social interaction between a novice (the low proficiency l2 learners) and an expert (the l2 teacher). this social interaction also acts as assistance or the mediational tool that an l2 teacher can offer to low proficiency l2 learners. wl is a form of assistance or the mediational tool used in the study to enhance the efficacy of wcf. however, the study found that the mediational tool, which in this study is wl, has an insignificant role in improving the low proficiency l2 learners’ writing accuracy. based on the findings, we recommend that l2 teachers provide only an 'appropriate' amount of assistance that is enough for l2 learners to perform beyond their existing capabilities. it is considered that excessive assistance would negatively affect l2 learners' language development (bitchener & storch, 2016). to provide an 'appropriate' amount of assistance, we had identified the l2 learners' level of proficiency (as suggested by sct) as low proficiency l2 learners based on their muet results. they obtained bands 2 and 3, described as not fluent and have limited functions in english. based on their proficiency level, we assumed that these students needed extra assistance throughout their task performance, which is the writing task in this study. hence, a wl of the wcf provided by class teachers was introduced. this assistance was supposed to make the low proficiency learners better understand the errors pointed out in the teachers' wcf after the implementation of wl of the wcf gradually and to produce the essay with minimal writing errors. however, the finding shows the contrary. thus, it is suggested that the l2 teachers teaching the low proficiency l2 students provide only the ‘appropriate’ amount of assistance that is enough for them to perform well in any given task (as proposed by sct). also, the practice of wcf should be improved. rather than only providing the corrective feedback in writing (wcf), the teachers should explain the wcf in detail verbally. the teachers need to have a face-to-face session explaining the wcf because this will give an opportunity for the low proficiency l2 learners to ask for more details if they have problems comprehending the wcf provided. the low proficiency l2 learners’ uptake and retention will further improve if they are made aware of the errors found in their writings. 6. conclusion so, does the wl of the wcf of low proficiency l2 learners’ writing text affect their new writing text's accuracy? the answer is no: the wl of the wcf of the low proficiency l2 learners’ writings does not affect the learners’ new writing texts’ accuracy. the findings also show that despite getting extra assistance, which in this study refers to the wl of the wcf, the low proficiency l2 learners (the tg participants) did not perform in the new essay writing tasks 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(1998). second language development in writing: measures of fluency, accuracy, and complexity (tech. report no. 17). university of hawaii press. yin, r.k. (2014). case study research: design and methods (5th ed.). sage publications, inc. zainal, z. (2007). case study as a research method. jurnal kemanusian, 9, 1-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511605895 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i3.7401 vol. 3, no. 3, december 2021, pp. 194-209 149 bridging between beliefs and needs of language teachers in philippines: personal qualities, strategies, and framework during covid-19 pandemic ariel ramos & maritoni baldespiñosa cebu technological university-argao campus, cebu. philippines ariel.ramos@ctu.edu.ph article history received : 2021-07-26 revised : 2021-09-16 accepted : 2021-12-19 keywords qualitative covid-19 learnability essentially non-exclusively (non) physical context-dependency abstract this qualitative case study examines the constraining effects of the internet connectivity to english language teaching communities migrated to online instruction during/ after the covid-19 pandemic based on the teacher’s beliefs in the philippines’ context. the paper also explores the innovative english teaching strategies, needed personal qualities, and framework for the teacher's innovative teaching to navigate their way in delivering instruction under alternative modalities. through the focus group discussion employing a validated open-ended interview guide as an instrument for data gathering, information was processed through codes and coding techniques outlined by miles and huberman (1994) along with the aid of a licensed nvivo 12 software in order to examine the teachers’ beliefs on creativity, as well as their personal qualities and how these variables are transformed into innovative offline english teaching strategies. findings reveal that the five emerging underlying themes on the teachers’ beliefs about creativity translated into innovative english teaching strategies for offline instruction are learnability, nonexclusivity, essentiality, physical context dependency, and non-physical context dependency. moreover, there are also five developing significant covid-19 personal qualities for english teachers that were found, including being creative, optimistic, versatile, inventive, and devoted. these findings became cornerstones of the innovative offline english language teaching framework that can be used as a practical guide in academic communities worldwide where internet connectivity is not dependable for online instruction. 1. introduction this document is an example of what your language teaching and learning, just like any other discipline, always occur in a learning environment. this learning environment eventually was transformed due to covid-19, which resulted in remote learning and consequently constrained both learners and teachers from face-to-face teaching and learning sessions. simply, the pandemic made teaching and learning occur remotely and on digital platforms, according to choi and chung (2021). hence, as kintanar (2021) mentioned, the situation has demanded that teachers be more creative to become consistently effective. consequently, learning has been disrupted, as mentioned by mundiri et al. (2021), after instruction is done remotely. remote instruction has been the best option, and that through online, teaching and learning did not stop. as cardullo, wang, burton, & dong (2021) mentioned, the covid-19 pandemic caused a significant shift in education, moving all teaching remotely in just days. this shift caused many teachers to face challenges in preparing and delivering quality content. they added that as teachers shifted their content delivery, teachers also shifted their pedagogical practices to support remote learning. in this context, teachers need to consider various aspects such as the need for the platform, of which the platform's features fit the need of the new context in the aspect of authentic assessment, responsive learning and application, and the customization of the learning management system. simply, at the bottom line, everything relies on the availability of consistent and good internet connectivity. this transformation made many educators, including those english language teachers, become migrants into the online form of instruction. noticeably, since the emergence of covid19, there are abundant researches done on educational practices in language teaching in times of the pandemic through the aid of internet connectivity, such as those mentioned in the studies of zainal and zainuddin (2021), hakim (2020), and cohen and daniel (2021). 195 however, it is also noticeable that there is a need to explore more areas where instructional delivery is possible in the absence of internet connectivity or poor connectivity, specifically in the context of english language teaching. this is because when english language teaching is heavily dependent on online modality, an existing disadvantage is also evident among those in academic communities without the opportunity to have online connectivity. but through the discovery of offline educational practices in english language teaching, it can be used as benchmarks in academic communities across the world where internet connectivity is an issue. during the covid-19 pandemic, online learning has become the norm for higher educational institutions in many countries, including the philippines (navarro et al., 2021). consequently, this resulted in new teaching and learning experience (diab and elgash, 2020), which is also expected to meet with difficulties in transition. according to zuhairi et al. (2020), in their investigation on the implementation of quality assurance systems for open and distance learning in the philippines, indonesia, and pakistan, they pointed out that there are constraints for those students who have limited access to new technology and online services. hence, similarly, in the case of english language teaching in the philippines, given the fact that learning english as a second language already has problems that need to be addressed to ultimately provide the corresponding appropriate solution. as ramos (2021) said, this situation has been magnified as instruction heavily shifted on online modality, making it incontestable that inequality in education emerges between those who have and those who do not have access to the internet connection. nevertheless, this gap of inequality, more in particular in english language teaching, can be possibly bridged through the teachers’ beliefs on the concept of creativity in the context of offline instructional delivery. both beliefs and creativity dynamically play a critical role in the case of instructional delivery for the english language. on the one hand, belief can be viewed as the foundation of human action of which, according to kirsch (2004), it is either a precondition or a result of something such as religious actions, as observed in his study. an individual, for example, may eat something being offered because of his belief that it does not bring any harm to him, or a person may avoid attending an invitation because of a belief that the invitation will only bring him to trouble. the same is true for a language learner who defies all odds to make sure of learning the language concepts due to a belief that learning the language will provide a greater edge in the quest for success in life. hence, the performance of an individual on a certain concept is dependent on belief in it. on the other hand, the concept of creativity, according to amabile, as cited by al-ababneh (2020), is defined as the production of a novel, right ideas in any realm of human activity, from science to the arts, to education, to business, to everyday life; thus, the ideas have to be new and appropriate to the opportunity or problem presented. in this case, creativity requires the capacity to be divergent in thinking, as contended by robinson (2011). hence it is through being divergent that an individual will result in the creation of something original in whatever context there is. furthermore, something original in this case does not limit to something that has never existed before. since according to mikdashi (1999), creativity can be creating something new, combining existing things to create something new, and improving or changing things to create something new for a different context. in the present academic context, covid-19 has undeniably re-shaped the type of educational approach in the world. however, in countries where communities are linked by meaningful internet connectivity, the technology has greatly helped in bridging the gap for the educational needs in the current situation as classes shifted into online learning or through remote instruction across online modalities powered by the internet connectivity such as the case of higher education in romania as reported by coman, tiru, mesesan-schmitz, stanciu and bularca (2020) where higher education has shifted to online teaching and learning due to the effect of the coronavirus pandemic. on the other hand, due to lack of preparation time, teacher and student isolation, and the need for effective pedagogical approaches in china, ronghuai, ahmed, ting-wen, zhang, fabio, & burgos (2020) reported that open educational resources (oer) were used to overcome the problem. they added that courses or lessons were built around oer and that open education practices (oep) were done to keep the students motivated and engaged during the long period of online learning. indisputably the internet has played a critical role in helping to propel education in the world devastated by the pandemic and where people are placed in isolation, quarantines, and community lockdowns. however, in developing countries like the philippines, where farflung communities are still inaccessible by internet connectivity, a great amount of effort is needed to make this type of solution more effective. as reported by bueno and pacis (2020) on cnn, as covid-19 forces life to move online, there are also filipinos left behind because not everyone in the philippines is connected to the internet and that there is no inclusivity in the absence of interconnectivity in education. this presents a challenge for teachers as to how the lessons' teaching is continued without being disrupted by community quarantines and lockdowns issued by the government to minimize the spread of covid-19. indeed, the circumstances push harder for filipino teachers in rural areas where learners are isolated and unreachable by internet connectivity; thus, it calls for resourcefulness to survive in the educational landscape tested by the pandemic. 196 according to wright (2016), creativity is at times stimulated by adversity. meaning to say, a person's ingenuity and critical thinking are pushed to their limit out of the ordinary box of ideas when time demands it. hence, this study determined the beliefs on creativity in teaching the english language to learners in an offline instructional modality in the context of the philippines and find out how their beliefs are translated into innovative strategies during offline teaching of the english language as well as identification of their personal qualities that are considered crucial in bridging the gap of inequality through the creation of an innovative offline english teaching instructional delivery framework that is suitable in the context of communities with no internet connectivity. this is because, while there are abundant researches on educational practices done in times of the pandemic through the aid of internet connectivity, it is also noticeable that there is a need to explore more on areas where instructional delivery is possible in the absence of internet connectivity specifically in the context of language teaching. therefore, in this study, it is contended that if the beliefs on creativity in teaching the english language as well as the concepts on how these beliefs are translated into innovative strategies along with the personal qualities of offline english teachers are determined, an innovative offline english language teaching framework can be made for instructional delivery of the english language in communities with no internet connectivity and that it can be used to bridge the gap of inequality in education. 2. method a qualitative case study was conducted at carcar city division in cebu, philippines. this division of the department of education is known for its competitive performances across the philippines. hence, like all other divisions, the carcar city division also continued to deliver instruction to its learners. this was done primarily through the aid of online instruction. carcar city division comprises the identified and manageable number of schools spread across flat and mountainous terrain in the city’s boundaries. moreover, while internet connectivity is available in flatlands, a considerable number of schools, as well as the student population residing in the mountainous and remote areas, have limited access to internet connectivity, making it a significant issue in the delivery of instruction that greatly relies on the internet. there were twenty elementary teachers as participants in the study. the data were taken during the first six months of the school year 2020-2021. the participants were selected based on the inclusion criteria such as (a) being an english teacher in the elementary at carcar city division, (b) currently in active service even in the pandemic, (c) at least five years in service, and (d) does not rely on the online modality in instructional delivery due to inaccessibility of internet or poor internet connectivity either in the teacher's workplace or in the learners' area. in addition, the data were gathered through an interview guide validated by three identified experts, who are tenured professors in the graduate school of cebu technological university and are trained by the asian qualitative research association. the focus group discussion was done along with the key informant interview to extensively gather information. this is in consonance with kasperiuniene (2018) in her qualitative study in which interviews were also conducted to find out the collective creativity of the participants. participants were interviewed both as a group and individually. this was done for two reasons. the first is to see if there are consistencies in their responses. the second is to see the collective themes from their responses. there were two main transcriptions coming out from the interviews, one from the focus group discussion and the other from the key informant interview. these transcripts were subjected to the analytical processes outlined by miles and huberman (1994). these include (a) data reduction, (b) data display, and conclusion drawing and verification. before the application of the analytical processes, these transcripts were tagged for identification. in the data reduction stage, the analysis is guided by the principles of selectivity as data were carefully singled out for description. along with this is the careful use of critical thinking by combining deductive and inductive analysis. the deductive analysis was done, anchoring on the problems raised. therefore, content words, phrases, statements were located based on the problem being asked. in the inductive analysis, the selection of other data to be highlighted was based on the idea that there could be emerging and related concepts that support the study. hence, the initial categorizations were shaped by the pre-established study questions yet were verified by the emerging concepts found in the raw data. in addition, the process of data reduction focused on extracting the participants’ beliefs on creativity in teaching, how these beliefs are translated into innovative teaching strategies and the needed qualities that the teachers should possess. under the data display stage, the focus shifted on providing an organized, compressed assembly of information that permits the drawing of a conclusion. hence, in this stage, additional higher-order categories, also known as themes, emerge from the data, and it goes beyond those first discovered during the initial data reduction process. this stage used constant comparison as outlined by glaser and strauss (1967), which is considered an intellectually disciplined process of comparing and contrasting across instances to establish significant patterns. after which, further questioning and refinement of these patterns followed as part of an ongoing analytic process. 197 lastly, the drawing of the conclusion and verification stage involved stepping back to consider what the analysed data meant and assessing for possible implications in relation to the questions provided. verification is linked to drawing a conclusion, which entails revisiting data as many times as necessary to cross-check the emergent conclusions. moreover, to check the results of the manually processed data following the miles and huberman concepts for qualitative data analysis, the nvivo 12 software was used to verify the results. initially, the transcribed data from the interviews were imported to the software as a new project. these data were arranged accordingly in specific folders for easy identification. moreover, the coding begins by opening a file and turning on the coding stripes. from here, the nodes are created based on the pre-established questions. this process allows the researcher to identify easily the raw statement covered under the established nodes. ultimately these nodes are used as the basis for the deduced emerging thematic concepts. hence, the generated results through the use of nvivo 12 software were compared with the manually generated results following the miles and huberman techniques. considering the parallelism of the emerging themes both from the manual and auto-generated data, in the end, the analysed data were used as a basis in crafting the innovative offline english teaching framework that can be helpful for teachers around the world who are also experiencing the same situation. ethical considerations were also taken significance in the conduct of the study. the participants were protected from bodily and ideological distress, injury, and risk that may occur from joining the study. moreover, no research procedures caused serious or lasting harm to the participants, and full voluntary consent was obtained from each participant. any indications of inconvenience that came about because of the time devoured in answering the questions, the study was expected to be stopped as explained to the participants until they feel better and become ready to continue responding to the rest of the questions. 3. findings and discussion the study investigated these questions: (1) what are the beliefs about creativity by the english teachers? (2) how are these beliefs translated into innovative strategies in teaching offline the english language? (3) what personal qualities are crucial for innovative offline english teaching? (4) what innovative offline english language teaching framework can be made that is suitable in the context of communities in the world that are unreachable by internet connectivity? eventually, findings reveal five common themes of beliefs that emerged in the study both through the use of the miles and huberman framework and nvivo 12 analysis, as shown in table 3.1. moreover, the teachers translate these beliefs into innovative offline teaching strategies in teaching the english language. furthermore, a set of qualities emerged to be significantly valuable as the translation process continued. this is because these qualities fuel the teachers to push the boundaries in teaching the english language during the covid19 pandemic. 3.1 emerging themes of teachers’ beliefs on creativity the succeeding table shows the summary and parallelism of results from miles and huberman's analytical framework and through the computer-aided analysis using nvivo12. the common themes extracted are learnability, non-exclusivity, essentiality, physical context dependency, and non-physical context dependency. calderon (2019) reported that according to fishbein and ajzen, beliefs serve to guide the decision to perform or not perform a behaviour. hence, in this study, it is through beliefs that teachers were fuelled to exhibit actions beyond what is expected from them. this is through the use of creativity, which, according to sternberg and chowkase (2021), is the formulation of an idea that is both novel and useful with respect to the audience. accordingly, the interaction of belief and creativity drove them for an innovative performance to continue instructional delivery amidst the existence of the covid-19 pandemic. an idea in line with luthans is that creativity is a combination of solutions by individuals or groups in a new way (hosseini, 2001). hence, the five underlying themes of teachers' beliefs on creativity in teaching the english language include learnability, essentiality, non-exclusivity, physical contextdependency, and non-physical contextdependency. in general, these interrelated beliefs are crucial as they shape the concepts and perspectives of the english teachers in their way of using and developing creativity in the english language teaching and learning process that greatly affect the potential academic performance of the learners. learnability is the teachers' belief that creativity can be taught, learned, or even restrained. this is best exemplified in the lines that "creativity can be developed," "it can die down when not nurtured properly," "the teacher is crucial for the development of creativity" [participants, b, d, f, and m]. this shows that teachers have the knowledge that they themselves can possibly develop, improve, unleash or discover their creative potential and that this knowledge is vital in their creativity. this fact aligns with mazhar and muhammad (2018), stating that knowledge management and creativity have a positive relationship. this is because it is through knowledge of both the teaching process or pedagogy and content to be taught that the teacher, in this case, may be able to explore more possibilities since, as stated by ramos (2021) that both their content knowledge and pedagogical skills are essential along the way in transmitting concepts. 198 moreover, the same concept holds true for their learners. meaning to say, teachers believe that their learners' creativity can also be learned. however, it is crucial for the teachers first to learn how to be creative, considering that they are expected be guide the learners in the process later on. along with that, barak (2013) mentioned that creative thought is accessible to almost everyone, and creativity can be learned and enhanced in many ways. this means that aside from the fact that it is possible for people to become creative, there are several possibilities in terms of how a person's creativity can be developed. table 3.1 comparison of emerging themes themes and core ideas through miles and huberman framework common themes themes and ideas through nvivo 12 analysis core ideas themes themes core ideas  creativity can be developed  it can die down when not nurtured properly can be understood learnability comprehensible  teachable  developed  die down (if not nurtured)  development  teachers can be creative, and so as their students  creativity has no gender  economic status sometimes cannot stop everyone to be creative can be possessed by everyone non-exclusivity universal  teachers and students can be creative  creativity is genderless  anyone can be creative  creativity helps, especially during this pandemic  creativity gives hope to find alternatives in teaching constrained by covid-19  creativity is like the blood that provides life to those who are still navigating in the new normal academic setting is critical for learning essentiality necessary  useful in teaching  helpful in learning  in demand for innovation  the physical environment matters in being creative because it sometimes limits us in what we do due to lack of availability of resources or colleagues persuading us to stick to what is already there  the setting hinders at some point our creativity due to several reasons, including noise and other interruptions in our thinking process is affected by the environment physical context dependency environment vulnerability  unconducive learning space  limited physical resources  noisy learning environment  unsupportive people around the environment  the concept of mediocrity, if embraced, can limit the development of creativity  when superiors die to age and getting more comfortable with the old practices sometimes push us to stay at the same level of thinking is affected by values, beliefs, and practices non-physical context dependency practice reliant  settlement for mediocrity  minimum only concept 199 in addition, walsh, anders, & hancock (2013) stated that some of the essentials in developing creativity include understanding and attitude towards creativity as well as the environment itself where it is developed. thus, clear comprehension of creativity along with the right attitude in the precise context can lead to a growth of one's creativity, and as long as the person possesses this understanding and qualities, creativity will be like a renewable resource that can always be tapped anytime like a process that can be taught as mentioned by smith (2019). this means that creativity exists in each person, and the only thing needed is the right stimulus for creativity to come out, grow, and become more useful. it is in this belief that the english teacher's role as facilitator becomes vital and significant for the failure to guide the learner may lead to restraining his creativity, thereby wasting a potentially renewable resource since, according to tran, ho, mackenzie, and kim (2017) found that lack of guidance for teachers in terms of how to prepare, implement and assess a lesson which aims to develop students’ creativity and how to assess students’ creativity were major challenges that limited successful teaching of creativity. non-exclusivity is the teachers’ belief that all people can be creative regardless of the different variables in life. in some of the responses under this theme, the teachers collectively say that "teachers can be creative and so as their students," "creativity has no gender," "economic status sometimes cannot stop everyone to be creative‖ [participants, h, m, k, l, t, and b]. these facts are supported by cremin and barnes (2015), stating that creativity is not confined to special people or particular arts-based activities, nor is it an undisciplined play. it brings the idea that even in an english language classroom, creative potentials are already present and only wait for the right stimulus to unleash it and because creativity is not restricted to people with distinct capability, this means that even the teacher or the learner from the most remote community can be creative too. this concept is also supported by barak (2013) when stating that creative thought is accessible to almost everyone. so, while almost everyone can gain contact with creative thought, some may fail because of their failure to go beyond the ordinary. however, if guided appropriately by creative individuals, they too have the chance to experience the same. as chaturvedi and dasgupta (2011) put it, everyone is creative. in this case, it only needs to put all the variables at the right and exact perspective to make it work. hence, both teachers and learners are creative in their own way, depending only on the available context. but, needless to say, in an educative process where teachers are expected to have more knowledge, they must possess the creativity to guide their learners in developing creativity in the entire academic journey, as pointed out by tran, ho, mackenzie, and kim (2017). in this case, then, teachers who are expectedly creative in nature must first find a way to be creative in order to share their experiences with their learners. essentiality is the teachers’ belief that creativity is crucial and that knowledge about it is also needed. in the study, some of the teachers’ answers under this theme such as those given by teachers are "creativity helps especially during this pandemic," "creativity gives hope to find alternatives in teaching constrained by covid-19‖, ―creativity is like blood that provides life to those who are still navigating in the new normal academic setting." [participants, a, c, p, s, t, e, k, and o]. hence, these responses are supported by mull (2019 on the fact that in the classroom, creativity is required. it is through creativity, such as in the case of assessing learners in class, that the diverse types of learners are catered and accommodated. this is why, according to luetkemeyer, adams, davis, redmond, and hash (2021) that people at present have embarked on a journey to infuse creativity in professional practice. moreover, creative delivery of instruction also stimulates learners and motivates them to participate in the learning process since there will be more chances that their needs are addressed, and their desires are given attention. through the creativity of the english language teacher, the full delivery of the lesson and the achievement of the targeted outcomes originally aligned by the institution will be accomplished. the failure for the teacher to utilize the full potential of creativity as a classroom tool may also cascade down to a society of citizens whose thinking is only confined to the limits of the usual box of ideas. saebø, mccammon, & o'farrell (2007) contended that it is necessary to build creative capacity both in students and in teachers as individual learners, if educational transformation is education so that it fosters creativity. hence, creativity’s critical role is undeniably found. this is because, as argued by ferrari, cachia, and punie (2009), both creativity and innovation in education are not just opportunities but a necessity. in addition, this theme is supported by primi and wechsler (2018) when they contended that creativity along with innovation had been highlighted as essential skills for the 21st century, especially if we consider that both skills can promote human potential by eliciting positive aspects of the individual. thus, creativity is indispensable in the 21st century. in line with this, it is crucial for every english teacher to possess knowledge of creativity in order to guide the 200 language learners in the classroom and push their creativity to greater heights. it is through the english teachers' knowledge on creativity that serves essential for them to hone and also develop their learners’ creativity in the context of language learning. physical context-dependency is the teachers' belief that the development of creativity is also connected to the substantial part of the physical setting, such as the english teacher and the classroom itself. in their responses, synonymously told that ―the physical environment matters in being creative because it sometimes limits us in what we do due to lack of availability of resources or colleagues persuading us to stick to what is already there," "the setting hinders at some point our creativity due to several reasons including noise and other interruptions in our thinking process." [participant, c, f, n, p, t, and f]. as pointed out by kinloch (2005), democratizing classrooms helps develop consciousness and develop various ways of dealing with different situations. this means that, in general, the classroom should become an environment for teachers and learners to freely express themselves without fear or constraints as embodied in the concept of psychological safety since it serves as a foundation for effective learning. this is because when people feel safe and comfortable, they are more open to development and negotiating change. this safe environment or climate perception is regarded as a precondition or prerequisite for creativity and performance (lateef, 2020). this idea is also in line with unesco's concept, of which both kampylis and berki (2014) stated that creativity could be nurtured in the educational context. in order to nurture creative thinking in students effectively, teachers must re-think schooling and reflect on how new educational futures could be outlined by re-examining what students learn, how they learn, where they learn, when they learn, whom they learn with and for whom and why they learn. through the english teacher's physical presence in the classroom, (s)he can steer the environment in an academic context that promotes the unleashing of learners' creativity through the english teacher's exemplification in every activity being done in the class. non-physical context-dependency is the teachers' belief that the development of creativity is also dependent on the intangible factors in the setting such as the subject, standards, policies, practices, and even culture. in the study, some responses under this theme coming from teachers include ―the concept of mediocrity if embraced can limit the development of creativity," ―when superiors due to age and getting comfortable of what were commonly practiced sometimes push us to stay at the same level of thinking.‖ [participants, g, l, q, s, a, r, c, t and m]. consonant with this, according to saebø, mccammon, & o'farrell (2007), creativity is a state of mind in which all of our intelligence are working together. it involves seeing, drinking, and innovating. although it is often found in the creative arts, creativity can be demonstrated in any subject at school or in any aspect of life. in addition, kampylis and berki (2014) posited that creativity could not be taught directly, but educational practice can provide the means, opportunities, and a fertile environment for the creative mind to flourish. this means that creativity has a greater chance to flourish through consistent, continuous practice guided by the standards and policies in the academic context. such as in the case when the subject being taught can be used as a platform by the teacher to promote the development of creativity. kampylis and berki (2014) added that creativity is not only a privilege of the arts or people associated with the arts. creative thinking can also be fostered and demonstrated in all school subjects and curriculum areas. even trivial subjectspecific content can nurture creativity in students, provided that the pedagogical approach allows for the expression of creative thinking and imagination. 3.2 transforming beliefs about creativity into innovative strategies in offline english language teaching the emerging themes of beliefs prove that there is a presence of creativity in the english language classroom as it is expressly found in the intangible views of the teachers entrusted to facilitate the learners in learning the english language. moreover, these beliefs, along with the pressing need to teach the english language in a remote learning context caused by the covid-19 pandemic, have propelled the teachers to transform them into tangible practices that bridged the teaching gap due to the inaccessibility of internet connectivity. equipped by the idea that the ultimate goal of teaching the english language is to allow learners not only to memorize grammatical rules but also to eventually transform them into communicators of the language, these english teachers have used their beliefs as foundational cornerstones to make sure that the teaching of the english language in the philippines, despite the intermittent problems on technology, the expected learning outcomes originally set in the k-12 curriculum are still met. this study revealed these innovative offline strategies in order for the english teachers to go on with their instructional delivery despite the inevitable fact that the pandemic has obviously cut them off from the usual way of teaching their learners. stimulated by the existing need as challenged by the covid-19 pandemic, the english teachers innovatively made and adopted strategies both in the context of the teaching and learning process. 201 the covid-19 pandemic resulted in it being mandatory on practically a global scale to implement online distance learning across almost every level and type of educational institution. today, the vast majority of educational institutions worldwide consider online emergency remote teaching as one of the most effective teaching strategies employed in response to the global education crisis caused by the pandemic, as reported by karakose (2021). along with this, table 3.2 shows that due to the pressing needs in the education of which the context has been affected both by the covid-19 pandemic and the absence of internet connectivity in some areas of the learners, the english teachers were able to translate their beliefs on creativity into innovative strategies for continuous offline instructional delivery. because creative thought is accessible to almost everyone and creativity can be learned and enhanced in many ways barak (2013), the english teachers, after equipping themselves with the appropriate knowledge, re-invented, innovated, and modified their ways and practices in order to adapt to the new normal academic setting. the absence of internet connectivity did not stop them from continuously delivering their lessons and teaching their learners the english language. table 3.2 innovative offline strategies for elt from creativity beliefs no themes of beliefs about creativity core ideas 1 learnability  initially searched for knowledge and information from all possible sources in order to deliver instruction through offline modality,  carefully determined learning outcomes across necessary competencies in learning the english language as the basis for offline instructional delivery. 2 non-exclusivity  patiently crafted and printed instructional materials into printed modules and recorded video lessons giving emphasis on the vital communication competencies in learning the english language.  cautiously contextualized printed modules and recorded video lessons based on acquired knowledge about creativity in order to also improve learners’ originality in learning the english language. 3 essentiality  painstakingly included creative lessons in the crafted and reviewed creative offline instructional materials for inclusive learning.  cooperatively working and sharing ideas to come up with viable and realistic instructional materials and successful instructional delivery. 4 physical contextdependency  creatively transform classrooms into new normal working stations such as repositioning tools and equipment to effectively produce the deliverables while considering existing health protocols.  instantly made classrooms into recording stations for the crafting of recorded video lessons.  carefully made an inventory of available resources to be used to produce vital instructional materials for offline instruction.  strategically created learning centres in small groups as a point of distribution, collection, and feedbacking with parents and guardians. 5 non-physical context-dependency  tolerantly adjusted the time frame for the completion and submission of printed materials.  carefully crafted new policies for distribution and collection of offline instructional materials as well as dialogues with concerned parents and guardians. according to zhou (2020) as education has changed dramatically, with the distinctive rise of elearning, whereby teaching is undertaken remotely and on digital platforms. but due to internet problems, from physically discussing lessons directly to their learners, teachers turned out to be actors or actresses in their pre-recorded videos of their lessons, and they have utilized the production of pre-recorded videos as instructional materials and sent them directly to their learners coupled with printed lessons to augment selfdirected learning. in some cases, the radio station is also used as a helpful instructional medium for learners whose locations are in remote areas. this is in line with the idea that many scholarly studies have established the importance of radio-based instruction in student learning and development and argue for the need for a participatory approach to knowledge sharing and dissemination with the help of new media, as pointed out by ibrahim and mishra (2016). along with this, teachers turned out to be radio artists as well in utilizing their voices and guided by their lesson plans in order to transmit their lessons to the most remote areas where internet connectivity is a problem. 202 in addition, from discussing lessons in big groups, the teachers found ways of innovatively transmitting knowledge through support groups from the families of the learners. the teachers made sure that there were no learners left behind. this is because, as pointed out by muneer (2021), education is a powerful social instrument, and a pivotal factor that has tremendous potential to change the life patterns of humans in all segments, and that family support group is considered crucial. hence, in partnership with parents, instructional materials were not only delivered through various media but as well as contextualized to meet the demands and familiarity of the learners who will be remotely learning based on their own pace. this is in line with the concept of kampylis and berki (2014) that creativity can be learned more if teachers continually promote it through all school subjects, create well-designed learning spaces, increase the use of open-ended questions, allow learners to engage in meaningful and authentic activities, and practice collaboration. through the belief that everyone can be creative regardless of the different variables in life and that creativity is not confined to special people or particular arts-based activities, nor it is an undisciplined play (cremin and barnes, 2015), the teachers went out of the box in their new ways of teaching the english language. on the part of the teachers, regardless of their age or years in teaching, they really have exerted effort of innovating teaching the english language because they believe that they too can learn how to be creative all for the benefit of their learners. notably, the teachers exerted effort on identifying the needs of their learners prior to crafting instructional materials both in print and recorded videos since understanding learners is crucial in the academic setting (bock, zmud, kim and lee, 2005). thus, they also considered offline individualized instruction to meet the diverse needs of learners and as well as gathered learners’ environmental background for suitability of the offline instructional materials such as printed modules and recorded videos. on the part of the learners, they were identified by the teachers depending on their capacity to perform and learn, then individualized materials for self-paced instruction were used to make sure that there would be learning of the english language along the way. this was done in agreement with the fact that the analysis of the learners involved in the context is an indispensable part of an educational setting, according to jabbarifar and elhambakhsh (2012). furthermore, as these teachers focused on how to embrace the new normal academic setting, it led them to seek more new information and knowledge about the issue and have activated their sense of creativity to respond to the pressing need of their profession for the benefit of their learners. this is because, according to bock, zmud, kim, and lee (2005), the capacity to be creative and innovative depends on the knowledge like those shared that takes place within and across the workplace. this shows that the elements of belief and proper attitude expected of a teacher yielded better outcomes as these teachers have opened up their minds and have accepted the fact that the old can never be part of the new normal academic setting, which therefore requires them to be adaptive in order to consistently produce quality outcomes in teaching the english language. hence, the teachers painstakingly included creative lessons in the crafted and reviewed creative offline instructional materials for inclusive learning and cooperatively worked and shared ideas to come up with viable and realistic instructional materials and successful instructional delivery. through their quest for a more organized offline instructional delivery, as stated by kaplan (2019), the student may meet the learning targets. indeed, this act of the teachers is a manifestation that creativity is a key competence for sustainability. hence, without it, according to ocetkiewicz (2021), the sustainable development paradigm may not be feasible since creativity allows a person like these teachers to search for ways of sustainable management of natural resources, alternative resolutions to problems, and effectively use them. moreover, since the development of creativity is also dependent on the tangible part of the physical setting, such as the english teacher and the classroom itself, the teachers also creatively re-structured themselves and their classrooms. thus, the school's transformation as an educational context and the classroom specifically into a place where learners have every opportunity to practice and exhibit their creativity, as mentioned by kampylis and berki (2014), is a requirement that every teacher should do. in this case, the teachers projected a more positive and friendlier image to the learners considering the idea that the covid-19 pandemic has already discouraged the learners from continuing learning because of the new setting. in fact, chi-chung, cheung, and kentman (2021) reported that students using the dl method performed at a significantly lower level than students learning via the conventional approach. english teachers have transformed the physical classroom into new normal working stations such as re-positioning of tools and equipment to effectively produce the deliverables while considering existing health protocols, making classrooms into recording studios for the crafting of recorded video lessons, conducting an inventory of available resources to be used for the production of vital instructional materials for offline instruction, and created learning centres in small groups as a point of distribution, collection and feedbacking with parents and guardians. 203 kampylis and berki (2014) added that educational practice could provide the means, opportunities, and a fertile environment for the creative mind to flourish. in this case, the teaching and learning process has totally evolved from physically synchronous to virtually synchronous or offline asynchronous in the absence of internet connectivity, along with teachers' important value of tolerance. according to lysenko, shtefan, and kholodniak, education also needs the promotion of national and universal values such as tolerance, especially in the rapid transformation like during the pandemic. in this case, as a consequence of the pandemic, this resulted in new teaching and learning experience (diab and elgash, 2020); hence the teachers promoted tolerance by adjusting the time frame for completion and submission of printed instructional materials and carefully crafted new policies for distribution and collection of offline instructional materials as well as dialogues with concerned parents and guardians. hence, when teaching is in an unprecedented way (rao, 2013), learners were given a wider degree of freedom to work on modularized lessons at their own pace. teachers are extending the maximum amount of tolerance on reviewing responses, providing timely and sensible feedback to ensure that expected outcomes are met. 3.3 the covid personal qualities of offline english language teachers teaching always requires a lot of positive qualities for an individual to remain in love with it through the period of time. much more positive qualities are needed by the teachers, especially when times are tested by the pandemic resulting in the new landscape of teaching and learning in a different type of normal. the study revealed that since the pandemic made its hardest blow on the academic community, those who were greatly affected were not those who still have the opportunity to immediately connect virtually through the presence of internet connectivity in their communities. rather, those who greatly felt the impact of the pandemic came from rural areas where they are left with the option to leave the concept of utilization of the internet due to its absence in the community and therefore must find alternative offline solutions that will help in the task of teaching and making sure every learner is never left behind and that hopefully help in giving the comprehension skills that are needed for every learner transformed into a valuable asset in the country as mentioned by boltron and ramos (2021). in figure 3.1, the emerging themes showing the five personal qualities of offline teachers of english, including the concept of the need to be creative, optimistic, versatile, inventive, and devoted, collectively known as covid, are presented. in addition, the core ideas associated with each theme are presented accordingly. teachers, in this case, demonstrated the creative quality as they sought to find better and more suitable solutions in their context without simply allowing themselves to get jammed in the already devastated academic community caused by the covid-19 pandemic. figure 3.1 covid personal qualities needed for innovative offline english teaching 204 instead, they managed to navigate themselves along a very narrow way of instructional delivery of which options are constrained by both the pandemic and the absence of internet connectivity with the ultimate goal only of making sure that knowledge is transferred and competencies are developed. two crucial factors have shifted due to the pandemic. first, pedagogical adaptations have proven to be pivotal as traditional in-person lectures do not translate to a remote learning environment. no matter the type of channel used (radio, tv, mobile, online platforms, etc.), teachers need to adapt their practices and be creative to keep students engaged as every household has become a classroom more often than not without an environment that supports learning. second, the pandemic has recalibrated how teachers divide their time between teaching, engaging with students, and administrative tasks. in brazil, according to a survey conducted by instituto peninsula, 83% of teachers did not consider being prepared to teach remotely, 67% were anxious, 38% felt tired, and less than 10% were happy or satisfied. the pandemic has highlighted the need for flexibility and more time for student-teacher interactions. the teachers’ creative quality paved the way to bridge the instructional delivery gap brought by the non-physical educational setting as the government banned physical contact for learners to minimize the spread of the virus. the teachers' creative mindset opened new ways and opportunities to craft strategies to meet ends as the department of education required. the experience of high stress and negative affect can diminish teachers’ creative resources—their creative beliefs, affect, thinking, and behaviours (anderson, 2020). creativity is a critical part of sustaining the joy of work. in fact, on the whole, recent college graduates care more about being creative in their job than getting a high salary (national association of colleges and employers, 2014). the fundamental yearning for creativity in people relates to a need for agency and autonomy in personal and professional life (bandura, 2006). these needs are no less powerful for educators than other professionals, and they are likely key conditions for joy in the classroom. simply put, teachers today, especially during the global pandemic crisis, seek support and permission to be agentic and creative in their work, which may play a role in mitigating stress and enhancing well-being during crises. an individual’s creative action results, in part, from holding a creative growth mindset and approaching failures as opportunities (amabile et al., 1996; hass et al., 2016) and from feeling selfefficacious and agentic about one’s potential to be creative (karwowski and beghetto, 2018). emphasizing openness to mistakes and improvement, a creative growth mindset likely relates to teachers’ attitude and affect when facing uncertainty. creative growth is only possible if individuals are open to vulnerability and are willing to take risks, especially when facing uncertainty—a central component to the creative process (amabile, 2017). the focus of this current study is the links between teachers' creative beliefs and affect, the support for creativity in their school, their overall well-being, and their capacity to adapt to challenging circumstances. moreover, their optimistic quality provided them the courage and strength to look for alternative ways for instructional delivery. teachers simply did not stop due to the challenges met along the way. instead, they tried to modify ways to blend in the context of the learning environment that the covid-19 pandemic has plagued. as optimists, they recognize reality constraints and aspire to probable outcomes. they see the path to success as full of twists and turns. teaching students about optimism help see unpleasant events as learning opportunities. optimism has been defined as an emotionally intelligent attitude that provides a person with the strength to persist throughout life (goleman, 1995). optimistic managers have done better on performance measures, including decision-making and interpersonal tasks, according to research by straw & bassade (1993). the influence of optimism on education has just begun to be studied, and the field demands more work (coleman & willower, 1996). the teachers also became versatile as they adapted to the demands of time. their persistence to find better options to produce the outcomes and develop the competencies of their learners have motivated them to suit themselves in the present academic context, simply making them flexible in teaching. in which according to pinquart and schwinger (2021), being versatile or flexible is important in the realization of inclusive education. the approach goes beyond providing low-tech materials: it gives information on how to access learning programs, ensures students access paperbased learning materials and includes home visits to monitor distance learning activities. they provide weekly paper-based resources to students and meet them weekly to provide their marked worksheets and issue new ones for the week ahead. in addition, they were also inventive due to their being creative. they mix and match all available materials and strategies to make sure that they will be able to continue on their pace of teaching the english language. according to van den berg and cocky fortuinvan (2019), inventive teachers, along with their being wise and bold, dare to begin the search for meaning with students and, in that process, learn to engage with students in a more flexible and natural manner. hence, this is the case of the participants of 205 the study that resulted in their continuous quest for learning meanings of concepts outlined in the curriculum. finally, there is devoted has led them to sustain and persevere no matter what the obstacles were along the way. while it is undeniable that they have come themselves out of their own comfort zones, they continued to stay and were obedient to their sworn promise in the teaching profession, which effectively made them survive in one of the most difficult times in the history of education. as observed, devotion is one of the personality traits that a teacher should have. devotion is defined as giving up one's own interests for anything sought or for the sake of an end, giving up one's own personal wishes, aspirations, and desires. (bakırcıoğlu, 2014; türk dil kurumu, 2017). monroe (2002) asserts that devotion refers to acting for the sake of others. engaged with people who are biological, psychological, and sociocultural beings, a teacher should be compassionate, devoted, tolerant, and patient towards people (helvacı, 2016). teaching requires characteristics like altruism, tolerance, continuous self-renewal, fulfilling the profession with love as well as field knowledge and professional knowledge (girgin & baysal, 2005). according to burns and carpenter (2008), ineffective and successful schools, teachers should continue to work diligently against the challenges they experience in order to be more useful for their students and to achieve the school's goals more effectively and rapidly. similarly, as for contributing to their schools, it is crucial that teachers act with the team's spirit and with the consciousness of being "we" and work voluntarily in devotion and sacrifice beyond what is expected of them (bogler & somech, 2005). 3.4 innovative offline english language teaching framework greatly challenged by the pandemic, as leaders in the academic community persistently pushed for nonstop learning despite the effect of the community quarantines, non-physical classes, and limited by the ultimate absence of internet connectivity in some communities of the learners, inequality is clearly emerging on the side of those who are totally disconnected. to bridge this gap and be true to the mandate that no learner should be left behind in this case, in the context of learning the english language, an innovative offline english language teaching framework is created. the framework shows that through the transformation of beliefs on being creative, elt teachers' pedagogical knowledge and competencies can be useful in the innovation of practical and functional strategies that are adapted and suitable to the needs of the current educational context. moreover, this concept will only sustain if and when elt teachers possess and value the critical role of five qualities which are known here as covid personal qualities. figure 3.2 innovative offline english language teaching framework 206 4. conclusion the study concludes that while english language teaching is affected by the shifting of the academic landscape caused by the covid-19 pandemic, despite the absence or limitation of internet connectivity, these language teachers believed the concept of learnability and non-exclusivity essentiality, physical context dependency, and nonphysical context-dependency of creativity. in addition, beliefs in creativity became the foundation of coming up with innovative strategies to continue their instructional delivery. and in order to sustain instructional delivery, english language teachers anchored on five important qualities, namely being creative, optimistic, versatile, inventive, and devoted. these qualities will fuel teachers to go on teaching the english language regardless of the circumstances. finally, in this study, the innovative offline english language teaching framework for instructional delivery in communities with no to limited internet connectivity can be useful but demands careful consideration of all elements involved, including the various beliefs of teachers on creativity and their translation of these beliefs into effective strategies as well as their personal qualities to effectively continue the teaching and learning of the english language despite the presence of the covid-19 pandemic. it is only through the translation of these beliefs into creativity, meaning by simply putting them into tangible actions, that a different result will come out without getting constrained by the pandemic as teachers of english deliver their instruction. references al-ababneh, m. 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(2020). on the lesson design of online college english class during the covid19 pandemic. theory and practice in language studies, 10(11), 1484-1488. http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1011.21. zuhairi, a., maria rowena del, r. r., & mir, k. (2020). implementing quality assurance system for open and distance learning in three asian open universities: philippines, indonesia and pakistan. asian association of open universities journal, 15(3), 297-320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/aaouj-05-2020-003 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i3.6908 vol. 3, no. 3, december 2021, pp. 210-225 210 computer-assisted language learning in pakistani context during covid-19 pandemic naveen talpur *, tehmina kalwar & mir jahanzeb talpur mehran university of engineering and technology, sindh, pakistan naveentalpur@yahoo.com article history received : 2021-05-30 revised : 2021-06-20 accepted : 2021-12-20 keywords call (classroom assisted language learning) teachers’ attitude challenges covid-19 pandemic abstract the use of technology and contemporary methodologies has resulted in significant changes in the development and enhancement of education standards in the higher education system in the last decade. the pandemic of the corona virus (covid-19) has had an impact on many sectors of life across the world, including economy, vocations, culture, schooling, etc. for the protection of students, most schools and institutions have been closed. then, in order to keep education continuing, many schools and institutions turned to e-learning. however, in pakistan, many lecturers/teachers and students are still unfamiliar with this teaching/learning method. this research study planned for investigating two pakistani context universities, i.e., mehran university of engineering and technology and university of sindh's esl on their teachers' attitude towards implementing and using call in their english language teaching, their present employments of call applications in their teaching and challenges they experience while executing call in their teaching to get a general picture of call usage in this particular setting. data was collected through a teacher-based survey questionnaire webbed to 40 efl teachers (n=40), and then it was analysed by spss. the questionnaire consisted of fivelikert items. each item of the question consisted of sub-items and elements with the help of those elements which the researchers got an accurate picture of answers for their research questions. findings revealed that esl teachers of the concerned universities held positive perspectives towards utilising call in their teaching of english, and there were no noteworthy contrasts in teachers' perspectives that can be credited to gender or academic levels. they saw call as a facilitating tool in encouraging language learning, increasing their motivation level, and helping them acquire skills. 1. introduction since the global spread of the corona virus (covid-19), all sectors of the economy have suffered, and educational wins hands down. the pandemic of coronavirus (covid-19) has put over 1.5 billion university students in 185 nations in asia under lockdown (pham & ho, 2020; jamal, 2020). while learners remain at home, institutions, schools, and universities must continue to train them by using distance learning from institutions to their homes. in most nations, including east asia and southeast asia, many higher education institutions are transitioning to online learning (jamal, 2020; rahman, 2020; yarrow, 2020; hayashi et al., 2020). furthermore, two-thirds of these colleges say they need to move away from classroom instruction and toward e-learning. the covid-19 epidemic, on the other hand, would most likely change our minds about how the sector can and should operate (pham & ho, 2020). the coronavirus (covid-19) pandemic is causing fast innovation and the search for replacements to online learning at numerous institutions in most nations, particularly in east and southeast asia (jamal, 2020; rahman, 2020; yarrow, 2020; hayashi et al., 2020). the corona virus outbreak is a chance to make the best of the circumstance (jamal, 2020). there are numerous alternatives accessible in this difficult scenario, and teachers must select the best approach and apply it to educate their students. the use of technology and contemporary methodologies has resulted in significant changes in the development and enhancement of education standards in the higher education system in the last decade. most notably, the ongoing covid19 epidemic has resulted in the closure of educational facilities and the implementation of social distancing methods, making delivery and imparting of education difficult and restricting interaction between social groupings and people (singh et al., 2020). in such social and pandemic circumstances, educators and policymakers should create effective ways and means of communication between instructors and pupils; thus, contemporary technologies should be utilised to the fullest extent possible. it is well known that the 211 integration of technology in educational institutions and the workplace has resulted in an active learning process that incorporates face-to-face and other teaching-learning methods such as online technology (asmari & khan, 2014). technology has pervaded all aspects of our lives and made progressions in education for the most part (kaid mohammed ali & rashad ali bin-hady, 2019) and in the field of language learning especially. in the field of language education, technology plays a very crucial role in developing students' motivation, autonomy, and finally, proficiency (warschauer, 1996; albirini, 2006; alsied & pathan, 2013; golonka et al., 2014; kılıçkaya, 2015; grzeszczyk, 2016; lai, yeung & hu, 2016). it not only provides help and support in classroom processes, but language learners can also take benefits from it outside the classroom as well (ahmed, 2019). learning has altered as a result of the internet and other modern technology— thousands of instructors worldwide regard computerassisted learning as a utopia that will provide only promising benefits. implementing computer-assisted language learning (call) in efl classrooms may be difficult. several researchers, alkahtani (2011), chow and ge (2011), hussain, 2014, have carried out studies to look at call's effects, issues, and effectiveness in efl classrooms. according to afrin (2014), computers are becoming an increasingly important element of every school. the internet and call are not the only new methods of education that have changed the way things are done in the past. call stands for computer assisted language learning, and it is a branch of study that focuses on the use of computers in language learning by definition. there are other phrases that sound similar to call. several of them will have been superseded by newer, more current words or no longer regular usage (beatty, 2013). therefore, it is vital to include these since some of this terminology may appear in research papers, and the word call is not usually used to refer to innovation language development. in north america, as an instance, the name call (computer-assisted language instruction) was widely used. computer-assisted learning (call) is a word that refers to any type of computer-assisted learning. the assimilation at the departmental level is indeed the main engine. department policies should be written in such a way that they enhance efficiency. the integration of instructors is the correct process. teachers should get the training and skills to utilise call in efl classes. call adoption in esl classrooms should improve learners' learning results and make it easier to fulfil the requirements of both students and teachers. nonetheless, there is an issue with instructors' attitudes. 'teachers and administrators have long been urged to incorporate computers and the internet into their lessons, but relatively few have reacted effectively,' says naeini & duvall (2012). regardless of instructors' dispositions, several other obstacles stand in the way of call's successful adoption in efl classes. financial constraints, a lack of hardware and software, and theoretical and technical expertise are all examples of these hurdles (lee n.d.). the significance of combining computerbased learning languages with face-to-face learning is stressed by jager et al. (2014). the use of computer-assisted language learning (call) has risen rapidly with age, and various research on the function of computers in learning english as a second or foreign language in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries have been undertaken. recent studies (ali, & yacob, 2010; ercetin, 2010; kilickaya & krajka, 2010, abuseileek, 2011, abuseileek, 2012) have demonstrated increased enthusiasm in employing computer systems for foreign language teaching and study due to the introduction of the world wide web and multimedia. around the world, computer technology has played a significant part in the teaching and learning process. classroom assisted language learning (call) has become a fundamental norm in language learning where computers (and other such programs and applications) act as assistants of humans during classroom practices. especially in large classrooms, technology can reduce the number of challenges that teachers face due to a greater number of students than they expect to have for efficient teaching "a large class can be any number of students, if the teacher feels there are too many students for them all to make progress" (baker & westrup, 2000). there is a wealth of projects, websites, cds, recordings, talks and e-books that have been intended for learning english as a second and foreign language in our advanced age. web innovation has likewise given efl students and educators free access to a large number of these proficient projects that help them a great deal in building up their language and empowering increasingly viable language learning and teaching. teachers' attitudes towards implementing call in esl large classrooms is one of the principal factors impacting the implementation of technology in classroom teaching (daud, 2006) and "a significant indicator of the utilisation of new innovations in the educational settings" (albirini, 2006) as such attitudes tell whether the teachers' accepts using call in their teaching or not. in pakistan, improvement in efl instruction necessitates administrators providing efl instructors with the most up-to-date computer equipment (farooq & soomro, 2018). multimedia and pcs with extra online apps may be useful for english instructors in this regard. teachers who are proficient in the use of technology equipment may be a strong 212 source of change in the educational system by promoting and using these powerful technologies in english language instruction in pakistan. in today's globalised world, governments and officials are sometimes obliged to embrace and borrow technical breakthroughs from other nations (rogers, 2015). in pakistan, the government and policymakers occasionally desire to improve this condition, but political instability prevents the system's advantages from being realised (farooq & soomro, 2018). english instructors in pakistan are divided into two groups: (1) those who have no interest in utilising computers in language teaching and prefer to stick to traditional techniques, and (2) those who wish to utilise computers to innovate efl teaching. from primary through secondary school, all instructors receive regular computer training so that they may upload testing or assessment reports to the management online. therefore, the importance of using computers for educational purposes is completely overlooked. at the secondary level, efl instructors are not given the same opportunity to participate in district-sponsored computer training. however, because of the pandemic epidemic in the wuhan chain, which has expanded around the world as well as in pakistan, officials and instructors in pakistan must use computer-assisted language learning classrooms instead of physical classrooms. this study aims at exploring teachers' attitudes towards implementing call in language teaching in the context of pakistan. in this setting, there is a requirement for such an investigation as usage of technology in classroom settings is still at its support at universities of this province, and it is still dependent upon teachers' interest and experience. many research studies such as haider, 2013, dzakiria 2019, dzakiria 2020, have recommended the importance of call usage in language teaching and learning as a facilitative device, but no such detailed study has been done in the context of the sindh province of pakistan. similarly, this study focuses on the usage of call in large esl classes that also makes it a unique and interesting approach. this study focuses on investigating the teachers' attitude towards implementing computer-assisted language learning in a large classroom and the use of call in large classes at the pakistani university level in pakistan. in pakistan, sindh, university teachers use call in their classes. the hypothesis for this study was that in the universities of sindh province, teachers' attitudes towards the application of call in large esl classrooms are high and positive. there exists a gap between teachers' attitudes towards usage of call and their actual practice and usage of such applications, and the reasons behind this gap could be explained with the help of various factors. there is a correlation between teachers 'computer competence and their uses of computer technology in their teaching in large classes. many asian instructors find it difficult to use technology (ta, 2020), and there are issues with teachers' and students' perceptions of e-learning (yarrow, 2020). many professors and teachers are still wary of technology and e-learning. the majority of today's educational activities are still based on conventional approaches. in india, educational institutions are now focused exclusively on traditional learning techniques, according to dhawan (2020). they use the traditional classroom setup with face-toface talks. in malaysia, rahman (2020) stated that some instructors were hesitant to use the learning management system at all. computer technology is extremely important for efl learning, yet most teachers are unable to use computers for language instruction. teachers have problems learning to use new technologies in language instruction in today's modern technological environment. teachers are being educated on adopting innovative approaches in the teaching of english by the government and non-governmental organisations (ngos). this is a particularly pressing issue at pakistani institutions. echoing the above explanation, this current research is somehow noteworthy since it focuses specifically on teachers and provides insights into teachers' attitudes, implementation, and usage of call. conducting this research allowed me to have a personal understanding of how instructors feel about bringing technology into the classroom. according to djamarah (2011), lecturing is a style of instruction in which knowledge or a description of subject material, and even the dilemma, is conveyed verbally. this technique is presented to the students through a straightforward narrative or clarification. due to covid-19 implementation, and use of technology in the classroom is favourable. so, the goal of this study was to add knowledge sordid of teacher's attitude, implementation and usage of computer assisted language learning. moreover, this study intends to explore the attitudes, implementation and use of university teachers of sindh province of pakistan towards integration of call for esl teaching and the challenges that they face. however, it is limited to two major universities of the province; mehran university of engineering and technology and the university of sindh. the study aims to record the opinions of esl teachers working at the concerned universities. however, there are several limitations, such as instructors' lack of expertise, outdated software, and teachers' need for sufficient training before utilising call. 2. literature review call stands for "the quest for the research of computer applications in language teaching and learning" (davies et al., 2012). according to tafazoli, 213 d., & golshan, n. (2014), fast advances in computer technology prompted linguists and literary researchers to employ computers in the late 1960s and early 1970s, laying the groundwork for the use of computers in language teaching and learning. call (computer assisted language instruction) became popular in the 1980s, replacing cali (computer assisted language instruction), a teacher-centred rather than a student-centred method. call expanded its reach by incorporating a communicative approach into various new technologies. it now involves substantial use of multimedia and internet resources, as well as highly interactive and communicative assistance for listening, speaking, reading, and writing abilities (davies et al., 2012). call has been classified into three primary techniques, according to warshauer and healey (1998). these techniques were used in different ways and from different viewpoints. the first method was behaviourist call, mostly utilised for grammar lessons and translation testing. bulut (2010) stated that behavioristic call usage, which began in the 1960s and 1970s, was focused primarily on students' behaviour and academics via repetition. the communicative use of call, the second strategy, pushed students to consider the proper use of form, which distinguished it from the behaviourist approach. integrative call, the third strategy, focuses more on employing technology to encourage and facilitate actual language use. even if the instructor is not there, computers may undertake part of the teacher's work and give valuable help to the student (pennington, g. (1994). according to yasmin & islam (2018, p.19), an english language instructor must have a thorough understanding of all aspects of english literature and language, such as grammar, syntax, and pronunciation, as well as ict abilities. english language instructors could use commercially available call software, according to levy (1997), but it was preferable to pick the material and customise it to the learners' requirements. the instructor must therefore become an author or a teacher-programmer in this situation. using authoring tools like author ware (macromedia) and tool book, elt teachers may tailor chosen content and exercises to the needs of their pupils (asymetrix corporation). in this light, internet connectivity was deemed necessary to assist and enhance call teaching and learning by providing e-mail and file transfer services. until recently, computer-assisted language learning (call) has become a subject of pertinence generally to those with a unique enthusiasm for that area (levy, m. (1997). recently, however, computers have become so common and widespread in schools and homes, and their uses have extended so drastically that most language instructors should now consider the implications of computers for language learning. the most ideal approach to meet the above-mentioned needs is to utilise computer-helped language learning in light of the fact that there are a ton of advantages of it. following are the major advantages of call: a) easy access to authentic, up to date, and unlimited number of materials and resources b) students’ motivation increases as they get bored of traditional teaching and books c) greater interaction through web-based platforms d) global understanding becomes easier e) it promotes individualisation and autonomous learning in large classes where the teacher cannot provide individual attention to every single learner f) repeated exposure to materials, practice, and drilling becomes easier g) access to non-judgmental feedback h) access to materials on an individualised basis i) more flexibility in classroom methodology j) a new role to teaching materials however, barriers also come along with call applications that can act as hindrances in the path of teachers and learners. if the challenges are detected along with the reasons, they can be eliminated through efforts (agarwal). the following could be the most common challenges: a) availability of computer hardware and software at the institutions b) lack of technical and theoretical knowledge of teaching staff and students c) acceptance of the technology d) financial barriers e) lack of knowledge of its benefits f) lack of interests g) lack of time and awareness cakir (2006) has underscored the significance of utilising innovation and technology in language teaching regarding the incredible impact that various media materials have on language teaching. he alluded to the critical job of recordings and visual materials on creating open aptitudes as such procedures help understudies contextualise what they have learned. he suggested numerous exercises for video implications in large classes. he stressed that such video methods create students' abilities and skills to speak and listen, giving more chances for the practice of target language through repetition of drills and replay. he included that with videos, large classrooms become more intrigued and charming. in pakistan, large classes are not in the classroom areawise, but it is about the insufficient number of students. many studies have stressed the relevance of teachers' attitudes in integrating technology for educational purposes, particularly in english language education, since such views indicate whether or not they are willing to adopt such technology in their teaching. (gilakjani & leong, 2012; kim, y-m., 214 2002; qasem & viswanathappa, 2016). however, none of these research studies focused on universitylevel teachers’ attitudes, implementation in sindh, pakistan. hu and mcgrath (2011) conducted a study on chinese tertiary teachers' attitudes regarding call usage in language classrooms. the data was conducted through many sources like teacher questionnaire survey, observation of classrooms, and focus groups, as well as semi-structured interviews with teachers and students. the data revealed that teachers had positive attitudes and enthusiasm towards the integration of call applications in teaching processes. however, there were many challenges and barriers that existed, such as inadequate support in terms of insufficient ict facilities and cpd opportunities, the domination of traditional elt, and limited call knowledge and skills. al-menei will investigate the impact of call on saudi students' english writing skills. some useful outcomes were discovered in paragraph writing and grammatical correction and participants were asked to greatly enhance their skills in this area. (al-menei, as cited in al-mansour and al-shorman (2011). similarly, saglam and sert (2012) have investigated the perceptions of nine elt teachers with m.a tefl degrees towards utilising call related innovation in language teaching. their data were gathered through semi-structured interviews, openended surveys and field notes. findings have demonstrated that teachers held positive perspectives about call usage in learning. they likewise accept that their students also held inspirational and positive attitudes towards using call for learning the language. in any case, they too recognised the difficulties confronted and accentuated the requirement for call preparing for both teachers as well as students. the investigation concluded that teachers utilise technology to teach academic and linguistic skills using an integrated skills approach, encourage students to play a role in the construction of knowledge, expose students to long-lasting learning abilities and systems, provide food for various students who have diverse learning styles, discover and make educating materials, create aptitudes through the introduction to existing on the web sources and make a propelling condition that is helpful for learning. moreover, golonka et al. (2014) have evaluated more than 350 studies to check the viability of technology usage in second language learning, focusing specifically on the kind of technology and its effectiveness. it was revealed from the review that utilising technology has different degrees of effectiveness in language learning. the review also uncovered that a few studies had supported the idea of using automatic speech recognition for learning and improving pronunciation and chat in increasing language inputs in terms of the amount of language produced by the learners and its complexity. in khartoum, sudan, saeed (2015) researched the impact of computer technology on the teaching performance of sudanese english language instructors. he gathered the information using a questionnaire and analysed it with spss. the majority of efl instructors in khartoum state had good attitudes regarding employing computer technology in their efl courses, according to his findings. in pakistan, particularly in sindh province, less research on call have been undertaken, therefore this study will assist in bringing new perspectives of teachers’ attitude towards call implementation in quantitative methodology. khawaji (2016) has inspected saudi teachers' perspectives towards implementation of call in english in large esl classes at saudi universities, current practices and the individual and expert qualities. data was gathered through a study survey given to english teachers of jazan university. it was revealed that teachers in any case of their gender and teaching experience accept that reconciliation of call is crucial for the quality of education, proficiency level of technology use has expanded since 2000 and coordination of call in university classrooms has reached a more refined stage. a greater part of teachers has likewise underlined that call is an amazing innovation that will, in general, improve their profitability, proficiency and viability. five efl instructors' perspectives of the effects of call lesson study on their professional progress were explored by nami, marandi, and sotoudehnama (2016). the study's findings revealed that instructors who took part in the study valued instructional approaches and peer observation for furthering their expertise. guan, song & li (2018) successfully investigated and reviewed the possible benefits of using computer multimedia in large esl classrooms. they revealed that making use of multimedia in large esl classes make them more charming, enjoyable, and a fun place for learners. it was also shared by them that multimedia-assisted elt in large classrooms has the potential to encourage learners to participate in learning activities more, optimise their english class environment, bring improvement in their speaking and listening abilities, create their own ideas in the target language, and enhances their enthusiasm for communication. kuru gönen (2019) also conducted a study that aimed to guide managing pre-service teachers in integrating call and other such technology in language learning large classes. the study explored the attitudes of both pre-service teachers and their students regarding call enhanced lessons. results uncovered that the concerned teachers and their 215 students had positive attitudes towards incorporating call in large esl classes. it has additionally been indicated that call-enhanced classes bring more improvement to students' english language abilities, create a motivating learning atmosphere, encourage dynamic cooperation, and help teachers in fitting their exercises to accommodate their students ‘needs and interests. this study is different as in pakistan, many lecturers/teachers and students are still unfamiliar with this teaching/learning method. this research study planned for investigating pakistani context universities such as mehran university of engineering and technology and university of sindh's esl teachers’ attitude towards implementing and using call in their english language teaching, their present employments of call applications in their teaching and challenges they experience while executing call in their teaching to get a general picture of call usage in this particular setting computer technology is being utilised to integrate the education system with the newest technological advances in the developed nations of europe, america, and south asia (tai, 2012). researches on cali have been done in the previous two decades to enhance students' oral and written abilities. chow and ge (2011) in taiwan, and charmonman (2014) in thailand, also machnaik (2012) in singapore, for example, have looked into gender-based attitudes and the influence of age and experience on utilising computers in efl classes. researchers in pakistan investigated the efficacy of utilising computers in efl classes and discovered gender-based attitudes about computer technology at the elementary and university levels (e.g., hussain, 2014; lodhi et al., 2019). traditional teaching methods will change day by day, and pupils will appear to be more engaged. in their classrooms, teachers employ computer technology for instructional objectives (edwardsgroves, 2012). mobile phones, tablets, and smartphone technology, among other things, have ushered in new ways of receiving and giving knowledge. educational technology has become more complicated but also more beneficial in recent years (levy, 2009). the use of educational technology provides an engaging approach for students to communicate with one another via online chat and discussion in order to achieve their educational goals (gill, 2011). 2.1 call in pakistani context pakistan is a country where fundamental human needs remain unmet. it is still considered to be a developing country. this situation is comparable in schooling, where classrooms lack fundamental learning facilities. there are no appropriate classrooms or classroom environments in rural locations, and professors educate kids under trees or in open fields. five years ago, even in major cities, technology such as multimedia devices, the internet, and computers was seldom found in classrooms, much alone in language classrooms. english language study, but on the other side, has always been a form of social evolution, and it is "aqlees heels" for everybody in pakistan (ali, & gulzar, 2016). this is due to the fact that traditional learning techniques, which lack facilities and new trends, have made it difficult for pupils to learn english. people in this area wish to learn english, which they are unable to do so since urdu and english have different syntactical properties. apart from societal pressure, poor teaching methods, and a lack of resources, learning english has become impossible. the problems of computer assisted language teaching in a private sector university to teach english as a communicative language in the context of university students' lack of communication skills are examined in this case study. the research is part of an endeavour to prepare university students to be global citizens in light of english's standing as a lingua franca. the project addresses a gap in elt research by using current technologies in english language teaching in pakistani institutions to promote communicative language teaching (clt). the major study topics are concerned with the difficulties that english language instructors have when delivering the course communication skills in bs (hons.) classrooms without access to current technologies. inspections of bs (hons) secondsemester classrooms and interviews with english language teachers at a private institution are among the study instruments. the study outcomes show that english should be taught as a living language rather than a dead language (yasmin, 2018) the study's main goal was to see how three different instructional approaches for teaching mathematics affected poor, medium, and high achiever elementary school pupils. for the education of three chapters of a six-class mathematics textbook, three techniques were used: traditional instruction, computer-assisted instruction (cai), and instructor supported mathematics learning software (integers, algebra and geometry). the materials of these three chapters were used to create interactive software. a male and a female school were chosen from each of the two urban and rural schools. seventy-eight pupils were chosen randomly from each of the four schools and placed in one of three groups. students were classified as low, moderate, or high performers based on their pre-test results. a follow-up test was performed after the therapy. the kids' scores were evaluated, and it was discovered that the teacher aided them. compared to cai and other teaching methods, the mathematics instructional technique achieved higher scores. the study examines the limitations and challenges that pakistani elt teachers experience while implementing call in their classrooms. in the previous two decades, technological progress has 216 resulted in apparent changes in every aspect of life. according to a scholar, people are increasingly attempting to include technology-based, creative, and supporting language learning methods in the educational sector and the language learning situation. the spirit of call integration is always the instructor who employs different technological approaches to promote unique ideas and interests in students. the infusion of technology-based learning is quite a new phenomenon for teachers as well as for students that is becoming popular in pakistan. the most significant distinction is that the call school environment is student-centred rather than teachercentred. this article will aid in identifying the challenges and obstacles that pakistani elt teachers are encountering when implementing call in their language classes (ali, 2016). traditional teaching methods will change day by day, and pupils will appear to be more engaged. in their classrooms, teachers employ computer technology for instructional objectives (edwardsgroves, 2012). mobile phones, tablets, and smartphone technology, among other things, have ushered in new ways of receiving and giving knowledge. educational technology has become more complicated but also more beneficial in recent years (levy, 2009). the use of educational technology provides an engaging approach for students to communicate with one another via online chat and discussion in order to achieve their educational goals as a result, computer expertise is being expanded in many areas of life in response to the growing demands of both instructors and pupils. teachers and students must decide which technology is most effective and beneficial. because mobile devices may be used outside of the classroom, computer technology has also transformed learning environments (abdollapour & maleki, 2012). it may be beneficial to instructors and students at pakistani universities in developing four language skills: speaking, writing, reading, and listening. because there is a lot of internet material for religious education, knowledge may be conveyed by using computers and other educational instruments to teach english as a foreign language from online data sources. for both professors and students at pakistani institutions, learning using computers and educational technology offers several advantages. although pakistan is not as developed as other european nations, its educational system is not sophisticated enough to fulfil the needs of international education standards. in this environment, incorporating sophisticated technology such as computers into the teaching of english is a difficult task, particularly in pakistan's educational institutions. furthermore, there are several difficulties with the way computer-assisted language learning is performed in pakistan. for personal and environmental concerns, teachers avoid using technology in the classroom. on the other hand, teachers with positive views are working hard to implement and use technology in the classroom at the university level. in pakistan, bhatti et al. (2014) conducted a study to investigate cali patterns among english language instructors in the lodhran district, located in the southern punjab province. his results indicated a shortage of instructional technology as well as load shedding difficulties in pakistan's higher secondary schools. one of the more serious concerns identified was the lack of cali equipment. another study by haider (2013) and hassan and dzakiria (2020) looked into teachers' perspectives and attitudes regarding cali in pakistani higher secondary schools. teachers were also motivated to employ instructional technology, and cali should be implemented in religious schools, according to the findings of this study. the majority of the teachers believed that using cali would improve their productivity and help inspire their students. hassan and sajid (2013) and hassan and dzakiria (2019) also looked at the efficacy of using cali in the classroom and the issues that english language instructors encounter in pakistan's punjab province. the majority of instructors were interested in incorporating cali into their teaching and learning, according to the findings of this study. the author needs to focus on computerassisted language learning in pakistan during the pandemic. 2.2 research gap researchers have discovered call in many situations through diverse investigations. many of them are concentrating on various aspects of their own settings. for example, hussain (2014) and lodhi et al. (2019) focus on gender-based computer technology views at the primary and university levels. gender-based variations in attitudes, as well as the influence of age and experience on utilising computers in efl classrooms, have been studied by chow and ge (2011) in taiwan and machnaik (2012) in singapore. however, none of the studies focused on call implementation and used teachers' attitudes and challenges in large classes during covid-19 outbreaks in sindh province universities in the pakistani context. 3. method this study used descriptive statistics are a series of short descriptive coefficients that describe a data set, which might represent the entire population or a sample of the population. measures of central tendency and measures of variability are two types of descriptive statistics (spread). the mean, median, and mode are examples of central tendency measurements, whereas standard deviation, variance, and minimum and maximum variables are examples of variability measures. in this study, the descriptive method is used at data from students at university in pakistan during 217 the corona virus pandemic lockdown (covid-19). during lockdowns due to the corona virus pandemic, all university instructors were "forced" to utilise an online learning system. for two weeks before the covid-19 epidemic, the second semester of the academic year 2019-2020 was held in face-to-face classes. due to the lockdowns at colleges and schools around the country, all professors tried to establish elearning, despite the frustrations (for the lecturers). descriptive statistics summarise the information at hand using figures such as mean, median, and so on to make the information easier to comprehend. it does not need any extrapolation or inference beyond what is already known. this includes descriptive statistics are simply a description of the available data (sample) and are not dependent on any set theory. to examine data from instructors at a university in sindh, pakistan, that had been placed under lockdown due to the corona virus. all university instructors were "required" to implement an e-learning system during the pandemic. for two weeks before the covid-19 pandemic, the first semester of the academic year 2019-2020 was held in face-to-face classes. 3.1 sample of the study the participants of this study are 40 (n=40) esl teachers belonging to two different universities of jamshoro; mehran university of engineering and technology and the university of sindh. in the pakistani context, call studies were mostly conducted from punjab province, so the researcher for this study was from sindh province. all the 40 esl teachers were selected through random sampling to participate in this study based on their availability and willingness to participate in an online survey questionnaire. in these two universities, approximately 50 teachers are available in humanities faculty, so the researcher selected these two faculties based on the topmost faculties where every student wants to get admission and learn. the researcher chose jamshoro as a site for their research because less research has been conducted from this reign on the basis of call in large classes. table 3.1 qualification of gender cross tabulation count qualification male female total phd 2 1 3 ms/m.phil 4 3 7 m.a 6 7 13 bachelors 8 9 17 this table questionnaire was sent to university instructors over the internet, and those who responded are listed below and distributed according to their gender. 3.2 data collection to collect data for this study, a five-item likert scale was used by the researchers. the teacher-survey questionnaire has been taken from the study done by ahmed, qasem & pawar (2020). a questionnaire survey was used to conduct the research. furthermore, for those who did not want to fill out the questionnaire, a personal explanation was used. it was simple to pick the approach that was most suited to my study job by comparing my research objectives with the strengths and weaknesses of each method. 3.2.1 research instrument however, the questionnaire has been adapted (some changes were done to make it relevant for the current study). the first section of the questionnaire aimed at digging personal information of the participants, i.e., gender, affiliation, etc. the second section aimed at investigating the attitudes of esl teachers towards call usage in their large classes. it consisted of eight items because these eight items are subdivided into other four to five elements, and these eight items give us answers to the research objective. these eight items are in the form of a 5-item likert scale (where strongly agree = 5 and means a highly positive attitude and strongly disagree = 1 and means extremely negative attitude). the third section aimed at digging out information about the possible challenges that the teachers face and the factors/reasons behind them, and it consisted of seven items. the fourth and final section of the questionnaire aimed at exploring the extent to which the concerned esl teachers use call in their large classrooms, and it consisted of 6 items. 3.2.2 administration of questionnaire the questionnaire was webbed online through google drive to the efl teachers of the concerned universities. it was shared with so many teachers as possible through what are groups of the universities, personal whatsapp and e-mail contacts. eighty-one teachers managed to respond to it. a pilot study was done pilot to the process of data collection. the questionnaire was sent to 3 professors at the university of sindh, mehran university, and sindh agriculture university tandojam respectively. they were requested to give their opinions about whether the questionnaire is valid and can achieve the study's objectives. based on their comments and recommendations, changes were brought in it. 218 3.2.3 reliability and validity after validating the questionnaire by three professors, the reliability of the questionnaire was also checked through a pilot study. a pilot study was done by sending the questionnaire to 15 esl teachers of the university of sindh and mehran university, and they were asked to fill it and respond to it. the questionnaire showed high reliability according to cronbach's alpha reliability statistics, as shown in table 3.2. table 3.2 reliability case processing summary n % cases valid 15 100.0 excluded(a) 0 .0 total 15 100.0 in table 3.2, the pilot study number of participants was shown. table 3.3 reliability scale reliability statistics cronbach's alpha n of items .646 21 in table 3.3, the corn brach alpha value was calculated using spss software to analyse the entire questionnaire and all participants' responses in order to determine the reliability and validity of the study instrument. 4. findings the total number of pupils that answered the questionnaire survey was 40.96 per cent (n=38) of these instructors who had used computer-aided language learning (call) in the classroom during the corona virus (covid-19) lockdown period, whereas 4% of teachers had never used call in the classroom. according to the quantitative data, the following were the reasons behind 4 per cent of students (n=53) not using the university's e-learning system. for starters, some students could not afford the e-learning system. they lacked the necessary resources to study using an e-learning system for technological devices such as cell phones, laptops, ipads, or desktop pcs. after processing the data by spss, findings showed that responses of 40 teachers were valid; 12 male and 28 female teachers belonged to two universities, the university of sindh and mehran university of engineering and technology. they also held different academic degrees, i.e., bachelors, m.a, ms /m. phil, and phd in english literature and linguistics. table 4.1 general details about participants descriptive statistics n minimum maximum mean std. deviation gender 40 1.00 2.00 1.7000 .46410 teaching 38 1.00 2.00 1.3684 .48885 qualification 39 1.00 4.00 2.7436 .96567 experience 40 3.00 5.00 4.4000 .81019 valid n (listwise) 37 as far as instructor’s demeanour towards utilising call in enormous classes esl educators are concerned, findings revealed that instructors were having uplifting mentalities as the greater part of the things are scored more than 4.00 focuses and by and large aggregated mean equivalent is 3.8462. responses also revealed that teachers believe that call has been becoming one of the handy tools to 219 facilitate the process of language learning in large classrooms. they believe that usage of call in esl classrooms could motivate learners to participate in classroom activities, save time and energy of teachers, helps in making use of authentic english language input in the classroom, and helps in making students autonomous learners and in the acquisition of important skills of english language. table 4.2 teacher’s attitude towards using call in classroom descriptive statistics n minimum maximum mean std. deviation facility 40 1.00 5.00 3.8000 .88289 motivate 40 1.00 5.00 3.6750 1.04728 save 40 1.00 5.00 3.9000 .92819 favour 40 2.00 5.00 3.9000 .70892 scared 40 1.00 4.00 2.4000 .81019 familiar 40 1.00 5.00 3.5250 .98677 replace 40 1.00 5.00 3.4000 1.03280 using 40 2.00 5.00 3.7500 .80861 valid n (listwise) 40 as to confront difficulties utilising call in large classes, teachers' reaction shows that they utilise call up to the degree of 3.8 out of 5. the data also revealed that no such gap existed between teachers' motivation and likeness about the usage of call in large classes and their actual use of it. the results also indicated that esl teachers' perception of call and their usage of call is not affected by their genders; both of the genders seem to have almost equal attitudes towards it. finally, there is less hole in the middle of educators’ disposition anchor challenges looked at by instructors while utilising call in enormous classes. most of the teachers also denied the idea that the thought of integrating call in large classes scares them. table 4.3 challenges used by teachers while using call in large classrooms descriptive statistics n minimum maximum mean std. deviation knowledge 40 2.00 5.00 3.8750 .82236 training 40 1.00 5.00 4.3000 .88289 willingness 39 1.00 5.00 3.7179 .94448 fund 38 2.00 5.00 4.1053 .79829 time 39 2.00 5.00 3.0769 .95655 implementation 40 2.00 5.00 3.4250 .98417 motivation 40 2.00 5.00 3.4750 .98677 valid n (listwise) 38 in this section too, most of the participants gave helpful feedback. as the researchers came to know that lack of teacher training was the biggest challenge that acts as a hindrance in the path of implementing call in large esl classes. similarly, they showed that call does not seem to be or act as timeconsuming. 220 table 4.4 teacher’s use of call in large classes descriptive statistics n minimum maximum mean std. deviation use 40 1.00 5.00 3.1750 1.15220 integrated 40 1.00 5.00 3.6500 1.18862 design 39 1.00 5.00 3.4359 1.16517 web 40 1.00 5.00 3.6000 1.05733 enjoy 40 1.00 5.00 3.5000 .96077 help 40 1.00 5.00 3.5250 1.03744 valid n (listwise) 39 the collected data shows that the majority of teachers have integrated or at least want to integrate call in their large esl classes. they believe that call can totally act as a help to teach the english language effectively and make classroom practices enjoyable and fun. however, data shows that designing call applications cannot be an easy task. table 4.5 implementation of call n minimum maximum mean internet knowledge 10 3.6000 40 online teaching 10 3.5000 40 ict system 10 40 3.4359 valid n the collected data show that participants stated that few members of the upper class found it easy to use the internet and teach students online using ict systems such as ilm software, teams software, and zoom software; however, because pakistan is a backward country, network availability is limited in deserted areas and small villages, making the implementation of computer-assisted language learning in large classrooms difficult. 5. discussion the study findings have revealed that the esl teachers of mehran university of engineering and technology, jamshoro, and the university of sindh, jamshoro, had positive attitudes towards the integration of computer assisted language learning (call) in their large classes. they believe that using call in large classes is highly effective for language learning and is very beneficial, it acts as a facilitative tool for esl learning and teaching, helps in making students able to communicate in english, helps students in becoming more motivated autonomous beings, and saves teachers’ time as well as energy. 5.1 teacher’s attitude towards integrating call in pakistan sindh teachers having positive attitudes and motivating students to use call as a tool to facilitate the process of education in large classes is not enough, and it cannot guarantee that call can be implemented effectively just by having such beliefs. many other factors are important to consider while integrating call in large classes. among these factors are the challenges and the reasons behind the challenges, which the responses have highlighted and responded to in the section of the questionnaire where they were asked about the factors that act as hindrances in the path of usage of call. among these factors is the lack of call training available for teachers as well as students, lack of knowledge, willingness, time-consuming nature of call, complicated nature of call, and lack of funds. the study also tried to investigate whether there was any difference in males and females in their attitudes and usage of call in their large esl classrooms and revealed that no such difference exists. it suggests that call is not influenced by any particular gender, rather, it is affected by lack of knowledge, training, and funds, and these things are pivotal to making call an important part of large esl classrooms. 221 while on the other hand, teachers' attitudes are seen to be a crucial determinant of how new technologies are used in educational contexts. as a result, their views regarding computers can have a significant impact on whether or not technology is accepted and used in education in general and language instruction in particular. many instances of student voice reports may be found in the literature; however, there is not much research on instructors' perspectives regarding call. the purpose of this study was to see whether there were any variations in views between english and russian language instructors when it came to adopting call into their classrooms. a total of 53 english instructors and 52 russian language teachers took part in the research. they were invited to complete a survey about e&l instructors' attitudes regarding call. using spss 22, the acquired data were analysed using an independent sample t-test (ahmadishokouh & samadi, 2021) so, it could be generalised from the collected data that in order to integrate and implement call in the large esl classrooms of the universities which are a part of this research, there is a crucial need to deal with the challenges that tertiary efl teachers encounter and to eradicate the factors that act as a base towards these challenges (i.e., less training, fewer funds, complexity in the implementation, etc.). providing internet connection to english departments and libraries, providing language labs and call tools, training efl teachers and students on computer skills and on how to use computer technology for language teaching and learning purposes can be key factors towards implementing call in english language teaching to enhance english language learning and develop students' communication competence in english. 5.2 university teachers using call these problems that act as a hindrance in the path of making call a useful part of large esl classrooms of universities can be removed if proper training. guidance and resources are made available for both teachers as well as students. teachers were divided into two groups: those who were older in age and experience and those who were younger, less experienced, and more enthusiastic about teaching. young teachers were using technology in their classrooms as much as possible, and it was simple for them to understand and learn call and then apply it in the classroom. in contrast, older teachers face many difficulties in learning call because they are less experienced with technology and slow learners who take a long time to learn. mahdi (2013) discussed technological, educational, interpersonal, organisational, and sociocultural challenges related to computer-assisted learning. the majority of english language instructors in pakistan do not have the financial means to purchase their own laptops (aziz, hassan & dzakiria, 2018). they also do not have enough money or time to invest in obtaining training on their own. because they do not have their own computers to practice on at home, male and female instructors experience obstacles and concerns while utilising cali during teaching. female instructors confront an issue of distance from their homes to computer learning institutions since training institutes are not close to their homes, making it difficult for them to travel thereafter teaching hours. they also discovered time management issues, as practically all-female instructors had to work while still managing their homes. unlike male teachers, they have little spare time to master computer skills outside of the classroom. so, they want to use computer technology, but they have many obstacles to overcome in order to reap the benefits of this technology. hassan and sajjd (2013) look into the problems and roadblocks to using modern technology such as computers in the teaching of english in pakistan's upper secondary institutions. financial, technological, and institutional issues were discovered. teachers are fatigued after teaching hours; thus, the time aspect is also crucial. cali facilities are restricted at most universities. as a result, instructors are powerless when it comes to receiving the most up-to-date information regarding their classes. however, due to the covid-19 epidemic, physical classes were transformed into hybrid classes, in which those teachers who are familiar with the internet and how to use it in the classroom found it easy to teach students using technology. senior teachers, on the other hand, found it difficult to use technology and began taking trainings and receiving assistance from their faculty members and friends in using call in their classrooms. call can make classroom processes and activities more straightforward, more enjoyable and less hectic and most imported. it can make students highly motivated to participate in classroom processes, and in this way, they can learn to use the english language more effectively and practically. therefore, it is essential to make call an integrated part of large esl classrooms as our education system is in dire need of it. 5.3 challenges act as hindrances in the path of implementing call in the large class this research study has investigated the attitudes of the esl teachers of jamshoro towards the implementation of computer assisted language learning (call) in large esl classrooms. their actual practice and usage of call applications for classroom processes and the factors or challenges that act as hindrances in the path of making call a critical part of large classes, and finally suggesting some possible solutions that can help in coping up with the challenges that teachers and students face if 222 they try to implement call in large classes. this study illuminates favourable views about callbased instructions, while (yasmeen, 2018) investigated the difficulties faced by university students in learning english via call in a lingua franca setting. this study's presentation skills are highly significant since they make teaching easier, and rachid et al. (2018) investigate undergraduates' digital practices to increase students' commitment to learning. as stated in the study, call provides favourable settings for improved teaching, but (rashid, 2017) investigates the role of instructors and their relationships in the usage of call in high school teaching. the current study shows that call can help people increase their concrete vocabulary by providing linguistic support. esl students are influenced by socio-cultural aspects as well as the instructional benefits of call (irshad & ghani, 2015). the issue of comfortable teaching sentiments is examined in this study, and (rashid, 2017) assesses english instructors' attitudes and perspectives on call. findings revealed that english teachers of both of the universities held positive and motivating attitudes and beliefs about the usage and effectiveness of call for classroom processes, and there was no such difference in the opinion and usage of call in male and female esl teachers. similarly, no significant difference of opinion and usage of call applications existed among participants because of their level of education. instead of focusing on these issues, teachers were focusing their efforts on implementing call in large classes, although it poses numerous challenges for teachers, students, and administration because students at these universities come from faraway places where there was no electricity, no internet, and no mobile phone service, so teachers began recording those students. the pandemic situation continued, but owing to the covid-19 vaccine, universities and educational institutions began to open and provide physical education classes with a complete complement of sops. however, due to a shortage of equipment, teachers were unable to use call in the classroom. they aim to use multimedia and other forms of technology to offer lectures. moreover, esl teachers of concerned universities also find a variety of challenges, and according to the participants, the major factors behind these challenges are lack of knowledge of call applications, lack of training available for esl teachers in the country, difficulty in managing computers and internet in large classrooms due to lack of resources, lack of funds available to integrate call as a part of large esl classes, and less willingness on students' part. 6. conclusion considering that research on teachers' attitudes and challenges is still in its early stages, the findings of the studies discussed in this paper are encouraging. they show that most instructors believe call is beneficial and that some teachers are using it in their language courses despite certain obstacles and restrictions. however, adopting technology in language classes is a difficult undertaking in practice; it is not only about implementing technology. teachers must be taught how to properly use technology using a learnercentred approach rather than a teacher-centred approach. the lack of multimedia technology in classrooms, teachers' training, teachers' hectic schedules, course content based on written communication, students' promotion criteria based on written communication, exam-oriented classroom practices, and neglect of oral communication in theory and practice are all identified as challenges to computer assisted language teaching in pakistan. nevertheless, due to covid-19 situation, teachers and administration are working together, and they implement call inside the classroom. they change the method of examination and take oral communication exams from students to check their level of understanding in the form of presentation, viva voice etc. to increase university students' communicative ability, it is clear that teaching english as a communicative language requires the use of technology. to summarise the responses, it can be concluded that professors are enthusiastic about the use of call at pakistani institutions and find the concept appealing. the majority of instructors feel that computers and the internet may be valuable resources for teaching english. references abuseileek, a. f. 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(2012). second language vocabulary acquisition in call and mall environments and their effect on l2 vocabulary retention: a comparative study. australian journal of basic and applied sciences, 6(9), 109-118. . http://www.geocities.com/musician_a_b/important_files/project_2.htm http://www.geocities.com/musician_a_b/important_files/project_2.htm https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/33135181.pdf journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.8633 vol. 4, no. 1, april 2022, pp. 54-66 54 the effectiveness of contextual teaching and learning approach in enhancing indonesian efl secondary learners’ narrative writing skill yuriatson jubhari 1*, luana sasabone 2 & nurliah nurliah 3 1 politeknik sandi karsa, makassar, indonesia 2 universitas kristen indonesia paulus, makassar, indonesia 3 iai ddi polewali mandar, polewali, indonesia jubhariyuriatson@gmail.com article history received : 2021-12-09 revised : 2022-04-04 accepted : 2022-04-20 keywords ctl efl narrative text contextual teaching quasi-experimental abstract this study investigates the effectiveness of the contextual teaching and learning (ctl) approach in enhancing indonesian efl secondary learners’ narrative writing skills and the perception of indonesian efl secondary schools toward applying the ctl approach. this study employed a quasiexperimental design with fifty-two eleventh-grade students as participants. the participants were divided into two groups; an experimental group received the ctl approach, and a control group received the conventional way. this study utilized a pre-posttest and perceptional questionnaire. nonparametric tests (i.e., mann-whitney u test and wilcoxon test) were run to analyze the data in this study. the man-whitney u test indicated a significant difference between the mean score for the experimental group with the ctl approach and the control group without the ctl approach (9.86 > 10.12). meanwhile, the wilcoxon test illustrated that the leading score of the pre-test (10.14) and the post-test (16.05) in the experimental group differ significantly. implementation of the ctl approach through its components positively contributes to teaching narrative writing skills. meanwhile, the perceptional questionnaires showed that the students' experiment group perceived the implementation of the ctl approach positively. this study results render teachers’ insight into a practical approach to teaching writing to be able to teach narrative writing. 1. introduction writing is an activity of forming graphic symbols and making marks on a paper; those produced symbols must be arranged with a particular convention to build words into a sentence to express emotions and thoughts (byrne, 1993; cer, 2019; hacker, 2018). through writing, we can express our ideas. as a result, people can access information in writing. in communication, writing in english is one of the crucial skills to have people in the globalization era. through writing, people can communicate at different times and spaces (graham & perin, 2007a). the importance of the writing skill is not only as a means of communication but also as means of transforming knowledge to create knowledge (weigle, 2002). furthermore, people frequently communicating with one another in written language are not the only reason for learning writing. they can also reinforce their grammatical structure and vocabulary and practice the language learned through writing (derakhshan & shirejini, 2020; raimes, 1983). therefore, teaching writing should have an important place in language teaching. it is because writing is a communication tool and a valuable tool in the language learning process (graham & perin, 2007b). although the skill has been regarded as vital for language learners, it seems an uneasy skill to learn for second or foreign language learners. writing tests memory, ability to think, and verbal command to convey ideas successfully. it also needs processes for attaining the intended writing, such as planning, drafting, monitoring, evaluating, and revising (afinogenova, 2021; kellogg, 2001, 2008; nunan, 1989). therefore, writing encompasses a cognitive process and a metacognitive one (graham & perin, 2007a; rodríguez et al., 2018). 55 as the most challenging skills to be mastered for both second and foreign language learners, writing skills need the ability to generate and organize ideas, to use appropriate words, sentence, and paragraph organization, and to change such an idea into a readable (nourdad & aghayi, 2016; qadir et al., 2021; richards & renandya, 2002). it is clearly understood that writing is a complex process. writers write papers to successfully express their ideas or thoughts and combine various language components. in addition, the lack of teachers’ appropriate pedagogic approach (i.e., providing prompt and practical feedback to students) to teaching writing and the ability to motivate students in teaching writing are factors that lead to ineffective teaching of writing (fareed et al., 2016; kleij, 2019; wulandari, 2022). it becomes a challenge for teachers to teach writing skills. teachers should not apply a conventional teaching approach when teaching writing in efl/esl context. still, they should present various approaches or methods to motivate the students to learn writing. adas and bakir (2013) believe that the teachinglearning process in the classroom becomes passive and monotonous if a teacher keeps applying the traditional teaching method. in the traditional approach, many teachers teach based on memorization and drilling. it is mostly teacher-centered and frequently occurs with the whole class, teacher, and students talking. the teacher largely determines the use of class time (kawinkoonlasate, 2019; mourtaga, 2010). therefore, teachers should be more creative to make learning enjoyable, so the learning process can be meaningful and increase the students’ interest. meaningful learning can happen when students are engaged or integrate their life context into their lessons in school. in addition, the material must be conceptually explicit and presented with language and examples relatable to learners’ prior knowledge (ausebel, 2000; novak & cañas, 2006). one of the adequate approaches to teaching writing is the contextual approach, which emphasizes the process and content of writing (satriani et al., 2012). dewey discovered the contextual approach (1916), highlighting that a learning philosophy stresses students’ interests and experiences. the contextual teaching and learning approach (ctl) is a conception of learning that aids teachers link material taught to students' experiences through some effective components working together to build a network. students can better construct meaning and retain information (johnson, 2002). furthermore, johnson (2002) says that eight ctl approach characteristics become important principles – making a meaningful connection, doing significant work, self-regulated learning, collaborating, critical and creative thinking, nurturing the individual, reaching a high standard, using the authentic assessment. nurhadi et al. (2004) divide into seven components of the contextual teaching and learning (ctl) that teachers can implement in classrooms constructivism, inquiry, questioning, modelling, learning community, reflection, and authentic assessment. studies on contextual teaching and learning approaches have been done in both fields of science and language. ctl makes a positive impact on student's learning process in both fields. for example, in the field of science, glynn & winter (2004); karsli & yigit (2017); predmore (2005); and shamsid & smith (2006) reported that through ctl, learners were actively engaged, learned from the real-life world and studied from each other in the teachinglearning process. students studied material within a concrete context, which reinforced memory. in addition, students were more highly interested and motivated in the ctl course. in the field of language, numerous researchers have carried out empirical studies on the implementation of the ctl approach to teaching writing skills in various writing genres, such as helda et al. (2020); k & aswandi (2014); madjid et al. (2017); satriani et al., 2012); setiawati et al. (2018); rafida (2016). k & aswandi (2014) implemented ctl in teaching writing procedure text in junior high school. the finding indicated that the contextual approach was easy to be understood and made learning enjoyable. therefore, students could enhance their skills in writing simple procedure texts. satriani et al. (2012) investigated the strategies of ctl (adapted from crawford, 2001) to teach recount text – relating, experiencing, applying, and transferring. the study revealed that students could be engaged actively in writing activities, enhanced students’ motivation, assisted them in constructing their writing, solved their problems, rendered the manner for students to discuss or interact with their friends, and helped them summarize and reflect on the lesson. therefore, students' writing ability improved, including schematic structure, grammar role, and graphic future. rafida (2016) investigated the role of the ctl approach in teaching a recount text in junior high school. the study reported that ctl significantly affected students’ achievement in writing recount text. students were more active and enthusiastic in witting recount text. furthermore, madjid et al. (2017) explored the ctl approach to teaching academic writing skills in higher education. they reported that it could improve students’ motivation in learning academic writing skills. setiawati et al. (2018) examined fable writing skills of students taught with ctl and conventional learning models. the study revealed that the ctl models were better than conventional learning models in teaching fable writing skills. students could understand the material quickly, and encouraged them to cooperate in the learning process. helda et al. (2020) also explored the efficacy of ctl in writing pantun. results suggested 56 that ctl made students in elementary school more interested and enthusiastic in learning writing. in addition, it made students more active and learning more fun. even though there have been numerous studies on using the ctl approach to enhance the students writing skills, little attention has been made to students' narrative writing skills to utilize the approach to the teaching of writing. therefore, the current study is expected to bridge the gap by investigating a further study on the implementation of contextual teaching and learning approaches to teaching narrative writing skills. as aforementioned, writing is the most challenging skill to acquire; therefore, it requires efficient instruction. this study explores the implementation of the ctl approach to enhance students’ narrating writing performance. this study renders teachers’ insight into an effective approach to teaching writing that can be implemented to teach narrative writing. thus, the present study addresses the following questions: a) to what extent does the ctl approach enhance the indonesian efl students' writing skills? b) what are the indonesian efl students’ perceptions of implementing the ctl approach in teaching narrative writing skills? 2. literature review 2.1 contextual teaching and learning the emergence of the contextual approach and learning approach (ctl) commenced when the theory of behaviorism and constructivism emerged. behaviorism is a teaching and learning theory proposed by e.l thorndike called the stimulusresponse learning theory. the theory posits that learning is the result of the connection between stimuli and response through the application of rewards; in other words, if students’ response to a stimulus is compiled directly with a feeling of exhilaration, learning will be more successful (berns & erickson, 2001; herrnstein, 1976) it means that learners study behaviorism theory that emphasizes the observable behavior produced by a learner to respond to the stimuli. the theory is applied in the form of a conventional way that emphasizes drill or memorization. another theory then develops as a response, in theory, constructivism one. the theory views learning as an activity in which students construct their new knowledge based on their prior knowledge or experience, utilizing the prior knowledge in a new situation, and integrating the new knowledge with pre-existing one (baker et al., 2009; berns & erickson, 2001; sulistyowati, 2019). constructivist learning theory proposes a studentcentered classroom activity that focuses on students’ roles rather than the teachers (sulistyowati, 2019). both theories affect the development of contextual teaching and learning (ctl). another factor encouraging the emergence of the ctl approach is the rejection of dualism in the traditional education system of america. dualism separates abstract and concrete, thought and action, concept and practice. due to dualism, the teachers teach the head, not the body, in the process of teaching and learning. the teachers teach the students to absorb, but not to use, hear and not act, theorise, but not practice (johnson, 2002). thus, students’ task is to remember facts and ideas, not to experience the idea. contextual learning, or so-called contextual teaching and learning (ctl), is based on john dewey's research (1916, as cited in satriani et al. 2012). the contextual approach posits that young people will learn effectively if what they learn has relation to what they have known or what they experience in their environment (satriani et al., 2012). moreover, satriani et al. (2012) claim that contextual instruction was first developed in the usa and began with establishing the washington state consortium by the usa’s education department. one of the main characteristics of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) is discovering meaning in a teaching-learning process. students internalize concepts through discovery, reinforcement, and interrelationships. when students catch meaning in their learning process, they will learn and remember their study. the contextual teaching and learning approach is a teaching-learning concept that helps teachers correlate students’ lessons with real lives, stimulates students to link knowledge and its implementation to their lives as family members, citizens, and workers, and engages in the hard work that learning requires (baker et al., 2009). in addition, sears and hersh (1998) argue that ctl is teaching that can empower, enlarge, and utilize the students’ knowledge and skill both in and out of school to solve real-world problems. the contextual teaching and learning approach is a teaching approach that helps students discover meaning in a teaching-learning process employing connecting the school lesson to the context of students’ daily lives, that is, with the context of their personal, social, and cultural circumstances, through its components working together to build a network by which students are better able to construct meaning and retain information (johnson, 2002). 2.2 writing writing plays an important role when we want to deliver messages to readers for a purpose. through writing, we can explain things; as a result, readers can get information from the writing. raimes (1983) asserts that people frequently communicate with each other in writing, which is not the only reason to learn writing. first, learning writing helps students 57 reinforce the grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabularies teachers have taught. second, when students learn to write, they have the opportunity to be adventurous with the language and go beyond what they have just learnt to say. third, they are necessarily engaged in the new language when students write. therefore, teaching writing should have an important place in language teaching. it is because writing is a communication tool and a valuable tool in the language learning process (graham & perin, 2007b). harmer (2001) contends that writing is a productive skill that encompasses thought and emotion. writing cannot be mastered, but it needs practice. the practice may include imitating or copying words and sentences from the giving idea or expressing ideas based on the writers’ knowledge, experience, and point of view. therefore, it may reveal that writing expresses a person's idea or thought on a paper to communicate with others. however, in writing, writers do not merely write words to be a sentence and become a paragraph but also need to combine various language components to produce good writing successfully. apart from understanding writing, it should also be understood that there are some stages in the writing process. the writing process as a classroom activity incorporates the four primary writing stages (seow, 2002). those stages generally comprise prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing (abas & abd aziz, 2018; terrible, 1996). in the writing activity, learners go through the stages before submitting their papers. teachers can provide comprehensive feedback to students during the writing process (kurniasih et al., 2020). furthermore, harmer (2004) illustrates four stages in the following way: (harmer, 2004) in the first stage, writers should determine the purpose of writing and the content of the structure of writing to sequence facts, ideas, or arguments. the next stage organizes the facts and ideas into sentences and paragraphs. the third stage edits writing. in this stage, the writers re-read their writing carefully. perhaps, the order of information is not clear, or the way something is written is ambiguous or confusing. the writers probably move paragraphs around or write a new introduction. the writers may apply divergent words for particular sentences. in other words, writers also revise their writing in the editing stage. the stage probably can include adding, deleting, rearranging, and substituting words, sentences, and even entire paragraphs to make writing more accurately represent their ideas. after going through those stages, the writers are ready to send their writing to the intended audience. despite the writing process going through the aforementioned stages, the writing process is not always linear, or the first stage must be completed before carrying on to the next one, but somewhat recursive. in order words, writers can re-plan, re-draft, and re-edit. even when the writers get to what they think is the final draft, they may find themselves changing their minds and re-planning, drafting, editing, and final revision. the process needs a cognitive process stressing the importance of the recursive procedures of planning, drafting, editing, and revising (harmer, 2004; hyland, 2019; williams, 2003). the writing process may take a longer time; however, those multiple processes gone through by learners can actively engage learners to discuss and interact with both teachers and students. consequently, learners can indirectly acquire valuable feedback or input to improve their writing. those processes lead learners to develop their metacognitive awareness the ability to utilize a particular method to write a piece of written text (harmer, 2004; hyland, 2019; rusinovci, 2015). researchers have long investigated the implementation of the writing process in teaching writing. for example, dilidüzgün (2013) stated that writing was the most challenging skill to acquire; therefore, it required detailed instruction. this study used the writing process in teaching writing. the study reported that students could study a planned writing strategy; as a result, they could understand and evaluate text more quickly, analyse how texts had been written, etc. in addition to improving students’ writing skills (asriati & maharida, 2013)., the process approach to teaching writing could change students’ attitudes toward writing-more positive and less frustrated, enhanced interaction between the students and teachers throughout the writing process (nurrohmah, 2011), and reduced students’ anxiety (kurniasih et al., 2020). therefore, it is essential to optimise the positive side of the process approach to teaching writing. regarding this study, the implementation of the contextual teaching and learning approach to teaching writing has been widely studied in various genres; however, most have not studied the ctl with a process approach to teaching writing. therefore, this study implements the ctl with the process approach to teaching writing 2.3 narrative writing the narrative text is one of the types of writing text. it is a story that can present in both spoken and written language (anderson & anderson, 1997). mcclure (2014) defines that narrative text are a kind of writing in which the authors link one event, incident, or experience from their life. in writing, the authors enable to share their life with others, vicariously experiencing the things they describe. mcclure further narrates that a good personal planning drafting editing final revision 58 narrative, like a good story, makes a thrilling impact, makes us laugh, gives us pleasurable fright, and gets us on the edge of our seats. a narrative text is a text which relates a series of logical and chronologically related events that are caused or experienced by factors (rebecca, 2003). therefore, to entertain the readers, such writing tells a real story of authors or what they have experienced, such as in exciting places or unforgettable moments. in writing personal narrative writing, the authors not only tell the readers something interesting, but also they must show the importance and effect of the experience that has taken place on them. narrative writing can give several vital benefits in the learning process of writing. it can help students write naturally; second, students can use narrative writing as a brainstorming technique to generate ideas for the future essay, regardless of the type of essay students are writing; third, students can employ narrative writing, even in the expository and argumentative context to introduce their essay and to provide a supporting idea for a body paragraph (nazario et al., 2010; ). the study reports that the establishment of narratives is not only a prerequisite for the development of other genres, such as expository or argumentative structures but also for results during higher education (feagans & appelbaum, 1986) (as quoted in grenner et al., 2020). narrative writing should be taught to learners to develop their writing skills to acquire the other genre. nevertheless, teaching and learning writing is the most challenging; therefore, it is crucial to provide practical instruction in the teaching-learning process. ctl is one of the effective teaching approaches to teaching writing. this study investigates the role of the ctl approach on students’ narrative writing skills. even though there have been numerous studies on using the ctl approach to enhance the students’ writing skills, most of the previous studies investigated the implementation of the ctl approach on writing skills concentrating on students' writing produced while completing the task as the measure of the efficacy of ctl approach. therefore, this current study implements the ctl approach through its components with the writing process approach. 3. method this study employed a quasi-experimental one that investigated the effectiveness of the contextual teaching and learning approach to enhance the students’ narrative writing skills. the participants have divided into two groups; an experimental group received the ctl approach, and a control group received the conventional way. the control group was required for comparison purposes to notice if the new treatment was more effective than others (gay et al., 2006). 3.1 participants the participants were fifty-two eleventh-year students of selected secondary school in indonesia (sman 3 pinrang). two intact classes were randomly selected (control and experimental group), and each group comprised twenty-six students. 3.2 instruments writing pre-posttest tests and perceptional questionnaires were used in this study. the test was to write a personal narrative based on the given topic, “unforgettable experience”. this test examined the two groups writing performance before and after implementing the ctl approach. the perceptional questionnaire involved ten items investigating the perception of the implementation of the ctl approach. 3.3 procedures the data were collected through steps: 1) the researcher gave a pre-test to experimental and control students. 2) the researcher gave treatments to the only students of the experimental one. 3) the researcher gave the post-test to both groups and gave the questionnaire for the only experimental one. implementation of the ctl approach to teaching narrative writing involved the components of the approach emphasizing more on the learning community, including the other components such as modelling, inquiry, and questioning. it could be illustrated that before going into the writing process, students were expected to understand the schematic structure and language features of the narrative text to build their insight into how to compose the personal narrative text and develop their ideas or thoughts to write the personal narrative text. in doing the activity, the researcher asked students to make a small group and handed them out a sample of the narrative text as modelling (adapted from ms mcclure’s class website, language art). students were asked to read the text and discuss its feature with their group. those activities were a part of components of ctl, a learning community covering modelling, inquiry, and questioning. in their task, the students in the group were then asked to write a personal narrative text based on a given topic related to their experience. students integrated their own experience or prior knowledge and ideas with their writing knowledge through the activity. this activity connected what they had previously acquired and the current information to build their knowledge. a) they are generating ideas. in generating ideas, the researcher asked students to use questioning as a free writing technique, such as who, what, when, where, why, and how. nazario et al. (2010) assert that this involves asking yourself or having a classmate or friend ask you a series of probing questions about the topic idea you are considering. 59 this way is a journalist’s approach to gathering information. it is a quick way to gather information on a specific topic. b) drafting. in this stage, the researcher had students organize their ideas from the earlier activity into sentences and paragraphs. during this stage, the researcher walked around and monitored students and gave guidance if it was necessary. c) review and editing. in this stage, the researcher asked the students in their group to re-read and recheck their narrative writing carefully to make writing understandable. if the order of information was unclear, there were ungrammatical sentences, spelling, or punctuation mistakes, students then discussed it and corrected or re-wrote their writing. after students had finished their writing, the researcher assessed it and explained the general mistakes of students. the researcher allowed students to ask about the lesson during the learning process. at the end of the learning process, the researcher spent some minutes reflecting or thinking back on what they had learned. while in the control group, there was no treatment given. students were only taught with the conventional approach or lecture one in the teachinglearning process. 3.4 analysis of data this study used three raters to score the students’ writing in both experimental and control groups to ensure the score's reliability. as huges (2003) noted, it was essential to have at least two independent scores to avoid the subjectivity of scoring. the raters were at the same english education level and had been involved as a rater in research on writing. the writing test was scored by three independent raters utilizing an analytic score proposed (cohen, 1994). furthermore, data analysis used a nonparametric test, i.e., mann-whitney test and wilcoxon test (spss, version 20), because the data were not distributed generally based on test normality. meanwhile, the results of perceptional questionnaire data were analyzed employing the likert scale measurement. 4. result 4.1 the implementation of the ctl approach the results of implementing the ctl approach enhance students’ narrative writing skills. the description of the result and statistical analysis of data about the significant difference in the mean score of students' narrative writing in both experimental and control groups and their perceptions of implementing the ctl approach. table 4.1. mean score of the experimental and control group, both pre and post-test group pre-test post-test experimental 10.14 16.05 control 9.86 10.12 the above table illustrates the mean score of students’ narrative writing skills for both experimental and control groups in terms of pre and post-test. 10.14 is the mean score of the experimental group, and 9.86 is the control group's mean score. furthermore, 16.05 is the mean score of the experimental group, and 10.12 is the control group's mean score in terms of the post-test. it shows that the experimental group has a better main score than the control one in the post-test. a more in-depth statistical investigation is required to determine whether the difference is significant. therefore, the test of man-whitney u was then run to compare both mean scores for two unrelated groups. this test was run to acquire the significant difference between those groups on pretest and post-test. a decision-making rule for this test is that the groups differ significantly if a p-value is lower than .05. the test result for the pre-test of both experimental and control groups showed that the z value was --1.590. the probability value (p) was more significant than 5% at the level of significance (0.112> 0.05). it signifies that h0 is accepted. in other words, there was no significant difference in the students' pre-test scores between the experimental and control groups. it was assumed that at begin of the study, both groups were equal in the ability to write narrative writing. the result of the test is presented in table 4.2: 60 table 4.2. the output of the mann-whitney test test statistics pre-test experimental and control mann-whitney u 254.000 wilcoxon w 605.000 z -1.590 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .112 a. grouping variable: group comparing the result of mann-whitney u for a post-test score of both experimental and control groups shows that the z value was -1.590 and the probability value (p) is less than 5% at the level of significance (0.000 < 0.05). it indicates that h1 was accepted. in other words, there is a significant difference in post-test scores between the experimental and the control groups. the result of the test is presented in table 4.3: table 4.3. the output of the mann-whitney test test of statistics posttest experimental and control mann-whitney u 1.000 wilcoxon w 352.000 z -6.197 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .000 a. grouping variable: group moreover, a wilcoxon test was administered to acquire a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test for both groups. a making-decision rule of the test is that the data differ significantly if the probability value (p) is less than 5% at the level of significance (p < 0. 05). the result of the test is presented as follows: table 4.4. the output of the wilcoxon test test of statistics pretest posttest of experimental group z -4,109b asymp. sig. (2-tailed) ,000 a. wilcoxon signed ranks test b. based on negative ranks. the table 4.4 portrays that -4,109 is z value and the p-value is 0.000 < 0.05. it indicates that the mean scores pre-test and post-test differ significantly. that indicates a statistically significant enhancement in the experimental group. it was assumed that the enhancement of students’ narrative writing is because the contextual teaching and learning approach, through its components, can make students engaged actively in the writing process, such as discussing and working together to construct students' understanding of writing narrative text. compared to the result of the wilcoxon test for the control group, it indicates that -1,622 was the z value, and the p-value was 0.105 > 0.05. it means insignificant enhancement from pre-test and post-test for the control group. it was assumed that the insignificant enhancement in students’ control group was because it was taught in conventional one with teacher-center learning. thus, the application of the ctl approach makes a positive contribution to teaching writing narrative skills. the result of the wilcoxon test for the control group is presented at table 4.5: 61 table 4.5. the output of the wilcoxon test test of statistics pretest posttest of control z -1,622b asymp. sig. (2-tailed) ,105 a. wilcoxon signed ranks test b. based on negative ranks. 4.2 students’ perception of the application of the ctl approach to teaching narrative writing skills table 4.6. perception of the students towards the implementation of the ctl approach statements negative positive highly positive learning to write through the ctl approach is more pleasurable and meaningful than teachers’ strategy beforehand. (1) 3.8 65.4 30.8 learning to write through the ctl approach enhances my ability to write. (2) 57.7 42.3 learning to write through the ctl approach motivates me to write well. (3) 7.7 50.0 42.3 learning to write through the ctl approach helps me understand how to write well more comprehensively than a strategy which an english teacher applies beforehand. (4) 7.7 53.8 38.5 learning to write through the ctl approach improves my confidence in writing. (5) 11.5 61.5 26.9 learning to write through the ctl approach enhances my activeness in the learning process. (6) 69.2 30.8 learning to write through the ctl approach stimulates my critical thinking. (7) 11.5 46.2 42.3 learning to write through the ctl approach makes me easier convey the idea in writing. (8) 15.4 50.0 34.6 learning to write through the ctl approach makes me optimistic about being able to write better. (9) 7.7 42.3 50.0 ctl approach is suitable to be used in teaching writing. (10) 3.8 38.5 57.7 regarding to the second aims of this study which to investigate participants’ perception toward the implementation of the contextual teaching and learning approach in writing class, this study revealed that participants showed their positive perception, it is in line with the study conducted (baker et al., 2009; diah and aswandi, 2014; riance, 2013; satriani et al., 2012). the data from questionnaire had shown that from 10 statements in the questionnaire, the participants gave their negative perception to 8 the statements in the questionnaire (i.e., 1=3.8%, 3=7.7%, 4= 7.7%, 5= 11.5%, 7= 11.5%, 8 =15.4%, 9 = 7.7%, 10=3.8%). %); the participants gave their positive perception (i.e., 1=65.4%, 2=57.7%, 3 = 50%, 4= 53.8%, 5= 61.5%, 6 =69.2%, 7 = 46.2%, 8=50%); %), and the participants gave their highly positive to 2 the statements in the questionnaire (i.e., 9= 50%, 10 = 57.7%). 62 from the result of statements number 1, 2, and 3, the researcher concluded that more than a half of the participants (those were 17 or participants 65.4%) gave their positive perception that learning to write through the ctl approach is more pleasurable and meaningful and more than a half of participants (those were 15 participants or 57.7%) also gave their positive perception that learning to write through ctl approach enhances my ability to write. implementation of the ctl through the components improves the students' writing skills. they can engage them actively, interact and cooperate with others, and use their real life in the learning process. the researchers concluded that the students positively perceived the implementation of ctl in writing class. 5. discussion this recent study investigated the implementation of the contextual teaching and learning approach to teaching students’ narrative writing skills and students’ perception of the implementation of the ctl approach to teaching narrative writing skills. 5.1. the extent of the ctl approach in improving student’s writing skill ctl approach contributes to the enhancement of students’ narrative writing skills. this study renders insight into an effective approach to teaching narrative through the writing process. contextual teaching and learning is an approach to teaching that emphasizes the discovery of the meaning of the learning process through its components. the components work together to build a network by which students can better construct meaning and retain information (johnson, 2002). this study emphasized the learning community covering the other components, modelling, inquiry, and questioning. in implementing those components in this study, the researchers found that they can make students actively engaged in the learning process, such as discussing and working together to construct students’ understanding of writing narrative text. the results of the study coincide with the previous findings by indrilla (2018; satriani et al. (2012), and rafida (2016). the ctl approach could make students actively involved in collaborating and socialising with others in order to solve problems. as a result, the contextual approach makes learning more productive. furthermore, liu (2015) states that a key to building a learning process is the interaction and cooperation between learners and their surroundings. with teachers’ guidance and organisation, students are engaged actively to discuss, communicate, and debate together or share all ideas and intellect about what and how to write and so forth. implementation of the learning community, including modelling, inquiry, and questioning, helps students build up their insight into composing their writing. graham & perin (2007b) explain that inquiry is an activity engaging students in analysing primary concrete data to help them develop ideas and content for a particular writing task. in the activities, the students were exposed to an activity working together in a group to inquire with an essay model. under the teacher's guidance through questions, the students read and discussed the feature of the text and then presented the result. the teacher then gave the feedback. the researcher assumes that those activities render students a good starting point or preparation before composing their writing so that they become familiar with and have sufficient knowledge of the type of the text. as a result of this exposure to the essay model through inquiry, questioning, and cooperating, students can have better ideas of how to write their essays. this result supports the studies of satriani et al. (2012) and setiawati et al. (2018) that the application of the ctl approach made students collaborate and discuss in groups in the learning process. consequently, students can construct their writing. according to haryanto & arty (2019), as quoted in fahmi (2016), an inquiry activity makes students develop their knowledge and trains them to reason and think at a higher level. learning community practices, students cooperating, sharing ideas, insight, and communicating with one another. therefore, they have engaged actively in collaborative learning. hillocks, quoted in bagheri & zare (2009), stated that it was essential to provide students with a model essay in teaching writing to be familiar with the type of the essay and understand its parts and their relation. more clearly, an essay model could help students acquire the knowledge of the language, vocabulary, and text structure needed for various purposes (department of education and training, 2007). therefore, the model essay focuses the students' attention on the text feature and is mainly concerned with developing the students' abilities to produce those features accurately. furthermore, krashen (1984) believes that one of the effective ways to learn to write is to obtain rich and comprehensive reading input. it is also important to assert that the learning community gives students benefits to the process of writing in terms of both generating ideas, reviewing and editing. in the process of writing in both group and individual work, the students cooperated with their group-mate to generate ideas that were next developed into a short personal narrative writing, constructed sentences, found vocabulary, and both the editing and revising process. according to haryanto & arty (2019), one of the characteristics of the contextual methods is group work, discussion, and peer correction. therefore, students discuss one another, have the responsibility for solving the problems, and share ideas for solutions if they work together in a 63 group (harmer, 2004). winarti and cahyono's (2020) study affirmed that collaborative writing integrated with process writing could be implemented in efl writing pedagogy to improve students' writing ability. most students felt that they gained many benefits from doing collaborative writing. furthermore, questioning is one of the essential strategies of the ctl approach, as described previously, and it helps students in the inquiry activity and the writing process raharjo (2013). in the writing process, this strategy is helpful for students to generate ideas and even gain knowledge of writing. besides, this strategy also facilitates the teacher in guiding students to review their writing. in other words, this strategy is a mutual benefit for both teachers and students in learning writing. it aligns with firdani & fitriani's study (2017) on teaching writing through a guided question technique. they claimed that the technique effectively encouraged exploring ideas in the writing process. therefore, they acquire ideas quickly to write in paragraphs. another critical thing supporting the students' improvement of writing skills is that students bring their real-life or daily life into the learning process and then interrelate it to their current writing knowledge. in other words, students’ knowledge of how to write built through the inquiry activity was then applied in composing their writing related to real-life through coopering with others. this finding is also in line with the recent study conducted by wahyuni (2021). they found that students did well in their studies of learning english as a foreign language and actively engaged in discussion due to the topics related to their real life. in addition, students’ motivation is enhanced in studying english because they are not only studying the language but improving their creativity in writing and cooperation. furthermore, nurzayyana et al. (2020) and setiawati et al. (2018) stated that the students would have a joyful learning experience when a learning activity was related to their actual daily lives. in sum, the contextual teaching and learning approach can enhance students’ narrative writing skills. this case is because the ctl is a teaching methodology with some of its mutually supported components that enable students to actively engage in the writing process through learning community to cooperate with others and build their writing knowledge through modelling, inquiry, and questioning. besides, using students' real life as a learning philosophy of the ctl can make students learn meaningfully. 5.2. the student's perception of the use of the ctl approach the result from the questionnaire indicates that students primarily respond positively to the application of the ctl approach. one of their responses shows that learning to write through the ctl is more pleasurable and meaningful. furthermore, they also argue that their ability to write has improved. it is proved through the upshot of their mean post-test score improving after implementing the ctl approach. as stated previously, implementation of the components of the ctl through its components in the writing process enables the improvement of the students' narrative writing skills. they can engage them actively, interact and cooperate with others, and use their real life in the writing process. this case is also argued by k & aswandi (2014), satriani et al. (2012), and rafida (2016). students enthusiastically participated and were active in the learning process, and it also could create an environment conducive to learning writing in the ctl class. similarly, baker et al. 2009 contend that ctl is an effective strategy to involve students actively and promote improved learning and skill development. 6. conclusions the main contribution of this current study was a new insight into the efficacy of the ctl approach to teaching narrative writing through its mutually supported components (i.e., learning community, including modelling, inquiry, and questioning) with the writing process. the current study concluded that the implementation of the ctl approach contributed significantly to the achievement of students’ narrative writing skills. it presented evidence that implementing the ctl approach to teaching writing helped students build up their insight into how to compose narrative writing better. in addition, the students positively perceived the implementation of the ctl approach. students could be engaged actively, interact and cooperate with others, and use their real-life in learning. therefore, the students could write narrative text better. the current study corroborated the findings of the prior studies. for future researchers, since the study data are focusing on the nonparametric test, similar studies can be conducted by extending and adding more participants and through an interview method that supports the result of the questionnaires. references abas, i. h., & abd aziz, n. h. 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(2022). effective feedback to improve students’ writing skills. educalitra: english education, linguistics, and literature journal, 1(1), 10-17. journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i3.7558 vol. 4, no. 3, december 2022, pp. 262-275 262 language interference and generative phonology in speech production among hiligaynon native speakers april jane sales cebu technological university-argao, cebu, philippines apriljane.geralde@ctu.edu.ph article history received : 2021-08-16 revised : 2022-10-24 accepted : 2022-10-24 keywords interference phonology comprehension suprasegmental features segmental features abstract among the places in negros, mambukal resort is one of the spots where the english language is the only utilised language between foreign tourists and the hiligaynon vendors. this descriptive-qualitative study investigated the language interferences in speech production among hiligaynon native speakers who use english as the second language in every transaction in mambukal resort, negros occidental. this study used the conceptual analysis technique to describe the content of documents found in the data gathered. using the self-made guide questions for the interview process, the five recorded responses from 5 different representatives of the flower shops located in this resort were successfully transcribed, analysed and interpreted. this study is anchored on language interference and generative phonology theory by noam chomsky and morris halle. with the k-12 program evident in the philippines, data reveals that 4 out of 5 respondents have graduated at their junior level. convenient purposive sampling was used in selecting the participants. findings show that they had difficulty putting correct emphases on the correct syllables, and there is an unprecedented wave of intonation in each word. the pronunciation of the vowel sounds is compromised, and there needs to be more indicative of the content's comprehension. these findings led to the conclusion that respondents' l1 greatly influences not just the adaptation of the suprasegmental features of the target language but also the segmental features. it is recommended that language teachers be fully equipped with the governing standards of the first and second language to impart the use of the right language in the right circumstance. students must be aware of the unique suprasegmental features of both languages through constant exposure to these languages. 1. introduction in producing globally competent communicators, mastery of the dominant language's segmental and suprasegmental features must be attained. sales (2022) mentioned that today's english serves as a dominant donor language and is a key resource for borrowing from the diverse tongues of the earth. however, due to the shift of the educational set-up because of the pandemic, a very important feature of this language is somehow given less focus despite its significance in the communication process– the suprasegmental features. a shift from faceto-face interaction to a modular mode of instruction had silenced parts of the phonological features of the second language. suprasegmental speech features are fundamental to pronunciation proficiency but, unfortunately, not equally taught with segmental features. with its great significance in the communication process, it is necessary to escalate inputs regarding this feature. since the philippines is one of the countries that cater to foreign people from different races all around the globe, individuals in the field of tourism should be competent to sustain smooth and successful transactions. if immersed in the field, one of the traits those individuals must possess is communicative competence (villareal, 2015). according to villareal (2015), having communicative competence is crucial in every individual’s life due to the fact that it helps every learner to enhance the ability to relay messages that gradually https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i3.7558 263 stimulates the attainment of goals of communicating while upholding the environment of social acceptability. mastering the superstrate language used in the competitive world paves various opportunities to excel, especially in business. with this, students are intentionally trained to acquire the english language standards for word formation, sentence formation and paragraph formation. unfortunately, due to the great influence of the first language, the production of correct phonological features of the target language is somewhat hampered. a stressed english word is uttered with fewer emphases due to the feature of the intonation of the hiligaynon language. pronunciation of some english words is incorrectly uttered due to the interference of the first language of the respondents. despite this phenomenon, only minimal studies have ventured into orchestrating guidelines we need to consider to prevent negative language transfer. in addition, rogers (2018) mentioned that studies for suprasegmental features appear to be underrepresented in language learning frameworks, and only limited research has been undertaken to identify how raters attend to suprasegmental features in the english-language speaking test encounter. this state-of-the-art study will contribute substantial input to the body of knowledge regarding the suprasegmental and segmental features of the hiligaynon language in the process of interaction with the use of the target language. this study is of great help in shedding light on the phenomenon called language interference that will serve as a base for creating effective guidelines for communication improvement. according to ramadhan and rovita (2018), interference can occur in all linguistic components: phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, and lexical. foronda (2017) mentioned that interference is one of the fundamental difficulties faced by learners of a second language. the different standards of our native language hinder us in some way in acquiring another set of rules from the second language. the effort of learning a new language will collide with the existing linguistic habit due to the presence of the first language habits. from this point on, kids have difficulty learning the other language. they may use characteristics of the language they have mastered to the language they are learning if challenges are present. as a result, interference phenomena arise. negros, one of the renowned places in the philippines because of its sugar industry, is observed to have a strong accented first language speech. interference may result from some contrasts between the phonological features of the native language and general american english. mu’in (2017) magnified that the greater the variation between the native and target languages, the stronger the possibility of language interference. even though their suprasegmental features vary from the target language, still, because of the wonderful tourist spots of this place, many foreign people visit this locale. hence, identifying the things to improve as a hiligaynon communicator using english as the target language must be given attention. an urgency to mend negative language transfer is then upturned in our generation. this current study highlights the phonological interferences present in the utterances of the respondents in utilising the target language in the communication process. with the fact that this topic is not much studied and some of the matter, especially in this aspect, is not yet greatly expounded, this study answers the call to investigate the language interferences in speech production among hiligaynon native speakers who use the english language to earn a living in mambukal resort, negros occidental. phonemes of vowels and consonants in the process of uttering english words and statements are noted and observed. this further examines the details of variations in suprasegmental features such as stress, juncture, and intonation that will serve as the bases for the construction of various modernised strategies to achieve effective communication both in the first language and second language utilisation. the greater the knowledge an individual acquires about certain language features, the easier it is to cope with and apply these features in the process of information exchange. since english is considered a lingua franca in the philippines, its features (both segmental and suprasegmental) must be intently studied. however, because of the conventional nature of the language, paired with the active usage of the features of the first language, language varieties have taken place. the conventional nature of a language in this context means that the meaning of a word is based on the agreement of a specific speaking community. if one speaking community agrees to use a term for a specific thing, then that specific thing is to be called with the agreed term. in line with this, there is no explanation for why something may be titled or referred to differently in different languages. for instance, a pig is also known as a vark, schwein, or porcus. we agree to adopt these absurd names (convention means getting together), at which point we might claim that language is both conventional and arbitrary. hence, language variety can be visible in our society with these abilities to easily construct and utilise a term based on what the speaking community agrees. this current study paves for an escalation of awareness about the unique traits of a language especially the hiligaynon language. features of hiligaynon language as to consonant and vowel phonemes, as well as stress, intonation and juncture, are focused. embracing the features of the first language 264 makes an individual a good communicator of the first language. on the other hand, being well-oriented with the proper features of the target language stimulates the effective exchange of knowledge from encoding down to decoding messages with the use of the target language. this current study aims to investigate the presence of language interference, focusing on the suprasegmental features in the respondents' utterances in utilising the english language to maintain successful conversations with foreign customers. suppose language interferences in speech production among hiligaynon native speakers who use the english language in mambukal resort, negros occidental are determined. in that case, constructing the proposed guide for second-language communication is conceivable. this will be beneficial in achieving at least a minimum national and international intelligibility standard. this study is of great help to both the hiligaynon language teachers as well as the hiligaynon language students in a way that adds to the body of knowledge about the unique features of both the hiligaynon language and the english language. 2. literature review this study assumes that there are phonological interferences on speech production among hiligaynon flower vendors working in mambukal resort which uses the english language in business transactions with non-hiligaynon speakers. the theory of language interference supports this scholarly assumption, gabayan (2015) defined it as the automatic transfer, due to habit, of the first language's surface structure onto the second language's surface. though numerous researchers around the globe utilised this theory, studies with this theory that focuses its lens on the hiligaynon language (the respondents' first language) in the necessity of english language utterances (the second language) are close to none. in this study, due to the habitual use of the first language, hiligaynon, the surface structure of this language onto the surface of the second language is observable. interference is visible when speakers make mistakes in both oral and written foreign language expression, transferring language habits from the first language to the foreign language paving to ignoring the norms of foreign speech. gabayan (2015) mentioned in her study that when learners of a second language want to write or speak in the target language, they tend to rely on their first language structures. in contrast with this finding, this present study shows that respondents tend to fall back not in their first language structures but in their first language phonological features, specifically in a vowel and consonant pronunciation in speaking. they follow the correct english sentence structures, but how they enunciate words greatly varies from the english phonological features. there is an observed automatic transfer, due to habit, of the first language in the process of communicating with the use of the target language. phonemes from the first language reoccur or sometimes merge with the set of phonemes of the target language. it is noteworthy that the transfer is considered a two-way process, meaning there is an interaction between the two languages. the first language can influence the second language, while the second language may greatly affect the first language in an interaction. code-switching may occur to sustain understanding in the communication process, given that both speakers utilise the same codes in the interaction. when an individual's understanding of one language impacts the understanding of another, then language transfer occurs. zhao (2019) mentioned that if the process of this language transfer is considered negative, it is otherwise known as interference. to strengthen this claim, manuel (2021) stated that language interference is often discussed as a source of errors known as negative transfer, which occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages. however, although both languages investigated in this current study are different, respondents can still follow the second language structure when communicating with foreign customers but have difficulty following the right pronunciation. the respondents structured their words under the conventions of the second language, but when it was difficult to come up with an english name for the concept they had in mind, they tended to use the code of their first language. sales (2021) mentioned that if the speaker integrates only words from another language into speech, this process is called "borrowing" or "code-mixing". today's world is characterised by code-switching, which sert (2005) defines as a linguistic phenomenon in which the same message or communication is expressed in two different codes or languages. according to albirini et al. (2011), code-switching is a change in language that occurs within a sentence. a sentence contains words, phrases, and sentences embedded in two languages. additionally, code-switching is described by sert (2005) as the phenomenon of switching across languages throughout the same discourse. instead of the negative transfer of structure, there is a noticeable negative transfer in the pronunciation of the respondents. hence, language interference is not limited to the negative transfer of the first language to the second language structures. however, it is very observable even in the negative transfer of sound production. since language is arbitrary, vocabularies from different speaking communities are unique. this includes various 265 specialised word structures, stress patterns, and intonations that lead to language variations from one place to another. given that the intonation of the hiligaynon people possesses a different trait compared to the standardised english language, interference occurred. interference is the errors that can be traced back to the first language while the learners use the second language (derakhshan, 2015). in the context of this study, if the respondents show difficulty or inability to express their thoughts and ideas using the target language and automatically fall back to their first language codes. the other definition of interference is a deviation that occurs toward the norms of each language in the practice of using two languages by individuals. in this current study, respondents are native speakers of the hiligaynon language but are trained at some level to use english in interacting with their customers. the respondents embrace the norms of the hiligaynon code. on the other hand, they are forced to utilise the target language with foreign interlocutors. for instance, hiligaynon follows fast pacing in speaking; they are known to talk softly even though they are angry at some point. these traits also influence the negative transfer of utterances when they use the target language in communicating with their foreign customers. the usage of both languages at an early age became a fundamental input of this study. since english is the second language of the respondents, they inculcated with right notions of the language. however, teachers play a crucial part in demonstrating how this language must be applied. reading inputs about the language is different from speaking the language. the right pronunciation of statements makes a great impact on a conversation. suprasegmental interference happens when the hiligaynon speakers' stress patterns, juncture and intonation hamper the correct utterances of stress patterns, juncture and intonation of the target language. foronda (2017) concluded in his study that interference occurs when the learners tend to rely on their first language structures the moment they are required to write or speak in the target language. this current study positions that aside from vocabulary and grammar of the l2, phonology features are also hardly acquired due to the interference of habits from l1. bhela’s lens of observation focuses on language structure, specifically the phonemes of some vocabulary and grammar, while this study gives emphasis not just on the word level interference but also on the suprasegmental features such as stress, juncture and intonation. thus, this study is of great help in building fundamental notions of suprasegmental interferences focusing on the hiligaynon language. further, deiparine (2021) argued in her study that suprasegmental features could be magnified in the utterances instead of the segmental features. she added that sometimes, the researcher had credited the phonological variation to suprasegmental features. however, the reality is that the segmental feature varies due to the strong influence of the first language segmental. this study will look closely at what feature was frequently erroneously committed; is it the suprasegmental feature that hampers the correct enunciation of the english words in the recorded utterances? or is it the first language segmental features that interfere in the production of the second language segmental features? these different findings from different researchers revolve around the notion of language interference. since this current study delves into the observation of the presence of language interference in the utterances of the hiligaynon vendors, grounding the researcher's claims with their significant findings helps to produce quality input from this work. the research mentioned in this paper served as a fundamental guide that strengthens the assumption of the presence of phonological interference in the process of communicating with the use of a second language. the generative phonology theory also supports this study by noam chomsky and morris halle, which is defined as a component of generative grammar that assigns the correct phonetic representations to utterances in such a way as to reflect a native speaker's internalised grammar. nordquist (2019) mentioned that generative phonology is a branch of generative linguistics. nordquist (2019) added that this specific branch studies the surface structure of language and how it connects to deeper structures such as grammar, meaning lexicology, and context. as mentioned by wu et al. (2021), the goal of generative phonology is to specify a formal system that explains the set of attested phonological strings in a language. this theory states that when an individual has an idea to express, that person chooses the morphemes needed in speech production. because some morphemes of the english language are not present in the hiligaynon language, developing other codes to bridge the gap can occur. the speaker will then assemble the words into utterances using the grammar rules. generative means rules that will describe possibilities in the language, grammar, or phonology, they are developed to analyse phonological systems of languages around the world. phonology, as one of the compositions of grammar, may it be the grammar of the first or second language, plays a vital role in this study. the notion that different transcended phonetic speech sounds in various language environments and various accents for various people is notable these days (zheng, 2014). this phonetic 266 difference plays a very important role in the phonological system of english in that it creates a large number of distinct signs. the use of generative phonology must be linked to the meanings. hence, these theories are crucial in investigating the assumption that there are phonological interferences on speech production found in the five recorded conversations among hiligaynon flower vendors working in mambukal resort. in order to sustain effective conversations with foreign clients while using the english language, this study intends to evaluate the presence of language interference with an emphasis on suprasegmental elements in the respondents' utterances. this will further answer the questions about the respondents' profile as to age and highest educational attainment and the phonological interferences committed in the utterances of the respondents. if language interferences in speech production among hiligaynon native speakers who use the english language in mambukal resort, negros occidental, are determined, the construction of the proposed guide for second language communication is conceivable. 3. method this study is a descriptive-qualitative study that used the conceptual analysis technique to investigate the assumption that phonological interferences on speech production are found in the five recorded conversations among hiligaynon flower vendors working in mambukal resort. purposive sampling, also known as judgmental, selective, or subjective sampling, was utilised since respondents are intentionally chosen in order to assess their usage of the english language, especially in the necessity arising of that said language in their transaction with the different races of customers. in practice, conceptual analysis entails distinguishing terms, analysing the understandings to which they refer, and representing them. as elucidated by furner (2004), these concepts comprise some of the most fundamental entities or phenomena associated with a discipline. the primary reason for using conceptual analysis is to understand the meaning of an idea or concept. the secondary reason is to determine how that idea or concept relates to other philosophical problems. in this current study, the deductive approach was made where the researcher has pre-determined variables being scrutinised if present in the context. the process includes the creation of research instruments, the conduct of faceto-face interviews, transcription or recorded utterances, analysis, organisation and interpretation of the gathered data. data was gathered at mambukal resort in brgy. minoyan, murcia. province of negros occidental, philippines. mambukal is blessed with exceptionally stunning natural features. with its beauty and grandeur, it became renowned, attracting foreign people to visit and love this resort. since this site attracts foreign people, english is the main medium of communication in every transaction. among the places in negros, this is one of the spots where the english language is commonly utilised. it used the conceptual analysis technique to describe the content of documents found in the five-minute recorded utterances per respondent. it took three days to observe, converse as well as convince the respondents to participate in the study. this study's research respondents are the vendors representing the five different flower shops inside the mambukal resort. all flower shops have their representative to assure the validity and reliability of results. purposive sampling was utilised. they are intentionally chosen in order to assess their usage of the english language, especially in the necessity arising of that said language in their transaction with the different races of customers. in line with ethical considerations, all respondents are well-informed that they play a vital role as respondents in this study. the validated self-made research instrument is made up of three parts. the first one is designed to get the profile of the respondents. this will look at the respondent's age as well as their highest academic attainment. the second part of the instrument is composed of two sets; the first set contains a combination of inspirational declarative sentences and self-provoking interrogative sentences, while the second set is an excerpt from the scripture that is found in ephesians 2: 3-9. this part will assess the reading skills of the respondents with the use of a second language. reading tasks stimulate a situation where students are not conscious of making choices about using intonation signals but rather recognise and interpret the intended signals already given in the text. various signals from the syntactic and lexical context or the text's punctuation made the task easier for the respondents. respondents are required to read 15 sentences with a total of 122 words in the first part, and 109 words comprised the four sentences in the second part. the correct pause of each set of words will help in comprehension. this is not just limited to the assessment of the language usage of the respondent, but it also serves as a reminder, if read with comprehension, of the gospel. the third part of the instrument is a list of questions that made the respondents answer spontaneously. a face-to-face interview with the use of a voice recorder was done. the data gathered were transcribed, analysed, organised and interpreted. 267 4. findings this presents the discussion of the results gathered. using the conceptual analysis technique, the recorded utterances of the representatives of each flower shop found in mambukal resort were analysed. as outlined in the procedure, the profile of the respondents, such as age and highest educational attainment, suprasegmental features, such as stress, intonation and juncture, and segmental features, were studied. 4.1. profile of the respondents 4.1.1 age table 4.1. profile of the respondents as to age age frequency percentage 10-13 1 20% 14-17 3 60% 18-21 1 20% total 5 100% as the researcher classified the respondents on the basis of their age group, it was identified that the majority of the workers in the various flower businesses were teens. four of the five respondents are teenagers, accounting for 80 per cent of the population, and the remaining respondent is 21 years old. they were trained at a young age to work hard to survive in the flower business of their parents. in spite of their young age, a great influence of their first language is visible in their utterances. findings show that even though the respondents are still teenagers, they have exhibited a strong grip on the features of their primary language in their utterances, both in reading and spontaneous speaking. despite the early orientation of the english language, the negative transfer occurred. this implied that being occasionally exposed to limited conversations using the target language at an early age does not guarantee the correct acquisition of the features of the target language. on the other hand, being well-exposed to the right notions about the features of the target language at an early age will strengthen the communicative skills of an individual in the usage of the second language. 4.1.2 highest educational attainment table 4.2. profile of the respondents as to highest educational attainment highest educational attainment frequency percentage elementary graduate 1 20% junior high graduate 3 60% senior high graduate 1 20% college 0 0% total 5 100% with the k-12 program evident in our country, data reveals that most of the respondents graduated at their junior level, making them senior high school students. one of the respondents is still in grade 7, and the other respondent just finished senior high level. this kindled confidence in the researcher that the respondents have a proper background in the english language since english is used as a medium of instruction in philippine education as specified in the bilingual education policy, which states that english and filipino languages are to be used as standard languages in the teaching and learning set-up. since their business is in a resort in negros occidental, foreigners habitually visit their shops which also expands their experiences with the english language. it is presumed, therefore, that the respondents have knowledge and understanding of the english language. the study's findings showed that the higher the educational attainment, the less interference takes place. this implied that the more knowledge a person acquired from education, the more evidence of improvements in the way he or she communicates with the use of the target language. 4.2. suprasegmental features vowels and consonants can be considered to be the segments of speech. a speech feature such as stress, tone, or word juncture that accompanies or is added over consonants and vowels is considered a suprasegmental feature. the proper utterance of suprasegmentals aid in better communication and comprehension. 4.2.1 stress and intonation the respondents are given statements to read. the stresses of the utterances, as well as the intonation, were given focus in this section. the bold syllables below denote the stressed or emphasised syllables the participants had uttered. 268 statement 1: the gentleman objects to the decision of the leaders incorrectly stressed respondent 1 [dʒɛntɛlmɛn], [obdʒɛkts], [di:siʃon] respondent 2 – [obdʒɛkts], [di :si :ʃon] respondent 3 – [obdʒɛkts], [di :siʃu :n] respondent 4 – [obdʒɛkts] statement 2: love does not keep any records of wrong incorrectly stressed respondent 1 – [rəku: rds] respondent 3 – [eini:] respondent 4 – [rəkords] respondent 5 – [einɛ], [rɛku:rds] statement 3: the student rebels furiously against his mentor in the academy. incorrectly stressed respondent 1 [akadɛmi] respondent 2 – [ageinst] respondent 3 – [akadɛmi:] statement 4: his girlfriend suspected him of doing a certain crime. incorrectly stressed respondent 1 – [suspɛktɛd] respondent 3 – [girlfrɛnd], [sɛrtein] statement 5: the engineer exerted his time and effort for the accomplishment of the project. incorrectly stressed respondent 1 – [i:ndʒi:nir] , [akumpliʃmɛnt] , respondent 2 – [indʒini:r] , [akompliʃmɛn] respondent 3 – [ɛfort] respondent 5 – [ɛndʒinɛr] findings show that the respondents had difficulty putting correct stresses on the correct syllables. respondent 1 inappropriately uttered words concerning stress. instead of stressing the first syllable of the word gentlemen, respondent number 1 emphasised the first two syllables. the first syllable of objects was emphasised, same with the first syllable of the word decision instead of the second syllable, the second syllable of the word records instead of the first syllable, the third syllable of the word academy instead of the second syllable, the first two syllables of the word suspected instead of the second syllable only, the first two syllables of an engineer instead of the second syllable only, first three syllables of accomplishment were overly emphasised instead of the second syllable only, all the syllables of dismissed were stressed instead of just the second syllable, the last syllable of the word radical instead of the first syllable, the second syllable of the word transformation instead of the third. respondent 2 emphasised incorrect syllables. instead of the second syllable emphases in the word objects, the respondent emphasised the first syllable. this is also visible in the word against, where the first syllable was emphasised instead of the second. moreover, multiple stresses were done in words: decision, furiously, girlfriend, relationship, engineer, accomplishment, and attention. the weak syllable of the two-syllable word was greatly emphasised by respondent 3. it was notable that all the syllables of the word "mentor" were equally stressed. as the researcher transcribed the recorded utterances of respondent 4, it is observed that some of the syllables that needed to be emphasised were not emphasised. in the word objects, the respondent emphasised the first syllable rather than the second one. this is quite similar to the word records, where the respondent had erroneously emphasised the second syllable instead of the first syllable. among the respondents, respondent 5 has minimal errors in the stresses of the word. this respondent was quite confident and calmer when reading the statements. most of them uttered the word “objects” erroneously. wrong emphases on the syllable may result in complications since a change of part of speech may occur. in this case, instead of the action word ‘objects’, the respondent had uttered this word under the classification of the noun as well as in the word "records" which was read under the classification of the verb instead of a noun. this concurs with rogerson-revell (2011), who expounds that the stress pattern of a word is an important part of the native speaker’s identity and incorrect stress placement is a common cause of intelligible problems. the findings of the second part of the instrument show that the respondent had difficulty in identifying the function of the word in the sentence. in number 13, findings show that respondents 1, 2 and 3 interchanged the first and the second word. the words “i am” are commonly used in conversation; this paved the way for confusion for the respondent when it was used in an interrogative manner. since they are used to using declarative statements, they lose track of the correct process of uttering interrogative statements. this implied that what is familiar in the respondent's mind is inclined to be used in the language utterances. 269 on the other hand, there is a failure to apply proper intonation in some declarative and interrogative sentences presented. without the consciousness of committing a mistake, the respondents used the rising intonation in declarative sentences found in numbers 2 and 4 while they commonly used falling intonation in the interrogative sentences in numbers 13 and 15. the wavy suprasegmental feature of the hiligaynon language greatly influenced how the respondent uttered in line with intonation. this expanded intonation is visible even in the utterance at the word level. the hiligaynon intonation has a strong grip of influence in each utterance. this implied that there is an interference of the suprasegmental features of the first language of the respondent in connection with her usage of the target language, english. 4.2.2 juncture this part focuses on the juncture applied by the respondents as they read the excerpt prepared for them. juncture allows a hearer to recognise a word or sentence boundary. the transcribed data below highlights the utterances of the respondents, highlighting the pauses they have applied. respondent 1 [laik] [da] [rest],/ [wi] [wir] [bai] [netʃur] [dɛsirviŋ] [ɔv] [raθ]. [bat] [bikus] / [ov] [his] [grit] [lav] [fur] [as], / [gad], [hu] [is] [retʃ] / [in] [da] [mirsi], / [med] [as] [alaib] [wid] [da] [krais] / [ibin] [wɛn] [wi] [wɛr] [dɛd] / [in] [transgriʃuns] – [its] [bai] [da] [gres] [yu] [hab] [bin] [sevd]. / [and] [gad]/ [resd]/ [as] [ap]/ [wid] [da] [krais] [dʒisus], [in] [urdir]/ [dat] [in] [da] [kamiŋ] [ɛdʒis]/ [hi] [mait]/ [ʃo] [da] [inkumparabul] [ritʃɛs] [ov] [his] [gres],// [iksprisd] [in] [his] [kaindnis] [to] [as] [in] [da] [krais] [dʒisus]./ [fur] [it] [is] [bai] [gres] [yu] [hab] [vin] [sevd],/ [θru] [feθ]//[and] [dis] [is] [nat] [fram] [yursɛlvs], / [it] [is] [da] [gɛft] [ov] [da] [gad]/ [nat] [bai] [wurks], / [so] [dat] [nu] [wan] [kan] [bost].// it is quite noticeable in the transcription above that there were numerous times that pauses were not done at the end of the sentence. instead of ending it, there is a continuous reading of the first 2 or 3 words from the next sentence. respondent 1 tends to read fast if the word is unfamiliar or quite long. improper pauses are also observed, which implies less or no comprehension of what was read. findings in this section show that respondent 1 had the common mistake of adding the article "the" before the content words such as christ, grace, mercy and god. the word "the" was uniquely used as an automatic filler for a content word to be uttered. a contraction was also used in stating "it is". these findings agree with sirbu (2015), who states that grammar of the first language would interfere with the second language by affecting the level of usage of pronouns and determinants, verb tense, mood and even double negation and, equally importantly, word order. in this study, the determiner 'the' was utilised as a filler in the preparation of uttering the pronunciation of the given words. interestingly, the word 'the' is not habitually used when communicating with the use of their vernacular. this word automatically pops up when the respondent tries to communicate using the target language. as students of the new era, they are acquainted with the input of this said determiner in their english class. with the general rule of putting determiners before a noun, the application of this rule was observed. hence, when our brain captivates a general notion, this enables us to utilise it consciously and sometimes unconsciously. respondent 3 [lik] [da] [rɛs],/ [wi] [wir] [bai] [natʃur] [disirviŋ] [ɔv] [raθ]. [bat]/ [bikus] [ov] [hes] [gret] [lav] [fur] [as]/, [gad],// [hu] [is] [ritʃ] [in] [mirsi], [med]/ [as] [alaib/] [wid] [krais]/ [ibin] [wɛn] [wi] [wɛr] [ded] /[in] [transgreʃuns] //– [it] [is] [bai] [gres]/ [yu] [hab] [bin]/[sɛvd]. [and] [gad] [res] / [as] [ap] [wid] [krais] [dʒisas], [in] [ordir] [dat] /[in] [da] [kamiŋ] [ɛdʒ]/ [hi] [mait] [ʃos] [dat] [ɛnkumparabul] [ritʃis] [his] [gris],// [ɛksprisd] [in] [kaindnɛs]/ [to] [as] [in] [a]/ [dʒisus]. [it] [is] [bai] [gris] [yu] [hab] [bin]// [sɛvd], [θru] [feθ] [and] [dis] [is] [nat] [fram] [yursɛlvs],// [it] [is] [da] [ob] [gad]/ -[nat] [bai] [wurks], [so] [dat] [nowan] [kan] [bɔst].// findings show that respondent 3 commits long pauses, especially after reading a difficult word; we transcribed six long pauses. if compared to the performance of respondent 2, it is notable that respondent 3 had the common mistake of omitting some words in the instrument. respondent 3 tends to skip a word and directly utter the next word to finish the sentence. most of the words omitted in the statements of respondent 3 are operative words. in english grammar, a function word is a word that expresses a grammatical or structural relationship with other words in a sentence. however, a function word has little or no meaningful content compared to content words. respondent 5 [laik] [da] [rɛst],/ [wi] [wir] [bai] [netʃur] [dɛsirviŋ] [ɔv] [raθ].// [bat] [bikus] [ov] [his] [gret] [lav] [fur] [as], / [gad], // [hu] [is] [ritʃ] [in] [mirsi], / [med] [as] [alaib] [wid] [krais] [ivin] [wɛn] [wi] [wɛr] [dɛd] [in] [transgriʃuns] – [it] [is] [bai] [gres] [yu] [hab] [bin] [sevd]. / [and] [gad] [resd] [as] [ap] [wid] [da] [krais] [dʒisas], [in] [urdir] [dat] [in] [da] [kamiŋ] [edʒis] [hi] [mait] [ʃo] [da]/ [inkumparibul] [ritʃɛs] [ov] [his] [gres], [ɛksprisd] [in] [his] [kaindnis] [to] [as] [in] [krais] 270 [dʒisus].// [fur] [it] [is] [bai] [gres] [yu] [hab] [bin] [sevd],/ [θru] [feθ]//[and] [dis] [is] [nat] [fram] [yursɛlvs], / [it] [is] [da] [gɛft] [ov] [gad]// [nat] [bai] [wurks], / [so] [dat] [nu] [wan] [kan] [bost].// among the respondents, respondent 5 conveyed comprehension while reading the given paragraph. juncture plays a vital role in the attainment of genuine comprehension. one cannot completely grasp a certain idea if the manner of saying those words is improperly uttered. 4.2.3 spontaneous speech when assessed on how the respondents constructed their sentences with the user with the target language, the researcher determined that respondent 1, respondent 2 and respondent 4 used the basic way of introducing themselves. these respondents commonly started to introduce their names precisely followed by their addresses. respondent 1: i’m maria mae toble, i came from/ baranggay minyun, mursia negros occidental and i studied in minyun national high school,/ then// i am twenty-two years old then my work is//is helping my// my mother business respondent 2: my name is rosella t. obrique, i came from purok new site barangay minyan murcia negros occidental. ah i am 15 years of age. my hobbies is / nang // dancing and singing. respondent 4: i am rica mae obrique, and i live in purok new site/ and//and also// i want to be a teacher someday// to to// and //and to help my family // and also/ and also other people/ that's all. it is observable that the three respondents showed difficulty in expressing themselves after this basic information, leading them to stutter afterwards. respondent 1 repeatedly used the word "then" to show the transition from one thought to another instead of just ending the sentence. repetition of the word before uttering the next word signifies the poor vocabulary of the respondents. it inferred a low sense of confidence among the respondent giving the receiver a hint that the respondent doubts what to say next. some subject-verb agreement errors are also notable in respondent 2's speech. the word "hobbies" shows pluralism, but instead of a plural verb, "is" was used. fillers are also present in the speech production, "nang" in hiligaynon vernacular was used as the respondent thought of words to add to the statement. respondent 3, who did not start with the common way of introducing oneself, shows difficulty expressing one's thoughts and ideas. the repetition of the expression "oh my god" signifies that the speaker has difficulty structuring the idea she has in mind. if we look at the structure of the statement, it is quite obvious that errors are identifiable, but on the other hand, because of the keywords given, we grasp the thought of the message the speaker wanted to convey. among the respondents, respondent 5 is the most direct in answering the question. respondent 5: i am a noisy and lazy kid//and// sometimes// i am so // lazy. though the structure is acceptable, the usage of words is erroneous because of the repetition of the adjective lazy. pauses are also very observable, implying the respondents' difficulty in structuring words to express a complete thought. 5. discussion for many years, the age of language acquisition has been the primary predictor for pronunciation accuracy at l2 ultimate attainment. the span of age for attaining native likeness is quite controversial, ranging from shortly after birth (abrahamsson & hyltenstam, 2009) through age 6 to puberty (dekeyser, 2000). abrahamsson & hyltenstam (2009) explained that the later a second language learner is exposed to the second language, the stronger the foreign accent tends to be at the end state of the acquisition process. this was affirmed by piske et al. (2001), stating that the age of l2 learning appears to be the most important predictor of the degree of foreign accent. in this current study, the results reveal that, despite the respondents being still in their teen years, they have demonstrated a solid command of the qualities of their native tongue in both their reading and spontaneous speaking utterances. the negative transfer happened despite the english language's early orientation. it was inferred that early exposure to brief talks in the target language could not ensure that speakers would correctly pick up its features. on the other hand, early exposure to the correct ideas about the characteristics of the target language will improve a person's conversational abilities when using the second language. from the transcribed data, it is notable that the common mistakes of the respondents are largely on vowel production rather than consonant production. due to the unique way of their l1 utterances, the pronunciation of the vowel sounds is compromised. some syllables with [ɛ], [i] and [i] vowel sound is pronounced as if it has an [ei] sound. this is visible in words: exerted [ɛkserteid], key [kei], transgressions [ transgreiʃons ], gift [geift], certain [sertein], and dead [deid]. this is believed to be the result of the features of their first language, consisting of only 16 consonants and three vowels (zorc, 2016). however, this study found that hiligaynon speakers are not limited to their identified three vowel sounds since they have uttered 271 more than three vowels when using the target language. based on the recorded utterances, phonemes such as [ɛ], [e], [o], [a], [i:], and [u:] were transcribed. hence, hiligaynon speakers can use some english phonemes that are not present in their vernacular phonemes. vowel phonemes vary depending on where it occurs in words. the way a particular vowel phoneme is pronounced in one word may not be how it is pronounced in another. hence, respondents find it hard to grasp the correct pronunciation. on the other hand, it is noteworthy that most of the respondents committed mistakes due to the act of interchanging the consonantal fricative [f] and consonantal stop [p], especially when it appears in the final as well as in the initial sound of the word. this is visible in words: keep, which was read as [kɛf], furiously as [piuriuslɛ], football as [potbol] effort as [eport], transformation as [transpormeiʃon], from as [pram], keep as [kɛf], and favourite as [peivoreit]. it was also observed that consonantal stop [b] and consonantal fricative [v] were interchanged in some cases, such as in the word rebels which was uttered as [rɛvɛls] and beloved as [vɛlavd]. though all these respondents use english as the medium of communication in the transactions among foreign customers, they tend to make numerous errors and interference while using the target language. this implied that their first language greatly influences not just the adaptation of the target language's suprasegmental features but also the said language's segmental features. this claim is strengthened by ahmed et al. (2019), stating that at the segmental level, some pronunciation difficulties faced by english language learners are quite attributable to the phenomenon of negative transfer, where sounds of l1 are erroneously transferred into the target language. even though differences between l1 and l2 vowel and consonant categories may be detectable in comprehension, the classification of l2 phones as functional equivalents of l1 categories leads to the merging l1 and l2 categories in speech production (hopp, 2013). anstey and bull (2006) have pointed out that despite the modern advances in information technology and the development of a range of communication tools in the advanced world, learning to read remains important in the sense that reading is primarily the gateway to a lot of information and competencies across aspects of life. derakhshan et al. (2015) noted that it is crucial to develop one's expertise so that learners can work more independently in the l2. however, he added that learning a second language well does not necessarily mean that the person has mastered the ability to turn off the effect of the l1. one may know the language fully but still shift from one code to another. it is found through this research that there are a number of factors responsible for language interference in speech production among hiligaynon, which corresponds to reading material using the target language. there are purely practical reasons which are bound to expose poor standards in speaking the target language, which can be explained in detail as follows: 5.1 fast-paced utterance using the first language after the interview process, it was confirmed that it is the practice of the respondents to speak fast with the use of the first language with their peers. the manner of speaking the english language reflects the manner of speaking when the respondent uses the first language. reinisch (2011) stated that duration is an important perceptual cue in speech comprehension. moreover, duration distinguishes words in more ways than just cueing the identity of their phonemes. it affects a word's suprasegmental structure, such as its lexical stress pattern. among other characteristics, stressed syllables tend to be longer than unstressed syllables. as a result, speaking tempo greatly influenced the stress indication of the respondents in the material that was read. findings show that in reading the english excerpt, there is a huge trace of the western accent of the respondents. most of the respondents fail to apply the proper juncture. multiple insignificant pauses are notable in the utterances. respondents had read the statements quickly, compromising the meaning of the excerpt. this implied that as they read, there was no indication of content's comprehension since it was read fast as well as pauses could have been more perfectly done. boltron and ramos (2021) emphasised that the basic skills of decoding messages are required for the production of meaning, as well as the ability to grasp ideas and information and other related higher reading competencies. instead of pausing after the period to show that a specific thought had ended, the respondents tended to continuously read the material to the next sentence and erroneously pause in the middle. most of the respondents had read the excerpt as if every word did not function in the wholeness of the messages. the suprasegmentals that have contributed to language interference in the respondent's speech are stress timing, speech rate, pause frequency, and pause duration. ogden (2009) reiterates that suprasegmentals are essential for marking all kinds of meanings as well as how one utterance relates to another. the perception of durational signals to phonemic categories is influenced by speaking rate, which has been demonstrated to impair word identification. the perception of word borders can be shifted by changing the speaking rate. by changes in the perceived relationship of these durational cues, whether the plosive-fricative sequence is read as two different phonemes spanning the word boundary to a single wordinitial affricate is determined. 272 it was observed that some [i] sounds were uttered as if it was [ɛ] especially if the sway of their intonation takes place. deiparine (2021) argued in her study that suprasegmental features could be magnified in the utterances instead of the segmental features. she added that sometimes, the researcher had credited the phonological variation to suprasegmental features, but the reality is, it is the segmental feature that varies due to the strong influence of the first language segmental. in the context of this study, due to the effect of the hiligaynon intonation, participants opted to habitually utter [ɛ] or sometimes [i:] instead of just [i]. the sway of their voice due to their unique language variation had trained their oral parts that are responsible for sound production to utter longer and softer [i] sound. in addition, [ɛ] was produced instead of stressed and unstressed schwa sounds. most of the schwa sounds were replaced with mid vowels such as [ɛ] or [o]. hence, hiligaynon recorded uttered words using no or minimal schwa sounds in the process of communicating the target language. these segmental features were produced due to the unique trait of hiligaynon’s suprasegmental features. the different syllables of a word have varying degrees of stress. one primary stressed syllable and one or more unstressed or secondary stressed syllables make up a multisyllabic word. it is worth noting that the degrees of stress on the various syllables of a word are not mutually exclusive. syllables with secondary stress are more difficult to distinguish from primary stressed syllables than unstressed syllables are to distinguish from primary stressed syllables (reinisch et al., 2010). the rate at which a speaker talks has an impact on how one perceives different levels of stress. since primary and secondary stress is more difficult to distinguish than primary and no stress, speech rate can be exploited to a greater extent. in this study, some participants uttered the same stressed syllables having a similar intensity to the primary stress. one can hardly identify the primary stressed syllable due to this erroneous emphasis. findings revealed that most of the common mistakes of the respondents were over-emphasising two or more syllables in a word which compromised the proper pronunciation of the said word. since the nature of uttering their first language is fast-pacing, interference in emphasising the correct syllable in a word and difficulty putting the right pauses in reading was detected. respondents were used to talking fast in conversing, which paved the way for them to integrate this feature of their first language in the utterance of the target language. this result highlights that the art of pacing in communication is crucial and can be one of a speaker's greatest tools in achieving effective communication. 5.2 expanded intonation of the first language although intonation has been increasingly recognised in l2 education for decades as "a fundamental aspect of language fluency, competence, and proficiency” (chun, 2002), it remains the most persistent issue for both language students and teachers. intonation functions as a signal to mark information structure, such as signaling emphasis and contrasts, sentence-level focus, and distinguishing between new and given information. it also marks illocutionary/speech-act functions such as the force that magnifies the speaker's intentions, textual/discourse functions such as coherence, shared knowledge, discourse-level prominence and boundaries in discourse, and interactive/discourse functions which is shown in the act of continuation/changing of topic, discouraging the hearer from replying, showing cooperation, and facilitating repair. mennen (2006) provided a list of the most commonly identified errors in the production of english intonation that have been detected across studies. some of these problems she highlighted include a narrower pitch range used by non-native speakers, incorrect prominence placement, inappropriate use of rises and falls, a lower declination rate and several pitch-related problems. this strengthened the claim of the current study about the presence of the negative transfer of phonological features of the hiligaynon language to the target language in line with intonation. notably, the respondents incorrectly stressed numerous similar words and inappropriate use of rising and falling intonations is observed due to the great influence of the intonation of their first language, which is hiligaynon. gabayan (2015) points out that without proper suprasegmental features imposed in the segmental features, a continuous speech can convey meaning but often loses the effectiveness of the message being conveyed. declarative sentences are commonly used by respondents when interacting with foreign customers. they usually assert, declare facts, explain things, or give information. this pattern contributed to the difficulty of the utterances of rising intonation in the interrogative statements. this finding shows that the brain stores speech patterns based on the frequency the speaker practises them. the more a speaker of a target language embraces the set of patterns in a particular code, the more likely they use these patterns simultaneously in the conversation. allard et al. (2021) expounded that interference can be traced not just in the speaker's first language but also in the speaker's cultural background. to this effect, understanding what comprises both interference and culture is required. these concerns are significant because they are critical in developing pattern languages for large systems that will perform well in a 273 dynamic environment over time. exposure to varieties of patterns of a specific code will augment versatility in the communication process. even at a young age, the phonetic features of their first language have widely penetrated their speech. this results from the infrequent acquisition of the suprasegmental of the standardised language, english. the linguistic contact creates interferences and borrowings, thus leading to linguistic alterations. interference at any level is a disease because it breaks the norm and order of a language, which can be detrimental to the english language from the standpoint of language purity. one of the effective ways to learn a language is to emerge in an environment wherein interaction with native speakers is possible. the finding concurs with foronda, (2017), who point out that speakers will only acquire a native accent of the target language if they receive massive exposure to this said language. this claim is strengthened by linck et al. (2009), who concluded, based on the findings of their study, that a context that enables successful l2 acquisition is language immersion. 5.3 lack of second language vocabulary repetition of words may signify importance in the statement or may give a hint that there is a scarcity of words to be used in the target language. in this study, it was found that if in doubt or words are missing, the participants tend to repeat the latest word she has uttered. the ability of the respondent to expound the word with the use of the second language is limited, but since content words are given, still the statements are understood well. since the vocabulary of the target language is quite different compared to the respondents' first language, difficulty in recalling the correct word to use was observed. this concurs with the truth that derakhshan (2015) stated that if the two languages share more differences, it will be more difficult for learners to grasp the target language, but if the two languages have more similarities, it will be simpler for the learners. in this context, the participants strived to state the statement in complete english instead of using the first language words. unfortunately, it was observed that the way the participant utter words are conscious translation from vernacular statements to the target language. since not all acquired first language has associated english words, repetitions occur. code-switching is visible in the spontaneous speech of the respondents. this concurs with gabayan (2015), who explained that if the speaker experience difficulty in expressing using the target language, the speaker resorts to falling back onto the l1 to fill up the gaps created by insufficient knowledge of the l2. code-switching, given that speakers share at least at some extent an understanding of the social meanings of each available code, does not imply linguistic interference in the sense that it can be used to supplement speech. when employed to compensate for the lack of ability to articulate oneself, it maintains the flow of the speech rather than interfering with it in the target language. this practice may help students commit repetitions but instead enable them to spontaneously convey their thoughts and ideas to others who can understand both of the codes being used. shin (2009) mentioned that languages are used to carry social meaning and express their user's identity. however, as the philippine constitution specifies regarding the bilingual education policy, only filipino and english languages represent the filipino identity. ramos (2010) argued that in the classroom set-up, the use of only both languages is not enough to facilitate learning, a reason why he suggested the use of alternative languages, especially in a multilingual academic setting to facilitate the transference of concepts. when the student acquires the correct input because there is a comprehension of the instruction, it serves as a stepping stone to unleash that student's potential in competing globally. with the teacher permitting the learner to take advantage of the learner's most preferred language in learning the new concept, that also shows that the teacher has knowledge of the content being taught and is coupled with appropriate pedagogy for positive transfer. this idea was reiterated by ramos (2021) when he concluded in his study that teachers' content knowledge and pedagogical skills in english were essential elements in the transmission of concepts of the english language. 6. conclusion based on the analysis and findings of this study, it is concluded that even at an early age, there are visible segmental and suprasegmental interferences on speech production among hiligaynon flower vendors working in mambukal resort. features of first-language utterances such as fast pacing, expanded intonation, language patterns, and vocabulary deficiency are undoubtedly the reasons for language interference. though hiligaynon speakers exclude schwa sounds in their utterances and habitually replace them with their occurring vernacular vowel sounds, they can still produce english vowel sounds that are not present in their vernacular vowel sounds. reading comprehension problems can be intervened and corrected by educators at the ground level by developing reading comprehension skills through an effective beginning reading teaching approach with the use of the second language to authentically develop and solidify the foundational reading competencies of the learners. it is then recommended that hiligaynon instructors tasked with teaching english subjects must expose the learners to the correct pronunciation of the words. with proper guidance and maximum exposure to the correct target 274 language, interference can be minimised. thus, positive language transfer interventions must be implemented in a language learning environment. references abrahamsson, n., & hyltenstam, k. 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(2016) hiligaynon. philippine linguistic prehistory. rgate. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/048835 https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/175/1/012116 https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/175/1/012116 https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i1.7559 https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2102.05717 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.7559 vol. 4, no. 1, april 2022, pp. 25-37 41 linguistic borrowing of english words and utterances among philippine’s generation z in cebuano visayan april jane g. sales cebu technological university argao, cebu, philippines apriljane.geralde@ctu.edu.ph article history received : 2021-08-16 revised : 2021-09-05 accepted : 2022-02-13 keywords linguistic borrowing generation z morphological features code-switching code-mixing abstract this descriptive-qualitative study investigates the english-borrowed words in the cebuano visayan vocabularies uttered by the select generation z in the southern part of cebu in the philippines. the validated self-made matrix from 15 live recorded role-plays of the 80 participants involved in this study. it was analysed in 3 phases; phase one for code-mixing in words, phase two for codeswitching in utterances, and phase three for monograph construction out from the data-gathering procedure of the study. this study is anchored on the phylogenetic change proposed by hockett (2008) and the borrowing transfer theory by odlin (1989). these theories magnify that modification of one or both languages may occur whenever two languages come into contact. the phylogenetic change focuses on language switching and mixing in a specific speaking community. the study's findings showed that most cebuano visayan affixes occur in words under verbs. the affixes of the cebuano visayan language under adjectives do not significantly influence the meaning of the word but function as an auxiliary in the english word mixed in it. the majority of the content words are in complex grammatical form. among the three types of code-switching, intrasentential codeswitching is mainly applied. therefore, it is concluded that cebuano visayan uses linguistic borrowing from english through code-mixing in words and code-mixing in utterances. because these phenomena augment genuine knowledge acquisition, it is recommended that language teachers allow the students to use more than one code in oral classroom participation through code-mixing and code-switching. 1. introduction language is considered a system of arbitrary symbols used in human communication. it has stretched the notion that the form of a word bears an arbitrary relation to its meaning. with the various purposes of communication, the necessity of adapting to other languages has taken place. hence, bilingualism and multilingualism have marked their significance in the world today. with the fast-paced globalisation through the advent of technology, generation z, the generation next to millennials, are exposed to various tools that led to the orientation of the second language in their early years. in this time of the pandemic, with the online set-up of learning, younger generations are given more significant opportunities to connect through different sites that will augment second language acquisition as a byproduct of their communication with the different races of the world. in the early twentieth century, english was considered the international language. it is believed to be an effective international language because it has a multicultural vocabulary, inflectional straightforwardness, and is gender-neutral. as crystal (2003) considered the modernised language of the new era, this language is very useful in technology, especially computers, various software, and the internet. ciprianová & vanco (2010) elaborated that today's english serves as a dominant donor language and is considered a primary source of borrowing for the world's various languages. this online platform has paved the way for the students to digest materials that utilise the english language, such as videos, advertisements, posts, and many more. with the great demand for the english language in various fields of specialisation, embracing this medium makes it easy for this digital-savvy generation. 42 cebuano-visayan language is the vernacular of most students who invested their education at cebu technological university-argao campus. features of this code were initially taught and learned by generation z since this was used as a medium of communication in their household and the entire speaking community. although the first language is habitually utilised by the elderly, the escalation of the use of the english language among young learners is quite notable in the world today. with the constant exposure of the english language in line with the utilisation of online platforms, it is anticipated that codes of the target language are often mixed with the codes of the first language in casual discourses. in the interaction process, this said generation finds it hard to fluently speak using their first language due to the influence of the second language. codes of l2 are often mixed with the codes of l1 in casual discourses. for instance, students in southern cebu, whose native tongue is cebuano-visayan, converse with their peers in their native language but unconsciously shift to english codes. new english-influenced words are formulated and somehow inhabit the lexemes of cebuano-visayan utterances. hence, the output of the study is of great help in the prevention of misinterpretation of the desired message a cebuanovisayan speaker wanted to convey. this study serves as one of the fundamental guides in decoding messages, not just for cebuano-visayan speakers but also for those foreign speakers who will visit the country. hockett (2008) magnified the notion that modification of one or both languages may occur whenever two languages come into contact. in addition, mino (2019) reveals that when languages come into contact, transfer or diffusion of material from one language to another takes place. unfortunately, laufer (2003) highlights the danger of losing the first language at the expense of embracing a powerful language. ample of studies focused on language interference which delves into the effects of the first language on second language acquisition but failed to look deeper into the effects of the second language in the utterances of the first language. this study answers this call by enumerating additional inputs that will widen perspectives on this matter. since the influence of english on the cebuano visayan utterances of the youth, these days is obvious thru the occurrences of the conscious and unconscious shift of vocabulary items from one language to another in the process of interaction, inputs about this phenomenon must be strengthened. thus, this study will contribute substantial input to the body of knowledge regarding the effect of the second language in the casual conversations of the generation of today. this study gives consciousness about the rampant effect of the second language in the mind of the learners, with the lens being focused on the presence of code-switching and code-mixing. moreover, studying the influence of the second language on the utterances of the first language unlocks doors of opportunities for the production of hypothetical preparations that will lead to the expansion of quality information. thus, this study heeds the need of identifying the influence of the second language on the first language of select representatives of generation z. 2. review of literature language is conventional. since a concept or idea is based on the agreement of the speaking community, the creation of different terms is made possible. the main goal of communication is to understand and to be understood. as long as this goal is achieved, connections will be built regardless of the various linguistic codes being used. according to albirini and benmamoun (2012), language transfer is an integral part of second language acquisition research. it is noteworthy that the transfer is considered a two-way process, which means an interaction between the two different languages. the first language can influence the second language, while the second language may greatly affect the first language in an interaction. bequita & bonner (2021) describe it as the use of different dialects, accents, language combinations, and mannerisms within social groups in order to project a particular identity. in this study, the utilisation of both the cebuano-visayan language and the english language is observed. since this study highlights the effect of the second language on first language utterances, inputs about the latter were noted. undeniably, as observed in a classroom setting, the majority of english students encounter difficulties in speaking fluently using a specific code. when given a chance to use their vernacular in casual discourse, some speakers lose their linguistic bearings and continue the sentence utilising another language; sometimes, a mix of the codes is observable. due to the rampant exposure of the second language, especially in academe, it became hard for this generation to speak using pure vernacular or pure target language in discourse. according to sipra (2012), it is remarkable that when languages come into the process of mutual exchange, the transfer of linguistic items from one to another due to the borrowing of words commences. this study looks deeper not just on borrowing words but also on the occurrence of the second language lexemes that are integrated into a casual conversation with the use of the first language. it gives strength to the focus of the study, which is code-mixing and code-switching. the beauty of borrowing words is the simplest kind of influence a language may employ on other languages. sipra (2012) elaborated that when cultural 43 borrowing occurs, there is always the likelihood that the associated words may be borrowed. she defined the term 'borrowing' as the process of adopting individual words or even large sets of vocabulary items from another language or dialect. it gives bilingual speakers opportunities to combine distinct language systems, including both languages' pragmatic syntactic and semantic-morphological dimensions. most of the participants in this study are multilingual. they are capable of using english, filipino as well as cebuano-visayan languages. if borrowing words gives opportunities for bilingual speakers, how much more for multilingual speakers. this study will zero in on how the participants create meaningful notions in line with combining two or more codes in a conversation. according to trudgill (2000), speakers switch to manipulating or influencing or defining the situation as they wish and conveying nuances of meaning and personal intention. drawing upon this quotation in the context of this study, code-switching became a platform for self-expression where language modification was done for personal intentions. sipra (2012) defines code-switching as the process of interchanging two languages within a single discourse, sentence or constituents. in addition, ali et al. (2017) described code-switching as the language change across the borders of the sentence. it occurs when the speaker uses alternate lexical forms, phrases, clauses, and down sentences from the system of the non-native language into the structure of the native language, which is influenced by extralinguistic factors such as topic, interlocutors, and setting. ahmad (2019) stated that in this process, the alternation of codes is determined by the function, the situation, as well as the participants. in other words, it refers to the categorisation of one's verbal repertoire in terms of functions and roles. according to derrick (2015), code-switching will be reserved for those cases in which the collocation of two different codes, or two different languages, is professed and interpreted as a meaningful event by participants in a specific locality. it happens when two languages are used simultaneously by the conversant to the extent that they switch from one to the other in a single speech (siddiq, kustati & yustina, 2020). when people interact, they adjust their speech, vocal patterns, and gestures to accommodate their interlocutor. furthermore, speakers seek approval in a social situation, and they are likely to converge their speech with that of the other person speaking. it can include but is not limited to the language choice, accent, dialect, and suprasegmental features used in the conversation. furthermore, ramos (2004) mentioned that code-switching does not simply reflect social situations but is a means to create social situations. this study observed different scenarios where the participants were given the liberty to verbalise their thoughts with their peers. these casual conversations had paved the way for numerous occurrences of code-switching or code-mixing. suppose the speaker integrates only words from another language into speech. in that case, this process is called "borrowing" or "code-mixing" however, the grammar of the clause determines whether mixing or switching has taken place. to cite an example, if a person uses an english lexicon in a cebuano visayan lexicon, the speaker has simply mixed the language. however, if a speaker starts with a cebuano visayan sentence and uses a complete phrase, clause, or sentence governed by english syntactic rules, the speaker has switched from cebuano visayan to english. moreover, words in all languages have specific semantic, phonological and semantic functions. even if borrowing or codemixing occurs, words still have their individual value. it is strengthened by hockett (2008), who asserts that linguistic units from each language maintain their separate identities, their phonological and grammatical characteristics. the construction of sentences may change the morphological as well as the syntactical features because of code-mixing, but its semantic functions remain the same. it supports the findings of this study by the presence of the observed mixed codes yet conveys consistent semantic functions. on the other hand, code-switching, which essien (2000) defines as a language phenomenon in which two codes or languages are used for the same message or communication, is notable in our world today. albirini et al. (2011) discuss that code-switching is a language alternation within a sentence. linguistically, according to ramos (2004), code alternation is grammatical by nature and is highly dependent on the bilinguals’ fluency in the two languages. embedded words, phrases, and sentences from two languages are found within a sentence. sociolinguistically, it is concerned with the way people use it as a discourse enhancer in their daily speech. in addition, numan and carter define codeswitching as a phenomenon of switching from one language to another in the same discourse. it occurs when speakers shift from one language to another in the midst of their discussion. lebkuecher (2015) states that code-switching occurs when the speakers in a specific conversation use both languages together to the extent that they shift from one language to the other in the course of a single utterance. among the utterances being recorded for this study, types of code-switching were identified. as observed in the generation of today, code-switching flows naturally because of the active interaction of the multilingual’s acquired languages. code mixing is usually the infusion of single words or items from the donor language into the l1 construction. code-switching is the lifting of phrasal, clausal or sentential structures. sadighi (2008) affirms that code-mixing demands base language usage. they 44 assert that code-mixing can only be implanted in an utterance. in this study, we shed light on code-mixing in the morphological analysis where the base form of the word, as well as the various affixes, were observed. unlike code-mixing, which is only limited to lexical units, code-switching transfers elements of all linguistic levels and units ranging from a lexical item to a sentence. in the context of this study, various kinds of statements such as declarative, interrogative, exclamatory and imperative statements uttered by the respondents were observed and dissected. code-mixing and code-switching have been considered rule-governed behaviour and communication strategies as well. they serve significant functions in communication. however, some social stigmas have been attributed to this mode of communication. to cite an example, some english language teachers claim that speakers who use mixing and switching are not competent in speaking english. different linguists do not support this claim all around the globe with the fact that these processes are not only a matter of mixing two particular languages, but it requires acquiring sophisticated knowledge of both languages and cross-cultural communication norms. liu, peiyun & chuanbin (2016) asserts that speakers who use code-mixing show a higher level of linguistic competence since it necessitates simultaneous processing of the rules of both languages. in addition, siddiq, kustati & yustina (2020) states that the ability to engage in code-mixing and switching indicates that speakers acquire a high level of proficiency in two languages. these claims strengthen the current study's claim that those engaged in code-mixing and switching are not incompetent but are considered competent since speakers acquire both language and cross-cultural communication norms. in line with this, ramos (2010) argued that the use of the second languages only in the teaching and learning set-up is not enough to facilitate learning; hence, alternative languages, such as the speaker's vernacular, were suggested to be accepted in the process of expressing one's thoughts and ideas, especially in a multilingual academic setting to facilitate the transference of concepts. this study specifically focuses on the composition of language in line with word-formation. the goal of communication is to build connections between interlocutors. meanings depend on the make-up of words which are called morphemes and are environment-dependent. obuasi (2016) elaborates that morphemes are those basic elements of meaning that are arbitrarily united and cannot be analysed into smaller or simpler elements. they are grouped into free and bound morphemes based on their function. free morphemes are words that can stand on their own, while bound morphemes are not words on their own. the study of these morphemes forms an important part of linguistics as it is an inquiry that serves as the bridge between syntax and phonology, which will augment effective comprehension in any interaction (radford, qtd. in obuasi 2016). language changes in society over time. fasold (qt. in narboada, 2018) claims that methods were made to successfully analyse the changing language of learners of the second language and foreign language. it is notable in our world today that the younger generation does not just borrow words from the powerful language but tends to invent new terms which show a mixture of the first language and second language. creative minds also enable today's students to play numerous morphemes to convey the meanings they want their listeners to grasp. words were formed and expanded. this phenomenon had awakened a concept of morphological analysis of the morpheme composition among the english borrowed words in the lexicon of the cebuano visayan language from the utterances of the select generation z. morphological processes are unconsciously employed by speakers of a specific language in the process of language change. morphemes are added to alter or adjust the meaning of particular base forms, as well as form new words. it involves various processes such as the addition of morphemes, subtracting or omitting morphemes in the process of modifying the base forms of words in a language to suit its syntactic and communicational contexts. from there, it can be observed that certain steps in word formation are common in most languages. the rules guiding them may not be the same, but the steps make languages remain dynamic to accommodate development. thus, this study will delve into the processes undergone by the english-influenced words used by the representatives of the generation z of argao, cebu, philippines. 3. method this study, which was concerned with the morphological analysis of the english-influenced utterances of the select representatives of generation z in cebu technological universityargao campus, was a descriptive qualitative study. this study was supported by the theory of phylogenetic change by linguistic borrowing by hockett (2008) and the borrowing transfer theory by odlin (1989). these theories magnify that whenever two languages come into contact, modification of one or both languages may occur. its focus is on language switching and language mixing in a specific speaking community. this story greatly supports the study since the scope of the study was focused on the phylogenetic change of cebuano visayan through linguistic borrowing from english. the study was limited to three variables: the morphological analysis of code-mixing in words from english by cebuano visayan, the 45 structural analysis of code-switching in utterances from english to cebuano visayan, and the construction of a monograph based on the findings of the study. the data gathering for this study was in the vicinity of cebu technological university – argao campus located at ed. kintanar street, lamacan, argao, cebu, philippines. the main vision of this university is to commit itself to being the centre of excellence and development in research, instruction, production and extension services. this said university aims to produce assets in this competitive world. this institution trains the student to have 21stcentury skills, which hone the students' ability to communicate appropriately in every rhetoric discourse. the research respondents of this study were the 1st year students of bachelor of arts in english major in language studies of cebu technological university, argao, campus. all the students, 80 students from ab english language studies, under the day program, were the participants in this study. students were given situations to role play with the use of the first language as the medium of communication. among the 80 students, 15 groups were created, which means 15 recorded role plays were analysed. there are five different situations to be demonstrated; each situation was assigned to three different groups. they were intentionally chosen to be the respondents of this study because they frequently engage in conversation using the english language, especially in the necessity of that said language in their field of study. the validated self-made matrix in the categorisation of code-mixed words and codeswitched statements from the 15 live recorded roleplays of the participants was analysed in 3 phases. phase one: code-mixing in words; phase two: codeswitching in utterances; and phase three: monograph construction out from the data-gathering procedure of the study. phase one: code-mixing in words. the borrowed content words containing features morphemic mixing of english and cebuano visayan were gathered in four table templates for nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. phase two: codeswitching in utterances. the cebuano visayan sentences containing english code-switching words and phrases were gathered in four table templates: statements, questions, imperatives, and exclamations. phase three: construction of a monograph. based on the study's findings, a monograph or linguistic borrowing of english words and utterances in cebuano visayan discourse. it serves as the output of the study. the primary source of verbal data was the cebuano visayan utterances of cebu technological university – argao campus students. the simultaneous interaction of the respondents from the scenarios (bullying, heartbreak, teenage pregnancy and suicide) they portray were recorded and further underwent decoding, analysis, and interpretation. 4. result it presents the discussion of the results gathered. using the intensive word-formation analysis technique, the english-borrowed words in the lexicon of the cebuano visayan language used by the select generation z in the southern part of cebu were decoded, analysed, and interpreted. 4.1 code-mixing in words this phase involved seventy (70) borrowed content words containing morphemic mixing of english and cebuano visayan features. the first table contains the 4 code-mixed noun words and their form. table 4.1 code-mixing in nouns nouns morphemes forms english roots cebuano visayan affixes nangbully [ bʌli] the prefix [naŋ] complex time-a [taim] suffix [a] complex gibully [bʌli] the prefix [gə] complex kacha [tʃaet] the prefix [kə] complex 46 as presented in table 4.1, only four are considered nouns among the words code-mixed by the respondents. none of them has a simple grammatical form since they are not single free morphemes by themselves as words. notably, the affixes from the native language are mixed with the root of the second language acquired. this combination has produced complex grammatical forms. findings reveal that among the content words involved in code-switching, words under the grammatical class of nouns are the least. this result is quite the opposite of sipra's (2012) study, which observed the majority of occurrences of noun words in the english-urdu code-switching. it implies that language is unique due to the different rules. in line with the cebuano-visayan language, code-mixing on nouns is quite limited compared to the urdu language. table 4.2 code-mixing in verbs verbs morphemes forms english roots cebuano visayan affixes chatan [tʃat] suffix [an] complex makagraduate [gradweit] prefixes [mə]+[kʌ] complex i-shot [ʃut] prefix [i:] complex pamusic [myusi:k] prefix [pa] complex scotch tape-i [skʌttʃ tip] suffix [i] compound stapleran [steiplir] suffix [an] complex mag-group study [grup stadi] prefix [mag] compound karelate [rəleit] prefix [ka] complex magpamusic [myusi:k] prefixes [mag]+[pa] complex i-promise [pramis] prefix [ə] complex mugraduate [gradweit] prefix [mu] complex nagchill-chill [tʃi:l] prefix [nəg] complex magwindow shopping [windou ʃap] prefix [nəg] suffix [əŋ] compound nadiscover [dəskɔver] prefix [na] complex na-inform [ənform] prefix [na] complex gi-accept [aksipt] prefix [gi:]” complex paglove [lav] prefix [pəg] complex magbonding [bɔnd] prefix [mag] ; suffix [iŋ] complex imagine-a [imadʒi:n] suffixes [a] complex makafeel [fi:l] prefixes [mə]+ [ka] complex nakarealize [reilaiz] prefixes [nə] + [ka] complex mafeel [fi:l] prefix [ma] complex naring [ri:ŋ] prefix [na] complex ipablotter [blɔter] prefixes [ə] + [pa] complex magdate [deit] prefix [məg] complex magneed [ni:d] prefix [məg] complex mag-attendance [ətɛnd] prefix [məg] suffix [ans] complex ga-mobile legends [mobail ledʒen] prefix [ga] ; suffix [s] compound 47 paloadi [loud] circumfix [pa] & [i:] complex gicomfort [kɔmfərt] prefix [gə] complex pagcomfort [kɔmfərt] prefix [pag] complex advise-an [advais] suffix [an] complex mushare [ʃeir] prefix [mə] complex ipass [pas] prefix [ə] complex magsnacks [snak] prefix [mag] ; suffix [s] complex mafix [fix] prefix [ma] complex i-prioritize [prayoritaiz] prefix [ə] complex gilove [lav] prefix [gi] complex mufight [fait] prefix [mu] complex maka-move on [muv ɔn] prefixes [ma] + [ka] compound mag-exercise [ɛksərsais] prefix [mag] complex gidiscuss [dəskas] prefix [gi] complex magstart [start] prefix [mag] complex gi-expect [ikspɛkt] prefix [gi:] complex nagchat [tʃaet] prefix [nəg] complex nitransfer [transfər] prefix [ni] complex i-punish [pɔniʃ] prefix [ə] complex gi-congrats [koŋgrats] prefix [gi] complex gi-congratulate [koŋgratʃuleit] prefix [gi] complex kaprotect [prətɛk] prefix [ka] complex i-protect [prətɛk] prefix [i] complex gi-bully [bu:li] prefix [gi] complex as shown in table 4.2, most cebuano visayan affixes occur in words under the grammatical class of verbs, namely an, ma, ka, e, pa, i, mag, mu, nag, na, and ga. these said affixes serve as indicators of the tenses of the verbs, whether the verb is in its past form, present form or future form, and sometimes connotes a command. there are 53 words uttered which undergo the mixing of cebuano visayan language and english language under verbs. five of which have compound grammatical forms which contain two free morphemes (roots) and are mixed with cebuano visayas bound morphemes (affixes). findings show that cebuano visayan affixes are not just the only affixes noted in this grammatical class. however, there is also an appearance of the inflectional affixes following the second language standards, such as ing and s. this implies that in using the verb words from english, respondents copy the root word and include the suffixes of the english word. among the 54 identified code-mixed words under verb, 48 complex grammatical forms contain bound morphemes (prefixes, suffixes, circumfixes) attached to the free morphemes (roots). findings show that cebuano visayan affixes determine the tense of the code-mixed words. affixes such as [an], [ma], [mag],[mu:],[i], and [mu] commonly signifies a future tense of the verb while affixes such as [na] and [naka] are commonly used in past tense. pa and i are commonly used in stating a command. gi is the most complicated affix since it may denote a past action [gibu:li] or a present one [gi: ikspɛkt], depending on how the statements are conveyed. repetition of the english word was observed. this process is one way of code-mixing by the generation of today, which simplifies the meaning of the repeated word. cebuano visayan affixes can function as derivational or inflectional depending on the context of the utterances as well as the english word that is combined with it. 48 for instance, [gikoŋgrats] and [gi koŋgratʃuleit] have the gi prefix but function as derivational and inflectional accordingly. it implies that cebuano visayan language is highly arbitrary and conventional when mixed with the second language. one must understand both the content of the combined words and the context of how it was stated to fully comprehend the utterances. among the content words, verbs have the highest number of code-switching. it is made possible due to numerous verbal affixes of the generation z of argao. thus, one must have a fundamental knowledge of both languages to fully grasp the word's meaning. table 4.3 code-mixing in adjectives adjectives morphemes forms free: roots bound: affixes pampahealthy [hɛlθ] prefixes [pəmpa] ;suffix [i] complex ma-bright [brait] prefix [ma] complex na-enjoy [ənjoi] prefix [na] complex na-extend [əkstend] prefix [na] complex nalate [leit] prefix [na] complex kabright [brait] prefix [kə] complex magsweetsweet [swi:t] prefix [mag] complex pinakahighest [hai] prefix [pi:naka] ; suffix [yɛst] complex maglong-last [lɔŋ last] prefix [mag] compound boringa [bɔriŋ] suffix [a] complex nastraight [streit] prefix [na] complex mafail [feil] prefix [ma] complex nadisappoint [dəsapoint] prefix [na] complex pinakabright [brait] prefix [pi:naka] complex table 4.3 shows the words under the category of adjectives that have gone through the process of mixing cebuano visayan codes and english codes. among the 14 identified words, only one has compound grammatical forms that contain two free morphemes (roots) and are mixed with cebuano visayas bound morphemes (affixes). compared to the category of verbs, findings show that the affixes of cebuano visayan language under adjectives do not significantly influence the word's meaning but function as an auxiliary in the english word mixed in it. since the affixes only complement the english word in the identified adjective codemixed words, all of the affixes are inflectional, and it does not change the grammatical category of the english adjective words. 4.2. code-switching in statements this phase involves the utterances of the generation z, which undertake the process of codeswitching. the table below contains the statements which utilise the cebuano visayan sentences containing english code-switching words and phrases. 4.2.1 declarative statements there are 106 occurrences of code-switching in the statements uttered by the respondents. among the three types of code-switching, intrasentential codeswitching is mostly applied. it means that the code shift is done in the middle of a sentence, with no interruptions, hesitations, or pauses to indicate a shift. the speaker is usually unaware of the shift. 49 this type of code-switching requires the most fluency of all types of code-switching because it requires speakers to switch to the rules of syntax of the other language mid-thought or sentence. intersentential code-switching is also observed among the statements where the language switch is done at sentence boundaries—words or phrases at the beginning or end of a sentence. this kind of switching requires greater fluency in both languages than tag-switching, as each part of the utterance must agree with the rules of the corresponding language being spoken. on the other hand, only one is observed to follow extra-sentential or tag switching. this is the switching of either a single word or a tag phrase (or both) from one language to another. this is shown in the statement "you know nah, naa tay daghang kwarta dhae", where the english phrase you know functions as a tag phrase in the sentence. findings imply that respondents have fluency in both languages due to the fact that the majority of the process of code-switching is intrasentential. one must have the fundamental information about the rules of the corresponding language being spoken in order to entirely shift from one code to another in a statement. it strengthens the claim that the features of the second language have penetrated the vocabularies of generation z in argao, cebu. the influence of english on the cebuano visayan language is visible thru the occurrences of the conscious and unconscious shifts of vocabulary items from one language to another during the interaction. in addition, this study supports the findings of siddiq, kustati & yustina (2020), which reveal that tagswitching, intra-sentential, and intersentential were commonly used in code-switching in the classroom context, especially in the concentration of crosscultural communication. these aforementioned results prove that generation z are influential bilingual speakers granting that in the transcript, they were capable of switching codes using both their l1 and l2 in conversation. this phenomenal activity of both bilingual and multilingual speakers not just merely exists as it is, but according to abrigana (2014), codeswitching exists because it is a strategy in communicating which is already implanted in one's system of communication. the brain has the ability to activate grammatical features of both languages appropriately depending on the competence of the speakers. 4.2.2 interrogative statements there are 33 occurrences of code-switching in the questions uttered by the respondents. among the three types of code-switching, still, intrasentential codeswitching is mostly applied, which comprises 25 questions uttered by the respondents. the respondents inserted english borrowed words spontaneously with no interruptions, hesitations, or pauses to indicate a shift. these statements are uttered naturally by the speaker and are clearly understood by the listeners. it implies that code-mixing does not display incompetence but rather shows an advancement of the speaker's cognitive level who mix codes properly considering the various governing rules of these two different codes. there is no occurrence of tagswitching in this specific type of sentence. there is no tag insertion such as you know, and i mean in sentences that are entirely in the other language. these results reveal that respondents utilise an intrasentential type of code-switching more often during the interactions. in some cases, an intersentential type of codeswitching is also used. these findings are pretty similar to abrigana’s (2014) study, which states that only the intersentential, intrasentential, and interword types of code-switching incidents exist during classroom discussion, and there is no occurrence tagswitching type. this study implies that codeswitching is activated for particular purposes. this effective kindle interaction paves the way for communicative goals. 4.2.3. imperative statements there are 34 occurrences of code-switching in the imperatives uttered by the respondents. notably, both intrasentential and intersentential types of codeswitching are used in the utterances. intersentential involves inserting whole utterances in a second, nondominant language during a conversation, while intrasentential involves blending non-dominant language words or phrases within an utterance. among the 34 imperatives uttered in the interaction, eight imperatives use the intersentential type of codeswitching. most of these utterances use the phrase 'let's go', cueing the escort that it is time to go. it was observed that this type of code-switching occurs when the interlocutor embraces the character of being a social climber, one who pretends to be rich to confirm the social group's standards. unlike intrasentential, it occurs in a normal manner where normal people converse in a normal situation. it implies that social constraints condition code-switching. social constraints are primarily related to the topic, situation, participants, education, sex, etc. the findings of this study are one of the examples that will strengthen the study of onukawa (2000), who mentioned an example were switching to english placed an indian speaker in the educated (upper) middle class. the frequency of using english phrases serves as the bases of social acceptability in this context. it implies that using the english language marks a higher education and social status in our generation today. the more english terms were uttered, the higher the social status of a person is identified. 50 4.2.3. exclamatory statements there are 28 occurrences of code-switching in the exclamations uttered by the respondents. among the types of code-switching, still, intrasentential codeswitching is mainly applied. only four exclamations are observed to follow the process of the intersentential type of code-switching. the remaining 24 sentences are considered intrasentential. it implies that speakers can shift l1 codes and l2 codes interchangeably without hesitations and interruptions. it affirms the statement shared by abrigana (2014), which states that code-switching is a complex, skilled linguistic strategy used by both bilingual and multilingual speakers to convey important social meanings above and beyond the referential content of an utterance. in a nutshell, findings show that in the process of code-switching in the utterances of generation z, the intrasentential type of code-switching is the most applied type. 4.3. cebuano visayan linguistic borrowing of english words and utterances: a monograph a monograph is a long, detailed scholarly piece of writing on a specific subject. the output of this study has four parts. the first part focuses on the fundamental notion in the process of phylogenetic change by linguistic borrowing paired with significant information about morphemes. the second part focuses on the factors that cause an individual to engage in the process of linguistic borrowing. an epilogue will follow it. this part will summarise the monograph with its conclusion and recommendation. it will eventually help every learner enhance the ability to relay messages that stimulate the attainment of the communication goals while upholding the environment of social acceptability. lastly, giving credits to brilliant minds who contributed to the facts of this work is magnified in the work cited. 5. discussion in this present study, even though the native language of the respondents is cebuano-visayan, the continuous grip of the matured second language, which is english, is observed. it was argued by pavlenko (2000) that considered 'mature' language has language systems that are not subject to change. he explained that the weaker linguistic system is attached to the stronger language and is dominated by it. his claim expounds that if a language had grown its power in society, the tendency is it would be used frequently by the speaking community. it is found through this research that generation z had embraced the second language paving the way for the codes of the english language to be frequently used in the communication process. since this generation was greatly exposed to the second language on a daily basis, a shift of usage from native root words to target root words is observable. with the wider scope of communication due to the advent of technology, today's younger generation is inclined to borrow english words. according to sipra (2012), it is remarkable that when languages come into the process of mutual exchange, the transfer of linguistic items from one to another due to the borrowing of words commences. sahib et al. (2021) argued that the changeover was more likely to occur in more significant sentences than smaller ones such as clauses or phrases. in contrast, the present study has demonstrated that code-switching between cebuanovisayan and english is more likely to occur at more minor constituents such as within a clause and phrasal boundaries. it is found through this research that some fundamental notions stimulate generation z to codeswitch as well as to code mix, which corresponds to the assigned situations they portrayed using the first language. there are purely practical reasons which are bound to expose opportunities for engaging in code-mixing and code-switching, which can be explained in detail as follows: a) simplification of utterances. it was notable that when the respondents started borrowing english words, it underwent the process of simplification. the avoidance (shift) by moving away from l1 and selecting l2 common structures ignites clear and direct comprehension of the conveyed message. according to derrick (2015), code-switching will be reserved for those cases in which the collocation of two different codes, or two different languages, is professed and interpreted as a meaningful event by participants in a specific locality. since cebuanovisayan language has a rich vocabulary, there are cases where a single word of the english language is associated with two or three words in the cebuanovisayan language. however, only the elderlies of the community habitually use these cebuano-visayan codes giving space for miscommunication among generation z due to uncertain shared meaning of a code. to lessen the difficulty of receiving the correct message, respondents utilise the common medium where both are certain of the term's meaning to cultivate effective communication and prevent misinterpretation in the interaction. since they are well-versed in english language content, they tend to use this code to express their thoughts to others. pesirla (2000) concluded in his study that the cebuano-visayan language has only three vowel sounds; [a], [i], and [u], but in this study, it was observed that when cebuano-visayan affixes are mixed with english root words, schwa sounds are produced. it is also notable that when an english word is mixed with a cebuano-visayan affix, there is a change in phonology that integrates the features of the first language. to cite an example, the english root word chat is pronounced as [tʃaet], but if used as a verb with a cebuano-visayan suffix an, chat is pronounced as [tʃat]. in addition, bough & cable 51 (2010) claimed that changes in a language's grammatical forms could be the consequence of gradual phonetic alteration, or they could be the product of the desire for uniformity that is prevalent when the similarity of function or use is involved. b) greater emphasis on different words uttered. affixes of the cebuano-visayan language are mixed with these l2 content words to give greater emphasis to different words uttered. cebuano-visayan affixes have unique features of connotations such as expression of urgency, necessity, accuracy, and clarity. a word that utilised the second language code will be given greater weight if paired with affixes from the first language. siddiq, kustati & yustina (2020) states that the ability to engage in code-mixing and switching indicates that speakers acquire a high level of proficiency in two languages. however, it is significant to take note that when a language borrows too many words from another language, the danger of being corrupted arises because when the loan words penetrate a language immensely, their standard cannot be tested. it is a must that while learning the second language, one must also give attention to the preservation of the first language; in that way, they can increase the ability to use the second language without losing some of the ability to use their first language. with all the inventions and language changes the world is encountering, mino (2019) reminds the readers to give importance to language preservation. when a language dies out, future generations lose a vital part of the culture that is necessary to completely understand it. it makes language a vulnerable aspect of cultural heritage, and it becomes especially important to preserve it. the preservation process has its challenges: many rare languages are endangered because their speakers are not passing them along to the next generation, preferring their children to learn a language that may afford broader access to the outside world. c) utilisation of base language. it is observed that though cebuano-visayan and english mixing and switching are common phenomena in this speaking community, still, the belonging of these sentences is with their base language. in addition, sadighi (2008) affirms that code-mixing demands base language usage. the foundation of the standard governing a language is a must in the process of achieving meaningful interaction. findings show that the code shift enhances comprehension of the conveyed meaning rather than hampering the communication process. code-switching, given that speakers share at least to some extent an understanding of the social meanings of each available code, does not imply linguistic interference in the sense that it can be used to supplement speech. when employed to compensate for lack of ability to articulate oneself, it maintains the flow of the speech rather than interfering with it in the target language. it magnifies the fact that base language is flexible in absorbing as well as adding words in an utterance. it is observed that when it comes to linguistic choices, speakers show vivid similarities in their preferred choice in all the categories. it has been found that languages are mixed, but their choices remain the same. it is strengthened by hockett (2008), who asserts that linguistic units from each language maintain their separate identities, their phonological and grammatical characteristics. one language does add words from another language, but the choices of addition have to do with the base language. d) following the embedded structures of grammar. based on the findings, the manner in which the english language is mixed in the cebuanovisayan language has specific patterns concerning its use in the matrix language employing embedded grammar structures. in the process of communication, respondents are clear about the structures of grammar they have in their minds, and they have responded accordingly. an increase in the mixing of the english language is making code-mixing a standard tool, but the respondents are smart enough to know the grammaticality of the sentences and also their most preferred choice. in her study, durano (2009) said that the philippines has two contrasting types of codeswitching: deficiency-driven code-switching and proficiency-driven code-switching. the first type refers to a speaker who is not competent in the use of one or either language and therefore has to utilise both languages, while the latter means that a speaker is competent in both l1 and l2, which made them easily switch from one language to another. she supported this by saying that proficiency-driven code-switchers switch codes for precision, transition, comic effect, atmosphere, bridging or creating social distances, snob appeal, and secrecy. in this study, it was observed that participants switch codes not because they find it hard to communicate but because they want to emphasise a point and play well with the role they are assigned. in this context, code-switching is not a hindrance but a tool to augment the effective impartation of the desired message. hence, that aforementioned notion had made it clear that the students were competent communicators granting that in the transcript, they were using intrasentential code-switching, magnifying their ability to use both languages appropriately. mino (2019) claims that proficient bilinguals are able to create grammatical code-switched utterances. in addition, lui (2016) asserts that speakers who use code-mixing show a higher level of linguistic competence since it necessitates simultaneous processing of the rules of both languages. the brain has the ability to activate grammatical features of both languages appropriately depending on the competence of the speakers. this just indicates that code-mixing does not display incompetence but 52 rather shows an advancement of the speaker's cognitive level who mix codes properly considering the various governing rules of these two different codes. e) context of speaking engagement. findings show that factors such as setting, the time and place of the discourse, the participants involved in the communication, the roles with each other, and the function of the interaction ignite code-switching and code-mixing. if the given discourse is formal, the use of standardised language is notable, but in a nonformal environment, respondents converse freely with mixed codes. findings also show that the young generation from the educated class feels more comfortable with english terms instead of the cebuano-visayan term. using the target language cultivates a sense of authority as well as a power among speakers. statements with pure first language codes denote simple living, while statements with english codes connote high social status in the community. the moment respondents had taken the role of a rich individual, the frequency of the english code was observed, while if the role illustrates poor status, cebuano-visayan is mostly utilised. to strengthen this claim, shin (2009) mentioned in her study that switching from various indian languages or dialects to english is considered to be a class marker. having the same perspective, she elaborated that switching to english placed an indian speaker in the educated (upper) middle class. generation z is effective bilingual speakers granting that in the transcript, they were capable of switching codes using both their l1 and l2 in conversation. this phenomenal activity of both bilingual and multilingual speakers not just merely exists as it is, but according to abrigana (2014), code-switching exists because it is a strategy in communicating which is already implanted in one's system of communication. the brain has the ability to activate grammatical features of both languages appropriately depending on the competence of the speakers. it implies that using the english language marks a higher education and social status in a specific speaking community. 6. conclusion based on the analysis and findings of this study, it is concluded that cebuano visayan uses linguistic borrowing from english through code-mixing in words and code-switching in utterances. a change in a code’s phonological feature is observed when mixed with other code. it is notable that generation z is stimulated to borrow codes from the mature language to simplify the utterances, highlight the emphasis on different words uttered, productively utilise the base language, apply various grammar structures for both of the codes, and magnify the contexts of speaking engagements. thus, codemixing and code-switching do not display incompetence but rather show an advancement of the speaker's cognitive level who mixing codes properly, considering the various governing rules of these two different codes. 7. acknowledgement this study would not have been accomplished without the assistance, inspiration and contribution of my respected thesis advisory committees, who undoubtedly shared their ideas by giving their feedback to help this study become more substantial and attainable. references abrigana, l. j. 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(2000). sociolinguistics: an introduction to language and society. penguin uk. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781853596346-004 http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.6n.4p.25 https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/3402485 http://www.journals.aiac.org.au/index.php/ijalel/issue/view/72 http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.2n.1p.203 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v3i3.8288 vol. 3, no. 3, december 2021, pp. 181-193 181 conscientiousness and english language performance amidst the covid19 pandemic: mediation of self-regulated learning khalid bourrouk university of sidi mohamed ben abdellah, fez. morocco bourroukkhalid@gmail.com article history received : 2021-10-29 revised : 2021-11-02 accepted : 2021-12-25 keywords self-regulated learning conscientiousness moroccan undergraduate students english language final grades covid-19 pandemic abstract conscientiousness and self-regulated learning have been shown to directly impact students’ academic performance; however, whether or not such impact persists in the covid-19 pandemic era requires further examination. thus, this study aimed to investigate the association between conscientiousness, selfregulated learning and students' english language performance and examine the mediating effect of self-regulated learning in the relationship between conscientiousness and english language performance during the covid-19 pandemic. by employing non-probability snowball sampling, 138 first and second-year undergraduate students enrolled at the university of sidi mohamed ben abdellah, fez, morocco, participated in the study by completing a 21-item questionnaire. using linear regression, the study found a statistically significant relationship between conscientiousness and self-regulated learning [f (1, 136) = 77.41, p < .001, r 2 = .37]. next, a multiple regression analysis was conducted and revealed that while self-regulated learning significantly predicted english language final grades (β = .41, p < .001), conscientiousness was not a significant predictor (β = .14, p > .001). a sobel test was performed and showed that self-regulated learning was able to mediate the relationship between conscientiousness and english language grades (p < .001). the study concludes that although conscientious students are driven by their diligent work habits, those who lacked effective self-regulated learning strategies received lower grades in their english language class. hence, educators must concentrate much of their efforts on helping students develop efficient self-instruction, selfmonitoring, and self-evaluation techniques that can propel learners into achieving their academic goals. 1. introduction the ministry of health confirmed morocco’s first case of covid-19 on march 2, 2020 (gradaworld, 2020). only a few weeks later, the government decided to suspend face-to-face education and immediately shift to online instruction in an attempt to circumscribe the spread of the virus. given the global nature of the covid-19 pandemic, the same decision was made in almost every country worldwide. although migrating classes from offline to online was not regarded as ideal, moroccan students and educators were well aware that this action was the only alternative available to pursue studies while ensuring the safety of everyone involved in the education process. it is worth establishing that teachers deserve praise for using their own private resources such as their computers and internet in order to sustain students’ engagement and to ensure that students are still learning despite the significant challenges. however, educators were obligated to engage in the online teaching process despite their lack of professional preparedness for the unprecedented demand in shifting from in-person to online instruction (okebukola et al., 2020). prior to the pandemic, several professors had limited experience with or awareness of internet resources. as a result, their online teaching was confined to copying offline teaching materials onto the network area without making the necessary adjustments to make their instruction engaging and useful for students (almutairi et al., 2021). in fact, simply giving a lecture on video-conferencing platforms such as zoom and google meet is not considered online teaching; it is rather traditional teaching using new technology. online education has existed for decades and proved to be as effective as face-to-face education, and one that comes with essential advantages such as the ability to receive a quality education from anywhere and learn at one’s own pace; however, it only existed as an option for learners with busy 182 schedules or those who decided to balance pursuing their educational aspirations while growing in the corporate world. this was not the case during the covid-19 pandemic in that online education was an obligation since it was the only solution to pursue learning while ensuring the health and safety of teachers, students and their communities. it has been argued that the form of education that the world has been engaged in during the covid-19 pandemic is not the authentic online education model; it is one that is better described as ―emergency remote learning‖ (e.g., almutairi et al., 2021; schultz & demers, 2020; kosycheva et al., 2021), which was adopted temporarily to solve an immediate and pressing problem (bozkurt & sharma, 2020). although the terms online education and emergency remote learning share some similar features and have been used interchangeably, there are key distinctions that separate the two education models (adedoyin & soykan, 2020). the first one lies in the fact that the temporal and special distance between learning resources and students is what characterizes online or learning, unlike emergency remote learning, which specifically refers to the distance in terms of space (bozkurt & sharma, 2020). another distinction is related to the course design (shisley, 2020). in online education, courses are envisioned from the initial designing stages to be delivered online. in the case of emergency remote learning, educators attempted to fit teaching materials that were originally developed to be delivered in-person into an online format. almutairi et al. (2021) confirm that a considerable amount of the curriculum teachers planned for students was intended to be taught face-to-face in physical classrooms. the creation of an online lesson involves a substantial amount of planning, determination and forethought. it takes several months to develop engaging lessons that guarantee and sustain student attention while studying without the presence of a teacher (schultz & demers, 2020; hodges et al., 2020; bozkurt & sharma, 2020). therefore, it is the attempt to fit lessons that were originally supposed to be given to students in brickand-mortar classrooms into an online format that formed the major challenge for educators as well as students. nevertheless, it would be entirely unfair to expect outstanding outcomes in an absence of basic components of what constitutes a rigorous online learning experience. in addition, it may be impossible for educators who have taught in-person their entire career and have not integrated technology in their teaching to immediately transition into an online instructional delivery system (schultz & demers, 2020). thus, it is vital to consider the differences that help eliminate the blurry lines between online education and emergency remote learning while evaluating students' learning outcomes and experiences during the pandemic. students who opted for online education prior to the pandemic have reported positive experiences since they possessed sufficient technical equipment such as computers and access to the reliable internet connection to go about their learning, unlike students experiencing emergency remote learning who may lack access to computers and stable internet connection (hodges et al., 2020). furthermore, the challenge was particularly immense for language teachers and students who usually require and rely on the face-to-face interaction that normally takes place in classrooms. in nonenglish speaking countries like morocco, an authentic classroom setting is virtually the only place where students have the opportunity to practice their english language skills and enhance their proficiency. however, with the lockdown having no end in sight, students struggle to keep up with the unique demands placed on them. students differ in terms of their adaptation to the pandemic depending on their distinct personalities (rettew et al., 2021; prentice, 2020), which can largely influence their ability to regulate their learning during confinement. studies have shown that conscientiousness, one of the five personality traits known as the "big five" (costa & mccrae, 1992), is a prominent factor that predicts students’ self-regulation. hence, conscientiousness and self-regulated learning are two significant factors that have been widely investigated, particularly before the covid-19 pandemic aroused. generally speaking, students manifest their conscientiousness by showing qualities of being goaloriented, responsible, dependable, efficient, organized, and dutiful (jackson & roberts, 2017). in fact, despite moroccan teachers' efforts to deliver high-quality instruction, a considerable amount of independent learning is necessary for students to survive the pandemic academically. nevertheless, only a few students are equipped with adequate self-regulated learning strategies. zimmerman (1990), zimmerman (2000) and pintrich (1995) point out that selfregulated learners set their own goals, strive to maintain control over their behaviour, motivation, cognition, and emotion in order to meet the demands of the situation. kesuma et al. (2021) argue that in the context of formal and informal education, selfregulated learning involves the ways in which students engage, alter, and implement their strategies of learning, as well as how they interact and control their own social environment. the authors also point out that learning is something that students do, rather than something that occurs to them. in other words, students must be held accountable for their own learning and progress by actively participating in the learning process. self-regulated learners are capable of successfully managing resources, utilizing the learning environment, taking responsibility for their learning, and being self-motivated (nepal & kc, 2020). kosycheva et al. (2021) suggest that students’ self 183 efficacy strongly and positively impacts motivation and academic achievement. kosycheva et al., (2021) indicate that self-efficacy refers to the students' conviction in their ability to manage their life, both generally and particularly in terms of coping successfully with academic assignments. qetesh et al. (2020) assert that individuals with high self-efficacy expectations are more likely to accomplish their aspired goals since self-efficacy affects a lot of not only the decisions pertaining to academic goals but also general life-long decisions. barros et al. (2021) discovered that conscientiousness was the personality trait that significantly correlated with self-regulated learning among brazilian and portuguese students. similarly, in a sample of 231 undergraduate students of english in iran, it was found that students who scored high in conscientiousness were more likely to be effective in terms of time and study management (ghyasi et al., 2013). in another study carried out by bruso et al. (2020), it was shown that conscientious students scored highly on the self-regulation scale. moreover, babakhani (2014) surveyed 200 students enrolled at islamic azad university and found that conscientiousness features were positively associated with self-regulated learning and academic performance. additionally, rosito (2020) indicated that conscientious students were more likely to effectively manage their time and environment to ensure they acquire an adequate understanding of the learning material at hand. therefore, there is substantial evidence that conscientiousness is a significant predictor of self-regulated learning; however, this relationship remains to be tested under the covid-19 pandemic and in the unique context of moroccan undergraduate students. thus, based on the literature, the following hypothesis is proposed: h1 conscientiousness is significantly associated with self-regulated learning of moroccan undergraduate students. numerous researchers have used the variable of conscientiousness as a predictor of academic performance, particularly during the covid-19 confinement. iterbeke and de witte (2020) conducted a study with a sample of 347 students in 35 schools in january 2020, the period during which the virus was rampant, and discovered that high scores in conscientiousness increased the probability of students expecting higher results. another study also demonstrated that conscientious students outperformed those with a high level of extroversion and neuroticism (yu, 2021). river (2021) indicated that conscientiousness had an effect on course achievement. furthermore, smidt (2021) indicated that gpas of german university students were strongly and significantly associated with students' level of conscientiousness. in fact, conscientiousness had been used as a predictor of academic performance prior to the covid-19 crisis. bhatti et al. (2018) demonstrated that consciousness had a positive correlation with academic performance among postgraduate students in pakistan. however, there is no study that investigates the association between conscientiousness and academic performance, measured by english language final grades, of moroccan undergraduate students. therefore, the following hypothesis is put forward: h2 conscientiousness has a significant effect on moroccan students’ english language final grades. it has been demonstrated in the literature that selfregulated learning can directly impact students’ grades. alotaibi et al. (2017) carried out a study in which they discovered that constructs of selfregulated learning such as goal setting and planning were significant predictors of academic achievement, particularly students’ english language and mathematics performance. other studies revealed similar results (muhammad & abu bakar, 2015; dibenedetto & bembenutty, 2011; dent & koenka, 2015; peng, 2012). qetesh et al. (2020) investigated the association between self-regulated learning and academic performance amongst students of the faculty of pharmacy during distance education amid the covid-19 pandemic. the authors demonstrated a strong and positive correlation between students’ academic achievement and variables of self-regulated learning and motivation. also, self-efficacy, selfregulated and cognitive strategies were strongly correlated. conversely, it was revealed in other studies that the association between self-regulated learning and academic performance was weak and not significant (alafgani & purwandari, 2019; ningrum et al., 2018). other studies revealed that the correlation between the two variables was positive but very low (alegre, 2014; putri, 2021). the findings indicated by such studies assert that inferences about the impact of selfregulated learning on academic performance must be made depending on the unique geographical, cultural and temporal contexts. hence, it is necessary to examine the relationship between the aforementioned variables under the covid-19 pandemic circumstances in morocco. this area of research has not been examined in the context of moroccan students who have been engaged in online learning; a shift from face-to-face learning that came as a response to the pandemic. in this light, a hypothesis is proposed in order to test this relationship in the moroccan context. moreover, another hypothesis is proposed to investigate the role of self-regulated learning in mediating the relationship between conscientiousness and students’ english language final grades during the covid-19 pandemic. h3 there is a significant relationship between selfregulated learning and moroccan students’ english language final grades. 184 h4 self-regulated learning mediates the relationship between conscientiousness and moroccan students’ english language final grades. the study sought to address significant gaps in the literature. first of all, previous studies examining the impact of conscientiousness and self-regulated learning on students’ academic performance were largely conducted in asia, europe and the united states, but the context of morocco has not been examined. hence, the purpose of the present study is to expand the literature by investigating the effect of conscientiousness and self-regulated learning on moroccan undergraduate students' academic language performance, as measured by english language final grades. also, past studies which were carried out during the covid-19 pandemic have either examined the impact of self-regulated learning on academic performance without considering the role of students’ level of conscientiousness, or vice versa; however, very little research has looked into the extent to which the interplay between, both, conscientiousness and self-regulated learning can predict students’ academic performance. in order to fill in this gap in the literature, the present study set out to examine how the dynamic relationship between conscientiousness and self-regulated learning can determine english language performance, particularly amidst the global public health crisis. in addition, previous studies measured academic performance based on students' math and science achievement (e.g., bol et al., 2016; kamalia & nuriadin, 2021), whereas the present study focuses on students’ english language final grades. third, studies that looked into the relationship among all three variables were undertaken before the pandemic and under regular learning conditions. nonetheless, it is pivotal to re-examine this relationship under the unique context of emergency remote learning. the role of conscientiousness and self-regulated learning in helping students reach high academic success is more important now than before in that the demands placed on students under the current circumstances are more substantial. therefore, this study is conducted in order to examine the relationship between conscientiousness, self-regulated learning, and english language final grades of sidi mohamed ben abdellah university (fez, morocco) students during the period of january 2020 and june 2021. students in morocco have taken three semesters in the aforementioned period. finally, the mediating effect of self-regulated learning on the relationship between conscientiousness and english language performance is investigated. the following section lays out the research methods that were employed to fulfil the objectives of the study. next, the results are presented. subsequently, the importance of prioritizing the teaching of self-regulated learning as implied by the findings of this study is illustrated in the discussion section. finally, the significant contribution to the literature pertaining to the impact of the interplay between conscientiousness and selfregulated learning on moroccan students’ english language performance in the pandemic era is highlighted in the conclusion section. 2. method the research was carried out with a quantitative design. according to creswell (2014), a quantitative approach is adopted to examine the relationship between independent and dependent variables. while several quantitative statistical methods exist, the current study deployed regression analysis in order to investigate the relationship between conscientiousness, self-regulated learning and english language final grades. regression analysis is used to depict how an increase or decrease in one or more independent variables changes the value of a dependent variable, while the other independent variables are held constant (soto, 2013). statistical package for the social sciences (spss) version 26 was utilized to perform such analysis. in this study, conscientiousness and self-regulated learning are the independent variables that were regressed against english language final grades, which is the dependent variable. in addition to regression analysis, the study used a sobel test approach to investigate the mediating effect of self-regulated learning (mediator) in the relationship between conscientiousness (independent variable) and english language final grades (dependent variable). it is important to note that mediation exists when a dependent variable is affected by a predictor or independent variable indirectly via at least one intervening variable or mediator. hypotheses incorporating mediation are prevalent in the behavioural sciences (preacher & hayes, 2008). therefore, regression analysis and the sobel test were the two statistical methods used in the present study. 2.1 participants the target population of the current study were first, and second-year undergraduate students enrolled at the university of sidi mohamed ben abdellah fez, morocco. participants were selected by employing snowball sampling, which is a widely used sampling method by researchers in the social sciences since it is considered one of the most cost-effective and convenient methods. according to kothari (2004), this sampling method is one of the non-probability methods in which respondents assist the researcher in locating more respondents by contacting individuals who may be willing to participate in the study. the strength of such a sampling method lies in its ability to allow the researcher to obtain questionnaire results in a relatively shorter amount of time and to ensure a high response rate. 185 table 2.1 coefficients a model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. collinearity statistics b std. error beta tolerance vif 1 (constant) 3.361 1.236 2.718 .007 self-regulated learning 1.380 .314 .408 4.390 .000 .637 1.569 conscientiousness .531 .352 .140 1.509 .134 .637 1.569 a. dependent variable: english language final grades. as a result, one hundred and thirty-eight moroccan undergraduate students (n = 138) agreed to be part of the sample in this study. sixty-eight were female students (49%), while seventy were male students (51%). the average age of students was twenty with a standard deviation of one (m = 20, sd 1). 2.2 data collection the data collection involved participants filling out a questionnaire designed using google forms online survey. participants received a link that redirected them to the questionnaire page, allowing for easy and convenient distribution of the research instrument. the questionnaire consisted of three scales: conscientiousness, self-regulated learning and english language final grades. the conscientiousness scale comprised of eight items (e.g., i complete tasks successfully, i excel in what i do, i am not easily distracted; i strive for excellence; i take deadline seriously; i often put things back in their proper place) taken and adapted from the five-factor model inventory (costa & mccrae, 1992). the self-regulated learning scale was made up of ten items (e.g., i look for places with few distractions where i can concentrate; i make a list of tasks i need to finish every week; i set clear learning goals; i efficiently manage my time; i often seek help from people who are more knowledgeable than i am; i test myself in many ways to assess my learning and progress.) which were developed following the theoretical perspectives of zimmerman (1990) and pintrich (1995). both scales were assessed on a sevenpoint likert scale, ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). the likert scale is used to measure attitudes by allowing respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with a specific statement (sullivan & artino jr, 2013). furthermore, the third scale in this study was students’ english language final grades over the course of three semesters (january-june 2020; september-december 2020; and january-june 2021). unlike in most countries where the grading system is from 0 to 100, the grading system in morocco follows a basic 1-20 scale, with 0 being the lowest and 20 being the highest-grade students can receive. the passing grade is 10; any grade below 10 means that the student will have to retake the class the next year. the final grade that students receive at the end of each semester is inclusive of attendance, participation, projects, presentations, and the final exam. the grade of the final exam is determinant in that it accounts for 60-75% of the final grade. furthermore, the final exam consists of three sections. the first section involves a reading task where students are given a passage and are required to answer multiple-choice questions or questions where students give written answers. the second section is language. in this section, students are tested on the vocabulary and grammar concepts that were covered over the course of the semester. the third is a writing section where students are required to write an essay about one of the topics that were discussed in class. 2.3 reliability analysis prior to the questionnaire's formal dissemination, it was critical to test the scales' reliability. the term "reliability" refers to whether or not an instrument's scores are internally consistent and stable over time, as well as if the test administration and scoring were consistent (creswell, 2014). the current study examines the reliability of scales using cronbach's alpha, a commonly used criterion by researchers to determine the scale's reliability and verify that the instrument is able to produce consistent findings over time. table 2 shows the number of items in each scale as well as cronbach's alpha values. the results of the reliability analysis reveal that the instrument meets the required standards. table 2.2 reliability analysis of the scales names of scales cronbach’s alpha number of items conscientiousness .87 8 self-regulated learning .86 10 english language grades .94 3 186 looking at table 2.2, the questionnaire consisted of 21 items in aggregate. the conscientiousness scale comprised eight items, self-regulated learning was assessed on a ten-item scale, and the english language performance scale was made up of three items. the reliability analysis results showed that cronbach's alpha coefficient values were 0.87, 0.86, and 0.94, respectively, indicating satisfactory and high internal consistency of the scales. hence, the instrument used in this study proved to meet the scale reliability standards. 3. findings the present study sought to examine four hypotheses: 1) conscientiousness is significantly associated with self-regulated learning; 2) conscientiousness has a significant effect on undergraduate students’ english language final grades; 3) there is a significant relationship between self-regulated learning and students' english language final grades, and 4) self-regulated learning mediates the relationship between conscientiousness and students' english language final grades. table 3.1 anova a model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 243.078 2 121.539 23.168 .000 b residual 708.208 135 5.246 total 951.286 137 a. dependent variable: english language final grades b. predictors: (constant), conscientiousness, self-regulated learning first of all, a simple linear regression analysis was performed in order to examine the relationship between conscientiousness, defined as an independent variable, and self-regulated learning as a dependent variable. the assumptions associated with conducting linear regression were checked before proceeding with the analysis. the result showed that conscientiousness explained 37% of the variance in self-regulated learning of moroccan undergraduate students, f (1, 136) = 77.41, p < .001 with an adjusted r 2 = .36. hence, this indicates that h1 stating that conscientiousness was a significant predictor of self-regulated learning was accepted. table 3.2 sobel test input p-value a .674 sobel test 0.00008579 b 1.380 aroian test 0.00009332 sa .077 goodman test 0.00007872 sb .314 a = raw (unstandardized) regression coefficient for the association between iv and mediator. sa = standard error of a. b = raw coefficient for the association between the mediator and the dv (when the iv is also a predictor of the dv). sb = standard error of b. figure 3.1 mediation model 187 subsequently, multiple linear regression analysis was carried out to predict the dependent variable of english language final grades from conscientiousness and self-regulated learning. preliminary analysis was conducted in order to ensure that the assumptions of multiple regression were not violated. looking at table 1, the variance inflation factor (vif) for each variable is less than five, indicating that multicollinearity is within the conventionally accepted range. also, the independence of residual errors was tested using the durbin-watson test, which showed that no autocorrelation existed in the data (dw= 1.77). based on anova table 3, the multiple regression results revealed that the model was statistically significant, f (2, 135) = 23.17, p < .000 with an adjusted r 2 of .25. table 1 shows that, while conscientiousness (β = .14, p > .001) was not found to be a significant predictor of english language grades, self-regulated learning (β = .41, p < .001) significantly predicted english language grades. therefore, h2 that states conscientiousness would significantly predict english language grades was rejected, whereas h3 stating that there is a statistically significant relationship between self-regulated learning and english language grades was supported. next, since conscientiousness was not a significant predictor of english language grades based on the multiple regression analysis, a sobel test was conducted to examine the mediating effect of selfregulated learning in the relationship between conscientiousness and english language grades. the sobel test method is designed to find out whether an independent variable indirectly affects a dependent variable via a mediating variable (preacher & leonardelli, 2001). looking at table 4 and figure 1, the sobel test result revealed that the indirect effect between conscientiousness and english language grades via the mediating variable of self-regulated learning was statistically significant (p < .001). thus, h4 proposing that self-regulated learning is able to mediate the relationship between conscientiousness and english language grades was accepted. 4. discussion the purpose of this study was to investigate the association between conscientiousness, self-regulated learning and english language final grades during the covid-19 pandemic. the study targeted moroccan first, and second-year undergraduate students enrolled at the university of sidi mohamed ben abdellah located in fez, morocco. it was hypothesized that conscientiousness had a significant effect on the selfregulated learning of moroccan undergraduates. this study revealed a positive and significant correlation between conscientiousness and self-regulated learning. this implies that conscientiousness, as a personality trait, influences students' capacity to manage their learning during times of extreme uncertainty. this finding is not particularly surprising in that conscientious students are industrious, able to delay gratification, and tend to adopt responsibility. they are also self-controlled and follow the rules (fayard et al., 2012). kesici (2020) asserts that conscientiousness characterizes students who are disciplined, responsible and possess a strong tendency to succeed. hwang et al. (2018) suggest that responsibility is the most crucial facet of conscientiousness. this finding is in line with the results of other studies in that there is substantial evidence in the literature that conscientiousness is a prominent predicting factor of self-regulated learning. ghyasi et al. (2013), barros et al. (2021), and rosito (2020) indicate that conscientious students are effective selfregulated learners and capable of managing their time and creating a favourable environment that is conducive for learning. mirhashemi and goodarzi (2014) found that conscientiousness had a direct effect on self—regulated learning, particularly on cognitive, metacognitive and help-seeking strategies. mirhashemi and goodarzi affirm that the disciplinary traits make students plan and schedule, work hard, manage their study environment and evaluate progress. similarly, hertel and karlen (2021) discovered a statistically significant relationship between conscientiousness and self-regulated learning constructs such as goal setting and help-seeking. furthermore, the researcher also hypothesized that conscientiousness would significantly affect students’ english language final grades. the result showed that the relationship between the two variables was not statistically significant on the basis of the multiple regression analysis. this is rather unexpected since conscientiousness has been widely used as a predictor of academic performance (hakimi et al., 2011; iterbeke & de witte, 2020; yu, 2021). this result suggests that the qualities that conscientious students demonstrate, such as organization, the tendency to complete tasks and the ability to meet deadlines, are insufficient characteristics to achieve positive learning outcomes during the pandemic. this can be explained by the fact that students are not prepared for the immediate and unprecedented shift to online education. kundu and bej (2021) contend that students are not ready for the sudden transition towards online learning. aboagye et al. (2021) attribute students’ lack of preparation to study online to a number of factors. for instance, students may already be attached to the conventional approach, they may be apprehensive that they could face too many challenges, or they may not be comfortable studying in an absence of important social aspects such as the presence of teachers and students as in brick-and-mortar classroom setting. in addition, the study found a significant correlation between self-regulated learning and students’ english language final grades. this implies that students who set clear goals managed their time and environment and had no issue seeking help when needed were able to receive high grades in their 188 english language class in spite of the unfavourable learning conditions. this result is consistent with the findings of dent and koenka (2015), alotaibi et al. (2017) and banarjee and kumar (2014). moreover, in light of the indicated finding that the relationship between conscientiousness and english language final grades was statistically insignificant, a mediation analysis using a sobel test approach was conducted to determine whether self-regulated learning could mediate this relationship. the sobel test results demonstrated that the indirect effect of conscientiousness on english language grades via the mediating variable of self-regulated learning was statistically significant. this result is in line with the findings of de feyter et al. (2012). this means that conscientious students improve their chance of receiving high grades in their english language class if they are proficient self-regulated learners. again, self-regulated learning has proved to be a crucial factor to consider while evaluating the overall academic performance of students, especially during the school closures that came as a response to the covid-19 crisis. palos et al., (2019) demonstrated that self-regulated learning was able to significantly and directly predict academic performance. zheng (2018) points out that high achieving students possess distinctive self-regulatory capabilities, including learning to monitor and adapt to sudden situations. the findings of this study bear significant implications for moroccan english language instructors. the effect of conscientiousness was only statistically significant when mediated by the variable of self-regulated learning. this indicates that although conscientiousness has been a prominent predictor of academic performance, this study shows that the effect of conscientiousness on moroccan undergraduate students’ academic performance, as measured by english language final grades, was different in the context of remote learning. conscientious students were still in need of possessing the capacity to be effective self-instructors. it is plausible that for conscientious students who were also efficient self-regulated learners, the disruption in education that was caused by the covid-19 pandemic was not as much of a crisis as it was just another challenge that required them to alter their learning strategies to fit the demands in the shift from in-person to online education. agustiani et al. (2016) assert that self-regulated learners tend not to surrender when encountered by threatening situations and work harder to defend the learning actions to absorb the course material. hence, for those students, the global crisis was viewed as being merely another hurdle in their way to academic success. it is possible that some forms of remote learning such as synchronous, asynchronous or blended learning are here to stay after the pandemic is over. cho and hong (2021) point out that online education will continue to prevail after the pandemic and will further shrink the geographical boundaries for us. teachers who will choose to incorporate aspects of online instruction should concentrate their attention on equipping students with the fundamental tools that allow students to be proficient self-regulated learners. teachers can start by helping students set their own learning goals. goals are considered to be critical for regulatory proficiency and success (andrade & brookhart, 2016). this does not imply merely telling students what their learning goals must be. although it is true that teachers will have specific expectations of students and pre-set goals for them, there is a dire need for students to learn how to develop their own vision of what their goals look like, especially longterm goals. spruce and bol (2015) suggest that personal goal orientations impact the kind of goals students set for their learning. while this may include academic goals, such as receiving satisfactory grades, it may also be inclusive of general life-long goals that transcend the rudimentary requirements to simply pass a class. time management is another vital skill to be taught to students in the context of online learning. it is important to point students in the right direction towards discovering their own time management style, such as how and when to allocate time to complete certain tasks. even in changing situational demands, effective time management is mirrored in students’ ability to utilize their time in a way that propels them into attaining their goals and ensures the prevention of procrastination and other forms of time misappropriation (wolters & brady, 2020). efficient time management generally means that a student allocates enough time to complete specific tasks that are closely related to the learning goals that were previously set (khiat, 2019). verrell and mccabe (2015) found that time management was the most significant underdeveloped skill in schools. khiat (2019) indicates that effective time management is positively associated with academic performance. moreover, it may not be particularly effective to dictate to students one presumably correct time management style. in fact, students are intrinsically different; hence, the way one student tends to structure their time is likely to be different from how another student would choose to manage their time. self-evaluation is also a crucial skill for students to acquire. this means that students need to develop the ability to reflect on their recent learning experiences and assess their actual learning (milligan et al., 2015). teachers can introduce students to methods and online resources that may help them assess their learning and monitor their progress. manso-vazquez and llamas-nistal (2015) affirm that it is vital for educators to encourage reflection and critical thinking amongst their students by coaching students through recognizing what they know vis-à-vis what they want to learn and how to assess their knowledge. furthermore, it is critical to encourage students to 189 seek help whenever needed. gonida et al. (2019) suggest that gifted students who set high-performance goals tend to perceive help-seeking as an indicator of academic inability and, therefore, feel embarrassed and reluctant to seek help even when they are well aware they need it. teachers can start by making themselves available to students as much as possible. students are less anxious and hesitant to contact their teachers, who are known for being approachable. in fact, help-seeking should no longer be viewed as a sign of dependency since it proved to be a crucial selfregulated learning strategy (karabenick & gonida, 2018). since online learning will probably characterize post-pandemic education, the indicated results of the present study strongly emphasize the significance of prioritizing the teaching of self-instruction and selfevaluation. acquiring outstanding language competence requires more than simply being orderly and industrious. if students lack adequate self-learning strategies, they are unlikely to see noticeable progress in their language performance. as a matter of fact, even in the regular and in-person learning environment, english language teachers can only pass on a limited amount of vocabulary and grammatical nuances to students. proficient students accumulate a great deal of language skills independently and without the presence of an instructor. when it comes to improving english language skills and grades, the present study found that conscientiousness was only helpful when combined with students’ ability to selfregulate their learning. thus, it is pivotal that language teachers focus on teaching students how to identify and set their own learning goals, find the time management style that best suits their personality attributes, assess their learning, and monitor their progress. this is likely to prepare students to enhance their vocabulary, grammar and writing skills on their own and, hence, receive high grades in case online education persists after the pandemic or the world faces another global crisis in the future. 5. conclusion the results of the current study indicate that conscientiousness significantly predicated selfregulated learning, while the latter was found to be a significant predictor of english language final grades. the association between conscientiousness and english language performance was not statistically significant. the mediation analysis demonstrated that self-regulated learning was able to mediate the relationship between conscientiousness and english language performance among moroccan undergraduate students. these findings help expand the literature in that, to the author’s best knowledge, there has been no research investigating the impact of the interplay between conscientiousness and selfregulated learning on moroccan students’ english language performance in the covid-19 pandemic era. thus, the current study concludes that although conscientious students are motivated by their meticulous work habits, those who lacked the necessary self-regulated learning strategies received lower grades in their english language class during the pandemic. in addition, the findings of this study suggest that while it is integral for students to receive quality instruction related to distinctive grammatical structures, writing techniques, vocabulary and pronunciation, placing a primary focus on teaching students how to acquire that knowledge outside the classroom is of greater significance, especially during the covid-19 pandemic. the present study has some limitations which present opportunities for future research. first, this study was conducted with a quantitative method. future research can conduct qualitative interviews in order to provide a more in-depth understanding of the research problem. second, it is recommended to replicate this study by examining the relationship between conscientiousness, self-regulated learning and final grades of english language students at other universities in morocco. finally, the present study did not take into account the influence of gender differences in the relationship between the variables in question. hence, future studies can investigate the relevance of gender and how female and male students are different in terms of the impact of the level of conscientiousness and self-regulation on their final grades and overall english language performance. references adedoyin, o. b., & soykan, e. 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(2000). attaining self-regulation: a social cognitive perspective. in handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13-39). academic press. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0121098902/50031-7. https://learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/emergency-remote-learning-compared-to-online-learning https://learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/emergency-remote-learning-compared-to-online-learning https://learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/emergency-remote-learning-compared-to-online-learning https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2015.1080419 https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2015.1080419 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-014-9124-0 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-014-9124-0 https://doi.org/10.4300/jgme-5-4-18 https://doi.org/10.1080/87567555.2015.1053046 https://doi.org/10.1080/87567555.2015.1053046 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09519-z https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239021002523 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.05.003 https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2501_2 https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012109890-2/50031-7 https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012109890-2/50031-7 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.7851 vol. 4, no. 1, april 2022, pp. 67-81 67 enhancing efl prospective teachers' classroom management skills through the implementation of flipped classroom israa ramadan south valley university, qena, egypt yousifsalemm@gmail.com article history received : 2021-09-21 revised : 2022-04-04 accepted : 2022-04-20 keywords classroom management skills flipped classroom efl prospective teachers technology in language learning quasi-experimental abstract numerous endeavours have been detected to improve new techniques, strategies, and methods for enhancing teachers' classroom management skills, both in the pre-service and in-service settings. this study aimed at investigating the effectiveness of using the flipped classroom model in developing egyptian efl prospective teachers' classroom management skills. this study adopted the experimental research design that has been exploited in the current study. the sample of the study consists of 34 efl prospective teachers in hurghada faculty of education, south valley university, egypt. the researcher has designed and validated a classroom management questionnaire to be used for data collection purposes. there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups' in providing an atmosphere of classroom discipline in favor of the experimental group in the post-testing in providing an atmosphere of classroom discipline (mexperimental = 60.88, mcontrol = 46.29), stirring pupils' motivation to learn (mexperimental = 62.94, mcontrol = 47.58), regulating the process of classroom interaction (mexperimental = 71.64, mcontrol = 55.17), classroom management skills (mexperimental = 195.47, mcontrol = 149.06). therefore, the present study highlighted that the flipped classroom model had a significant effect on developing some classroom management skills of egyptian efl prospective teachers. it is recommended that more research is needed to test flipped classroom teaching models for language skills such as listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, and grammar. 1. introduction classroom management is a valuable skill that both in-service and pre-service instructors should learn. teachers must improve their classroom management abilities to fulfil their educational objectives. when foreign language classroom management is added to the picture, according to fowler and sarapli (2010), the situation becomes even more ambiguous. despite the significance of classroom management skills, many efl teachers struggle to properly manage their classes. classroom management is a process of promoting positive student achievement and conduct with the goal of building student self-control. as a result, the idea of classroom management is closely linked to academic achievement, teacher efficacy, and teacher and student behaviour. one of the most important skills for instructors to have in order to achieve good teaching is classroom management. it is a continuous process in which teachers must make decisions in a variety of settings. these choices include where and with whom students should sit, which teaching methods and strategies should be employed, how to assure student interest and involvement, what resources should be used, and the best ways for dealing with misbehaviours (emmer & gerwels, 2005; jones & jones, 2004;) teachers' classroom management skills depend on their academic and pedagogical background as well as their work experiences (sadik, & akbulut, 2015). teachers usually try hard to adopt effective practices with regard to classroom management, yet, they find themselves inadequate and they need training (brouwer & tomic, 2000; nelson, 2002; melnick & meister, 2008; kaufman & moss, 2010; johansen et al., 2011). in-service training programs during university study help in improving classroom management skills, teachers need to improve skills that teachers use in actual teaching practices. mailto:yousifsalemm@gmail.com 68 developing efl instructors' classroom management abilities, according to el-okda (2010), helps them to attain their educational aims by keeping them away from random and unstructured behaviours in the classroom. classroom management practices of effective teachers are critical not only for students' academic progress but also for their psychosocial development (wentzel, 1999). there is an increasing tendency for adolescents to show negative behaviours due to their physical, social, and emotional changes, and their changing needs are effective in their relationships with their peers and teachers. pre-service training at university study helps student teachers to help students to be effective teachers, especially when they teach adolescents (piowowar et. al. 2013). in this regard, this study examines high school teachers' classroom management skills in terms of many characteristics, with the goal of identifying skills that instructors consider to be effective or ineffective (sadik, & akbulut, 2015). as a result, during their first year of teaching, novice teachers must improve their classroom management skills (practicum) (bin-hady, 2018). according to richards and crookes (1988), university-level teaching preparation begins with observing the cooperating teacher and progresses to a student-teacher taking over responsibility for his or her own teaching experience. under the supervision of the cooperating teacher, student teachers teach part of a lesson at first. supervisors pay visits to student teachers on a regular or irregular basis, and cooperating teachers report to the supervisors for immediate or delayed feedback. pre-service teachers' success in the classroom is largely determined by their beliefs and thoughts about their readiness, as well as their perceptions on how to effectively control and manage their classes. the researcher noticed that most of her students (third and fourth year – general education students) did not have the classroom management skills necessary to manage their field training sessions at an acceptable level as a tefl lecturer and member of the field training administration office at hurghada faculty of education, south valley university. as a result, she attended some of their training sessions and discovered that many of them struggle with classroom management. due to the covid-19 pandemic, flipped classrooms can be duly effective in improving the classroom management skills of prospective teachers of english. furthermore, as one of the most wellknown figures in academia, the teacher plays an important role in students' schooling. teachers play a critical role in assisting schools in providing highquality education by effectively and efficiently utilizing classroom management and discipline (obispo and colleagues, 2021). teachers' classroom management style has a significant impact on their interactions with students. it's critical to learn more about how faculty members in higher education manage their classrooms and communicate with their students if you want to get the most out of them. one factor that influences teachers' classroom behaviour is their management style (rahimi & asadollahi, 2012; rokita-jakow, 2016). the level of an instructor's involvement with students and the level of control that teachers have over their students are referred to as classroom management styles (burden, 2020). as a result, developing classroom management skills of efl pre-service teachers increases their chances of becoming effective teachers once they start working. classroom management skills that efl preservice teachers should develop include class time management, student assessment, and classroom organization. teachers' classroom management styles can have a significant impact on how they respond to and get their students involved. the traditional teacher-centred approach contrasts with constructivist approaches to teaching and learning (brooks, 2002). to develop classroom management skills, a traditional approach may be effective. the students-centred teaching approach, on the other hand, has shown to be effective in developing these skills. using pre-class teaching materials included in flipped classrooms may help both students and teachers to save effort and time. to help consolidate the target skills, rehearsing can be done later through in-class learning activities. with the introduction of innovative mobile-based tools, new opportunities to improve the quality of language learning have arisen. therefore, highlighting the above explanations this present study tries to solve is the drawbacks some efl prospective teachers suffer in classroom management detected in the practicum by investigating the effectiveness of using flipped learning strategy in developing student-teachers classroom management skills in terms of the following sub-skills: finding answers to the following research questions, providing an atmosphere of classroom discipline, stirring pupils' motivation to learn, and regulating the process of classroom interaction. the study used the flipped classroom model to find a remedy for such shortcomings. 1.1 hypotheses the current study tries hard to validate the following hypotheses: a) there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups' in providing an atmosphere of classroom discipline in favours of the experimental group in the post-testing. b) there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups' in stirring pupils' motivation to learn in favour of the experimental group in the posttesting. 69 c) there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups' in regulating the process of classroom interaction in favour of the experimental group in the post-testing. d) there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups in classroom management in favour of the experimental group in the post-testing. 2. literature review developing classroom management skills in future english teachers requires a focus on the most important parts of these abilities. the essence of flipped learning, scaffolding education, classroom management skills, and traditional teaching strategies are among these components. in addition, prospective teachers should have a clear awareness of the necessary abilities, knowledge, beliefs, goals, and attitudes. 2.1 scaffolding instruction the sociocultural theory of lev vygotsky, as well as his idea of the zone of proximal development (zpd), is regarded as the foundation for adopting scaffolding instruction as a teaching approach. the zone of proximal development is defined as “the distance between what kids can perform on their own and the next learning that they can acquire with competent assistance” (raymond, 2000, p.176). it refers to the students’ ability to interact with other learners in sharing and building (wells, 2007). learners can only develop more nuanced interpretations and understandings of the world through social interaction in a safe learning environment. knowledge is built through the exchange of information, and language, as a means of communication, plays a crucial role in assisting learners in making sense of the world. vygotsky's work in socio-cultural theory in learning is based on two basic concepts: scaffolding and the zone of proximal development (zpd). zpd is a key term in socio-cultural theory that explains the critical role of instructors as mediators; it is a crucial part of scaffolding (huong, 2003; kozulin, 2004; lantolf & thorne, 2006; lantolf & poehner, 2008). according to zuengler & miller (2006), zpd refers to the activities that an individual can do when working in partnership with others as opposed to what he or she could accomplish alone. according to salem (2017), zpd is the key aspect of vygotsky's theory; it is a process of separating students' performance when they are not supervised or assisted by others. when students are guided to some extent by teachers, their performance outperforms that of their peers who do not receive any support or direction. gillani (2003) proposed a new zpd structure in which learners' growth from actual ability to prospective ability is controlled by four phases within the zone of proximal development. first, it begins with two phases (dependence on others and collaboration with others), during which students learn new skills from other members of their learning community. scaffolding by adults or more capable peers is critical in the learning process during these two phases. after that, pupils continue to the remaining phases (self-reliance and internalization), where they learn things on their own until they reach the internalization phase. students may have effectively constructed their knowledge after they have completed these four processes. figure 1 depicts the various stages of scaffolding. figure 2.1 the phases of zpd (gillani, 2003, 85) actual development zpd potential development reliance on others collaboration with others self-reliance internalization 70 to improve their classroom management skills, aspiring teachers require guidance and scaffolding. in the practicum, instructors, headteachers, and supervisors assist aspiring teachers in improving their classroom management abilities. one of the most crucial components is effective classroom management, which provides a safe learning environment for their children. 2.2 the importance of classroom control classroom management is a serious concern in both developed and developing countries; classroom management skills are even required in public schools in the united states (elam, rose, and gallup 1991). it is crucial for all parties involved in the educational process, including the general public, teachers, and administrators. teachers must develop their classroom management abilities since attempting to handle students' misbehaviours at the same time can obstruct the achievement of other key educational goals. as a result, teachers strive hard to develop students' capacities, one of which is responsible citizenship, or the ability and desire to actively participate in building society for all people (ross & bondy, 1993). therefore, classroom management can be defined as the efforts that are taken to create and maintain a learning environment that is "suitable for effective instruction" (brophy, 1996, p. 5). teachers design and reinforce norms and procedures in the first area of classroom management, and then teachers carry out disciplinary actions in the second area. the ability of instructors to build effective relationships with pupils is the third component, followed by the ability to maintain an acceptable mental frame for classroom management (marzano, 2003). it is important to note that classroom management is not only a synonym for classroom discipline; rather, it encompasses all the other parts of teaching (macas, & sánchez, 2015). a well-managed classroom, according to crookes (2003), is one in which "whatever superficial symptoms of a disorder that may arise either do not obstruct instruction and learning or assist them” (p. 144). as a result, many pre-service and even inservice teachers consider classroom management a significant difficulty (balli, 2009; quintero corzo & ramrez contreras, 2011). teachers must use classroom management tactics that are likely to assist students to acquire and employ community values and abilities such as compassion, mutual respect, responsibility, and equality to create effective classroom management skills (goodman 1992). as a result, a variety of abilities, including communication and social skills, expressing viewpoints, cooperating, and collaborative problem solving, should be cultivated during this process. as a result, said (2014) undertook a study to improve inservice efl instructors' classroom management and problem-solving skills through a decision-makingbased program. furthermore, according to ahmed (2017), efl teachers' classroom management abilities in egypt require additional attention. as a result, it developed an effective training program based on gardner's five bits of intelligence model to help efl teachers teach performance skills in the context of 21st-century abilities. furthermore, studies of prospective teachers of english should focus on classroom management skills in order to equip them to be competent teachers. as a result, elghotmy (2012) discovered that most of the curricula offered to pre-service efl instructors have issues with building classroom management abilities. efl prospective teachers were presented with a training program aimed at improving their performance in-field training sessions, which will affect their teaching performance after they graduate from college. furthermore, edeyemo (2012) found that excellent classroom management abilities or approaches have a significant favourable impact on student achievement. austin and omomia (2014) also investigated the impact of classroom management on effective teaching. they concluded that successful classroom management would likely influence students' academic achievement, hence ensuring the school's targeted student outcomes. according to stoughton (2007), classroom management for pre-service teachers narrows the distance and mismatch between what is taught in university lectures and seminars on the one hand, and the theoretical construct that underpins behavioral strategies on the other. incecay and dollr (2012) investigate the link between pre-service teachers' efficacy and their ability to manage their classrooms. the relationship between their efficacy views, classroom management preparedness, and execution in a real-world teaching context was also investigated. it is discovered that pre-service teachers' classroom management efficacy and readiness to manage problematic classroom behaviours have a strong link. emmer & stough (2001) also recognized the overall importance of excellent classroom management and its favourable impact on ensuring outstanding educational outcomes. they said that teachers' capacity to organize classrooms and manage their pupils' conduct is crucial to achieving favourable educational outcomes. while good behaviour management does not ensure effective instruction, it does provide the climate in which good instruction can take place. during their practicum, teachers might identify challenges they face in their actual teaching practices and classrooms. disruptive speech, persistent inaudible responses, napping in class, and a refusal to speak in the target language are examples (wadden & mcgovern, 1991). it also includes “insolence toward the teacher, insulting or bullying other pupils, causing damage to school property, refusing to accept 71 penalties or punishment” (harmer, 2007, p. 126) as well as a lack of interest in class (harmer, 2007, p. 126). (soares, 2007). although classroom management is a popular topic among pre-service language teachers, little research has been done on it. in a study undertaken by chaves varón (2008) to determine the strengths and shortcomings of a teaching practicum, it was discovered that student instructors were not appropriately educated to manage a classroom. furthermore, insuasty & castillo (2011) identified classroom management as one of the most often cited topics during practicum supervisor-pre-service teacher feedback sessions. 2.3 traditional teaching traditional teaching methods are used extensively in a variety of specializations. lectures are used in these types primarily to impart knowledge and distinct theoretical elements to students. many teachers rely on such teaching methods to assist their students to absorb a large amount of knowledge in a short period of time. studies of student learning have demonstrated that students' ideas of learning are significantly connected with their approaches to study and the teaching styles that were introduced to them (prosser & trigwell, 1996). they advised teachers to adopt a variety of teaching approaches to assist their students in fully participating in the educational process. many scholars are looking for new and diverse teaching techniques that may be used with traditional teaching to help students attain their educational objectives. although teachers have a crucial role in student learning, it is unclear what factors influence good teaching. wuppermann & scherdt (2011) investigate the relationship between lecture-style instruction and student achievement in the back room of educational production. it is revealed that the traditional lecturing style is linked to much higher student accomplishment. as a result, it is evident that conventional teaching approaches are quite significant, and teachers cannot afford to overlook them when instructing their students. the old discipline-oriented strategy is giving way to a more humanistically orientated, student-centred approach. mogar (1969) projected that "the great majority of modern educators would truly embrace these general ideals (p. 49)" after advocating a variety of educational techniques that emphasize lifestyles, human motivation, and value orientations may increase a sense of freedom and self-directedness. yangarber-hicks & grasha (2000) advocated for combining instructional technology with teaching and learning methods. they assured that instructional technology, computers, and online education are all contributing significantly to a more effective and engaging teaching environment. 2.4 leveraging technology in language learning the central education authorities have set a goal of implementing educational changes using technological advancements. by developing, implementing, and managing appropriate technological procedures and resources, educational technology plays an essential role in facilitating learning and enhancing performance (januszewski & molenda, 2013). integration of technology with language learning has shown to be a successful and exciting trend in language teaching (kessler & hubbard, 2017). as a result, a successful combination of technology and language education may result in major improvements in students' learning. the use of technology in language learning has the potential to convert standard classroom teaching approaches into more fertile learning settings. (2019, salem) following the widespread availability of microcomputers in classrooms all over the world, assessing teacher attitudes about using computers and the internet in the classroom has become more important. bakr (2011) investigated the attitudes of egyptian teachers toward computers. the attitudes of 118 schoolteachers, 93 (45%) male, and 69 (55%) females were examined using "the attitude towards computer instrument" (atci), a likert type instrument with three elements of affective, cognitive, and behavioural, developed by shaft et al (2004). findings revealed that egyptian teachers have a favourable attitude toward computers. in terms of gender and teaching experience, there were no major disparities. technology integration necessitated changes in teaching methods, as well as various classroom management practices. varank (2013) investigated if instructors' knowledge of educational technology has a substantial impact on their classroom management abilities. course administration, behavioural arranging, and activity management skills were all substantially linked to teachers' educational technology skills. teachers who believe they have strong educational technology self-skills also believe they have strong classroom management skills. furthermore, lemke, coughlin, & reifsbeider (2009) emphasize the necessity of using technology in the classroom, stating that large-scale technology integration initiatives at schools across the globe necessitate modifications in instructional methods. it's worth noting that different techniques for classroom management are used by different technology integration businesses (mucherah, 2003). 2.4.1 flipped classroom blended learning is a teaching/learning technique that combines the principles of both traditional and technology-integrated teaching strategies. students' academic progress and abilities are improved when 72 traditional teaching and online learning methodologies are combined. the flipping of teaching/learning approaches is one of the blended learning trends. the phrase "flipped learning" is very new, and there is no definitive meaning for it (johanson & cherry-paul, 2016). according to salem (2018), flipped learning, flipped classrooms, inverted learning, and turning learning upside down are all terminology that has related to the flipping process for a long time. the essence of flipped learning is the process of altering focus. flipped learning encompasses numerous processes such as flipping teachers, flipped learners, and flipping instructional approaches. as a result, flipped classrooms are linked to a shift in focus from a teacher-centred to a learner-centred approach. it refers to transforming classroom teaching/learning procedures into a larger self-learning environment that relies on the utilization of outside-of-class learning materials and resources. as a result, educational practices strive to shift teaching techniques away from being at the centre of the educational process and toward allowing students to actively participate in their learning. students are familiar with modern teaching tactics that fall under the banner of active learning since they can help them participate. one of the tactics that cope with modern learning trends is the flipped classroom strategy. it allows students to interact more actively throughout the lecture by connecting lessons to life outside of the presentation (stone, 2012). language and technology integration, according to warschauer (2002), is a tool for individual and societal growth. this study also emphasizes the importance of integrating modern technologies with innovative teaching approaches while teaching languages. as a blended learning-based teaching methodology, the flipped classroom combines face-toface learning in traditional classes through group discussion with distant learning outside the classroom through video lessons and internet collaboration. because students are more engaged in classroom activities, it is a student-centred approach to learning. as a result, the function of the instructor is to act as a facilitator, motivator, guide, and feedback provider on pupils' performance (halili & zainuddin, 2015, bergmann & sams, 2012). flipped learning, according to salem (2018), is not viewed as a univariate teaching strategy with the same procedures and practices, but rather as a blended learning teaching approach with several teaching models, including "standard flipped classroom, discussionoriented flipped classroom, demonstration-focused flipped classroom, faux-flipped classroom, groupbased flipped classroom, virtual flipped classroom, and virtual flipped classroom" (p. 178). one of the benefits of adopting a flipped classroom is that it allows students to achieve greater levels of learning while still in the classroom. when analysing the evolution of learning through a formally specified framework of learning objectives, this may be accurate. krathwohl (2002) and schultz (2005) proposed a modified version of bloom's taxonomy of cognitive learning objectives: figure 3.1 modified version of bloom's taxonomy figure 1. modified version of bloom's taxonomy when using a flipped classroom in the classroom, the lowest levels of the cognitive domain, remembering and comprehending, are performed outside of class time (krathwohl & anderson, 2010). learners concentrated on higher-order cognitive tasks in the classroom, such as applying, analysing, evaluating, and producing. flipped learning, according to gilboy et al., (2014), increases student engagement in the educational process. flipped learning is a cutting-edge pedagogical strategy that emphasizes learner-centred instruction. the study's principal instrument is a training program based on flipped learning techniques that aim to enable faculty members to construct activities and evaluations based on objectives at all levels of bloom's taxonomy before, during, and after class. in comparison to typical pedagogical practices, the flipped classroom was chosen by 142 students who completed the evaluation. the study's findings revealed that flipped learning is beneficial to both instructors and students. in the same vein, al attiyah (2015) conducted a study to determine the impact of using the flipped classroom on enhancing critical thinking abilities among female students in the faculty of education at al-majmdth university. the study found that students with extra time in class for higher thinking skills had enhanced critical thinking skills. although there is no single flipped classroom model, the flipped classroom is characterized by a common course structure: instructional content that precedes class lectures and is completed as an assignment before coming to class, in-class time that is primarily assigned for problemsolving activities and advanced concepts that are dealt with to help students engage in collaborative learning (delozier & rhodes, 2016). 73 the flipped classroom approach's impact on developing language learning has been extensively investigated by several researchers (torres-martín, et al., 2022, thai, de wever, & valcke, 2017, ryan, & reid, 2016, kaya, 2021), yet very few studies have deployed flipped classrooms on developing efl prospective teachers’ classroom management skills (abdel latif, 2018) in spite of its importance on increasing efl prospective teachers and later on their future students’ academic performance. 3. method 3.1 research design two-group pre-posted quasi-experimental design was employed. student teachers were pretested on classroom management, then they were divided randomly into two groups: a) traditional teaching group, and b) flipped classroom group. after the treatment, the two groups were post-test on classroom management once again. differences between the pretest and the post-test were evaluated. the study included two independent variables (traditional teaching and flipped classroom) and a dependent variable (classroom management skills). 3.2 participants participants were 34 third-year efl majors at hurghada faculty of education, south valley university. they were divided randomly into two experimental groups, one used traditional teaching in their field training sessions and the other group used flipped classrooms. all participants spent at least two years learning efl. they all ranged from 19-21 years of age. 3.3 measures a classroom management efficacy scale was devised by the researcher, and it included three main pillars: a) providing an atmosphere of classroom discipline (“15” sub-skills). b) stirring pupils' motivation to learn ("15" subskills). c) regulating the process of classroom interaction (“16” sub-skills). as a mirror of the classroom management efficacy scale, a classroom management notice card was devised using the same sub-skills of the three pillars. the supervisors in the school were responsible to notice the student teachers’ performance in their field training sessions using these cards just to make sure that the results of the scale were trusted. a classroom management efficacy scale was developed. it consisted of (46) sub-skills divided into three pillars as follows: a) providing an atmosphere of classroom discipline (15 sub-skills). b) stirring pupils’ motivation to learn (15 sub-skill). c) regulating the process of classroom interaction (16 sub-skills). the scale format was based on the likert scale, a five-point scale. a great deal, quite a bit, some influence, very little and nothing. 3.3.1 validity jury members' validity: the scale was delivered to 8 efl jury members consisting of faculty members, supervisors, heads of departments, and teachers. their suggestions and modifications were considered, and the final version of the format was designed. 3.4 procedures the experimental procedures of the current study were carried out at the hurghada faculty of education. south valley university, during the first term of the academic year 2016/2017 within the “methods of efl instruction” course. the procedures were executed according to the following stages: 1) presenting, 2) dividing the participants, 3) using flipped classrooms and traditional teaching, and 4) post-testing. as for presenting and post-testing, both the classroom management efficacy scale and classroom management efficacy notice card were administrated to all participants before and after implementing the experiment. traditional teaching lasted for 12 weeks using the traditional in-class methods of efl instruction. as for using the flipped classroom, it lasted also for 12 weeks at the same school (hurghada governmental language school "preparatory stage") through planning, and implementation before class and during the class. 3.4.1 planning for the flipped classroom this phase consisted of three parts: student teachers’ orientation, students' orientation, and content preparation. to prepare the student teachers for the experiment, two lectures were presented to them to illustrate the mechanism of using the flipped classroom while teaching. they worked on “edmodo” by themselves to acquire the basic skills they are going to use afterward in their field training sessions. as for the students' orientation, student teachers started to explain the idea to the students of grades (2a, 3a) in the school. they also started to help students to make accounts on the groups they prepared using the “edmodo”. to prepare the content, course objectives were identified, learning outcomes for each session were developed and content coverage was determined. all the knowledge or skills in each session were introduced in mini videos (for faster viewing and download times). 74 3.4.2 implementation of the flipped classroom this phase consisted of two parts: before and during the teaching sessions according to the operational definition of the flipped classroom. 3.4.2.1 before class: a day before the session, students had fixed appointments for opening their “edmodo” account to watch the videos and pictures that are related to the lesson they are going to discuss the next day in class. student teachers were asked to put some online quizzes to make sure that all students studied the lesson at home. students write any questions to be discussed later with their teachers “student teachers”. 3.4.2.2 during class: in this stage, student teachers used the class period to engage students in the process of learning the main elements of the lesson. it was divided into two main parts: the first one focused on receiving students' responses through asking questions, both to assess participants' understanding of the basic knowledge presented to them before class and to invest the class time more effectively. the second part, focused mainly on engaging students in active learning and critical thinking activities. these activities gave students extra opportunities for applying their knowledge and making sure that all of them fully understood their lessons. 4. results the current study aims to answer three major questions; 1) are there statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups' in providing an atmosphere of classroom discipline in favour of the experimental group in the post-testing? 2) are there statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups' in stirring pupils' motivation to learn in favour of the experimental group in the post-testing? 3) are there statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups' in regulating the process of classroom interaction in favour of the experimental group in the post-testing? to test the validity of the study hypotheses, data from the classroom management efficacy scale of both experimental and control groups in the posttesting session have been tabulated. 4.1 results of the first hypothesis there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups' in providing an atmosphere of classroom discipline in favour of the experimental group in the post-testing. table 4.1 t-value test of differences between experimental and control groups in terms of providing an atmosphere of classroom discipline v a r ia b le g r o u p m e a n s ta n d a r d d e v ia ti o n t -v a lu e p -v a lu e providing an atmosphere of classroom discipline experimental 60.88 2.28 16.47 0.000 control 46.29 2.84 it is clear from table 4.1 that there are statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the experimental group (m= 60.88; sd= 2.28, p=00) and the control group (m= 46.29; sd= 2.84, p=00) in the post-testing of the classroom management skills in terms of providing an atmosphere of classroom discipline as a direct result of using flipped classroom strategy contrasted with using traditional teaching practices. 4.2 results of the second hypothesis there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups' in stirring pupils' motivation to learn in favour of the experimental group in the post-testing. 75 table 4.2 t-value test of differences between experimental and control groups in terms of stirring pupils' motivation v a r ia b le g r o u p m e a n s ta n d a r d d e v ia ti o n tv a lu e p -v a lu e stirring pupils' motivation to learn experimental 62.94 2.63 16.65 0.000 control 47.58 2.73 it is clear from table 4.2 that there are statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the experimental group (m= 62.94; sd= 2.63) and the control group (m= 47.58; sd= 2.73), and p-value > 0.05, in the post-testing of the classroom management skills in terms of stirring pupils' motivation to learn as a direct result of using flipped classroom strategy contrasted with using traditional teaching practices. 4.3 results of the third hypothesis there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups' in regulating the process of classroom interaction in favour of the experimental group in the post-testing. table 4.3 t-value test of differences between experimental and control groups in terms of regulating the process of classroom interaction v a r ia b le g r o u p m e a n s ta n d a r d d e v ia ti o n tv a lu e p -v a lu e regulating the process of classroom interaction experimental 71.64 1.11 19.68 0.00 control 55.17 3.26 it is clear from table 4.3 that there are statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the experimental group (m= 71.64; sd= 1.11, p=00) and the control group (m= 55.17; sd= 3.26, p=00) in the post-testing of the classroom management skills in terms of regulating the process of classroom interaction as a direct result of using flipped classroom strategy contrasted with using traditional teaching practices. 4.4 results of the fourth hypothesis: there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups in classroom management skills in favour of the experimental group in the post-testing. table 4.4 t-value test of differences between experimental and control groups in terms of classroom management skills v a r ia b le g r o u p m e a n s ta n d a r d d e v ia ti o n tv a lu e s ig n if ic a n c e 0 .0 5 classroom management skills experimental 195.47 4.58 29.24 0.00 control 149.06 4.66 it is clear from table 4.4 that there are statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the experimental group (m= 71.64; sd= 1.11) and the control group (m= 55.17; sd= 3.26) in the posttesting of the classroom management skills as a direct result of using flipped classroom strategy contrasted with using traditional teaching practices. 76 it may be concluded from these results that the experimental group classroom management skills in general, and the sub-skills of classroom management that include providing an atmosphere of classroom discipline, stirring pupils' motivation to learn, and regulating the process of classroom interaction outpower their counterparts in the control group. it is logical to achieve these results due to the use of flipped classroom strategy as one of the strategies that stem from the blended learning approach. 4. discussion the main objective of the current study is to investigate the impact of using flipped classrooms on developing efl prospective teachers' classroom management. results revealed that flipped classroom is of paramount importance in developing certain aspects of classroom management that have not been dealt with in the literature review. these aspects include providing an atmosphere of classroom discipline, stirring pupils' motivation to learn, and regulating the process of classroom interaction. increasing teachers' ability to provide a positive encouraging atmosphere for their students enhances responsible student behaviour. teaching effectiveness is greatly facilitated by classroom discipline, which boosts students' motivation and achievement in the classroom. it is attributed to the use of flipped classrooms model as it is a more flexible and effective learning method that promotes student-centred learning and autonomy. in addition, using flipped classroom model – as revealed by the study resultsincreases students’ motivation. earlier models of motivation defined the teacher's role in terms of situational factors that support students in improving positive attitudes toward learning a foreign language. thus, among the factors that can affect students' motivation are the teacher-student interaction pattern, the teacher's teaching style, and the way he/she controls and manages the class. another aspect that distinguishes this study is that it crystalises the significance of regulating the process of classroom interaction. interpersonal teacher behaviours such as the nature and amount of feedback, rewards, praise, punishment, and sanctions are thought to be important factors in creating and maintaining a positive and warm learning environment. because of its reversed nature, students in a flipped classroom have additional learning time before, during, and after class. in flipped classrooms, students get input materials in advance of class, such as lecture videos produced by the teacher or downloaded from websites, and class time is allocated to collaborative activities, projects, and conversations (bergmann & sams, 2012). some teachers have used to interact with students in an unpleasant manner, such as criticizing poor posture, pointing out errors, making bad remarks about inappropriate social behaviour, and frowning to convey disapproval (jahangiri & mucciolo, 2012; lumadi, 2013). on the other hand, other teachers usually speak to pupils in a positive manner, complimenting good posture, recognizing accomplishments, and making flattering suggestions about acceptable social behaviour. according to gage et al., (2018), variations in student conduct are frequently linked to classroom management approaches. in fact, in classrooms where students were on task, attending, following directions, and contributing correctly, the ratio of positive to negative experiences between teachers and students was eight to one. for every time they insulted, grimaced, or did something similar, these teachers were offering pleasant comments to their students or laughing, caressing, and gesturing pleasantly eight times. the present study was designed to measure the efficacy of the flipped classroom model as applied to a classroom management course in a pre-service english teacher education program. the effect of the flipped classroom on prospective teachers’ (pts) classroom management skills and learning outcomes as compared to those of a standard lecture-based classroom. the pts in the flipped classroom had better-developed classroom management abilities and scored higher on the final exam than those in the traditional classroom, according to the findings. in addition, the flipped group pts felt well prepared and confident in dealing with classroom management concerns in their future classes; additionally, their evaluations of the flipped classroom technique were favourable. using the flipped classroom strategy includes inverting the traditional teaching practices which focus mainly on a teacher-centred approach to a more student-centred approach. it helps both learners and teachers; for teachers, it alleviates the teaching load or the teachers talking time, and it helps learners to be motivated and engaged in the process of learning. according to salem (2018), the flipped classroom involves innovative ways of content delivery, it includes taking content normally delivered inside the classroom through traditional lectures to the outside the classroom through open access to online materials. flipped classroom strategy includes inverting the place, timing, and ways of content delivery. therefore, the assignments students typically do at home are dealt with inside the classroom. the flipped classroom gives students more time, but some pupils struggle to manage their newfound independence. some people interpreted freedom as permission to do whatever they pleased, which was frequently not the most productive use of their time. of course, this is unacceptable. as a result, the teacher in a flipped classroom must still supervise offtask conduct, but it does so in a different way than in a 77 regular classroom. the teacher in a flipped classroom takes the students through pre-recorded videos and then engages them in real-life situational tasks. such exercises draw the learner's attention and help to create a more engaging learning environment. "the advantages of flipped learning that fulton (2012) expressed are that students can access lecture videos whenever and wherever they want, and it provides students with the ability to learn at their own speed,” ozdamli, & asiksoy (2016, p.103) quoted in (fulton, 2012) regarding the learning outcome of the flipped classroom. the flipped classroom, like any other pedagogical philosophy, has its detractors. the use of the model as a justification to continue substandard teaching or implementation without reflection is one issue identified by researchers and instructors. some lecturers may have issues with the time shift utilized to transfer work because they emphasize spontaneity during lectures. it might also be claimed that implementing the flipped classroom requires a bigger time commitment, at least at first (arnold-garza, 2014). efl instructional content in the flipped learning strategy is to be taught out of class instead of the traditional teaching model which depends on in-class lectures. both pre-class activities and in-class tasks can duly help instructors to save more time for oneon-one interaction between students to get involved and engaged in the learning process (roehl et al., 2013; white et al., 2017). flipped learning strategy proves to be effective not only in school environments but also shows effectiveness on developing prospective teachers' pedagogical skills (hussain et al., 2015). flipped learning approach has been used for training prospective teachers in pedagogical skills, instructional planning, presentation, classroom management, and assessment skills. there was a significant effect of the flip learning approach on prospective teachers' pedagogical skills. it was, therefore, recommended that prospective teachers may be taught through a flip learning approach, particularly in the teaching of pedagogical skills. therefore, it is an instructional practice where lecture content is made available online for pre-class study and in-class learning activities are used to deepen content understanding (betihavas et al., 2016; brewer & movahedazarhouligh, 2018; o'flaherty & phillips, 2015). flipped learning strategy has explicated its supporting learning materials, i.e., instructional videos, animations, or e-books. in addition, it supports learning activities, e.g., problem-solving, quizzes, group work, discussion, social media, gaming, and problem-based learning (lin & hwang, 2018; seery, 2015). additionally, flipped learning strategy can improve the pedagogical theorization (karabulut‐ilgu et al., 2018; o'flaherty & phillips, 2015) through more precise definitions of the underlying pedagogical rationalizations to which its learning activities and materials are being applied (ling koh, 2019). due to its overlap with well-known theoretical approaches to sla, it is logical to anticipate that flipped classes perform well in language instruction programs. as advised by cognitive theories of language learning, the use of explicit instruction prior to class may increase consciousness-raising and improve the depth of processing (leow & mercer, 2015). flipped learning helps to devote class time to meaningful interaction, which is consistent with socio-cultural theory's view that learning occurs during mediation and is facilitated by scaffolding instruction and increasing learner agency (lantolf, 2011). 5. conclusions based on the results obtained from the study, it can be concluded that the use of flipped learning strategy helps not only students, but it is also helping student teachers to develop one of the pedagogical skills, i.e., classroom skills. freeing in-class time for more and more practice improves students' skills. learning materials can be designed in a cooperative way between both teachers and learners prior to coming to the classroom. efl learning environments offer minimal opportunities to utilize english outside of class, therefore, pre-class learning activities help enhance english language majors to gain and foster classroom management skills as they are free of time and place constraints. in traditional classrooms, much of class time is wasted by teachers who ineffectively explain concepts, mainly through lecturing, while students sit silently and passively listen, and there is insufficient engagement (littlewood, 1999). in the flipped classroom much time is saved and secured for more skill practice, also, online interaction helps support gained skills, especially skills relating to efficient use of time, confidence building, reduced behavior problems, positive class environment, and using nonverbal communication skills. 6. recommendations and suggestions teachers who have a structured plan for discipline and procedures feel more in charge and informed. therefore, teachers' ability to concentrate less on discipline, may devote more time to creating a curriculum that encourages higher achievement (burden, 2020). in addition, it helps develop teachers' ability to achieve deeper levels of cognitive processing (moranski & kim, 2016). successful flipped classrooms provide efl prospective teachers opportunities to take lower levels of cognitive load outside the class and focus on higher levels inside the class through hands-on activities. online pre-class 78 activities in flipped classrooms are not mere videos and screencasts, it enhances students' engagement in an active in-class learning experience. in personalized learning environments such as flipped learning, students are providing individualized educational experiences. it extends beyond physical constraints (such as time and space) and allows students to study class materials whenever and wherever they choose as long as they have access to the internet. in addition, it changes the focus of the class time by saving much more time allocated to communication (bergmann & sams, 2012). with the increased opportunities for communication whether online or offline, classroom time can be effectively utilized for enhancing students’ language proficiency (witten, 2013). it is suggested that there should be further research to be conducted to fill the research gap, among this research is to conduct studies about the impact of flipped learning strategies on the development of communication skills of prospective teachers. other aspects and disciplines in addition to the skills of student teachers can be improved using flipped learning as an aspect of blended learning. references ahmed, a. 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(2006). cognitive and sociocultural perspectives: two parallel sls worlds?. tesol quarterly, 40(1), 35-58. https://doi.org/10.2307/40264510. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-09883-6 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-09883-6 http://ww2.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/bloom/blooms_taxonomy.html.%20at%205%20march%202016 http://ww2.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/bloom/blooms_taxonomy.html.%20at%205%20march%202016 http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/elt/45.2.119 http://dx.doi.org/10.5688/ajpe5931 https://doi.org/10.2307/40264510 journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.vxxx vol. x, no. x, apxxl 20xx, pp. 309-x 309 existence of arabicization methods for naturalising contemporary technical vocabularies into the arabic language alif cahya setiyadi *, anhar anhar & heru saiful anwar university of darussalam gontor, ponorogo, indonesia alif.setiyadi@unida.gontor.ac.id article history received : revised : accepted : keywords arabicization, technical terminology phonetical morphological naturalisation abstract this research aims at studying arabicization methods to provide counter knowledge for the overuse of transliterated terms and the abundance of arabic equivalents for a technical term. it further promotes precise methods on how to arabicize foreign words in the proper way. for this reason, this qualitative research focuses on studying arabicization methods in traditional and modern arabic traditions. the data are collected from several arabic books, journals, and arabic language academy reports. for the analysis, the inductive analysis approach is mainly employed to drive the general pattern of arabicization’s methods through interpretation made from the previous discourse on arabicization. the research concludes that the conventional vocabulary expanding techniques, including al-ishtiqāq, al-tarjamah, al-qiyās, al-naḥt, and al-majāz, are supposedly less effective and inefficient, while al-dakhīl brings only a few advantages but situating the arabic language contaminated with numerous peculiar terms. hence, the four methods of arabicisation, which involve phonetical naturalisation, morphological naturalisation, filtering, and hybrid arabicization, are fully considered precise methods. these methods play a crucial role in generating new arabic technical-technological vocabularies that are mainly a product of the west with all its steps. arabicisation provides more steps of naturalisation properties that arguably can be the best way to accommodate neologism. 1. introduction the influence of western languages, especially english and latin, as the languages of both the traditional and the present dominant civilisation on the arabic language is more serious and widespread than that of any other language nowadays (saeed, 2019). with the modern technological and cultural developments that have taken place in the world, and their recent echoes in the arab world, an urgent need has arisen for transferring numerous technicaltechnological concepts into arabic in many fields, including education, technology, health, news, broadcasting, etc. (al-athawary, 2016) in the attempt to abreast with such development, different techniques and methods to construct and expand arabic vocabularies have been employed by linguists. linguists must accommodate the challenge of foreign language terms and further protect the purity of the language. to take some instances, it is widely viewed by grammarians some methods on this matter are; derivation (al-ishtiqāq), translation (al-tarjamah), compounding or blending (al-naḥt), metaphor or figurative speech (al-majāz), arabicization (al-taʿrīb), transliteration (al-dakhīl), and analogy (al-qiyās). (alasal, sabri and smadi, 2012). arabic scholars use all these methods to generate and then introduce new terms that do not exist in classical or modern arabic. early arabic grammarians developed these methods, which have now been taken into account by linguists to solve the problem of incorporating foreign terms. as a process of word formation at the morphological level, the derivation (al-ishtiqāq) results in a new word that derives from the existing arabic root as a source of creating new terms in arabic (elmagrab, 2011). this type of method has a high degree of productivity in creating abstract nouns. for instance, the word ruhāniyyah (spirituality) is derived from the root rūh (spirit). the word ruhāniyyah has a new form and a new extended meaning as a result of this process. 310 the translation method has, without a doubt, served the development of a language in a larger context. it is the process of transmitting meaning from the source language to the target language. although this technique is widely employed in creating new vocabularies, some arabic users often find difficulties, especially when the target and source language are linguistically and culturally distinct and when the text involves a coined term that has never been found in their target language before. for this reason, many languages, including arabic, may suffer from gaps at the lexical stage and, most likely, will have no words for such concepts (akan, et al., 2019). al-naḥt is also one of the widely used methods for introducing new vocabularies in the arabic language. in descriptive linguistics, al-naḥt often refers to blending (ryding, 2005), which means merging two words or more to become one. for example, the word barmāʾi, which means amphibian, is originally a blended word from barr, which means land, and māʾ which means water. in this case, these two words are merged to coin a term that refers to an animal that lives in both land and water. on the other hand, the metaphor or figurative speech (al-majāz), and the analogy (al-qiyās), are considered to be the less utilised methods in generating new arabic words. metaphor unveils a creative aspect of language that points to a basic limitation of truthfunctional semantics. it allows the expression of a concept in other terms and meanings based on the similarity between concepts (pye, 2017). metaphorical expressions represent a great variety of conventional metaphors, reproduced and comprehended daily, poetic, novel, and holy qur'an. the use of metaphor is ubiquitous in natural language text. it is a serious bottleneck in automatic text understanding, and developing methods to identify and deal with metaphors is an open problem in arabic natural language processing. apart from the aforementioned methods, the transliteration technique is observed as the most favourable method employed by many arabic speakers. such phenomena can be spotted in the overuse of foreign terms by some arab users who are reluctant to find its arabic equivalent, which is phonologically, grammatically, and culturally peculiar in the arabic language system (elmagrab, 2016). previous studies by hamdan & al-salman (2021) and mivtakh (2019) showed that non-arabic origin terms had been used daily in arabic online news and newspapers. most of these terms are likely to be borrowed; measurement units including meter, mile, ton, gigabyte; abbreviations such as sim, usb, ibm, vr; chemical elements like carbon, gas, bromide and other terms, such as bank, online, congress, protocol, and genus. this study concluded that journalists prefer foreign terms rather than arabic ones. take protocol, congress, and profile as instances. all of the mentioned terms have, in fact, their arabic equivalent, i.e., ميفاق [mīfāq], مؤتمر [muʾtamar], and الملف الشخصي [al-malaf al-shakhṣiyy] respectively. the native terms seem to be forgotten, while the foreign ones are freely used, as in بروفيل and [kūnghrīs] كونغريس ,[brūtūkūl] بروتوكول [brūfayl]. there are at least two main causes that presumably lead to the overly use of foreign terms, culturallinguistic dissimilarity and inconsistently employed arabic-expanding techniques by arabic users. firstly, arabic and western languages are linguistically and culturally incongruent. arabic users face difficulties when the text involves new terms, neologism, and a lack of equivalence. many technical terms originating from the west are strange and new to arab cultures and environments, leading to difficulties finding their equivalent in the arabic language. for instance, the term satellite, while some users translate it as قمر صناعي [qamar ṣināʿī], which means artificial moon, others choose to keep its original form: ستاليت [satālayt] since the translation does not seem to have satisfactory equivalents for this term (shehabat, 2021). a similar case might be found in the term mobile phone, which has been transferred sometimes as هاتف [hātif] and often as موبايل [mūbail], سيلولير [silūlīr], فون such inconsistency in .[mūbail fūn] موبايل employing arabic-expanding techniques somehow leads to the abundance of arabic equivalents for a foreign technical term (al-jarf, 2018). this inconsistency is either within the same translation situation, which leads to multiple arabic equivalents for a standard technical concept or between similar translation situations, i.e., in using different expanding techniques for similar technical-technological terminologies (sameh, 2017). as a result, arabic finds itself in quite dilemmatic situations. on one side, the overly used transliteration technique (al-dakhīl) to abreast with the development of foreign technical and terminological terms will certainly make the arabic language contaminated by the immense number of foreign terminologies. applying traditional vocabulary-expanding techniques and translation to maintain the purity of the arabic language somehow will place arabic in the occurrence of weirdness and absurdness in technical terminological terms and concepts. (benkharafa, 2013) the term arabicization then appears whenever there is a gap in translational equivalence or equivalent effect in the arabic language. it can play a crucial role in coping with developing technical-technological vocabularies, mainly from the west. to arabicize a foreign term means to convey it in the arabic language in its original linguistic shape after subjecting it formally to a process of naturalisation: phonologically, morphologically, and syntactically. semantically, however, the arabic meaning of an arabicized term is based on its meaning in the foreign context in which it originally occurs. worrying about contaminating with peculiar terms and counterpart word meaning issues would no longer exist. 311 through those processes, the arabicization method provides more steps of naturalisation properties that arguably can be the best way to accommodate foreign terms. this method will comprehensively elaborate the whole language parts, starting from the phonetics, morphological, syntax, and semantic sides. so, the construction of the newly generated arabic word from the foreign terms, especially in the new technical vocabulary, will be in the best form and free of meaning issues. thus, the current study will examine the arabicization method, which involves phonetic-morphological-syntactic naturalisation and elaborating each step of the naturalising with the direct sample from the new technical vocabularies. based on the aforementioned gaps, this study promotes two research questions. first, what are the techniques and procedures of arabicization in comparison between this technique and the others such as al-dakhil and al-tarjamah. second, how are the detailed steps of the arabicization process within the contemporary technical vocabularies? 2. literature review numerous studies have been conducted in an attempt to explain the arabicization technique. for instance, elmagrab (2016) on the creation of terminology in arabic where proposed derivation (alishtiqāq), arabicization (al-taʿrīb), blending-coining (al-naḥt), and metaphor (al-majāz). with respect to arabicization, a clear definition has been highlighted in this research. however, a question remains as to what procedures translators should employ in the arabicization process, which is not clearly elaborated on in this study (elmagrab, 2016). another was awang and salman (2017), who studied the translation and arabicization method of scientific and technical terms into arabic. nevertheless, the study only covered a general understanding of arabicization procedures as a phonetic borrowing via transliteration. arabicization as a process of naturalisation of foreign technicaltechnological terms morphologically seems to be ignored in the study (rokiah and ghada, 2017). the recent research by hasan (2017) on translating technical terms into arabic shows the clear distinction between arabicization, translation and arabic expanding technique was highlighted. however, he is still considering the terms arabicization refers to both al-taʿrīb and al-dakhīl. he argues that translation is decoding source language text and finding equivalents in the target language. in contrast, arabic-expanding techniques, including derivation, compounding, blending, etc., aim to solve problems of non-equivalence at the word level between arabic as the target language and other source languages. the term arabicization is a process of “transliteration and naturalisation". (sameh, 2017). ghada (2018) also studied translation and arabicization strategies of english scientific and technical terms into arabic and their dissemination in the arab press. however, in this study, there is an overlap between arabic-expanding techniques, arabicization, and translation concepts. as he argues: “arabicization in this study... refers to direct and oblique translation strategies... arabicization also refers to arabic word-formation methods…". such a definition ignores the fact that arabicization, translation, and arabic word-formation are different terminologies that refer to different denotations. based on the aforementioned gaps, this study focuses on two major studies, firstly explaining the complex concept of arabicization, particularly the comparison between this technique and the others, such as al-dakhil and al-tarjamah, which are often used by previous researchers as if it is a similar concept that can be used interchangeably. the second highlights the detailed steps in the arabicization process within the contemporary technical vocabularies. to begin with, the term al-taʿrīb is etymologically derived from ʿarraba, an arabic verb that denotes a quotation of a foreign term to the arabic language. according to the al-mawrid dictionary, ʿarraba means to arabicize or to give an arabic form to a foreign term (al-balbaki, 1996). in the lisān al-ʿarab, “taʿrīb alʾism al-aʿjamy” refers to: “a foreign term used by arabs on their pronunciation rules”. the discussion of whether al-taʿrīb denotes both arabicization (al-muʿarrab) and transliteration (aldakhīl) has been an endless dispute among arabic linguists over the decades. abdu al-qadir al-maghrib, for instance, said: “al-muʿarrab (arabicization) is also known as al-dakhīl” (el maghrib, 1908). the other was al-jawaliqi, who used both terms to describe his work, “al-muʿarrab min al-kalam al-aʿjamy ʿalā hurūf almuʿjam" as if both refer to the same connotation. in brief translation: “in this book (al-muʿarrab…) we recall the foreign words that were spoken by the arabs to let them know al-dakhīl clearly” (al-jawaliqi, 1990). yusuf (2003) argues that both terms, al-taʿrīb and al-dakhīl, are completely distinct techniques. the difference lies in the change and submission to the arabic structure. he said, “the foreign words that made the fabric of the arabic word is al-mu'arrab, while words that penetrated the arabic language and remain in its original image are al-dakhīl" (yusuf, 2003). similarly, the arabic language academic of cairo also specifically distinguished al-mu'arrab and al-dakhīl: “al-muʿarrab is a foreign term that changed by decreasing, augmenting and altering its letter. aldakhīl, however, is a foreign term that penetrated the arabic unchanged”. perhaps, the dispute is due to the different interpretation of the classical concept of word borrowing as given by sibawaih: “ اعلم أنهم مما يغيرون من 312 الحروف األعجمية ما ليس من حروفهم البتة، فربما ألحقوه ببناء كالمهم، in brief translation: “the arabs change .”وربما لم يلحقوه those foreign words that are incongruous with their own, sometimes assimilating them into the structure of their words, and sometimes not” (sibawaih, n.d.). the first group of linguists, such as al-jawaliqi (1990), elmaghrib (1908) and hassan (2017), suggested the term al-taʿrīb for sibawaih’s definition and believed the duality of al-taʿrīb, i.e., arabicization and transliteration. in contrast, the others, including yusuf (1999), hassan (2007), and stetkevych (1970), insisted on developing the concept and classifying it into two major terms. assimilating the foreign terms into the structure of the arabic language is called al-taʿrīb (arabicization), whereas transliterating it with no change in its structure is called al-dakhīl (transliteration). the term that covers both concepts is then called al-iqtirād (loan) (khasarah, 2007). a distinction had to be made in this article between arabicization and transliteration so that the translator can choose between both transferring the technicaltechnological concept to arabic and preventing immense penetration of peculiar terms into the arabic language. we conclude that arabicization is the adaptation of non-arabic terms to arabic by applying the phonological and morphological systems of the language to the terms. to illustrate, the term تلفاز [tilfāz] for “television” is an arabicized term since it has been phonetically and morphologically constructed according to the arabic mould (qawālib) مفعال [mifʿāl]. in contrast, the term إنترنت for “internet” does not generate any arabic pattern. hence, it is considered aldakhīl (stetkevych, 1970). as for the english term, two words refer to altaʿrīb, i.e., arabization and arabicization (elmagrab, 2016). although some scholars use them interchangeably, for instance, ghazala (1995) views "translation as problem and solution" as he stated: "arabization or arabicization is the translation of technical terms into arabic, the latter is more appropriate because it refers to arabic, i.e., the language, whereas the former refers to the arab people”. al-abed al-haq (1998) said: “arabicization is derived morphologically from arabic, that is, the language…, while arabization indicates a reference to arabs, i.e., the people and culture”. 3. method the present research is qualitative, with the major focus being to study the arabicization present in books, journals, and arabic language academy reports, which are the sources of this study. we classified the sources into primary and secondary. related journals and articles are secondary (creswell, & creswell, 2018). in collecting the data, this research fully employs the documentary method by collecting the data from both primary and secondary sources. the primary comprises classical and modern arab linguist's works on arabicization mainly focus on sibawaih's view, and some arabic language academies (ala) reports such as cairo ala. in addition, the secondary data is derived from the journals and articles related to the research. the study adopts an inductive approach for data analysis, i.e., a systematic procedure for analysing qualitative data. the analysis will likely be guided by specific evaluation objectives (david, 2006). (goddard & melville, 2004) stated: "the inductive approach starts with the observations, and theories are proposed toward the end of the research process as a result of observation." similarly, strauss and corbin (1998): "the researcher begins with an area of study and allows the theory to emerge from the data." (bernard, 2011) added: “inductive research involves the search for patterns from observation and the development of explanations/theories for those patterns through a series of hypotheses. in this research, inductive analysis refers to approaches that primarily use detailed readings of the theories of arabicization. it focuses on the discussion of traditional and modern arabic linguists on it and the arabic language academies. this step is mainly to derive a general pattern of arabicization methods by interpreting the raw data (the previous discourse on arabicization). in other words, the extensive and varied raw text data are condensed into a summary forma. the forma is utilised to develop a model or a theory about the underlying structure of experiences or processes that are evident in the data. in this concern, arabicization will be displayed descriptively. 4. result the results of this study encompass several points; the phonetic naturalisation of the new arabic language that derives from the western term, filtering and abreast the foreign terms with the morphological rhythm, and hybrid arabicization. 4.1 phonetic naturalisation phonetic naturalisation is considered to be the first approach to arabicizing foreign terminologies. this approach was first introduced by orthodox grammarians such as sibawaih on al-kitāb (sibawaih, n.d.) and al-khafaji on shifāʾu al-ghalīl fī mā fī kalām al-ʿarab min al-dakhīl (al-khafaji, 1998). the idea of letter and phonetic naturalisation means to find the exact similar sound of foreign alphabets or at least the nearest sounds to arabic alphabets. to illustrate, the foreign letter ‘q’ will be transliterated into the arabic sound ‘ق’ as in ‘قونطوس’. the letter ‘p’, which is not found in arabic, will be transliterated into the nearest sound ‘ف’ as in ‘فوراموس’ or ‘ب’ as in ‘إبقراط. similarly, the vowel ‘e’ that does not exist in the arabic sound will become ‘أ’ or a diacritic mark fatḥ ( َ ) depending on the situation one letter faces, as elaborated in table no. 1,2,3, and 4. 313 there have been many attempts to develop methods or rules to replace letters and phonetic sounds in modern times. the attempt of the arabic language academy of cairo is considered the first explicit rule for transliteration (for arabicization purposes) in the history of the arabic language (yusuf, 2003). another attempt was made by dr mohammed sharaf and majma’ mustafa al-shihabi (khasarah, 2007). their attempt at generating rules for transliteration is highlighted in below summary tables. table. 4.1. summary of procedures in translating consonants table. 4. 2. summary of procedures in transliterating multiple consonants latin alphabets arabic alphabets transliteration ala cairo muhammad syarif musthofa syihab bb ب cc ق ك، س، ق ق، ك، س dd د د، ذ د ff ف ف gg غ ج، غ غ، ج، ك، خا hh ه ه ه jj ي ي، ج ي )ألمانية(، خ )اسبانية(، ز، ج kk ك، ق ق، ك ll ل mm م nn ن pp ف ب ف، ب qq ق ق ق، ك rr ر ss س س، ز )بين حرفين صوتين(، ش، ص س، ش، ص tt ط ط ط، ت vv و ف، و و، ف، ب ww و، ف xx إكس ز )في أول االسم(، إكس كس، كز، خ zz ز ز latin alphabets arabic alphabets transliteration ala cairo muhammad syarif musthofa syihab ch خ ك، خ خ، تش، ش، ك، ج gn غن ph ف sh ش th ث ث، ت، ذ ll ليا 314 table. 4.3. summary of procedures in transliterating vowels table. 4.4. summary of procedures in transliterating diphthongs latin alphabets arabic alphabets transliteration beginning middle end ai, ae ا ي إ، إي au, ao و َ ، أ ُ ، أ ُ وأ َ _ أ eu و ُ و و أ، أ 4.2 filtering the arabic language is known for its complexity regarding its word systems. to mention first, the uniqueness of an arabic word digit. arabic grammarians such as al-farāhidy, sibawaih and ahmad al-khawalah, have come to an agreement that the minimum digits of an arabic word are no less than three, although there might be disputes regarding the maximum. al-farāhidy and ibn khawalah argued that arabic words, either verbal or nominal, have five maximum digits limit (khawalah, 1978). meanwhile, sibawaih believes it is seven (sibawaih, n.d.). perhaps, the different agreement on the maximum is due to the methods of counting the letter’s number. al-farāhidy and ibn khawalah mentioned that five is for the original letters only, and if a word contains over five, it must be the additional letter. to illustrate, the six digits word ʿankabūt (spider) is originally four digits word ʿankaba. on the other hand, the seven letters number of sibawaih covered both the original and additional. al-farahidy and ibn kahawalah have not stated the maximum digit for the additional letter (al-farahidy, 2002). on that matter, with regard to arabicization, the foreign term with fewer letters than three digits should be augmented by gemination or duplicating one of its letters. if the number of letters is over seven, they must be reduced to match the rule. to illustrate, the foreign term ‘ ط ن', which originally consisted of two sounds, was arabicized by gemination to become ' طن’. meanwhile, the letter (ه) in ‘شاه بور’ is reduced to form an arabicized word 'سابور’ (al-farāhidy, 2002). it should be noted, however, that the letters of the arabicized words are all origins, and augmenting for declension or derivation (femininity, numbers, or verbal nouns masdar, or plurals, etc.) is disregarded because they are casual suffixes and are not given a fixed rule of the letters. for instance, a seven-letter is still considered as al-muᶜarrab, although it ’ديمقراط‘ might become ten in the form of 'ديمقراطية (khasarah, 2007). another important point is that the arabic language possesses unique phonetic and diacritic systems for its words. to explain, compared to other languages such as english and latin, the arabic language never started the word with a vowel-less consonant or the sukūn (a circle-shaped diacritic placed above a letter that shows that a vowel does not follow the consonant to which it is attached) (jinny, n.d.). therefore, for arabicization purposes, the foreign term started with the vowel-less consonant will be transferred by augmenting a hamzah (a glottal stop) at the commencement or adding a diacritic mark in the first transliterated letter. for instance, greek or spain will form an arabicized word ‘إسبانية‘ ’إغريق’, respectively, and granada will become ‘ًغرناط’ (ahmed et al., 2017). secondly, two sukuns never meet in an arabic word. hence, the words; fibrin and micron, for instance, which are transliterated to the arabic utterance 'فايبرين’ and ‘مايكرون’, should be arabicized by deleting one of the sukūns to form an acceptedarabicized word ‘فبرين’ and ‘مكرون’ (khasarah, 2007). latin alphabets arabic alphabets transliteration beginning midle end aa ا فتح ماقبله أ ee ية ا، فتح ماقبله أ ii كسر ما قبله إ، إي oo و، ون و أُ، أو uu و و و yy و و و y.i.e ي ي ي 315 4.3 levelling up the morphological rhythm (al-iqāᶜu al-ṣorfiy) of the arabic language the arabic language is known for its roots and pattern systems, where all its words are derived from a particular root (a set of consonants containing the word's base meaning). these root consonants are then put into patterns/wazn (the set moulds of words that roots can be inserted into), which morph the meaning of the root to create a variety of related words. based on this case, when it comes to the arabicization process, the issue is quite complicated since all the letters of an arabicized word contain non-arabic roots. moreover, according to many arabic linguists, the idea of breasting foreign words with the arabic pattern (wazn) is a matter of dispute. perhaps, according to the writer, the most acceptable argument is the theory called al-iqāᶜu alṣorfiy’ by the modern arabic linguist mamduh muhammad khasarah. al-iqaᶜu al-ṣorfiy’ is literary translated into ‘morphological rhythm’. khasarah argued that fitting an arabicized word with arabic word rhythm, instead of an arabic pattern (wazn), is far more important (khasarah, 2007). this is due to the fact that the term (rhythm) eliminates the problem of original and additional letters in words and lefts the essence of the issue, which is the need for compatibility of the arabicized word (al-muʾarrab) and the arabic word formats and sound (khasarah, 2007). to illustrate, the arabic paradigm (abniyyah) ’[fiᶜlālun]فعالل' and '[tif ʿālun] تفعال' ,'[mifʿālun]مفعال‘ share similar consonant and vowel sequence. therefore, they are at the single morphological rhythm but not in the same ‘wazn’. this is to say, although there is no arabic pattern ‘[fuᶜlālun]’ for an arabicized word 'furayqun', there is still a patternمفعال ' [mufʿālun]' which shares the same consonant and vowel sequence (rhythm) with '[furaiqun]’. similarly, the word ‘ أيقونة [ayqʿūnatun]’. indeed, there are no waznفيعولة ' [faiūʿlatun]' in the arabic word pattern. however, such arabicized words still share the same rhythm of an arabic patternمفعولة ' [mafūʿlatun]'; therefore, it could be considered al-muᶜarrab. 4.4 hybrid arabicization it is commonly understood that some foreign terminologies (especially those from english) frequently comprise two compound morphemes, i.e., word and suffix. for instance, amoral (consists of prefixes' a' and 'moral'), axiology (consists of axio and a suffix, logy), etc. while some arabic translators translated both a suffix and word, others just borrowed the terms deliberately. interestingly, some of them come with a new approach to finding the arabic counterpart of such words by combining translation and arabicization simultaneously. this approach is what the writer called a hybrid arabicization. a hybrid arabicization technique is usually started by translating the suffix and borrowing the other morpheme but not often conversely. as an illustration, the foreign term ‘axiology’ which is consists of two morphemes: axio (originally from latin means value) and logy (from latin means science, which is currently used in english as a suffix to describe a particular branch of science), was borrowed by translating the axio into arabicقيم ' [qīmu]’ and being arabicized the suffix logy: ‘لوحيا’, to form a hybrid-arabicized word another instance, dioxide. it .’[qīmūlūjiya] قيمولوجيا‘ consists of dio (a latin origin means two) and oxide, to form ‘أكسيد for ’[rabʿīl] ربعيل‘ ;’[thany uksīd] ثاني foreign term quartile consists of quart, a latin origin means four which is translated into arabicربع ' [rabʿi]’ and ille, to be arabicized: عيل [ʿill]. 5. discussion in the field where technical terminology is important to designate innovations and new products such as in science, technology, business, social media etc. meanwhile, in the context of arabic, standardise terminology in various subject areas is assumed as a special significance. crucial problematic aspects related to terminology-making in arabic are an issue of concern nowadays. these aspects involve the existence of a multiplicity of corresponding forms of one term, the conceptual imprecision, the ambiguity and vagueness of such forms, as well as inconsistency in their usage. this study suggests that the arabicization techniques can play a fundamental role in providing counter knowledge for such issues and in developing technical-technological vocabularies in the arabic language. the suggestion of this study is in line with al-haq & al-essa (2016), who conclude that attitudes towards arabicized technical terms, particularly in business, which were translated and published by the jordan academy of arabic, were generally positive. elmagrab (2011) also sees that arabicization is considered to be the most appropriate technique in introducing and creating neologism in the arabic language, and it can fulfil a number of objectives: first, to preserve the purity of arabic and consider as a means of developing arabic vocabularies. secondly, to standardise the scientific and technical terminology; and third, to retrieve the arabic-islamic cultural heritage. arabicization encompasses several processes. starting from the phonetic naturalisation of the new arabic language that derives from the western term, filtering and abreast the foreign terms with the morphological rhythm and the hybrid arabicization. in further, arabicization has the more comprehensive steps of generating the new vocabularies by stressing the processes from the basic language element, the phone, followed by the more complex system; the morphology with its relevance to the word construction and then the syntax; for identifying the word relationship to other words. the last is the semantic step, which immerses into the previous steps; the phonology, morphology and syntax aspects. 316 for clarity and to emphasise the factual application of those above arabicization steps, this research collects some samples of new technical vocabularies from the sources provided by farouq (2001), jawzi (1928) and rahiim (2011). below are some quick summaries of arabicized terms that have been widely recognised and used in the arabic text, as well as found in many arabic dictionaries. table 5.1 list of arabicized terms arabicized terms foreign origin morpholoigical rhythm مفعول icon أيقونة فوعال dollar دوالر فعلية technique/technic تقنية فعالية batterie بطارية مفعال million مليون مفعال milliard مليار فعل ton طن فعل/أفعال meter متر/أمتار مصدر صناعي academic أكاديمية مفعول/فاعول balloon بالون فعل gas غاز مفعول ozon أوزون فعل/أفعال film فلم/أفالم فعلياء chemistry كيمياء مصدر صناعي magnetic مغناطيسية مصدر صناعي biometric بيومترية افعوعل electromagnetic كهرمغناطس فعل genus جنس مفعال/تفعال sponge إسفنج فعالل geographic جغرافي مفعال television تلفاز فيل، فعل mile ميل فعول ionic أيونية تفعال liberal لبرالي فعالول catalogue كتالوج فعلياء physic فيزياء مفعال hectare هكتار مصدر صناعي democratic ديمقراطية أفعيل dioxide ثاني أكسيد مفعول/فاعول carbon كربون فعيل mars مريخ تفعيل music موسيقي فعل/فعول bank بنك/بنوك فاعل archive أرشف source: (farouq, 2001; jawzi, 1928; rahiim, 2011) as it transpires, the above terms have been through many stages and naturalised in many processes, including phonetic transliteration, filtering, and morphological adaptation. the phonetical naturalisation became the foremost stage conducted in this matter due to the different letter patterns in arabic and english. this stage is then followed by filtering and morphological adaptation. to quote an instance, the english term icon (a symbol or graphic representation on a screen of a program, option, or window, especially one of several selections) experienced phonemic naturalisation, i.e., i [aɪ], c (which is pronounced ‘k’ as in ‘key’), o [ɒ] and n [n], to become ‘أي، ق، و، ن, respectively. the letters are then morphologically adapted to the inflectional gender (feminine) system in the arabic language by adding the letter 'ة’ to the end of the word. these letters are then abreast with the morphological rhythm مفعول/مفعوله [mafʿūlun/ mafʿūlatun] to form an arabicized term .أيقونة 317 another example of an arabic term is sponge [spʌndʒ]. after being naturalised phonetically, s → س; p → ف; ʌ → a diacritic mark (َ); n → ن; and dʒ → جي to form an arabic word سفنج. however, it is understood that the vowel-less consonant never started a standardised arabic word. hence, a hamzah (ء) is then augmented at the beginning of the word. subsequently, the combined letters ف ن ج ء س are abreast with the morphological rhythm مفعال [mifʿālun] to form إسفنج [isfanjun]. other patterns to consider are the english term that ends with the adjective suffix 'ic', such as technic, academic, magnetic, biometric, and democratic. those terms were arabicized by phonetical naturalisation, filtering and morphologically adapted to what is called in arabic as مصدر صناعي [masdar sināīy] by adding the أكادمية، مغناطسية، to the end of the word as in ي ة تقنية، ، دمقراطية and بيومترية respectively. in quite similar, but not the same case happened in democracy and technocracy. although the first is considered an arabicized term since it already being naturalised on many processes to form دمقراطية [dimuqrāṭiyya], this cannot go to the second. as it transpires, the borrowing term تكنوقراطي [tiknūqrāty] still violates the diacritics mark of the arabic language, i.e., two sukūns never meet in an arabic word. in this case, the sukūn letter و meets with the sukūn letter ق in a single arabic word. with regard to hybrid arabicisation, the sample can be seen in column no.17. the term kahrumagnātis, which is a compound word from kahrubāiy (electro) and magnātis (magnetic), experienced a hybrid arabicization process where the initial morpheme is translated from english term electric and the latter (magnātis from the magnet) is naturalised phonetically and morphologically into arabic language word system. the productivity of arabicized terms in both inflectional and derivational is also considered positive. the study by hassan (2017) showed that many arabicized terms such as batteries (بطاريات), cables (كابالت), microphone (مكروفونات) accept the addition of inflectional morphemes which are arabicized and remodelled to conform to arabic word patterns of forming the sound of feminine plural in which the plural noun ends with suffix ات. the term battery (بطارية), to be more specific, accepts inflectional markers of plural (بطاريات), dual (بطاريتان), feminity ,etc. as for the derivation ,(بطريتك) possession ,(بطارية) some terms are also found to be productive. for instance, the noun magnet (مغناطس) derived to produce magnetism ( ناطيسيةمغ ), to magnetize ( طغن م يُ ), magnetizing ( طن غ م مُ ), and magnetized ( طن غ م مُ ). similarly, the word archive ( فش ر أ ) is also productive for derivation to archive ( شفر ؤ يُ ), archived ( فش ر ؤ مُ ), and archiving ( ةف رش أ ), etc. 6. conclusions in conclusion, results confirmed earlier findings suggested by the arab linguists that the arabic language is still suffering from the inevitable penetration of foreign technical-technological terminologies. the fact that using traditional vocabulary expanding techniques, including derivation (al-ishtiqāq), translation (al-tarjamah), analogy (alqiyās), compounding (al-tarkīb), coinage (al-naht), metaphor (al-majāz), may bring difficulties in abreast with the development of such terms in one hand. at the same time, the free-borrowing technique (al-dakhīl) brings only a few advantages but situates the arabic language contaminating an immense number of peculiar terms in the other. in this study, it is stated that the arabicization technique can play a fundamental role in providing the development of technicaltechnological vocabulary, which mainly comes from developed countries and is used for identifying the word's relationship to other words. it has the more comprehensive steps of generating the new vocabularies by stressing the processes from the basic language element, the phone, followed by the more complex system; the morphology with its relevance to the word construction and then the syntax; for identifying the word relationship 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(2003). dauru majamiᶜu al-lughah alᶜarabiyyah fi al-taᶜ rib. faculty of da’wah alislamiyyah. instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9306 vol. 4, no. 2, august 2022, pp.232-242 232 autonomous learning among efl undergraduate students in selected private indonesian islamic university: voices and activities khulaifiyah khulaifiyah 1, mirjam anugerahwati 2* & utami widiati 2 1 universitas islam riau, pekanbaru, indonesia 2 universitas negeri malang, malang, indonesia mirjam.anugerahwati.fs@um.ac.id article history received : 2022-02-06 revised : 2022-08-09 accepted : 2022-08-13 keywords private university efl undergraduate students autonomous learning voices and activities mixed method study descriptive statistical testing abstract learner autonomy has recently been recognised as an essential component of changes in higher education. the word 'la' can be misunderstood because it may be viewed differently in various settings. hence, this study explores whether the students at higher levels of education in indonesia have better perceptions and efforts to enhance their autonomous learning. questionnaires and interviews were asked with efl students in collecting the data. the study sample consisted of 95 students randomly selected from ftte islamic university of riau. this study applied a mix-method, and descriptive statistical testing was employed to analyse the data and determine the research questions. nvivo 12 explored how the students perceived the autonomous learning process. the result showed that the efl learners mostly perceive autonomous learning as independent learning under one’s target, involving personal learning styles and strategies with the teacher's assistance. a significance value (p) was obtained at the time of initiation, monitoring, and evaluation of the data, respectively 0.286; 0.533; 0.744. so, all the p-value was >0.05. it requires no significant effort in initiating, monitoring, and evaluating among different levels. in addition, there was no significant difference between the efforts of the initiating, monitoring, and evaluating activity performed among efl learners either in the second, fourth, or sixth level. this point is that efl learners are not independent in selecting when and how to initiate, monitor, and evaluate autonomous learning. so, this fact shows us that the higher semester level did not guarantee better effort toward autonomous learning activities. 1. introduction in autonomous learning in english education today, efl student-teachers are faced with the task of designing and introducing new teaching methods and interventions that can successfully strengthen students’ autonomous learning ability. being an autonomous learner is becoming someone capable of taking charge of their learning (yim & chuk, 2004). concerning english as a foreign language taught in indonesia, autonomous learning raises some issues about the effort of students’ understanding and the activities teachers partake in to engage in this process (khotimah et al., 2019). it also involves learner autonomy perceived by school teachers (lengkanawati, 2017) and investigating how projectbased learning is promoted in efl classrooms (yuliani & lengkanawati, 2017). thus, autonomous understanding of learning and its activities from students’ point of view becomes crucial to help students' effectiveness in learning efl. it involves having and holding the responsibility for the decisions concerning all aspects of learning that cover management tasks (murphy, 2007; scharle & szabó, 2000) and setting up learning objectives. also, it entails determining the contents (kemala, 2016) and progression (benson, 2003), selecting a method of learning (dimitrios, 2000), monitoring progress, and evaluating what has been learned (dang, 2012b). to be an english language user, individuals must be equipped with technical knowledge and skills, interact or collaborate with others, and make decisions (dickinson et al., 1993; nunan, 1980). they should also be responsible for their learning or become autonomous learners (tayjasanant & suraratdecha, 2016) and be provided with suitable study environments (lüftenegger et al., 2012). https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9306 mailto:mirjam.anugerahwati.fs@um.ac.id 233 all the aforementioned studies did not reflect a clear description of autonomous learning from the student's viewpoint. many learners still need guidance on selecting and using self-regulatory strategies to assist their language learning processes (cirocki et al., 2019; csizér & kormos, 2014) and are less responsible and capable of choosing the appropriate materials and activities (jafari et al., 2017a). also, learners prefer self-paced instructions in conventional classrooms (yaroslavova & kolegora, 2020). there is poor empirical support, especially in autonomous learning activities perceived by efl learners, in initiating, monitoring, and evaluating to promote effective learning (benson, 2013). hence, efl student-teachers must become well-known and more conscious of the criteria of successful, efficient, and effective learners, and building positive academic behaviour is also a learning goal (little, 2007). it is based on the notion that language learners develop their skills individually, which is why efl students work hard to achieve their aims individually and prove that persons with different backgrounds have apparent varying perspectives. (jameelah, 2020). the importance of the current study lies in the fact that the participants were student-teachers planning to become english language instructors. hence, they must understand how autonomous learning performs and practice inside the classroom precisely. therefore, to fill this void, this study seeks to depict autonomous learning perspectives and perform among efl undergraduate students because they are a key strategy for higher education reforms. the purposes were twofold: exploring the autonomous learning perceived among efl students and what activities they have performed to encourage the awareness of decision-making in the autonomous learning process from a different level. to address this aim, the present study tries to answer the following questions: a) what is autonomous learning perceived by the efl learners? b) is there a statistically significant difference between initiating, monitoring, and evaluating activity performed among efl learners? by answering these questions, the study will give more information about student's perception of a key higher education reform. 2. literature review 2.1 autonomous learning and autonomous learning process first, the autonomous learning terminology needs to be discussed. it is a concept focusing on the learner’s capacity to reflect and take responsibility for his learning process (benson, 2008; lamb, 2008; little, 2017; murphy, 2007; smith, 2008). the concept is also associated with adult education (little, 2007) and is supported by government regulation (pemerintah, 2010), which states that “education has created an independent person.” independence or autonomy is one of the eighteen values of indonesian character in education that is expected to be formed during the education period (moec, 2011). there are several studies about promoting learner autonomy at different levels of foreign language education in various institutions and universities, alongside many new approaches and innovations for developing it (luke & dooley, 2015; nasri et al., 2017). experts have recently explored teachers' and students' beliefs about learner autonomy (la) in different countries, such as turkey, oman, saudi arabia, palestine, vietnam, thailand, and persia (abdel razeq, 2014; alzeebaree & yavuz, 2016; borg & al-busaidi, 2012a; jafari et al., 2017b; mısır et al., 2018; my duong, 2014; wichayathian & reinders, 2018). although these studies indicate a trend in language teaching concepts, the most examined research also showed that it is perceived positively in an efl setting with some constraints, such as school and facilities (borg & al-busaidi, 2012b; cakici, 2017; lengkanawati, 2017). however, related to autonomous learning can be misunderstood because it can be perceived differently in various settings (jameelah, 2020; phan, 2013a). here, the learning setting has determined the changing in students' perceptions. therefore, more information was uncovered from the student's perceptions since they have recently been recognised as a key higher education reform strategy. 2.1. autonomous learners’ characteristics autonomous learners are characterised by some attributes, including understanding what is being taught, having personal learning goals, and being capable of choosing, evaluating, and monitoring their learning. scharle & szabó (2000) stated that autonomous learners possess several characteristics, such as accepting that their efforts are crucial to progress in learning and behaving accordingly. it also entails the willingness to cooperate with the teacher and others, consciously monitor their progress, and strive to use available opportunities to their benefit, including classroom activities and homework. kocak (2003) characterised autonomous learners as those who accept the responsibility of their learning and share in setting related goals. they also take the initiative in planning and executing learning activities and regularly review and evaluate the effectiveness of their learning. next, kemala (2016) stated that autonomous learners are characterised by the ability to find resources or materials needed for learning, identify their needs, and select projects. from the above characteristics, (dang, 2012a) gave three categorisations of learner autonomy attributes: initiating, monitoring, and evaluating. the initiating learning process concerns understanding personal 234 preferences, setting goals, preparing study plans, and creating opportunities. meanwhile, monitoring includes attributes related to learning engagement and maintenance, such as selecting appropriate strategies, modifying learning paths, and negotiating with others. the evaluating process anticipates attributes of reviewing learning outcomes, such as proofreading an assignment and appraising a piece of writing. although some researchers have different attributes of learner autonomy, they agreed on one factor: the learner is capable of taking control and responsibility for their learning. through these processes, the autonomous learner eventually establishes a personal agenda for learning (chan, 2010; reinders & balçikanli, 2011) by setting up directions in the planning, pacing, monitoring, and evaluating the learning process. therefore, becoming an autonomous learner means that one needs to start with themselves by reflecting on their beliefs, practices, experiences, and expectations of the learning situation. 3. method the study builds on a mix-method research design to explore the views of students on autonomous learning and the activities they perform to encourage their decision-making capacity in learning at different levels from levels two, four, and six. questionnaires and interviews were the research tools contextualised for the students of a regional university in sumatra. meanwhile, four efl students by random sampling were interviewed in-depth to obtain more data from the survey. a questionnaire adapted from khotimah et al. (2019) was employed since it has the same purpose to explore the efl learners’ perceived autonomous learning and how the initiating, monitoring, and evaluating efforts were when studying in or out of classrooms. it was divided into four parts: definition, initiating, monitoring, and evaluating (16 items) (see appendix a). one was to evaluate the definition of autonomous learning known and involved responding to a checklist from the options provided. special for definition, the participant only selects or gives the checklist on one of three options. meanwhile, five items entailed assessing the initiation of activities, seven items were about monitoring, and three concerned evaluating activities which had been attempted during learning in the efl context. the fifteen items used a four-point likert scale from 1 for “never” to 4 for “often.” here, the questionnaire data were analysed using spss version 21.0, the statistical package for social sciences. a detailed interview included exploring the activities of efl students to enhance the autonomous learning of students in the classroom and encompassed initiation, monitoring, and evaluation processes. besides the pre-designed questions, the interviews were semi-structured, and emerging themes were explored. these themes were one-to-one, lasted approximately forty (40) minutes, and were conducted by the authors in september 2019 for five participants, involving four learners as the active respondents and one teacher (t). the interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and thematically analysed, and the researcher employed nvivo 12 to work on both tools. there were four steps in analysing the data: (1) coding, (2) classifying the coding, (3) matrix coding, and (4) summary. for coding, the author uses symbols a, b, c, and d as representative active students’ samples, while the numbers (1, 2, and 3) represent the items. meanwhile, the conceptual framework of this analysis was based on studies by some experts (benson, 2012; dang, 2012b; dickinson et al., 1993; little & dam, 1998; orawiwatnakul & wichadee, 2017), and the main themes were discussed and validated to ensure transparency and consistency. all the participants signed an agreement outlining the objectives of the study and gave oral permission to record their interviews. anonymity and confidentiality were applied throughout the study, and the interviews were held in an interactional and friendly way. 4. results 4.1. the efl learners’ voices on autonomous learning the results related to the efl learners’ voices about autonomous learning definition on the questionnaire were varied because the participants were required to select a definition from the three choices. the following definition was the most precise produced so far. table 4.1 descriptive statistics of the student's perception of autonomous learning a definition total n % 1. independence in learning english is studying without the help of a teacher. 95 10 11 2. independence in learning english is a condition in which students are responsible for the implementation of english learning, and teachers are responsible for the planning and assessment phases. 95 36 37 3. independence in learning english is a condition in which, apart from receiving guidance from the teacher, students are also responsible for planning, implementing, and evaluating english learning. 95 59 62 235 in conformity with table 4.1, there are 37% of the participants claimed that autonomous learning meant that students focused solely on the learning process without being responsible for initiating and evaluating activities. this result supports cirocki et al.'s (2019) research that indonesian students had a minimal understanding of the learner's autonomy and described it as a learner's ability to function independently of the teacher. however, 62% out of 95 persons chose the third definition, the definition that autonomous learning meant the students set their goals and regulations by themselves to achieve their target but require guidance from the lecturer because they cannot work alone. unfortunately, what students mean about set regulation is different from what the teacher set. the students focus on the regulation of tasks or projects but not the regulation of the general learning process. hence, guidance from the lecturer is still an essential consideration in promoting autonomy for them. this definition helped distinguish between autonomous learning in europe and asia (thi & phan, 2012), where the european learners felt that thinking and making decisions are abilities that learners in classrooms should have, besides the writing skill. the remaining ten students admitted that autonomous learning was about being responsible for the learning process without the teacher's help. this definition corresponds with the explanation by hafner & miller (2011) that the concept of learner autonomy is often mistakenly defined merely as independent outof-class learning in which learners are in control of all aspects of their learning process. it also supports the study by phan (2015), which discovered that although learner autonomy has recently been identified as a key strategy for higher education reforms, there exists a potential for misunderstanding of the term, given that it can be interpreted differently in diverse settings. research also defined it as taking responsibility for one’s learning and actively seeking out new knowledge. it argued that autonomy requires specific metacognitive knowledge regarding one’s self as a learner, the subject matter to be learned, and the context so that the processes become urgent for longlife learning (sinclair & thang, 2009). subsequently, this study observes how efl learners in different levels or semesters depict their autonomous learning activities when initiating, monitoring, as well as evaluating, and whether any differences among them exist. before interpreting the result, normality and homogeneity assumption tests were conducted. based on the normality test outcomes using the kolmogorov smirnov results in appendix b (table 1), it can be seen that the planning, monitoring, and assessment data were significant at > 0.05. therefore, the data for initiating, monitoring, and assessment can be concluded as normally distributed. meanwhile, based on the homogeneity test in table 2 (see appendix 2), it can be seen that all the initiating, monitoring, and assessment variables, which had a value of > 5% alpha (p>0.05), consequently had homogeneous variations. 4.2. autonomous learning activities among efl learners based on the descriptive analysis data, it mentioned that the average value of the initiating aspect for levels 2, 4, and 6 were 2.98, 2.78, and 2.86, respectively. meanwhile, the sd was 0.513 each for semesters 2 and 4 and 0.469 for levels 6. the monitoring aspect achieved by the efl learners in levels 2, 4, and 6 generated average values of 3, 2.91, and 2.85, with sd of 0.502, 0.582, and 0.554, respectively. conversely, the evaluation aspect for semesters 2, 4, and 6 produced average values of 2.77, 2.68, and 2.78, with successively sd as follows 0.595, 0.684, and 0.494 (see graph 1). the descriptive analysis results can be seen in appendix b (table 3). figure 4.1. learners’ autonomous learning proces 236 figure 4.1 reveals that the degree of initiative is most significant at the beginning of the semester (2.98) relative to semester 4 (2.78), but it has risen again in semester 6. (2.85). the higher score interventions in semester two were reinforced by the fact that the learning process in semester two was packed with internal student excitement, as well as the importance of lecturers as a reasonably strong motivator, according to interviews with respondents. the data interview showed that discussion and stimuli are classified into initiative activity which is described by students c and d. when t gave questions as the opening class, then; “she wants us the response one by one”, and “reminds us to find other material." [c1 and d1] the student's participation in the discussion offered by the teacher at each meeting, either at the beginning of the lecture or in the middle of the subject presentation, is beneficial. it often promoted the learners to prepare additional material to support the subject of the day and sharpened their spontaneity in making arguments in a class discussion. participant t claimed that there were many ways by which a lecturer can inspire students to learn independently. first, provide students with encouragement about the value of independent learning activities. after suggesting that the classroom exercises are not optimal enough to help them master english, the students must have the initiative to learn individually. performing this activity according to their version in several fun ways will enable the language acquisition process to be better achieved. second, give examples of the value of possible independent learning tasks and ways of performing them individually to achieve maximum performance. this approach was communicated based on personal experience to help the students easily apply the examples provided. for example, they were advised to listen to songs or news or watch cartoons or youtube content in english as a widespread practice to develop their listening skills. these activities were encouraged to be performed regularly during their free time and with discipline. additionally, the learners were reminded to assess the best time for independent study. third, tasks that develop the imagination were provided to help students learn independently. one example of such tasks, which involved making a presentation in english, was, in reality, indirectly meant to inspire the students to practice speaking the language to do the job better and required them to engage in learning activities. hence, this task encouraged independence through active practising. fourth, feedback on the assignments was provided to inspire the students to study independently at all times and continue enhancing the quality of their learning outcomes. here, they were open to the feeling that they would have the same ability to share their ideas. unfortunately, student engagement is based solely on class discussions and little involvement in-process monitoring, such as attendance percentage, tasks, and midterm tests, excluding the final evaluation. they openly asked questions or were otherwise probed by lecturers and colleagues when the opportunity to share their ideas was offered. these questions somehow became a stimulus to enhance the learners thinking. students c and d admitted: “one of the stimuli needed by learners is a simulation. students get more inspired with simulation and try imitating to discover more about it as well. also, everything that can initiate learning becomes a separate stimulus for them, whether from the way the lecturer opens, describes, offers guidance, or the learning strategy provided.” [c2 and d2] the lectures' simulations encouraged active engagement and interaction of the students to allow ideas to be communicated. sadly, it was limited by the student's english fluency, as some still felt anxious and were afraid of making mistakes. although several students felt nervous about speaking and lacked confidence because of the full use of english, they knowingly suggested that using it entirely would make them more fluent in the language of the future. for the monitoring process, efl students in the second semester have 0.09 points greater than students in the fourth semester, and students in the sixth semester have 0.06 points less than students in the fourth semester. students in semester 4 argue that they are more reserved during lectures and do more community work than individual work this semester. however, students in the sixth semester confessed to working more monotonously due to the many individual tasks and projects that needed to be accomplished. further, the students stated that they did not want to be overlooked, even though the lecturer still played a role in supervising them by providing specific guidelines or directions. this behaviour resulted in confusion and the inability to implement some tasks, especially for students a and b. nevertheless, c and d stated that they did not prefer direction when resuming tasks, as the guidance restricted and led them to copy a pattern, produce monotonous outcomes, and prevent them from freely conveying what they understood. furthermore, efl learners preferred individual assignments to group tasks, as they found it easier to determine when and how and obtain fair outcomes or results for the individual work. conversely, the final evaluation and distribution of the group work tended to be less fair to the students, according to participants a, b, c, and d. the lecturer exposed a similar idea that the method of monitoring the learners to encourage independence was by giving routine assignments, projects, and regular feedback. it 237 supports the claims of previous studies by (kocak, 2003; sönmez, 2016) that monitoring the progress of learners could be done by available opportunities, including classroom activities and homework. here, the lecturer admitted several ways, of which the first was assigning routine assignments. “i always give assignments weekly to the students about the material that has been or will be learned. this assignment may be a task i will say they must do, such as summarising the material that has been done or looking for additional references related to the material to be discussed. through these methods, i indirectly stimulate students to study independently, and then i will monitor by requesting feedback on the assignments that i gave.” [a3, b3, c3, and d3] second, feedback on the tasks given regularly is provided, and the lecturer commented: “i do this by asking questions at the beginning of class activities and i ask some students to express their ideas related to the assignments that i gave. to motivate students to express their ideas, i conduct a reward and punishment system.” [t3] this evidence supports the study results by jameelah (2020) that providing feedback and selfassessment resources for learners can enormously help their autonomous abilities for learning in fl learning. for the evaluation process, we can see on the graph that the scores for semester 2 (2.78) and semester 6 (2.77) are just 0.1 apart, implying that semesters 2 and 6 have similar supportive views. yet, the score for semester 4 (2.67) is 0.11 points less than theirs. being at the same point, they are still in the progress of learning about approach and evaluation concepts in an efl setting. from the data interview, it can be reported that to allow the learners to evaluate the effectiveness of the strategy, the improvement, and the outcome of their learning, they admitted that receiving a detailed procedure for every task was helpful. students a, b, c, and d also stated that they obtained feedback about the assignments from the lecturer and considered their achievements. on the whole, the initiating, monitoring, and evaluation had normal and homogeneous data aspects; the anova test was used then. the anova test state that the sig. between-group for initiating process is .286 >0.05, the sig. between-group in the monitoring process is .533>0.05, and the sig. between-group in evaluating is .744>0.05. this statistics data answers the second question: there is no significant difference in initiating, monitoring, and evaluating performed by levels 2, 4, and 6 (see appendix b table 4). 5. discussion the exposition below was the deepen explanation of the result in points 4.1 and 4.2 that paragraphing based on each result. 5.1. the efl learners’ voices of autonomous learning it is mentioned in the above studies was also supported by the interview where the efl learners defined the term. according to students a and b, autonomous learning is independent learning under one's target, using personal learning styles and strategies with the teacher's guidance. this matter is in line with hafner & miller (2011) study that the concept of learner autonomy is often mistakenly defined merely as independent out-of-class learning in which learners are in control of all aspects of their learning process. another participant, c, noted that it is about how students independently solve their learning problems. in contrast, student d claimed that the term involves the dependence of one's learning on their awareness only. it shows that students had not defined autonomous learning properly and practically. these findings are also supported by (hidayat et al., 2020) and rokhani (2013), who found that many students who enter higher educational institutions still depend on teachers. therefore, students lack autonomy in their learning or are less capable of autonomous learning and have not sufficiently prepared for the challenge of autonomous learning at university. meanwhile, teachers perceive autonomous learning defined the term as a learning activity performed by someone motivated to learn based on their knowledge of the value of learning. additionally, the teacher said autonomous learning practices are typically executed outside of structured activities and appear to be performed by students in areas where they feel comfortable learning. such a situation could involve a visual learner who would prefer to study independently by viewing youtube videos in places with excellent internet access or watching tv at home to improve their comprehension. in conclusion, all the definitions focused on how students learn to possess knowledge initially and gave tiny portions on monitoring and evaluating what they have. here, the study opens the mind to the actual concept of the term for all respondents. the concept is that it involves one’s learning, as well as awareness, which covers all stages of learning, starting from planning the goal to monitoring and reflection during the period. it is in line with jafari (et al., 2017b) that the teacher’s assistance is only a sign, while the decision is on the learners themselves. 5.2. autonomous learning activities among efl learners based on table 4 (see appendix b), it can be seen that a significance value (p) of 0.286 was obtained at 238 the time of initiation of the data. the p-value was >0.05, meaning that there was no significant difference between the effort of the initiating activities performed among efl learners either in the second, fourth, or sixth level. they had almost the same effort towards understanding the course outline, having personal learning goals, acting systematically, and looking for references and activities that encouraged the learning. it is supported by dang (2012a) that initiating the learning process involves attributes related to understanding personal learning preferences, setting goals, preparing study plans, and creating learning opportunities. generally, the efforts made by the second-level of efl learners and the fourth-level in initiating phases, such as understanding the objectives of learning english in class and having personal learning goals besides these objectives, were similar. both groups also had systematic time and activities for learning english, looked for additional learning resources besides those obtained from the class, and searched for new activities in the language, apart from studying, at sd 0.51. conversely, the sixth-level efl learners' efforts regarding understanding the learning objectives in class and having personal lessons besides these objectives produced sd 0.46. these activities, which also entailed planning time and exercises for learning, looking for additional resources, and seeking new activities in english, apart from studying in the class, were better. consequently, this result revealed that they were starting to be careful about study objectives, planning, seeking additional referrals, and other activities. these other activities include developing their potential by joining a study club or students’ community or being private home-to-home tutors. the result of the interview with the respondents supported the questionnaire data. the students were asked to confirm whether the lecturer’s explanation of the lesson's goals helped improve their autonomy. they replied that it helped and supported them in preparing the material, as the lecturer provided the course outline or lesson’s objectives. students a and b said that recognising was helpful and served as a guide to support current topics. with the outline, they were often encouraged to decide on personal goals and complete assignments for courses, such as performing individual presentations. furthermore, the students could better prepare themselves to fulfil the tasks assigned by the instructor. explanations of the course description activity also help improve self-motivation to be more prepared for subsequent class meetings. the students can prepare what activities they can to encourage themselves and look for references to improve their knowledge about the topic. to sum up, learning goal and their support, good model, tasks, feedback, and simulation are needed to raise their autonomy in efl class. the gap lies in the frequency of teachers giving it during the learning and the level of difficulties. 5.3. the efl learners’ monitoring activities at this stage, autonomous learning covers activities such as knowing the appropriate strategies or methods for learning english, choosing the material according to individual abilities, and trying to improve skills in the language. it also entailed performing the prepared language learning plan, concentrating on learning english, and learning and interacting with friends, seniors, teachers, and native english speakers. table 3 also indicated that a significance value (p) of 0.533 was obtained from the data monitoring process. because the p-value is >0.05, it can be stated that there was no significant difference among the levels. although the second-level efl learners had the highest mean scores among the students, at 3.00, 2.91, 2.85, the highest std. of 0.501, 0.582, and 0.554 belonged to the fourth-level efl learners. it means that the second-level students had better monitoring activities among the three. the results were obtained from knowing the appropriate strategies and methods for learning english, choosing the material according to individual abilities, trying to improve skills in the language, and conducting prepared learning plans. these activities, which also involved concentration, learning, and interaction with friends, seniors, teachers, and native speakers of english, were better at sd 0.5 than the other two levels. the reason was that they were excited about joining the higher education environment, and their emphasis on subjects was firm. next, the second-level efl learners applied effort to improve their english skills by performing regular activities for every meeting and learning with others. consequently, they had high concentration and eagerness to interact. this finding contrasted with the effort of the efl learners in level 6, which gave sd 0.55, meaning they mainly chose ‘often’ in terms of making preparation and concentration less critical. the increasingly complicated state of the subjects and the high number of assignments were the reasons for poor concentration. also, these learners were familiar with strategies and methods for learning english, were capable of choosing materials according to their abilities, and improved their skills in the language by joining english clubs or discussion communities. they also arranged learning plans concentrated on english and enjoyed learning and having good interactions with friends, seniors, teachers, and native english speakers in the language. meanwhile, the fourth-level efl learners, at sd 0.58, mostly gave ‘rarely’ in response to questions about the appropriate strategies and methods for learning english and choosing the material according to their abilities. they also rarely tried to improve their skills, implement the prepared language learning plan, concentrate, or learn and interact with colleagues and teachers. the mid-year period made them more comfortable while attending lectures and subsequently lessened their efforts towards increasing their abilities and selecting materials. 239 they also paid little attention to the lesson and were less confident when performing tasks or working in groups without a guide. when lecturers regularly or actively involved the students in class concerning special preparations they engaged in, they replied positively. the students responded that they made arrangements by reviewing the previous material and planning it for the next meeting based on the syllabus. for example, making summaries after discussing a topic helped them practice their summarising ability and enhance their understanding. regarding the flexibility offered by the lecturer regarding the learning strategies, the students stated that they did not want to be omitted, despite the fact that the lecturer still played a pivotal role in advising them by providing specific instructions or directions. these outcomes created uncertainty and made it hard for students a and b to recommence their tasks. on the other hand, students c and d stated that they favoured not being guided when beginning tasks because guidance often limited their creativity and resulted in predictable outcomes. it is also in line with nguyen (2012) that the roles of teachers and learners are rooted deeply in people’s thinking. furthermore, efl students favoured individual work over group tasks because they thought it would be easier to decide when and how to complete the individual work and gain fair outcomes or results. according to participants a, b, c, and d, group work's final evaluation and distribution tended to be less fair and stressful to the students. it is supported by matthews and campbell (1998) that, at a practical level, evaluation of coping may contribute to leading to a more informed choice of countermeasures for stress. the lecturer presented a similar idea, stating that giving them routine assignments, projects, and regular feedback was the best way to monitor students and encouraged independence. it backs up previous studies' claims (kocak, 2003; sönmez, 2016) that monitoring learners' progress can be made through available opportunities, such as classroom activities and homework. here, the lecturer admitted several ways of giving opportunities by assigning routine assignments. weekly assignments to the students regarding the material that has been learned regularly. this assignment could be formed by highlighting previous material or looking for additional sources of information related to the material to be discussed. then, enhancing students to study individually using this method and overseeing by requesting constructive criticism on the assignments. next, giving feedback on assigned tasks is provided on a regular basis. it is in line with lang and kersting (2007) that feedback gradually increases students' ratings because it gives students a long-term perspective rather than no feedback. as the lecturer explained, asking questions at the start of class activities and requesting some students convey their ideas connected to the assignments. moreover, a reward and punishment system is used to encourage students to express their ideas. this actual proof supports the findings of jameelah's (2020) study, which found that giving feedback and self-assessment assets for learners can significantly improve their autonomous strengths for learning in fl learning. in conclusion, assigning routine assignments, whether individual or collaborative, in a group, doing projects individually or in a group, and regular feedback could train students to decide what should and should not. nevertheless, since they preferred doing a project or task individually, it is the opposite of the autonomous learning concept that collaboration has to deal with students as the centre of learning. thus, doing collaborative work seems to become the weakness of the efl students in indonesia. 5.4. the efl learners’ evaluating activities the evaluating stage is the learning assessment process that recognises the efl learners' abilities to review their daily learning and outcomes, such as rereading the assignment and assessing a piece of work. table 3 shows that the efl learners in the second, fourth, and sixth levels had mean scores of about 2.77, 2.68, and 2.78, with sd 0.595, 0.684, and 0.494, respectively. based on the anova test result, the significance value (p) of the evaluation data was 0.744, which is >0.05 (0.744>0.05). therefore, it can be stated that there was no significant difference in the efforts of the second, fourth, and sixth-level efl learners. this result indicated that they still did not give special attention to how they reviewed every learning session and the work they performed. the sixth-level efl learners had a similar mean score to the second-level participants (2 .78: 2.77), while the fourth-level students' average was lower than that of the second-level learners (2.68: 2.77). the evaluation activities of sixth-level efl learners produced sd 0.49 and were dominated by responses of "often," focusing on learning efficiency, developing their skills, and evaluating their performance. the reason was that they thought they were approaching the last year of college and naturally wanted to be academically better. the second-level efl learners, where sd 0.58 was obtained, seldom wanted to test their learning because they still relied heavily on the lecturer’s thorough instruction and guidance. meanwhile, the students at the fourth level with sd 0.68 often preferred “rarely” to evaluate the effectiveness of learning, the degree to which they had progressed, and their learning outcomes for the umpteenth time. from the mean scores among the three classes, the fourth level produced the lowest mean score, which reinforced that they seldom made efforts to improve their learning independence, either inside or outside the efl classroom. 240 this finding showed that while the efl learners’ level does not help them become more independent in evaluating, having good cognitive knowledge about autonomous learning can. moreover, this finding also corresponded with the lecturer’s belief that giving assignments could stimulate students to study independently (zhong, 2013). in this case, the given task should be structured by paying attention to the type, time, purpose, and method of evaluating the given task. preferably, one component of the assignment was related to learning that must be done independently. then, the lecturers must prepare an assessment rubric that can measure the students’ independent learning performance, and the achievements based on the results of evaluations made by the lecturer are conveyed to the learners. these steps are supported by jameelah (2020), who stated in the study that there are different technology resources that learners can use. also, feedback and selfassessment resources can be provided to strongly help their autonomous abilities in fl learning. although the list of tasks that the students engaged in during learning, including subjects, individual, or group assignments, was originally accomplished because of the instructor’s directives, they made them more accountable. when there was a lack of support from themselves, the learners were allocated to become more autonomous, and both oral and written language competence showed their independence. this finding corresponds with research by asiri jameelah (2020), which stated that the idea of language learning was to train them to develop their skills individually. yet, the students complained about the several activities they had to do, as obstacles, such as time, skill, and fragmented focus, caused the production of the less-than-ideal preferred result. therefore, concerning the research questions, it was clear statistically, as shown in table 4, that there was no significant difference between the perception of autonomous learning and the efforts input among the second, fourth, and sixth-level efl learners. the findings above confirmed that autonomous learning in indonesia is still close to conventional teaching. here, the teacher directs the method; students have access to experts in a typical classroom environment and are interested in questions (cirocki et al., 2019) and debates. they are exposed to social interaction and can learn from others. however, some learners prefer an individualised or less organised climate, and efl learners still prefer self-paced instruction. this point has been highlighted in previous studies with obviously different backgrounds (jameelah, 2020; phan, 2013b). 6. conclusion the autonomous learning perceived by efl learners and the comparison value of initiating, monitoring, and evaluating activities performed by different levels of students at the college level gives the readers a new paradigm and current phenomena. the result showed that efl learners are not fully independent in deciding when and how to initiate, monitor, and evaluate during autonomous learning because teacher assistance is required. meanwhile, the effort of being autonomous had no differences between levels 2, 4, and 6. this result revealed an urgent need for teachers to engage in valuable activities to enhance learners’ decision-making. through shared decisionmaking between students and teachers, learner autonomy lies between total self-directed and traditional learning. the need to improve teachers' techniques that can be used to enable learners to be independent at the university level also exists. these activities could also potentially be a better predictor of success, particularly in the indonesian efl about autonomous learning. consequently, it could affect the regularity and method with which teachers encourage autonomous learning and, ultimately, the opportunities for learners to become independent. hence, it would be advisable for educators to have a specific autonomous work plan that would be consistent with the goals of the course, such as training. the training should provide both theory and experience so that learners can gain a deeper theoretical understanding of autonomous learning while still engaging in extensive pedagogical practice, thus, principals and supervisors would effectively control how efl teachers cultivate autonomous learning in the classroom. this plan should be organised on a comprehensive basis, time-consuming, practical, varied, and versatile to enable ease of exploration. therefore, it is possible to revolutionise how students learn and enhance the methods through which teachers present information by being aware of autonomous 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(2013). learner beliefs and learner autonomy : a case study of two chinese migrant learners in new zealand. 1–19. instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9909 vol. 4, no. 2, august 2022, pp.158-169 158 comparison of how arabic and english foreign language learners compliment and respond to praises kamsinah kamsinah 1, yuliyanah sain 2, nurazizah aliah 3, nurasia natsir 4* 1 universitas hasanuddin, makassar, indonesia 2 universitas muhammadiyah kendari, kendari, indonesia 3universitas terbuka, makassar, indonesia 4 sekolah tinggi ilmu administrasi yappi makassar, makassar, indonesia nurasianatsir@stiayappimakassar.ac.id article history received : 2022-04-19 revised : 2022-07-14 accepted : 2022-07-16 keywords foreign language learners pragmatics failure english students arabic students speech acts abstract researching the speech acts performed between arabic and english speakers is one of the popular trends in pragmatic research. however, the majority of previous studies have only obtained data from native arabic and english speakers, or arabic natives who are learning english as a foreign language. this study intends to fill the research gap of comparing the speech acts of giving praise and responding to praise made by students who are studying both english and arabic as their foreign languages. this descriptive study used two instruments, namely a discourse completion task questionnaire consisting of twelve scenarios and an interview, involving 70 english learners and 70 arabic learners from uin alauddin makassar which is the only university in indonesia that offers the unique foreign language intensification development (piba) program. results have determined that the dominant praise strategies of arabic learners are awe and congratulating, while english learners tend to use surprise and congratulating strategies. both language learners dominantly use the strategies of giving appreciation and reassigning praises as their praise response strategies. this study concluded that arabic foreign language learners tend to have a small repertoire of praise and praise response strategies, while english foreign language learners’ arsenal of strategies is much more diverse. 1. introduction the diversity of the world’s languages, cultures, religions, beliefs and traditions manifests the most in the languages. cross-cultural communication is a currently thriving field as globalisation, instant communication and easy travel access make people from different parts of the world more connected than they have ever been in the past centuries (bakhov et al., 2021; luo & zhang, 2021; shadiev et al., 2021). alongside the significant, positive interest people generally have when it comes to learning and interacting with people from different cultures, this diversity is also a causal factor in cross-cultural misunderstandings when communicating (herdi & handayani, 2020; sahadevan & sumangala, 2021). one of the most common features of everyday discourses, whether in one or multiple languages, is complimenting. in a world where politeness is key to upholding civility among humanity (sembiring & sianturi, 2019), compliments are present in almost all kinds of conversations due to their great number offered and received,” (shaheeb & jibreen, 2008). thus, for the larger goal of facilitating a thorough understanding of cross-cultural communication, this study focuses on the particulars of speech acts the acts of getting things done by using words of complimenting between arabic and english language learners. researchers have been studying arabic and english together in a comparative light for decades, in large part due to the stark differences between the two languages. on top of the unrelated orthography and language family origins, the two languages have different vowel sounds, consonants, sentence structuring, etc. coupled with the fact that both english and arabic learners are two of the most dominantly used language and are also two languages with the highest number of speakers around the globe, there is little doubt why the study of arabic and english remains so strong through decades (ameur et al., 2020). existing literature on arabic and english languages in a comparative light is certainly not limited to the speech act of compliments. 30 efl learners from jordan were given a discourse https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9909 159 completion test to collect not just their speech acts of compliments, but also how they express condolences, giving congratulations and asking for permission by almahameed and al-ajalein (2019). the study was focused on testing whether the learners could produce the appropriate utterances, and found few evidences of pragmatic failure, citing the participants’ good competence in communication. their reasoning is supported by alrefaee and al-ghamdi (2019) study on 40 yemeni efl leaners and 40 american english native speakers, in which the data given by low proficient learners tend to reveal negative first language (l1) pragmatic transfer. al-kayed and alghoweri (2019) covered speech acts of criticism among jordanian arabic speakers, and chikhi and chebli (2021) conducted a similar investigation but with algerian arabic speakers. other kinds of speech acts between arabic and english have also been explored by many researchers within the past five years; almegren (2018) focused on saudi efl students’ speech acts of apologising, al-ghamdi and alrefaee (2020) compared yemeni efl speakers with american english native speakers’ speech acts of refusal, hosni (2020) analysed the egyptian arabic native speakers and american english native speakers’ speech acts of advising, and alghazo et al. (2021) addressed jordanian arabic natives’ speech acts of congratulating. many researchers have been particularly productive in publishing papers exploring the speech acts of praising in arabic and english languages. comparing the arabic and english compliments made by 100 iraqi efl learners, ebadi and salan (2015) observed that learners have a high tendency to accept compliments in english more than arabic compliments. another study compared the compliment speech acts made by 104 american native speakers and 71 saudi learners of english using a discourse completion task of four hypothetical scenarios (alsalem, 2015). the previous study found that the saudi efl students greatly assimilated the native english speech acts, attributing it to the saudi learners’ experience in the united states. almansoob et al. (2019) compared how yemeni arabic native speakers and american english native speakers compliment people. by involving 30 participants of each speaker groups, the study collected data using a discourse completion test consisting of six hypothetical compliment scenarios. frequency counts revealed admiration as a universal strategy between the arabic and english data provided by the natives, and that exaggeration, gratitude to god and metaphor seem to be culturally specific to the arabic language speakers. the researchers of this previous paper also continued to investigate how the yemeni students’ arabic native language (l1) negatively influences their compliment speech acts in english (l2) (alghamdi, 2019). they found 50% of the l2 production were the result of pragmatic failures, specifically when it comes to yemeni efl learners producing compliments using the strategies of acceptance, comment history, praise upgrade, return, no acknowledgement, offer, promise and wish. what stands out to the researcher from this literature review is the dominant trend of collecting data from native speakers. the majority, if not all of the existing studies are set in the context of native arabic speakers who would provide data in arabic as their first language and/or data in english as their foreign language. then, the arabic datasets of speech acts are almost always compared with the english datasets supplied by native english speakers, usually from the united states of america. as far as the researcher knows, there seems to be no study comparing english and arabic speech acts of complimenting made by both foreign language learners of the two languages. current knowledge has fully represented how english natives and arabic natives perform, but there is a research gap on how foreign language learners whose native languages are neither english nor arabic would perform. moreover, the majority of existing studies often emphasizes the l1 negative transfer to l2, but the current school of thought that language researchers ought to follow is how l1 actually scaffolds the students’ additional language acquisition and mastery (rasman, 2018). therefore, to address this gap, this study will carry out a two-fold investigation on how english and arabic foreign language learners produce the speech acts of praise and how they would respond to praises. the originality of this study lies in the nature of the research participants, specifically the type of students that this study chose to be the participants. this study is set in the english and arabic departments of the faculty of adab and humanities at state islamic university (uin) alauddin makassar, indonesia. the departments were chosen because the students have gone through a program known as the foreign language intensification development (piba) program, which is a program that emphasises character building and formation to reflect the values of being active, innovative, creative, effective, and fun in the learning of both english and arabic. the program has a vision of supporting the realisation of english and arabic as international languages, thus the english and arabic department students in this university are always taught not just to master the linguistic skills of their target languages, but also to master the pragmatic skills so that they can apply their knowledge appropriately when interacting in real life. with this program, the indonesian students have access to a supportive arabic-language environment alongside a supportive english-language environment. currently, only uin alauddin makassar offers this program in eastern indonesia (israwati, 2017). additionally, this university also gives its students other innovative arabic learning programs, such as the enlightenment of faith and life skills program (pikih), the character-building program (cbp) and 160 training for the test of arabic as a foreign language (toafl) (rusydi & musgamy, 2021). therefore, the students in this study have a higher-than-average competence in english and arabic compared to many other english students and arabic students. the results of this study will be comparable with the existing, dominant linguistic data from native speakers, because the researcher assumes that the students’ who study the two languages as foreign learners will mainly provide pragmatically appropriate responses that rarely contain grammatical errors. the research questions formulated in this study: 1) how do indonesian arabic and english foreign language learners give praises? 2) how do indonesian arabic and english foreign language learners respond to praises? this research is very important because the findings will be very useful in assisting lecturers or teachers of english and arabic in improving their lessons, lecture, and learning materials in the process of teaching foreign languages in the classroom. it is hoped that with the findings in this study, both english and arabic teachers will obtain authentic and comprehensive input to improve their teaching and learning process more efficiently while balancing linguistic competence and pragmatic competence in teaching. 3. method this study is designed as a descriptive research, which is a statistical method that is used to search and summarise historical data in order to identify patterns or meaning. this study took place in october 2020 (one month) at the faculty of adab and humanities at state islamic university (uin) alauddin makassar, which is the only university in eastern indonesia that offers a foreign language intensification development (piba) program for the english and arabic departments. this study purposely selected 70 english students and 70 arabic students who completed the language intensification program (140 participants in total). the students gave their consent as participants through a brief survey that contains a brief explanation of the purpose of the research and requests their demographic details such as gender, mother tongue background, and known foreign language mastery. the researcher used two instruments to collect the data for this study, namely online questionnaires and one-on-one interviews. both instruments were designed as a discourse completion task (dct). this instrument is a data elicitation method that generates large amounts of contextually varied and comparable cross-linguistic speech act data and is used predominantly in cross-cultural and interlanguage pragmatics research (ogiermann, 2018). a dct is a questionnaire that consists of brief descriptions and short dialog, accompanied with empty slots for the participants to provide data of speech acts (blum-kulka, 1982; al-khateeb, 2009). table 3.1. the 12 scenarios of discourse completion task type scenario topic praising someone 1 praising your friends/uncles/aunts/teachers' appearance, in particular their famous branded jackets. 2 praising someone you know who has won a competition. 3 praising someone at a party who is known for being charming and can impress everyone. 4 praising someone's new and magnificent house when you visited them. 5 praising someone's achievements and performance during their promotion celebration. 6 praising the appearance of someone you know when you met in a shopping centre/mall responding to praise 7 a male colleague on campus praising your expensive new bag 8 a car driving instructor praising your performance and skills during training 9 a female colleague praising the new clothes you just purchased at a shopping centre. 10 uncles/aunts praising your victory in a competition. 11 uncles/aunts praising your party dress/attire during your visit to her house. 12 parents and teachers praising you for having a good gpa. 140 participants were given the dct questionnaire which consisted of twelve scenarios, of which six are topics which prompts them to give praise based on the social context of the topics, while the other six prompts the students to respond to the praises they would receive in the hypothetical scenarios given in the topics. the researcher then discussed the students’ questionnaire responses through online interview sessions. 161 table 3.2. types of praise and praise response strategies praise strategies (enssaif, 2005) no strategies coding definitions examples 1 admiration adm explicitly using verbs as: like/love or inserting positive adjectives such: pretty, great, nice …etc. it is nice; i like it. 2 encouragement enc stimulating the complimentee to persuade more achievements. go ahead! 3 approval apv positively evaluating what has been achieved. well done! 4 wish wsh making a wish for the complimentee. i wish you a happy life! 5 surprise srp expressing a surprise on the part of the complimentee. i can't believe it! 6 exclamation exc implicitly making an admiration via an exclamatory utterance. what a beautiful hairstyle! 7 congratulations cgr explicitly congratulating the addressee for some achievement or traits. congratulations! 8 noticed change ntc explicitly expressing the change on the part of the addressee. you look different! 9 metaphor met praising the complimentee via an unordinary description. you are a real star! 10 invocation inv wishing the complimentee by the name of god. allah bless you! 11 comparison cpr explicitly comparing some relevant affairs. yours is better! 12 exaggeration exg admiring the complimentee's affairs via exaggeration. she has a magic hand! 13 questioning que making an interrogative utterance as a compliment. what have you done to remain so young? 14 gratitude to god grg expressing gratitude to god for the complimentee's achievement. thank god. 15 appreciation apc expressing a direct gratitude to the complimentee for an achievement. i am grateful for you! 16 pride prd explicitly expressing pride of the addressee. i am proud of you 17 happiness hpp explicitly expressing happiness of the addressee's affairs. happy for that! 18 expectation exp showing expectation of what has been achieved by the complimentee. i expect you would get it! 19 advice adv giving a piece of advice for the complimentee. you should be very happy about that! 20 silence sln leaving the scenarios blank without giving a compliment. (silence) praise response (herbert, 1986) no strategies coding definitions examples 1 appreciation token apc a verbal or non verbal acceptance of the compliment thanks; thank you. 2 comment acceptance acc addressee accepts the compliment and offers a relevant comment on the appreciated topic. thanks, it's my favorite too. 3 praise upgrade pup addressee accepts the compliment and contributes to the force of the compliment. really brings out the blue in my eyes, doesn't it? 4 comment history cmh addressee offers a comment on the object of the compliment, usually some information about how s/he has acquired it. i bought it from the trip to coney island. 5 reassignment rsg addressee agrees with the compliment, but the complimentary force is transferred to some third person. my brother gave it to me. 6 return rtn the praise is shifted or returned to the addresser. so is yours. 7 scale down scd addressee disagrees with the complimentary force, pointing to some flaw in the object or claiming that the praise is overstated. it's really quite old. 8 questioning que addressee questions the sincerity or the appropriateness of the compliment. do you really think so? 9 disagreement dsg addressee asserts that the object of the compliment is not praiseworthy i hate it. 10 qualification qlf addressee merely qualifies the original assertion, usually with though, but, well etc. it's alright, but hers is nicer. 11 no acknowledgement noa addressee gives no indication of having heard the compliment. the addressee either responds with an irrelevant comment or gives no response. (silence) 12 request req addressee interprets the utterance as a request rather than a simple compliment. you wanna borrow this one too? 162 the coding process is based on the semantic formula taxonomy done by enssaif’s (2005) 20 praise strategies and herbert’s (1986) 12 praise response strategies. table 3.3. deductive coding scheme coding scheme excerpt (order of data)_language learner/type of speech act-scenario/strategy example: excerpt 1/al/ps-1/aw codes meaning al arabic learner el english learner ps praise rp responding to praise the data analysis used descriptive statistics, in which the researcher coded and presented the summary of the results through tables and charts. by referring to these theories as the predefined set of codes, the coding process is done deductively (table 3). the data coding is then re-checked and validated by a research assistant, who is qualified as a data enumerator. 4. results to find out the forms of praise strategies and praise response strategies used by english and arabic sixth-semester students at the adab and humanities faculty of uin alauddin makassar, this study asked 70 english learners and 70 arabic learners to provide praises and responses to a praise based on twelve unique scenarios (table 1). the responses from each group of students are categorised based on enssaif’s (2005) classification of praise and praise response strategies. chart 4.1. arabic learners' strategies to praise someone this study found that arabic learners unanimously (n=70) tend to give praise by showing their admiration. more than 50 participants out of the total number of arabic learners selected in this study also use the praise strategies of congratulating, making an invocation (mostly known as praying), showing happiness, and being grateful to god when they intend to give praises. the following excerpts are some examples of their responses. 163 ما اجمل سترتك يا صديقتي maa ajmala sutrataki yaa shadiiqatii. your clothing is so beautiful. excerpt 1_al/ps-1/adm كذلب ماشاء هللا يا أستاذي انت تستحق maa syaa allaahu, yaaa ustadzii anta tastahiuqqun bidzalika. masya allah, duhai my ustadz you deserve it. excerpt 2_al/ps-2/grg تكك، انا فخورة بإنجاز فيبارك هللا baarakallaahu fiika, anaa fakhuuratun bi’injaazika. allah bless you, i am proud of your achievement. excerpt 3_al/ps-5/prd سترتي المفضلةسترتك وحدة من ألن اجد واو ، السترة التي ترتدي ها جيدة waw, assutratul latii tartadiihaa jayyidatun jidda lianna sutrataki waahdatan min sutratiil mufadhdhalah. wow, the clothing you wear is very great. because your clothes are better than my best clothes. excerpt 4_al/ps-1/exg كنت جماال ماشاء هللا kunta jamaalan maa syaa allahu. you are strong, maa syaa allah. excerpt 5_al/ps-6/adm انك مختلفة اليوم ودبي yabduu annaki mukhtalifatul yauma. you are truly different today. excerpt 6_al/ps-6/ntc the excerpts above showed arabic learners’ praising using the various strategies, some in very short sentences and some in longer ones. an interesting observation in chart 4.1 is the distinct preference of using certain kinds of strategies with >40 responses and avoidance of others. this means that out of the 20 kinds of praise strategies, arabic learners tend to use only eight of them (admiration, congratulations, invocation, happiness, grateful to god, expectation, exclamation, and questioning), rarely use six of them (exaggeration, pride, noticed change, hope, agreement, metaphor) and do not use the other six kinds of strategies (giving advice, appreciation, comparison, surprise, encouragement and being silent). chart 4.2. english learners' strategies to praise someone on the other hand, this study found that english learners have a more widespread option of praise strategies. two of the most dominant strategies that they tend to use are being surprised (n = 66) and giving congratulations (n = 61). this is followed by two more strategies that english learners tend to use to compliment someone, approval (n = 45) and exclamation (n = 44). the following excerpts are some examples of their responses. 164 i hope you can be comfortable with your new job. excerpt 7_el/ps-5/hpp congrats. you are so amazing there. i am really proud of you. excerpt 8_el/ps-2/prd wow you look great tonight uncle, let’s get some drink. excerpt 9_el/ps-3/sur wow is that your home? i didn’t even know. excerpt 10_el/ps-4/sur that is so cool. can you also buy me one? excerpt 11_el/ps-1/exp you look more beautiful, now. it's unusual thing you wear this stuff. but i appreciate your changing. excerpt 12_el/ps-3/ntc a comparison of chart 4.1 and chart 4.2 reveals the difference between the repertoire of strategies to praise used by arabic and english learners. out of the database of 20 kinds of praise strategies, only 2 strategies were not used by any of the 70 english foreign language learners when presented with the scenarios in the discourse completion task. it is interesting to note that the 2 praising strategies that were excluded are being grateful to god and saying an invocation, which are some of the most dominant strategies used by arabic learners to compliment someone. chart 4.3. arabic learners' strategies to respond to praises when it comes to responding to praises, this study found that arabic learners use 8 strategies out of the total 12 kinds of praise response strategies. all 70 participants who learned arabic as their foreign language always reassigned the praise or give their appreciation for the praise. aside from the twelve praise response strategies made by herbert (1986), this study found that uin alauddin arabic foreign language learners also employ two praise strategies as praise response strategies as well. arabic learners tend to convey their gratefulness to god (n = 68) and invocation (n = 18). this pattern mirrors the data in chart 4.1. مدحك كل على شكرا syukran ‘alaa kulli madhika. thank you for all of your compliments. excerpt 13_al/rp-7/acc العم من دعاء بسبب ايضا هذا لك شكرا syukran laki hadza aidhan bisababid du’aai minal ummi. thanks to you as well, this is also because of the prayer of a mother. excerpt 14_al/rp-10/scd هللا بسبب تأيدكمشكرا لكم هذه هدية من syukran lakum, haadzihi hadiyyatun minalaahi bisababi ta’diikum. thank you, this is all a gift from allah due to your support. excerpt 15_al/rp-12/grg 165 يبة رخيصة حقدحك، و هذه كل م على اشكر syukran ‘alaa kulli madhika, wa haadzihi haqiibatun rakhiishatun. thank you for your compliment, and this bag is a cheap bag. excerpt 16_al/rp-7/scd شكرا يا مديري syukran yaa mudiiri. thank you, my leader. excerpt 17_al/rp-8/acc فضل التشجيع والحماس الذي علمتني يا ا بضي أ اك و هذشكرا ل معلمي syukran laki wa haadza aidhan bifadhlit tasyji’ wal hammaasil ladzii ‘allamtanii yaa mu’allimatii. thank you and this is from the guidance and encouragement that you have taught to me. excerpt 18_al/rp-8/rtn there are one more strategy of praise response that arabic learners frequently use in this study, namely returning the praise (n = 58). rather unexpectedly, under 20 participants used the strategies of prayer and scaling down (also known as being humble) to respond to praises. praise upgrade strategy is only done by 2 participants. meanwhile, none of the arabic learners responded to the praises given in the scenarios with the strategies of comment acceptance, request, no acknowledgement, disagreement, qualification, questioning or comment history. observing chart 4.1 and chart 4.3, arabic learners seem to have a definite preference for certain kinds of strategies in the speech act of praising. chart 4.4. english learners' strategies to respond to praises in the same vein, english language learners have a wider range of strategies to respond to praise much like how they also use many different kinds of strategies to give praise. however, chart 4 shows that at least one strategy dominated other kinds of strategies, namely using appreciation tokens (n = 68). the second most used strategy to respond to praises is reassigning them to a third person (n = 34). thank you so much. it’s the result of you all. and for all of things you have done for me. excerpt 19_el/rp-12/rtn thank you. i am working really hard on this. excerpt 20_el/rp-8/qlf oh, thank you. you too look beautiful. excerpt 21_el/rp-9/rtn ohahaha thanks babe, i have saved my money to have this. 166 excerpt 22_el/rp-7/qlf i feel glad that you like it. excerpt 23_el/rp-9/hpp thank you very much. you too, look so beautiful with that dress. excerpt 24_el/rp-11/rtn aside from appreciation and deflection, english learners wield twelve other strategies to respond to praises, which include disagreeing, upgrading praise, scaling down, returning the praise, questioning, accepting, giving a qualification, commenting history, being grateful to god and not giving any acknowledgement. based on the data obtained from the discourse completion task, only two praise response strategies are not used by any of the 70 english learners, namely comment acceptance and invocation. table 4.1. comparison of the most dominant strategies employed by both group of learners most dominant praise strategy arabic learners english learners admiration 100% 41% surprise 0% 94% most dominant praise response strategy arabic learners english learners appreciation 100% 97% reassignment 100% 49% table 4.1 presents the strategies that are most dominantly used by each group, and the data shows that there is at least one stark difference in the speech acts between both language learners. when prompted to give praises based on the given scenarios, it seems that arabic learners unanimously employed the praise strategy of admiration, while only 41% of english language learners employed this strategy. instead, english learners dominantly give praise by showing their surprise (94%), which is a strategy that is completely absent among the data of praises made by arabic language learners. in contrast, both arabic and english language learners dominantly use two of the same strategies to respond to praises, namely giving appreciation and reassigning praise. as can be seen across all four charts of the results and table 4.1, this study found that arabic and english learners sometimes share the same strategies or use entirely different strategies when they are praising and responding to praises. 5. discussion this research is set to answer the research questions of how indonesian learners of arabic and english language perform the speech acts of praise and praise response. the focus on praise and responses to praise in this study is because these speech acts reflect the cultural values embedded in the language, and scientific investigation of the linguistic corpus of data can reveal the uniqueness of the languages. where previous studies often compare the compliment speech acts of these two languages from native arabic speakers and native english speakers or efl learners whose native language is arabic, the novelty of this study is the draw of data from students of the only university in eastern indonesia that offers a foreign language intensification development (piba) program for both english and arabic department students, making them a unique batch of participants. in summary, of the 70 arabic learners were found to unanimously use the praise strategy of admiration, followed by congratulating, praying, showing happiness, and being grateful to allah. this group of learners showed a preference for a small number of strategies of the total 20 praise strategies. their choices for praise response strategies are similarly few, with reassigning praise, appreciating, and being grateful to god being the most dominant ones. on the other hand, data obtained from the 70 english learners indicated that their strategies for both giving praise and responding to praise are more diverse. also, the students who learn english as their target language preferred strategies to give praise are very different with arabic learners. english learners dominantly use the praise strategies of being surprise and congratulating, and only one of the participants used the praise strategies of saying gratefulness to god and none made an invocation, which are arabic learners’ frequent, though not the most dominant, praise strategies. despite this different, both english and 167 arabic learners dominantly employ the same strategies to respond to praises, namely appreciation and reassignment. the results on the frequency of participants who used the praise strategies of praying and being grateful to god is quite unexpected, as they are the third and fifth most used strategy instead of being the most used by the 70 indonesian learners of arabic in this study. this finding is very different from almansoob et al. (2019), whose 30 yemeni native speakers of arabic students dominantly use the praise strategies of exaggeration, gratitude to god, followed by metaphor. in this study, only 19 out of 70 arabic learners used the praise strategy of exaggeration, and only 2 participants used metaphor to compliment someone in arabic. moreover, giving gratitude to god and praying are also the third and fifth most frequently used strategies to respond to compliments by arabic learners in this study. considering how the religion of islam seems tightly intertwined with the language of arabic, it is surprising to note that the two most religious strategies are actually not the most dominantly used by the participants. al-ghamdi (2019), who compared three datasets from yemeni efl speakers, yemeni arabic native speakers and american english native speakers’ speech acts of compliments, also only obtained a small amount of data on the praise strategy of giving gratitude to god; instead, all three groups of speakers dominantly respond to praises by using the strategy of appreciation token (e.g., “thanks so much”). however, when all of the strategies that arabic and english learners use are considered instead of just the one or two strategies that they most frequently employ, the results do point out that arabic learners tend to use strategies that serve as a form of prayer. in contrast, english learners’ praises tend to have the function of encouraging people or the interlocutor/conversation partner. this study did not observe significantly large differences in regards to the length of the compliments. the data collected from this study’s discourse completion task primarily yielded short, oneor two-sentence compliments from both arabic and english foreign language learners from the indonesian university. meanwhile, other studies who analysed speech acts of complimenting have noted comparisons between simple and complex compliments. for instance, almansoob et al. (2019) study on arabic native speakers from yemen and english native speakers from america found that compliment in arabic tend to be longer, using twofold (e.g. “ اعجبني شكلك .انك بدوت مختلف ا [translation] i like your style! you look completely different!”), three-fold to four-fold semantic formulas, while american compliments tended to be shorter with twofold order being the longest they usually use. the data in this present study, in contrast, are mostly monostrategic utterances of the one-fold semantic formula and the two-fold formula; the foreign language learners of both groups did not provide praises or responses to praises with four-fold semantic formulas. a possible factor of the shorter responses may be attributed to the students’ fluency, as they are still learning these languages in their university years and do not grow up with them as their mother tongues. however, the students may have also deliberately chose to use short compliments because simple sentences possess a stronger flattery impact, which has been noted by solodka & perea (2018). regarding the compliment lengths, the longer compliments prevalent in the database of arabic compliments seem to indicate yemenis perception that “longer expressions show more politeness” (almansoob et al., 2019, p. 10). the correlation between more words and more politeness has been pointed out recently by mcculloch (2019), that as people become more fluent in writing or typing, they increase the amount of words that they use, thereby increasing their facility to be politer. a study on offensive language has mentioned that language teachers can take advantage of this phenomenon as a way to decrease the likelihood of students using witty, yet aggressive, one-liners (hamuddin et al., 2020). a previous study has analysed the speech acts of complimenting more than two languages. solodka & perea (2018) collected data from native speakers from the united states, russia and ukrania and collected 445 russian, 231 ukrainian and 245 english compliments given by people from different backgrounds, mostly middle class between ages 15-70 years old. instead of collecting the data of compliments by presenting scenarios, the researchers of this previous study interviewed the participants to request for the last compliment they gave to someone and ask about the circumstances in detail, such as the recipient of the compliment, the relationship between the two speakers, the kind of tone was used when the compliment given, so the data of this study relied on the participants’ recollection. one of their findings is the recurrent pattern of adjectives that american speakers tend to use when complimenting (e.g., “the best,” “great,” and “nice”), which is juxtaposed by ukranian and russian speakers’ tendency to both praise people primarily with the adjectives “pretty” and “smart.” this observation of english native speakers’ tendency in the speech acts of complimenting is echoed in the results of this present study. the data of praises given by the indonesian english learners also often feature the adjectives “great” and “nice.” this finding shows light on a pattern that may be unique to english speakers of this time, whether they are natives or foreign language learners. overall, this study contributes in revealing the nuance differences of the kinds of praise and praise response strategies used by arabic and english foreign language learners from indonesia, and showed 168 how these data compare with previous studies which are more focused on arabic and english native speakers’ speech acts of praising. compliments are an interesting subject to study because it is one, if not the most, effective way to ensure smooth communication. as stated by mcgee (2019, p. 78), “traditionally, students and teachers tend to focus on grammatical awareness, and this means that general awareness of pragmatic violations (another word for pragmatic failures) is not very high.” this study responded to this problem by showing how the students of uin alauddin makassar produce their speech acts as students who went through an innovative language intensification program that is designed to emphasise students’ awareness of being pragmatically appropriate. 6. conclusions the base results of this study are the identification of the preferred praise strategies used by arabic foreign language learners (e.g., awe, congratulations, prayer, happiness, grateful to god, expectation) and english foreign language learners (e.g., excited, agreement, congratulations, surprise), as well as the preferred praise response strategies of the arabic learners (e.g., reassigning praise, appreciation, grateful to god, acceptance, returning praise) and english learners (e.g., reassigning praise, appreciation). in contrast to the researcher’s expectation, the strategies of grateful to god and prayer are not the most dominant kinds of strategies employed by arabic learners, and it is also interesting that these two strategies are completely absent from the data of praises performed by english learners. some of the patterns of this study are echoed in other studies of complimenting speech acts made by native speakers, and some findings are new observations that seems to have not been noted in previous studies. this study contributes in exploring this area of pragmatic research with a novel source of data: arabic and english foreign language learners of uin alauddin makassar which is the only university in indonesia that offers the unique foreign language intensification development (piba) program. references al kayed, m., & al-ghoweri, h. 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(2018). the speech act of complimenting as part of the ukrainian, russian and english-speaking communities: ukraine and the usa. arab world english journal, 9(4), 39-55. https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol9no4.3 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2548-8465, issn (print): 2548-8457 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9833 vol. 4, no. 2, august 2022, pp.209-218 209 students’ online experiences in online collaborative writing with focus on language rules herlinawati herlinawati 1*, uzlifatul masruroh isnawati 2, ratih saltri yudar 1, syahdan syahdan 1 & syaifullah syaifullah 1 1 universitas lancang kuning, pekanbaru, indonesia 2 universitas islam lamongan, lamongan, indonesia herlinawati@unilak.ac.id article history received : 2022-04-07 revised : 2022-07-28 accepted : 2022-07-31 keywords online collaborative writing students’ experience language rules writing skill abstract collaborative works among pairs, groups or one pair with another pair are favoured to accomplish, particularly in writing tasks. students cannot undertake collaborative revision face-to-face during classroom instruction in efl writing during the pandemic. therefore, online collaborative revision has become a practical solution, especially in the context of efl writing classes. this study aims to apprehend students' experience in online collaborative writing revision in the l2 writing context, focusing on language rules. this study employed qualitative research with a narrative inquiry as a research design. a proportionate interview with probability sampling is used as the main instrument to collect data from the efl students at the department of teacher training and education, universitas lancang kuning. five students from the seventh semester who had taken an argumentative writing class were chosen as the participant. the findings reveals, through experiencing online collaborative writing revision, students were knowledgeable and well-improved in revising their writings, particularly on language rules. the analysis showed the students managed to share multiple perspectives on how they are experiencing the online collaborative writing revision. in conclusion, online collaborative writing revision helps students with their writing revision through the feedback they obtain during the activities in the class and makes them have an exceeding writing performance. the expected contribution from this research is to gain an exceeding description of students' needs in implementing online collaborative writing revision. 1. introduction in indonesia, english is taught as a foreign language that learners have difficulty mastering. for english writing, students should be encouraged to use the target language to perform writing performance or tasks (daud et al., 2016). moreover, writing is grounded in expectation, in which the process of writing involves creating a text that the writer assumes the reader may expect and the process of reading involves working out what the writer is trying to do (hyland, 2018). students need to practice and learn further about english writing than students who use english as their first language and should focus on various writing skills such as planning, organising, spelling, and word choice (ghoneim & elghotmy, 2019). as mentioned above, english is a foreign language in the indonesian context, and students face lots of struggling phases while they keep practising english writing. daud et al. (2016) affirm that limited exposure to the language and the print media the main reason for students' lack of vocabulary and language skills because english is not the student’s primary language. therefore, students should possess an effective technique or strategy in promoting writing performance. one of the practical techniques or strategies is collaborative revision. students apply it as feedback from the teacher or peer to advance numerous aspects of writing (yu & lee, 2016b). zhang & hyland (2018) mention that feedback addresses more error categories and has advantages that focus on comments for content and organisations. by having feedback or revision, students can boost writing accuracy (fukuta et al., 2019) and their fluency (ismail, 2011). moreover, by giving feedback, the teacher or peer aid students by supplying words or rewriting ideas or exact matters to stimulate students to write clearly, as long as this is done naturally and relaxing (hajeid, 2018). https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9833 210 unfortunately, in the past two years, the covid19 outbreak appeared and hit almost all over the world, including indonesia, students have no access to to collaboration with teachers or peers in the classroom. hence, online collaborative revisions have become an effective solution in the context of writing classes. online media now has more promising and exciting features, which make students create new writing experiences for students, especially in the l2 writing class. as attested by halim et al. (2019), online platforms that facilitate people's writing have developed artfully and provided numerous features that assure a thrilling user experience of editing and publishing. numerous kinds of research have investigated the effectiveness of using online collaborative writing revision, but there is limited research on the students' experience in using online collaborative revision. collaborative revision is required to assist students' l2 writing skills. the narrative of students' experiences in online collaborative revision encourages students to amplify their writing skills and attain a better description of students' needs in implementing online collaborative writing revision. it merely focuses on students' experiences in online collaborative revision in l2 writing. further, as a result, this research aims to narrate students' experiences in online collaborative revision in l2 writing and provides knowledge and an overview of students' experiences in online collaborative revision in l2 writing. the research is essential to conduct to know and draw students' experiences. to ascertain how the online collaborative experience of the students in revising writing that emphases on language rules, the researcher applied narrative inquiry in which proportionate interviews were conducted with five participants using a probability sampling method. outcomes from interviews may depict and offers a different perspective in the form of a collaborative revision experience online by using a blog and its comment section as a medium. blogs are currently one of the most efficient writing media and are an easy-to-use user interface. besides that, it is also the selection of lecturers at this university to teach students in online writing skills in english (hamuddin, et al., 2020). this research may present an overview of how english students can utilise the blog media and the benefit they will acquire. the results are presumed to be the latest descriptions and insights in online collaborative revisions and can be implemented in future learning or teaching. the expected contribution from this research is to procure an exceeding description of students' needs in implementing online collaborative writing revision. 2. literature review writing at school means students apply their writing skills while in the learning process. writing is both individual performance and social practice (deane, 2018), representing hard work that comes with reward and confidence after utilising critical thinking skills and cognitive effort (alhusban, 2016). writing activities implemented within the scope of a mother-tongue curriculum aim to gain a certain level of expression that will help students to facilitate their daily life (yildirim et al., 2020), and writing is an essential means of communication that has a vital role in constructing knowledge, supporting thinking, and constructing meaning (ghoneim & elghotmy, 2019; coelho, 2020). deane (2018) says everyday school writing tasks support various other educational goals in school, particularly when students are acquiring knowledge from reading. writing is seen as a process of discovery as the writers attempt to uncover their way while they are struggling to think, compose and put their ideas together (ismail, 2011; fareed et al., 2016), and l2 writing involves countless stages, which are not necessarily sequential or consecutive, but instead hold different indicators than the other (obeid, 2017). l2 writing is a complex, varied, and changeable phenomenon manifested by various groups of learners creating multiple types of texts in different socioeconomic circumstances (malovrh, & benati (eds.) 2018). for numerous efl students, english writing appears to be challenging (ghoneim & elghotmy, 2019). furthermore, everyday school writing practices may affect students' beliefs and perceptions about writing, even if schools contribute appropriate instruction in long-term writing as well (deane, 2018). additionally, collaborative writing increases students' participation in class, and their writing partakes a better version after sharing a thought, planning, and collaborating on writing tasks. in collaborative writing, students participate equally in producing the text, plans, and suggestions for the composition of the joint text and together solve the problems that arise during writing (nykopp et al., 2019). many students actively engaged in collaborative writing and indicated that individual regulation supplied opportunities to set goals, plan, and strategies, and monitor and evaluate their thinking process, allowing them to stay on track and focus every week on their collaborative writing (cho & lim, 2017) and in collaborative writing, roles contributions to text creation are not split up. however, there are mutual engagement and a coordinated effort by all group members or pair throughout the composting process (storch, 2018). furthermore, as mentioned by alghasab (2016), high levels of collaborative behaviours emerged, including writing collaboratively by adding to, expanding on, and correcting each other's texts, and engaging in a collaborative dialogue by questioning, elaborating on, and suggesting alternatives to each other's language use. 211 further, feedback is pivotal for l2 learners since the lack of some english aspects. feedback from the teacher or other students helps to increase these lack aspects on their writing tasks, for example, the writing idea, the grammatical aspects, etc. data analysis revealed that each feedback approach had a role to play in text revision and that multiple sources of feedback should be implemented in a writing classroom (yu & lee, 2016b). as stated by zhang & hyland (2018), esl teachers may offer comprehensive corrective feedback on student writing, giving feedback on some issues such as number usage and abbreviation. besides, the teacher usually spends much time correcting students' writing papers, giving credential notes, and showing students how to deal with the dictionary process and receive feedback to achieve better results (hajeid, 2018). feedback comes from other students as they collaborate in writing class. storch (2018) defines that during collaborative writing, learners can receive and afford feedback where it is on all aspects of writing. the explanations are proposed in a way that may be perhaps more developmentally appropriate. also, the feedback is provided writing activity context and may trigger a chain of suggestions and counter it. likewise, experience talks about something that someone has experienced or gone through. english second language students have gone through countless experiences while learning english and trying to increase their skills, especially in improving writing skills. hohr (2013) explains that experience is a central aspect of this interaction and thus a communicative, historical and cultural phenomenon. students partake in many experiences in class, which are different for each student since the experience is challenging to define since it is reflexive and as everpresent as swimming in water to fish (mccarthy & wright, 2004). experience is a multi-layered phenomenon; individuals make sense of experience through cultural, cognitive, subconscious, and personal interpretive layers by negotiating norms and dominant values, attending to immediate human relationships, and through an individual's context within prominent societal and historical positioning (fox, 2008). moreover, having and sharing an experience involves verbal and nonverbal translation contextualised through culture, history, politics, and language (fox, 2008). learning in a collaborative setting is a social interaction involving a community of learners and teachers, where members acquire and share experience or knowledge. as for the collaboration revision method, students were allowed to read, review, and correct other class members' writing. lópez-pellisa et al (2021) explained that when collaborative writing includes peer feedback, students respond more reflectively and constructively, they discuss the content of their writing, and as a result, they make significant changes on their own writing. with constructive feedback that student writers got student readers, they can learn about their writing problems (suwantarathip & wichadee, 2014). online collaborative revision is where students revise their writing online as the online writing platforms allow students to comment on published work asynchronously without physical space (lee et al., 2019). 3. method this research used narrative inquiry as a research design to collect the data. creswell (2012) defines narrative research as where the researcher elaborates on individuals' lives, collects and informs them, writes a narrative about their experience, and captures daily, standard forms of data similar to individuals. this research was conducted in an argumentative writing class at the english education department faculty of teachers training and education, university of lancang kuning. in determining the sample, probability sampling was used where the probability of each participant who has been selected is similar. the researchers chose five students from the 7th semester who have learned argumentative writing class, were experienced in implementing collaborative writing and had a good experience in online collaborative revision. to conclude, electing five subjects was for the consideration to study the subjects deeply in terms of the subjects’ experiences in doing collaborative revision. figure 1. interview’s prompts 212 in collecting data, this research utilised one instrument. the researcher used open-ended questions and one-on-one interview with five students, asking some questions related to their online collaborative revision experiences. moreover, the interview is a construct based on the indicators of a successful writer. in conformity with yu & lee (2016a), a successful writer employs l2 writing criteria such as language rules, vocabulary, and essential writing skills, including the topic sentence, body, and concluding. the argumentative writing class lecturer has validated the questions for the interview. after collecting the data from the interview, the writers analysed and interpreted the data to identify students' experience in online collaborative revision in l2 writing. to analyse the data in this research, the writers applied three analytical tools for narrative inquiry: broadening, burrowing, and storying and restorying by connelly and clandinin (kim, 2020). the first tool was broadening the data, which was about creating a general description of the participant's character or values or the social, historical, or cultural milieus in which this research was taken place by looking at the writers' field notes and the literature review. the second is burrowing, and the writers made a thorough data investigation that has been collected, which related to the details that the participants experienced. the third is, storying and retelling the story of the participant's experiences. to ensure that the findings and interpretations of this qualitative research are accurate, the researcher use member checking. member checking is a process in which the researcher asks one or more participants in the study to check the accuracy of the report (creswell, 2013). 4. results this study is an attempt to apprehend students' experiences with online collaborative writing revision in the context of l2 writing, with an emphasis on language rules. by utilising a narrative inquiry approach, this study involved five participants from the 7th semester who had experience using online collaborative writing and revision methods. the results of this study are expected to offer knowledge and an overview of students' experiences in online collaborative revision in l2 writing. in keeping with the students’ experience in online collaborative writing revision, the participants talked about what is their concerns with language rules during the writing process, how they got used to the feedback they got and revised their writing, and shared their opinion on how collaborative writing revision makes their language rules better than before the revision. moreover, the participants apportioned their perspectives on how it is now and, in the future, which is different from when they experienced online collaborative writing revision. 4.1. language rules students’ experiences on their concerns about language rules in online collaborative revision during argumentative writing class, now and in the future. […] the language rules that i was concerned about were grammar, tenses, punctuation, and whether the sentence is coherent or not … in the present … i started to pay attention to diction and notice if my sentences are coherent and do not deviate from the topic, (and) in the future, i hope that i can apply all language rules so that my writings have decent quality. given that our online writing can reach and can be read by people from all over the world. [p1:e1: 02.05] […] i am afraid of my grammar and the suitability of the grammar that i analyse or the accuracy of the grammar that i analyse … in the future (i think) i already get used to writings … (because) my knowledge about grammar is improved. [p2:e1: 02.13] […] the language rules are a very worrying thing for me. all the language rules make it hard for me to write whatever it is, such as i have to think whether these sentences should use -ed, -es, or -ing (which is) it makes me have to be careful in writing […] [p3:e1: 02.26] […] in collaborative revision, i concern about grammar punctuation and capitalisation … in the future i (think) i (will) never think about the different (language) rules … [p4:e1: 02.03] sadly, there had been no online collaborative revision going on during my time in argumentative class, we got told to write an essay, (and) there was a brief session at the end where 1-2 of our essays were displayed on the projector and got commented by the lecturer … (and i) cannot really think of different rules for in the future, considering it’s just one class in one semester. [p5:e1: 02.15] students’ concerns about the correctness of language rules in efl writing were obvious. additionally, subjects have some concerns about language rules such as grammar, tenses, punctuation, etc. it reflects their awareness of the demand for grammar mastery as a language component to support students’ competence in l2 writing, as zhang and hyland (2018) assert that error categories experienced by students in l2 writing might occur, and teachers provide feedback. meanwhile, an appreciation was given to the students who are motivated in querying for feedback both from the teacher and from peers (wahyudin, 2018). english is a foreign language for the research subjects, they should pay attention to the 213 language rules to avoid misunderstanding, especially in writing. students’ experiences on feedback from online collaborative revision help their write revision then, now, and in the future […] during the class i didn’t get any feedback from my classmates … because previously my blog posts were reviewed by my lecturer … for now, feedback for revision in online collaborative writing revision is really needed, considering that you know i am quite active in writing articles and sending manuscript to journals … in the future i hope i can do the same with my peers. so that, this can sharpen my analytical and critical thinking skills … [p1:e2: 03.10] […] the feedback helps me write the revisions because, as you know, i don't have enough knowledge about grammar in writing, so it helps me … for now it makes me get used to (writing) and i know how to write with grammar carefully based on the feedbacks and in the future i (think) i can make a better writing because i already got knowledge (about language rules) and i already get used to writings. [p2:e2: 03.15] p3: feedback from online collaborative revision helped me. i can figure out what i should use in the sentence and perfecting my sentence. [p3:e2: 03.22] p4: … for the feedback, i think it's really important when i write the writings because feedback can motivate me to revise my writings to be better than before … in the future maybe i will make a better version of my last article … and then i need the feedback from … who knows better about language rules … [p4:e2: 03.18] p5: … back then there was barely any feedback and no revision prompts on the essay i wrote … (and) now there’s still no feedback … in the future, i’d like to have feedback on what i write so i can actually feel motivated to revise essays on assigned, random and generic topic. [p5:e2: 03.47] students’ experiences on online collaborative revision makes their language rules better than before revision during the class, now, and future. i didn’t get any feedback in class, i didn’t get too much attention on language rules in my writing. but when i checked mine, i became aware to grammar errors. even now, i find it much more detailed when analysing a text and how to correct it properly. in the future, i hope the same thing. giving feedback with colleagues so that the quality of our online writing is getting better. [p1:e3: 04.12] […] i think it makes me better because, as we said before, my grammar knowledge is still lacking, and while revision, i got knowledge through the feedbacks during the class and now it makes me get used to writing so if we already get used to (writing) our (writing) also got better because we already have the knowledge and additional knowledge about grammar … [p2:e3: 04.27] as i said earlier, it before most of my wrong grammar can be corrected, and i know helps my language rules like grammar if the sentence is like this, what it should be like. [p3:e3: 03.56] p4: […] the feedback i think it’s really important … because readers' feedback makes my language rules better (than before), and i get enthusiast to continue my writings … maybe in the future i can improve my language rules so i can make the readers more easily to comprehend my writings […] [p2:e3: 04.36] p5: … (if i got revision) i would think that it improved my writing quality since i got outsider perspective, (and) now i don’t collab on the essay but research articles and fanfiction in former’s case receiving comment from peer-reviewers obviously poked the holes in my writing, and in the future, they’d be food for thoughts for my own future revision comments to others … receiving enthusiastic feedback from readers obviously makes me enthusiastic to continue story and in the future they’d be something to look back for which paragraph i did amazingly and which i wrote less amazingly. [p2:e3: 04.27] as attested by the participants' statements, online collaborative revisions lead them more aware of and pay attention to the language rules in their writings and peers. they feel that the feedback given to each other helps enhance their writing skills and its quality. in addition, they understand about language rules which they did not know before. now it is one of the essential matters that must be considered. 5. discussion in conformity with the interview, participants had some concerns about language rules in terms of writing. the participants' concern in language rules is grammar, tenses, punctuation, capitalisation, and whether the sentence is coherent. the finding is also in line with fukuta et al., (2019), which they found that the participants paid attention to grammar when they were given feedback and succeeded in more error correction than when they did not receive feedback. during the online collaborative revision, participants acquire feedback to aid them revise their writings and derived from the findings, the participants approve that the feedbacks help them revise their writings. in 214 line with (hanjani & li, 2014; chen and xia, 2013) that in students’ interaction in collaborative revision, they offered and received advice that could help them improve writing to a high quality. besides, according to alvarez, espasa & guasch (2012), students made a good used of teacher feedback and performed some action to improve their writings under revision. in keen’s (2020) study, the revision shows that student writing tends to include a precise description of events than the writing they have made. this strategy may lead them to be more competent writers when they are motivated, and strategic about writing (graham et al., 2019). these current findings align with faraj (2015), which in his research results show that after getting enough knowledge about the writing process, the number of students can write a good introduction for their writing with a percentage up to 66%. obtain knowledge, improve language rules, and get enthusiasts to continue the writings are the answer from participants when the researcher asks their opinion about why online collaborative revision makes their language rules better than before the revision. in accordance with the current findings, collaboration enhances students' tasks easier since they may receive ideas from diverse perspectives and vary their writing according to their colour. storch (2018) add that collaborative writing provides learners with the experience needed to work and write together, and its tasks give learners opportunities to not only focus on language use but also the target language and use it for a range of functions that are typically the purview of the language teacher. furthermore, wu et al. (2015) assert that in the efl writing classrooms in the 21st century, there is a growing emphasis on collaboration among students and teachers. mainly, when students receive feedback about their work before the writing assignment is finalised and submitted, they can take advantage of temporary reactions from others as they develop their writing assignments and not simply submit an assignment written as a self-contained effort and receive a grade. the current study agrees with lópez-pellisa et al. (2021) who indicated that when students receive peer criticism on their collaborative writing, they reply reflectively and constructively, they analyse the subject of their writing, and as a result, they make major improvements to their own work. moreover, the participants get to know how to create a more focused and on target, interesting, and coherent topic sentence from their advice in online collaborative revision. the findings exhibited that from what the participants' have experienced, they assume that online collaborative revision had a good impact on their writing because the feedback from their colleagues is helpful. it is in line with bikowski & vithanage (2016) who found that students in collaborative revision web-based writing experienced statistically significant writing improvement. additionally, writing together may offer students occasions to use the target language in a meaningful context and share their knowledge on language use and combined with the repetition of the same draft, which enabled learners to produce a better final text (hidalgo & lázaro-ibarrola, 2020). through collaborative interaction, students feel freer to explore and discuss other relevant ideas that can enrich their writing tasks (taalas et al., 2018) and collaborative writing gives some benefits to students during the learning process i.e., enhance their collaboration, communication, and problem-solving skills. collaborative writing help students on deliver their idea and give some benefits to their writing tasks. the students have further interaction in the class as it involves social relations between group members (nykopp et al., 2019) and giving or getting some feedback for their writing revision, where collaborative revision allows students to produce more grammatically accurate text (villarreal & gilsarratea, 2020). hidalgo & lázaro-ibarrola (2020) believe that collaborative writing combines the benefits of oral interaction and writing tasks. during the interaction, learners engage in meaningful use of the target language and have opportunities to negotiate for meaning and produce modified output. the collaboration affects global accuracy measures and obtained better accuracy scores than individuals, resulting in accurate texts and of better quality on holistic measures of content, structure, and organisation of ideas. however, limited or no gains were observed for complexity and fluency (villarreal & gil-sarratea, 2020). the high chances of students’ language rules improvement in their writings after experiencing online collaborative revision proves that it can be an effective way to improve students writing performance. it is in line with ismiati and pebriantika (2020) idea, which found that during the process of discussion in collaborative writing, students were active in giving their idea of what they wanted to write in their writing. coffin (2020) also addressed similar results that both students and instructors evaluated collaborative writing practice favourably, influencing cooperation, communication, and problem-solving abilities. the results of this study is in agreement with (cho & lim, 2017) who discovered that numerous students actively engaged in collaborative writing and indicated that individual regulation provided opportunities to set goals, plan and strategies, and monitor and evaluate their thinking process, allowing them to stay on track and focus every week on their collaborative writing. receiving references also could help students while they are examining their writing. they can constantly remember parts of their writing which were mostly corrected or revised by the peers (ismiati & 215 pebriantika, 2020). it is considered adequate to stimulate students constantly to recall what writing errors they have made and may not repeat them in subsequent writings. as the participants experiencing online collaborative revision before, they shared that their writing becomes more cohesive and coherent. the findings of this current study give contribution to in highlighting that collaborative writing revision can be the one innovation for students in improving the quality of their writing in the classroom. hanjani and li (2014); hanjani (2016); bikowski & vithanage (2016); kılıçkaya (2020) reveal the same argument regarding this, their findings exhibited mutual, and both partners benefited from joining the revision task. these proofs portray collaborative writing revision can be incorporated in efl writing pedagogy as a method to improve writing and revision skills. zhang & hyland (2018), in their research’s findings exposed that different source of formative assessment have a great potential in facilitating student involvement in writing tasks and they highlighted some of those pedagogical implication for promoting students’ engagement with educators and the feedback. to conclude, the effective engagement of students with responses to their writings allows them to unlock the benefits of this collaborative writing revision strategy. the outcomes of this current study may illustrate and provide a new perspective in the form of an online collaborative editing experience utilizing a blog and its comment area as a medium. some research has proven this media empowered students to write and engage them in collaborative writing with peers and revision process (yim & warschauer, 2017; thomas, 2017; melly, 2018; zheng, yim, & warschauer, 2018; pham & nguyen, 2020; rahayu, 2021). they can post questions, comments, reactions, and feedback on their classmates’ blogspots i.e., essays, and content (al-jarf, 2022). this inferred that social media especially blog as the media of writing benefits broaden chances for second language learners to engage in writing in their everyday lives and can develop students' writing growth in the classroom. 6. conclusions the present study was designed to display how students experience online collaborative writing revision in l2 writing is. this study has shown that each participant had a different opinion towards the online collaborative writing revision they experienced in writing class. it was also portrayed that during the time students experienced online collaborative writing revision; they found out that the revision helps them with their writing, getting more comprehension they can apply at present and in the upcoming future. to summarise, online collaborative writing revision assists students with their writing revision through feedback received throughout class activities, resulting in students having an exceptional writing performance. this research has provided a comprehensive overview of students' requirements for adopting online collaborative writing revision. additionally, the outcomes are supposed to represent the most recent descriptions and insights from online collaborative revisions and can be implemented in future learning or teaching. 7. suggestion this study suggests lecturers implement online collaborative writing revision effectively in writing class to acquire feedback and have a better final version of the student’s writing after revision. the present study has a small number of participants, there were only five students from argumentative writing classes in the faculty of education and teachers training. therefore, the future researcher should concentrate on investigating how students solve their writing problems while experiencing online collaborative writing revision with a more significant number of participants and augmented data, which is not only from the interview. references alghasab, m. 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(2016b). peer feedback in second language writing (2005–2014). language teaching, 49(4), 461-493. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0261444816000161 zhang, z. v., & hyland, k. (2018). student engagement with teacher and automated feedback on l2 writing. assessing writing, 36, 90-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2018.02.004 zheng, b., yim, s., & warschauer, m. (2018). social media in the writing classroom and beyond. the tesol encyclopedia of english language teaching, 1-5. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt05 55 https://doi.org/10.29329/ijpe.2020.248.19 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2018.02.004 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0555 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0555 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9476 vol. 4, no. 2, august 2022, pp.184-196 184 a “wake-up call” for efl students: exploring the metacognitive learning strategy in the professional listening course karolis anaktototy universitas pattimura, ambon, indonesia wakwyoya@gmail.com article history received : 2022-02-23 revised : 2022-05-11 accepted : 2022-05-19 keywords professional listening course self-reflection activities metacognitive strategy listening activities listening skills abstract compared to the cognitive strategies to solve students’ problems in english listening, studies on metacognitive strategies seem to be underexplored in eastern indonesian context. in order to contribute to this research gap, this study conducted an investigation on university students' awareness of metacognitive strategies. this mixed-method study used quantitative data from a questionnaire adopted from the metacognitive awareness listening questionnaire (malq). 178 english education students (19-21 years old) at pattimura university completed the questionnaire, and eight students were randomly selected to be interviewed to obtain qualitative data regarding their individual metacognitive strategies for planning, monitoring and evaluating their listening activities. the findings reveal more than 60% of the participants agree that they have a plan for their listening activities, can maintain focus during the activities, and evaluate how they performed. qualitative data supported that the students do have a plan and monitor their learning process, as they can provide specific strategies of how they plan (e.g., taking notes, making sure that the room is suitable for listening tasks) and monitor (e.g., paying attention to keywords, using context to decipher audio’s meaning if they encounter unfamiliar words) their learning process. however, the students seem to be unable to explain or define precisely what metacognitive strategy is, indicating their lack of learning the self-reflection process. these results demonstrated a need for more explicit instruction of metacognitive strategies to improve the students’ learning process, which will be especially beneficial for the university's uniquely high-stakes course of professional listening. 1. introduction being able to communicate appropriately is essential, especially in language learning. the past decades have undergone an explosion of various studies on foreign language learning (chen, 2019; hamuddin et al., 2020; putri et al., 2020; rahman & weda, 2018). learning a foreign language has many benefits, ranging from the pragmatic purpose of global communication to the self-preservation goal of maintaining elderlies’ cognitive abilities (antoniou et al., 2013; derin et al., 2020; kroll & dussias, 2017). hence, learning a foreign language as second language learning is one of the most critical education matters in most schools worldwide (lavasani & faryadres, 2011). nowadays, english has become a must to learn, and it is a compulsory subject in countries worldwide, including indonesia (luminita & silvia, 2015). thus, in the context of multilingualism, it faces an unprecedented need to transform the english language in the globalized world (zein et al., 2020). generally, students will be taught the four basic english skills, and they are expected to maintain their balance, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing. these general language skills are indispensable for successful communication with others (rodge et al., 2016), ensuring the ability to understand oneself in everyday situations (klimova, 2014). listening and reading are passive skills, while speaking and writing are active or productive skills (rao, 2019). for listening skills, some factors have been reported to hamper tertiary students’ comprehension of lectures, including the lecturers’ chosen vocabulary, unfamiliar accents, and spontaneous delivery style (aizawa et al., 2020). this study argues that listening should be the first skill learned from the other three, specifically active listening. active listening is where learners consciously try to comprehend what they hear, so it is different from passive listening and serves as a prerequisite for achieving interaction (spataro & bloch, 2018; weger jr et al., 2014). listening skill has been https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9476 185 a significant concern for language teaching theoreticians and teachers since it is one of the main reasons to reach the oral output in communication (yavuz & celik, 2017). among the four language skills and activities, the listening comprehension ability is perceived as the most difficult to improve (trisno et al., 2019) because it is the most demanding of all the language skills in which language is pronounced and comprehended by students (alnafisah, 2019). therefore, by learning listening first, students have a higher chance of achieving better output in their study time and have a higher opportunity to learn the other three skills successfully. moreover, in terms of communication, students should be exposed to real-time english communication, where they should listen first before they begin to learn to speak. ahmadi (2016) explains that if students wish to learn to communicate, they can first learn to understand the language they are listening to. if learners want to communicate with native speakers, they should first learn to understand what the native speakers say in actual language situations to understand the key point. however, some people think that native english-speaking teachers are the ideal model for language production (walkinshaw & oanh, 2014) as they have been acquiring their language naturalistically in early childhood (tsehaye et al., 2021), but the effect of native-speaker can vary significantly from person to person based on not only their 'native’ or ‘non-native’ positioning but also on geography, teaching context, and personal disposition (lowe et al., 2016). hence, listening is also necessary for teachers and learners to pay appropriate attention to meeting communication goals. in listening skills, students will be taught about listening strategies that help them in listening. the listening strategies can be conceptualized as one of the most influential individual difference factors in foreign language learning (fathi et al., 2020). the strategies are varied to suit each student’s condition to gain maximum listening achievement. in short, learners or students should be taught how to listen, not just tested on their listening (graham, 2017). with this understanding, the researcher is interested to find out the learning strategies that university students apply in their language learning process, specifically in listening activities. a significant chunk of the literature on listening studies has focused on exploring students’ cognitive strategies in learning (kim, 2016; peelle, 2018). cognitive strategies are strategies that learners use in order to learn more successfully, including repetition, note-taking, imagery, summarizing, and they all involve deliberate manipulation of language to improve learning (wei, 2016). what is under-explored is metacognitive strategies for listening activities, which are strategies that learners need to reflect on and identify their abilities and processes of learning. unlike cognitive strategies, which can be likened to a list of tactics that students can choose, metacognitive strategies depend on students’ reflection of three variables: person (their knowledge and beliefs of themselves as a learner), task (their information about the task difficulty and available resources) and strategy (their knowledge of thoughts and actions that will be required to complete the task). in using metacognitive strategy in the classroom, learners will use their knowledge of the three variables in three ways: (1) planning; the stage where learners preview initial ideas on how to accomplish a learning task, such as reflecting on what they know, what they want to know, how they will find out and what have they learned; (2) monitoring; the stage where students are doing the task, in which they pause and take time to reflect how things are going; and (3) evaluating; the stage where students consider how well they accomplished, how well they used the strategies and decide which ones they will use again or not. as a result of their self-reflection of their past successes and failures in learning, they would improve on their learning strategies and become more autonomous and will be able to achieve better learning outcomes (stanton et al., 2021). countless studies have explored cognitive listening strategies as teachers worldwide study students' listening problems and how to improve their listening comprehension (bao, 2017; gilakjani & sabouri, 2016; graham, 2017), but metacognitive strategies for listening activities remain under-explored. in addition to this study’s aim to close this research gap, this study also focused on metacognitive strategies because they can help students in the long term (biwer et al., 2020; hatie & donoghue, 2016). cognitive strategies are precise strategies that students may pick and choose, but if learners employ metacognitive strategies, they will benefit significantly because this type of strategy is flexible with different in different contexts, situations, and goals (rovers et al., 2018). past studies have recognized that metacognitive learning strategies improve students' english listening comprehension effectively. bao (2017) concludes that the selfmonitoring strategy, which belongs to metacognitive, is frequently used by students. cao & lin (2020) state that the metacognitive strategy's knowledge plays a crucial role in listening comprehension. this is supported by the findings in an article by taghizadeh & abady (2016), boldly claiming that learners who received metacognitive strategies instruction showed higher achievement in listening and a lot of progress in the use of metacognitive and self-regulation strategies than those who did not. moreover, because they consciously understand what they are doing when they learn, metacognitive learners tend to be the most successful learners (rahimi & katal, 2012). after considering the long-term benefits of the metacognitive strategy, the researcher is motivated to carry out a study exploring students' understanding of 186 metacognitive strategies at pattimura university. the preliminary study through informal communication with the students was carried out to determine the extent of students' awareness of their learning strategies during their listening activities. results of the preliminary study indicated that many of the students could not maximize their learning comprehension due to losing focus frequently. therefore, this study intends to give the students a “wake-up call” by conducting a study on their awareness of metacognitive strategies, not only to force them to do a self-reflection of their learning process but also to increase their sense of responsibility for their study development. therefore, this study posited three research questions: a) what are the students’ metacognitive strategies in planning their listening activities in the professional listening course? b) what are the students’ metacognitive strategies in monitoring their listening activities in the professional listening course? c) what are the students’ metacognitive strategies in evaluating their listening activities in the professional listening course? the results of this study contributed a unique insight into students’ metacognitive english listening strategies because the students in this study are enrolled in a course known as "professional listening". it is a unique course offered at pattimura university, where the lesson plans focus on incorporating work-related texts, and the learning goals are meant to prepare students for professional or office communication. previous studies on metacognitive strategies for english listening skills involved general listening activities in the classroom, so this study offers the novelty of strategies that are used by students whose listening activities are more high-stakes for their future employment. 2. method this research was designed as a mixed-methods study because the data were combined from the results of a quantitative survey and an open-ended interview (creswell & creswell, 2018). this research was conducted at the english education study program at pattimura university. the participants of this study are university students in their third semester who were enrolled in the study program’s unique course known as professional listening. this study selected these students as the participants as they were going through the course, and this research was meant as a “wake-up call” for them to reflect on how they have been learning in the course. as mentioned above, this study used two instruments to collect the data: a questionnaire and an interview. the survey was adapted from the metacognitive awareness listening questionnaire (malq) (goh, 2017). students’ responses are grouped in three categories (i.e., disagree, agree, and strongly agree) and presented in percentages. the adapted questionnaire utilized in the survey has 22 items in total and was classified into six sections: planning/evaluation, directed attention, problemsolving, mental translation, personal knowledge, and expectation. roughly 300 students who enrolled in the course were given the survey, and a total of 178 students (19-21 years old) submitted their responses. after analyzing the survey’s results, the researcher decided to support the quantitative data by interviewing some of the students to find out the extent of their understanding of metacognitive strategy. the interviewees were selected by random sampling from the total number of participants who filled the questionnaire. however, due to the challenges of the meeting caused by the covid-19 pandemic, the researcher could only reach out to the students by asking them to write their answers to a list of open-ended questions, which they submitted through the whatsapp application. table 2.1 list of interview questions metacognitive strategy stages interview questions planning do you feel confident when asked to do a listening activity? why? before listening, do you have any preparations to help you in the listening section? monitoring how often do you lose your focus in a listening activity? why is that? if you ever lose your focus in a listening activity, are you able to get it back? how can you solve the problems in a listening activity you may face? are you able to translate the words you hear as you listen to the speaker? evaluating do you recognize metacognitive learning strategies? how often do you apply the strategy in a realtime listening situation? what is your expectation for the use of a metacognitive learning strategy? 187 eight (8) out of 178 questionnaire participants sent their answers to the questions. the students were asked to answer the questions in whatever language they were most comfortable with, so some answered in english while others were in indonesian. the researcher transcribed and translated all of their answers and coded them in vivo (using their own words) to stay close to their intent and meaning. the coding scheme for the transcript excerpts is name: question item-interview theme (example, ew:1cf). to protect the identity of the eight students who volunteered to be interviewed online, their names are coded to ew, mk, rs, cs, ab, dn, hl, and pa. their answers also generated five themes in common: confidence, preparation, focus, mental translation and metacognitive strategy, which this study included in the coding scheme as cf, pp, ff, mt, and mc, respectively. 3. result this study divided the results into three sections according to the three research questions: metacognitive strategies for the planning, monitoring and evaluating stages. adapted from the metacognitive awareness listening questionnaire, the data obtained from the questionnaire instrument encompassed six themes: planning/evaluation, directed attention, problem-solving, mental translation, personal knowledge, and expectation. this study divided these themes into suitable stages of metacognitive strategies. based on the questionnaire items and results, this study selected the most common themes for further exploration: students' preparation and confidence in planning for their professional listening activities, focus and mental translation process during their activities and evaluation and self-reflection about their metacognitive strategies. this study then triangulated both sets of data to discuss the students' three stages of metacognitive learning strategies: planning, monitoring and evaluating. 3.1 planning metacognitive strategies the planning stage of metacognitive strategy implementation involves students deciding what they need to learn and then deciding how they are going to learn that material. these include the questionnaire items that are asked about students' planning and personal knowledge and the interview question about students' preparation and confidence. table 3.1 students’ questionnaire results about their planning in professional listening course activities items on planning disagree agree strongly agree 1. before i start to listen, i have a plan in my head for how i am going to listen. 23.15% 62.10% 14.73% 2. before listening, i think of similar texts that i may have listened to. 27.36% 63.15% 9.47% items on personal knowledge disagree agree strongly agree 1. i find that listening in english is more difficult than reading, speaking, or writing in english. 13.60% 43.20% 43.20% 2. i feel that listening comprehension in english is a challenge for me. 4.90% 24.70% 70.30% 3. i do not feel nervous when i listen to english. 22.20% 46.90% 30.90% the questionnaire results showed that more than 60% of the students admitted that they plan to approach their professional listening tasks. in developing their plans, the students consciously think of similar texts they listened to in previous classes. since the questionnaire only confirmed that some students have plans, the following interview tried and managed to obtain details of some of the students’ plans. “note and focus are the most important things that i think i must prepare before i start to listen.” excerpt 1_dn:4-pp “headset (?), earphone (?) and a notebook.” excerpt 2_rs:4-pp “iya, untuk media yg digunakan, bila melakukan kegiatan listening di rumah, saya menambahkan speaker agar lebih jelas saat mendengar audio listeningnya lalu menyiapkan buku untuk menulis apa yg saya dengar dari audio listening tersebut.” (translation) “yes, for the media used, when i do listening activities at home, i add speakers to make it clearer when i hear the audio listening and then prepare a book to write what i hear from the audio listening.” excerpt 3_ab:4-pp “ya tentu, seperti sarapan atau makan siang untuk membuat saya fokus dan meningkatkan fungsi otak saya. menurut penelitian ahli sarapan yang baik dapat dilakukan sebelum pukul 9 pagi, dengan sarapan yang memenuhi kebutuhan tubuh seperti mineral, vitamin, protein, dan juga karbohidrat.” (translation) “yes of course, like breakfast or lunch to make me focus and improve my brain function. according to expert research, a good breakfast can be done before 9 am, with breakfast that meets the body's needs such as minerals, vitamins, protein, and carbohydrates.” excerpt 4_pa:4-pp 188 a couple of the interviewees share the same plans for their listening activities, namely, taking notes (excerpts 1 and 2). audio technology such as listening audios, headsets and earphones are also included as part of their preparation for listening activities (excerpts 2 and 3). other students who were interviewed more or less simply stated that they have a plan for their listening without elaborating the specifics, but one student provided a unique preparation strategy which is making sure that they eat breakfast in the morning (excerpt 4). “ya, saya cukup merasa percaya diri. kemampuan saya, listening saya sudah sangat baik, bahkan telah di upgrade ke level max. tentu saya melatih listening saya dengan menonton video orang kulit hitam dengan accentnya atau british english.” (translation) “yes, i feel quite confident. my ability, my listening is very good, it has even been upgraded to max level. of course, i practice my listening by watching videos of black people with their accent or british english.” excerpt 7_pa:2-cf “honestly, i really believe in my listening abilities, and i can proceed to each section well enough based on my experiences watching movies and listening to podcasts, where the podcaster uses various accents. there are times that i felt some difficulties because of the new words i heard.” excerpt 8_el:2-cf having plans and solid preparation naturally means that students should feel confident with their performance in listening activities. excerpts 7 and 8 showed that students feel very confident because they practice watching movies to familiarize themselves with multiple accents (e.g., british people, black people). “ya. karena menurut saya aktivitas mendengar lebih menyenangkan dari aktivitas lainnya. saya merasa lebih percaya diri dan menyelesaikan aktivitas tersebut dengan baik.” (translation) “yes. because i think listening activities are more fun than other activities. i feel more confident and complete the activity well.” excerpt 9_cs:2-cf “i am very confident when asked to do the listening activity. i do not know the specific reason, but i am just confident and excited when asked to do the listening activity.” excerpt 10_mk:2-cf “yes, i am pretty confident about that… because i think listening is not that hard for me. compared to other language skills, i feel confident that i can listen carefully and clearly, and i also feel sure that i can process and understand the meaning of what i am listening to before in the best way...” excerpt 11_dn:2-cf reflecting the majority of professional listening students’ agreement about planning, many students who were interviewed stated they have high levels of confidence in their listening ability. interestingly, many students stated that they like listening more than the other language activity skills, finding it more fun and exciting. “tidak ada persiapan yang begitu signifikan hanya saja saya biasanya memastikan kondisi yang kondusif sehingga pada saat mendengar, tidak terganggu dan saya akan lebih memfokuskan diri saya saat itu.” (translation) there is no significant preparation, it's just that i usually make sure the conditions are conducive so that when i listen, i'm not disturbed and i will focus more on myself at that time.” excerpt 5_cs:4-pp “actually, i do not have any preparation. all i have to do is just focus on the sound or the speaker.” excerpt 6_mk:4-pp table 3.1 also showed that almost 30% of the questionnaire respondents admitted that they do not have a plan for approaching their listening activities. this is somewhat supported by the interview results, as at least two students admitted as much. however, they both also provided their form of preparation, ensuring that the room was conducive for listening (excerpt 5) and focusing while listening (excerpt 6). focusing while listening activity, however, would fall under the stage of monitoring metacognitive strategy because it is what students would do while they are undergoing their learning process. “tidak terlalu percaya diri karena saya sering merasa kewalahan bila audionya terlalu cepat dan membutuhan beberapa kali mengulangi audio agar bisa paham seluruhnya.” (translation) not very confident because i often feel overwhelmed when the audio is too fast and need to repeat the audio several times to fully understand. excerpt 12_ab:2-cf “sometimes, but i have some problem in gathering along with information. and if i was asked by the lecturer to say again about the information i heard, i think i just only can interpret it, but some models in listening activity can be fun, for example, guessing how to write a word properly, and so on.” excerpt 13_rs:2-cf “it is optional because i will be confident if i know a lot about the topic of the listening section.” excerpt 14_hl:2-cf the students who were not confident about their listening skills provided the reasons for their doubts. based on excerpts 12 and 13, they do not feel confident because, from their experience, they had to keep repeating the audio repeatedly to understand as they are prone to mishear or misunderstand the meaning of the foreign language script. in some cases, they can feel confident in their listening skill if the task fulfils a specific requirement, which includes (but may not be limited to) extensive firsthand knowledge 189 of the topic (excerpt 14). without this background knowledge and ability to repeat the audio, some students are not confident about their performance in the professional listening course. 3.2 monitoring metacognitive strategies the monitoring stage of metacognitive strategy requires students to consider how they are doing while learning and constantly track what they have learned and what they do not yet know. the data that fall under this stage are the questionnaire items on directed attention, mental translation, problem-solving, and the three interview questions on students’ focus and translation while listening. table 3.3 students’ questionnaire results about their monitoring in professional listening course activities items on directed attention disagree agree strongly agree 1. i focus harder on the text when i have trouble understanding it. 7.40% 37% 55.60% 2. when my mind wanders, i recover my concentration right away. 3.70% 39.50% 56.80% 3. i try to get back on track when i lose concentration. 2.50% 38.30% 59.20% 4. when i have difficulty understanding what i hear, i give up and stop listening. 51.90% 28.40% 19.70% items on mental translation disagree agree strongly agree 1. i translate in my head as i listen. 7.40% 35.80% 56.80% 2. i translate keywords as i listen. 6.20% 28.40% 65.40% 3. i translate word by word as i listen. 24.60% 55.60% 19.70% items on problem solving disagree agree strongly agree 1. i use the words i understand to guess the meaning of the words i do not understand. 6.20% 29.60% 64.20% 2. as i listen, i compare what i understand with what i know about the topic. 3.70% 42% 54.30% 3. i use my experience and knowledge to help me understand. 2.40% 24.70% 72.80% 4. as i listen, i quickly adjust my interpretation if i realize that it is not correct. 3.70% 45.70% 50.60% 5. i use the general idea of the text to help me the meaning of the words that i do not understand. 4.90% 33.40% 61.70% 6. when i guess the meaning of a word, i think back to everything else that i have heard to see if my guess makes sense. 5% 39.50% 55.50% directed attention is the act of concentrating and staying on task, so it is the same as focus. while students mostly "agree" that they have a plan, a vast majority "strongly agree" with the statements about how they can increase and recover their focus (>50% overall). in fact, more than half stated that they do not immediately give up whenever they lose focus during listening tasks. “it is rare for me to lose my focus in the middle of a listening section.” excerpt 15_hl:4-ff “it happens again and again if in the listening section there are some words that i know it is new for me.” excerpt 16_rs:4-ff as can be seen in excerpts 15 and 16, some students in the professional listening reflected on the situations where they lost their focus. in contrast, listening is rare, and the opposite case also happens for some students who would frequently lose their focus. “seringnya saat dipertengahan audio hingga akhir karena saat saya mendengar kata yg terdengar kurang jelas, saya akan terpaku pada bagian itu dan kehilangan fokus pada audio yang masih berlanjut. […] cara agar saya kembali fokus ialah mengulang audio dari awal dan mengabaikan apa yang mengabaikan apa yang menganggu saya (seperti beberpaa kata yg saya tidak tahu). cara ini lumayan efektif bagi saya, karena setelah mendengar audio listenign hingga selesai, nantinya saya bisa menebak apa maksud dari bagian-bagian yg saya tidak mengerti.” (translation) “often in the middle of the audio to the end because when i hear a word that does not sound clear, i will get hung up on that part and lose focus on the audio that is still going on. […] the way to get me to refocus is to repeat the audio from the beginning and ignore what is ignoring and what is bothering me (like some words i do not know). this method is quite effective for me, because after listening to the audio listening to the end, later i can guess what the meaning of the parts that i do not understand is.” excerpt 17_ab:4-ff “seldom. i lose my focus when there is a transition on each section in a listening section.” excerpt 18_el:4-ff “i do not really often lose my focus in a listening activity, but sometimes i lose my focus because of the other sounds that cover the speaker's sound.” excerpt 19_mk:4-ff 190 according to the interviews, there are two primary reasons why students can lose focus in the middle of their listening activities. the first obstacle is the quality of the audio, where some words may be intelligible (excerpt 17), the transition of each listening section can be disturbing (excerpt 18), or external noise in the classroom environment disrupts the clarity of the speaker's noise (excerpt 19). “sering kali. mungkin karena saya tidak benar-benar fokus seperti misalnya mengantuk.” (translation) “often. maybe because i am not really focused like for example sleepy.” excerpt 19_cs:4-ff “cukup sering, namun itu semua disebabkan oleh faktor eksternal atau karena terlalu letih.” (translation) “quite often, but it is all caused by external factors or from being too tired.” excerpt 20_pa:4-ff “i do not think i often lose my focus when i am in a listening section. if i do lose it… it is probably because of my physical or mental condition that is not good...” excerpt 21_dn:4-ff the second reason for their loss of focus is related to their mental and physical health. referring to excerpt 4 regarding how proper meals, particularly breakfast, can be a beneficial preparation strategy to ensure one’s focus, students can fail to direct their attention constantly if they get sleepy (excerpt 19), fatigued (excerpt 20), or their mental condition was not up-to-par for the duration of the activity (excerpt 21). regarding the technical skill of the listening activity, which is to find equivalents of the target language in the learners' language, table 1 shows that the majority of the students stated that they could mentally translate the words they listen to in their head, either by focusing on important words (65% “strongly agree”) or every single word that they hear (55% “agree”). “tentu, karena saya sudah merasa percaya diri.” (translation) “of course, because i already feel confident.” excerpt 22_pa:7-tl “as long as i know the meaning of the words, i can translate every single word that i hear.” excerpt 23_mk:7-tl “i could do it, but i often need some time to do it.” excerpt 24_el:7-tl “i could translate well enough what the speaker said in my mind if the topic is interesting.” excerpt 25_hl:7-tl interestingly, many of the students mentioned conditions for their mental translation to be done successfully. it seems that they can mentally translate the listening audio if they feel confident (excerpt 22), possess the knowledge of every individual word’s meaning (excerpt 23), have enough time (excerpt 24), or find that the topic is interesting enough for them to focus (excerpt 25). “untuk yg unfamiliar words, saya berusaha mengerti konteksnya lewat kata lain yang dapat saya mengerti. namun jika tidak dapat menangkap konteks sama sekali saya akan memakai insting dalam menjawab.” (translation) “for unfamiliar words, i try to understand the context through other words that i can understand. but if i can't grasp the context at all i'll use instinct to answer.” excerpt 26_cs:6-ff “if it is an unfamiliar word, i simply will try to process and connect the whole meaning of a sentence in my mind, and i do not think i have a problem with the inability to catch the context.” excerpt 27_dn:6-ff “i search for the unfamiliar words i find and also try to keep back focusing on the audio so the context of what i know can help me to fix the missing words that i found.” excerpt 28_rs:6-ff “for the problem like unfamiliar words, i usually write them down or just remember them. when the listening activity finishes, i will search in a dictionary or even google translate about the meaning of the words.” excerpt 29_mk:6-ff when asked about problems or challenges in listening that can make them lose focus, students talk about audio or health issues. however, when asked how they can solve those problems during their listening activities, the majority cited how unfamiliar words constitute a significant obstacle to their focus in listening activities. excerpts 26, 27 and 28 all stated how students rely on the context to guess the overall meaning of the sentences they listen to whenever they stumble on and are halted by unknown words. these statements reflect the data from table 3.2, in which more than 60% of the students "strongly agree" that they derive the context based on the words that they do know and think back on everything that they have previously listened to guess whether their budding conclusions would be correct or not. “cara saya untuk kembali fokus adalah dengan kembali mendengarkan listening section dengan seksama dan mencari kata kunci untuk menyimpulkan apa yang telah terlewati.” (translation) “my way to refocus is to re-listen to the listening section carefully and look for keywords to conclude what has been missed.” excerpt 30_pa:5-ff “saya selalu mencari kata kunci dan menelaah maksud dari kalimat tersebut, dengan hal ini maka kata-kata yang tidak dapat dimengerti menjadi lebih 191 mudah.” (translation) “i always look for keywords and examine the meaning of the sentence, with this the words that cannot be understood become easier.” excerpt 31_pa:6-ff “by listening well and catching about the keywords and main idea.” excerpt 32_el:6-ff “to solve my problems during a listening section, i tend to catch the main idea of what the speaker said.” excerpt 33_hl:6-ff 61% of the students also “strongly agree” that they use the general idea of the text to help them figure out the meaning of the words that they could not understand while the audio was playing. the interview data also supported this finding. the students would solve the problem of losing their focus by catching the keywords (excerpts 30 and 31) or the main idea of the audio text (excerpts 32 and 33) to figure out the overall meaning of the speakers. 3.3 evaluation metacognitive strategies the evaluation stage of metacognitive strategy requires students to reflect on how well they met their learning objectives after completing their tasks. the data that fall under this stage is the questionnaire items on evaluation and expectation, as well as the interview question about students' awareness of metacognitive strategy. table 3.4 students’ questionnaire results about their evaluation in professional listening course activities items on evaluating disagree agree strongly agree 1. after listening, i think back to how i listened and about what i might do differently next time. 17.89% 67.36% 14.73% 2. as i listen, i periodically ask myself if i am satisfied with my level of comprehension. 26.31% 62.36% 11.57% 3. i have a goal in mind as i listen. 15.78% 71.57% 12.63% items on expectation disagree agree strongly agree 1. i am satisfied with the use of metacognitive strategy in the professional listening class. 5% 37% 58% table 3.4 shows that most students only “agree" with statements that indicate how active they engage in self-reflection. 67% of students think back about how they did and what they would do differently in the future, which means that there is still a significant number of students in the professional listening course that does not reflect how well they performed. “yes, i recognize the metacognitive strategy and sometimes i also apply that strategy in listening class, but if i learn by myself at home, i rarely use this strategy.” excerpt 34_mk:1-mc “iya, saya lumayan sering menggunakan cara belajar metacognitive ini dalam melakukan kegiatan listening secara real-time karena membuat saya lebih fokus dalam menemukan inti pembicaraan dari audio yg sedang didengarkan.” (translation) “yes, i quite often use this metacognitive learning method in doing listening activities in real-time because it makes me more focused on finding the essence of the conversation from the audio that is being listened to.” excerpt 35_ab:1-mc "tahu dan saya sering menggunakannya saat nonton film, series, drama, sinetron, video youtube, dan video singkat lainnya yang beredar di sosial media.” (translation) “i know and i often use it when watching movies, series, dramas, soap operas, youtube videos, and other short videos circulating on social media.” excerpt 36_pa:1-mc there are 58% of the students "strongly agree" that they are satisfied with using metacognitive strategy in the professional listening course. in the interview session, the students were asked to elaborate on their metacognitive learning strategy knowledge and how they use it in the professional listening class. however, none of the participants elaborated on how they defined it or provided different ideas and strategies. for the most part, all of the eight students who volunteered to be interviewed in this study only stated that "they know" of the strategy but never provided their definition of it. at most, they only revealed what situations they apply metacognitive strategy, which is when they are in the classroom (excerpts 34 and 35), watching audiovisual media (excerpt 36). “nope, but i think i have ever done it before, still understanding what metacognitive is.” excerpt 37_rs:1-mc “at first, i actually do not exactly know what metacognitive learning strategy is. however, i then search fr the explanation on google and read several articles… well, i think i often use the strategy.” excerpt 38_dn:1-mc some students do admit that they have no idea about what metacognitive strategy is (excerpt 37). in excerpt 38, a student said that they had to browse the 192 internet to answer the question, but their answer still resembled the other students: they only said that they often used the strategy and did not illuminate how well they understood what it means. “i expect it to work very well because the idea of metacognitive learning strategy is really helpful for the students. i think some students with lower academic levels and scores are having a hard time with learning by themselves.” excerpt 39_el:8-mc “my expectation is actually this metacognitive learning strategy is an excellent method to be used in learning, especially when u have problems in some situations.” excerpt 40_rs:8-mc “i also believe that metacognitive learning strategy is beneficial because students can learn with their methods and teachers could adjust.” excerpt 41_hl:8-mc “nah ini penting, saya harap semua mahasiswa dapat tahu apa itu listening metacognitive, sehingga mahasiswa dapat tahu belajar dengan mudah dan tentu meningkatkan kemampuan mereka. sehingga pembelajaran menjadi aktif dan kreatif.” (translation) “now this is important, i hope that all students can know what metacognitive listening is, so that students can learn to learn easily and of course improve their abilities. so that learning becomes active and creative.” excerpt 42_pa:8-mc "well, my expectation of course supaya this strategy may help students better in improving their listening skill, however, this strategy kalau mau digunakan kayaknya membutuhkan arahan dan bimbingan juga dari dosen dan self-management. dari mahasiswa juga penting..." (translation) “well, my expectation, of course, is that this strategy may help students better in improving their listening skills, however, if you want to use this strategy, it seems that it requires direction and guidance from lecturers and selfmanagement from students is also important...” excerpt 43_dn:8-mc although none of the students articulated how they understand what metacognitive is, as can be seen in excerpts 39 to 43, they have stated how beneficial the strategy can be for both students and teachers. some stated that it could significantly help students who have problems with their listening performance, and others stated that the strategy could boost their competence and even creativity. 4. discussion the findings revealed that the students in the professional listening course do apply the metacognitive learning strategies, but primarily only in the planning and monitoring cycle. the students never indeed elaborated on their understanding of metacognitive strategies that would show how much they evaluate their learning process. nonetheless, they do provide data about how frequently they apply it and how beneficial the strategy can be for both students and teachers. ultimately, the study successfully achieved its goal of increasing students’ awareness of metacognitive learning strategies as the results implied that students who were not very familiar with it actually searched for more information to understand the concept. the results of this study contributed to showcasing various kinds of strategies as well as problems in listening faced by the unique demography of english students who enrolled in a high-stakes, work-focused, professional listening course. the findings of how metacognitive strategies in all three stages have been improving students’ listening performances are supported by taheri & mahsa (2018), who explained that students could show better performance in metacognitive learning strategies if they are once taught and exposed to them first. it is also in line with the result of research on how learning-related emotions influence the metacognitive learning strategies, which in turn mediate the effect of emotions on academic performance (hayat et al., 2020). in terms of the number of students who stated that they are aware of metacognitive strategies, this finding contradicts a previous study that reported that undergraduates have deficient awareness of metacognitive learning strategies (rahimi & katal, 2012). in this study, the participants have high expectations of the use of metacognitive learning strategies in the professional listening course and wish the lecturer could use the strategy even more in teaching the professional listening class. despite their seemingly high expectation of the learning strategies’ effectiveness, the data demonstrated their lack of recognition of the concept of metacognitive itself. the students provided a sufficient number of details about their metacognitive planning strategies (e.g., taking notes, ensuring audio technology quality, ensuring the room’s suitability, maintaining health) and monitoring strategies (focusing on keywords to translate the meaning, relying on the context if they stumble over unknown words, mitigating for disruption from external noise), yet they were unable to provide any specific action related to self-evaluation of their learning process. this result implies a particular nuance that future measurements of students' awareness of metacognitive learning strategies should pay attention to. at the very least, this research successfully brought the students’ attention to the concept of metacognitive strategies. they showed a level of proactiveness by looking up resources to understand the concept. moreover, the students in this present study also suggested addressing the number of students who remain unaware of metacognitive strategies, which is that lecturers should act as a 193 catalyst for students’ investment in their learning development. this is in line with limueco & prudente (2019) and hamzah et al. (2022). langdon et al. (2019) added that metacognitive strategy use might only be improved when it is more integrated into the course and not just a “one-shot” application. overall, this study contributed to the current mission of introducing an explicit focus on metacognitive strategy to improve students’ proficiency and performance in language skills (forbes & fisher, 2018). additionally, it is found in the findings that the metacognitive learning strategy helps the participants in mastering their professional listening materials. using the learning strategy as the basic strategy, students can combine what strategies they learned in the professional listening class. from the data gained in the interview, it is confirmed by the participants that the metacognitive learning strategy helps them overcome the difficulties they may find in a listening section/ activity. this finding supports the previous study by mohaved (2014), who reported that metacognitive strategy has a positive effect on students’ listening performance. overall, the students show positive responses at each stage. it answers the second research question and verifies the idea that metacognitive learning strategies positively assist the students in mastering and learning professional listening materials. in their result of the study, taheri & mahsa (2018) also explained that their students' highest use of metacognitive strategies was classified as problemsolving, and the lowest was classified as personal knowledge. basically, the participants in this study have the same result, yet they show an honest and adverse reaction to personal knowledge than any other strategies mentioned in the questionnaire. they mentioned that listening skill is more accessible than the other three fundamental skills in english learning but humbly admitted that they could be nervous in any listening session as they are giving an english speech. this statement is enough to ensure that the participants’ highest use of strategies would be on personal knowledge. they know their limit and then use problem-solving strategies to help them break through their limit. it is in line with the research of teng (2021) that metacognitive knowledge is of great value for enhancing a learner’s vocabulary knowledge. however, according to tanner (2012), the ability of students to use the metacognitive approaches in their learning can be varied. on the other hand, tian et al. (2018) found that metacognitive can be used to predict students' mathematics performance. even metacognitive is found to be an effective approach for improving the adhd students’ science knowledge learning abilities (zheng et al., 2021). all of these show that learning strategies such as cognitive and metacognitive strategies have had the most effects on the academic achievement of school and university students in different courses (fooladvand et al., 2017). this study is limited in terms of the depth of data it can offer. as the researcher was unable to meet with the students face-to-face for interviews and long sessions of online interviews through video communication were also not possible due to time constrictions, most of the interview data were short answers provided by the students. the interview method by whatsapp did not allow the researcher to ask students to be more elaborate or explain specific ideas or points in their submitted answers. therefore, there is still much room for this study to improve, namely by conducting a more robust method to obtain a richer data set. further suggestions for future research are as follows: (1) students should try to experiment with a metacognitive learning strategy with any other associated listening strategies to find out the most suitable strategy to further assist them in doing listening sessions; (2) teachers and lecturers could try to embed metacognitive learning strategy in their lesson plan more often as the strategy is found to be beneficial for the students and it is what the students expect in the professional listening class further on; (3) future researchers could develop this research deeper and broader by incorporating more aspects such as frequency, suitable listening strategies, and the time range in the future. it is also recommended to do further research, such as experimental studies, in order to have more comprehensive results. of particular importance is to raise awareness of the importance of self-reflection in their learning process so that students can expand or replace their current roster of strategies with a better repertoire. 5. conclusions this study has successfully achieved its twopronged goal of determining the extent of professional listening to students’ knowledge of metacognitive strategies and awakening the awareness of this strategy in students who were unfamiliar with it. the key result that can be taken from this study is that the efl students who were taught in this uniquely workfocused listening course possessed multiple strategies that they do to plan and monitor their learning process. however, this study did not determine if students engaged in any solid self-reflection activities to evaluate how well they performed on their tasks. this study implies that lecturers should actively inform students about the concept of metacognitive strategies so that they can plan, monitor, and evaluate whether the various cognitive strategies they have used will be used again or discarded in future tasks to become autonomous learners. 6. acknowledgement this research was supported/partially supported by the faculty of teacher training and educational 194 science, pattimura university t. we thank our colleagues from (the english education study program who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations/conclusions of this paper. gratitude is also extended to the unilak language editing team (ulet) of universitas lancang kuning for their assistance in improving the language quality of the manuscript. references ahmadi, s. m. 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(2021). effectiveness of metacognitive regulation intervention on attention-deficit–hyperactivity disorder students’ scientific ability and motivation. front psychology, 12(747961), 171–180. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.747961 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.9395 vol. 4, no. 1, april 2022, pp. 128-143 116 digital media-based quantum learning: improving students’ german writing, critical thinking and learning motivation wilma akihary * & patresia s. apituley universitas pattimura, maluku, indonesia wilamq@yahoo.com article history received : 2022-01-14 revised : 2022-05-09 accepted : 2022-05-21 keywords quantum learning critical thinking assoziogramm digital media writing skill motivation abstract the quantum learning model is a combination of various interactions that occur during the learning process. this learning model can be combined with the assoziogram technique or also with audio-visual media as learning media. this research aims at investigating the implementation of a digital media-based quantum learning model with the assoziogramm technique/concept map to improve students’ german writing, critical thinking, and learning motivation. this research uses one group pre-test and post-test experimental research design with a total sample of 20 students. the research data were collected using test and non-test (questionnaire) instruments. the research data were analysed using descriptive statistics and paired t-tests. the study results show an increase in the ability to write german, critical thinking, and learning motivation after the implementation of the digital media-based quantum learning model with the assoziogramm technique. this study contributed to showing how variations in learning are crucial in providing a more engaging learning climate than the conventional learning done by lecturers. 1. introduction technology literacy is one of the required abilities in industrial revolution 4.0 to prepare students to face the challenges in the working world. the use of technology for teaching and learning purposes needs to be prepared and improved (slavin, 2009; chaaban & moloney, 2016; murati & ceka, 2017). teachers need to adapt and develop their digital technology skills in order that they can creatively and innovatively make use of technology for the development of science. as confirmed by al kodri (2020), the use of digital technology can overcome online learning problems. one of the uses of technology in learning is digital media in the implementation of learning models. students have already been accustomed to using computers, tablets, and smartphones to access information from the internet. therefore, teachers need to guide the students in using these media. research results showed that 95.3% of the students tended to use digital media to support their learning (subekti, 2016). suana (2018) reports that based on gender, female students are better at using the internet to study physics, while male students use the internet for entertainment and access physics videos and animations. in this digital era, teachers can make use of a variety of applications accessible through digital media for learning activities, such as google classroom, google meet, or moodle. several applications that can be used for quizzes are mentimeter, kahoot, qr code, quiziz, quizlet, and learning apps. moreover, several applications that can be used for communication are whatsapp, facebook, instagram, and twitter. in recent years, education research has also been reported using learning models with digital media. hastutiningsih et al. (2021) explained that learning models in the digital era are divided into several types: blended learning, distance learning, mobile learning, and virtual learning environments. ramkissoon et al. (2020) reported that 68.4% of students use whatsapp, while 23.6% use the elearning platform moodle for online learning. putri et al. (2020) reported that learning with the moodle application effectively improves efl learning for indonesian university students compared to conventional lecture-style learning. in addition, the use of the call application provides a positive perspective in teaching english and can increase student motivation (talpur et al., 2021). learning german in indonesia in the 21st century also uses digital media. tjakrawadhana (2017) reports that the use of learning videos in learning german can mailto:wilamq@yahoo.com 129 increase student motivation. andayani et al. (2021) also reported that using the quizizz application could help students learn german to improve their understanding. the applications of digital learning media can make the learning activities or the transfer of knowledge more fun, and the students can understand the learning materials more efficiently. appropriate learning models are necessary to make the process of the transfer of knowledge more successful (gardner & korth, 1997; iskandarwassid & sunendar, 2009; turkich et al., 2014). the learning models for digital media-based learning are primarily successful because they are interactive and engaging to the students. one of the learning models that can be implemented when applying digital-based learning media is the quantum learning model. a quantum learning model is a combination of various interactions that occur during a learning process. in this sense, the implementation of the quantum learning model can sum up the items of learning that have existed and turn them into a concept that is beneficial to oneself and others (deporter & hernacki, 2011; sujatmika et al., 2018; suryani, 2013). the implementation of the quantum learning model in indonesian is abbreviated as tandur, which stands for tumbuhkan, alami, namai, demonstrasikan, ulangi, dan rayakan, meaning grow, experience, name, demonstrate, repeat and celebrate (agustina, 2018; martini et al., 2014). the implementation of the quantum learning model brings joy to learning and improves students’ learning results (deporter & hernacki, 2011), it also increases students' creativity and memory (sujatmika et al., 2018), and this learning is not abstract but learning becomes more effective and efficient (rumapea et al., 2017). moreover, quantum learning combines “work” and “play”, thus creating an exciting and fun learning environment through interactions in the classroom, which can increase learning results (deporter & hernacki, 2011; wijaya, 2012). previous studies have reported the use and implementation of the quantum learning model. martini et al. (2014) reported that 31 students gave a positive response of 96% after the application of the quantum learning model. sariah et al. (2018) reported that the implementation of the quantum learning model with the mind map technique had a positive effect on students’ english writing skills, with the average score of the students’ writing skills has increased by 10% in the first cycle to 76.53 in the second cycle. altin et al. (2019) report that implementing the quantum learning model in learning english can attract students' attention, increase student activity in speaking and asking questions, and make learning fun. moreover, several other kinds of research also showed that by implementing the quantum learning model, teachers could develop and organise the learning activities to create a pleasant learning environment, and students can obtain life skills experience (rumapea et al., 2017; lenny et al., 2018). nunggalina et al. (2018) explained that audio-visual media-based quantum learning could increase students' motivation and learning results. the quantum learning model is more effective in improving students' critical thinking skills when combined with student worksheets (ramadhani & ayriza, 2019; putri & irwan, 2019). in addition to the combination of the quantum learning model with audio-visual, this learning model can also be combined with the assoziogramm technique. assoziogramm is a concept map preparation technique that is very suitable for learning german to arrange students' thinking directions in a theme to help them learn writing outcomes. learning using this concept map can help students think about choosing the right words and connecting them with other words to form meaning for the concepts being studied. concept maps are also a visual learning pattern that stimulates students' senses in learning to remember word for word so that it helps them find vocabulary and can be used for essay writing skills. german language learners are accustomed to using this technique at the beginning of the meeting as a technique for brainstorming students' ideas (junaedi & wahyuningsih, 2021; firmansjah, 2017; rosyiidah & soesetyo, 2019). akihary et al. (2021) added that this assoziogramm technique could help students train logic and increase creativity. previous research has shown that the quantum learning model can be combined with learning media. so that this research appears to combine quantum learning models, which are usually done conventionally and can be modified into digital media-based quantum learning. this digital-based quantum learning model uses a digital media meter and whatsapp application. the use of the mentimeter website in this study is beneficial for students because one of the features "create live word clouds" that can be used by them (audience) is to add words from the lecturer (presenter) so that many words are formed. many of these words can then be used to construct an assoziogramm. meanwhile, the use of whatsapp helps in online learning. this application coordinates lecturers and students in one group to discuss without face to face. the quantum learning implementation model has also been proven to be able to improve student learning outcomes, motivation, and critical thinking. however, research on the implementation of digital media-based quantum learning models combined with the assoziogramm technique in the schriftlicher ausdruck (writing) course has not been carried out. even though the digital-based quantum learning model is very suitable to be implemented in the current ri 4.0 era learning. it is because lecturers can design fun digital-based learning to improve student's writing skills, motivation, and critical thinking skills. 130 therefore, the research on the implementation of the quantum learning model combined with the assoziogramm technique based on mentimeter and whatsapp applications on digital media is essential to be conducted. this research aims to investigate the implementation of a digital media-based quantum learning model combined with the assoziogramm technique to improve students' writing skills, motivation, and critical thinking skills in the study program of german education pattimura university. the results of this study are expected to be the basis for applying a digital-based quantum learning model using the assoziogramm technique in other language skills. 2. literature review 2.1 digital media-based quantum learning the quantum learning model consists of several stages: grow, experience, name, demonstrate, repeat, and celebrate. the six stages are shortened to one term, namely tandur. this learning model was developed by bobbi de porter and mike hernacki (deporter & hernacki, 2011). according to abidin (2018), the quantum learning model can provide right and left-brain theory suggestions, emphasise the triune brain theory, and lead to visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning modes. currently, the quantum learning model can be combined with digital media to differentiate it from conventional quantum learning. quantum learning models can be combined with digital media to make chemistry learning fun and help students understand concepts (astuti et al., 2021). muga (2017) also reports that video-based quantum learning can improve student learning outcomes in the psychomotor realm. suwarno (2016) also reports that quantum learning can be combined with "mathematical" motivational media to increase students' motivation in learning mathematics. some of these studies show that the combination of the quantum learning model with learning media has been carried out in science subjects but has not been carried out in language learning, especially german language learning. therefore, this research focuses on quantum learning based on digital media with the assoziogramm technique. ri 4.0 era learning focuses on digital learning. one of the learning implementations in the ri 4.0 era is the use of digital media mentimeter and whatsapp. mentimeter is a website that is employed to help lecturers as presenters and students as audiences to find many words in a schriftlicher ausdruck (writing) course. meanwhile, whatsapp is used as an accessible digital communication medium. according to erlidawati (2016), quantum learning is a comprehensive learning model because it combines the concepts of suggesting, accelerated learning, and neurolinguistics with learning theory so as to empower students’ learning motivation, selfconfidence, and student learning outcomes. meanwhile, according to huda et al. (2018), quantum learning is a learning model that can be used in learning writing and can motivate students to be active and creative. sa’adah & doyin (2019) add that learning using quantum learning is very effective for empowering kinesthetic learning styles so that they can contribute to students’ writing skills. in order to provide variations in the stages of the quantum learning model, educators (lecturers) can use learning media so that they can support the smooth delivery of information in the learning process. according to janzen et al. (2011), the quantum learning model is not limited to classrooms but can be developed in virtual classrooms so that virtual learning can add advantages to quantum learning. oktavia & hulu (2017) found that the use of interactive media in quantum learning can improve student achievement in learning the language. 2.2 writing skill with assoziogramm in writing, one must express ideas and feelings and express information clearly and precisely so that the writing can be understood. so, one must master the language structure, vocabulary, and orthography. writing is notoriously considered a difficult skill to master by many students. it was found by farooq et al. (2012) that students experienced difficulties in writing related to lack of vocabulary, first language interference, orthography, and grammatical problems. ahmed (2016) added that students make mistakes in their writing performance because of several factors such as mother tongue disorders, insufficient basic technical activities, and exercise. one of the techniques that can be used to practice writing skills is the assoziogramm. assoziogramm is a visualisation of words associated with a specific term. another name for assoziogramm is concept map (lornsen, 2010). found that concept maps are knowledge representations that connect these concepts, making it easier for students to assemble sentences into a discourse (al naqbi, 2011). the assoziogramm technique trains students to write words into a concept map with meaning. after they are able to write a concept map correctly and have a meaning, then their writing ability can be empowered when writing an essay on the semester exam. one way to find out if students can write well is to do a preliminary test (initiation test) and a final test of learning (to find out if students practice well). the measurement of this test is based on students' answers to correct or incorrect essays with a score determined by the lecturer. shaziya et al. (2015) also have the same opinion that the stages in the learning process can develop students' abilities, and then the results can predict the results of the semester exams. 131 2.3 critical thinking critical thinking is one of the higher-order thinking skills important to be empowered. pramonojati et al. (2019) explained that critical thinking serves to direct students to understand how to think in generating ideas, questions or problems and convey logical opinions. in addition, rezaei et al. (2011) explained that debate, media analysis, problem-solving tasks, self-assessment, and peer assessment could encourage improving critical thinking skills in language classes. some experts define critical thinking and detail more about the stages in critical thinking. changwong et al. (2018) mentioned that the key steps in critical thinking include describing, reflecting on, analysing, riticizing, reasoning, and evaluating. changwong et al. (2018) even conclude that the ability to analyse and creatively adapt to new situations is at the heart of critical thinking. rohayati (2017) details in her research that the elements of critical thinking consist of details of problems, claims, arguments, reasons, evidence, and opinions. according to kusuma et al. (2018), critical thinking consists of interpretation, analysis, explanation, evaluation, and conclusion. zubaidah et al. (2015) detail the aspect of critical thinking as a rubric consisting of five points (table 2.1). table 2.1. critical thinking rubric explanation points if there is no answer or there is no correct answer; 0 if the student’s answer contains the wrong concepts and reasons 1 if the student’s answer contains an incorrect concept, the reasons used are not related to the concept, and the flow of thinking is not correct 2 if students’ answers contain slightly correct concepts, but the reasons and arguments are not clear, the flow of thinking is quite good, and some concepts are interrelated 3 if the students’ answers are mostly correct, the concept is straightforward but lacks focus, the flow of thinking is good, and all concepts are related and integrated 4 if students’ answers contain correct, clear, and specific concepts that are also supported by strong, correct, and clear arguments, a good flow of thinking with all related and integrated concepts 5 there are several thoughts from experts to measure students’ critical thinking skills. however, in this study, the opinion that is relevant to scoring students’ essays based on critical thinking is zubaidah et al. (2015). research by alidmat & ayassrah (2017) reports that critical thinking skills can be developed through writing activities. according to setiawati & corebima (2017), the factors that affect students’ critical thinking skills are reading, asking, and seeking information. in addition, gandimathi & zarei (2018) reported that learning english that focuses on the use of students’ critical thinking has an influence on increasing english mastery. wijayati & lestari (2021) reported that the critical thinking skills of german students in preparing their thesis were excellent in the aspects of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. according to schicker (2018), critical thinking helps students write and learn german grammar. arndt et al. (2019) report that turkish citizens can master german in the dimensions of hypothesis testing, verbal reasoning, assessment, argumentation, and problemsolving through critical skills. the implementation of digital-based quantum learning using the assoziogramm technique can improve student’' critical thinking because this implementation stage collaborates with digital media (mentimeter and whatsapp) and the assoziogramm technique at the natural, name, and demonstration stages. the lecturer brainstorms words using a mentimeter (natural), then continues with the students designing the assoziogramm (name and demonstration). this stage is the empowerment of student’' critical thinking. furthermore, critical thinking can be developed at every stage of digitalbased quantum learning using the assoziogramm technique. 2.4 motivation motivation is an impetus for empowering individuals to achieve high-performance levels and overcome obstacles (tohidi, 2012). motivation plays a vital role in learning and achievement (schoor, 2010). learning motivation is an effort or encouragement made from within and from outside the student. this motivation can be manipulated through certain learning practices (lai, 2011). emda (2017) describes the characteristics of students who have learning motivation: being diligent, not giving up quickly in the face of difficulties, and overcoming boredom in learning. the existence of motivation is an integral part of the learning process so that students can achieve maximum learning achievement. gunobgunob-mirasol (2019) explained that reading motivation could increase students' vocabulary size. 132 the indicators of learning motivation adopted by keller (2010) are attention, relevance, self-confidence, and satisfaction. research by mali (2015) reports that the factors that influence motivation are students themselves, creative educators, inspirational classmates, parents who support children, and a class atmosphere that is conducive to supporting the learning process. in this case, the implementation of digital-based quantum learning using the assoziogramm technique uses a motivational assessment that includes attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. attention to the learning process, the relevance of student activities to the learning process, confidence in carrying out activities, and student satisfaction with the results achieved. gillet et al. (2012) added that the intrinsic motivation that comes from within students is influenced by gender, maturity level, and age of the students themselves. meanwhile, according to masni (2015), students' intrinsic motivation is determined by their psychological factors. hassandraa et al. (2003) that factors that influence intrinsic motivation are socio-environmental factors, including appearance, family, and goals for learning. based on this statement, the student's intrinsic motivation includes their selfwill and awareness to learn german using a digitalbased quantum learning implementation using the assoziogramm technique. in addition to intrinsic motivation, there is also extrinsic motivation. zaccone & pedirini (2019) explained that extrinsic motivation could cause students to be affected by factors from outside themselves. liu (2020) explains that extrinsic motivation depends on the variety of motivational strategies used by the teacher. tokan & imakulata (2019) also explains the same thing, namely extrinsic motivation indicators are the selection of strategies, models, methods, and learning techniques is a need to attract students' attention to learning. in this case, the implementation of digital-based quantum learning using the assoziogramm technique can be one of the extrinsic motivational factors for students in learning german. ryan & deci (2020) added that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation factors are interrelated and influence because intrinsic factors are influenced by psychology and competence, while the family environment and family support influence extrinsic factors. 3. method 3.1 research design this study aimed to determine the application of a digital media-based quantum learning model combined with the assoziogramm technique to improve the writing skills, motivation, and critical thinking skills of students at the study program of german education pattimura university. this experimental research used one group pre-test post-test research design. however, this research did not use a control class as a comparison. using a digital media-based quantum learning model, it only compared the initial conditions (before treatment) and the final conditions (after treatment). the details of the research design are presented in figure 3.1, as follows. figure 3.1. research design (mishra et al., 2019) o1 : pre-test x : implementation of digital-based quantum learning using the assoziogramm technique o2 : post-test 3.2 participants this research was conducted at the german language education study program, pattimura university, in the odd semester of the 2019/2020 academic year. the research subjects were 20 students who were enrolled in the schriftlicher ausdruck (writing) course. the research was conducted from march 18 to april 08, 2019. the research was conducted in 4 face-to-face meetings. besides that, lecturers and students can have group discussions using the whatsapp application. 3.3 research procedure a pre-test was administered to the students before the implementation of the digital media-based quantum learning model with the assoziogramm technique. the syntax of the quantum learning model is described in table 3.1 as follows. 133 tabel 3.1. the syntax of the quantum learning model name in indonesian name in english explanation syntax t tumbuhkan grow teachers grow students’ learning motivation and create a fun and enjoyable learning environment. lecturers use instrumental music (downloaded from the youtube application) to help focus students' minds. a alami natural encourage students’ curiosity to learn. teachers used mentimeter digital media to stimulate students’ curiosity and prior knowledge about the learning material “reisen/berpergian dalam negeri” and explore students' comprehension of the sub-themes, namely time, destination, transportation, and activities carried out while students are travel ling. n name name process gives meaning ✓the students obtained information about the reisen either directly or via whatsapp. ✓the students made notes and keywords, and then they made assoziogramm based on the information obtained. d demonstrate demonstrate the process of delivering student work ✓the students wrote the information using their own words based on the assoziogramm they had already made. ✓here, the students had the opportunity to associate their experience with the information obtained. ✓the students then submitted the results of their work via whatsapp. u ulangi repeat the process of repeating through discussion ✓the results of the students' work were then discussed in the class and discussed privately via whatsapp chat. ✓the students’ work that had been checked and corrected by the teachers was sent to the students via whatsapp chat. r rayakan celebrate the process of appreciating student work the students celebrate their success for each achievement of one main topic discussion. 3.4 research instrument the instruments used in this research were a test (essay) and a questionnaire to measure students’ motivation. the tests were given before (pre-test) and after (post-test) the implementation of the digital media-based quantum learning model. the tests were used to measure students' writing and critical thinking skills. the test question for students is to write an essay at level b1 (intermediate). an essay written by a student relates to the theme of “reisen” (traveling abroad). the test questions are used to assess students' writing skills as well as to assess students' critical thinking skills. however, there are differences in the rubric of the assessment of students' writing skills (table 3.2) and critical thinking (table 2.1). table 3.2. writing ability assessment rubric explanation points fulfilment (content, scope, language features, text type, sociocultural appropriateness) 25 coherence (text structure linking sentences, parts of sentences) 25 vocabulary (range, proficiency) 25 structures (mastery (morphology, syntax, orthography) 25 furthermore, the motivation questionnaire was given to the students during the implementation of the digital media-based quantum learning model. the total number of questions on the motivation questionnaire is 25 items (table 3.2). the scale used is a likert scale with a scale of 1-4. measurement of student motivation was adapted from keller (2010) in table 3.3, as follows. 134 table 3.3. indicators of learning motivation indicator descriptor attention 1. enjoyment in studying the material "reisen." 2. active in problem-solving 3. attention to the task 4. punctuality in completing tasks relevance 1. understand reisen's theme 2. the relevance of reisen's material with what has been learned 3. reisen material is in accordance with the wishes and has a use-value 4. relate reisen's material to everyday life 5. the suitability of the learning model in improving critical thinking skills 6. feeling driven to learn confidence 1. confidence in success in achievement 2. confidence in reisen's learning materials 3. confidence in being able to understand reisen's lesson material 4. have ideas 5. ability to work hard 6. confidence in the use of other literature that can support learning activities 7. confidence in doing the test satisfaction 1. satisfaction with learning outcomes 2. satisfaction with reinforcement 3. willingness to help friends who have not succeeded 4. satisfaction with participating in a series of learning activities/attendance in class 5. desire to achieve 6. fun in learning 7. satisfaction with every lesson 8. feel satisfied with every test in addition to using this motivational questionnaire, the lecturer also conducted short interviews with open-ended questions to determine student responses to learning. the question in question: "is the implementation of quantum learning based on digital media using the assoziogramm technique interesting?" both instruments were validated by education experts and had been tested for their reliability (table 3.4). table 3.4. results of the reliability analysis of the instrument reliability category learning results 0.742 reliable critical thinking 0.726 reliable learning motivation 0.893 reliable 3.5 data analysis the research data were quantitatively analysed using descriptive statistics and paired t-tests to describe students' learning results. descriptive statistics were used to describe the research data in frequency and percentage. furthermore, the paired ttest was performed to determine the difference between the conditions before and after the implementation of the digital media-based quantum learning model. the paired t-test was performed using spss for windows version 18 software. 4. results 4.1 learning results of writing skills the research results (table 4.1) show that the distribution of the pre-test scores of the students' writing skills was in the range of 33-47 (100%), while the distribution of the post-test scores was in the range of 69-98 (100%). 135 table 4.1. the distribution of writing skill test scores pre-test posttest interval f rf interval f rf 33-35 6 30 69-74 1 5 36-38 3 15 75-80 5 25 39-41 7 35 81-86 9 45 42-44 3 15 87-92 4 20 45-47 1 5 93-98 1 5 20 100 20 100 (note: f= frequency, rf= relative frequency) these results indicate that the pre-test scores of students' writing skills are below 47%, but after treatment, the students' post-test scores are above 69%. it means that there is an increase in student writing skills learning outcomes before and after students are taught using digital media-based quantum learning models with the assoziogramm technique. it happens because the students have been trained to write during the learning process. they were trained to write using a mentimeter at the natural, name, and demonstration stages. 4.2 critical thinking the research results (table 4.2) show that the distribution of the pre-test scores of the student's critical thinking skill test was in the range of 28-42 (100%), while the distribution of the post-test scores of the student's critical thinking skill test was in the range of 71-95 (100%). table 4.2. the distribution of students' critical thinking skill test scores pre-test posttest interval f rf interval f rf 28-30 2 10 71-75 1 5 31-33 3 15 76-80 4 20 34-36 4 20 81-85 8 40 37-39 4 20 86-90 5 25 40-42 7 35 91-95 2 10 20 100 20 100 (note: f= frequency, rf= relative frequency) these results indicate that the pre-test scores of students' thinking skills are below 42%, while the scores of students' post-test scores are above 71%, indicating an increase. this happens because the students have been trained in thinking processes at the growth stage using instrumental music. the music helps focus students' minds on the learning process, followed by a natural stage where students are trained to think about the right words to write on the meter media, and then students are trained to think at the naming and demonstration stages to make an assoziogramm correctly. 4.3 student's learning motivation the research results (table 4.3) show that the distribution of the initial scores of the students’ learning motivation was in the range of 39-44 (100%), while the distribution of the final scores of the students’ learning motivation was in the range of 7994 (100%). table 4.3. the distribution of the scores of the students’ learning motivation interval frequency relative frequency 79-82 6 30 83-86 10 50 87-90 3 15 91-94 1 5 20 100 these results indicate that score of students is above 94%. learning using digital media-based quantum learning implementation utilising the fun assoziogramm technique helps students learn to write well. this learning also helps students experience a different learning climate than usual. 136 4.3 hypothesis testing 4.3.1 prerequisite test before the research hypothesis was tested, the normality of the data was analysed. table 4.4. the results of the normality test test shapiro-wilk statistics df sig. initial learning results .908 20 .057 final learning results .964 20 .622 initial motivation .921 20 .103 final motivation .978 20 .798 initial critical .908 20 .059 final critical .958 20 .506 the results of the normality test (prerequisite test) indicated that the scores of the learning results, motivation, and critical thinking skills both in the pretest and post-test were normal, with the sig value > α = 0.05 (table 4.4). it shows that the data of the pretest and post-test were normally distributed. with the normality of the data confirmed, the results of the paired t-test on the students’ writing skills, motivation, and critical thinking skills are presented in table 4.5. table 4.5. the results of paired t-tests paired t-test mean n t df sig. (2-tailed) pair 1 learning results -12.3 20 -13,195 19 .000 pair 2 motivation 34.50 20 16,249 19 .000 pair 3 critical thinking -47.45 20 -41,081 19 .000 the results of the paired t-test analysis show a significant difference between the students' writing skills, critical thinking skills, and learning motivation before and after the digital media-based-quantum learning model with the assoziogramm technique. it can be seen from the significance value of 000 <α = 0.05 (table 4.5). the difference before and after applying digital media-based quantum learning using the assoziogramm technique shows that these learning stages encourage students to learn to write well, arrange the stages of thinking towards critical thinking, and motivate themselves to learn about reisen's theme well. 5. discussion 5.1 learning results of writing skills the students taught by using a digital media-based quantum learning model had better writing skill learning results (tabel 4.1), with the results of paired t-test (table 4.5) showing significant results (p<0.05). darmanah (2020) also reports that quantum learning can improve students' writing learning outcomes. ojima (2006) also found that concept mapping helps students uniquely enhance their writing skills based on personal experience, motivation, and task conditions. during the learning process, the lecturer generates interest in students in the learning material's topic. the lecturer also creates an enjoyable and fun learning atmosphere, such as using instrumental music to make the students feel more relaxed and help them focus on learning. according to paquette rieg (2008), music in language learning can improve students' writing skills. students became relaxed listening to the learning materials or reading online reading texts. they made assoziogramm, wrote them down based on their comprehension, and then retold and associated them with their experiences. for example, with the theme reisen (travelling). they can practice independently using their digital media (mentimeter) and create keywords described in the assoziogramm. and then, the students associated their own experience and the experience they obtained from the reading texts. the association between the students’ own experience and the new experience obtained from reading texts can help train their language skills, both receptive skills and productive skills. such learning activities provide meaningful learning experiences for the students, which can help students understand the learning materials more efficiently. the research conducted by wong & yunus (2020) found that mentimeter is a platform that can be used in online learning that can improve students' vocabulary and writing skills. the research shows that mentimeter can be helpful as a digital media in learning. 117 in this study, it can also be seen that whatsapp digital media plays an essential role in helping students convey the results of writing assoziogramm at the demonstration stage. whatsapp digital media positively affects student learning outcomes in learning german (pattiselanno et al., 2022; perdamean, 2019). the repetition of new experiences also strengthens the students’ comprehension of new knowledge. while participating in digital media-based quantum learning using the assoziogramm technique, students experience a different learning experience than usual. furthermore, the lecturer rewards the students for the efforts they have made, either in the form of praises or gifts to celebrate their success. an award is a form of appreciation from the lecturer for students' achievements during their learning. appreciation from the lecturer can set an example for students. the students are also trained to recognise their abilities and appreciate their achievements to have more respect for themselves. the research results by arini et al. (2017) found that there was an increase in students' learning results and metacognitive abilities after they were taught by using the quantum learning model. kusuma et al. (2018) also reported that the problem-based quantum learning model could be used as an innovative learning model to develop students' cognitive and non-cognitive abilities. 5.2 students’ critical thinking descriptive analysis shows that students' critical thinking improves after the lecturer applies the digital media-based quantum learning model using the assoziogramm technique. learning with stages in collaboration with digital media and the assoziogramm technique can empower students' critical thinking well. it shows that students' thinking skills depend on the learning model (pravita and kuswandono, 2021). on the other hand, the paired ttest was performed to determine the effect of executing the digital media-based quantum learning model with the assoziogramm technique on students’ critical thinking. the results of the paired t-test (table 4.5) show a significant result (two-tailed) (p <0.05). it means that there was a significant difference in the students' critical thinking before and after the implementation of the digital media-based quantum learning model with the assoziogramm technique. according to iman (2017), critical thinking skills help students analyse and evaluate their thoughts. in addition, kusuma et al. (2018) reported that students who have good critical thinking skills would be able to make assoziogramm systematically, make decisions, solve problems, or investigate problems of everyday life. on the other hand, marni et al. (2020) explained that all students in the gender group (male and female) and knowledge group (humanity students and science) need critical thinking skills in language learning. however, language teachers must allow students to think for themselves during the learning process so that students' critical thinking can develop (winch, 2019). 5.3 students’ learning motivation the students taught by using a digital mediabased quantum learning model had better learning motivation (tabel 4.1), with the results of paired t-test (table 4.5) showing significant results (p<0.05). the initial stage of the quantum learning model is the grow stage. at this stage, the teacher uses music to make students feel relaxed and comfortable learning. music can help increase the desire to learn, directly increasing students' learning motivation (macintyre et al., 2018). if the students already feel comfortable learning, the learning activities using the digital media-based quantum learning model can be preceded (natural). the research conducted by kao and oxford (2014) shows that the use of music in language learning can increase students’ learning motivation, and it also provides cultural experiences to students. in addition, growing students’ interest in the learning materials and creating a positive learning climate can improve students' extrinsic motivation. this is one of the characteristics of implementing the quantum learning model. the use of the quantum learning model can increase students’ learning motivation because it creates a fun learning climate (windarti et al., 2020). the results of this research are in line with the research results conducted by wahyudi et al. (2019) that there is a significant difference in the students’ learning motivation before and after the implementation of the music-based quantum learning model. in addition, batubara et al. (2020) confirm that student learning motivation is influenced by the teacher's presence, personal attitude, montessori material, class conditions, and the influence of friends. teachers can also combine learning models with digital media-based applications, such as mentimeter and whatsapp, to increase students' learning motivation. the use of mentimeter in this research helped encourage students’ curiosity, identify students’ initial knowledge, and identify students’ general understanding of the learning material. moreover, the students can also give feedback more quickly because their feedback can be directly displayed at the mentimeter. mentimeter is also easy to use by students because it can be accessed using their respective cellphones. in addition, rudolph (2018) explains that the use of mentimeter in learning can make students feel happy and comfortable because the application can be used on a smartphone, which the students can access easily. several research results have reported that the mentimeter is a digital tool that can substitute conventional learning (paquette & rieg, 2008; lin & lin, 2020). the use of this digital media can have an effect on the students' motivation to learn german. 118 in addition to the digital media-based mentimeter application, whatsapp is a typical digital mediabased application that students often use to communicate daily. according to the students, whatsapp is a very practical communication application. it can be used to provide information and transfer assignments among students or between students and lecturers as much as 100%. since whatsapp can be downloaded on both handphones and computers/laptops, the lecturer can easily download the files of the students’ assignment results sent via whatsapp and upload the correction results of the students’ assignments. and then, the students can immediately improve their work based on the correction given by the lecturer and then send it back via whatsapp. in addition, all of the students (100%) stated that whatsapp is safer because only those who save their phone numbers can interact with each other. moreover, 100% of the students also stated that they felt less embarrassed when they made mistakes and received feedback from the lecturer because they could send the feedback via private messages. similarly, sukrillah et al. (2017) and utomo & ubaidillah (2018) also state that whatsapp enables teachers and students to communicate by sending texts, images, videos, voice notes, and even links related to the learning material. in this case, whatsapp is used to interact with each other and to disseminate information as well as a means to solve problems found in learning. whatsapp is also convenient to use in teaching and learning activities. therefore, whatsapp is a favourite application used in the lecture learning model (gon & rawekar, 2017). other research results also reported that the use of the whatsapp application in learning could develop students' motivation in learning grammar, vocabulary, reading, and writing (ahmed, 2019; awada, 2016). in addition, plana et al. (2013) argued that most students liked and showed an interest in using the whatsapp application to improve their reading habits and self-confidence in language learning. the biggest obstacle to using the whatsapp application in learning is when the students do not have sufficient mobile data (35%). the same opinion was conveyed by talpur et al. (2021) that technology can increase students' motivation and various skills in learning german. this study shows that the combination of the quantum learning model and digital media can increase students' learning motivation and critical thinking. finally, the quantum learning model based on digital media can be used as a variation in german language learning to support a pleasant learning atmosphere. 6. conclusions the results showed that the application of the digital media-based quantum learning model syntax with the assoziogramm technique helped lecturers in growing students' learning motivation; using the mentimeter to cultivate curiosity; guiding students to create keywords and associations; controlling students in discussions, teaching students to celebrate their success in learning and had a positive effect on the students’ german, critical thinking, and learning motivation. in addition, there were significant differences in writing skills, critical thinking skills, and student motivation before and after the application of the digital media-based quantum learning model with the assoziogramm technique. the stages in the digital media-based quantum learning model using the assoziogramm technique can empower students' writing skills, critical thinking, and student motivation. it is because the resulting learning is fun and different from the usual learning carried out by lecturers. the concept of this research is to combine digital media with the stages of the learning model with quantum learning and relate it to the assoziogramm technique. it makes conventional quantum learning prisons modern, with various digital media and techniques. the teacher must pay attention to how each stage is explained to students because the different stages of learning that students usually experience can confuse them. 5. acknowledgement this study is supported by a grant (competitive research) from the faculty of teacher training and education, pattimura university, with contract number: 705 / un13 / sk / 2019. references abidin, m. z. 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(2015). asesmen berpikir kritis terintegrasi tes essay. symbion: symposium on biology education, 200– 213. . http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijem-03-2019-0099 journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.8721 vol. 4, no. 1, april 2022, pp. 24-40 24 phonemic awareness as predictor of word decoding ability among bachelor of science in information technology students genesis genelza university of mindanao, tagum, philippines literarytropes@gmail.com article history received : 2021-12-15 revised : 2022-02-13 accepted : 2022-03-11 keywords phonemic awareness phonology spelling critical sounds word decoding ability abstract this descriptive correlational study aimed at the level of phonemic awareness as a predictor of word decoding ability among bs-it students using a total enumeration technique that involves students enrolled in the course program. moreover, it sought to determine the significant relationship between the two variables. to verify, three different tests were being utilised to collect the necessary data, i.e., a listening test for measuring the respondents' level of awareness of words with critical sounds; a phonetic transcription test to identify the respondents' level of awareness of sound-symbol relationship; and spelling test to know the respondents' level of ability for transcriptions to be translated to its american standard english spelling. after the data had been collected and tabulated, it was interpreted that the students have a high level of phonemic awareness with a mean of 3.66. moreover, their word decoding ability resulted in a high level with a mean of 3.93. further, it is being noticed that there is a tremendous significant relationship between the two variables with a p-value of 0.0000000859. with these findings, the researcher encourages the school, administrators, and teachers to give more exposure to sound-word connections by engaging the students with activities involving speaking, listening, reading, and writing activities and practice-based tasks. 1. introduction students with poor decoding ability have been shown to lack phonemic awareness, and they may not even understand what the term "sound" means. they can typically hear well and may even be able to name the alphabet letters, but they have little or no understanding of what the letters mean. phonemic awareness is required for learning the english language, which uses an alphabetic writing system in which letters represent single speech sounds both alone and in combination. students with a firm foundation in phonemic awareness can break words down into sounds, recognise their identities, and put them back together again. students may be confused by the print system and how it represents the spoken word if they do not have it. furthermore, it was mentioned that if students lack phonemic awareness, it will be difficult for them to acquire the language, particularly in reading and spelling, because knowing the basic sound is the foundation for learning to decode (babiano et al., 2015). spoken language is a sound that an experienced listener deciphers into meaningful chunks. this sorting takes a child several years to perfect. a foreign language learner must break down strange sounds into understandable chunks: phrases or sentences, words, syllables, and even phonemes (the smallest sound segments). for years, reading experts have recognised that difficulties with the sorting process, often known as phonological abilities, are linked to many students' reading and spelling difficulties. researchers are studying native english-speaking students having difficulty learning a foreign language. it has been recently discovered that these students have issues similar to poor readers and spellers in that they are unable to perceive and manipulate the sound system and its corresponding written code effectively. to look at it another way, at-risk foreign language students also have poor phonological skills (schwarz, 2012). several literature reviews on the effectiveness of phonemic-based training with english language learners learning english as a second language in english-dominant settings have been undertaken (thorius and sullivan, 2013; stephens, 2014; richards-tutor et al., 2015). according to a national reading panel, ell kids respond to phonemic-based instruction just as native english speakers (august et al., 2019). a review of studies involving ell students 1 who were struggling readers was done (richards-tutor et al., 2015). the findings revealed that the interventions had moderate to significant benefits on word reading, with phonemic-based training being one of the instructional components. stephens (2014) looked at intervention trials with spanish-speaking students who were having trouble with english reading and discovered that complete programs that incorporated phonics and phonemic awareness training had a significant impact on reading comprehension. in addition, improved phonemic awareness is linked to reading ability among children, especially in the early stages, and it is a strong predictor of future reading ability at the age of six in serbia. as a result, the level of phonological awareness acquired determines a child's readiness to read. milankov et al. (2021) have highlighted phonemic awareness as a significant element in reading incomprehensible words and text comprehension (dixon, 2013). furthermore, the prevalent notion in the philippines that english is deteriorating could be considered an example of indigenisation, resulting in a language variant that qualifies as a dialect despite the fact that the method that produced it differs from the traditional definition of dialectalisation. it has distinct linguistic features as a result of a gradual shift in language learning away from native language speakers, with generations of filipino english learners picking up the forms and rules of the english language from filipino second-language learners whom other filipino second-language learners trained. as a result, when this new sound is introduced to filipino speakers, various pronunciation models may generate confusion, making it difficult to understand the term. as a result of the emergence of different pronunciations, the learner's decoding skills will decline (malicsi, 2010). similarly, erfe & lintao (2012) illustrated certain essential english consonants that some adult filipinos stumble over. these are the sounds /f/, /v/, and /th/. filipinos are baffled as to how to pronounce those crucial sounds. as a result, filipinos have difficulties detecting the aforementioned important english sounds. in the local setting, a study conducted at the university of south-eastern philippines tagum campus entitled “critical sounds in english and decoding skills of second year bsed-english students” quantified that there were still sounds considered least recognised. it implied that the respondents of the said study had a low level of detecting critical sounds, which eventually hampered them in identifying other critical sounds. significantly, there is an apparent existing weakness in identifying critical sounds (durango et al., 2013). moreover, according to the researcher's observations in a classroom, some pupils have difficulty putting their thoughts into words. even familiar and straightforward terms are difficult for some students to pronounce. as a result, there are still issues with phonemic awareness and word decoding ability. furthermore, the researcher has not come across any research that looked into phonemic awareness as a predictor of students' word decoding ability. one of the best predictors of a student's ability to read and speak fluently is phonemic awareness. this ability to effectively hear and distinguish speech sounds allows us to pick up a language quickly, and language expertise is essential for understanding what we read and speak. this research would significantly benefit and give a high contribution to the students, teachers, and institutions since the study is new and would pave the way for understanding the student’s capability in decoding such words if he/she has high or low phonemic awareness. in general, the researcher's aim in doing this research is to determine the elements mentioned above that affect phonemic awareness and how that affects word decoding skills among bs-it students. it will greatly assist researchers in providing people with the necessary activities, reinforcements, remediation, and programs to assist with their phonemic awareness and overall english language development. 2. literature review 2.1 phonemic awareness through phonemic awareness, students learn to hear and control sounds as well as understand that spoken words are made up of sequences of spoken sounds. pupils who were able to recognise phonemes fast were able to read more fluently due to this rapid processing. students who took longer to process phonemes had difficulty comprehending what was said. decoding the words appeared to take too much time, leaving less time to interpret what was read (prendergasy & macphee, 2018). to read and speak fluently, students must improve their phonemic awareness to the point of automaticity. it frees up their mental energy, allowing them to comprehend what they are reading more quickly. instead of defending their sound system by learning to naturally recall the 44 english language sounds, students rely on weak decoding methods and coping tactics such as memorising. these skills may allow children to begin reading, but as texts become more complex, pupils' comprehension suffers since it becomes too difficult to comprehend what they are reading while focused on laboriously decoding every word. if students are to master the 44 sounds, we must expose them to each one repeatedly and teach them how to discern each sound rapidly among others (tallal, 2012). griffith, klesius, and kromrey (2011) examined how decoding and spelling skills and writing fluency developed in children with varying levels of phonemic awareness at the start of the year. whole language or traditional basal instruction was offered to children in 2 first grade who had a high or low level of phonemic awareness. the comprehensive language curriculum included a shared-book experience and intense writing activities, whereas the old basal curriculum only included explicit phonics instruction and very little writing. the amount of phonemic awareness at the start of the year was more important than the style of instruction in literacy acquisition. on all reading metrics, children with high phonemic awareness outscored children with low phonemic awareness. the role of constructed spelling in teaching the alphabetic principle to children with little phonemic awareness is investigated. the proceeding sections of this literature review will explore the two indicators of phonemic awareness. the indicators include critical sounds and phonetics. critical sounds. nerrière and hon (2009) defined critical sounds as sounds in the english language that tends to be unfamiliar among listeners. they claimed that students from many native languages learn many sounds that are usual to them. in short, english sounds are considered critical as it varies in students' familiarity with the heard words. moreover, they recognised that critical sounds are those problematic sounds in more than three languages, including mainly spanish such as: /ʌ / as in mud, /ɪə / as in fear, / θ / as in thing, /oʊ/ as in no, / aʊ / as in now, and /eɪ/ as in face. these critical sounds were identified by letting the students read a given context. it appears that these students from each mother tongue had trouble when they spoke english – with an extra adapted set of sounds, particularly the found critical sounds. furthermore, in the philippine context, erfe & lintao (2012) exemplified that some critical sounds in english are /f/, /v/, and /th/. she addressed those critical sounds after reading stories to her son. it had led her to an accidental learning insight that constant introduction of the subject paves the way to awareness of the said critical sounds to young learners, which some adult filipinos trip on because the latter are confused on how to sound out those critical sounds. thus, they found to have difficulty recognising the critical sounds of english. in particular, conboy & kuhl (2011) and his colleagues found that when we learn a second language, the brain instinctively organises words based on their similarity to phonemes. for example, categorising the artificial phoneme spectrum between /r/ and /l/ is designed for native english speakers, not japanese speakers, because native english speakers perceive all sounds as either /r/ or /l/, a phenomena kuhl has compared to a "perceptual magnet." in comparison to typical adult speech, the discussion between the young one and the adult amplifies this phonetic distinction. learning language throughout development necessitates amplifying and modifying intrinsic biases through proper postnatal experience. phonetics. according to the university of oulu (2012), phonetics is the science that considers and investigates all aspects of speech. these features include how we create speech with our speech organs, the qualities of speech sounds in the air as they travel from the speaker's lips to the listener's ear, and how we hear speech and recognise its structural elements as linguistic symbols or signs. in other words, it is the discipline of linguistics concerned with the generation, combination, description, and representation of speech sounds via written symbols. however, many people disagree regarding the similarities and distinctions between phonetics and phonology. the study of how sounds are made, transferred, and understood is known as phonetics (we will only look at the production of sounds). phonology is the study of how sounds in a language interact with one another. in other words, phonetics is concerned with language sounds, whereas phonology is concerned with the sound systems of language. hamann & schmitz (2005) define phonetics as a descriptive method used to explore the phonological features of a language. many different english vowels tend to sound the same to many non-native english speakers, according to ettlinger & johnson (2009), including qualities in 'bit' and 'beat,' 'bid' and 'bead,' and groups like 'bad,' 'bud,' and 'barred,' which are notoriously problematic for foreign learners of the language. with phonetics, understanding, hearing, and reproducing distinct vowel characteristics are made more accessible with phonetics. unfortunately, learning pronunciation is a neglected aspect of language learning and teaching, leaving pupils deaf to the sounds of their second language (s). apart from the pronunciation of speech sounds, intonation is an essential feature of phonetics that is frequently overlooked in foreign language learning and instruction. both students and teachers frequently overlook the importance of intonation in conveying meaning and expressing speakers' emotions and attitudes. 2.2 word decoding ability according to the study of bailey (2015), as cited by babiano et al. (2015), the ability to decode words is an essential aspect of learning to read and improving reading fluency. these abilities include distinguishing the basic sounds and sound blends inside a word, comprehending its meaning, understanding the word's role in the sentence, both grammatically and contextually, and understanding how the word changes when prefixes or suffixes are added. decoding skills, in other words, are the abilities required to interpret and analyse words when reading. it takes a long time and effort to learn how to decode. it may take long for a learner to sound out each word or break words down into bits to comprehend the entire term. decoding skills, on the other hand, are necessary for proficient reading. reading will become more automatic when 3 students improve their decoding abilities and become more skilled at identifying words. it will allow the student to focus on the meaning rather than the specific words. further, the ability to decode printed words is employed to make sense of them. it entails being able to detect and evaluate printed words in order to link them to the spoken words they represent. these abilities include the potential to perceive the basic sounds and sound blends (phonemes) that make up a word, as well as the ability to understand what it means, comprehend it in context, and determine whether it is being used accurately in a sentence (morin, el-sayed & racy, 2015; okada, 2013). likewise, decoding is converting printed words into sounds and meanings (often silently). the reverse process is encoding or spelling. encoding skills are frequently developed in tandem with decoding skills and reflect similar learning. learners must first gain some basic understanding of print and how it relates to spoken english in order to become competent decoders and spellers. learners must have established phonological awareness, which means they must know the names of the letters of the alphabet and the sounds the letters represent, as well as understand essential print concepts. readers will not learn to decode without this knowledge, and writers will not learn to spell without it (national centre of literacy and numeracy for adults, 2012). additionally, the word decoding ability is the ability to accurately pronounce written words using knowledge of letter-sound correlations, including understanding letter patterns. students can rapidly recognise known words and figure out words they have not encountered before by comprehending these relationships. while some students may be able to figure out some of these relationships on their own, the majority of students will benefit from formal education in this area. as far as phonics is concerned, it is one of the methods for teaching students the concepts of letter-sound relationships and how to sound out words (weta washington, 2013). to put it differently, decoding is the process of breaking down a printed word into its constituent pieces and detecting its pronunciation using typical english sound/letter patterns. decoding teaches kids how to read any word length and figure out what it means. while decoding abilities are necessary for reading, pupils must also be able to spell the words they hear and say in order to become genuinely literate. encoding skills are a type of "reverse" talent. students who understand how to encode can turn sounds into letters and combine letters to form words (reading horizons, 2014). this section of the review of related literature involves the discussion of the dependent variable of the study. the indicator attributed to word decoding ability is spelling. spelling. in written language, spelling refers to the selection and placement of letters that make up words. it is a combination of different sounds to form a comprehensible word. therefore, in order to spell, one must know how letters are individually represented, how they are arranged, and how they are joined to form comprehensive sounds (norquist, 2021). according to gagen (2013), the letter of the word goes through a process of spelling, in which students base their orthographic structure on turning the sounds from spoken words into print, which is a phonemic approach to spelling. he also highlights that as students learn to 'spell' words via phonemic processing, their spelling ability improves gradually. there are certain english words that are spelt differently than how they sound. these terms are crucial and confounding to second language learners, making them difficult to spell. furthermore, some english words have a well-established symbol-sound link that is inconsistent. he also acknowledged that spelling is one of the key sub-skills of efficient written communication in the english language system. both the reading and writing processes rely on it. he also stated that a student's proper written expression of his or her language is how-to-spell. as a result, he recommended the six cornerstones for spelling success and ways to improve spelling skills. he said in his sixth cornerstone that english spelling is specific and challenging. as a result, precise spelling can be difficult, and it necessitates memorising which spelling patterns are employed in specific terms. similarly, carreker (2010) stated that children require adequate information to recognise spelling patterns. she claimed that in order to achieve the goal of spelling education, pupils must be more aware of the sounds in words and the frequently repeated sequences that spell those sounds. it is necessary to teach reliable spelling patterns. students learn about the roots of words, which enhances their learning. in this approach, the process of spelling out words is not just remembered but also makes logical sense to improve spelling competence (eshiet, 2014). therefore, proficiency in spelling and high awareness of critical sounds in english is joined in the term phonological awareness, thus affirming the connectionist theory of sadoski and paivio (2000). a connectionist model emphasises that phonological awareness is needed along with orthographic and semantic knowledge to read regular and irregularly spelt words. phonology is also integral to the development of word recognition. therefore, phonological awareness predominantly affects the spelling ability of the learners. with the researcher's findings and discussions regarding phonemic awareness and word decoding abilities, the need for this study is fundamental. finding out if this is reflected in the bs-it students is a worthwhile endeavour for the researcher. as a result, 4 the researcher investigates whether there is a link between phonemic awareness and word decoding ability among bs it students. in connection with this, the study is anchored on the connectionist theory of sadoski and paivio (2013), stating that phonological awareness (sound) influenced word recognition and spelling behaviours (decoding). the theorists suggest that learning the connection between sounds and spelling is an essential step in students' word decoding ability. learners with high phonemic awareness will also have high decoding ability and otherwise. in addition, the theorists emphasise the importance of knowing the sounds in order to decode words properly. the typographic principle and phonics understanding are required for children to understand phonemic awareness. it can be accomplished through exposure to the target language and text, as well as time to investigate and experiment with language use (ehri, 2014). children should employ curiosity, love of learning, and improvisation to help them learn, according to constructivist theory and best practices for educating phonemic awareness (tracey & morrow, 2009). furthermore, the study, based on the emergent literacy theory, assumed that children's literacy acquisition began early in life and continues throughout their lives. development takes place in deliberate, meaningful, everyday circumstances. emergent literacy theory advocates for explicitly teaching phonemic awareness and phonics as part of a larger literacy curriculum (yopp & yopp, 2000). with this, the study attempts to identify the relationship between phonemic awareness and word decoding ability among bs-it students at the university of mindanao tagum college. the following objectives are presented and considered for thorough discussion: to describe the level of phonemic awareness of the bs-it students in terms of critical sounds and phonetics; to describe the level of decoding ability of bs-it students, and to identify if there is a significant relationship between phonemic awareness and word decoding ability among bs-it students in the university of mindanao tagum college. further, the following null hypothesis was tested at a 0.05 level of significance using appropriate statistical tools: there is no significant relationship between phonemic awareness and word decoding ability among bs-it students. below is the conceptual paradigm showing the variables of the study. independent dependent references: figure 2.1 the conceptual paradigm figure 2.1 shows the independent (phonemic awareness) and dependent (word decoding ability) variables of the study to give emphasis if there is a positive correlation between the two. 3. method this study used a quantitative, non-experimental design. furthermore, the level of phonemic awareness in terms of crucial sounds and phonetics, as well as the level of word decoding skill in terms of spelling, are described using a descriptive-correlational method. furthermore, this method identifies a significant relationship between phonemic awareness and word decoding skills among bsit students at the university of mindanao tagum college. this research task entails obtaining data in order to test hypotheses or answer questions about the study problem's present situation. moreover, a descriptive correlational study is one in which the researcher's primary goal is to describe connections between variables rather than attempting to establish a causal link. correlational research determines whether two or more variables have a relationship or association, but not whether one variable cause another. further, a descriptive study is research that aims to give a glimpse of the existing situation. a correlational study is research that aims to uncover correlations between variables and anticipate future events based on current information (creswell, 2012). with this, the research study explores the variations between the two qualities of the study group using the correlational research approach. according to leedy and ormrod (2005), the degree to which a researcher discovers statistical association between two traits is dependent on how accurately those characteristics have been estimated. as a result, validity and reliability are critical factors influencing correlation coefficients. the goal of a correlational study is to determine whether two or more variables are connected. moreover, according to creswell (2002), correlation is a statistical test that establishes patterns between two variables. the statistical examination of the research issue can be done in a series of analyses using a standard test for correlation that yields a result called "r." the r coefficient is provided as a decimal number in the pearson correlation coefficient method (cooper and schindler, 2001). researchers must ask themselves about the new knowledge and theoretical views they bring to any research. they must consider the tactics they plan to apply in their research, which will inform their approaches. they must also consider how they will gather and analyse data. according to vogt et al. (2012), this must be done so that researchers are aware of any bias they may bring to any research investigation and how it will affect the approach they take and the tools they use to collect data. also, the phonemic awareness 1. critical sounds 2. phonetics word decoding ability 1. spelling 5 respondents of this study involved 95 bachelor of science in information technology students. this study used a total enumeration technique involving students enrolled in that course program. the respondents involved 30 students from first year, 26 students from second year and 20 students from third year, and 19 students from fourth year. further, this study utilised adapted tests. these tests are the listening test, phonetic transcription test, and spelling test, following american english as the standard language used in the study. the purpose of these instruments is to test the indicators of each variable. the phonological awareness utilised listening test for the indicator, critical sounds, and the phonetic transcription test for the indicator, phonetics. on the other side, the word decoding ability utilised the spelling test for the indicator, spelling. all items of all tests were based on the observed seven critical sounds from the research study of nerrière and hon (2009), which are /ʌ/, /æ/, /ɪə/, /θ/, /oʊ/, / aʊ /, and /eɪ/ and another two critical sounds which are /f/ and /v/ according to erfe & lintao (2012). each test for each indicator is composed of 45 items. a listening test involves audio materials of 45item words with critical sounds to be identified. similarly, the phonetic transcription test involves 45item words with underlined sounds to be transcribed. also, 45 items for the spelling test that intends to make out the ability of the students to translate the given transcribed words into its american standard english spelling with the use of audio dictionary software, specifically the version of the american oxford dictionary version 5.2.34 (babiano et al., 2015). scores for each test used the given scale, descriptive equivalent, and interpretation. the equivalent percentage distribution is based on the university standard where the study was conducted. scores from the administered tests were interpreted accordingly. the range of means is indicated below as the basis for quantifying the level of phonemic awareness word decoding ability of second year bsit students. in gathering data for this study, the researcher followed the following ethical procedure: the researcher sent a letter to the dean of the university of mindanao tagum college with the collaboration of the department of teacher education requesting permission and recommendation to conduct this study among the bachelor of science in information technology students. in administering the tests, the researcher presented to the subject teacher, apportioned the time the test was administered, and respondents the letter of approval from the dean. upon approval, the researcher directly disseminated and administered the tests. correspondingly, the researcher asked for the written outputs and collected them with the guarantee of secrecy and for academic purposes only. then, the data were collected, tallied, tabulated, and interpreted confidentially and accordingly. in analysing this research data, the statistical tools employed were mean, pearson r, and t-test. mean was used to answer problems 1 and 2, which determined the students' phonemic awareness in terms of critical sounds and phonetics and the word decoding ability of the students in terms of spelling. pearson r. it was used to measure the significant relationship between students' phonemic awareness and word decoding ability of the bs–it students t-test. it was used to compute the r-value. 4. result table 4.1 shows the overall data from the variable, phonemic awareness. remarkably, the result in the level of phonemic awareness is presented in this table. from the given data, the indicator critical sounds has the highest mean compared to phonetic structure. it has a mean of 3.73, which signifies those students have a greater level of awareness in this area than the indicator, phonetics. mainly, the overall result on this variable attained a mean of 3.66 which means that respondents in general and as regards their phonemic awareness have a high level of awareness. the school and teachers have done their best to provide worthwhile experiences for students, which eventually developed the students’ competence. it is of great discernment that critical sounds are somehow of the knowledge of these inspiring it. table 4.1 the level of phonemic awareness as responded by bs – it students phonemic awareness n sd mean description critical sound 95 0.89 3.73 high phonetics 95 0.84 3.61 high overall 95 0.85 3.66 high 1 legend: range of means descriptive equivalent 4.5-5.00 very high 3.5-4.49 high 2.5-3.49 moderate 1.5-2.49 low 1-1.49 very low the findings support the statement of the university of southampton's center for languages, linguistics, and area studies (2015), which states that students from various linguistic backgrounds enjoyed having to learn phonetics about the core assumptions of speech sounds and becoming cognizant of its many application areas in daily life. weekly ear-training exercises and performance practice also assisted them in identifying and reproducing the distinctive sounds utilised in other languages. furthermore, when it comes to the result of critical sounds (3.73), fennel (1999) stated that it is preferable for learners to encounter errors from their native languages in the target language, such as aspiration, intonation, rhythm, and melody, in order to understand the genuine scenario of learning. the issues arise when the rules for combining sounds in syllable forms differ between languages. when it comes to learning or strengthening speech skills, age is crucial. he claims that introverted students cannot learn properly in the classroom because they are unsure if they can accomplish it. if learners can pronounce the second language as if it were their natural tongue, it is likely that they have improved their ability since they were young. smith (2011), on the other hand, claims that the most challenging degree of phonemic awareness is becoming aware of particular sounds in words. he stated that languages change and that they vary. it was referred to as "sound modification" by him. he also claimed that phonology had something to do with how sounds are combined to form meaningful utterances. in this way, phonology's study of sound change has a systematic distinction. with the result stated in table 4.1 about critical sounds, the finding may be credited to the students' exposure to the critical sounds as these are used and methodically observed at some point of academic or typical spoken discourse. particularly on the ge 2 subject, they seemed to learn about these sounds and tried their best to retain that knowledge for essential communication. it is necessary to know what is being said with these kinds of sounds since, as by name, these are critical, especially for most filipinos. nunes (2016) backs up the study by emphasising that letters represent english language sounds. she claims students need to be able to access sounds to understand what letters mean. as a result, having a high awareness of critical sounds suggests that they have a high perceptive of spoken language sounds, which will work together to form words. in support of the findings, høien‐tengesdal & tønnessen (2011) discovered that students occasionally have problems understanding sounds based on how they are pronounced. as a result, many researchers have proposed their variants of standard english pronunciation. they frequently need students from a variety of mother tongues to learn a variety of unfamiliar sounds, such as variances in english and american pronunciation, as well as other dialects that make learning much more difficult. it explains why matching many new sounds to english spelling is considerably more challenging for children. they argued that students from a variety of original languages pick up on a variety of sounds that are familiar to them. in brief, english sounds are important because students' familiarity with the words they hear differs. furthermore, they identified essential sounds as those that are problematic in more than three languages, primarily spanish, such as / / as in mud, / / as in fear, / / as in thing, /o/ as in no, / a / as in now, and /e/ as in face. these crucial sounds were discovered by allowing pupils to interpret a specific context. it indicates that when these students spoke english, they had difficulty with an extra modified set of sounds, especially the detected critical sounds. with this, the phonological reading abilities exploit the process of audibly dividing a word into smaller pieces and using sound-print-conversion principles to sound it out, which was explicitly addressed in the phonological-based teaching, as seen by the intervention procedures analysis. the favourable instructional results suggest that explicitly teaching decoding abilities in english may be independent of oral language experience and proficiency in the english language. learning english alphabetic principles and phonological awareness may not require a specific amount of oral language competency or sight vocabulary. on the other hand, when it comes to the result of phonetics (3.61), small (2005) agrees with the findings of this study, stating that phonetic transcription is difficult, time-consuming, and complex. it is because various letters make different sounds when produced in sounds, and as part of the topic of english, the entire course is not intended for that specific critical sound. in order to solve these issues, some guidelines must be properly followed. as a result, any prospective transcriber must first realise that the human ear is not a 1 microphone, which might lead to misinterpretation. that is, people should always receive rather than immediately analyse and interpret incoming auditory signals based on their prior experience with them. the findings may be explained using students' understanding of phonetic transcription. it may be attributed mostly to the way students learn and are taught in ge 2 class, as this is one of the topics covered in this subject. the subject's content has been linked with its description and, more importantly, its curriculum aim. moreover, indirectly, the teacher was successful in conveying the subject's desired content. teachers think that because all learners have mastered their first language, they all have the same capacity to acquire a second language. however, some teachers may not have sufficient training to assist their students with pronunciation instruction. a number of scholars have worked to address this issue, asserting and recommending that various factors influence students' pronunciation. previous research has shown that factors such as native language age, exposure, innate phonetic ability, identity, language ego, motivation and concern for good pronunciation ability, and motivation and concern for good pronunciation ability all appear to have an impact on teaching and learning pronunciation. the items given are instruments that will assist students in their studies (celce-murcia, 2015). hence, many different english vowels tend to sound the same to many non-native english speakers, according to ettlinger & johnson (2009), including qualities in 'bit' and 'beat,' 'bid' and 'bead,' and groups like 'bad,' 'bud,' and 'barred,' which are notoriously problematic for foreign learners of the language. understanding, hearing, and reproducing distinct vowel characteristics are made easier with phonetics. unfortunately, the pronunciation part of foreign language learning and teaching is frequently disregarded, leaving pupils deaf to the sounds of their second language (s). apart from the pronunciation of speech sounds, intonation is an important feature of phonetics that is frequently overlooked in foreign language learning and instruction. both students and teachers frequently overlook the importance of intonation in conveying meaning and expressing speakers' emotions and attitudes. although second language learners have experienced difficulty with some critical sounds in english, especially when they are non-native speakers of the english language, as cited by ballesteros (2002), it can be aided through constant and formal instruction. the school can teach students to assist this particular dilemma in discourse. the alphabetic principle and phonics expertise, on the other perspective, are required for students to understand phonological awareness. it can be accomplished through exposure to language and text and time to investigate and experiment with language use, according to constructivist theory and practice guidelines for teaching phonemic awareness (morrow, williams & liu). according to collom (2005), the ability to assess sound quality is not a gift or a property of hyperactive imagination; instead, it is a taught talent that can be mastered through example, education, and practice. to put it another way, each student has their own learning style. in order for a skill to be strengthened and shared, it must be expressed and openly discussed. students must have fun while learning in order to practice developing self-confidence since once they have it, they can show the rest of the world that they can do it. because edification is the means of obtaining the parcel, pupils must perfect their talent before obtaining it. teaching and understanding phonetics have always been beneficial. it has traditionally been used in language teaching and speech and language therapy. it now helps with voice technology and, increasingly, forensic science. as previously said, this is the sound we make when we speak and how our mouth organs vibrate (british association of academic phoneticians, 2015). further, communication, according to stetson (2015), is a collection of audible movements rather than a collection of sounds created by movements. for this dialect to be meaningful, it must be created via action. phonetics is separated into three categories: speaker, sound, and listener. the speaker is the primary source of sound for the listener to hear. on the other hand, the level of word decoding ability in terms of spelling through the employment of spelling tests among bs – it students are specified in table 4.2. the table shows the students' level of awareness in terms of spelling. this result implies that respondents are considered to have a high level of word decoding ability in terms of spelling, with a total calculated mean of 3.93. table 4.2 the level of word decoding ability as responded by bs – it students word decoding ability n sd mean description spelling 95 0.96 3.93 high 1 legend: range of means descriptive equivalent 4.5-5.00 very high 3.5-4.49 high 2.5-3.49 moderate 1.5-2.49 low 1-1.49 very low the findings can be related to the students' knowledge of sounds-words relationships. the students can readily translate the sound combinations into words. they have primarily attained and maintained the appropriate level of awareness of sound representation. as a result, they are competent spellers who have been influenced by their writing activities, which have increased their knowledge of the subject. hempenstall (2011) summarised the previous remark by stating that the written word is merely a technique of institutionalising the sound qualities of spoken symbols or sounds. the latter highlighted how a child must understand the logic of the writing system and, as a prerequisite, the logic of oral creation in order to decipher written words. students must first generate the sound before recognising its written sign. moreover, the stated indicator competent speller approximately happens at 10 years old and above. it suggests that, concerning spelling, a student at a good level is working with the years 6 and more in school (the state of south australia, 2013). thus, as implied in the results and findings of the study, the respondents maintained that quality as they are expected to have this ability in spelling (gunderson, 2014). the result is supported by the state of south australia (2013), which suggested how to spell sound moderately. it states that sophomore students should be engaged in learning vocabulary strategies among their lesson instructions. in any unit of work, it is essential that all teachers define the appropriate terminology that students must know and utilise. furthermore, teachers should urge students to keep a list of current words and a vocabulary glossary. additionally, according to archer & hughes (2011), decoding is the capacity to use letter-sound (phonemegrapheme) relationships and structural factors to determine the pronunciation of unknown words. she underlined in her study that decoding is closely tied to comprehension and that no comprehension approach is powerful enough to compensate for a student's inability to read the words. the most considerable discrepancies between high-performing and poorly performing learners are due to inadequate word recognition skills. she also mentioned that the capacity to decipher multisyllabic words is complicated for older struggling readers. students must use their attention skills in order to decipher words correctly. in order to form a meaningful word, pupils must be able to discern the salient or key elements of letters and words while matching sounds (phonemes) to symbols (letters). students must constantly check their work and self-monitor while reading to ensure that the sounds they are mixing and the words they are revealing are meaningful. word decoding determines the letter sequence in a word and remembers that information while combining sounds to produce a meaningful word. active working memory aids a student's capacity to maintain numerous letters sounds together on a 'thinking counter space.' decoding words necessitates the application of analytical skills to a word's phonological (sound) and structural (symbol) properties (all kinds of minds, 2015). in written language, spelling refers to the selection and arrangement of letters that make up words. it is a symphony of distinct sounds that come together to produce a recognisable word. to spell, one must understand how letters are represented separately, organised, and linked to produce entire sounds (norquist, 2021). however, several english spellings in which the letters used to write them do not adequately represent the sounds. it is due to the fact that english is not a phonetic language, which means that most english sounds have different spellings. these sounds, like vowel sounds, are important and difficult to spell, owing to the fact that standard american english has at least fourteen vowel sounds (oliver, 2021). thus, with the results being stated, according to gagen (2013), the letters of the word follow a phonemic approach to spelling, in which students base their orthographic structure on transferring the sounds from spoken word to print. he also highlights that as students learn to 'spell' words via phonemic processing, their spelling ability improves gradually. there are certain english words that are spelt differently than how they sound. these terms are crucial and confounding to second language learners, making them difficult to spell. furthermore, some english words have a well-established symbol-sound link that is inconsistent. he also acknowledged that spelling is one of the key sub-skills of efficient written communication in the english language system. both the reading and writing processes rely on it. he also revealed that pupils' how-to-spell is the right written representation of their language. similarly, carreker (2010) stated that kids require sufficient information to recognise spelling patterns. she claimed that in order to achieve the goal of spelling 1 education, pupils must be more aware of the sounds in words and the frequently repeated patterns that spell those sounds. it is necessary to teach reliable spelling patterns. students learn about the origins of words, which enhances their learning. in this approach, the process of spelling out words is not just memorised but also follows a pattern to improve spelling competence. also, according to johnston, ivey & faulkner (2011), learning the rules for spelling out important sound symbols may increase pupils' ability to spell, but teaching them in isolation is insufficient. he believes that understanding the underlying words and how they are altered is critical. he also mentioned that students' lack of awareness of simple one-to-one letter/sound correspondences in words, as well as apparent exceptions to spelling rules, contribute to spelling errors. as a result, it is important to recognise that students cannot learn good spelling habits without explicit instruction (li & chen, 2016). as a result, phonological awareness encompasses both spelling skills and a high level of knowledge of essential sounds in english, confirming sadoski and paivio's connectionist theory (2000). in order to understand regular and irregularly spelt words, the connectionist model emphasises the importance of phonological awareness, as well as orthographic and semantic information. the development of word recognition is also dependent on phonology. as a result, phonological awareness has a significant impact on students' spelling abilities. table 4.3 the significant relationship between phonemic awareness and word decoding ability sd mean r-value 𝝆-value description 𝜶 = 0.05 phonemic awareness 0.85 3.66 word decoding ability 0.96 3.93 0.51 8.59-09 ho is rejected table 4.3 shows the relationship between the variables, phonemic awareness and word decoding ability among bs it students at the university of mindanao tagum college. based on the given data, it has a relationship value of 0.51. in contrast, its significance has a value of 0.0000000859, which means that phonemic awareness has a significant relationship to word decoding ability. with that, the null hypothesis that claims no significant relationship between the said variables is hereby rejected. results can be simplified that phonemic awareness does count as a major contributing factor to the word decoding ability of the bs – it students. 4.1 significant relationship between phonemic awareness and word decoding ability the r-value of 0.51 implicates a positive correlation between phonemic awareness and word decoding ability. it further explains that 51% of the phonemic awareness affects the word decoding ability of the respondents. the remaining 49% can be explained by other factors not covered explicitly in the study. this result was further established by cornwall and macdonald and cornwall (2014). their research also indicated that phonemic awareness was a significant factor in students' word identification and spelling skills. in assisting the students in identifying the word and how to spell it, there is a need to be aware of what phonology is and how it plays along the process. in light of the findings, apel and masterson (2001) stated that evaluating students' phonemic awareness and reading abilities is critical in determining their spelling ability. the findings of this study show that to help students enhance their spelling skills, specific metrics of phonemic awareness (sound-to-letter problems) and reading ability should be detected in their college endeavours. spelling, on the other hand, is a language skill that is the visual depiction of spoken language and relies on one's knowledge of the letter-sound, morphological, and syntax structure of the english language, as arndt (2010) discovered in her study of factors affecting the development of spelling at the teacher, student, and world level. phonemic awareness has been shown to be a predictor of word decoding even in early elementary school. because spelling errors are often phonetically accurate, there is a significant link between phonemic awareness and spelling ability (kamhi & hinton, 2000). the alphabetic principle and phonics expertise, on the other hand, are required for youngsters to understand phonemic awareness. it can be accomplished through exposure to language and text and time to investigate and experiment with language use. children should employ curiosity, inquisitiveness, and spontaneity to help them learn, according to constructivist theory and best practices for teaching phonemic awareness (morrow, williams & liu, 2012). it should be noted that phonics/phonemic awareness training was not used as the sole english program in any studies. the training in the studies examined is meant to be used in addition to conventional english classes, and it is most successful 25 when given on a regular and discrete basis. language understanding and communication should be the fundamental goals of early foreign language instruction. learning phonetic abilities and alphabetic knowledge in english is insufficient to substitute entire language instruction. furthermore, rather than focusing primarily on word pronunciation, efl students' english word reading should be assessed in a multi-faceted manner. not only does print-pronunciation association not ensure lexical access, but the task also yields incorrect results since rating pronunciation is influenced by a variety of circumstances, including the background of the scorers (fletcher-flinn et al., 2014). both lexical access and word pronunciation should be examined in the future to ensure that the findings are more trustworthy and valid (shepherd, 2013). it is insufficient to memorise the sounds that the letters represent if the student is unable to use that information because he is unable to perceive the distinct sounds in a word. if a struggling reader's brain cannot process the various sounds, how can he mix them and recognise the word? the series of sounds does not automatically transform into a complete word for this reader. similarly, how can a writer guess the spelling of a spoken phrase if he does not "hear" the sounds? readers and even speakers of the language with phonemic awareness can use phonics to recognise words as they read and to spell words as they write and speak. learning to read with comprehension or improving reading skills begins with developing phonemic awareness. it is not a goal in and of itself. when learners have enough ability to manipulate sounds to enable them to use phonics in reading and spelling, we teach phonemic awareness when and for as long as they need it. we also have to teach phonemic awareness with phonics and other reading abilities because the skills are mutually reinforcing. in fact, studies with youngsters have demonstrated that teaching phonemic awareness using letters is more effective than teaching it through oral practice alone. this approach to phonemic awareness is technically phonics training, but if the primary focus of the activities is on manipulating the sounds, they can also be thought of as phonemic awareness development (nichd, 2000, p. 2-34; kruidenier, 2002). 5. discussion the current study looked at phonemic awareness as a predictor of word decoding ability among university of mindanao tagum college bs-it students. in order to accomplish this, the researcher established the following objectives: • to describe the level of phonemic awareness of the bs-it students in terms of: critical sounds; phonetics • to describe the level of decoding ability of bs-it students. • to identify if there is a significant relationship between phonemic awareness and word decoding ability among bs-it students at the university of mindanao tagum college. 5.1 the level of phonemic awareness of the bs-it students the bs-it students' level of phonemic awareness in terms of critical sounds is 3.73, which indicates that respondents have a high level of awareness of critical sounds when using the listening test. specifically, none of the crucial sound outcomes is associated with a low level of awareness. furthermore, the bs-it students' degree of awareness of phonetics is 3.61, indicating that the respondents have a high level of awareness of phonetics when using the phonetic transcription test. to be more precise, several of the crucial sounds were categorised as mediocre, but none were rated as poor. it could be attributed to the students' exposure to critical sounds, which are employed and analysed at some point in academic or everyday spoken speech. students appeared to learn about these sounds, particularly in the ge 2 course and tried their hardest to preserve that knowledge so that it might be used for important communication. it is crucial to understand what is being said with these sounds since, as the name implies, they are crucial, especially for most filipinos. as a result, the bs-it students are so thoroughly influenced by the native filipinos' native tongue that they frequently interchange similar sounds in words. furthermore, because of the students' accents, which mismatch the new sounds in english spelling, this area of concern on important sounds is very likely. it could be related to the native filipino's mother tongue, which frequently interchanges similar sounds in words. more recently, studies of phonemic awareness training have been published that compare and contrast purely oral language methods to the development of phonemic awareness abilities with techniques that include print engagement throughout the training. these studies suggest that programs that encourage high levels of student dialogue and collaboration with print (for example, through read-aloud, shared reading, and invented spelling) produce the same amount of growth in phonemic awareness abilities as programs that focus solely on oral language instruction. these findings also imply that when there are both interactions with print and explicit attention to phonemic awareness abilities, the greatest influence on phonemic awareness is produced. in other words, the optimal vehicle for growth is engagement with print mixed with conscious attention to sound structure in spoken words. 26 although phonemic knowledge is crucial for learning a language, language learning is an unconscious process that requires immersion in an active linguistic context; explicit instruction is not required. the child's language learning system achieves this extraordinary accomplishment by responding to information at the phonemic level without the requirement for cognitive awareness of that level. if the language is written alphabetically, learning to read it requires a specific understanding of the phoneme since, unlike learning a language, learning to read is a more time-consuming process. teaching students to read entails various components, one of which is phonemic awareness. phonological awareness is a subset of phonemic awareness, a subset of metalinguistic awareness (arrow et al., 2017). phonemic awareness is concerned with the sounds of the phonemes, which aid decoding and reading abilities. because children have a hard time breaking down speech into the smallest units of sound, this becomes one of the most challenging aspects of reading (blachman, ball, black, & tangel, 2000). in reading education, phonemic awareness instruction is a popular topic. many people think it is crucial (for example, carson et al., 2013; ball & blachman, 1991; ukrainetz, 2017). students that struggle with reading frequently start having challenges at a young age, and the issues often revolve around letter-sound relationships. teachers must ensure that they evaluate students to determine the specific nature of the problem so that proper instruction may be offered at a young age. it is critical for teachers to understand how phonemic awareness might help students develop their reading skills. students can overcome their shortcomings and achieve in reading and spelling by introducing phonemic awareness early in their education (allen-tamai, 2012; yeung, 2012). the importance of phonemic awareness in the language curriculum cannot be overstated. it is just one component of a much bigger puzzle. to help close the gap between at-risk readers, teachers must recognise the importance of early phonemic awareness. teachers can help their students improve their reading and spelling skills by giving phonemic awareness training. students are able to comprehend the letter-sound link, which will aid them in decoding as they continue. 5.2 the level of word decoding ability of the bs-it students the average level of word decoding ability among bs-it students is 3.93, indicating that the respondents had a high ability to decode transcribed words using the spelling test. words with /aʊ/ sounds were proficiently spelt by the respondents for specified reasons, indicating that they had a high level of awareness of the sound. it means that the study's respondents had a hard time detecting critical sounds, which made it difficult for them to recognise other critical sounds. thus, there is a significant existing deficit in identifying essential sounds. students must use their attention skills in order to decipher words correctly. in order to form a comprehensible word, students must be able to discern the salient or vital elements of letters and words while matching sounds (phonemes) to symbols (letters). students must regularly monitor their selfdevelopment and self while reading to ensure that the sounds they are mixing and the words they are revealing are meaningful. word decoding determines the letter sequence in a word and remembers that information while blending sounds to produce a meaningful word. the ability of a student's active working memory to store numerous letters sound together on a 'thinking counter space' is aided by this skill. decoding words necessitates the application of analytical skills to a word's phonological (sound) and structural (symbol) properties (all kinds of minds, 2015). according to klusek et al. (2015) research, word decoding is a critical aspect of learning to read and increasing reading fluency. these abilities include identifying the know the following and sound blends inside a word, comprehending its meaning, understanding the word's role in the sentence, both linguistically and thematically, and comprehending how the word changes when prefixes or suffixes are added. decoding skills, in other words, are the abilities required to interpret and analyse words when reading. it takes a long time and effort to learn how to decode. it may take a long time for a learner to sound out each individual word or break words down into bits to comprehend the entire term. decoding skills, on the other hand, are necessary for proficient reading. reading will become more automatic when students improve their decoding abilities and become more skilled at identifying words. it will allow the student to focus on the meaning rather than the specific words. furthermore, the word decoding ability is the capacity to accurately pronounce written words using knowledge of letter-sound correlations, including understanding letter patterns. students can rapidly recognise known words and figure out words they have not encountered before by understanding these relationships. while some students may be able to figure out some of these relationships on their own, the majority of students will benefit from formal education in this area. as far as phonics is concerned, it is one of the methods for teaching pupils the concepts of lettersound relationships as well as how to sound out words (weta washington, 2015). students learn orthographies master decoding more quickly than students learning deep orthographies, according to kim, park & wagner (2014). poor readers of shallow orthographies, such as finnish, decode words rather accurately but in a dysfluent manner, whereas poor readers of deep orthographies, such as 27 english, decode words inaccurately and in a dysfluent manner. it makes sense because words in superficial phonetic symbols can be decoded simply by knowing the sounds of individual letters in the word. however, he claims that accurate decoding of words in deep orthographies necessitates memorising many words that cannot be fully decoded simply by knowing the sounds of the letters. as a result, decoding plays a part in the reading. the findings revealed that children learning to read in a transparent orthography achieve ceiling levels of word decoding accuracy from the start, while their efficiency scores improve. the first essential processes of learning to read are predicted by early literacy and lexical retrieval and, to a lesser extent, verbal and visual short-term memory. individual differences in the development of early word decoding demonstrate a high level of consistency over time. thus, integrating content between decoding and text reading exercises may be one approach to encourage decoding gains to be transferred to comprehension benefits. teaching assistant text reading exercises may also facilitate the transfer of decoding gains to comprehension gains by assisting youngsters in orchestrating their efforts to decode words as well as comprehend message content effectively. the vocabulary building intervention incorporates decoding and text reading, making it an ideal test case for measuring improvements in reading comprehension assessments. word decoding skills that are efficient improve reading comprehension and help to build some forms of phonological awareness. failure to participate in full alphabetic decoding will result in poorer improvement in each of the reading abilities listed. reading and speaking both require decoding. it enables pupils to decipher most words they have heard but never seen written, as well as sound out words they have never heard before. all other reading instruction—fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension—is built on the foundation of decoding ability. 5.3 the significant relationship between phonemic awareness and word decoding ability the relationship between phonemic awareness and word decoding ability of bs-it students at the university of mindanao tagum college has r (95) = 0.50, ρ (0.0000000859) < 0.05. it indicates that the given variables have a significant relationship, thereby rejecting the study's null hypothesis. since the instructions are included in most english classes, particularly in ge 2, it may be assumed that the knowledge has helped them improve their decoding skills. indeed, the knowledge they obtained in english classes helped them improve their spelling skills in one way or another. furthermore, as a communicator and an individual, this is a crucial ability. macdonald & cornwall (1995) went on to confirm this discussion based on their research as well. in addition, phonemic awareness was found to be a significant effect on students' word identification and spelling abilities. to help students identify the word and spell it correctly, they must first understand phonology and how this role in the process is vital. this phonemic awareness has been a contributing factor and predictor of the word decoding ability of the bs-it students. being able to discern the sounds of language is a necessary first step for a reader and speaker. according to phillips et al. (2012), decoding text in an alphabetic writing system entail converting units of print (graphemes) to units of sounds (phonemes). according to their research, a solid consensus has formed over the last two decades on the relevance of phonological awareness in the acquisition of reading and spelling in alphabetic language. if the learner recognises the letter's sound, they will be able to read it. to put it another way, phonemic awareness is crucial in deciphering a single word. phonemic awareness aids children in combining letter-sound combinations to form words (thompson et al., 2015). reading requires phonological awareness since written words match spoken words. to get from a printed word to a spoken word (reading) or a spoken word to a written word (spelling), readers and speakers must be aware of the speech sounds that letters and letter combinations represent (moats, 2010). to learn letter-sound correspondences, mix sounds together to decipher a word, and "map" words into long-term sight vocabulary, ones must be aware of the sounds in spoken language (kilpatrick, 2015). although academic careers have been built on discussing seemingly minor aspects of models that can account for a student's performance when presented with words and nonwords, phonemic decoding is undeniably the foundation upon which fluent single word reading and fluent reading of the connected text for comprehension are built. building appropriate internal word representations and spelling patterns requires effective phonological decoding. a considerable sight word vocabulary is developed through a combination of phonemic translation and rigorous orthographic analysis, allowing for fluent reading of related text and understanding. as a result, examining phonological decoding at the word level is an important aspect of reading and oral evaluation. the precise nature of the fundamental language impairment that manifests as inadequate phonemic awareness and phonological decoding is unknown at this time, but it is being researched. one possibility is a slight problem with creating appropriate phonological representations, which leads to phonological awareness and decoding problems. when 28 l2 learners fall behind, they are subjected to reading training tailored for typical readers, which offers little help until they are finally identified as having a reading difficulty and receive a more appropriate education. as a result, even if the ultimate goal of reading is to comprehend the meaning of the text, assessing wordlevel reading in the form of phonological decoding skills and sight word knowledge is critical. students must increase their phonemic awareness to the point of automaticity in order to read fluently, freeing up their brain energy to readily absorb what they are reading. students rely on poor decoding methods and coping tactics like memorisation instead of safeguarding their sound system by learning to recall the 44 sounds of the english language automatically. these abilities may allow kids to begin reading, but as texts become more complicated, students' comprehension begins to deteriorate since it becomes too difficult to comprehend what they are reading while they are focused on laboriously decoding every word. if we want pupils to master the 44 sounds, we need to provide them with repeated auditory exposure to each one and teach them how to distinguish each sound quickly from another sound. students learn to perceive and regulate sounds as well as grasp that spoken words are made up of a sequence of spoken sounds through phonemic awareness. because of this order to produce high quality, students who were able to recognise phonemes quickly could read more smoothly, according to my research. students who took longer to absorb phonemes had trouble understanding what was being spoken. it looked like decoding the words took up too much time, leaving less time for deciphering what was spoken and read. 6. conclusion critical sounds appeared to be critical for the respondents since they attained an overall high awareness in a listening test of the bs – it students. this means that students are significantly affected by these problems many times. this connotes that student sometimes struggles with critical sounds, especially those foreign ones with no alternative interpretation to their native language. further, students on critical sounds, through the conduct of the listening test, seemed to have higher awareness than phonetics, which used the phonetic transcription test. however, despite this, the awareness of respondents on phonetics is even acceptable as they attained high awareness of this indicator. also, compared to the word decoding ability, the respondents appeared to be of high level. hence, respondents have an average ability to translate transcribed words into their american standard english spelling. with this, the null hypothesis is hereby rejected. it is indeed of high possibility to claim that they have very high significance with each other. it would generally imply that, certainly, phonemic awareness is a predictor of bs – it students’ word decoding ability. phonemic awareness is a fundamental skill that must be developed before learning decoding skills. english is an alphanumeric language, which implies that symbols (letters) reflect the sounds of spoken words in written english. when "sounding out" a word, however, we must be able to (1) know and generate the sounds that the letters represent, as well as (2) blend those distinct sounds as we hear them in order, and (3) identify the word. step 1, which is at the foundation of the phonics system, is frequently the focus of early literacy instruction. we believe that teaching novices the sounds of the letters are all they require. however, for many students, the procedure fails in steps 2 and 3 due to a lack of phonemic awareness. the findings of this systematic review revealed a consistent pattern of phonological decoding and phonemic awareness benefits from phonological-based education. phonemic awareness is similar to, but not the same as, decoding. phonemic awareness is solely concerned with spoken sounds. decoding is the process of connecting letters to the sounds they represent. when we talk about phonics instruction, we are talking about learning how to use letter-sound correlations to recognise words in reading or approximate spelling. decoding skills, which are heavily reliant on phonemic awareness, are developed through phonics training. with this, phonetic decoding and sight word knowledge problems can have major effects on the complex process of learning to read, especially as pupils are forced to read increasingly challenging literature with each successive grade level. years of academic failure lead to alienation from school and demotivation for many elderly struggle readers and speakers who never learned to "break the code." as a result, it is vital to test and identify students who are still struggling with core phonological decoding skills. nonword and sight word evaluations effectively isolate these skills, ensuring that older, struggling readers and speakers with decoding issues receive the targeted, intense instruction they require to get back on track to successful comprehension. thus, it is highly recommended to get the awareness of phonemics in order to decode words properly through constant practice and the assistance of the teachers. 7. acknowledgement this research was supported by university of mindanao tagum college. i would like to thank my colleagues, my close friends, my family, and my god who have provided me insight and proficiency that greatly assisted this study. this would not be possible without them. thank you so much! 29 references allen-tamai, m. 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(2000). supporting phonemic awareness development in the classroom. the reading teacher, 54(2), 130-143. https://athome.readinghorizons.com/reading-academy/phonics https://athome.readinghorizons.com/reading-academy/phonics https://weta.org/press/white-house-welcome-130-students-latin-music-history-educational-program https://weta.org/press/white-house-welcome-130-students-latin-music-history-educational-program instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9751 vol. 4, no. 2, august 2022, pp.170-182 comparison of indonesian and japanese new-vocabularies in the context of the covid-19 pandemic: morphosemantic study murniati br. barus & mhd. pujiono* universitas sumatera utara, medan, indonesia mhd.pujiono@usu.ac.id article history received : 2022-03-26 revised : 2022-05-20 accepted : 2022-05-22 keywords covid-19 new vocabulary morphosemantics bahasa indonesia japanese abstract situational and social contexts influence language to change. various online discourses during the current pandemic have given rise to new covid-19 vocabulary in indonesian and japanese. therefore, this study will examine and compare indonesian and japanese new vocabulary during the covid-19 pandemic. this study used a morphosemantic theory in descriptive qualitative research. the data is a collection of new covid-19 vocabulary from march 2020 to december 2021 from indonesian and japanese online newspapers. listening and recording are used to collect data, and interactive model analysis is used to analyse it. data collection found 24 new indonesian words and 30 japanese words. the two languages' vocabularies have 21 similar meanings. one japanese word has no indonesian equivalent. new indonesian vocabularies form from adopted acronyms and loanwords. in japanese, vocabulary comes from loanwords, native words, kango, and combinations. the new words regarding the covid-19 outbreak are owned by both indonesian and japanese, but their comparison is not necessarily the same even though the context is the same. both countries define or handle covid-19 differently. forming words from both languages affects the form of new vocabulary. according to the findings of this study, a global situation such as a pandemic affects various developments in vocabulary formation in indonesian and japanese. this study helps foreign language learners and researchers, especially japanese, understand new newspaper vocabulary. it fills gaps left by previous research, which focused on single-language data and context. an analysis of covid-19 vocabulary words in indonesian and japanese. 1. introduction language as an arbitrary communication tool (chaer, 2012; felicia, 2016; kridalaksana, 2009; pujiono, 2017), making it dynamic, developing and inseparable from the various social and situational contexts of the speaking community. language development can include the form of units, such as words, groups of words, clauses, and sentences that are expressed both in writing and orally. at the beginning of 2020, the world community was hit by a coronavirus outbreak (covid-19) (pujiono et al., 2021). covid-19 has become a pandemic and has spread worldwide, including in indonesia and japan. the two languages have structural typological differences, such as the construction of phrases; for example, japanese has an sov (subject-object-verb) structure, whereas indonesian has an svo structure (subject-verbobject) (gapur & pujiono, 2018; soidi, 2010). however, morphologically, the two languages share the same agglutinative vocabulary construction characteristics, in that word size is formed by combining morphemes (darlina & budiasa, 2015; darlina & dyah, 2017). therefore, it is interesting to compare the morphology of the two languages, particularly in the context of the addition of new (foreign) terms, i.e., the pandemic context in both languages. the covid-19 pandemic, which has become an international issue, has resulted in various discourses in public spaces, giving rise to a large amount of vocabulary related to the covid-19 pandemic. at first, the vocabulary emerged from the term english as an international language. it was translated into various languages in the world to create a new vocabulary in each country, including japan and indonesia. it is in line with poedjosoedarmo's opinion (haryono, 2011; poedjosoedarmo, 2006; sutarini et al., 2021), which states that internal changes in the grammatical system and external changes caused by the influence of other languages can be used to identify the process of language change. externally, https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9751 171 the relationship between the existence of a language in another language environment, particularly in the context of global problems, cannot be divorced from the relationship between english as a world language and social and cultural aspects (agussyafrida et al., 2021; prayoga & khatimah, 2019). for instance, in the social and physical distancing vocabularies. this vocabulary became one of the world health organization's primary tools for preventing and controlling covid-19 virus infection (who). in indonesia, the acronym psbb has supplanted these vocabularies (large-scale social restrictions). the word social distancing is defined as social restrictions in sociology, while during the covid-19 pandemic, the vocabulary of social distancing also meant "maintaining a physical distance." psbb is used as a government program implemented on march 31, 2020, through pp no. 21 of 2021 and was published in mass media discourse in indonesia (kemenkopmk, 2019). while the vocabulary for social distancing in japanese has not changed, only the japanese syllable sound (onsetsu) has been adjusted, namely sousharu disutansu (ソー シャ ル・ディスタンス ), but sometimes new vocabulary in the original japanese language is shakaiteki kyori no kakuho (社会的距離の 確保) is also used. at a glance, the new vocabulary associated with the terms social and physical distancing in japan and indonesia exhibits significant differences in terms of vocabulary development and meaning. vocabulary related to the emergence of covid19 is understood and used by the broader community until now, not only among scientists or epidemiologists. the vocabulary in indonesian and japanese cannot be separated from the process of word formation, both in lexical form and in morphological word-formation. in addition, the vocabulary of indonesian and japanese cannot be separated from the semantic aspect, which discusses the meaning or meaning. semantic aspects always exist at every level of other linguistic branches, so semantics plays an essential role. the linguistic phenomenon of the new vocabulary in covid-19 can be studied in word formation (morphology) and meaning (semantics). the combination of these two studies is called a morphosemantic study. thus, morphosemantics takes its semantic meaning and morphological processes in inflexion and derivatives from morphology. additionally, morphosemantic analysis is a study of language that employs both morphological and semantic theory (maulana & sanusi, 2020, p. 138). a study on the formation of new vocabulary has previously been carried out by syarifuddin (2018) and dewi (2016), who researched new vocabulary on social media instagram. the classification and description of the types of word-formation that are used to form hashtags on instagram, as well as the determination of the meaning contained within the term, are among the study findings obtained by both parties. hadi's study (2017) examines the formation of new words and terms in modern arabic. hermawan's study (2018) examines new vocabulary in the wasei eigo type on twitter social media. there is also a past study on new vocabulary in the context of covid conducted by gromenko (2021), which examines the normative aspects of compound word formation in russian related to the words corona and covid. the results show many inconsistencies in the variations in the vocabulary that are formed. this study builds on these previous studies by examining vocabulary formation in indonesian and japanese in the context of the covid-19 pandemic. various studies have revealed that the vocabulary of a language is highly dynamic, as demonstrated by the results of these studies. in the context of social change in society, new vocabulary emerges and develops over time. as a result, this study fills in the gaps left by the previous study, which was limited to data and the context of specific situations in a single language only. as a continuation of previous studies in the area of vocabulary development, this study examines how vocabulary words related to covid19 are formed and how they differ between indonesian and japanese. it also compares and contrasts how vocabulary is formed in the two languages. the findings of this study contribute to the novelty of language science by advancing the development of morphology and semantics in japanese and indonesian, two languages that are currently understudied. as stated previously, the covid-19 pandemic spawned a plethora of new vocabulary that the public understands and uses to identify, anticipate, and comprehend the dangers of the covid-19 spread. these words have been closely embedded in people's minds because society discusses these words all the time. this study aims to compare the forms and meanings of indonesian and japanese in the covid19 pandemic situation using a morphosemantic approach. the formulation of the problem in the form of question points is as follows: (1) what are the new indonesian and japanese vocabularies in the covid19 pandemic situation? (2) how are the new indonesian and japanese vocabulary forms in the covid-19 pandemic situation? and (3) how do the new indonesian and japanese vocabulary forms compare? the study findings are expected to have theoretical implications for developing morphology and semantics, demonstrating that global events such as a pandemic affect various vocabulary developments across multiple languages. furthermore, this study has practical implications for foreign language students and researchers, particularly japanese, in terms of comprehending new vocabulary terms contained in various newspaper media. in 172 addition, the new covid-19 vocabulary terms discovered in this study will be helpful for japanese language learners in indonesia in comprehending the discourse of articles in japanese newspapers, and the reverse is true for japanese individuals who study indonesian. 2. literature review morphosemantics is a study of language using morphological theory and semantic theory. morphosemantics is obtained from combining the words "morpho" + "semantics" based on the word formation. morpho is taken from the word "morphology," a branch of linguistics that identifies the basic units of language as grammatical units, while semantics examines meaning or meaning (ghozali, 2021; verhaar, 2004, p. 97). morphosemantics is a branch of linguistics that identifies grammatical units and their meanings based on this understanding of morphology and semantics. this study's primary focus since it looks on word creation in japanese and indonesian. form and meaning are intertwined in a single cohesive unit. as stated by ramlan (dinihari, 2017; nazira, 2018; yusuf et al., 2022), regarding the concept of morphology, which is defined as a branch of linguistics that studies the intricacies of words and the function of changes in word form, both grammatical and semantic functions are investigated. likewise, uhlenbeck stated that morphology is the science of linguistics that studies the systematic relationship of forms and meanings between words in a language (barung, 2020; uhlenbeck, 1982, p. 4). the two explanations of morphology also mention the meaning or meaning of the word; therefore, the form in the study of morphology and the meaning in the study of semantics are interrelated. in terms of the relationship between meaning and semantics, how are vocabulary and its meaning formed in indonesian? the formation of the indonesian lexicon begins from two perspectives. first, the internal perspective is the perspective on word formation rules in the indonesian language system. the second is an external perspective, which emphasises the formation of words due to the influence of other languages, both foreign and indigenous (simpen, 2017). the second perspective, which considers the influence of other languages on the phenomenon of borrowing words in indonesian, serves as the foundation for this study. the same thing happens to the japanese language, which productively absorbs and borrows terms from other languages in order to be converted into the japanese language. experts believe that internal vocabulary formation is consistent with the observations of experts who have identified several common word-formation processes that occur in languages throughout the world. for example, huddleston (cantrall, 1987) suggested that morphological changes include: compounding, affixation, conversion, reverse derivation, sound change, supplementation, blending, and acronym. morphological changes (read word formation) include affixation, reduplication, compounding, conversion, pruning, acronym, fusion, reverse derivation, and onomatopoeia (o’grady & archibald, 2016). kridalaksana (1988, p. 56) argues that word formation consists of reverse derivation, zero derivation, affixation, reduplication, shortening, and fusion. mamkjaer, quoting marchand, stated that the morphological process includes: compounding, affixation, zero derivation, reverse derivation, fusion, pruning, and acronym (simpen, 2021). in contrast, three words are used to indicate an object in japanese. for example, to indicate the object 'water' ( 水 ), there are two ways to read kanji characters: the japanese way (kunyomi), which is mizu, and the chinese way (onyomi), which is sui. besides that, we can also call it uootaa (ウォーター), which comes from english, water. the word mizu is taken from the japanese way of reading called wago. the word sui taken from the chinese way of reading, is called kango. while uootaa was taken from english is called yougo, or also called gairaigo. basically, kango is also included in gairaigo, because it comes from a foreign language (chinese). while wago, some experts say that wago refers to the original japanese language, namely the language made in japan, also known as yamato kotoba (kato in rosliana, 2009). in japanese, there are at least four different processes for word formation (sutedi, 2011), namely haseigo, fukugougo, karikomi, and toujigo. haseigo (invented words) is formed by combining basic words with affixes. for example, adding the suffix –na to gairaigo with an adjective word class, such as yuniikuna ( ユニークな ) “unique.” fukugogo is formed due to combining several content morphemes or also called compound words. example of syapupensiru ( シャープペシル ). karikomi is an acronym in the form of syllables from the original vocabulary, for example, terebishon (テレビション) becomes terebi "television." toujigo is an abbreviation for the first letter written in the alphabet; for example, water closet becomes a wc. tsujimura also expressed another point of view, this time on the subject of the process of word formation in the japanese language. according to tsujimura (2000, p. 54), word formation can be done in five ways, namely affixation, compounding, reduplication, clipping, and borrowing. affixation is the process of forming or the result of adding affixes to the root, base, or base (afria, r., & magfiroh, 2021; kridalaksana, 2009, p. 3; rumilah & cahyani, 2020). one of the affixation processes in gairaigo is shown by vance (yani, 2018, p. 242); for 173 instance, the prefix zen+ membaa becomes zenmembaa "all members," where zen is the original japanese word, and menba is a loan word (english). compounding is the process of combining two or more words. reduplication is the repetition of words. clipping (abbreviation) is the process of cutting off one or more parts of a lexeme or a combination of lexemes so that a new form is formed with the status of a word. shortening is another term for abbreviation, while the resultant process is called shortening. borrowing is words that undergo adjustments, such as sound and grammatical adjustments. in borrowing words, this tendency is carried out in indonesian for ease of transfer between languages and the requirement for a thorough understanding of the meaning. however, if one or more of the following requirements are satisfied, the incorporation of international foreign words through the absorption process may be considered. it is more acceptable because of the meaning linked with the borrowing phrase. in comparison to the indonesian version, the borrowing phrase used is shorter. if there are too many synonyms for indonesian phrases, choosing a few loan terms might help ones reaches a mutually acceptable arrangement. the absorption process can be carried out with or without adjustments to the original text in the form of spelling and pronunciation corrections. (waridah, 2013). 3. method this study is predicated on a linguistic phenomenon in society, with the rise of new vocabulary related to the pandemic serving as the primary focus. consequently, this study employs a qualitative approach and a descriptive method. in qualitative research, the primary instrument for data collection is the researcher, either the researcher himself or an assistant. in qualitative research, the researcher collects data in a specific manner. the descriptive research method involves analysing the results of data searches conducted via the library method and then analysing the data obtained (mahsun, 2012; sutedi, 2011, p. 48). this study collected and analysed new vocabulary data related to covid-19 in indonesian and japanese with sentence descriptions. 3.1 types of data and data sources the data for this study were gathered from indonesian and japanese online newspapers in the form of new vocabulary related to the covid-19 pandemic. indonesian online newspapers kompas.com and detik.com and japanese online newspapers nhk.or.jp and jakartashibun.com. the determination of the source of this newspaper data is based on the view of the popularity and newspaper quality in the two countries in reporting the discourse on the covid-19 pandemic. data was collected from march 2020 to december 2021 (22 months). 3.2 data collection the linguistic method used to collect data in this study is the reading and note-taking method (sudaryanto, 2015, p. 15). the reading method is carried out by collecting data in new vocabulary related to covid-19 in japanese and indonesian. in the note-taking method, the basic technique used is in the form of tapping and recording techniques, namely by tapping and recording new vocabulary related to covid-19 found in online newspapers in a note or table. additionally, data are selected using the purposive sampling technique, which emphasises the importance of being a sample due to considering specific characteristics or characteristics. this study's primary criterion for data selection is the novelty of form and meaning in vocabulary terms relevant to the covid19 context. additionally, the frequency with which the vocabulary appears in each article in each newspaper is a selection criterion. the widespread use of the new vocabulary term demonstrates the vocabulary's acceptance within the language-speaking community. 3.3 data analysis the data analysis method was carried out by referring to the three stages described by miles, huberman, and saldana (2014), namely, data condensation, data presentation, and concluding. in the data condensation stage, the vocabulary data that has been collected is selected, classified, and analysed based on vocabulary formation. furthermore, the stage of presenting the data is presented in tabular form and described in a non-formal manner through sentence explanations that help understand the study results presented. finally, conclusions are drawn by comparing new vocabulary from indonesian and japanese to look contrastive from the two vocabularies of each language. all of the conclusions reached are in accordance with the formulation of the study problem that has been identified. 174 figure 3.1 the flow of analysis in research 4. results through the methodology, data collection, and analysis employed to answer the research question of comparing the forms and meanings of indonesian and japanese in the context of the covid-19 pandemic, it is possible to gain knowledge of the vocabulary, forms, and comparisons of existing indonesian and english vocabulary forms. the analysis was conducted on new vocabulary data associated with covid-19 in japanese and indonesian obtained from online newspaper data sources between march 2020 and december 2021 (22 months). several new vocabularies that emerged during the pandemic in indonesian and japanese were discovered by searching for the various new vocabularies that emerged during the pandemic, which are listed in table 4.1. table 4.1 indonesian and japanese vocabulary related to covid-19 no vocabulary related to covid-19 meaning bahasa indonesia japanese 1 virus corona 1. コロナウイルス (korona uirusu) 2. コロナ禍 (koronaka) 1. the name of the covid-19 virus 2 covid-19 3. 新型コロナウイルス (shinkeikoronauirusu) 4. 新型コロナウイルス感染症 (shingata koronauirusukansenshō) 3 lockdown 5. 都市封鎖 (toshi huusa) 2. restrictions on community social movement space 4 pembatasan sosial 6. 社会的距離 (shakaiteki kyori) 7. ソーシャ ル・ディスタンス (sousharu disutansu) 5 psbb (pembatasan sosial berskala besar) 8. 大規模社会制限 (daikibo shakai seigen) 6 ppkm (pemberlakuan pembatasan kegiatan masyarakat) 9. 緊急事態宣言 (kinkyuu jitai sengen). 10. 活動制限 (katsudougentei) data collection • researchers read articles in the news • researcher doing note-taking • purpose sampling, which is to determine data based on the intensity of occurrence in each article and its form and meaning conclusion drawing • the new indonesian and japanese vocabularies in the covid-19 pandemic situation • the new indonesian and japanese vocabulary forms in the covid-19 pandemic situation • the new indonesian and japanese vocabulary forms compare data display • presenting in the form of a table • description of the comparison of form and meaning condensation • choose data that fits the criteria • classify based on language and meaning • analyze form and meaning, and compare vocabulary in japanese and indonesian 175 7 pembatasan fisik 11. 身体的 距離の確保 (shintaiteki kyouri no kakuho) 3. limiting physical contact between people 8 isoman (isolasi mandiri) 12. 自宅待機 (jitaku taiki) 4. self-isolation at home 9 hand sanitiser 13. 消毒液 (shoudoku eki) 5. cleaning fluid was provided and used in various places during the covid-19 period 10 wfh 14. 在宅勤務 (zaitaku kinmu) 15. ステイホーム (suteihoomu) 6. activities during the covid-19 pandemic that are carried out at home 11 sistem imun 16. 免疫力 (meneki ryoku) 7. immune system in the body 12 kenormalan baru 17. 新 しい生活様式 (atarashii seikatsu youshiki) 8. the term for adapting people's patterns and way of life during the pandemic 13 protokol kesehatan 18. 健康プロトコル (kenkou purotokoru) 9. a rule series issued by the government through the ministry of health in regulating security and health during the covid-19 period 14 positif 19. 陽性 10. infected with covid-19 15 klaster 20. クラスター (kurasuta-) 11. potentially infected groups 16 swab tes pcr 21. pcr 検査 (pcr kensa) 12. polymerase chain reaction 17 vaksin 22. ワクチン (wakuchin) 13. weakened germs are inserted into the human body to create immunity 18 odp (orang dalam pemantauan) 23. 自主隔離 (jishukakuri) 14. people who have a fever or a history of fever; or there are respiratory system complaints such as runny nose/sore throat/cough and no other cause based on a convincing clinical picture and in the last 14 days before symptoms appear, have a history of travelling or living in an area with local transmission. 19 otg (orang tanpa gejala) 24. 無症状者（無症状病原体保有者 (mushoujousha/mushoujou byougentai hoyuusha) 15. a person who does not have any symptoms but is suspected of having a risk of contracting covid-19 from a person who has tested positive for covid-19. 20 pdp (pasien dalam pengawasan) 25. 疑似症患者/健康監視 対象者 (gijishou kanja /kenkou kanshi taishousha) 16. a group of people who experience health problems and are recorded as patients infected with covid-19. 21 komorbit 26. 併存症 (heizon-shō) 17. also called comorbidity is a medical term to indicate comorbidities other than the main disease being suffered. 176 22 herd immunity (kekebalan komunal) 27. 集団免疫 (shūdan men'eki) 18. herd immunity is achieved when some people in a community are resistant to the attack of covid-19. 23 odr (orang dalam resiko) 28. 濃厚接触者 (noukou sesshokusha) 19. the term for people who are at risk of contracting the virus 29. ブレイクスルー感染 (bureikusurū kansen) 20. disease cases in which the vaccinated individual becomes infected with the disease because the vaccine fails to provide complete immunity against the pathogen. 24 lonjakan pasien covid-19 30. オーバーシュート (oobaashuuto) 21. a large increase in the number of covid-19 patients the data in table 4.1 above show the results that answer the research problem formulation, including what new vocabulary is found in indonesian and japanese and comparisons of new vocabulary forms in the two languages. in indonesian newspapers, 24 new words were productively used, and in japanese newspapers, there were 30 new words that were productively used. there were 21 vocabulary terms with similar and equivalent meanings in the two languages that were discovered from the entire vocabulary when comparing the two languages. one japanese vocabulary word does not have an equivalent in indonesian. a further step has been taken to examine the vocabulary in the table above in terms of both its form and meaning, with this examination results being displayed in the chart below: figure 4.1 chart of vocabulary forms related to covid-19 in indonesian figure 4.1 depicts the emergence of new covid19-related vocabulary. in indonesian, new vocabulary is created in three ways: via loan words, acronyms, and unique words with specific meanings. the vocabulary formed by loanwords can be divided into two formation processes: adoption and adaptation. adoption is the process of absorbing foreign vocabulary that has the same meaning in indonesian but retains its original spelling, pronunciation, and writing, such as covid-10, tes pcr, and wfh. without altering their spelling or pronunciation, these words are directly adopted. adaptation is the process of absorbing foreign words that are used because they have the same meaning in indonesian but have undergone changes in spelling, pronunciation, and writing in accordance with indonesian rules, such as the word "karantina," which is a modification of the original english word "quarantine." 177 the vocabulary formed through acronyms is divided into acronym forms that come from a combination of letters and acronyms from a combination of syllables. the combination of letters is seen in the example of the word ppkm, which is an acronym for " pemberlakuan pembatasan kegiatan masyarakat." furthermore, the combination of syllables is found in the example of the word “isoman”, an acronym for "isolasi mandiri." furthermore, the original vocabulary that has undergone a meaning specification is a vocabulary that already exists in indonesian but has a meaning specification that is closely related to the pandemic situation; for example, the word "kenormalan baru," this word actually already exists in indonesian but is not commonly used, due to the word pandemic. it becomes productively used with the same meaning as 'new normal.' the following is also the case with "positive" characters with specific meanings that refer to people infected with covid-19. figure 4.2 japanese covid-19 vocabulary form chart figure 4.2 depicts the emergence of new vocabulary in japanese that appears to be associated with the covid-19 pandemic. borrowed words (gairaigo), a combination of loanwords (gairaigo) and original japanese words (nihongo), kango vocabulary, and original vocabulary with specific meanings are the four ways in which new vocabulary is formed in japanese. the vocabulary comprised of loanwords is separated into katakana and romaji forms. katakanago is vocabulary written in katakana letters. katakana letters are commonly used to write foreign terms spoken in japanese, such as the katakanawritten word soushiaru disutansu. despite the fact that romaji is a latin alphabet used in many languages, covid-19 is still written in the alphabet in japanese articles. in the vocabulary formed by the combination of gairaigo and nihongo, there is an example of the word shingata corona uirusu, this word is formed from the original japanese vocabulary "shingata (新型)" and the coronauirusu (コロナウイルス). the kango vocabulary is a chinese word used as a loan word in japanese, or words created in japan by combining kanji characters, such as kinkyū jitai sengen (緊急事態宣言), which means to describe an emergency during a pandemic. moreover, the original vocabulary that has undergone a meaning specification is a vocabulary that already exists in japanese but has a meaning specification that is closely related to the pandemic situation; for instance, the word "atarashii seikatsu youshiki" exists in japanese but is rarely used due to the pandemic. this term is increasingly utilised with the same meaning as "new normal." the new vocabulary forms in indonesian and japanese are compared in the covid-19 pandemic situation, as seen in the form of vocabulary related to covid-19 above. the loan word is very productively used in indonesian and japanese to mention new vocabulary related to covid-19. however, indonesian tends to adopt the complete form, and the japanese make adaptations such as adjusting the sound of the syllables with the katakana mechanism 178 and combining them with the original japanese vocabulary. more to the point, both japanese and indonesian languages make use of existing vocabulary constructions while focusing on specific meanings relevant to the covid-19 pandemic context. 5. discussion according to the results chart in table 4.1 and figures 4.1 & 4.2, new vocabulary related to the covid-19 pandemic in indonesian comes from borrowed words, acronyms, and original indonesian vocabulary with meaning specialisation. likewise, in japanese, new vocabulary is also formed from the absorption of english and the original vocabulary, which has a specialisation in meaning. however, in japanese, a new vocabulary that appears is also formed from kango (chinese absorption vocabulary) and a combination of japanese vocabulary with loan words. the following describes the new vocabulary forms in both languages. 5.1 loan words covid-19 stands for coronavirus disease, which has spread since the beginning of 2020 and has changed people's lives and thoughts. the word covid-19 itself is basically a new thing; therefore, every language in the world certainly absorbs the word covid-19 in its language, including indonesian and japanese. in indonesian, the absorption word covid-19 is absorbed through word adoption without changing its form. however, in japanese, the forms are quite diverse; some of the covid-19 were adopted in their entirety with the original writing (romaji), and some were adapted so that they experienced a change in the sound expressed in katakana (katakanago), such as the corona uirusu (コ ロナウイルス ), some were combined with the japanese (nihongo) vocabulary shinkeikoronauirusu (新型コロナウイルス). in japanese, shinkei words are words that are a part of the kango vocabulary. the term "loan word" refers to the adoption of a linguistic expression from one language to another. additionally, it may include single words or entire collections of vocabulary items. it is the process of transferring linguistic information from one of a language's linguistic systems to the linguistic system of another language. this process occurs whenever two cultures come into contact over time. indeed, it is a common occurrence that cannot be avoided. all languages make use of borrowed words. no language is immune to linguistic borrowings. english is the source language in the context of covid-19 because it is a widely used international language (takao, 2020). the following is a description of the comparison of vocabulary formation between the two languages: figure 5.1 a comparative example of new vocabulary formation is "covid-19" covid-19 bahasa indonesia japanese 1. covid-19 2. コロナウイルス 3. 新型コロナウイルス covid-19 virus corona 1. adoption 2. katakanago 3. nihongo + katakanago adoption 179 the new vocabulary forms in indonesian and japanese are compared in the covid-19 pandemic situation, as seen in the form of vocabulary related to covid-19 above. the loan word is very productively used in indonesian and japanese to mention new vocabulary related to covid-19. however, indonesian tends to adopt the complete form, and the japanese make adaptations such as adjusting the sound of the syllables with the katakana mechanism and combining them with the original japanese vocabulary. furthermore, both japanese and indonesian languages use existing vocabulary constructions but specialise in meaning according to the context of the covid-19 pandemic. the formation, as mentioned above, is commonly found in the newly created vocabulary in both languages. indonesia tends to adopt foreign (english) vocabulary or adapt it. however, in general japanese, there are several absorption schemes combining the original language with absorption vocabulary, for example, another example in the word kenkou purotokoru (健康プロトコル), kenkou is the original japanese vocabulary, combined with purotokoru which is adoption vocabulary. 5.2 tendency to use foreign vocabulary instead of native vocabulary the everyday life that is usually lived daily can no longer function normally. as a result, people must adapt to new lifestyles and practices. one of the steps to prevent and control infection with the covid-19 virus is to implement social distancing. the word in indonesia has been replaced with the word physical distancing. for starters, the world health organization (who) has coined the term "social distancing" to describe the response to the coronavirus pandemic that is currently underway. social distancing is defined in the field of sociology as "social restrictions," whereas during the current covid-19 pandemic, the term "social distancing" is defined as "keeping a physical distance between two people." to avoid ambiguity, the word "distancing" has been replaced by the physical act of separating in the indonesian media. the word in japanese has not changed. from the beginning until now, the words ソーシャ ル・ディ スタンス (sousharu disutansu)/social distance or ソ ー シャル・ディスタンシング (sousharu disutanshingu)/social distancing are still being used. the words written in katakana are taken from english. actually, the new word chosen does not have the correct meaning. however, due to the pandemic emergency situation, this new form of the word is becoming more common, particularly among the mass media. the new word in japanese is known as 社会的 距離の 確保 (shakaiteki kyori no kakuho). this new word directly translates the word social distancing into japanese. according to the website of the ministry of health, labor and welfare in japan (2020), the new word used for the current situation is 身体的 距離の確保 (shintaiteki kyori no kakuho). however, this new word has not spread widely in japanese society. the tendency of indonesian to use foreign language terms directly without any formation through specific morphological constructions can also be observed in this context, as can be seen in the example above. comparatively to japanese, which incorporates foreign terms into its vocabulary through the use of syllable adjustments and morphological constructions, such as the combination of japanese vocabulary with absorption languages. 5.3 acronym/abbreviation many new habits have emerged as a result of the pandemic. thus, it is referred to as a new way of life in today's society, also known as the "new normal." this new word is a new word that is widely used all over the world, including in indonesia, and it is a new word. however, the word ニュー・ノーマル (nyuu noumaru)/new normal is not used in japan because japanese people do not understand the meaning of the word. in japan, a new word is used, namely, 新 しい 生活様式 (atarashii seikatsu youshiki), which means the same as the word new normal. in the coronavirus pandemic around the world, in several countries, even in several cities, lockdown measures have been taken, such as china, melbourne in australia, catalonia in spain, danang in vietnam, indonesia, and several cities in other countries in the world. the implementation of the lockdown in indonesia was carried out in several regions. the new word used for this is psbb (large-scale social restrictions). lockdown means a situation that prohibits residents from entering a place due to an emergency. in practice, governments in various cities in the world have entirely close access to the economy, trade, and other accesses so that residents cannot leave their homes or get rigorous supervision or permits that are not easy to get in and out of the house. however, in indonesia, the indonesian government does not wholly cover activities related to primary accesses such as the economy and trade, so the indonesian government tends to use a new term instead of the word lockdown with psbb (large-scale social restrictions). until now, the word psbb as a new word in indonesian has been understood and used by the people of indonesia. in japanese, a word that has almost the same meaning as lockdown is called 大規模社会制限 (daikibo shakai seigen). in japan, this new word is not used. however, for almost a month the japanese government issued declarations of a state of emergency in several cities, namely, the new word 緊 急事態宣言 (kinkyuu jitai sengen). the declaration is in line with the psbb in indonesia. in summary, 180 comparing the meanings of new words between indonesian and japanese in covid-19 above is adapted from english. in the situation of covid-19 dissemination in indonesia and the abbreviation for the word psbb, there are still many abbreviations used, including the following: 5.3.1 odp odp is an abbreviation for the phrase orang dalam pantauan “people in monitoring." the abbreviation odp comes from otg. otg stands for orang tanpa gejala (people without symptoms). people without symptoms usually only have mild symptoms, such as fever and cough. it is enough for people with odp status to self-isolate at home until they recover. in japanese, odp has almost the same meaning as 自主隔離 (jishukakuri). the vocabulary for this term in japanese is quite different; the japanese language uses the japanese construction of kango, whereas indonesian uses indonesian constructions in the form of abbreviations. additionally, the two terms have a distinct connotation, with odp referring more to the monitored individual/person and jishukakuri referring to the individual's actions or behaviour. 5.3.2 pdp pdp stands for the word pasien dalam pengawasan (patient under supervision). pdp is a person who has gone through the process of medical observation on his respiratory tract. in japanese, pdp is called 疑似症患者/健康監視 対象者 (gijishou kanja /kenkou kanshi taishousha). people who are pdp usually have to be hospitalised. the vocabulary for this term in japanese is quite different; the japanese language uses the japanese construction of kango, whereas indonesian uses indonesian constructions in the form of abbreviations. 5.3.3 otg otg stands for people without symptoms. asymptomatic people are people who are asymptomatic but have had close contact with a positive patient for covid-19. in japanese, otg is called 無 症 状 者 / 無 症 状 病 原 体 保 有 者 (mushoujousha/mushoujou byougentai hoyuusha) many more acronyms are used in the new indonesian vocabulary related to covid-19. while in japanese, they do not use acronyms and instead prefer to use the original japanese forms while also using their absorption forms simultaneously. similarly, dewi's (2016) research, which examines new vocabulary in social media, demonstrates this conclusion. instagram demonstrates that acronymisation is also one of the processes involved in the formation of new vocabulary. they have a tendency to use acronymised vocabulary to convey information in the digital age, which demonstrates that they are comfortable communicating information online. according to hadi (2017), who investigated the formation of new words and terms in modern arabic, the phenomenon of borrowing words to mention new terms related to the context of the situation observed in this research can also be found. this study is also consistent with the findings of dewi (2016) and hermawan (2018), who both believe that digitalisation and contemporary contexts play a role in the rapid development of new vocabulary in a language. in the case of writing new and diverse vocabulary but with the same meaning, for example, in japanese, the word covid-19 is written with コロナウイルス (korona uirusu) or コロナ禍 (koronaka) or 新型コロ ナウイルス(shinkeikoronauirusu) or 新型コロナウイ ルス感染症 (shingata koronauirusukansenshō), and in indonesian written corona, covid, or coronavirus occurs because of the dynamic aspect of language. this is consistent with the findings of gromenko's (2021) study, which also demonstrates the consequences of inconsistent writing of vocabulary terms related to covid in russian. and even in the english language. russia has transgressed against its own normative rules. a new vocabulary term in japanese that has no equivalent in indonesian vocabulary, namely the word bureikusuro kansen, demonstrates that the variations of new vocabulary terms that appear in different languages are not always the same. this is closely related to the specification of the social context of the community in the context of dealing with a pandemic, which is discussed further below. in japanese, the term bureikusuro kansen refers to the reality of the situation that the japanese people are in as a result of the high number of diseases that arise after vaccination. the term bureikusuro kansen means "high number of diseases that arise after vaccination." meanwhile, because this is not a widely discussed topic in indonesia, there is no new vocabulary associated with it. even if it is in the indonesian mass media, this is still expressed by the term "breakthrough infection," which has been adopted in english for the first time. in contrast, this demonstrates the dynamic nature of a language in terms of developing a new vocabulary that is relevant to the social situation that the speaking community is currently confronted with. 6. conclusions globally, the covid-19 pandemic continues to be a source of concern and human suffering. the issue is with the unabated spread and the variant changes that continue to occur. when considering the new terms for covid-19 described above, their understanding and application to people affected by covid-19 are incomplete, as the grouping is still uncertain and subject to change. therefore, experts are constantly investigating new words about covid-19 that are still developing, so new words often appear and disappear. however, this type of study model is 181 critical and beneficial, particularly in the fields of morphology, semantics, and sociolinguistics, because it will highlight language variations in the context of the covid-19 pandemic. in the context of the covid-19 outbreak, numerous new words appear and spread among people worldwide, and their pronunciation varies according to their respective countries' languages. these new terms are used by certain groups of people, such as experts, and by everyday people. that is, the general population will become accustomed to effectively using these new words. if it is explained in the outline points, this study can be concluded as follows. a) in indonesia, new words tend to be used in the form of acronyms, adoption, and adaptation. b) when compared between bahasa indonesia and japanese, the new words that appear are not necessarily the same, even though the infectious disease is the same. it means that the definition or way of dealing with covid-19 is different between the two countries. furthermore, the fundamental difference in word-formation between the two languages has an impact. c) covid-19 is not treated identically in the two countries. it is because each country takes a unique action or viewpoint even though the world health organization's (who) guidelines for handling covid-19 are identical. 7. acknowledgement on this occasion, we would like to thank the universitas sumatera utara, through the research institute (lembaga penelitian usu) for providing support 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(2022). analisis afiksasi pada teks eksposisi karangan siswa kelas 8 smp bina mandiri teluknaga (kajian morfologi). lingua rima: jurnal pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia, 11(1), 149-163. https://doi.org/10.31000/lgrm.v11i1.5795 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9598 vol. 4, no. 2, august 2022 pp.197-208 197 exploring the language usage in mark twain’s novel “adventures of tom sawyer”: hegemonic masculinity analysis martina girsang 1, elita modesta sembiring 1*, veracy silalahi 1, srisofian sianturi 2, linda linda 1 1 methodist university of indonesia, medan, indonesia 2 hkbp nomensen university, medan, indonesia emodesta86@gmail.com article history received : 2022-03-10 revised : 2022-07-07 accepted : 2022-07-17 keywords language usage hegemonic masculinity children’s novel gender studies values impact abstract the practice of legitimizing men’s dominance is known as hegemonic masculinity, and it is a concept that has often been explored through numerous adult novels, but rarely in children’s literature. to address this research gap, this study conducted a text analysis on the types of hegemonic masculinity depictions in mark twain’s “adventures of tom sawyer”, as one of the most read novels by young readers who attend schools with an international curriculum. the researchers used the descriptive qualitative method hand in hand with connell and messerschmidt’s theory of hegemonic masculinity. the result showed 3 types of hegemonic masculinity displayed in the novel include toxic masculinity, bad boy archetype, and dominant-submissive roles. these types can influence young to imitate bad role model, engage in bullying, and develop an unhealthy habit of hiding their feelings. young readers may begin to see mischievous, manipulating, and aggressive behaviour as a common thing to do or even should be done to establish their place in society. tom sawyer is mandatory reading in the curriculum and is a classic that is unlikely to be taken off of the syllabus, so this study recommends teachers to make students become aware of the underlying ideas and values implicated in the novels. this study presented the implication for schools which assigned the reading of “tom sawyer” to address the reality of hegemonic masculinity in the novel to reduce the possible effect of its themes. 1. introduction as all stages in life are so closely intertwined with competition and survival of the fittest, leadership itself is more associated with “domination.” this form of leadership can occur voluntarily without coercion, and an unequal interaction where it signals that some power is involved can be referred to as hegemony. these powers are not always visible and sometimes are intangible. hegemony tends to be domination that disguises into what is believed as leadership by those in higher social class or position (yang, 2020). it is so common to occur in society that people often do not see that as a threat or accept it as a natural part of life (ratna, 2010). this study is concerned with one of the most insidious forms of hegemony, namely hegemonic masculinity. it is the practice where men’s position is dominant in the society, where this ideology is formed culturally by the society themselves. hegemonic masculinity is so widespread globally that it is a fundamental concept in gender studies (aulette & connell, 1991; connell & messerschmidt, 2005). according to donaldson (1993), it is believed that one aspect of hegemonic masculinity is that in big matters, women do not count or matter. official policies in the states even enable men to maintain a dominant position over women, thereby cementing males to dominate the social status and making the presence of females as just secondary (hinojosa, 2010). the society judges men as a loser if one can not win in sports, earn less than his partner or even being a stay-at-home dad. if men perform poorer than women, it will be a threat to their sense of masculinity (kray & haselhuhn, 2012). women, on the other hand, are expected to behave in a soft, elegant, and feminine way. in the media, women are portrayed as people who deal with domestic kinds of stuff. these kinds of beliefs have long been embedded in society, even from an early age. for example, boys should play soccer and cars while girls should play with dolls and not aggressive run to always look girly (archer, 2004). society expects women to be able to do the housework despite the fact that housework is essential for survival both for males and females. men are expected to be more aggressive and https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9598 198 dominant physically and psychologically than women to meet the expectations of the society (baumen et al., 2012). this expectation is worsened with the common belief that if a male could not afford enough money for his family stability, then he is a certified loser and a family disgrace. men have long dominated the power in society by taking advantage of the cultural norm where women are made less powerful or educated. due to these reasons, it is natural that hegemonic masculinity is such a common topic in gender studies. this study is interested to explore what hegemonic masculinity as it is depicted in literature. it is worth exploration from a linguistic perspective due to the uniquely pervasive nature of this practice through the power of words. studies that have explored this concept through literature in the past have focused on depicting how masculinity is perceived in the time periods of these literary works (miehls, 2017). hegemonic masculinity in iceland was explored by evans (2018) through the in the ninth, tenth, and early eleventh centuries’ historic proses of sagas of icelanders. literary works in africa were examined by alsyouf (2018) who focused on how masculinity was developed until it became a universal concept. subrayan & yahya (2016) discussed the hegemonic masculinity d. h. lawrence’s “sons and lovers” to examine the effects of social practices and socio historical in that novel. results of the study showed how the male protagonist aligned with the dominant role by sanctioning aggressiveness, autonomy, and violence. mishra (2020) identified the presence of hegemonic masculinity through the male character of the novel “hansa” who stuck to the traditional masculinity and failed to adapt to his changed role. in addition, boord (2021) presents the understanding of the role of gender and masculinity in the process of zionist settlement, which was a time when zionism seeks to establish a home for the jewish people in palestine. all of these studies showed the forms of hegemonic masculinity from time to time. however, as far as the researcher is aware, previous studies that explored masculinity in literature tend to use adult novels as their data. the implication is that existing knowledge heavily leans into how masculinity can and have influenced the thought processes and opinions of males, particularly adult men. therefore, there is a gap of knowledge on how masculinity is portrayed in literary works meant for children. this study only found one article that used data taken from children’s books, but even then, they were a collection of young adult novels (garrison et al., 2020). children’s literature are the literary works specifically produced for young readers. in the past, children’s literature was commonly used as entertainment for kids. however, as time passes, more and more people begin to realise how potential children’s literature is for children’s development. commonly inspired by the authors’ childhood experience or things that are related to nowadays children’s issues, the stories in children’s literature can provide young readers the opportunity to see things from a new perspective, improve their critical thinking skills, widen their general knowledge, develop their imagination, and many more (garvey, 1997; hastinqs & brown, 2002). children will also indirectly learn the values existing in society depicted in the literature, which means that children’s literature is extremely powerful and life changing when adapted into the classroom and home (ahmen, 2017). in other words, hegemonic masculinity, a value that is prevalent in society and the literary work it produces, can have a significant effect on the population of young males. therefore, examining the hegemonic masculinity in one of the most read children’s literary work can be an important step to find out how they might influence young children, particularly boys. the children’s novel that this study chose as its data is the “the adventures of tom sawyer”, an 1876 classic children’s literature written by mark twain, the pen-name for samuel langhorne clemens. it tells about a naughty boy living in st. petersburg who likes to wander and is well known for his naughtiness. according to the common core state standards initiative, an educational initiative that details what k– 12 students throughout the united states should know at the conclusion of each school grade, this novel is obligatory read for 6th to 8th grade level due to its social and historical matter (common core state standard initiative, n.d.). in fact, the author left the following message in the novel: “although my book is intended mainly for the entertainment of boys and girls, i hope it will not be shunned by men and women on that account, for part of my plan has been to try to pleasantly remind adults of what they once were themselves, and of how they felt and thought and talked, and what queer enterprises they sometimes engaged in.” (page 44) while antiquated, this book is a timeless classic that continues to be included in many schools with international curriculums because it has a strong sense of adventure that appeals to young readers. the book offers an educational experience for growth and human contact as a young person, and also helps with language development and understanding of complex ideas, one of which is the topic of this paper. therefore, the researchers find that this novel has a potential for an interesting analysis on hegemonic masculinity. 2. method this research applies descriptive qualitative method by regarding the influence of the hegemonic masculinity in mark twain’s “the adventures of tom sawyer”, which was chosen because it is a compulsory literary work for young children. the data used in this book is the version of the oxford world's classics book published in 2007 by oxford university press, consisting of 246 pages. the data analysis is rooted on connell and messerschmidt’s (2005) theory of 199 hegemonic masculinity. their theory is one of the most highly cited theory on the concept and is wellestablished in the studies of gender, thus why the researchers chose to refer to them. this study analysed the book by focusing on identifying the presence of certain types of hegemonic masculinity and their impact on the readers. 3. result results of this study confirmed that the children’s book “the adventures of tom sawyer” did not escape the influence of society’s hegemonic masculinity. the book’s language usage whether through the narrative or characters’ dialogues contained instance that shows men’s position as the dominant one in society. “the adventures of tom sawyer” does not only describe how spiritful tom sawyer’s childhood time is like but also some masculinity aspects commonly found in the younger community, especially among boys, particularly aspects of toxic masculinity, bad boy archetype, and dominant-submissive roles. 3.1 toxic masculinity toxic masculinity is the term used to describe the view of masculinity with a certain standard expectancy in one cultural circle in the society which is often not mentally or physically healthy. men or boys are expected to avoid any kind of feminism. it is a must to maintain their pride as a “man” by behaving differently from the females. even having a feminine environment is considered an insult and will endanger their masculine position, as indicated by the utterance, “now sir, go and sit with the girls! and let this be a warning to you” in the novel. toxic masculinity is originally derived from the hegemonic masculinity term. toxic masculinity is often associated with the cause of misogyny, homophobia, aggression, and other genderbased violence that is accepted and valued by the society which can be seen from boys’ characteristic depictions found in “the adventures of tom sawyer” novel. the writer finds one of the examples of toxic masculinity depicted in this novel is how the males should look tough to show their superiority. the tougher one looks, the more charismatic he appears to be too. tom, for example, is always considered as the most charismatic boy among the other boys by the children his age because he never wants to lose to the others and always tried to maintain his dignity as the toughest boy. for instance, in the first chapter, the boys wrestled on the ground very wildly and aggressively just to prove their worth. “in an instant both boys were rolling and tumbling in the dirt, gripped together like cats; and for the space of a minute they tugged and tore at each other’s hair and clothes, punched and scratched each other’s nose, and covered themselves with dust and glory.” (page 55 they fought, boxed and rolled around just to maintain their reputation by not losing to their opponents. their pride is at stake as a result of the match. anyone who loses will be considered weak and if he wins then he will be respected and considered stronger and more powerful. this is why both of the boys do not take the fight for granted as if that would be their only chance to prove their superiority over the opponent. tom’s urge to defeat the other boy is an indication of dominating behaviour of tom to show his power over his territory in order to show who the alpha is there. opposite to tom, sid, tom’s half-brother who is one of the examples in “the adventures of tom sawyer” appears to be a stay-at-home boy that seldom causes trouble. sid always tries to be a good boy in front of his aunt whenever possible. however, this type of boy is considered as a two-faced and annoying figure. furthermore, as sid is such a crybaby and always seeks justice for what tom does by always reporting tom to aunt polly, he is considered a coward. this makes sid appears as a weak and less powerful boy type. hence, that is why it seems that sid has no friends to play with or interact with other than his little family. another example is another model boy in st. petersburg called willie mufferson. “…and last of all came the model boy, willie mufferson, taking as heedful care of his mother to church, and was the pride of all matrons. the boys all hated him, he was so good. and besides, he had been “thrown up to them” so much. his white handkerchief was hanging out his pocket behind, as usual on sundays accidentally. tom had no handkerchief, and he looked upon boys who had, as snobs.” (page 77) by this, it is visible that a lot of boys find the good boy as a problem for them. although adults love the good boy, all the boys do not find it agreeable. in fact, they are all sick of it. how tom sees the owner of a handkerchief as snob indicates that tom is someone who clearly avoids using a handkerchief at all costs as that is not how a normal boy is supposed to act based on what he believes in. it appears that being a good boy is considered as being a sissy in this novel which portrayed how toxic masculinity roles in the storyline. there is one time when tom sawyer stated that he wanted to be a pirate when he grew up, tom described how cool and tough a pirate looks like. from this, it can be seen how a tough, aggressive and cruel guy is highly admired by the boys that they want to be like one. it indicates that it doesn’t matter if a man is cruel, aggressive, or does some bad things, as long as they look super tough or masculine regarding the manly standard, it is acceptable in society. meanwhile soft good boy attitude is totally contradictory. in “the adventures of tom sawyer”, mark twain portrayed a lot of depictions related to not showing the real feelings of boys and if done, it is pictured as a weakness for boys. twain portrayed traditional male characteristics such as being unemotional and violent. this conventional idea is referring to macho-male superiority depiction. this is why, boys are also expected to be able to bear the pain and never cry. if a 200 boy cries, he looks weak and is considered to have a lower position than others. when joe harper, tom sawyer, and huckleberry finn ran away from their village to play pirates on the other island, there was a scene showing how the boys tried to hide their feeling for missing home and their family members just to appear as “not a coward” to their friends. when joe harper indicated that he began to think about his parent and the situation back home, he tried not to show his soft heart that missed his family, especially his mom. even though he really missed his mom, he did not dare to go back home in order to stay with tom and the others on the island. this was done to keep his pride in front of his friends, especially after being persuaded by tom sawyer to stay as the wildlife was better than their life back in the village. tom sawyer on the other side, despite missing his aunt, he denied the fact that he missed her in front of his friends. although in the end, he fled away from the island to visit his aunt secretly. he secretly did this because he could not deny that he also missed his family deep down in his heart and yet did not want to admit that he was soft-hearted when it came to aunt polly in front of his friends. it was also shown that when joe, tom, and huck were running away living as pirates in chapter sixteen, they were all actually homesick but none of them really wanted to admit it. “but joe’s spirits had gone down almost beyond resurrection. he was so homesick that he could hardly endure the misery of it. the tears lay very near the surface. huck was melancholy, too. (tom had a secret which he was not ready to tell yet. “we can see it clearly that all of them long to go back home.” unfortunately, none of them have the heart to show it to maintain their dignity. then, when joe tries to talk about it, he is being mocked by tom instead as a cry-baby.) “o, shucks! baby! you want to see your mother, i reckon. […] well, we’ll let the cry-baby go home to his mother, won’t we huck? poor thing-does it wants to see its mother. […]nobody wants you to. go ‘long home and get laughed at. o, you’re a nice pirate. huck and me ain’t cry-babies.” (page 139) it can be seen here that joe is being forced not to show his feeling by tom in this novel. in the idea of toxic masculinity of hegemonic masculinity about showing emotions, men should hide their true feelings and expressions so they will not be considered as cowards for appearing to look fragile or vulnerable. this is due to the unspoken rule of “be a sturdy oak” so the boys will not be considered “feminine”. in american culture, women are the only ones allowed to feel more emotions and express them. however, different from females, men are only allowed to being exposed more to aggressive and negative emotions. there is even such an unspoken bro code to always act cool, calm and collected. this is how tom takes advantage by mocking joe, saying stuff like “cry baby” to show how weak joe is for missing his mom and home. males are only allowed to experience harsh and aggressive emotions and not able to express their true feelings and emotions based on this idea of machomale superiority to look tough. this is one of the origins on why toxic masculinity occurs in the society. 3.2 bad boy archetype the definition of the bad boy archetype in short is negative behaviors done by young men with the intention of appearing more stunning in order to gain recognition as a man, which often involves violence and harm to others. the strange thing that is found here is that although people don’t really like the negative traits in the bad boy archetype, they still think this is normal and acceptable and even very acceptable. there is even an assumption and belief in society that boys will be boys and it has become the instinct for boys to be wild and aggressive. people see boys’ violence as a common thing and none is in charge to stop it while others suffer from it. in a patriarchal community, it is even seen as what a boy is supposed to be. if boys do not show the indication of being strong, active, and loud, they will be considered as a loser and lame sissy by the others. it is found that there are indications that the character’s life is full of hegemonic masculinity in the form of the bad boy archetype. the bad trait of boys is seen as a good thing instead by the other kids. aggression, rebellion, and manipulation are some of the examples of common bad boy traits often featured. take tom sawyer for example, his manipulation skill to persuade others is considered as a good thing that makes him appear to be a smart natural leader. tom was not only able to manipulate children his age but also the adults. starting from manipulating his lover, becky, by ignoring her so that she would come to tom first; “she would be sorry someday – maybe when it was too late. ah, if he could only die temporarily! […] what if he turned his back, now, and disappeared mysteriously? what if he went away – ever so far away, into unknown countries beyond the seas – and never came back anymore! how would she feel then!” (page 97) to his fellow guy, joe harper, so that harper changes his mind on returning home by mocking him as a crybaby for wanting to go back to his family; “o, shucks! baby! you want to see your mother, i reckon.” and “well, we’ll let the cry-baby go home to his mother, won’t we huck? poor thing-does it wants to see its mother.”. knowing that it scares harper, tom manipulates him by saying harsh masculinity ruiningstuffs so that harper decides to stay and undo his intention to leave the island. worse yet, joe harper is not the only child being manipulated by tom sawyer. the story of tom sawyer also featured the masculine aspects that are commonly found in our society. as shown in the story, tom sawyer is well known for his mischief and big talk. he is irresponsible as he does not hesitate to try to escape his responsibilities by manipulating his friends. in the chapter of a glorious whitewasher, when aunt polly assigned tom sawyer 201 to do the chore of whitewashing the fence, tom was so embarrassed to be forced to do some housework by his aunt because a gang leader was not supposed to do some work like that. then he began to develop a brilliant idea of making other kids around the neighbourhood do his chores by manipulating them. there was one time when tom was punished by his aunt polly for whitewashing the fence; “he began to think of the fun he had planned for this day, and his sorrows multiplied. soon the free boys would come tripping along on all sorts of delicious expeditions, and they would make a world of fun of him for having to work – the very thought of it burnt him like fire.” (page 58) tom managed to manipulate ben into giving away a lot of his valuables just to do tom’s work which tom sawyer himself disliked. tom, who initially manipulated ben to indirectly replace tom’s position, actually managed to trick all the boys there to join the queue to do the same thing with poor ben. he successfully convinced the other kids that what he did was a rare chance that only some people were allowed to do it. the real reason tom sawyer didn’t mind manipulating all the kids was to get him off the job his aunt ordered him to do. tom hated doing work because he would feel constrained and not free from scrutiny to do the things he loved. so to gain control over himself, he chose a faster way so that his work could be completed without having to be done by himself. in the end, most of the kids traded their valuables just to try tom’s chore. lastly, to his own aunt polly, he tricked her by mentioning something was behind her so that she would be scared and distracted which resulted in tom being able to run away successfully; “…hand me that switch. the switch hovered in the air – the peril was desperatemy! look behind you, aunt! the old lady whirled around and snatched her skirts out of danger. the lad fled, on the instant, scrambled up the high board-fence, and disappeared over it. his aunt polly stood surprised a moment, and then broke into a gentle laugh. […] “but my goodness, he never plays them alike, two days, and how is a body to know what’s coming?” (page 51) although tom sawyer does everything he wants, none of the other characters really stop him from being manipulative. it’s even shown that aunt polly sees it as a funny trick of a boy instead of an early sign of manipulation skill. not rarely that aunt polly sees tom’s mischievousness as a cute thing done by a boy his age. this is why aunt polly always forgives tom sawyer no matter what tom does to her. in some of tom’s actions, his aggressiveness is considered as being tough, bold and strong which leads other kids to respect and admire him. although it is not a new thing that most of the adults think that tom sawyer was not a good role model, most of the boys in the village really respected the mischievous tom sawyer. it is very common to find hegemonic masculinity in the males of conventional society that adhere to a patriarchal culture. bad boy archetypes are not only found in adults or teens. these can even be found in early childhood. it can be seen that hegemonic masculinity has become a model of the society where it has been implemented in society from an early age from the depiction in this novel. tom’s rebellious act is considered as his independent attitude that makes him seem like a decision-maker in the group. all these bad traits will be viewed differently if they are found among girls. it seems like nothing could go wrong with boys falling into the bad boy archetype category. whatever mischief bad boys do will occur to be a common thing in society, hiding behind the “boys will be boys” culture. no matter good or bad the traits of bad boys are, they will always be accepted in society. that might be the reason why some girls prefer bad boys to good boys as bad boys are believed to appear more masculine, independent, and show the ability to protect. the discrimination of bad traits in boyhood continues to some extends that as bad boys are so used to being bad all the time, once they do a small act of kindness, people will begin to cheer on the bad boys’ noble deeds. however, when a good boy who always appears diligent and obedient makes one small mistake, he will immediately be scolded by everyone that he is a two-faced human who has been hiding behind the mask of a good boy. it is not a new phenomenon that bad boys will be marked with words like “we can not judge people from the outside, even though they look evil but they have a noble heart” and good boys will be suspected they are told that they “have ulterior motive” or “are such two-faced guys”. 3.3 dominant and submissive roles hegemonic masculinity draws the dominant position of men and subordination of women. it is not a new thing that it has culturally been valued the most in a conventional patriarchal culture. the portrayal of both the genders with dominant and submissive roles is clearly inevitable. at some point, it is found that “the adventures of tom sawyer” displays some examples regarding glorification towards masculinity and resistance towards feminity which all cannot be separated from the desire of the boys to get recognition for their masculinity as social proof, especially, to appear better than their peers. most of the time, the powerful characteristics of men and the inferiority of women are the major portrayal in the literature. there is a significant difference from the depiction of gender characters in the novel, where boys tend to be described as free and courageous, and independent. meanwhile, on the other side, girls tend to be described as weak, whiny, and always dependent on other individuals. this gender differentiation plays a big impact on their power and dignity. when trying to punish tom sawyer, one of the teachers at tom sawyer’s school tried several times to embarrass tom by telling him to sit with the girls: 202 “now sir, go sit with the girls! and let this be a warning to you,… the titter that rippled around the room appeared to abash the boy…” (page 89) this was done to lower tom sawyer’s pride as a man so that he felt helpless. this shows how the males view that being put in the same position as the females is something shameful. the dominant and submissive roles are actually very common to be found. they are seen but are often not noticed. the discrimination against those who tend to be more passive and submissive does not only occur in women but can also occur in men. men also struggle to live up to the expectations in society. cornell believes that masculinity is an “achievement”, not something that is natural or acquired from birth. this point means that men actually need to work for it, constantly. when becky’s dad visited the school, the teachers at tom sawyer’s school were very kind and welcomed the arrival of becky’s father. they tried their best to present their best self by being as humble as possible and maintaining their dignity in front of jeff thatcher, the judge. it is shown how powerful men in higher positions benefit from this hegemonic masculinity concept rather than less powerful men. powerful men expressed their power at their workplace, meanwhile less powerful men expressed their power at home, which often leads to domestic violence. there was a time when becky tore his teacher’s book, tom helped her by admitting that it was done by tom. this resulted in tom being hit by mr. dobbins. the school was a home representation in this novel for mr. dobbins, the teacher, where the rest of the people in the classroom were all less powerful than him. when the judge visited the school, he is more powerful than the rest of the teachers because of his highly respected position in the village. at school, the teachers were the most powerful people. so mr. dobbins showed his power by hurting tom for tearing his stuff. the two different genders in this novel also have different roles, for example men are usually depicted as those who take on the role of physical work and other things that have a greater risk, especially those that endanger life. “her broad deck seemed crowded with people. there were a great many skiffs rowing about or floating with the stream in the neighborhood of the ferry boat, but the boys could not determine what the men in them were doing.” “early in the forenoon parties of jaded men began to straggle into the village, but the strongest of the citizens continued searching.” (page 212) when tom escapes to an island where the residents are looking for him using a ferry, we can see that it is the men who are on board and taking on the role of carrying out a dangerous search expedition. also when tom sawyer is trapped in a cave with becky, all the people who return to search for his whereabouts are men too, where they sacrifice themselves to take risks to try to find tom and becky’s whereabouts in the cave. these are the signs that it is men who are considered more capable of doing more risky and dangerous jobs than women. “at breakfast monday morning, aunt polly and mary were very loving to tom, and very attentive to his wants.” “sid was sick; mary remained at home to entertain him.” “many women visited aunt polly and mrs. thatcher and tried to comfort them. they cried with them, too, and that was still better than words.” (page 211) on the other hand, besides never being shown to do riskier roles, the females were depicted as those who deal with domestic work, emotional feelings and are mostly in charge of things that are less life-threatening. women always appeared to be more home-oriented. when tom and sid were sick, the female characters were there as caregivers. when it came to comforting people, it was the role of the women for helping the victims’ families to ease their pain of missing their children. a lot of times, women are also depicted as humans who need someone more dominant to guide them through certain obstacles. meanwhile, the boys seem to be able to solve their own obstacles and even compete to appear to be able to do it better than their peers. when tom and becky were lost in the cave: “tom knew their ways and the danger of this sort of conduct. he seized becky’s hand and hurried her into the first corridor that offered.” (page 215) the male character was the one shown leading the female character by hand and able to sense the danger they are facing. this shows how females are portrayed as the weaker and more dependent self who need males to guide them, instead of facing the challenge by themselves. to put it another way, males are represented as those who take dominant positions and females take the submissive roles. similar to many literary works, the greatness of a man cannot be separated from his ability to attract the attention of women to him. so, in the chapter of busy with war and love, we can see how tom tried his best to impress the new girl he admired, becky, by trying all sorts of boyish things he knew in the hope to get her attention. however, when tom took becky’s punishment chapter, tom showed us his point of view of girls that he viewed girls as weak and chicken-hearted creatures. “what a curious kind of a fool a girl is. never been licked in school! ... that’s is just like a girl they are so thinskinned and chickenhearted.” (page 160) this shows how possible it is that males are attracted to females but can look down on them at the same time as they believe that males’ position is sturdier compared to females’ place. all in all, it is commonly found that different genders have different roles such as men are expected to be breadwinner of the family, protector, succeed at work, or even win some matches to maintain solidarity with their peers. however, these kinds of expectations are positive aspects of hegemonic masculinity. the problem is that 203 most patriarchal cultures that refer to hegemonic masculinity tend to lead to negative impacts from the culture itself. it has a huge tendency to foster domination of others and is socially destructive. those who do not discern that they fall into the hegemonic masculinity trap tend to show extreme toxic masculinity behaviours, lack of consideration of feelings of others, a strong need to dominate or control others, an incapacity to nurture, a dread of dependency, and a readiness to resort to violence. the stigmatization and subjugation of women, gays, and men who exhibit feminine characteristics are not even inevitable. basically, toxic masculinity is being used as the gear to earn dominance and control over others. this is due to the fact that the way the main character presented himself in such ways like behaving aggressively. “don’t you crowd me, now; you better look out.” tom struck them to ground. …gripped together like cats; and for the space of minute they tugged and tore at each other’s hair and clothes, punched and scratched each other’s noses… taking control over other both physically and psychologically by manipulating; “if he hadn’t run out of whitewash, he would have bankrupted every boy in the village.” and not following certain rules successfully helped him to get what he aimed for. “he had discovered a great law of human action, without knowing it namely, that in order to make a man or boy covet a thing, it is only necessary to make the thing difficult to attain.” (page 61) because of this belligerence, it is feared that children might begin to develop a bad boy archetype like the main character because children always follow what they see. furthermore, as men are considered and to be not allowed to show their emotions about what they feel, it forces them to hide what experience, while the opposite is expected of the other gender. this affects men, in particular and not to the exclusion of women, not only psychologically but also physically. hiding emotions can impact their life negatively. after witnessing the murder at the graveyard, tom felt shocked but was not able to tell anyone. this resulted in tom losing all his spirit and excitement for hiding his fear of being caught by injun joe. starting from the next day, tom fell into depression, he was not interested in any joy brought by any activities, his sleep time was even depreciated that his sleep was not sound which resulted in his health deteriorated. those are some of the symptoms showed in the novel when tom tried to hide his fearful secret. overall, as children do not only learn behaviour from their parents but also their surroundings, children imitate what they see. being one of the most read literary works, it is very possible for children to imitate what the characters of the storybook-like, and with these three hegemonic masculinity aspects being so prominent in “the adventures of tom sawyer”, the main character may not be such a good role model, young readers might be inspired to follow his attitude as inspired by the fiction. 5. discussion the key findings of this study are the strong evidence of many types of hegemonic masculinity in “the adventures of tom sawyer.” the types of hegemonic masculinity are toxic masculinity, bad boy archetype, and dominant-submissive roles. this study contributed in confirming the presence of toxic values and views embedded in a literature written for children and a mandatory assigned reading in k-12 schools. the findings of this study may be concerning for teachers and educational stakeholders who may want to review the appropriateness of including tom sawyer in the syllabus. this study found that the text in children novel contains the element of toxic masculinity, which is a certain cultural norm of narrow behavior related to gender roles and male traits. females and males naturally have traits that are particular to their genders, either influenced by their sex or their environment (bauer & santia, 2021), but some traits can be harmful to their gender and society—in the case of males, these traits are considered toxic. these traits include, but not limited to, using or threatening violence, controlling others, acting aggressively, suppressing emotions, trying to appear 'tough', treating sex as a competition, feeling entitled to sex from others, and using power over women, 'weaker' men, and marginalised groups. this study found that the novel consistently included dialogues where the males are encouraged to look tough for the purpose of displaying and proving their superiority, and the tougher one looks, the more charismatic he appears to be too. tom, in particular, is always considered as the most charismatic boy among the other boys by the children his age because he never wants to lose to the others and always tried to maintain his dignity as the toughest boy. charisma is often associated with masculine leadership, although geva (2020) argues that it is a form of political masculinity that women can enact. the direct consequences of toxic masculinity are often felt by their feminine counterpart. because of the emphasis on males to be tough, females--the opposite sex of men—are expected not to be tough. females are gender-typed to be caring, thus many jobs that involve caring (e.g., teaching young children, nursing, etc.) are dominantly expected to be held by women. in fact, whenever men “crosses over” to these allegedly feminine jobs, they are often held to the expectations associated with female behaviours (brody, 2015). with so little encourage given to men who are in “female” careers, they often internalise the thought of distancing themselves from the traditional “feminine” motivations of choosing said careers, such as male nurses who insist that they became nurses not because they care for the helpless, but for other practical reasons (o’connor, 2015). a few studies have been combatting against this notion. for instance, brody (2015) showed that males in the profession of early childhood education and care 204 display positive masculine traits, such as charisma, initiative, daring, and playfulness, which they integrate into their care and attention toward children’s wellbeing. in hegemonic masculinity, it is often found that heterosexuality, dominance or control over women, and competition among men are being performed (jewkes & morrell, 2017). many researchers agree that toxic masculinity causes misogyny, homophobia, aggression, and other gender-based violence that is common in society. however, hegemonic masculinity has successfully painted ‘tough men’ as the ideal view in multiple generations’ minds. conventional wisdom shows that “bad boys” are popular, and many kinds of literature indeed displays this archetype as the type of character that one should like and strive to be. just by viewing the top and overall selection of literature aimed for boys such as comics, manga, manhwa, etc., the contemporary landscape is largely in favour of the bad boy anti-hero (castillo, 2016). according to gopaldas and molander (2020), bad boy archetype is a combination of juvenile masculinities (aggression, rebellion, hypersexuality), appealing qualities (charisma, ruggedness, sensitivity), and moral ambiguities (via confusion, contradiction, and cumulation), thus it is an engaging type to be used in advertising, erotica, fashion, journalism, movies, songs, television serials, etc. these forms of commercial culture reinforce aspects of hegemonic masculinity by promoting idealistic images of men in masculine personas, such as the lover, the family man, etc. (pruitt, 2019). because the bad boy archetype is put on a pedestal, when boys are not displaying bad boy traits, they are less popular, called as average, and judged as a loser, as can be seen in “the adventures of tom sawyer.”the novel also introduces children to the dominant-submissive paradigm between males and females. in the patriarchal culture of many countries in the world, influenced and entrenched in the worldwide media, men are naturally dominant and females are naturally submissive. although the world acknowledges the fact that there are hundreds to thousands of men who are submissive and females who dominant positions, they are also often presented as something that does not happen naturally; females in particular, if they are the bosses of their companies or speaks in a way that commands the room, are described as “breaking the ceiling,” which acknowledges the dominant male as the natural position (campos et al., 2015; bertrand et al., 2019). this study found that “the adventures of tom sawyer” glorifies masculinity and combines this attitude with resistance toward femininity through how they always describe boys with adjectives of ‘free’ and ‘courageous’ and girls with words like ‘whiny’ and ‘sissy.’ while it might be a form of extreme paranoia to believe that the reading of tom sawyer will inevitably influence children to copy the characters’ aggressive body language and misogynistic way of speaking, it cannot be denied that children do behave through imitation of what they see, and what they read and imagine are not excluded. this is proved by how other kids living around tom sawyer looked up to him as the most admired kid in the neighborhood for his carefree and fiery rebellious spirit. tom sawyer himself admired huck for his lawless, vulgar and bad aura; and the pirates who were able to do everything they wanted starting from smoking tobacco that made them look manly, to stealing ships, and yet nobody dared to mess with them be caused of the terrors they brought. young readers might see that what tom sawyer did, was the proper way to live their life or maybe a normal thing in the society. they will begin to see mischievous, manipulating, and aggressive behavior in “the adventures of tom sawyer” as common things to do or even should be done in order to fit the conventional gender characteristic expectations. children are learning that these toxic behaviors are acceptable. this might lead children to adopt hegemonic masculinity in their life. moreover, the legacy of gender dominance will be continued by them, the future generation who we expected to end the gap of gender equality. these unhealthy gender-related behaviours will also doctrine them that certain genders should act in certain ways and if not, it must be a “mistake.” this doctrine impacts the children a lot because children as the readers are meant to relate and idolise the main character in common rather than other, side characters who may give a different perspective as an attempt to balance the views. young readers who see themselves as being different from how the society expects them to behave will surely be lack of self-esteem and withdraw themselves from social activities. gender-gap is a huge issue in human history across many aspects of life. women are highly underrepresented in the field of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem), and the progress of balancing the stem gender statistics is slow despite continuous systemic encouragements (casad et al., 2021). there are at least three factors that likely contribute to academic gender inequalities, namely stereotypes, lack of support, and chilly academic climates. huang et al. (2020) showed that, career-wise, women and men have the same, comparable productivity when they explored the number of papers published per year by both genders, and studies such as this can assist in overturning the factor of stereotype. it is especially urgent since women’s career progression is more harshly judged even before they enter the job-hunting phase, and a study conducted by kristal and yaish (2020) found that the economic downturn caused by the covid-19 pandemic resulted in even wider gender gap, with “women’s employment and income more severely affected than men’s” (p. 2). even worse, it is possible that people will avoid those who behave or have behaviours that are not in accordance with what society expects based on their 205 gender. besides those, some might get bullied by other kids who see them who do not follow gender stereotypes as a freak. lack of understanding about hegemony and empathy will result in more and more children being bullied. take harper for example, when missing home during his time at the island, joe harper was mocked by tom as a cry baby. this verbal bullying was not tom’s first time. tom sawyer mocked a lot, both to other boys and girls, from calling someone sissy to chicken-hearted just for being soft. those kids who suffered from bullying will be impacted for the short and long term, both mentally and physically. studies on misogynistic language, at the present, is very centred on social media. for instance, natural language processing researchers’ attempts to automatically identify and classify misogynistic language on twitter, facebook, reddit, etc. (aldana-bobadilla et al., 2021; anzovino et al., 2018; farrell et al., 2019; lynn et al., 2019; plaza-del-arco et al., 2020). meanwhile, there seems to be very little academic discussion or publications on misogynistic language in the classroom or student-learning context. if mentioned, they are often only included in wider contexts such as bullying or cyberbullying in the learning process (hamuddin et al., 2020; pörhölä et al., 2020; smith et al., 2019), rather than as the main topic to be explored. studies exploring the language of toxic masculinity and misogyny in the classroom are present, nevertheless. for instance, simonsson (2020) explored the connection between sexuality of secondary level students in sweden and the language used in their english conversation practices. observation across three classrooms revealed the intrinsic nature of heteronormativity. the students frequently talk about relationships with hypothetical heterosexual relationship scenarios, thereby establishing their positions as heterosexual. the study also found that the pupils employ sexuality as a common bond to facilitate conversations. another study, qin (2019, p. 181), examined how a routine vocabulary instructional activity influenced the development of students’ identity, and the study discussed about a taiwanese immigrant boy whose use of language portrayed himself as masculine persona that actually “ran counter to the moral expectation of being a “good learner” embedded in this language activity, leading to his social identification as a problem student.” the existing literature mostly include non-journal articles, such as fancher and whittet’s (2018) account to expose the little extent of support from faculty given to female lecturers in the face of misogyny, the misogyny in early modern literature classroom (black et al., 2022), misogyny in academic language present in writing-focused lessons (roberson, 2020), and the oft-discussed gender stereotyping in incarcerated classrooms (dugan & umachandran, 2021). this study’s discussion of hegemonic masculinity, especially in light of its presence in children literature, will be contributive in increasing teachers’ awareness to acknowledge, address, and criticise it in class (miehls 2017; evans, 2018; alsyuof, 2018; yang 2020; boord, 2021). children’s literature is extremely powerful due to its role in shaping their life when adapted into the classroom and home (garrison et al., 2020). if reading children’s literature helps to teach young readers moral lessons, the activity can also aid in reinforcing undesirable values, thus teachers must be wary of possible influences (ahmed, 2017; gottier, 2019; garrison, carroll & derouet, 2020; mishra, 2020). being one of the most read literary works, it is very possible for children to imitate what the characters of “the adventures of tom sawyer” preach and discourage. therefore, this study urges schools to reconsider the placement of tom sawyer in the mandatory book list, or provide instructions for the teachers to correct the harmful values if the book still needs to be included for the value of raising children’s awareness of hegemonic masculinity. 6. conclusions where previous studies often analyse hegemonic masculinity in adult novels, this study offers the novelty of analysing text and confirming its presence in children literature. in “the adventures of tom sawyer” novel’, this study found three distinct types of hegemonic masculinity, namely toxic masculinity, bad boy archetype, and dominant-submissive roles. the novel is ripe of characters, events and dialogues which reinforces the implication that aggressiveness, mischief, manipulation, and other negative traits of bad boys as socially accepted and expected traits in boys. this study reveals the possible consequences of keeping “the adventures of tom sawyer” ’as a mandatory book for k-12 assignment, and cautions teachers to be explicit about how the hegemonic masculinity types in these books are actually not behaviours that they should imitate or find as ideal. 7. acknowledgement the researchers would like to thank to letters faculty, the methodist university of indonesia where the research is supported. references ahmed, a. 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(2014). analisis aspek sosiologi sastra naskah jin abg karya anes prabu sadjarwo dan rencana pelaksanaan pembelajaran di sma. surya bahtera, 5(45), 195–200. yang, y. (2020). what’s hegemonic about hegemonic masculinity? legitimation and beyond. sociological theory, 38(4), 318–333. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735275120960792 journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i1.9579 vol. 4, no. 1, april 2022, pp. 82-100 language kinship as regional conflict resolution in west nusa tenggara: comparative historical linguistic study irma setiawan universitas muhammadiyah mataram, nusa tenggara barat, indonesia irmasetiawan9@gmail.com article history received : 2022-02-08 revised : 2022-05-12 accepted : 2022-05-19 keywords language kinship conflict resolution sasak language samawa language linguistics historical comparative abstract west nusa tenggara (ntb) has two kinds of related ethnic languages, namely the sasak language (bs) and the samawa language (bsw). as related languages, the two ethnic groups often come into conflict. conflicts are generally caused by the lack of a good and effective communication process. this study investigates the phenomenon of linguistic kinship and describes various phonemic features as a solution for resolving regional conflicts. the research uses linguistics historical comparative (lhc) theory with synchronic studies. the research method used phenomenological principles with qualitative descriptive research. the object of study is bs and bsw. the research instrument used swadesh vocabulary and lexicostatistical parameters. data collection was conducted by documentation. data analysis applied qualitative description technique includes reduction, presentation, and verification. the results showed that 68 words were the same, 52 words were similar, and 87 were different. word relations based on parallel and serial structures of kin with contradictory meanings, such as: /apa/ (a~ə/-#), /anjing/ (c~s/#v-v#), /baru/ (a~ǝ/#c-c# and ø~?/-#), /benar/ (k~t/#-), /benih/ (ɛ~i/#cc#), and /bunuh/ (ø~bǝ/#and ?~ ø/-#). in syllables and phonemes, bs and bsw have variants /e/ > [ǝ],[e],[ɛ]. the percentage of relatives, 58%, is of language family status, both genetically and proto-austronesian. the period of separation of the two languages is 1292 years, to be precise, occurred in 730 ad. the contribution of similarity is phonemically observed through three dimensions of inter-ethnic conflict resolution: signification, domination, and legitimacy. the research findings are in the form of formulations/concepts of solutions for resolving regional conflicts through the kinship of phonemic features of the austronesian language, the traditions/culture and beliefs of speakers, and the social system of society. it is a reference for preventing regional conflicts in ntb in particular and indonesia in general. 1. introduction the integrity of a country is formed from three main elements, namely ethnicity, religion, and language. these three elements can also be potential elements in generating identity conflicts between communities. for example (dani & muharjono, 2021), the ethnic/racial turmoil that occurred in south africa with the apartheid party, the aboriginal ethnicity who were evicted by foreign residents in australia, the palestinians who continued to be annexed by israel, the massacre of the rohingya tribe in myanmar. the examples of conflicts above are caused by the existence and domination of ethnicity, religion, or language. especially the linguistic factor is the main element of socio-cultural interaction, so it becomes a standard and primary cause of every interethnic dispute. the existence of language is multifaceted, meaning that all interaction activities use language as an introduction. one of the main functions of language is as a marker of community identity and reinforcement of ethnic identity (notofher, 2019);(mahsun, 2019);(setiawan, 2018). each ethnic group is segmented in the languages of their respective regions, giving rise to linguistic fanaticism and identity conflicts. data from the summer institute of linguistics (sil) shows 726 regional languages in indonesia. there are variations in sub-regional languages , reaching 1,200 local languages. each language has its own identity, so it is conceivable that if all these local languages are not appropriately managed, it can lead to potential identity conflicts that end in the disintegration of the nation and state. 83 (lauder, 2015). the language attitude of an ethnic group or society can develop into a national issue. as research shows, the potential for regional expansion based on linguistic issues is segmented into one language (mahsun, 2014), which is different from other regions. for example, the emergence of the formation of the madura province claims that the madurese language is different from javanese. the cirebon province claims that the pengiyongan language is not part of the javanese language. the formation of the province of sumbawa language claims and local traditions that are different from lombok island and the emergence of a melanesian ethnic separatist movement in west papua. apart from political and other issues, a group or class can use the linguistic factor as an argument for division or regional disintegration. based on the phenomenon above, this research was conducted based on three investigation factors, namely empirical, practical, and theoretical. empirically, linguistic conflicts can be seen in national issues in daily interactions. for example, the conflict that occurred in ntb. data on conflicts that occurred in bima regency between muslims and christians in the 1970s, the case of the samawa ethnicity with bali in 1980 in sumbawa, the case of the samawa and balinese ethnicities in karang taliwang, cakranegara mataram in the 2000s, the sasak ethnic dispute with the samawa or samawa with mbojo in the 2000s (wirawan, 1999); (mahsun, 2014). these conflicts generally occur because of strengthening identity and linguistic interaction tools that do not work well. data on ethnic conflicts in ntb are caused by the different linguistic and cultural social factors (ardiansyah, 2010), meaning that there are differences in the understanding and interests of the language and culture of the conflicting parties. on this basis, the phenomenon and the emergence of identity conflicts become a reference, the need for an in-depth investigation to find a constructive solution for the people of ntb. recognition of the linguistic identity of each ethnic group requires good management. examples of inter-ethnic social friction with lingual nuances are prevalent in ntb. the shift of interests by bringing up linguistic issues as ethnic, religious, social, and cultural markers makes identity conflicts challenging to rule out. the issue of regional expansion, even the nation's disintegration, and the politicisation of language are real threats that speakers must face. each language segment has its characteristics as a community with its existence, marked by the presence of specific variants they use, which are different from each other, even though they are still within the scope of one language (mahsun, 2019). practical linguistic conflicts are more because language cannot be separated from the problem of attitude or interaction behaviour. the participants sometimes put forward linguistic identity in marginalising one group to another. the function of language is a device that carries out social functions in society (halliday & matthiessen, 2013). language as an organism drives all interaction functions in people's lives. refraction of language and context of speech can certainly be a dispute between speakers. for this reason, an investigation into language kinship becomes an urgent issue to defuse identity conflicts in society. theoretically, linguistic conflict refers to language kinship using the theory of linguistics historical comparative (lhc). this theory investigates language families based on a diachronic comparison of periodisation. the language of each ethnic group is described at the level of protolanguage, language, and sub-language. any similarity of word syllables becomes a reference for the investigation. several previous studies were conducted by teewuw (1951), mbete (1990), mahsun (2014), notofher (2019), and ritonga et al.(2020) have not positioned the research results as a solution to resolving inter-ethnic identity conflicts. if traced historically, the results of research on language kinship relations have the potential as a solution for resolving identity conflicts. then, the position of this research is as a presenter of new things from several previous studies that have not utilised the results of the study of language kinship in the lhc perspective for resolving ethnic conflicts in the region. the new things in question include: the study of language kinship does not only show that language is only related between phonemes and morphemes, but also the relationships between speakers. language kinship is a genetic marker of speakers. languages that are related and have family status contain the potential for the speakers to have a close genetic relationship(mahsun, 2010). that is, emotionally-socially, speakers of cognate languages with family status have the same ancestor. this fact is then used as a preventive solution to prevent regional conflicts in ntb. furthermore, the relation of language with speakers refers to the socio-cultural identity. the representation of ethnic identity can be represented through the language used. for this reason, family status in a language kinship is undoubtedly a possible means to strengthen emotional and inter-ethnic family relationships in the region. this research has two objectives, namely general and specific objectives. the general goal is to reconstruct the formula for resolving inter-ethnic identity conflicts through social language kinship relations, especially in ntb. specific objectives include: (1) strengthening the understanding that inter-ethnic language kinship as evidence of ethnicity has the same proto-ethnicity, (2) parties or other mediations can take advantage of language kinship analysis to strengthen identity and similarities 84 between groups as one ethnic family, (3 ) mapped the distribution of interethnic language kinship in ntb and reconstructed the various elements of interethnic kinship markers, and (4) presented a protolanguage gloss map as a reference or parameter of interethnic language kinship in ntb. this goal explains that language kinship based on proto-ethnicity cannot be separated. historically, the same language family tends to have familial ties, both genetically and linguistically demographics(mahsun, 2019). at the same time, the issue of linguistic kinship is also correlated with the origin of speakers' spread. there is a unity of origin for spreading language between speakers and related language relations(mbete, 2010). the higher the level of kinship between one language and another, the higher the familial ties between the language and its speakers. it proves that the study of language kinship results can be used as a tool or media to unite the emotional bonds of two ethnic communities, sasak and samawa, in ntb. this research needs to be followed up as a preventive effort to resolve regional conflicts that often arise between the two ethnic groups. the urgency of the research includes four main points: first, resolving inter-ethnic conflicts in ntb requires a social and linguistic approach as a persuasive step in a family bond. second, the threat of inter-ethnic conflict in the regions, especially ntb, can be an obstacle to the growth of the human development index. third, solving inter-ethnic identity disputes requires a comparative historical linguistic approach to map protolanguages and build inter-ethnic lingual solidity in ntb. fourth, as a device for detecting and preventing inter-ethnic identity conflicts in ntb. 2. literature review the preliminary study conducted by researchers has obtained several research results regarding interethnic language kinship in ntb. some of these studies examine linguistic kinship issues intending to map protolanguages in one area. mapping linguistic kinship through the isogloss network can describe the mobilisation of languages between the sasak, samawa, and mbojo ethnicities. the researcher also found the lingual boundary of the "garis brandes" isogloss, which separates the protolanguages of the sasak and samawa ethnic groups from the mbojo. all preliminary studies that previous researchers have carried out did not find a resolution of inter-ethnic language-based identity conflicts. the position of this research is as a presenter of novelties in resolving identity conflicts based on language kinship. research conducted by teewuw (1951) and sarwadi et al. (2019) mapped ethnic languages in ntb with findings in inter-ethnic language division with a pattern of one proto, sub-language, dialect, and sub-dialect. the implication is that it can show the potential for inter-ethnic language kinship in ntb. a study (mbete, 2010)examined the kinship of the sasak and samawa languages with the findings that there was the status of one proto and one interethnic language. the implication is that these findings indicate that the ancestors of the two ethnic groups came from the same nation. (mahsun, 2019) mapped ethnic languages in ntb (bs, bsw, and bm) in the isogloss of linguistic kinship. the implication is that there is a protolanguage connecting line between the sasak and samawa ethnicities and the status of being related to the mbojo ethnicity even though they are in a different proto variety. 2.1 regional language kinship language kinship can be investigated through historical investigations or lhc on the syllable equations in each vocabulary. the comparison element uses 207 swadesh vocabularies as the standard vocabulary of languages worldwide. it follows the statement (hock & joseph, 2010) regarding the addition of swedish vocabulary based on previous and recent studies on ethnic languages in the world. relatives or relatives (ritonga et al., 2020) explain the three steps in determining related words, namely (a) identical pairs are word pairs that all have the same phenomenon, (b) phonemic correspondence is a change in language that occurs reciprocally, and regularly, and has a high frequency, and (c) one different phoneme is in one word pair there is one phoneme difference. brandes divides the language family in the archipelago into three groups, namely 1) proto austronesian, 2) non-austronesian, and 3) proto melanesian. these three language groups have directions of distribution and linguistic acculturation with different regional geographies, thus making each language have its own identity. (mahsun, 2019);(setiawan, 2015); (setiawan, 2018). based on brandes' opinion above, the ntb region has two language families: protoaustronesian and protonon-austronesian. after this, the division of the two language families is known as the brandes line. each language family has a different sound system. the following figure 2.1 shows the proto structure of each language. 85 figure 2.1 structure of protolanguage the protolanguage structure has different directions of syllable changes. crowley (2010: 246); (mahsun, 2014); argues that changes in syllables in each word are influenced by the process of assimilation, dissimilation, the addition of sounds, omission of sounds, or changes based on place (metathesis). the description of the trend of sound change is as follows. a) assimilation is the process of sound changes due to different phonemes in one protolanguage. the changing sound segment does not change the meaning but gives rise to more minor variations or sublanguages. b) dissimilation is the process of changing previously identical sounds to be different but still in the protolanguage syllable segment with the same gloss. parameters measure the level of language kinship using lexicostatistics. this measurement indicates the degree of kinship in the protolanguage. the syllable segment in the same gloss determines the level of interethnic language relations. the level of measurement using lexicostatistics has the categories of language family, microphylum, mesophyllum, and macrophylum. (joseph & crowley, 1990); (keraf, 2016) states that the lexicostatistical method operates under two basic assumptions. the first assumption is that some parts of the vocabulary of a language are more difficult to change than others. second, the fundamental vocabulary changes in all languages are the same. this assumption has been tested in 13 languages with the result that every 1000 years, the basic vocabulary can survive 80.5%, so the probability of language change is inevitable. the lexicostatistics parameter as an indicator of interethnic language kinship(joseph & crowley, 1990) and (keraf, 2016); (sudaryanto, 2018) can be seen in table 2.1. table 2.1 language subgroups, separation time, and language age sub-group labels split time relatives presentation language <500 years 81--100% family 500 – 2500 years 36--81% stock 2500 – 5000 years 12-36% microphylum 5000 – 7500 years 4-12% mesophyllum 7500 – 10,000 years 1—4% macrophylum >10,000 years 0—1% 86 the relevance of conflict with linguistic identity has a close relationship. conflict is a dispute between individuals or groups with different perceptions or motives in the interaction. the intensity of the conflict is determined by the level of interest or motives between the actors. chilton (2019:2) describes the relevance of conflict with linguistic identity: a) the decision to mobilise military forces can only be made through legitimate elite verbal activity. b) military operations and the like can be mobilised and continued through verbal activity. c) events can occur by strengthening the identity of linguistic activities. 2.2 regional social conflict inter-ethnic conflicts arise in social interactions in one area caused by various devices, such as differences in principles/views and social identity in life. social conflict can occur from differences in views, concepts, steps, and understanding of something concerning inter-ethnic interests in one area (sutianti, 2020). the emergence of an attitude of ethnocentrism or an attitude that is more concerned with his identity than the identity of other parties is undoubtedly a latent factor that often occurs. seeing the shortcomings of other cultures based on their own culture, they consistently underestimate the culture of others. social conditions like this are factors that lead to the emergence of inter-ethnic conflicts in ntb. as documented by mahsun (2014), the conflict that occurred on the thousand mosques island (lombokntb) was ethnic conflicts between the sasak – samawa, sasak – mbojo, and samawa – mbojo, and sasak – samawa – mbojo ethnic groups. this tragic event has occurred from the 1970s until now. other issues that arise due to its ethnocentric nature, namely the idea of a new expansion, sumbawa province, which consists of the samawa and mbojo ethnic groups. a comprehensive review of inter-ethnic social conflicts cannot be separated from views (giddens, 2010); (simamora et al., 2020) that state that social conflict is formed through the structure of three schemata, namely signification, domination, and legitimacy. signification means discourse or language activities in social interaction. domination means control of the majority over the minority. legitimacy means regulating and controlling the values or norms that apply in society. giddens' three schemata, when associated with conflict resolution using the language kinship approach in lhc studies, form a mutualism pattern. there is a close relationship between the three schemata by giddens. signification, dominance, and legitimacy have the core of production in the form of language as a means of interaction. the kinship of one language in the interaction of two ethnicities can strengthen the emotional sense of kinship between ethnic groups. more detailed perspective, every speaker has the right to determine the language and recognition (thornborrow & wareing, 2019). language is often the trigger of various socio-political conflicts. misinterpretation of linguistic meanings causes the emergence of identity tensions between various parties. language and conflict refer to and determine each other to recognise and strengthen linguistic identity. the following is the relevance of linguistic identity conflicts and conflict resolution solutions, as shown in figure 2.2. figure 2.2 the relevance of linguistic identity conflict to conflict resolution 87 the conflict phase and its resolution occur through two processes or stages. the first phase, called historical – conflict, is the investigation stage into the history of the origin of language and protolanguage. this stage can determine the language of mobilisation and ethnic distribution in an area. the spread of ethnicity certainly brings culture, social life, and beliefs/religions. these three elements are the leading indicators of ethnic or racial identity. this element is also the main element that causes conflict in a region (thornborrow, 2017). identity conflicts can occur in various types of language speakers with the same or different ethnicities (cultural, social, and religious). identity conflicts can be resolved through the second stage, namely solution – kinship. the solution–kinship phase describes the role or function of lhc as a theory of language kinship investigation through two parameters, namely lexicostatistical measurements and protolanguage tracing. these two pre-maters accurately determine the percentage and grouping of languages based on their protolanguages. the lexicostatistic functions in the lhc study include (fitrah & afria, 2017); (shafi'i, 2019); (kasim, 2021) and determine the kinship of two, three, or more of the studied languages, 2) can make a classification chart (subgroup) of related languages, and 3) can determine the separation time between the studied languages. 3. method this study uses a comparative linguistic approach by describing various things concerning the comparison of linguistic kinship and regional conflicts. there is a use of quantitative data to describe related words comprehensively. this data is acquired from calculating syllable and phonemic lexicostatistics of the two languages. this step follows the statement (cresswel, 2014); (and mahsun, 2014) that the inclusion of quantitative data in qualitative research aims to understand the research results. the scope of this research is multivariant, meaning that the investigation is carried out in several languages simultaneously or diachronically. the primary data from the research are 200 swadesh vocabularies which are matched into bs dan bsw. secondary data includes various factual information and literature that strengthens the investigation. the study was conducted in west nusa tenggara (ntb). the sub-areas of study include the inter-ethnic languages of sasak and samawa. the assumption of choosing these three languages is because they are natural or native languages from the ntb region. these two languages have existed for centuries and have become an introduction to regional languages in ntb. there are research supporting instruments, namely tabulation of related vocabulary and lexicostatistical calculations of the two languages. the two instruments can be seen in table 3.1 and table 3.2. of the validity of swadesh and lexicostatistical parameters presented in table 3.1. table 3.1 table of the validity of swadesh. vocabulary equivalents swadesh vocabulary (200 vocabularies) language variants relationship form kinship periodisation of kinship 1=bs 2=bsw 1. 2. 3 – 207. table 3.1 shows the process of validating regional languages using swadesh vocabulary. this instrument is indispensable in analysing and mapping the kinship between the two languages. the table consists of 6 sub-presentations, namely swadesh vocabulary, 207 words, language variations, relation forms, kinship relations, and kinship periodisation of the two languages. the analysis results in table 3.1 serve as a reference for lexicostatistical calculations based on table 3.2 regarding the lexicostatistical parameters of the period of the two languages. the lexicostatistical parameters can be seen in table 3.2 below. 88 table 3.2 lexicostatistical parameters sub-group labels relatives presentation split time language 81--100% <500 years family 36—80,9% 500 – 2500 years stock 12-35,9% 2500 – 5000 years microphylum 4-11,9% 5000 – 7500 years mesophyllum 1—3,9% 7500 – 10,000 years macrophylum 0—0,9% >10,000 years *) the guideline remains a parameter for measuring language kinship in the world (source: (joseph & crowley, 1990)) table 3.2 contains the lexicostatistical parameters for calculating the labels of the language sub-groups, the percentage of kinship, and the separation period between the two languages. based on the table, the language groups are divided into six criteria, namely: language status/one language if the percentage of relatives is in the range of 81 – 100% with a length of separation <500 years, language status is family/one family if it has a percentage of 36 – 80.9% with a separation length of 500 – 2500 years, one family language has a kinship percentage of 12 – 35.9% with a separation of 2500 – 5000 years, micropyle languages have a percentage of 4 – 11.9% with a separation length of 5000 – 7500 years, mesophyllum languages have a percentage of 1 – 3.9% with a separation length of 7500 – 1000 years, and macrophylum languages have a percentage of 0 – 0.9% with a separation length of > 10000 years. collecting research data using methods, techniques, and strategies. a method is a research approach, a technique is a way of implementing a research approach, and a strategy is a stage in the research process. the method used is in the form of documentation, comparative descriptive technique, and research strategy in the form of conversation engagement. the documentation method was used to record and record all of swadesh's vocabulary, totalling 207 vocabularies translated into two languages, namely sasak and samawa. the technique used is comparative description, which explains the comparison of kinship between the two languages in detail. furthermore, the research strategy uses conversation engagement, where the researcher is directly involved in recording vocabulary data from speakers of both languages. the criteria for language speakers used as samples for data collection are based on criteria that have been set by mahsun (mahsun, 2014). a) ensure that speakers of ethnic languages can communicate with indonesian. b) the level of speaker mobilisation is low. c) speakers are physically healthy and conscious of their actions. d) speakers are native/local people. e) adult age (17-50 years). the data analysis method used in this study is in the form of qualitative analysis. however, the researcher uses quantitative data as a parameter and strengthens the analysis in the process. analysis techniques and procedures using a series of steps initiated by (miles et al., 2014); (creswell, 2014). the scheme of research data analysis can be seen in figure 3.1. 89 figure 3.1 research data analysis flow 1) reduction stage; at this stage, the word swades's equivalent is selected and identified in bs, bsw, and bm. after obtaining the equivalent data in ethnic languages, the researchers then conducted patterning based on the gloss and syllables of swades words (200 vocabularies). 2) presentation stage: the data segmentation process is carried out in the form of an analysis chart according to the research instrument. the analysis chart presents swades vocabulary, ethnic language equivalents, relations, phonetic formulas, and mapping of kinship processes. 3) verification stage; at this stage, conclusions are made and ensure the correctness of the data analysis according to the lhc theory. after the data was analysed, the calculations were carried out using the lexicostatistical parameter instrument. parameters for calculating the level of language kinship use lexicostatistical formulas. the calculation formula is as follows. description: c = kinship j = number of relative words n = amount used 4. results the emergence of horizontal inter-ethnic conflicts in nusa tenggara barat (ntb) has become a severe problem in social life. a safe and peaceful life is undoubtedly the prospect for all parties. for this reason, this research is present as an effort to solve social problems between the sasak and samawa ethnic groups. language kinship through the study of comparative historical linguistics is one of the effective solutions in resolving conflicts between the two ethnic groups. sasak and samawa are often not harmonious in communicating, so conflicts arise and spread to all aspects of people's lives. to resolve conflicts, this study investigates the kinship of language as a resolution of regional conflicts in ntb, which is an initial effort to strengthen social relations between ethnic communities and as a basis for strengthening conflict resolution between the two. the sasak and samawa ethnicities, based on the data analysis results, show a relationship between vocabulary similarity/similarity. the percentage of relations reaches 58%, which means that bs and bsw have family language status. the results of the linguistic kinship investigation between the sasak and samawa ethnic groups are divided into four sub-outcomes, namely the kinship of two languages, the relationship between the bs – bsw, the map of the distribution of the kinship of the languages, and the construction of the separation period of the two languages. 4.1 interethnic relations between sasak and samawa the regional linguistic kinship in ntb includes the sasak language/bahasa sasak (bs) and the samawa language/bahasa samawa (bsw). the study of linguistic kinship uses a comparative historical linguistics approach with the synchronisation method, namely observing two languages simultaneously bs (1) and bsw (2). the basis or parameters of the investigation referred to the standard vocabulary, namely swadesh, which consists of 207 vocabularies. this vocabulary is a natural root word that must be owned and found in every language in regions worldwide. morris swadesh (swadesh, 1950) is the inventor of 207 essential vocabularies called swadesh vocabulary, which is then used as a reference for a comparison of inter-ethnic language kinship in the world. the total vocabulary used by swadesh is 207 words. this number is the result of the latest revision 90 of linguists who pursue studies of comparative historical linguistics. based on swadesh parameters, this study determined 207 comparative vocabularies. based on the bs and bsw kinship investigations, it was found that the two languages had kinship ties. it is obtained from each vocabulary's grammatical construction, which forms two relations. this study found two patterns of relations in 207 vocabularies, which are parallel and serial relations. 4.1.1 parallel kinship parallel relation is a straight comparison and equation between bs~bsw. this kinship tends to be patterned. phoneme changes in a morpheme are static and systematic—the pattern of words in the two languages that do not change/are fixed. examples of vocabulary with parallel kinship relations are as follows. table 4.1 parallel kinship gloss bs (1) bsw (2) dua [duǝ] [dua] tiga [tǝlu] [telu] empat [ǝmpat] [empat] siapa [sai] [sai] apa [apǝ] [apa] based on the table 4.1 above, examples of parallel related vocabularies, such as (two)/dua/, (three)/tiga/, (four)/empat/, (who)/sai/, and (what)/ape/ only undergo one allophone change. position changes are fixed and only occur in one font. changes can occur in vowels or consonants between v-v, v-c, c-v, and c-c. then, based on the results of the analysis of parallel kinship relations, the percentage is 58% with the same vocabulary details, including gloss dua, bumi, lima, jantung, etc., which in percentage reaches 3.9%. then, vocabulary with similar status is shown in the gloss examples of other words, tiga, tebal, anak, etc., with 13.5%. vocabulary with unequal status is shown in the example of the word gloss dan, nama, aku, kamu, etc., with 82.6%. 4.1.2 serial kinship serial relations are comparisons and equations that are tortuous or tortuous and form an unstable or dynamic pattern. the tendency of this pattern does not have a static form. changes in the font of the vocabulary also do not occur in one font but in two or more fonts in each morpheme of a word. examples of data findings in the analysis process are as follows. table 4.2 serial kinship gloss bs (1) bsw (2) kamu [ante] [nene] di sini [ten3] [ko te?] di sana [tono] [ko na?] dia [nie] [ǹa] https://id.wiktionary.org/wiki/dua https://id.wiktionary.org/wiki/tiga https://id.wiktionary.org/wiki/empat https://id.wiktionary.org/wiki/siapa https://id.wiktionary.org/wiki/apa 91 based on table 4.2, examples of serially related vocabulary show irregular font changes and the process of change requires further analysis in the vowel and consonant sound environment. for example, a word in the phoneme /ante/ > /nene/, of course, must go through several changes, namely the vowel /a/ > /n/ and /t/ > /n/. there is a process of changing vowels to consonants in adjacent fonts and forms far apart and irregular. then, based on the analysis of serial kinship relations, the percentage is 42%, with the details of serial kinship being the same 0%, a vocabulary similar to 76%, and unrelated (no relation found) amounting to 24%. 4.2 bs~bsw relationship the first relationship, bs and bsw kinship, go through three stages: distribution of kinship relations, kinship status, and conclusion of kinship relations. the description is as follows. 4.2.1 bs~bsw relationship distribution the distribution of kinship relations is a form of distribution of connection or similarity/similarity of vocabulary between bs and bsw. second, this language is a protolanguage, namely austronesian. it can be quoted from several previous studies, such as mahsun (2019). then, in the mapping of brandes lines, it is shown that bs and bsw are one language separated by distance and time. the investigation, the relationship between bs and bsw, can be seen in two forms or forms of relations, namely parallel and tertiary. based on the results of the analysis of language connectivity in the basic vocabulary (swadesh), 68 cognates or the same vocabulary were obtained; those are the words /abu/, /akar/, /buah/, /hati/, /kiri/, and /tulang/. examples of these five data are forms of vocabulary that have kinship, and no differences in allophones, phonemes, or even morphemes are found. vocabulary with kinship status or similar phonetically related vowels or consonant allophones obtained 52 basic vocabularies. as for some vocabulary examples that have a cognate point or kinship both by proper assimilation and dissimilation, as follows. example: (a) the phoneme /apa/ (a~ə/-#) has a structural change that occurs in the vowel a~ə in the word /apa/ > /apə/. the category of allophones that experienced assimilation with changes occurred in the vowel [a] as a low, central, unrounded sound into a vowel sound [ə] as a middle, central, unrounded sound. if we look closely, the location of the change and the direction of the change are still within the middle sound's scope. then, the context of the sound change occurs at the end of the word after the consonant phoneme /p/. (b) the phoneme /anjing/ (c~s/#v-v# dan ŋ~?/#) has a two-level changed structure, meaning dissimilation with sound changes at two letter levels, consonants and vowels in one morpheme. the change in /acong/ > /asuq/ occurs in the consonant sound /c/>/s/ in the morpheme between vowels and nasal sounds [ŋ] to become glottal [?] at the end of one morpheme. when observed from the place of sound articulation, the consonant category changes, namely the allophone [c]~[s] in the articulation of the laminoalveolar shift into a laminopalatal blend sound. (c) the phoneme /telur/ (o~e/#k-k#, dan q~ ø/#) has a two-level sound change structure, meaning that there is an assimilation of changes in the two parts of the allophone. changes in the sound [ǝ]~[o] occur in the middle, centre, and non-round sound into the middle, back, and round sounds, meaning there is a demotion of sound from an articulation point of view. then, the sound [?] or glottal becomes zero marking. the example of data analysis above shows that the sound change process occurs at the point of articulation, and the sound category changes in each allophone, basically dominated by one articulation place. that is each sound changes at the cognate point or similar. the domination of allophones that have undergone many changes is the phoneme /e/ > [ǝ]. this sound feature is a characteristic of the sound with the distribution of the austronesian clump, which covers the western part of indonesia. it is different if the sound /e/ > [ɛ] contains language features of the east indonesian family (nonaustronesian). the category of sounds that tend to be assimilated and dissimilated shows the phonetic closeness of bs and bsw. further analysis, there is also basic vocabulary with no similarities. the total vocabulary is only 87 vocabularies which include /burung/, /cacing/, /danau/, and /darah/. the level of dissimilarity of vocabulary is lower than the same and similar vocabulary, so this analysis shows that the relationship between bs and bsw is very high. more details can be seen in table 4.3 (sample presentation of 10 vocabularies) about the kinship relations between bs and bsw below. 92 table 4.3 sample presentation of related vocabulary no gloss realisation form language (region) observation area note. (relationship form) 1 abu au bs 1,2 same au bsw 2 akar akar bs 1,2 same akar bsw 3 apa apa,apə bs 1,2 a~ə/-# apa bsw 4 anjing acɔŋ bs 1,2 c~s/#v-v# an ŋ~?/-# asuq, acɔŋ bsw 5 baru baru bs 1 a~ǝ/#kcc# and ø~?/-# bǝruq bsw 2 6 betul kenaq bs 1 k~t/#-, e~ə/#c-c# n~t/#c-c#, a~u/#c-c# tətuq bsw 2 7 benih binɛq bs 1,2 ɛ~i/#c-c# binɛq, biniq bsw 8 buah buaq bs 1,2 same buaq bsw 9 bunuh sǝmateq bs 1, 2 ø~bǝ/#and ?~ ø/-# sǝmateq, bǝsǝmate bsw 10 burung kǝdit bs 1 differ pio bsw 2 table 4.3 shows that the form of the relationship is divided into three, where the form of the same relation, similar (relative), and there is no relation/difference. these results can be constructed that the relationship between bss and bsw has very identical relations, being very closely related. the status of one language family makes it a language with a very high degree of similarity. it also indicates that these two languages historically came from one language. furthermore, these results cannot be generalised before the language status is observed in the lexicostatistical calculations, namely the calculation of the level of equality or language relations between two or more languages, between bs and bsw. 4.2.2 bs~bsw kinship distribution map the map of the distribution of the sasak and samawa languages shows the location or area of the distribution of language kinship between the two ethnic groups. bs and bsw have a kinship status of 58% with the category of one language family, so it can be concluded that they come from one protolanguage family, namely austronesian. language kinship markers are indicated by isogloss longitude on related sounds. the dotted line indicates the numbered squares one and two, as areas with high linguistic kinship. these two areas include lombok island with bs and sumbawa island with bsw. for example, the language distribution in related vocabulary can be seen in figure 4.1 below. 93 figure 4.1 map of bs dan bsw kinship distribution figure 4.1 shows vocabulary that is an example of mapping language kinship, namely the word /abu/. the word /abu/ has related variations between the two regions. shading isogloss in the figure indicates both regions using the word /au/ (gloss /abu/). no difference in pronunciation was found for the word /au/ 'abu'. the distribution map showing the sound isogloss of one morpheme is undoubtedly essential to describe the kinship area of language speakers between two ethnic groups. the process of mapping related isoglosses also aims to describe the various relationships between regional languages. cognatic mapping is definitely a reference for the similarity of the social context and the character of the community's traditions. so, in the end, isogloss cognition can facilitate the strengthening of ethnic interactions. 4.3 bs dan bsw language status the equality of language status in a language will determine the position of one language against another language, namely between bs and bsw. language is a sign or equation in the structure of a language itself, whether united by one language, family, or even language family. of course, this can be explained utilising lexicostatistical calculations on the relationship between bs and bsw. the results of the calculation of the relationship between these two languages can be seen in table 4.4. table 4.4 language similarity percentage between bs and bsw dp ds same code word σsame % language status 1-2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 58 family + + + + + + + + + 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 + + + + + + + + 21 22 23 .... 207 + + + .... + *note: (+) there are similarities, (-) there are no similarities, dp (observation area), and ds map (same area) lexicostatistics formula for language kinship information: c = kinship j = number of relative words n = amount used 94 known: j = 120 words n = 207 resulting, based on table 4.4, the percentage of lexicon similarities between bs and bsw is 58%. it means that the language status between bs and bsw is relatively high with the status of one family. it indicates that the position and existence of bs and bsw originate from the same language and then spread. due to topography, geography, and cultural factors, causes lexical shifts between languages. in addition, the two languages make them into the protolanguage group, namely austronesian, so there is no reason to state that the two languages (bs and bsw) are different. furthermore, suppose the calculation of the different levels of the lexicon is reduced to the community's social conditions. in that case, the results show that the two ethnic groups historically have families (when viewed from a linguistic perspective) and come from one community group with one language status historically. the estimation of the separation time of the two languages according to lexicostatistics is as follows. lexicostatistical formulas of old language separation (periodisation). note: t = amount of time apart c = related word percentage r = constant/morris swadesh index log = algorithm the kinship rate at 58% has a morris swadesh constant point at 81%, with bs and bsw status as language families. the number of vocabulary used in the comparison is not 200 words but 207 vocabularies. according to the opinion (hock & joseph, 2010), which explains the addition of the swadesh vocabulary is based on previous studies on the variety of ethnic languages worldwide. the following is the calculation of the length of time between bs and bsw based on lexicostatistics. known: c = 58% r = 81% = 1,292 x 1000 = 1292 (split period) year gap between bs and bsw 2022 – 1292 = 730 ad. based on lexicostatistical calculations, the length of separation of the sasak and samawa languages from their mother language occurred in 730 ad, meaning that the length of separation of languages was 1292 years ago with calculations from 2022 at this time. sl and sl are two cognate languages with family status and have separated for 12 centuries. of course, this fact is a historical finding regarding the languages of two ethnic groups in ntb, which are sasak on lombok island and samawa on sumbawa island. 5. discussion based on the bs and bsw kinship data analysis results, it was found that (1) bs and bsw have a kinship in the family category, meaning that the sasak and samawa ethnic groups use languages that have the same family. the phonetic characters used tend to be allophones with one place of articulation, so it is confirmed by the features of the austronesian language family. it has been confirmed that austronesian languages cover the nusa tenggara region, such as balinese, sasak, and samawa (mahsun, 2014). (2) the field of linguistic kinship mainly covers aspects of vocabulary, pronouns, nouns, verbs, and adjectives. this vocabulary is a means of daily language between the two ethnic groups in ntb. (3) the separation period between bs and bsw lasts for 12 centuries or 1292 years. the year the two languages separated occurred in 730 ad. it shows that bs and bsw are two languages of one family. this finding is a concrete reference to trace the origin of the ancestors of the two ethnic groups believed to be of the same family. the study of genolinguistics (mahsun, 2010) explained that languages with the status of one family with family kinship certainly have a genetic relationship between speakers. this means that language users have a genetic relationship between bs and bsw. it is factual evidence that the two ethnic groups were original of the exact origin, then wandered and separated from their parents, resulting in variations in the language used in life. for this reason, a more thorough discussion of the kinship correlation of language as conflict resolution can be observed through three dimensions adapted from conflict resolution (giddens, 2010), namely signification, domination, and legitimacy. 5.1 signification identity is a unique marker that characterises a subject. signification refers to the existence of the subject against the hegemony of other subjects in the interaction. in the context of linguistic society, 95 language speakers tend to use a distinctive language that identifies themselves. the more distinctive the language used, the more other speakers recognise its existence in society. according to(giddens, 2010), components of significance include symbolic schemes, discourse or linguistic texts, mentions or meanings. especially for discourse or linguistic texts, it is appropriate to have bs and bsw language kinship as a liaison between the two ethnic groups in resolving conflicts. according to(loyal, 2010), social conflict is formed from an unbalanced interaction between one person and another, giving rise to friction or conflict. indicators of the emergence of conflicts are generally caused by linguistic communication that is not in harmony and accommodates the interests of speakers. for example, the variety of pronouns in bs and bsw have different significations, namely gloss 'kamu' = /kau/, /kao/, /side/, and /pelungguh/, of these four vocabularies bs and bsw are related to the vocabulary /kau/. the value of taste in this pronoun is considered standard for the samawa community, but it tends to be rude to the sasak people. efforts must be made in conflict resolution, namely reducing the use of pronouns that can trigger conflict between the two ethnicities and choosing wisely words that accommodate the interests of the two ethnicities so that it runs harmoniously. 5.2 domination domination is a sign that characterises the overall mastery of one subject over another, covering various aspects of life, such as social, economic, political, cultural, etc. domination tends to show social hegemony that lasts long and continuously in society. judging from the context of linguistic kinship, dominance is formed between bs and bsw. bs has speakers reaching millions of souls, while bsw only has thousands of speakers. based on this data, potential information can be obtained that conflicts occur because of the unbalanced friction of the majority's interests with the minority. communication as a medium of diplomacy certainly uses language as a persuasive approach. according to mahsun (2019), the role of language in conflict resolution is language as a potential liaison medium to regulate social life towards harmony. bs and bsw are related by kinship. this status can be used to establish family values by showing the relationship between two languages as a marker of kinship and having roles, such as pronoun vocabulary, nouns, etc. for example, in the following example. d.1 gloss ‘telur’: bs [telo?] ~ bsw [telɛ] historically, this vocabulary has a parallel relationship, although, in the process, there is 'zero marking' at the end of the syllable of the word. in the ntb region, the word [telo?] has a broader range of speakers than [telɛ]. then, in terms of meaning, there are differences in the interpretation of inter-ethnic vocabulary; the word /teloq/ for the sasak and samawa people means an egg, while the word /tele/ for the sasak people is defined as the intimate female organ. contradictions of meaning in the correlation of words in bs and bsw must be prevented to avoid misunderstandings between the two ethnicities and promote a more mediating vocabulary, such as the word /teloq/. d.2 gloss ‘uang’: bs /kepeng/ ~ bsw /kepeng/; /pipis/ historically, this vocabulary has similarities to the word /kepeng/, but differs from the word /pipis/. mainly the word /pipis/ contains contradictions in meaning between the two languages. the sasak people interpret the word /pipis/ as ‘air kencing’, while the samawa people interpret it as ‘uang’. the tendency of speakers in ntb, often uses the word /kepeng/, so it is necessary to prevent it when the word /piss/ is used in the sasak community. the goal is to prevent the emergence of social discord in the verbal interaction of the community. 5.3 legitimacy legitimacy is a symbolic acknowledgement by the society of an activity, action, and speech in social interaction. signification and dominance require legitimacy, so all people in one area can accept that speech. recognition can be constructed through the similarity of vocabulary between bs and bsw in parallel and serial. the similarity and similarity of words can be an emotional connector for speakers interacting. the main element that influences speakers in interaction is language(loyal, 2010). for this reason, 58% of kinship with family status, bs and bsw can theoretically be united in interactions without social conflict. based on the study results, the number of related vocabularies reached 120 words, while 87 vocabularies were unrelated; therefore, the language dominance with similar features, syllables, and relationship patterns was primarily used in bs and bsw speech. 5.4 reconciliation of interethnic conflicts in ntb the linguistic kinship between sasak (bs) and samawa (bsw) has different statuses. based on the results of lexicostatistical calculations in parallel, it shows bs~bsw has an identical relationship, while in a series comparison, bs~bsw (58%) has family status. the statuses of these two languages confirm that bs and bsw are identical and are family in one language family. this connection and kinship strengthen the unity in building a harmonious life. every language with family and family status can be ascertained from one parent language because the distribution, location, and time (duration of spread) result in lexical shifts between the three languages. 96 the period of separation of languages from families lasts for 1292 years. if the current year is 2022, then the year of separation of these two languages is 730 ad. in the old lexicometer, the separation of the two languages was not too long and had the status of a language family. the essence of the relationship between bs and bsw becomes an effective formula for preventing horizontal conflicts and strengthening inter-ethnic communication. the relationship between bs and bsw as a solution for resolving identity conflicts is a persuasive step. without being realised by the speaking community, they have a kinship with the status of one language family or language family from linguistic genetics. this step is fundamental because people as language speakers can directly feel their identity in the language of other ethnicities. this is similar to what happened in ntb, which showed that several cases of ethnic origins often occurred. the results of this investigation become potential suggestions for policymakers in resolving any differences in the conflict in ntb in particular and in indonesia in general. the relevance of kinship with the harmony of community life in an area can be in the form of (1) language kinship can encourage the formation of a sense of solidity between ethnic speakers, (2) language kinship can encourage the formation of a sense of social ties between linguistic ethnicities, and (3) language kinship can strengthen social fabrics. the society between the two or three languages is in the status of language families and families, so that protolingually, these three languages come from one language ancestor. the modelling constructions that can be arranged based on language kinship as a media for conflict resolution are as follows. figure 5.1 interethnic conflict resolution formulation “solution scheme” figure 5.1 about the solution scheme contains the formulation of the resolution and prevention of interethnic conflicts in ntb, especially the sasak and samawa ethnic groups. the components needed in conflict resolution include language, interaction, and community. this concept is an adaptation of the language kinship approach (mahsun, 2019)and dimensions of conflict resolution (giddens, 2010). the schema implication requires the speaker's communication's significance, dominance, and legitimacy. the sasak and samawa ethnicities are brought together through oral and written communication using language. every ethnicity uses the language property. in this case, bs and bsw are related by 'family' status, so they become a means to bring the two ethnicities closer emotionally through the concept of conflict resolution dimensions: language significance, linguistic similarity domination, and language legitimacy. reconciliation of bs and bsw occurs through language between the two ethnic groups based on the dimensions of conflict resolution. kinship relations with family status are a reference or basis for strengthening the emotional relationship between the two languages. as one proto-austronesian language, both languages have the potential for genetic similarity of speakers and media for conflict resolution. (mahsun, 2010) through his preliminary study that there is a link between the genetics of speakers and language groups spread across the archipelago. that is, languages with family status surely have the same origin as the main speakers, but because of migration/emigration, circulation from one language can vary with the separation of the two languages, the region's topography, and the acculturation of speakers from various protolanguages. as is known, indonesia has three different protolanguages based on brandes' mapping 97 (burhanuddin et al., 2021); this mapping divides indonesia into three protolanguages, namely austronesian, non-austronesian, and melanesian. bs and bsw are included in the proto austronesian, which means one proto with the regional languages of western indonesia. it should be noted that the protoaustronesian had a range of language and communication both verbally and verbally with the same family or family. the main characteristics in the linguistic kinship phenomenon show the occurrence of points of change through vowels, /a/, /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/ with parallel change directions such as /e/ > /ɛ/ and /ǝ/ , so that certain vocabularies such as the word 'telur': /teloq/ > /telɛ/ have contradictory meanings that are not balanced and tend to cause social conflict between the two ethnicities when communicating. it should be noted that language has two main functions, namely transferring information and managing social relations, including speaker harmony (spencer-oatey, 2000). the two main functions of this language cannot be separated from one another. language is a representation of one's ideas about something. language is intended to strengthen social, emotional, and harmonious ties between speakers, whether they are of the same ethnicity or different ethnicity. the kinship of language in its function as conflict resolution between the two ethnicities can be patterned through sound correspondence and lexicostatistics. language in the context of correspondence refers to the kinship of language sounds with the resulting meanings, thereby creating emotional and social relationships between languages and speakers of both ethnicities. then, language kinship as a medium of communication and managing social relations refers to the function of language, which is not only a means of communication but can form harmony in the social life of the sasak and samawa ethnic groups. (giddens, 2010) stated that inter-ethnic conflicts can be resolved through local energy in the form of wisdom. wisdom is represented through communication correspondence, namely the second language of ethnicity. language as a social organiser is very effective in overcoming and preventing the emergence of regional conflicts. however, it should be noted that the character of regional conflicts always has a latent cause that can bring up new conflicts again. preventive efforts in resolving regional conflicts can be accomplished through three adaptive solutions. the following efforts are part of the adaptive solution. a) bilingual communication between the two ethnic groups by paying attention to vocabularies that have contradictory meanings such as /teloq/ > /tele/, /kepeng/ > /pipis/, etc. b) pay attention to the concept of sound correspondence, which has the same and similar relations, as a way or strategy of communicating more effectively and intimately. c) the sound correspondence must be carried out through lexicostatistical evidence to investigate the periodisation of the separation length between the two regional languages. d) language kinship must still pay attention to the potential for retention and innovation. retention is a form of cognition that must be maintained in a language with proto similarities. then, innovation is an adaptive change to language due to the topographical or geographic conditions. the retention and innovation of bs and bsw have the status of family languages, meaning that although there is a change and maintenance of the cognatic form. it does not affect the kinship of the two languages so that the adjustment of communication between the two speakers becomes simpler because there are more syllables and related phonemes. efforts to resolve conflicts require a strategy. (giddens, 2010) has offered postulates of conflict resolution methods through the dimensions of conflict resolution, including significance, legitimacy, and domination. if we look more closely, based on the kinship of the bs and bsw languages, giddens's view is derivative of the actualisation of conflict resolution in the language (devito, 2011). devito (2011) emphasised some strategies, for example, win-win strategies, avoidance active fighting strategies, force and talk strategies, face detracting, and verbal aggressiveness. win-win strategies mean prioritising similarities or similarities in the lexicon or word syllables between bs and bsw in interaction. on the other hand, the aspect of difference is not a priority to be raised in communication. for example, vocabulary that has similarities or similarities is prioritized over vocabulary that actually creates division, such as: the lexicon /inaq/ 'ibu', /bineq/ 'benih', /sesato/ 'hewan', etc. avoidance active fighting strategies means that the interaction is not carried out with frontal communication between ethnic groups who do not understand each other's lingual features. this is because bs and bsw are related to family language status, but different lexicons still exist. for this reason, the conflict reconciliation process by avoiding frontal communication is an effective strategy for each ethnic group in building national harmony in ntb. for example, the lexicon that needs to be avoided in frontal communication, namely: /teloq/>/tele/ 'telur', /lepang/ > /lɛpang/ 'katak', etc. force and talk strategies means social interaction that avoids domination/compulsion and prioritises contextual insightful conversation/communication strategies. strategies that prioritise the environment and topographical conditions of the region can also determine the direction of communication between the two ethnic groups. for example, the character and 98 language properties of speakers of urban areas and traditional areas in both sasak and samawa ethnic groups are clearly different. the communication process must identify language identity and then communicate contextually while maintaining language kinship. face detracting, this means that the process of social interaction between speakers in one activity must prioritise an indirect attitude or an attitude of speaking by positioning oneself as a party who blends in with the community and does not tend to be personal. conversations certainly reduce sympathy and harmonious camaraderie between speakers by prioritising personal interests over common interests. for this reason, facial reduction in communication is an effective strategy to prevent individual impressions and personal ego from conveying ideas or ideas to the interlocutor. for example, using the lexicon /ite/ 'kita' and avoiding the use of the lexicon /aku/ 'aku' or /ante/ 'kamu', etc. verbal aggressiveness means interaction by reducing the aggressiveness of speaking in one communication activity. moreover, if communication is in the language of other ethnicities, namely between bs and bsw, this attitude must be avoided. talks tend to be dominant and do not prioritise the balance of the role of communication. this atmosphere can lead to a less harmonious situation. bs and bsw, as two languages with 'family' status, certainly have many similarities and similarities in features and properties. for example, using linguistic features that tend to accommodate the identities of both languages by using the same and similar language. discussion of methods and strategies for resolving conflicts between the sasak and samawa ethnic groups in ntb is a shared hope. the kinship of language and lexicon devices that have similarities and similarities become a reference in the reconciliation of social conflicts. an interaction participant can manage the entire lexicon used by paying attention to the resolution method. on the other hand, implementing the method without a strategy indeed results in no follow-up to the conflict resolution process. 6. acknowledgement this research was supported/partially supported by research center. i thank my colleague from the muhammadiyah university of mataram, who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research. however, they may not agree with all of the interpretations/conclusions of this paper. 7. conclusion based on the research results and discussion, it can be concluded that the sasak and sawama ethnic groups use languages belonging to the austronesian family. both ethnicities have a linguistic kinship with 'family' status. the results of lexicostatistical calculations show that the kinship between the two languages reaches 58% with 120 similar and similar vocabularies and 87 different/different vocabularies. the separation length between bs and bsw reached 1292 years or began to separate in 730 ad. it proves that the two languages separated at ten centuries. reconstruction of kinship between the two languages is dominated by pronoun, noun, adjective, and verb word classes. pronouns bs and bsw obtained layers of politeness so that for each word, there is a variation of pronunciation, such as gloss 'i' /aku/, /tiang/, and /titiang/. then some words have contradictory meanings, such as gloss 'telur' /teloq/~/tele/ and gloss 'uang' /kepeng/~/pipis/. this finding then becomes the basis for the concept of conflict resolution, which is based on three dimensions of the resolution, namely signification by prioritising related speech, dominance with linguistic features of the two ethnicities, and legitimacy of two language speakers. the formulation resulting from the research data analysis is a language reconstruction concept in an 'inter-ethnic conflict solution scheme', which includes the significance, dominance, and legitimacy of language by speakers of different ethnicities. these findings and concepts become a reference in resolving and preventing conflicts that have occurred and will occur. 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(pp. 201– 230). third word studies center palma hall basement, university of philipines. attachment (legend): # : marker words #: initial change of words -# : final words change /.../ : phoneme [...] : allophone, grapheme > : to be/ transformed into... ~ : relations v : vowel c : consonant #v: changes to the beginning of a vowel -v# : changes to ending vowels #v – v# : changes that occur between vowels #c – c# : changes that occur between consonats journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9870 vol. 4, no. 2, august 2022, pp.219-231 a closer look on linguistic politeness among bugis youth: tabék in situational and philosophical context gusnawaty gusnawaty1*, lukman lukman 1 and andi nurwati 2 1 universitas hasanuddin, makassar, indonesia 2 iain sultan amai, gorontalo, indonesia gusnawaty@unhas.ac.id article history received : 2022-04-12 revised : 2022-08-05 accepted : 2022-08-17 keywords linguistic politeness philosophical context situational context bugis youths tabék abstract with a more globalized society, the use of politeness language, especially among youths, has been considered in jeopardy. however, the understanding of whether or not the youths are still acknowledging and exercising politeness in their language use is still tiny. this matter is due to a lack of study investigating the politeness language among youths. this study aims to find the politeness formula and speech patterns for three different situational contexts: asking for help, asking for information, and rebuking in the bugis language. this study uses a mixed quantitative-qualitative method and random sampling to gather 20 youths aged 11 to 21 as participants. the instrument used for the experiment is the discourse completion test to collect the utterances. data utterances were coded and then analyzed using a concordance and clustern-gram features in the antconc 3.5.8 application to find the sentence pattern variations with the bugis word tabék. interpretation of the data uses the theories of brown & levinson (1987), leech (2014), watts (2003), and darwis (1995). the analysis revealed (1) the tabék politeness formula as a polite sign at the beginning of their speech in all situational contexts and to clarify their intentions. (2) there are several sentence patterns used by the bugis youths for each situational context; six patterns in asking for help, five patterns in asking for information, and eight patterns in rebuking. this finding shows that bugis youths still understand the philosophy of politeness in their socio-cultural interactions, namely sipakatau (mutual humanizing), sipakaraja (mutual respect), and sipakalebbi (mutual glorification) through various politeness strategies. 1. introduction politeness is essential in social interaction to achieve the speech objectives and maintain harmony between the speech interlocutors. in order to accomplish these purposes, speakers should utilize politeness strategies (brown & levinson, 1987; leech, 1983; watts, 2003). furthermore, lakoff (2004) argues that politeness strategies can minimalize friction in the interaction. one of the strategies is to use linguistic units of a regional language, referred to as the politeness formula (schlund, 2014). schlund (2014) defines the politeness formula as repetitive linguistic units which are stereotypically motivated by their function. for example, the english word 'please' can be considered a politeness formula that functions depending on the social situation. schlund (2008) also finds that the function becomes a strong motivation for the formal arrangement of slavic and german politeness formulas. using a different perspective, aijmer (2015) examines the impolite function of the english word ‘please’ to build or emphasize a harmonious relationship between the interlocutors (rapport-strengthening impoliteness). the use of ‘please’ is regarded as a mock impoliteness and should be understood positively because youths consider this word funny and entertaining (aijmer, 2015). in the bugis community of south sulawesi, indonesia, the bugis word tabék is used as one of the formulas for the politeness strategy. existing literature about tabék only addresses the physical aspect accompanying the word (husnawati, 2018; jamaluddin, 2016). husnawati (2018) and jamaluddin (2016) also add that there has been a shift in the use of the word tabék in social interaction, especially among youths. the present article evaluates the linguistic aspect associated with the bugis word tabék as a verbal politeness strategy to achieve specific goals. two central problems will be addressed: (1) how the bugis youths use the word tabék in their politeness strategies in three different situational contexts, namely asking https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.9870 220 for help, asking for information, and rebuking, and (2) how the sentence patterns containing the word tabék are in those three different contexts. these problems are based on the argument that differences influence politeness strategies in speech and cultural situations. leech (1983) argues that several points affect the strategies: the interlocutors, the context of the utterance, the purpose of the utterance, and speech as the form of action and as a product of verbal acts. furthermore, to address the research problems, the present articles use approaches from the sociopragmatic perspective (leech, 2014) and the politeness theory by brown & levinson (1987). 2. literature review 2.1 politeness there have been abundant numbers of research that have been conducted on the topic of politeness. two could be two main perspectives to view politeness, (1) social appropriateness (escandell-vidal, 1996) and (2) functional or strategic politeness (leech, 1983; brown & levinson, 1987). social appropriateness is a perspective of politeness based on social adequacy. furthermore, social adequacy takes the cognitive approach into account, together with two indicators, namely the perspective of a particular context and the expectation of a particular recipient (meier, 1995; escandell-vidal, 1996). according to this approach, language investigation needs to consider the context and the society speaking the particular language. escandell-vidal (1996) states that different cultures lead to different categories of factors that contribute to politeness. therefore, even though abstract notions of factors are universal, there will be some specific contents depending on the peculiarities of particular cultures. escandell-vidal (1996) also adds that different cultures can manifest radical differences in their politeness system. in other words, what is considered adequate or polite in one culture can be seen as inappropriate or rude by another person coming from a different culture. leech (1983) and brown & levinson (1987) analyze politeness as a strategic tool interlocutors use to achieve specific goals. moreover, functional or strategic politeness is a language behavior carried out to save the face of the interlocutors (brown & levinson, 1987), where saving face results from a desire to achieve social approval (kang, 2011). according to this perspective, politeness is a form of behavior that has been developed in society with the purpose of reducing friction in personal social interaction (lakoff, 2004). meanwhile, fraser & nolan (1981) describe politeness as a result of conversational contracts made by participants to maintain sociocommunicative verbal interactions that are conflictfree. thus, politeness can be explained as a socioculturally determined behavior that is directed at establishing and maintaining the state of balance of the personal relationships between individuals of a social group in their ongoing interaction process, whether the relationships are open or closed (watts, 2003, p. 52) politeness is considered by leech (1983) to lie in the domain of interpersonal rhetoric, meaning that politeness can be described as the skill of a speaker with the purpose of persuasion when using language. leech (1983) formulates the politeness principle aiming to minimize the expression of impolite beliefs and also promotes six interpersonal maxims. each of these maxims is associated with a pragmatic score and independent scale. in addition, leech (1983) explains that politeness in language should pay attention to these maxims. the maxims are (1) the maxim of wisdom or the tact maxim (in the illocutionary and commissive illocutionary), which prioritizes the benefits of others in a conversation, and (2) the generosity maxim (in impositive and commissive illocutions) which prioritize the cost to self rather than the self-benefit of a conversation, (3) the maxim of acceptance or approbation (in expressive and assertive illocutionary) mainly prioritizing the praise or approval of other parties, (4) the modesty maxim (in expressive and assertive illocutions) which maximize dispraise of self, (5) the maxim of suitability or the agreement maxim (in assertive illocution) putting forward the agreement between self and other, and finally (6) the maxim of opportunity or the sympathy maxim (in assertive illocution) which maximizes the sympathy between the self and other. these six maxims suggest that politeness is universal; however, individual linguistic structures and cultural varieties create different expressions and forms. thus, politeness behavior can be realized differently according to the appropriateness of expressions in certain situations, societies, and cultures. brown & levinson (1987, p. 74) suggest three indicators that can influence the politeness level and the indicators are solidarity, distance, and power. for the present article, we will focus on the power indicator. power is the ability of a person to impose his or her will on others. one factor which can affect power is the age difference. conversations between people of different ages often result in different levels of politeness as mizutani & mizutani (1987) claim that age differences will have an effect on the formality of the speaker, hence the level of politeness. in japan, it is a rule that older people speak in a friendly manner to younger people, whereas younger people are expected to speak politely to older people. as people of the same age, they usually use a familiar style of speech in a conversation. in addition to the age difference, other aspects that might influence the use of politeness strategies are social status, intimacy, and gender. these aspects may also affect the choice of direct and indirect language (blum-kulka, 1987). regarding status, derived from the latin term' standing,' turner (1998) describes it as one’s position in society, conferring on one’s rights and obligations as a citizen in the political community. 221 according to bonvillain (1993), differences in status may be based on the combination of income, employment, and education. this combination results in differences in access to social, economic, and/or political power and reflects inequalities between people with different statuses. therefore, the choice of polite language may indicate the status of one person. mizutani & mizutani (1987) adds that speaking to people with higher status requires one to use a more polite speech, and on the contrary, higher-status people tend to use a common and casual speech to people with lower status. watts (2003) also notes that politeness may be seen as a sign of upbringing and social status, but it does not necessarily connect to the respect that one has for other individuals. 2.2 bugis: speech community and politeness the bugis community of south sulawesi, indonesia, recognizes three different ways of speaking in social interaction, based on the context of the speech and the status difference between the speaker and the listener (mahmud, 2013). the three ways of speaking are speaking cuku ‘down’, speaking sanraa 'equally,' and speaking conga ‘up’ (darwis, 1995). both speaking cuku and conga exhibit the difference of power between the interlocutors. in the case of speaking cuku, the speaker has more power than the listener, conversely, the speaker has less power than the listener when speaking conga. as for speaking sanraa, both the speaker and the listener are equal. brown & gilma (1968) describe these differences as power and solidarity or social distance between the speaker and the hearer. in addition, wardhaugh (2006) suggests that social distance, ability, and conversation topics may determine the spoken language choice in the interaction within a speech community. from the perspective of politeness theory, social distance is one of the critical sociological factors in determining the speaker’s level of politeness towards the listener (brown & levinson, 1987). moreover, the social distance between the interlocutors also determines the level of civility in interaction, where close social distance tends to create disrespect towards each other (mahmud, 2013, p. 59). respect for others is described within the concept of siri na pesse in bugis culture (abdullah, 1985). siri lit. 'shame' is the root of the bugis philosophy about humanizing each other. the feeling of shame may refer to when bugis people are insulted, unaccepted, or unequal. by acknowledging the feeling of shame, bugis people may struggle with pesse, shortened from pesse bebua lit. ‘pain in the stomach’. pesse is about feeling the pain towards others, showing the deep compassion to neighbors, relatives, or fellow members in the society. pesse also signifies the solidarity, not only to someone who has been humiliated, but also to anyone in the community who is suffering from certain illness or misfortune and in need of help (abdullah, 1985). pesse is also an identity of bugis people especially those who live in contact with other people from different ethnic groups. pesse is based on the concept of sempugi which can be described as ‘sharing the same feeling’ or ‘showing compassion towards others’ (yatim, 1983). there is a common bugis saying, ‘if a bugis friend does not feel siri from me, at least that bugis friend will get the pesse’. therefore, solidarity and togetherness among the group members is a vital force, especially among people experiencing the same difficulties in war or among bugis people living as non-natives in another city or place. in these situations, bugis people are expected to help whenever needed. this expectation among bugis people leads to awareness that they belong to the same community and also implies that bugis people can never forget of fear of losing their honor. living as a bugis means being solid and cooperative towards each other, which has been practiced since ancient times. bugis people are familiar with communal works, such as doing together all the process of planting the rice, from planting the seed at the rice field, harvesting then selling the harvest, to organizing the harvesting festival as a token of gratitude for the harvest. for bugis people, assédingeng ‘unity’ is an integral part of solidarity and togetherness (mahmud, 2013; sidin, rivai, & bulu, 2020). the bugis women also take part in the communal work by supporting their husbands' business from home, bringing food to the rice field, and selling the harvest in the market (pelras, 1996, p. 162). the support of the wife to the husband is called sibali pari in the bugis language, meaning ‘sharing joys and sorrows.’ power and solidarity designate the politeness level of the bugis people. gusnawaty (gusnawaty, 2011, p. 180) finds that bugis kinship terms are used for three different situations. first, titles describing either the noble strata or occupation are used in situations where the speaker and the hearer have a far distant social status. this is the highest form of greeting among bugis people. there are two most common noble titles used to indicate social distance, namely petta ‘mister/madam’ and puang ‘sir/madam’. the speech pattern for this situation is begun with a third person pronoun, followed by a noble title, and then ended with an occupation title. the pattern can be seen in the following the sentence, wettunani alena mabbicara petta camat 'it is his/her time to speak, he/she mister/madam head of the district’. second, the relatively distant social status between the speaker and the hearer is indicated by the use of noble title of puang. the speech pattern for this situation is a sentence followed by the noble title. for example, leppaki maé puang ‘you (honorific) should stop by, sir/madam.’ this sentence is typically used by a neighbor to ask someone with a noble status to stop by for a visit. finally, the least distant social status can be manifested through the use of honorific enclitic for third person -ki. the use of third person’s context shows politeness and respect for the hearer. to 222 maintain the harmony of the relationship in the conversation, bugis people must always utilize any of this pattern, especially in a conversation with people who have higher social status or older, and also with people who are familiar or even stranger. by using the kinship term or honorific enclitic, the hearer would feel respected as a human being. this attitude is reflected in the bugis proverb, ada emmi nariyasekki tau’ words reflect one’s identity. moreover, bugis people are considered to be complex due to their tough character and respect for others (pelras, 1996). in implementing those characteristics, bugis society has three concepts used in bugis politeness strategies during interactions. the concepts are sipakatau ‘mutual humanizing’, sipakaraja 'mutual respect, and sipakalebbi ‘mutual glorification. each of these concepts will be explained in the subsequent paragraph. first, sipakatau refers to a human relationship in which people must respect one another, and everybody should be considered equally without discrimination (sulo, 2018). moreover, gusnawaty & nurwati (2019) point out that sipakatau is the general foundation of all aspects of life in the interaction of bugis people, whether in a formal or informal situation, with younger or older partners, and whether the people are coming from the same or different social status. by applying the concept of sipakatau, it means that bugis people have conformed the context of sitinaja ‘appropriate, reasonable, fulfilling, and not excessive’ in their interaction. next, sipakaraja 'mutual respect' is a social ethic that considers several aspects, such as the participants, the location, the time, and the topic of the interaction. in other words, sipakaraja is the way of speaking which shows the speaker's knowledge about the world. bugis people should understand what and how to say something to anyone, whether in formal or informal situations. a bugis who implements sipakaraja is considered tau-makkeade ‘a person who keeps his/her ethical manner.’ finally, sipakalebbi 'mutual glorification' is the highest conduct of the interaction in bugis society, whether the actions are verbal or non-verbal (gusnawaty & nurwati, 2019). this concept is realized by expressing compliments on other people's courtesy and by forgetting other people’s flaws in order to strengthen relationships between each other (rahim, 2019, p. 34; sulo, 2018). the implementation of this concept usually uses the highest respect, as indicated by the use of politeness language. for this, interlocutors will usually utilize address terms, politeness formula, indirect speech, honorific markers, and other politeness features. bugis language has features of a politeness formula that can be used as a politeness strategy. the term politeness formula is not satisfactory considering it might express something that may not be polite at all, but it can also be neutral or rude. the term politeness formula denotes politeness as a fundamental dimension of analysis rather than a ritualized interpersonal exchange (ferguson, 1976). as previously mentioned, politeness formulas are repetitive linguistic elements that are stereotypically associated with politeness and are motivated by their functions (schlund, 2014). therefore, politeness formulas should not be limited by the understanding that the actual politeness formulas occurred in natural speech, but the politeness formulas also reflect the speaker’s polite intention and the hearer’s interpretation. there are five words serving as politeness formulas in bugis language, they are tabek, iye, tulunga, tarimakasi, and tadampengekka. the last formula has several variations, such as taddampengengenga, dampengeng, addampengen, and ddampengka. these politeness formulas can be used in various modes of conversation, such as declarative, imperative, and interrogative modes. moreover, the formulas can also be used in various types of sentences, for example, praising and giving advice, ordering, admonishing, asking for help, and asking for information. based on the characteristics of the linguistic forms and contexts, gusnawaty (2011) finds that bugis people have three categories of politeness in their interaction: the rude category, the slightly rude category, and the non-rude category. in the rude category, a bugis person uses familiar personal pronouns or possessive clitics such as -ko and -mo. the speaker who uses the formula of this category also gives an unexpected answer, disregards the social norms such as the power and the social distance of the others, and is usually in the public domain. the second, the slightly rude category, has the characteristic of using a familiar pronoun and possessive clitics such as -ko and -mo, in accordance with the social norms. finally, the non-rude category has the characteristic of personal client -ki, possessive clitic -ta, sentences with passive form, and the person markers are removed. 2.3 tabék as mentioned above, tabék is one of bugis's politeness formulas. the term is a loanword from the sanskrit language, ksantavya or ksantawya, which means 'greeting', 'goodbye', and 'sorry'. malay people cannot pronounce the sound /v/. therefore the sound becomes /b/ when adopted. thus, the original word changed into ksantabya, eventually becoming santabe and even tabék or tabik. in a certain sense, tabik also means respectful greetings (gonda, 1973). as a politeness formula, the word tabék has several functions and meanings based on the form of the sentence and the contexts where the word is being used. for example, tabék may mean asking for permission, asking for help, or even asking to forgive. even though bugis people have a term for asking for forgiveness, that is méllau dampeng, mappatabé is also used for this context. mappatabé can be expressed in verbal and non-verbal ways (mahmud, 2011). in social interaction, the word tabék is considered a polite word, and the people who use the word are perceived to be 223 polite and would be appreciated by others (jamaluddin, 2016). moreover, tabék is understood by bugis people as a cultural value that has become a part of their characters and is also recommended to be taught since tabék denotes good manners through speech and gestures (rahim, 1985). therefore, tabék in bugis society plays a strategic and significant role in building and developing a polite and respectful manner. and at the same time, tabék also functions as a politeness strategy within the bugis speech community. 2.4 request in the context of culture and politeness in a cultural context, the speech act of request may reveal the language of politeness. a request is determined as a demand made by the speaker for the hearer to do or not to do something or a wish expressing the need or desire for something (rue & zhang, 2008). the speech act of request is related to politeness in a way that this particular speech act is a face threatening act (brown & levinson, 1987) because a request tends to impose something on the hearer. this aligns with the argument made by levelt (1989, p. 60) that the purpose of a request is to make the hearer do something. in most cases, the speaker's intention in making a request is to ask the hearer to perform a particular action that is beneficial for the hearer and at the expense of the hearer. some examples of requests are asking for help, certain information, and even asking the hearer not to do something (or rebuking). bugis people consider a request or demanding other people for something as a burden, not only for the speaker but also for the hearer. therefore, maintaining self-image and the image of others requires specific strategies. according to leech (2014), the language used for a request should take into consideration the choice of language features, which is appropriate for the context and the speech situation. for this, a politeness strategy should be utilized (brown & levinson, 1987). 3. method the present article uses a mixed method of quantitative and descriptive qualitative research. the research data are utterances in bugis language, which were collected through an experiment with discourse completion tests or dct. the dct contained three different situations that participants were asked to complete. the situations are as follows. a) asking for help you are doing something important, and you cannot just leave it. there is thunder outside and it is about to rain. you suddenly remember that you dried your clothes or shoes in the yard. what will you say to someone who happens to be around you to ask for help? b) asking for information you are on the side of the street and confused because you have not found your old friend's house that you are looking for. luckily, there is someone you can ask for direction. what will you say to the person? c) rebuking you are attending a seminar in one meeting room. you are being attentive to the presentation given by a speaker. however, at the same time, people who are sitting beside you are having some discussions, and they distract you. what will you say to rebuke them? the participants were selected using the purposive sampling technique based on their age and gender. there were 20 participants with ages ranging from 11 to 21 years old. the gender distribution of the participants is in balance; there were ten male and ten female participants. all participants were coming from either barru or pinrang regencies. these two locations were chosen since bugis is the native language for people in these areas and is still commonly used in social interactions. moreover, both regencies act as land and maritime hubs for people coming to and leaving sulawesi. these geographical conditions create opportunities and provide tendencies for people to experience language changes in their social interactions. the data were analyzed using coding stages developed by miles, huberman & saldana (2014). first, the coding is based on three politeness indicators: power, distance, and rank. each of these indicators has two or three divisions. for example, the power indicator is divided into older, coeval, and younger, the distance indicator is classified into the close or far social distance. in contrast, the rank is about the physical environment of the situation and is divided into private and public rank. the next stage of coding was based on the situational contexts of the speech, namely asking for help, asking for information or address, and rebuking. in the final stage, the data was processed into the application of antconc g.5.8 (anthony, 2005). before being processed in the application, the data files were converted into txt format. concordance and cluster/ngram features were used to answer the research problems. concordance was utilized to find exactly three-row position sequences of tabék keywords in context (kwic), whereas cluster/n-gram obtained the politeness formula patterns of tabék for each situational context. the application outputs are summarized in the subsequent tables to make the result analysis more practical, informative, and convenient. the data was validated through discussions between research members and native speakers of bugis, who acted as the expert judges. 224 the results were interpreted with a qualitative analysis using the socio-pragmatic perspective (leech, 2014) and the politeness theory by brown & levinson (1987). the socio-pragmatic perspective pays attention to the pragmatic goals of the speaker, and politeness theory emphasizes the social context in which the interaction occurs. four-scale indicators were used to determine the level of politeness of utterances made by the participants, ranging from very polite, polite, and somewhat polite to impolite. in addition, five words functioning as bugis politeness formula mentioned in the previous sections were used as references. polite sentences use patterns that have politeness features, namely politeness formulas, polite requests, politeness markers (watts, 2003), address terms (brown & levinson, 1987), and direct or indirect speech (leech, 2014), and bugis honorific markers (darwis, 1995). the results of this stage were then calculated and classified by the politeness formula pattern of tabék used by the bugis participants. 4. results the introductory section of the article mentions two research problems that need to be explored. the first is how bugis youths use the word tabék as a politeness strategy in three different contexts, and the second is about the sentence patterns of the politeness strategy, which contain the bugis word tabék. after the analysis of the data, the results exhibit that the participants use several variations of politeness formula patterns with the word tabék. there are six different patterns in the case of asking for help, five sentence patterns in asking for information, and eight patterns for rebuking others in the interaction. the following subsections will describe each of the results of these situational contexts. 4.1 the sentence pattern variations of tabék in asking for help the findings below show that the participants use six different variations of sentence patterns with the bugis word tabék as a politeness strategy in asking for help from the hearer. the findings are depicted in table 4.1. table 4.1. the sentence pattern variations of tabék in the bugis politeness strategy used by participants in asking for help in a private context situation no order of the politeness formula in the context of asking for help % remarks hearer 1st 2nd 3th 4th 5th 6th 1 tabék address term tatulungka ‘you (hon.) help me’ jolo direct request 45 very polite older and distant 2 tabék address terms indirect request 10 polite coeval and distant 3 tabék millau tolongnga 'i would like to ask for help direct request 30 polite coeval and distant 4 tabék address term direct request 5 polite coeval and close 5 tabék direct request jolo 5 polite younger and distant 6 tabék indirect request 5 somewhat polite younger and close total 100 225 the table above illustrates that the participants use six different sentence patterns with the word tabék as the bugis politeness strategy in asking for help. these speech variations are based on certain physical (rank) and social (age and distance) indicators. the rank indicator is private in which the interaction occurs. as for the social environment, the age indicators of the hearer in the situational contexts are divided into older, similar or coeval, and younger, whereas the distance indicators are close and far distant social status. as seen in the table, the first pattern is the very polite category, and the majority of the participants (45%) use this pattern to ask for help from an older and socially distant speech partner. there are four politeness features used for this category. the sentence starts with the word tabék, followed by an address term and then a request for help, after that the word jolo signifying delay, and finally the request itself. the sentence patterns for the second, third, fourth, and fifth use only two politeness features; thus, the patterns can be considered polite patterns. the use of address terms as in the second and the fourth sentence patterns with direct or indirect request depend on the age and social distance indicators between the speaker and the hearer. finally, the politeness formula with the combination of the word tabék and an indirect request is used by 5% of the participants for a younger and socially closer distant hearer. 4.2 the sentence pattern variations of tabék in asking for information the participants use the word tabék to their hearer in the situational context of asking for information, which in this case, information is about the address of the old friend. the analysis results show five variations of the tabék, and the results are described in table 4.2 table 4.2 the sentence pattern variations of tabék in the bugis politeness strategy used by participants in asking information in a private context situation no order of the politeness formula in the context of asking for information % remarks hearer 1st 2nd 3th 4th 5th 1 tabék address term meloka makkutana ‘i would like to ask’ direct question 33,33 polite older and distant 2 tabék address terms direct question 7,41 polite older, close, and distant 3 tabék meloka makkutana 29,63 polite coeval/close and distant 4 tabék di direct question 12,96 polite younger/close and distant 5 tabék direct question 16,67 somewhat polite younger/close and distant total hits 54 100 226 in table 4.2. can be seen that participants use two levels of politeness in asking for information from their hearers, namely the polite and somewhat polite levels. the majority of the participants (83.33%) use polite sentence patterns to ask for information, whereas the rest of the participants (16.67%) use somewhat polite sentence patterns. this finding is different from the findings in the situational context of asking for help as in the previous subsection. the most common formula for the politeness strategy is used by 33.33% of the participants for a speech partner who is older and socially distant from the hearer. this formula is considered to be a polite formula. as for the somewhat polite remark, 16.67% of participants use this formula, consisting of the word tabék and followed by a direct question. compared to similar remarks in the previous situational context, the percentage of somewhat polite for asking for information is relatively high. 4.3 the sentence pattern variations of tabék in rebuking table 4.3 illustrates the eight variations of sentence patterns used by participants as a politeness strategy in rebuking the speech partner. table 4.3 the sentence pattern variations of tabék in the bugis politeness strategy used by participants in rebuking in a public context situation no order of the politeness formula in the context of rebuking % remarks hearer 1st 2nd 3 th 4th 5th 6 th 1 tabék address term direct prohibition phrase cedde ‘a little’ 13,46 polite older and close 2 tabék address term mellau addampengka 'i would like to ask for forgiveness direct prohibition phrase 2,85 polite older and distant 3 tabék address term direct prohibition phrase 11,54 polite coeval and distant 4 tabék direct prohibition phrase jolo 11,54 polite coeval and close 5 tabék direct prohibition phrase ladde ‘a lot’ 5,77 polite coeval and close 6 tabék di indirect prohibition phrase 7,7 polite younger and distant 7 tabék indirect prohibition phrase 26,92 somewhat polite younger and distant 8 tabék direct prohibition phrase 4,85 somewhat polite younger and close total hits 20 100 227 as shown in the table above, there are eight variations of sentence patterns with the word tabék in rebuking. the majority of the participants (26.92%) used the seventh sentence pattern with the politeness formula consisting tabék and followed by an indirect prohibition phrase. this formula is used for a younger and socially far speech partner. this pattern is considered in the level of somewhat polite. the second formula is the least used politeness formula. the sentence pattern begins with the word tabék, followed by an address term, then mellau addampengka, and ends with a direct prohibition phrase. this formula is categorized in the polite level, with only 2.85% of participants using it. the results for the situational context of asking for information and rebuking have a similarity in which there is no politeness formula that is in the level of very polite. furthermore, age and social indicators might have an influence on the variations of the sentence patterns with the word tabék. 5. discussion this study aims at identifying the use of tabék as a bugis politeness strategy to achieve the purposes of asking for help, asking for information, and rebuking in social interactions. the results from the previous section exhibit that the participants use several variations of sentence patterns with the word tabék for different situational contexts. the use of the word tabék is done as a politeness strategy to the hearer in social interaction. participants use six variations of sentence patterns with the word tabék for the context of asking for help, five variations for the context of asking for address information, and eight variations in the context of rebuking. moreover, the results also show that the participants use three different levels of politeness to their hearer in the context of asking for help, namely the level of very polite, polite, and somewhat polite. as for the contexts of asking for address information and rebuking, only sentence patterns with the levels of polite and somewhat polite are obtained. for the level of being very polite, the sentences made by the participants were directed to speech partners who were older and unfamiliar. as table 4.1.1 indicates, 45% of the participants use these patterns. one of the examples of utterances made by one respondent is tabék daéng, tatulungka jolo taalai sessae ‘sorry brother/sister, please help me, could you take my clothes.’ in this sentence structure, the particular respondent uses four features of bugis politeness, namely the politeness formula of tabék, the address terms of daéng, the politeness phrase of tatulungka, a bugis mitigating word jolo, then ended with the request itself. this point shows that the respondent understands the basic principles of politeness by considering the speech situation (leech, 1983, 2014) and the indicators of age dan rank (blum-kulka, 1987; brown & levinson, 1987; mizutani & mizutani, 1987) when choosing the level of politeness. the finding that many participants still use a very polite sentence pattern is in line with the understanding among bugis people, especially when asking for help. as mentioned before, this situational context demands other people to do something, which can be considered a burden or face threatening acts (brown & levinson, 1987) for both the speaker and the hearer. moreover, this speech situation (leech, 2014) has the burden of maintaining self-image and the image of others (gusnawaty, 2009; mattulada, 1997). therefore, youths are expected to use the highest level of politeness since the purpose of a request is to make the speech partner do what the speaker wants (levelt, 1989). based on these findings, it can be argued that the participants still understand the principle of politeness as a way to achieve goals and as a part of the character of the bugis community. all the sentence patterns in the tables in the previous section show that the word tabék is always used before the phrase or sentence of requesting, questioning, and prohibiting. this choice of word order signifies the assertive character of bugis people and their respect towards each other when having an interaction (pelras, 1996). some sentence patterns in the context of asking for help have a direct and indirect request in them. the direct sentence is referred to by brown & levinson (1987) as bald-on-record, where the strategy behind the use of this type of sentence is to minimize pleasantries and avoid obscurity. according to rimbang & kapoh (2020) and riyanto (2017), the use of direct sentences is because of the influence of social media use as an interaction platform. as in the case of bugis language, direct sentences have three categories based on the linguistic form and context characteristics. the categories are the rude category, the slightly rude category, and the nonrude category. the first category is the rude category which uses familiar personal and possessive clitics such as -ko or -mo. for this category, the speaker gives an unexpected answer to social norms. it can also signify that the speaker has no power, far social distance, and is in the public domain. the second, the slightly rude category, uses familiar personal or possessive clitics, such as -ko and -mo as well to follow the social norms. and finally, the non-rude category has the characteristic of personal clitic -ki, possessive clitic -ta, sentences with the passive form, and the person markers being removed (gusnawaty, 2011). the variations in the use of the word tabék can be addressed from the aspects of macro, meso, and micro. first, the macro aspect in the politeness perspective is the speech situation (leech, 1983, 2014) which includes the politeness indicators and the goal(s) of utterances. the power or age indicators are between the interlocutors whether the speech partner or the hearer is older, coeval, or younger than the speaker. the social distance indicators are either close or far 228 social distance. and for the rank indicators are private or public context situations. as for the goals of utterances, there are three, namely asking for help, asking for address information, and asking to be quiet or rebuking. second, the micro aspect in the politeness perspective is the interlocutors themselves. and finally, the meso aspect is the aspect that bridges between the macro and micro aspects, which in this case is the speech of bugis. it can be argued that the bugis youths are good at using variations of the tabék as a politeness strategy towards their interlocutors. however, this group tends to ignore the use of very polite speech toward the speech partner, especially to people who are older than them. the results of the present experiment show some differences compared to previous studies, especially in the experiments' methodologies, locations, and samples. the research by jamaluddin (2016) used qualitative methods regarding the tradition of mappatabék in social interaction. the research was conducted in the district of pulau sembilan, sinjai regency. the results of this research show that there is a shift in mappatabék tradition because of the influence of information technology. as for the findings of the research by husnawati (2018), mappatabék has a symbolic meaning of respect towards others which can be done with gestures by bending the body, and the right hand is directed downwards. husnawati (2018) also finds several perceptions about the meaning of tabék, such as asking for permission, asking for help, soft language in rebuking others, an initial greeting, and at the same time, apologizing when youths have made a mistake. similar to jamaluddin’s (2016) methodology, the research findings were also obtained through a qualitative descriptive method where the data was in the forms of verbal and non-verbal of a community tradition in kajuara district, bone regency. the research results should drive the policymakers to maintain awareness and understanding of the polite language of the youths. one of the policies that can be undertaken should encourage positive characters through education. the form of this education should overcome the fundamental causes of the shift in youth’s linguistic politeness. language teaching, both regulatory and practical aspects, should be a part of this education. the current regulatory aspect shows that the character or behavior of politeness in the language is not included among the eighteen characters that are prioritized by the government. moreover, in the practical aspect, the existing model and integration of the development of politeness in language, either in informal and/or non-formal educational institutions, are not yet optimal. this argument is supported by rohali (2011), who argues that a character-building education needs to be explored and reinstituted in the learning process. the existing forms of development need to be improved (putra, imron, & benty, 2020) because politeness in a language plays an essential role in building the positive character of the youths, as well as in representing the national identity (zamzani, musfiroh, maslakhah, listyorini, & r., 2011). therefore, a character-building education as a pillar must be integrated into various subjects and adapted according to each subject's characteristics (nurgiyantoro & efendi, 2013). it is feasible to argue that there could be some disadvantages for the youth with a low level of politeness in global interaction. for instance, the youth will face problems or difficulties in building interactions with other people, either with prospective employers or colleagues. research exhibits that a global interaction requires a person to have communication and negotiation skills (wibowo, 2019). this research provides conceptual implications for the need for a new perspective in politeness research. research and development of politeness learning models may draw sources from the local wisdom and regional languages (alam & al-muthmainnah, 2020). one local wisdom regarding the ancient bugis people is that children were taught to use euphemistic speech or strategies referred to as masobe in the bugis language. by practicing masobe, the children would not attack the integrity of the elders or make the elders lose their face (brown & levinson, 1987). children should also be taught about the most basic forms of speech to have a successful conversation, that is, to greet and address the elders appropriately (salifu, 2010). putra, imron, & benty (2020) argue that three factors can be obstacles to developing politeness in language use. the factors are environmental factors, the factor of student diversity, and the factor of not making the right friends. therefore, the education for character building and politeness in a language requires the cooperation of all parties and the existence of a standard development model. 6. conclusion the results show that bugis youths still apply politeness strategies in social interactions and understand the philosophical context by using the word tabék as a politeness formula in various sentence patterns and various situational context. there are six variations of sentence patterns in asking for help, five sentence patterns in asking for address information, and eight variations in sentence patterns for the situational context of rebuking. however, direct sentences are also quite common to be used by the bugis youths regardless of the speech events. other finding also showed that the bugis philosophical concepts of sipakatau, sipakaraja, and sipakalebbi which are regarded as the bugis politeness strategies are connected to leech’s (1983) concept of the speech events as well as sitinaja (bugis) ‘appropriate, reasonable, fulfilling, and not excessive’. the application of these strategies may help to establish solidarity in the social interactions between the members of the bugis community. regardles its 229 limitation to the use of tabék formula as a politeness strategy in three situational contexts or speech situations among bugis youth, this present study contributed to the identification of tabék as a politeness strategis and tabék formula pattern in the context of speech events of the bugis people. 7. acknowledgment we sincerely thank rector and chair lp2m of hasanuddin university and directorate of research and community service, deputy for strengthening and development, ministry of research, technology/national research and innovation agency of the republic of indonesia for 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(2011). pengembangan alat ukur kesantunan bahasa indonesia dalam interaksi sosial bersemuka. jurnal litera, 10(1), 35-50. https://doi.org/10.21831/ltr.v10i1.117 instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.vxxx vol. 4, no. 1, april 2022, pp. 101-115 101 english as a lingua franca in the eyes of indonesian in-service teachers: attitudes and beliefs reni kusumaningputri *, dewianti khazanah, riskia setiarini & hadi sampurna universitas jember, jember, indonesia reni.fib@unej.ac.id article history received : 2022-02-01 revised : 2022-04-13 accepted : 2022-05-18 keywords attitudes beliefs qualitative study english as a lingua franca secondary in-service teachers abstract based on the premise that teachers are at the forefront of global multilingual cultural awareness agencies, the research on their views toward english as a lingua franca (elf) concepts is critical. this study investigated the attitudes and beliefs of 120 in-service secondary teachers toward elf in indonesia. it employed a mixed-method design. research data was collected using a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. thematic coding analysis was used to interpret qualitative data. the results indicated teachers' positive changes in attitudes and beliefs in five elf categories: the presence of multilingual characters and pronunciation model used in the classroom, learning goals, the roles of language and culture, and the language used in the classroom and the assessment. challenges to welcoming the elf perspective in classroom practices identified in the study were government policy, parental support, and individual teachers' reflection on the current position of english in the global discourse, primarily since beliefs on the superiority of native english speakers were found to be strong. this study suggests that teachers’ awareness in designing sensitive instructions and materials to welcome lingua cultural varieties would improve the understanding of transpiring changes in the global sociolinguistic landscape. government intervention is called for to provide cheaper and more accessible materials representing english variations. 1. introduction english is the world’s primary lingua franca for people who do not share a first language (kirkpatrick, 2011). spoken by approximately 817 million speakers in asia (bolton & bacon-shone, 2020), english has a decisive role in anglophone and non-anglophone countries. this position of english requires teachers to be aware of its growth and praxis and critically reflect on today's position of english in their teaching and learning (schon, 1996). sifakis and bayyurt (2018) assert that it is crucial for english teachers to be aware and informed about the changing landscape of english uses and the impacts it has on their teaching and learning objectives as non-native english speakers (nnes) have outnumbered native english speakers (nes). the degree of competence and expertise in english can be essential to better academic and professional opportunities for efl learners (curran & chern, 2017). thus, communicative competence that acknowledges diverse linguistic variations and cultural backgrounds must be considered. in this regard, reflecting on the challenges and opportunities of this diversity for students is a serious call (strobbe et al., 2017). the need for having the competence to communicate with global citizens is increasingly irrefutable because people now speak english with other people from diverse cultural backgrounds. therefore, the experience students obtain while learning english as an additional language must reflect a paradigmatic change from native english speaker code, which highlights students' preparation to communicate with native speakers only into a paradigm that encourages multilingualism where educational policies emphasise the promotion of global ownership of english (galloway & numajiri, 2020). given that asia is now the centre of gravity of english as a global lingua franca, research on the elf perspective is required (mcarthur, 2003; sung, 2018) to show how teachers perceive english. although research on english as a lingua franca (elf) in asia has flourished, the research focuses more on students' and pre-service teachers' perspectives (curran & chern, 2017; ke & cahyani, 2014; sung, 2018; suzuki, 2011; wang & jenkins, 2016). for instance, only a few studies, luo (2016) and young and walsh (2010), deal with how in-service teachers see english as a lingua franca in their classroom context. these 102 studies revealed teachers' reluctance to introduce english varieties in the classroom as they believed that american and british were the standards. for instance, in young and walsh's study (2010), the participants welcomed elf as a concept but not in classroom practice as they chose the standard over englishes. in luo's study (2016), the taiwanese teachers mentioned that the reluctance was due to the implementation of the elf paradigm that faced several challenges: lack of materials and learning context for elf. these findings suggest that nativespeakerism is still entrenched firmly and tainted by the attitude of in-service teachers in the expanding circle. meanwhile, teachers are the front figures in improving the sociolinguistic awareness of multilingual cultural varieties of english uses. thus, the investigation of in-service teachers' attitudes and beliefs about elf is urgent to explore what changes are on the way to provide necessary profiles for policy recommendations. in the expanding circle countries where english is used for business, tourism, and educational purposes (kachru, 1992), discussions encapsulating the voices of in-service teachers toward elf classroom practices are scarce. it is also the case in indonesia. to address this gap, this mixed-methods study reports on 120 indonesian secondary in-service teachers’ beliefs and attitudes toward english as a lingua franca (elf) to add a discussion in the context of indonesia and to extend it to the global context, expanding the circle countries, which share similar complexities. the results of the study are expected to showcase inservice secondary teachers’ attitudes and beliefs toward five principal categories in classroom practices regarding the elf paradigm, namely the presence of multilingual characters and pronunciation model used in the classroom, the role of language and culture, the goals of learning, the language used in the classroom, and the assessment. the study further accounts for factors which shape their attitudes and beliefs on the concept of english as a lingua franca. the research questions guiding this study are as follows: a) what are the attitudes and beliefs of english teachers regarding the presence of multilingual characters and pronunciation models used in the classroom? b) what are the attitudes and beliefs of english teachers regarding the role of language and culture? c) what are the attitudes and beliefs of english teachers regarding learning goals? d) what are the attitudes and beliefs of english teachers regarding the language used in the classroom? e) what are the attitudes and beliefs of english teachers regarding the assessment? 2. literature review 2.1 framing teachers' attitudes and beliefs concerning elf-based perspective in classrooms with the increasing interest in elf, some research has investigated teachers' perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs about some elf concepts. regarding the issue of this research, garret (2010) describes that attitude and belief are used interchangeably. the concept of belief also refers to attitudes, perceptions, perspectives, values, and opinions (pajares, 1992). alexander and dochy (1995, as cited in wenden, 1998) define belief as "individuals' subjective understandings, idiosyncratic truths, which are often value related and characterised by a commitment" (p. 517). it suggests that attitude and belief describe how people feel, intend, and act toward an object. although what is known may not be true, they include what people know. the concepts also highlight the ideas of underlying personal theories about teaching, learning, and language that teachers uphold (louw et al., 2014) and what teachers do in practice based on what they believe. contextualising this current study, research in elf has investigated phonology, pragmatics, lexis, grammar, and spoken elf (churran & chern, 2017) and how this language system should be called forward by teachers, materials developers, schools, and government (galloway & rose, 2015). therefore, several core characteristics of elf perspectives toward teaching and learning have been identified: the presence of multilingual characters and pronunciation model used in the classroom, the role of language and culture, goals of learning, language used in the classroom, and assessment. with the objective of preparing students to be successful multilingual users of english, vital components should be present to support this idea. language teaching materials as resources for relevant and valuable input for learners must reflect how language is used in the real world. however, english language teaching (elt) materials still rely on the norms of native english speakers, and not many materials incorporate the global englishes perspective (galloway & rose, 2015) that encapsulates the diversity and plurality of communication (dewey, 2012). galloway (2018) explains proposals regarding learning materials which should: 1) expose learners to authentic use of language, 2) help learners pay attention to language features of authentic input, 3) provide learners with opportunities to enable learners to achieve communicative purposes, and 4) arouse learners’ curiosity and attention. materials should be learners' context-sensitive in that the local variety of english should not be avoided. they should increase exposure to a diversity of english use worldwide and promote discussions on the globalisation of english. following these, the goal of learning reflected in the 103 traditional elt materials should be re-appropriated (mcgarth, 2013) to enable learners to become successful communicators both with non-native english speakers (nnes) and native english speakers (nes) (jenkins, cogo, & dewey, 2011; galloway & rose, 2015). materials should promote intelligibility and mutual understanding as opposed to achieving nes speakers’ proficiency. in terms of the presence of multilingual characters in the textbooks, materials should represent balanced nes and nnes figures and cultural representation and how they are described to guarantee that the textbooks welcome varied speakers globally and avoid the dominance of nes (rose & galloway, 2019). next, they include the use of audio for listening that represents various nness (galloway, 2018). deterding (2013), for instance, summarises some pronunciation features that are intelligibilitytolerant, of which the communications do not present difficulties for interlocutors. it underlines the notion that english users do not have to pronounce nativelike english but internationally intelligible english (kirkpatrick, 2013). some strategies, for instance, accommodation repetition, paraphrasing, using no idiomatic expressions (jenkins 2002, 2007, 2017), and translanguaging (cenoz, 2019), are strategies to succeed in effective communication. these should be seen in classroom practices where the uses of english should project an awareness of learners' own and their interlocutors' discourse practices and promote flexibility in communication drawing on plurilingual resources (galloway, 2018). multilingual and multicultural language users are those who use english as a lingua franca. the fact that elf communication is characterised by fluidity, hybridity, and diversity as the norms highlight the incorporation of intercultural awareness (ica) (baker, 2015a). as communication is a cultural and social practice, it involves the representation of the self within dialogues of transcultural speakers. from the elf perspective, communication must encourage negotiation of meaning and accept individuals’ cultural identities, such as speaking with a local accent and applying a certain pragmatic set of speech acts. therefore, building knowledge, skills and attitude of learners' ica should be promoted in the classroom (kusumaningputri & widodo, 2018). the sociolinguistic realities of english used in the world drive assessments to re-appropriate themselves in the nature of language proficiency and assessment (harding & mcnamara, 2018). in listening and speaking, language competence refers to the ability to tolerate and comprehend different varieties, accents, syntactic forms, and discourse styles (canagarajah, 2006; harding, 2012). elf is linguistically understood as a contact language of different firstlanguage speakers; it is obviously not a fixed code where uniformity is the norm. according to elf, this suggests that language proficiency assessment lies more on the ability to negotiate diversity and be open to more choices than reducing the meaning-making into one set of rules (nes rule). as culture is strongly tied to language and its use, understanding the lingual and cultural differences could be bridged by getting closer to the local backgrounds. this is why sensitive and diverse local cultural representations should be apparent, for example, in reading texts and writing activities. 2.2 english in the indonesian secondary school context as one of the founding members of asean (association of south-east asian nations), indonesia acknowledges english as the language of communication among the member countries. consequently, english became an official foreign language as stated in presidential decree no 28/1990. further, in the 2003 national educational system act, english is required in grades 7-12 and an optional subject at the primary level (hamied, 2012). the increasing role of english in indonesia is strengthened by social mobility, economy and global participation (zein, sukyadi, hamied, & lengkanawati, 2020). indonesia’s secondary level of education comprises sekolah menengah pertama (junior high school) (smp) and sekolah menengah atas (senior high school) (sma), sekolah menengah kejuruan (vocational high school) (smk) under the administration of ministry of education, culture, research and technology and madrasah tsanawiyah and madrasah aliyah under ministry of religious affairs. english is typically taught for 2-6 school hours per week. english in indonesia is situated in a multilingual and multicultural context where some language practices, for instance, code-switching and codemixing, commonly take place inside and outside classrooms (kirkpatrick & sussex, 2012, p.2). however, diverse multilingual and multicultural values within elt practices are still underrepresented. research on the representation of multicultural and multilingual values in a nationally adopted english textbook for grade xii by setyono and widodo (2019) revealed that nness’ cultures, for instance, asian and african cultures, were lacking. although multicultural values from indonesia are present, the other cultures represented belong to ness. this finding shows that the goal of presenting intercultural competence in the secondary schools' curriculum is not prioritised as nnes countries are disproportionally represented (putra, rochsantiningsih, & supriyadi, 2020). in speaking and pronunciation areas, indonesian pre-service teachers in zacharia's study (2016) believed that native-like pronunciation was preferred because it projected a higher value. in the same vein, the study of pudyastuti and atma (2014) with 22 teachers (secondary teachers and upper secondary school 104 teachers who were taking ma) revealed reluctant adoption of the elf perspective. although they agreed on the importance of knowing and teaching englishes to their students, they were unsure that the students were ready. these findings suggest that in the area of assessment, especially in relation to speaking and pronunciation, the nes-oriented perspective is still deeply ingrained. to this date, the exploration of teachers’ responses toward english as a lingua franca aspect in expanding circle countries has shown the dynamic, fluid, sensitive (garret, 2010), and interdependent nature (jenkins, 2007) with the social context of the environment where attitude is being evaluated. in the context of indonesia, the environment seems to contradict; the multicultural and multilingual context of the country should enhance the awareness. nevertheless, native-speakerism seems to be strongly entrenched in educational practices. this study, thus, answers the question of how indonesian english teachers’ attitudes toward elf are situated amidst the results of more global attitudinal studies and whether or not specific shifts have taken place in the indonesian context. 3. method this study employed the mixed methods design using a sequentially explanatory design (creswell, plano clark, guttman, & hanson, 2003; kim, 2013) to explore the attitudes and beliefs of a cross-section of people (dornyei, 2007). in this case, 120 english teachers (89 females and 31 males). the study investigates in-service teachers' attitudes and beliefs toward elf concepts. hence, the certificate of profession issued by the ministry of education, culture, research, and technology was used as the main criterion to comply with while selecting the participants. there were 52 junior high school and/or madrasah tsanawiyah teachers and 68 senior high schools and/or madrasah aliyah teachers from 60 different regions in 14 provinces (table 3.1) in indonesia participating in this study. table 3.1 participants’ origins no. province 1. aceh 2. jawa timur 3. jawa barat 4. jawa tengah 5. nusa tenggara barat 6. sulawesi tenggara 7. sulawesi utara 8. di. yogyakarta 9. banten 10 kalimantan timur 11. kalimantan barat 12. sumatra utara 13. bali 14. maluku based on their educational backgrounds, 97 teachers had an undergraduate degree, and 23 teachers had a graduate degree in tesol. they have been teaching english for 1-34 years and were between 22 and 61 years old. table 3.2 elf-related principles no. name of category questionnaire item number 1. presence of multilingual characters and pronunciation model used in classroom materials 1, 2, 5, 7, 16, 18, 19 2. goals of learning english 3, 4, 6, 14, 23 3. the role of language and culture in the classroom 8, 9, 15 4. the language used in the classroom 10, 12 5. assessment 11, 13, 17, 20, 21, 22 the participants for the quantitative data collection stage were recruited using convenience sampling. this sampling technique was used due to the accessibility and the willingness motive of the participants to join the study (teddlie & yu, 2007), which enabled the researchers to recruit a proportionate number of participants. the participants in the qualitative stage were recruited using the nested sequential collection method (onwuegbuzie & collins, 2017), where several representative participants were recruited from the participants in the quantitative stage for other facets of investigation (understanding 105 the driving reasons for such attitudes and beliefs). they were representatives of two polarised trends of data (positive and negative ends of the attitudes and beliefs toward elf concepts). the quantitative strand is used to show frequency, percentage, and beliefs toward the five categories of elf-related principles, as presented in table 2. the questionnaire used in this study was adapted from curran and chern (2017). initially, it comprised four categories: different models of english, the use of english for communication, the role of language and culture in the english classroom, and the language used in the classroom. in this current study, the questionnaire was adapted and expanded to reveal teachers’ attitudes and beliefs on the presence of multilingual characters in the learning materials and on the assessment. in category 1, we explored participants' perceptions of teaching materials which are exposed to students on the issue of the presence of multilingual characters. therefore, we modified the items. an item questioning nes as a role model for proficient english speakers was not included, but we asked it in the interviews as an effort to gain further insights. meanwhile, questions in category five were based on relevant references in the assessment area with the perspective of english as a lingua franca. in addition, the qualitative strand was used to explain what and how the factors influence the teachers’ attitudes and beliefs toward the concept of elf based on the quantitative data. the questionnaire was a five-point likert scale questionnaire containing 23 statements. the participants were asked to rank on a scale of 1 to 5: 1 represents strongly agree, and 5 represents strongly disagree. prior to the distribution of the questionnaire, a professor who is an expert in curriculum and elf studies and familiar with indonesian education was asked to comment and give feedback on the statements used. after gaining the participants' approval, the questionnaire was administered online. the researchers contacted several teachers from each region and asked them to share the questionnaire web address. the questionnaire was open for 3 months. following the questionnaire is the qualitative strand of this mixed-methods study which will use data from interviews. the participants selected for the interviews were a subset of the participants selected for the questionnaire. they were given questions about factors influencing teachers' attitudes and beliefs toward the concept of elf and how the factors shape their attitudes. the interview focused on whether their attitude is affected by their own experiences in teaching, their reflection toward language varieties/models phenomena, school policy, and how those factors influenced their attitude in classroom contexts. using the quantitative data, the interviews were aimed at exploring the reasons underlying the participants' choice of the statements. using the biography of the participants, we made a list of participants who represented two polarised answer trends of agreeing and disagreeing with the statement in each category. by doing this, we could represent two opposed representatives. twenty-seven participants agreed to join the interview via face-toface discussions, phone calls, and online (via whatsapp). each interview lasted approximately 60 minutes 2-3 times and was carried out in bahasa indonesia upon the participants' request. follow-up interviews were held with the participants for further clarification. all the excerpts of the interview were translated and transcribed into english. the researchers commenced data analysis at the time of data collection. upon the collection of the questionnaire, statistical analysis was performed to generate the mean score of each statement. each statement on the five-point likert scale was scored according to the participants' selection of value, i.e., from 1 to 5 points. the mean and percentages of each statement were used to describe the participants' preferences toward the statements. these data were subjects to close analysis. using the results obtained from the questionnaire, the researchers carried out interviews to explore the reasons behind their attitudes and beliefs, the intricacies of the pros and cons, and the practices in their classrooms. the interviews were transcribed, tabulated, and coded/ themed. using thematic coding analysis (braun & clarke, 2012), the data were classified based on patterned responses or meanings in what factors contribute to the participants’ attitudes and beliefs toward the concept of elf and how these factors shape their attitudes and what they believe. 4. results the present study is an attempt to investigate the attitudes and beliefs of indonesian secondary language teachers toward the issue related to elf concepts within five categories. the results of descriptive statistical analysis and interview are presented to describe the overall attitudes and beliefs held by the participants about the five categories of elf-related concepts, namely the presence of multilingual characters and pronunciation model used in the classroom, the role of language and culture, goals of learning, language used in the classroom, and assessment. in reporting the results, examples of participants' responses to the interviews, which are representative and perceptibly deep in each category, are shown in order to clarify and explore the issues. the excerpts of the teachers' responses are presented anonymously. 4.1 presence of multilingual characters and pronunciation model used in classroom material 106 table 4.1 presence of multilingual characters and pronunciation model used in classroom materials statements in-service teachers (n=120) distribution of answers to each statement mean std sa a u d sd 1. i think english teaching materials should only use native-speaker models (e.g., native speakers’ model of politeness) 3.00 1.04 frequency 6 40 28 40 6 percentage 5% 33.3% 23.3% 33.3% 5% 2. i think english teaching materials should include more characters of nonnative speakers of english 2.46 1.08 frequency 21 52 23 19 5 percentage 17.5% 43.3% 19.2% 15.8% 4.2% 5. i think students should only listen to pronunciation models produced by native speakers of english 2.88 1.19 frequency 15 39 21 36 9 percentage 12.5% 32.5% 17.5% 30% 7.5% 7. i think it is confusing to introduce students to many different english accents in class. 2.82 1.17 frequency 19 32 27 36 6 percentage 15.8% 26.7% 22.5% 30% 5% 16. i think it is important that classroom materials provide a single model of english, either american or british. 2.76 1.01 frequency 21 33 21 44 1 percentage 17.5% 27.5% 17.5% 36.6% 0.8% 18. i think it is important that students try to sound like native speakers of english. 2.43 1.10 frequency 22 56 13 26 3 percentage 18.3% 46.7% 10.8% 21.6% 2.5% 19. i think english teaching materials should only use native speaker characters 3.14 1.05 frequency 9 23 38 42 8 percentage 7.5% 19.2% 31.6% 35% 6.6% referring to table 4.1, the presence of multicultural characters in the materials was responded to quite positively (statements 2 and 19). at the same time, in the aspect of the pronunciation model, the participants favour the native english speaker (nes) model over the non-native english speaker’s (nnes) (statements 1, 5, 7, 16, and 18). in the interviews, the participants explained that the idea of including more multilingual and multicultural characters was not new because english textbooks produced by the government and non-government publishers involved indonesian characters who were multi ethnics. this leads to their acceptance of the inclusion of nnes figures other than indonesians, i.e., koreans, japanese, singaporeans, or malaysians. the notion of promoting nnes' accent was not responded to strongly, as shown in statements 1, 5, 7, 16, and 18. statements 5 and 16 received 45% agreement on whether students should take listening materials using native english pronunciation only, and statements 7 and 18 showed the participants’ persistence in keeping one model of pronunciation: the nes. these numbers indicate low acceptance of elf perspectives in the area of accents. one of the participants shared his view. “the prescribed book does not provide varieties of english. the audio materials were always american, british or local indonesians. it was possible to get a variety of english, but usually, the books cost high. parents would protest. you know… students usually must have lks (lembar kerja siswa –students workbook) to take home. as a win-win solution, teachers chose a workbook that was not expensive, but sadly the audio was usually poor.” (teacher vignette #1) the promotion of englishes is challenged by the availability and affordability of supporting learning books for students. the audio materials for listening activities in the mandated textbooks were more nes oriented. parents' ability to provide books where various accents could be exemplified is one of the predicaments. these books cost much because usually they were produced abroad. teachers were also complicated by the government stating that all schools have to use the textbook, although having non-government published books are also not prohibited. the problem lies on the side of parents and teachers. "usually, parents reserved to pay for more books because they believed that the textbook is enough, although we know that the book lacks some aspects we could not burden parents, especially those who were financially difficult" (teacher vignette #2) in addition, statement 7 showed some teachers' reluctance to introduce many accents because they believed that students had striven for their 'basic competence' of english, such as to have more vocabulary and to be able to memorise and use it correctly, to apply 'basic grammar' correctly such as the addition of –s for a third person subject in present tense or to memorise the preterite verbs to express events in the past. in the eyes of the participants, indonesian secondary students faced significant challenges in mastering english grammar and structure because bahasa indonesia's structure is different. one of the participants observed. 107 “i think my students would get confused if they listen to many different accents. getting used to listening to one accent is already difficult. i do not want to add more difficulties. moreover, they have many more to deal with like grammar and structure". (teacher vignette #3) 4.2 goals of language learning table 4.2 goals of learning the results presented in table 4.2 show the teachers’ belief that preparing students to communicate with nes is more important than communicating with the nnes. it also shows the teachers' inclination to the use of native-like linguistic norms such as pragmatic patterns as a fixed model to mimic and on the nes speaking model. in the interview, one of them shared his perspective. “speaking like nes is definitely a goal because if you could sound like them, you will not get any problems talking with anyone in the world” (teacher vignette #4) another interview revealed the participants' reasons for such favouritism. they mentioned that they were taught to model nes and felt that it was right and that ness sound more "intelligent, smooth, and valid". however, table 4 also (statement 14, 23) indicates positive attitudes toward the idea of being able to communicate with "all people" (nes and nnes) as a crucial goal. it seems to be conflicting with the result of statement 6, which showed that preparing to converse with nnes was not responded enthusiastically. this may be stemmed from the teachers’ belief about who will be the students’ target interlocutor. in the interviews, some teachers had different views. teachers from schools where most of the students had the experience of going abroad for holidays and had previous contact with english speakers from anglophone and non-anglophone countries such as china, germany, the us, and the uk had a more positive attitude toward welcoming englishes. one of the participants shared stories about her students coming home from having holidays in hongkong and singapore and discussed with her about english that they listened to and how the people used english. they realised that english has many variations, and all are used in communication. reflecting on the experiences, the teacher decided not to impose students to struggle for sounding like ness. “well…my english is javanese english, i could not force my students to sound like native english speakers because i do not. so, i think learning focuses on when you get understood by your interlocutors". (teacher vignette #5) another goal of language learning (statement 14) relates to the importance of having the ability to interact interculturally. the participants (78.8%) believed that discussions on intercultural differences and the awareness of this notion were significant, although they admitted there was no assessment specific for intercultural competence. "i like it that the textbook touches on differences we (indonesian and other cultures) have. as teachers, we need to relate to this important core. what i did in the classroom usually i show how things are different in indonesia and other cultures, such as the us. but there was no specific assessment for it” (teacher vignette #6) statements in-service teachers (n=120) distribution of answers to each statement mean std sa a u d sd 3. i think students must learn ways to communicate with native speakers. 2.06 1.12 frequency 45 46 7 20 2 percentage 37.5% 38.3% 5.8% 16.6% 1.6% 4. i think indonesian students should look up to native speakers of english as role models to speak and behave linguistically. 2.48 1.08 frequency 22 66 12 22 4 percentage 18.3% 55% 10% 18.3% 3.3% 6. i think an important focus of an english program should be to prepare students for communications with people who are not english native speakers. 2.70 0.97 frequency 11 43 37 27 2 percentage 9.2% 35.8% 30.8% 22.5% 1.6% 14. i think an awareness of intercultural differences and discussions on the differences are important goals in classroom learning. 2.13 0.97 frequency 30 61 17 8 4 percentage 25% 50.8% 14.2% 6.7% 3.3% 23. i think the major focus of an english program should be teaching students to use the language in reallife communication. 2.12 1.18 frequency 41 53 4 15 7 percentage 34.2% 44.2% 3.3% 12.5% 5.8% 108 4.3 the role of the english language and culture table 4.3 role of english language and culture the results of three statements asking about inservice teachers' attitudes and beliefs toward english and culture are presented in table 4.3. generally, the teachers revealed positive attitudes and beliefs on the importance of english to express their home culture and mediating the cultural exchanges with both nes and nnes. statement 8, making use of english to share information about participants’ culture, received the highest means over all five categories. it shows their strong recognition of the role of english at home and target culture exposures. some participants reflected. “english is very much needed, such as when students interact with foreigners so they can explain and represent their self and culture. this is also important for them to help foreigners understand indonesian culture to bridge understanding”. (teacher vignette #7) “the more we told the students to write or tell about indonesia in english, the more they put effort into it. it makes them learn more about the culture of indonesia and at the same time grow to respect and pride toward themselves as indonesian citizens". (teacher vignette #8) the interviews suggest that english was seen as an intercultural lingua franca. students display excitement when using english to promote their culture. it shows that students invest more in it when english is used to articulate their local culture. 4.4 language used in the classroom table 4.4 language used in the classroom statements in-service teachers (n=120) distribution of answers to each statement mean std sa a u d sd 8. i think it is important that students can use english to share information about their own culture and traditions. 1.9 1.14 frequency 58 39 3 17 3 percentage 48.3% 32.5% 2.5% 14.2% 2.5% 9. i think it is important that students become familiar with the culture and traditions of native speakers of english. 2.11 1.02 frequency 26 61 14 16 3 percentage 21.6% 50.8% 11.7% 13.3% 2.5% 15. i think it is important that english teachers help students to better understand exchange students or people from other countries with whom they are likely to use english. 2.11 0.93 frequency 30 61 17 10 2 percentage 25% 50.8% 14.2% 12% 1.6% statements in-service teachers (n=120) distribution of answers to each statement mean std sa a u d sd 10. i think english should be used as the only medium of instruction in english language classes. 2.93 1.05 frequency 7 43 27 37 6 percentage 5.8% 35.8% 22.5% 30.8% 5% 12. i think a bilingual approach where indonesian is used as a support in english language classes is more effective for indonesian students. 2.29 0.97 frequency 21 64 16 17 2 percentage 17.5% 53.3% 13.3% 14.2% 1.6% 109 table 4.4 indicates that teachers' view on the bilingual approach is more effective for classroom communication compared to the monolingual, english only approach. one of the teachers shared the following attitude: "i switched to bahasa indonesia whenever i saw my students lost in the concepts. but, i did not do it all the time in all grades. the higher their grade, the more i used english. this was to train them to speak english and get used to listening to english. i also expected that students with good potential could speak the way native english speakers do". (teacher vignette #9) referring to the interview, teachers showed support for the idea of embracing students' all linguistic resources to create effective and successful learning. however, the interview also indicates that teachers target students reaching native speakers' standards the more proficient they become. it shows that native speakerism is a deeply-rooted culture in indonesian classroom discourse. teachers' bias over the native english speakers was manifested in their obsession with making native speakers a standard. 4.5 assessment table 4.5 assessment table 4.5 recaps the statements which tapped inservice teachers’ attitudes and beliefs toward assessment. generally, more participants expressed their agreement with the elf category of assessment. around 62.5% of the participants agreed that the listening test should incorporate many varieties of english, not only that of ness. despite these positive attitudes and beliefs, the finding on accent preference was conflicting. a teacher explained. “i guess students’ body of indonesian schools comprises individuals with low to medium proficiency. so, to have a standard of assessment to have ness' accents is impossible because i think both students and teachers do not have time to take care of the accents. teachers focused more on how students would be able to say something in english”. (teacher vignette #10) "in the speaking assessment, we usually focused more on how students communicate their message, not their accents. the accent is number two or three. however, if they could speak english with a native-like accent, students would get better grades". (teacher vignette #11) from the answers, despite teachers' reflection on the reality that imposing an nes accent was impossible, they secretly favoured nes. they were at a crossroads as more participants favoured nes accents in the speaking test but wished for more variations in listening tests. this choice of statements in-service teachers (n=120) distribution of answers to each statement mean std sa a u d sd 11. i think reading texts in the classroom should promote sensitivity in the choice of cultural content in the text and respect for local culture. 2.16 0.99 frequency 30 58 17 12 3 percentage 25% 48.3% 14.2% 10% 2.5% 13. i think materials for listening tests should incorporate varieties other than the ones of the native speakers’. 2.46 0.97 frequency 14 61 24 18 3 percentage 11.7% 50.8% 20% 15% 2.5% 16. i think teachers should allow students to use repetition, paraphrasing, code-switching, and adjust their speech to be more intelligible in speaking activities to avoid misunderstanding. 2.13 1.06 frequency 34 58 10 14 4 percentage 28.3% 48.3% 8.3% 11.7% 3.3% 20. i think it is important for students to showcase their cultural identity when speaking english. 2.17 1.02 frequency 32 54 19 12 3 percentage 26.7% 45% 15.8% 10% 2.5% 21. i think it is important that students are encouraged to use indonesian cultural products to express their identity in writing. 2.25 1.05 frequency 29 54 18 16 3 percentage 24.2% 45% 15% 13.3% 2.5% 22. i think it is important to correct students' accents to comply with native speakers' accents. 2.72 1.08 frequency 14 44 29 28 5 percentage 11.7% 36.7% 24.2% 23.3% 4.2% 102 assessment for their students might be because of the easiness of referring to nes standard (murata & jenkins, 2009; sung, 2018) as materials nationally endorsed by moec have very few nnes variations other than indonesian. the non-existence of moec has challenged teachers' reflection on this reality approved language assessment, realising the elf idea. additionally, for teachers who leaned more toward elf concepts for accents, their attitude was more caused by their in-classroom students' realities. having students speak is more important than taking care of accents to suit nes. statements 11, 17, 20, and 21 showed the participants' strong beliefs and attitudes toward the acceptance of multilingual cultures to be promoted in the reading texts, present in students' product of writing and acknowledged in their speaking. with an average mean of 2.13 – 2.46, these four statements reveal the participants' awareness of the concept of locality and cultural pride in the assessment. with these in the participants' minds, it is more likely that they would act openly to some elf notions in the assessment. the uses of repetition, paraphrasing, code-switching, and adjusting speech to be more intelligible to overcome misunderstanding received strong preference. in the interview, some participants pinpointed that the code-switching strategy is helpful, especially when working with low-proficient students. 6. discussion this study discloses indonesian secondary teachers' positive support to elf in the areas of the presence of multilingual characters in materials, goals to communicate with international speakers, both native english speakers (ness) and nonnative english speakers (nness), the bilingual/multilingual approach to language classroom practice, the role of english to mediate intercultural exchanges and elf-based assessments which cater multilingual and cultural resources to be present and acknowledged in the tests. however, the findings also reveal the resistance toward englishes, mainly in the area of pronunciation and speaking models. such a preference to conform to ness’ pronunciation is commonly found in the context of education in expanding circle countries, such as sa’d (2018) in iran and zhang (2021) in china. their findings showed that the strong positive evaluation that iranian and chinese language users had toward nes pronunciation sources from the fear of negative evaluation by the ness and their belief that the sole rightful owners of english are ness making the ness the legitimate model and nness’ model as forever inferior. such attitudes were also found in studies on the attitudes and beliefs of teachers and other language users in the outer circle (lai, 2020; chan, 2019). the findings revealed that nes pronunciation possessed high status in academic and professional contexts. it suggests that nes's pronunciation and accents strongly lingered in the mind of the users in these circles. in this study, though nes pronunciation and speaking model are admittedly unattainable by teachers, they are perceived as ideal because the ness’ variety is the one used as the anchor for the national examination. teachers try to cultivate the students with this variety due to its paramount effect on the school's name. the lack of the availability and affordability of lingual and cultural resources of other english varieties in the materials also contributes to this challenge. the books which promote englishes and multicultural characters are usually imported books; thus, multiple the prices by a lot. this contributes to the lack of exposure to elf-driven materials. the affordability of materials is critical in encouraging multilingual pronunciation and speaking models. in the category of goals of learning, teachers' attitudes and beliefs reveal less enthusiasm for elf cores which stress the importance of being able to communicate with diverse multilingual instead of nes only. the interviews indicated that nes was preferred because teachers believed nobody would face difficulties communicating with anyone if they used english as native speakers do. this reflects their belief that nes’s norms have universal intelligibility and comprehensibility that will work in any type of intercultural communication where english is used as a lingua franca. such belief is misleading because using nes norms as the only model degrades sensitivity to variations that are at play in intercultural interactions, i.e., different speech act functions manifesting in different cultural groups. jung (2010) stresses the importance of cultural competence and speech act functions to attain comprehensibility. attitudes which reflect their admiration of english of native speakers stemmed from their past; their teachers-imposed beliefs that the english of the native speakers equals intelligence, valid, and supreme. positive attitudes and beliefs of elf cores with learning goals were only apparent from teachers who reflected on the existence of variations of english. intercultural contacts they made with nnes and the students’ reflections on englishes conveyed to teachers were sources of openness to welcome englishes. awareness of multilingual cultural realities that dynamically shape english uses will not be visible until it is systematically introduced and familiarised. studies on english textbooks in the expanding circle, for instance, nguyen, marlina, and cao (2020), setyono and widodo (2019), and syrbe and rose (2018), showed less multilingual cultural representations in the textbooks for, in fact, it is paramount for building on responses toward the changing sociolinguistic realities of english uses. 103 this fact slows down the successful global communication skills of students. some other complexities driving reasons why elf perspective is not yet coming to the fruitful results are found to be the acclaimed standardised tests which account for a successful future scholarship which still reflects nes standard (jenkins & leung, 2019), and nonwelcoming orientation in curriculum and materials (widodo & fang, 2019). despite these challenges, we believe that a strong potential to accelerate indonesian students’ global communication competence lies in the attitude of high tolerance for differences. tolerance of diversity is the indonesian principle stemming from the acceptance of diversity of ethnicities inherited from the founding fathers’ spirit and commitment. this important capital leverages the elf paradigm to be manifested in social discourse practices. increasing the importance of noticing multilingual, multiethnic, and multicultural realities would lead to the acceptance of multilingualism as reality and the enhancement of culturally responsive literacy (porto, 2010). this is to say that promotion of (multi)cultural awareness is a backbone toward an understanding of the diverse, dynamic, hybrid, multilayered culture of the world (baker, 2015b; sercu, 2006). as a matter of fact, the expanding circle countries in asia are usually very rich and diverse in cultural representations (widodo, wood, & gupta, 2017). thus, intercultural responsive behaviour, skills, and attitude would likely speed up the rise of awareness of social equality (hu & mckay, 2014) by standing against linguistic imperialism and nes hegemony. this highlights a call for curriculum makers and materials writers to promote the elf paradigm from the issue of intercultural communication. in the role of the english language and culture category, the study recorded the strongest positive attitudes and beliefs of all categories (see table 4.3). culture is seen as an expression of identity, and english is seen as a tool to connect with different individuals and cultures. intercultural understanding through home cultures’ description accounts for students’ high english uses, as was reported by teachers during the interviews. this english use in intercultural communication is likely english as a global lingua franca (ishikawa, 2017) which takes place in a multilingual and multicultural society. students' joy to share indonesian cultures can be taken further to prepare them to communicate in actual interactions involving skills to make contact with multilingual users, including their language use/language varieties and cultures, which naturally are fluid, hybrid, and constantly changing (larsenfreeman, 2011). in doing so, promotion to acknowledge multilingualism as a norm and consequently to get used to different ways of using english as one of the languages at play in ic should be systematically ensured. in the classroom practices, for instance, student-teacher interactions should practice accommodation strategies such as shuttling between languages in the process of teaching and learning to maximise understanding and language acquisition. such alternating language strategy is called translanguaging (see cenoz, 2019; cenoz & gorter, 2017). sifakis (2017) asserts that language and language use awareness are significant components of the building block of efficient interaction with multilingual where english is one of the languages. knowledge of features of syntax, morphology, lexis, phonology, discourse-pragmatic, and socio-cultural elements of english produced by nnes goes hand in hand with the goal of intercultural communication. in terms of accent in speaking and assessment, the results of this study showed favouritism toward ness. although in-service teachers rated ness' accent as not a must, they believed it was superior. the causes of this entrenched belief are the strong hegemony of native-speakerism and the comparison of standards between ness and other varieties. we share a view with harding and mcnamara (2018) that the existing assessment is wrongly focused on judging against stable varieties, nes varieties, and legitimised l2 varieties. this is what makes nativespeakerism persist, and multilingualism as a property of every speaker is silenced. the problems shall be responded to by altering what to be assessed for speaking skills. features defining elf lie in the english used with its linguistic, pragmatic, and cultural flexibility as a means of communication appropriated by the speakers within a specific situation of communication (seidlhofer, 2011; mauranen, 2012; jenkins, 2015). what matters in classroom practice and broader scope, therefore, is preparing language users to be able to operate in contexts with many meaning-making signs (garcıa & wei, 2014: 42; sifakis, 2017), including different accents. a holistic rubric proposed by harding (2015) includes accommodation, negotiation, and maintaining smooth interaction competence to be facilitated in language assessment, for in fact, these also tap intercultural competence. with in-service teachers’ attitude shown in this study, which is more open toward strategic competence of using code-switching and l1 terms in their students’ language productions, the focus of language assessment will be on the individuals’ ability for language use (harding & mcnamara, 2018). there are two implications which could be drawn from this study. firstly, teachers' professional development (pd) needs to mediate reflection on the existence of englishes and empower teachers to design sensitive instructions in classrooms which present lingua cultural differences. pd, which becomes the only formal arena to engage with 104 language and teaching development, should, as matsumoto's (2011) advice, introduce multi competence differences of not only nes-nnes but also elf interactions and elf speakers' accents. they may design tasks that sharpen students' understanding of english varieties in real-world communication with this power. secondly, more steady and stronger impacts on the beliefs and attitudes of teachers should be warranted by the government by making significant changes to the inclusion of variations (e.g., pragmatics, morphology, syntax, collocation, lexis) of english used by nness in the materials and providing an assessment rubric which corresponds to the elf concepts being highlighted. materials and instruction should provide sections where the introductions toward different cultures do not only include cultural differences and similarities of locals with ness and nness but also critically examine the cultural differences and similarities to tap into intercultural understanding. this could initiate a greater comprehension and respect for differences which open more spaces for the acceptance of pluralism and hybridity, as noted by baker (2015b). additionally, materials and assessments should model students with knowledge and skills to respond to the differences. 7. conclusion this study contributes to the understanding of attitudes and beliefs of language teachers in expanding circle in regard to elf concepts. to this date, research conducted in this circle has resounded a similar profile, that the teachers have been in an on and off relationship with elf. this study shows that the push and pull between teachers’ wants to embody the ideal nes standard and to welcome the use of english based on the global sociolinguistic realities have put them in complexity, i.e. the belief to mimic ness’ pronunciation that they realised is unattainable; the aspiration to use ness’ norms in intercultural communication although the reflection of the home culture is desired. a positive trend has been identified in these complexities recorded in the study. although the hegemony of native-speakerism is still present firmly in the area of pronunciation and speaking models, attitudes and beliefs on welcoming multiculturalism are found in teachers' classroom practices. the willingness and expectation of welcoming more various multicultural characters in the materials, students' excitement to resonate with their home culture in english, and the wants for intercultural exchanges are strong predictors of elf acceptance. this study contributes to understanding the challenges to adopting elf as experienced by teachers, including the one factor that has been long overlooked in many studies, which is parents’ affordability to buy elf driven materials for their children. another challenge is that teachers’ reflection on the changing landscape of english uses and its consequences are not systematically nurtured; 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(2021). investigating student teachers’ perceptions of english as a lingua franca and its teaching in mainland china, asian englishes. 116. https://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2021.1926647 https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2019.1548102 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.01.023 https://doi.org/10.1017/s0266078417000293 https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccq024 https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-2016-0003 https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/19.4.515 https://doi.org/10.1080/07908311003797627 https://doi.org/10.1075/japc.26.2.08zac instructions for ispacs 2003 camera-ready manuscript journal of research and innovation in language issn (online): 2685-3906, issn (print): 2685-0818 doi: https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.6632 vol. 4, no. 2, august, 2022, pp.132-157 132 a closer look on the oblique plural of words terminating in the letter yey: pashto grammatical case anwar wafi hayat kabul university, kabul, afghanistan wafihayat786@gmail.com article history received : 2021-04-27 revised : 2022-05-31 accepted : 2022-06-12 keywords pashto language grammatical case oblique case ergative–absolutive nominative-accusative letter yey abstract this article studies the grammatical case of the pashto language, with its focus on the oblique plural case of words terminating in different types of the letter ی /yey/, where such cases of words are formed by replacing its various types with either و /waaw/, or یو /yow/. a summative approach to qualitative content analysis was used to analyse the data. the current grammatical rules of such words were studied in-depth but did not include rules where the oblique plurals thereof end in یانو /yaanow/. the study aimed to explore the problems of related grammatical rules and the trend of making such plurals where, except for the long yey ې, the writers tend to replace most types of the letter yey with یو /yow/. the paper also investigates what type of the letter yey ی must be replaced with و and what type with یو, and whether replacing every type thereof with و or replacing all with یو will create ambiguity concerning the meaning of words used in their oblique plural cases. the study found that replacing all or most types of this letter with و or replacing all or most types thereof with یو results in ambiguity leading to the wrong meaning of words. in addition, findings hereof showed that only the feminine yey ۍ should be replaced with a fresh approach to making the oblique plural cases of such words has been .یو introduced, and new rules are proposed, thereby facilitating writers in figuring out the correct oblique plural case of words. this study is the first attempt at unearthing the problems associated with the oblique plurals, as prior to this, no such study has been done in regard thereto. 1. introduction writers put forth their best efforts to avoid ambiguity in the texts they produce. an unambiguous sentence, whether written or oral, is essential for communicating one’s point to the reader or listener in the best way. if a reader encounters a sentence where she or he has to think time and again to figure out what the writer is trying to communicate and still confuses the meaning thereof, perhaps, the related piece of writing is not written very well. ambiguity in writing may arise if the writer or the reader is not well acquainted with the correct meaning of a word or usage thereof. it may also arise due to unclear grammatical rules or a lack of knowledge. the pashto language has a set of five types of the letter yey ی differentiated by diacritic signs to incorporate vowel sounds. the oblique plurals of words terminating in the letter yey ی are formed by replacing the last letter of such words with either و /waaw/ or یو /yow/ based on the type of the letter yey. for instance, the oblique plural case of the word سړی /sarray/ ‘man’ is سړو /sarrow/ ‘men’ and that of کورنۍ /kowranai/ ‘family’ is کورنیو /kowranayow/ ‘families’, where the two types of yey are replaced with و /waaw/ and یو /yow/ respectively. when it comes to making the oblique plural cases of words terminating in various types of the aforesaid letter, writers face a number of contrasting grammatical rules such that based on some rules, all types of the letter yey can be replaced with the letter و, while as per others, all types thereof may be replaced with یو /yow/. in addition, some rules put it that all types of the letter yey can be replaced with either و or یو while as per some, all types thereof, except the feminine yey ۍ can be replaced with either و or وی . apart from that, based on some rules, except the long yey ې and the masculine yey ی, the remaining types of it may be replaced with either و or یو. this difference of opinion on the grammatical rules has led to ambiguity pertaining to the meaning of words used in the sentence. it has been noticed that writers nowadays tend to replace most types of the letter yey with یو /yow/ while making the oblique plurals of such words. in addition, it has been https://doi.org/10.31849/reila.v4i2.6632 133 observed that this method of making the oblique plurals of words may create ambiguity in relation to their meaning. for example, the pashto word for “disappointment” is ليناهی /naahili/, and for “disappointed” is ناهیلی /naahilay/. as per the current trend which has resulted from the difference of opinion among grammarians in regard to the rules thereof, both types of the letter yey in these words can be replaced with یو /yow/ in their oblique plural forms resulting in the same oblique plural form ناهیلیو /naahilayow/ for both of these words. this means that there remains no difference between the words “disappointment" and “disappointed”, leading to ambiguity that leaves the readers scratching their heads. the same is the case where the last letter of both of the aforementioned words is changed into و /waw/, resulting in ناهیلو /naahilow/. common sense says, and the grammatical traditions require, that there should be two different words for the plural of “disappointment” and the plural of “disappointed”, which in the aforementioned cases is not so. different authors, in their studies on the pashto grammar, have touched on the rules thereof, such as raverty (1867), trumpp (1873), lorimer (1902), roos-keppel (1922), ayazi (1939), penzl (1957), zyar (1978), rishtin (2003), tegey & robson (1996), david (2013) and rasulzada (2016), to name some. in their works, these authors have defined rules for each type of letter yey; however, none of them has highlighted the problem of ambiguity as discussed in the foregoing paragraph. studies on the pashto grammar have contributed significantly to academic research. however, the linguistic case in the pashto language has not been studied sufficiently (masood & rahman, 2013), especially when it comes to the oblique plural case of words ending in the letter yey. in addition, the problem of ambiguity arising from the difference of opinions regarding the grammatical rules is still left to explore and no such grammarian or writer has addressed the issue, either of brief or detailed nature. therefore, this study may be deemed as the cornerstone of future research in this regard. the reason the author chose to investigate the issue, was because many instances of ambiguity were observed in relation to the oblique plural cases of words in the written pashto material both in digital and print media. the rationale behind this study was to bring to the fore the problems with current rules and trends of making the oblique plural cases of words, and the gaps in current grammatical rules by analyzing the rules, exploring the problems in the current rules and studying the way writers used the aforementioned rules thereby proposing clear rules for all types of the said letter in order to solve the problem of ambiguity of meanings and make the process of forming the oblique plurals easy and free of errors. the author used the summative approach to content analysis to analyse the frequency of words in the oblique form in various written materials and the context of usage thereof. the paper did not study rules for making the oblique plurals of words terminating in the letter yey where the oblique plural is formed by replacing the letter yey with یانو /yaanow/ as in لیونی /leywanay/, لیونیان /leywanyaan/, لیونیانو /leywanyaanow/. it also excluded rules for making the oblique plurals of words ending in letters other than the letter yey and its different types. in addition, out of five types of the letter yey, the study covered rules for all types of the letter yey except the verbal yey as words ending in such type of yey mostly may ,ئ not have the oblique case. therefore, the author investigated; a) is the trend of replacing most types of the letter yey with یو /yow/ in oblique plurals of words terminating in the letter yey, gaining currency among pashtun writers? b) what type of the letter yey ی must be replaced with و /waaw/ and what type with یو /yow/ when making the oblique plural case of words terminating in different types of the letter yey. c) will replace all types of letters yey with و /waaw/ or, replacing all types thereof with یو /yow/ create ambiguity in regard to the meaning of words while making the oblique plural case of words terminating in different types of the letter yey? 2. literature review pashto grammarians have differing views on the pashto cases. raverty (1867) has provided a detailed account of the pashto case system. he has classified the pashto cases into seven groups. as per him, the oblique plurals of all nouns are formed by adding the letter و /waw/ thereto, with the exception of nouns that do not change their forms in oblique or vocative cases. it is evident from his work that each type of the letter yey ی is replaced with و in oblique plurals of words. for instance, he has declined the word یړس /sarray/ ‘man’ as /sarri/ and /sarrow/ where /sarrow/ is the oblique plural form of /sarray/, which ends in obvious yey ي. in addition, the word /sxadza/ is formed by replacing the long yey ې with wa. thus, the word /sxadzow/, and even the words ending in feminine yey ۍ are formed by replacing the last letter with و. trumpp (1873) has described seven cases in the pashto language. he believes that all types of the letter yey can be replaced with و or یو . he states the examples of ګاونډی /gaawandday/ ‘neighbor’, as ګاونډیو /gaawanddayow/ or ګاونډو /gaawanddow/, placing the latter in a bracket which means this can be an alternate form thereof. similarly, سیزني /sizni/ ‘a swaddling band’, سیزنۍ /siznai/, زنیو سی /siznayow/, or ې siznow/. he has even replaced the long yey/ سیزنو both with و /waw/ and یو /yow/ citing the example of بډو baddayow/ or/ بډیو ,/baddey/ بډې ,’badda/ ‘bribe/ بډه /baddow/. 134 in his book “grammar and vocabulary of waziri pashto” lorimer (1902) has divided pashto cases into two groups; nominative and oblique cases. later, in his book, he added the vocative and numeral cases, too. even though he does not provide sufficient information on the oblique plurals of words ending in different types of letter yey, however, some examples of words ending in the letter yey show that as per him most types of the said letter can be changed in is written and یو ,yow/ (in case of waziri pashto/ یو pronounced as یې /yey/). roos-keppel (1922) agrees with raverty (1867) on the pashto cases. however, he has added the vocative case too. his views on oblique cases resemble those of raverty. he has replaced the letter yey ی with the letter و in relation to the types of ی. for instance, in his fourth declension, he has also given the example of the word سړی /sarray/, which has been changed into سړي /sarri/ and سړو /sarrow/ in its oblique form. in addition, the example of ونه /wa:na/ ونې /wa:ney/ and ونو/wa:now/ is cited for the words ending in long yey ې . as per him, even the feminine yey ۍ may be replaced with و. ayazi (1939) is of the view that the pashto language has six cases. as per him, the letter yey ی is replaced with the letter و /waw/, and has presented some examples in this regard where he has discussed only two types of yey; the obvious yey ي and the long yey ې. the remaining types thereof have not been discussed. for instance, for the obvious yey ي, he has given the example of سړي /sarri/ ‘man’ where he has replaced the obvious yey with و by citing the example; ووهلم sarrow wa:wahala:m/. also, for/ سړو the long yey ې, he has given the example of ېځښ /sxadzey/ as ولیدم sxadzow wa:lida:m/ ‘the/ ښځو women saw me’ where the long yey ې is replaced with و. the author, however, has not touched on the types of yey where it is replaced with یو /yow/ in its oblique plural forms. penzl (1957) puts pashto cases in four groups. unlike raverty (1867), he has described the words ending in obvious yey replacing it with either و /waw/or /yow/. for example, the word /sarray/ is changed into /sarrow/ or /sarrayow/. he, however, has not described an alternate form for the words ending in feminine yey but unlike raverty, he has changed it into /yow/. according to shafeev (1964), pashto nouns are classified into seven cases, while mackenzie has come up with four cases (comrie, 1987). mackenzie states the examples of the oblique plural of the word کلی /ka:lay/ as کلو /ka:lo/ by citing the sentence ستاسو د کلو staaso da: ka:low kucey/ ‘the streets of your/ کوڅې village’. however, in case of the word نوی /na:way/ ‘new’, he has described two forms of the oblique plural thereof; نوو /na:wow/ and نویو /na:wyow/ (comrie, 1987). rishtin (2003) believes that pashto has four cases. he says that those plural nouns and masculine names that terminate in the obvious yey ي should be formed by replacing the obvious yey with و /waw/. he states the examples of دحمی ود سړو واههغو /hamid daghow sarrow wa:waaha:/ ‘hameed was beaten by these men’. he has also changed the obvious yey of words used in the vocative case; سړو ,ay sarrow/ ‘hey/ ای men’. further, he states the example of دا د مړو هدیره ده /daa da: ma:rrow hadira da/ ‘this is the graveyard of the dead’ where he has again changed the obvious yey into waw. by adding a note to the above rule, he says that sometimes, while combining ی with و, the obvious yey is not replaced by و and instead و is added to ی and gives the example of خپل عیب د ولیو منځ ,khpa:l ayb da: wa:lyow mandz day/. as per him/ دی the long yey ې changes into و and the feminine yey changes into یو. further, he adds that some individuals even change the said type of yey into و too, stating the example of چوکۍ /chawkai/ وچوک /chawkow/. tegey & robson (1996) have classified pashto nouns based on the case, gender, and number, and have touched on the rules for making the oblique plurals of words. as per them, the words that terminate in masculine yey ی, their oblique plural forms are formed by replacing the letter yey of their singular form with the letter و /waaw/. the authors, however, have added that these words can also have an alternate form where the letter yey can also be replaced with یو /yow/ in oblique cases. they have cited the example of the word سړی /sarray/ with its oblique plural form of either سړو /sarrow/ or وسړی /sarrayow/. furthermore, unlike the masculine yey ی which they have replaced with either و /waaw/ or یو /yow/, the authors have replaced feminine yey ۍ with /kowranai/ کورنۍ yow/ only, citing the example of/ یو changed into کورنیو /kowranayow/. other examples are also cited for such words, where the feminine yey is changed into یو /yow/ only. zyar (1978), like raverty (1867) has also based the declension of pashto nouns on seven cases. according to david (2013), pashto has four cases and has followed the same rules defined by tegey & robson (1996). as per this author, except for the feminine yey ۍ, all other types are replaced with و. however, this author has also included an alternate form of replacing the different types of yey with یو /yow/ excluding the feminine yey ۍ. ali rasulzada (2016) has also come up with the same rules as tegey & robson, however, the author has cited an example where he has deviated from the rule of changing the obvious yey ي and masculine yey ی into یو in its oblique form only for the sake of differentiating between the meanings of the feminine and masculine form of the word سپی /spay/ ‘dog’. the author puts that in order to differentiate the gender of the word سپی (a dog) from the word سپۍ /spai/ ‘a female dog’ in their oblique forms, the letter yey in the word سپی should not be replaced with یو (which is 135 against the rules defined by him and the aforementioned authors) and only replaced with یو in the oblique form of the word سپۍ. the review shows that there is no specific rule to stick with as to which type of the letter yey must be replaced with و and which with یو /yow/, or pertaining to which all grammarians have reached an agreement. it is also obvious that in their works none of them has addressed the problem of ambiguity arising from the rules they defined. this gap in their work and lack of clarity in the aforementioned rules have resulted in confusion among the pashtun writers which has led to the current trend of replacing most types of the letter yey with یو /yow/ and ambiguity arising from that. the conflict arises mainly due to the views of grammarians who have suggested an alternate form of replacing most types of the letter yey with یو /yow/ while making the oblique plural case of words. this issue can be resolved by unearthing the problems with such a method of making the oblique plural case of words and specifying how it results in ambiguity. therefore, it was necessary that the issue must be looked into. the author of this article aimed to investigate the problem in detail to find a solution thereto. in addition, no such research has been done in the past to study the aforementioned problem in the current rules. 2.1 the pashto language pashto is an eastern iranian language with 30–50 million speakers in the world (austin, 2008; lewis, 2009). amongst iranian languages, pashto is the second most important language (david, 2013; mackenzie, 1992). it is one of the two official languages of afghanistan, the other being dari. pashto is closely related to persian, kurdish, baluchi, and pamir languages. it is less closely related to nuristani and indo-aryan languages such as urdu, punjabi, and sindhi (david, 2013). the pashtospeaking population mostly lives in afghanistan and pakistan. in afghanistan, it is the mother tongue of the largest ethnic group in the country, and in pakistan, it has the status of a regional language where it is spoken by 20-25 per cent of the population, mainly in the khyber-pakhtunkhwa and baluchistan provinces (brown & ogilvie, 2009; ostler, 2012). significant pashto-speaking populations are also found in iran, united arab emirates, india, the united states, the united kingdom, canada, and malaysia (mostefa et al., 2012). pashto has been promoted as the national language of afghanistan since the second half of the 19th century when amir sher ali khan (1863-1879) introduced military titles in the pashto language and ordered that military command be delivered in this language (dinakhel, 2018; paul, 2017). in 1936, zahir shah, the king of afghanistan, declared pashto the national language of afghanistan and in the 1964 constitution of afghanistan, it was recognized as the national language of the country through article 35 of the constitution. along with the national language, the said constitution also declared it as one of the two official languages of afghanistan. in 2004, the constitutional grand assembly or the loya jirga, which was convened to draft a new constitution, did not include pashto as the national language. however, article 16 of the aforesaid constitution declared both pashto and dari as the two official languages of afghanistan. the english language has emerged as the third de facto official language of afghanistan over the years. the use of the english language in government and private institutions has increased and e-tazkira— an electronic national identity card is issued in three languages that also include english. historically, both pashto and dari have been treated as the de facto national languages of afghanistan. 2.2 transliteration of the pashto text this article cites examples from english, dari/persian, turkish, arabic, and hindi/urdu languages, along with the pashto language, where the latter is the main focus hereof. the pashto, dari/persian, and arabic words and sentences are written in their respective text and the roman equivalent thereof, where non-english text is followed by its romanized form written in slashes and, in most cases, the english meanings follow in single quotation marks. for example; لسا کتاب ليورا /saaraa ketaab lwali/ ‘sara reads the book’. in the tables used in this article, the romanized form is written below or above the pashto text, and where necessary, the english meaning is written thereunder. except for the letters, ، ږ ، ، ۍۀ ښ and ې where new latin equivalents are introduced in this article for the aforementioned letters, as follows; ai, a:, gj, sx and ey, respectively, the pashto text is transliterated by including the roman equivalents of them used in the works of scholars like penzl (1957), lorimer (1902), raverty (1867), and other english sources on the pashto language. the following table shows the pashto alphabet with its roman equivalents. the alphabet will be used throughout the text of this article. 136 table 2.1 arabic and latin alphabet of pashto no. pashto latin name pronunciation a alef, alep as in apple, as in wall ا 1 ,aa alef mad as in wall آ 2 b bey as in book ب 3 p pey as in pool پ 4 t tey as in theta ت 5 tt ttey as in tower ټ 6 s sey as in smile ث 7 j jim as in jungle ج 8 dz dzim as in zebra ځ 9 ch che as in chair چ 10 c tsey as ts in tsunami څ 11 h hey as in home ح 12 kh khey as in the scottish loch خ 13 d daal as in this د 14 dd ddaal as in day ډ 15 z zaal as in zebra ذ 16 r rey as in room ر 17 .rr rrey no equivalent in english ړ 18 z zey as in zebra ز 19 zh zhey as in leisure ژ 20 gj zhey, gey as s in vision and g as in gift ږ 21 s sin as in smile س 22 sh shin as in shine ش 23 sx sxin, khin, shin no equivalent in english ښ 24 s swaad as in sold ص 25 d, z zwaad th' as in that, and z as in zebra ض 26 t twey as in theta ط 27 z zwey as in zebra ظ 28 a, aa ayn ع 29 a as in apple when used in start of a word, or aa as in wall, when used in the middle of a word gh ghayn pronounced as the letter r in the french language غ 30 f fey as in fine ف 31 k kaaf/qaaf as in kite ق 32 k kaaf/kaap as in kite ك 33 g gaaf as in gold ګ 34 l laam as in life ل 35 m mim as in moon م 36 n noon as in now ن 37 nn nnoon no equivalent in english ڼ 38 w waaw as in wind و 39 u tsargand waaw oo as in moon و 40 ow majhul waaw oa as in roam و 41 h, a ghwandda hey h as in hen, a as in apple ه 42 :a ٙ◌ ،ۀ 43 zwarakay/ kajira hey i as in shirt y, i tsarganda yey y as in yard, i as in spirit ي 44 ey ugjda yey as e in elephant ې 45 ay naarina yey as in day ى 46 ai sxadzina yey as in wait ۍ 47 ai feyli yey as in wait ئ 48 49 َ a zwar diacritic mark for vowel sound a 50 َ o peysh diacritic mark for vowel sound u, as in "put" 51 َ e zeyr diacritic mark for vowel sound e, as in "end" 137 2.3 the letter yey currently, there are five different types of the letter yey which will be defined separately with examples in the forthcoming paragraphs. historically, the letter yey and its types were not the same as they are today. when the current pashto alphabet was introduced in the 16th century c.e (hayat, 2019), there was only one type of the letter yey represented by two horizontal dots beneath it as different types thereof were represented in the .ي written text by adding the diacritic signs “fatha” or “zwar”, and “kasra” or “zeyr'' denoted by small dashes over or below the letter preceding the only type of the letter ي. it has also been noticed that sometimes different types of this letter have been represented by the letter ي or ی without writing the aforementioned diacritic signs over or below them and the reader had to comprehend and recognize the various pronunciation thereof in the written text from the context of the sentence. later, the types of this letter increased throughout the years based on the need to incorporate various vowel sounds in the alphabet. the pashto tolana was established in 1937 (ahmad & khan, 2018) and held its third meeting in 1957. pashtun scholars from afghanistan and pakistan met in peshawar which is known as the third decision of the pashto tolanah. famous afghan scholars such as gul pacha ulfat, sidiqullah rishtin, and qiyamuddin khadim along with other pashtun writers and poets from baluchistan and northwest frontier province of pakistan, participated in the meeting (hotak, 2016). in the second session of the meeting, sidiqullah rishtin presented the four types of the letter yey as follows; ېی ۍ، ي، ، . pashto’s written works show that these different types of yey had been in practice in both pakhtunkhwa and afghanistan. however, based on the initiative of the pashto academy of the university of peshawar, three days seminar of the pashto tolana was held in baarra gali, swat, pakistan, on 10-12 july 1990 where the abovementioned four types of yey were accepted along with the verbal yey ئ. the use of these five types of yey is put into practice to this day. the five types of letters yey in the pashto language, which are currently practised, are defined as under; a) the obvious yey: the obvious yey, which is called معروفه /maarufa/ or ې یګنده رڅ /carganda yey/, is represented by ي and denoted by the latin letter i. this type of yey has two horizontal dots under it. example; ځواني /dzwani/ ‘youth’, کامیابي /kaamyaabi/ ‘success’. سړي /sarri/ ‘men’. b) the long yey: the long yey, which is called لهومجه /majhula/ or یې دهږاو /ugjda yey/, is represented by two vertical dots under it as ې, and denoted by the latin letters “ey’. example; ېسندر /sanda:rey/. اوبه ړېس /sarrey oba/ ‘cold water’. c) the masculine yey: the masculine yey, which is called ېی نهرینا /naarina yey/ is represented by ی. this type of yey has no dots and is denoted by the latin letters “ay”. it is usually used in words of masculine gender. example; سرتیری /sarteyray/ “soldier”. سړی /sarray/ ‘man’. d) the feminine yey: the feminine yey, which is called یې ښځینه /sxadzina yey/, is represented by a small tail on the terminating end of the letter yey. the feminine yey ۍ is denoted by the latin letters “ai”. this type of yey is usually used in words of feminine gender. example; کورنۍ /kowranai/ ‘family’.هګۍ /hagai/ ‘egg’. the difference between the above-mentioned four types of the letter yey can be noticed in the following pashto sentence where the four types of yey are highlighted in bold; . ي ورکو ۍ ډاوبه او ګرمه ډو ې ته سړ ي بل سړ ی یو سړ /yaw sarray ba:l sarri ta sarrey oba: aw garma ddowddai warkawi/ ‘a man gives cold water and warm bread to another man’. e) the verbal yey: the verbal yey, which is called یېفعل ي /feyli yey/, is represented by the diacritic sign hamza ءover the letter yey and denoted by the latin letters “ai”. this type of yey is also called مخاطبه یې /mokhaateba yey/. example; راشئ/raashai/ ‘you come’. the sage of verbal yey is decreasing and writers tend to replace it with the feminine yey ۍ due to the fact that there seems little or almost no difference between the sounds of these two letters. in addition, prior to introducing it as verbal yey, pashto tolana had accepted the letter ئ as the feminine yey (dost, 1974). apart from that, in early pashto texts and grammar books, there was no difference between the two, and both feminine yey ۍ and verbal yey ئ were represented by one type of yey. the review of ayazi’s work (1939) shows that till the 1930s three types of the letter yey; ,ئ ی and ې had gained currency, where ئ represented both feminine yey and verbal yey. even though, in terms of types, he has defined five types of yey, while in terms of shape, he has defined the five types thereof with the three shapes of the letter yey mentioned above. for instance, he refers to the verbal yey ئ stating it is used for representing words of feminine gender as well as words that command others to do something. he gives the example of the word سپئ /spai/ ‘a female dog’ written with verbal yey ئ which is now written with the feminine yey ۍ as سپۍ /spai/. he also gives the example of the word ځئ /dzai/ ‘you go’ written with verbal yey which is still written with the said yey. 138 2.4 grammatical case in languages that exhibit a case system, words are inflected, or in simple terms, they change their form based on their function in a sentence (qizi, 2020). in light of this modification, called inflexion, grammatical case refers to the way nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numerals, etc. are classified based on the role they play in a given phrase, clause, or sentence in relation to other words used therein (crystal, 2008; owens, 1998). languages with case systems can have a varying number of cases which include the nominative case, the accusative case, the genitive case, and the oblique case, to name some. as languages evolve, they may drop, merge, or develop certain cases (trijp, 2017). english language, for instance, is mainly based on subjective, objective, and possessive cases. these cases are usually referred to by their latin names; nominative, accusative/oblique, and genitive cases respectively and the inflexion in the case system of english is mostly restricted to pronouns. the nominative, also called the subjective case, usually refers to the subject in a given clause or sentence where it is mainly the doer of something. in the sentence; “i kissed the baby”, the word “i”, functioning as the subject of the sentence, is used in its nominative form. the same word is modified to “me” when it functions as the object of the sentence, or in its objective case, also called the oblique case. oblique case covers the accusative and the dative cases. in the accusative case, the word defined by it acts as the direct object of a verb in a given clause or sentence which is affected by the action indicated by the word (özdemir & ökten, 2015). the accusative case in dari/persian is denoted by the postposition raa/ with the noun or the specific word it is/ ”را“ defining (mouche et al., 2019). in the sentence طفل نم بوسیدم ,’man tefl raa bowsidam/ ‘i kissed the baby/ را the postposition “raa” is transferring the act of kissing (the verb) from “i” (subject) to the baby (direct object). the dative case refers to the indirect object of a given clause or sentence where it receives the direct object. for example, in the sentence; “he gave her a gift”, the word “her” refers to the indirect object, or the dative case, where it receives the “gift”. in the aforementioned sentence, the word “gift” functions as the accusative case and the word “her” as the dative case. the dative case is also seen in the dari/persian language where it is mostly marked with the preposition به /ba/, which means ‘to”, and برای /baraaye/, which means “for” (mohammadirad & rasekh-mahand, 2019). in the sentence تحف تو به ه من man ba tu tohfa daadam/ ‘i gave you a gift’, the/ دادم words تو .ba tu/ ‘to you’ denote the dative case/ به similarly, in the hindustani language, this is referred to by the word “ko” as in the sentence “main ne tumko tuhfa diya” which means ‘i gave you a gift’. in turkish, the dative case is formed by adding ‘e’ or ‘a’ to the end of the nouns (kızıltan & atlı, 2018). for example, in the sentence “okula gidiyorum” (i’m going to the school) the word okul (school) is inflected by adding the suffix “a” to it. english has lost most of its cases when compared with old english. for instance, the vocative case, which is used for addressing a noun or pronoun in a sentence, was present in old english but ceases to exist now. however, limited usage of the vocative case can still be seen in formal texts such as religious texts and poetry writings. the vocative case in english is marked by “o” preceding the noun or pronoun being addressed. for instance, the english translations of the holy quran; “o ye who believe,” (in the pilgrimage 22:77) and the holy bible; “o ye righteous” (in psalm 33:1) have preserved the use of the vocative case because it is present in the original language the text is translated from. nowadays, “o” is no longer used in modern english, and nouns or pronouns are addressed simply by writing that specific word without inflexion in the sentence. the arabic language also has the vocative case (al-bataineh, 2019; alkuwaihes, 2017) where it is marked by seven articles amongst which the most used one is یا /yaa/ (kasher, 2013) as in the example یا yaa akhi/ ‘o brother’. the other articles are used/ اخي based on the nature of the word in the sentence such as singularity and plurality etc. words in the ablative case usually mark movement away from something. for instance, in the phrase; “the distance from kabul to washington”, the preposition “from” may mark the ablative case. amongst others, the ablative case is mostly exhibited by latin and sanskrit as well as turkish and turkic languages of the central asian countries. in turkish, for example, the ablative case is represented by adding the suffix den or dan, which means ‘from’ (demir, 2020). 2.5 grammatical case in the pashto language languages may exhibit nominative-accusative or ergative-absolutive alignments, or split ergativity which is the combination of the foregoing. in nominative-accusative alignment, the subject of an intransitive verb behaves like the subject of a transitive verb but is different from the object of a transitive verb. languages that exhibit nominativeaccusative alignment are called nominative-accusative languages. in ergative-absolutive languages, the subject of an intransitive verb behaves like the object of a transitive verb (atlamaz, 2012; dixon, 1994) but is different from the agent of a transitive verb. the hindi language is an example of ergative language (verbeke & de cuypere, 2009; verbeke et al., 2015). some languages exhibit split ergativity which means these languages show both nominative-accusative and ergative-absolutive alignments. 139 except for a few traditional accounts, the linguistic case in the pashto language has not been given sufficient attention perhaps mostly because pashto grammarians have been oblivious in regard to the achievements made in the area of the linguistic case as a whole (masood, 2014). the views of hose limited scholars, who have studied the linguistic case in pashto, differ on the number of cases in this language (masood & rahman, 2013). however, the most recent literature in this regard describes the case system in pashto based on four cases namely direct, oblique, ablative, also called oblique 2, and vocative (david, 2013). the direct case covers nominative, accusative, and absolutive cases in both present and past tense sentences, while the oblique is mostly used in the past tense sentences and as a prepositional case. pashto shows split-ergativity (masood & rahman, 2021; rahman & bukhari, 2014), with nominativeaccusative alignment in non-past sentences while ergative-absolutive in past tense sentences (rahman & bukhari, 2020). the vocative case is represented by adding the suffix ه /a/, و /ow/ or یو /yo/ to the noun based on the singularity and plurality of the noun, or by adding ای /ay/ or یه /ya/ before the noun along with the said suffixes. for example, to address a boy; the pashto word hala:k/ is modified by adding the suffix a/ هلک to it, thus هلکه /hala:ka/ or by adding the prefix ای/ay/ before said word thus ./ay hala:ka/ ای هلکه the ablative case in pashto is represented in two ways by either using the preposition لۀ /la:/ before the word it is defining and adding the suffix ه /a/ to the said word, or by adding the preposition د /da:/ before the noun and the preposition نه /na/ or څخه /ca:kha/ after the said word. for example, له کابله تر واشنګټنه /la: kaba:la ta:r waashingttana/ ‘from kabul to washington’ the genitive case is formed by inflecting some of the pronouns and by adding the preposition د /da:/ which means “of” or the apostrophe in english showing possession. in the case of a noun, the noun is also preceded by the preposition د /da:/ ‘of’ in the genitive case. for example; کتاب سارا د /da: saaraa ketaab/ ‘sara’s book’. pashto inflects the adjectives and numerals as well. nouns, pronouns, and adjectives are usually inflected based on the last letter of the word where the aforesaid is replaced by another letter added thereto. inflexion occurs in both singular and plural forms. in this article, the focus will be placed mainly on the inflexion of words ending in the letter ی in its oblique case. 3. method the summative approach to qualitative content analysis was adopted to conduct this study. as summative content analysis is used to count and compare specific words and phrases in the data followed by the latent meanings thereof (hamuddin et al., 2020; hsieh & shannon, 2005), therefore the author chose it to study the usage of the oblique plurals of words terminating in different types of the letter yey to see how often was the letter yey replaced with یو /yow/ and how many times with و /waaw/, and to check in what context was the oblique plural of such a word used. the author used manifest content analysis to quantify and compare oblique plural forms of 16 selected words terminating in the letter yey, in the famous pashto news platforms such as the bbc pashto, voa pashto, radio free europe pashto aka azadi radio, and dw pashto focusing on the period between 2010 till 2020. the aforementioned platforms were chosen due to their wide reach in afghanistan considering the fact that they are easily available to almost all afghans who have access to the internet and irrespective of whether they’re based in the country or abroad. in addition, most of the digitally written pashto work on a daily basis is produced through the aforesaid sources which help in keeping track of the trend of replacing the letter yey with یو/yow/ in oblique plurals of words ending in different types of this letter. this was necessary for analyzing whether the said trend was gaining currency in pashtuns or otherwise because news articles are produced almost every day which helps in observing the way certain words are used from time to time. the following table shows the aforesaid 16 words the author considered for this study; table 3.1. words selected for content analysis no oblique plural form with یو no oblique plural form with و سړو 2 سړیو 1 لورو 4 لوریو 3 چارواکو 6 چارواکیو 5 شوو 8 شویو 7 وګړو 10 وګړیو 9 غړو 12 غړیو 11 کونکو/کوونکو 14 کوونکیو/کونکیو 13 لوړپوړو 16 لوړپوړیو 15 140 these words were chosen due to their frequent use. frequencies of each word’s occurrence were compared with each other in each year of the period, and as a whole, such that one word was checked with its oblique plural form terminating in یو /yow/ and then the same word with its oblique plural form terminating in و /waaw/. in addition, the author selected books on pashto literature to see how the writers used these words. for this purpose, the author chose the books pata khazana, and old hand-written pashto manuscripts from the work of famous poets, khushal khan khattak, ahmad shah abdali, and rahman baba. however, importance was placed more on the websites mentioned above for the results. latent content analysis was used to analyze the context and underlying meanings of the words used in these sources. in order to dig into the aforementioned sources for identifying, quantifying, and analyzing the said set of words, the author used google search tools and the web version of atlas.ti which is qualitative data analysis, and research software. in google, the searches were made using the word site: followed by a specific domain and extension and the targeted word. the searches were further narrowed down by selecting each year one by one from 2010 through 2020 for the whole set of words mentioned above and a total number of 31265 texts were analyzed for the final dataset. in addition, the author analyzed material written on pashto grammar in three languages; english, pashto, and dari. apart from the case system in pashto, the author analyzed the work of famous pashto grammarians on the oblique case. for this purpose, the author chose books written in english, spanning from books written on pashto grammar as old as raverty’s (1867) to the latest anne boyle david’s (2014). the author chose english books first because more literature is available on the pashto case system in the english language. for this purpose, books were written by famous grammarians like henry george raverty, earnest trumpp, j. g. lorimer, roos-keppel, d. n. mackenzie, herbert penzl, d.a. shafeev, habibullah tegey & barbara robson were analyzed. secondly, the author dug into english papers written on the pashto case system to bridge the gap between the materials written previously in relation to the topic of this article, and recent research written hitherto. books written in the pashto and dari language on pashto grammar were also chosen to get acquainted, in detail, with the case system of the pashto language from the point of view of pashtun scholars such as mohammad azam ayazi, mojawir ahmad zyar, and siddiqullah rishtin. furthermore, the author considered different dialects and accents of the pashto language and interviewed speakers of the said dialects to distinguish between the different ways of pronunciation of words ending in different types of the letter ی, especially the masculine yey ی, the feminine yey ۍ, and the verbal yey ئ. for this purpose, the author conducted face-to-face and onthe-phone interviews with speakers of different dialects and accents. this was necessary for the author to have a clear idea of how the different types of the letter yey were pronounced in different pashto dialects so there remains little or no room for the study to be influenced by the personal bias of the author of this article. the following table summarizes the data source used in the study. table 3.2. summary of the data sources used in this study no source name type language author purpose 1 bbc pashto website pashto analysis of 16 words 2 voa pashto website pashto analysis of 16 words 3 dw pashto website pashto analysis of 16 words 4 azadi radio pashto website pashto analysis of 16 words 5 pata khazana book pashto mohammad hotak analysis of 16 words 6 da rahman baba kuliyaat book pashto rahman baba analysis of 16 words 7 divani ahmad shah book pashto ahmad shah abdali analysis of 16 words and types of the letter yey 8 diwaane khushal khan khattak book pashto khushal khan khattak analysis of 16 words and types of the letter yey 9 a dictionary of the puk’hto, or language of the afghans book english raverty, h. g analysis of grammar rules for oblique plurals 10 grammar of the pashto book english earnest trumpp analysis of grammar rules for oblique plurals 11 grammar and vocabulary of waziri pashto book english j. g. lorimer analysis of grammar rules for oblique plurals 12 a manual of pushtu book english roos-keppel analysis of grammar rules for oblique plurals 141 13 the world’s major languages book english bernard comrie analysis of grammar rules for oblique plurals 14 a grammar of pashto book english herbert penzl analysis of grammar rules for oblique plurals 15 a reference grammar of pashto book english habibullah tegey & barbara robson analysis of grammar rules for oblique plurals 16 descriptive grammar of pashto and its dialects book english anne boyle david analysis of grammar rules for oblique plurals 17 qavāʻid-i pushtū book dari mohammad azam ayazi analysis of grammar rules for oblique plurals 18 pashto grammar book pashto mojawir ahmad zyar analysis of grammar rules for oblique plurals 19 pashto grammar (zhabshodana) book pashto sidiqullah rishtin analysis of grammar rules for oblique plurals 20 pashto yeegane book pashto ali rasulzada analysis of grammar rules for oblique plurals 21 da pashto tolaney aw baarra galai faisaley website pashto m.m hotak history and types of the letter yey 22 da afghanistan zhabe aw tokamuna book pashto dost mohammad dost history and types of the letter yey 4. results 4.3 is the trend of replacing most types of the letter yey with یو /yow/ in oblique plurals of words terminating in the letter yey, gaining currency among pashtun writers? a thorough study of the pashto grammatical rules for making the oblique plural of words terminating in the letter yey reveals that grammarians are divided on their opinions concerning different types of the said letter when it comes to replacing them with the letter و or یو /yow/. from this difference of opinion, it is inferred that pashtun writers are confused in regard to the replacing of different types of the letter yey with و and یو which as a result, encourages a number of writers to opt for replacing most types thereof with یو /yow/ while using the oblique plurals of words terminating in the said letter, in their writings. as per the initial observations of the author of this article, it was turning into a trend to replace most types of this letter with یو, therefore, it was necessary to look into it. a comprehensive study of the 16 words selected for the purpose of content analysis and the result thereof showed that this trend was moving at a very negligible pace as the occurrence of words where the letter yey was replaced with و /waaw/ was considerably more than that of the same word where the letter yey was replaced with یو /yow/ while making the oblique plurals of words terminating in different types of the letter yey such that during the years 2010 to 2020 the trend of replacing the letter yey with یو /yow/ was only 32.28 per cent compared with 67.71 per cent of replacing it with و /waaw/ in the data source. for the sake of brevity, the results of eight words of the sixteen words analyzed in this study are presented herein. the occurrence of the words ړوګو /waga:rrow/ ‘people’ and وګړیو /waga:rriyow/ ‘people’, which are the two alternate oblique plural forms of the word waga:rray/ ‘a person’, were compared in the data/وګړی sources focusing on the period of 2010 to 2020. the word ړوګو /waga:rrow/ ‘people’ is formed by replacing the letter yey with و and ګړیو و /waga:rriyow/ by replacing it with یو. the analysis showed that during the 11 years’ period the word وگړو /waga:rrow/, where the letter yey is replaced with و, had occurred in the data sources 99.07 per cent compared with less than 1 per cent of the word وګړیو /waga:rriyow/, where the letter yey is replaced with یو. the same words were also analyzed in the earlier written pashto works. for instance, the text of the book pata khazana showed that both ګړو و /waga:rrow/ ‘people’ and ګړیوو /waga:rriyow/ ‘people’ were used in the said book such that in one part of the book, it was ګړوو /waga:rrow/ and in another part, it was ګړیوو /waga:rriyow/. the word ګړو و /waga:rrow/ appears in the aforesaid book in the poem attributed to the first pashtun poet amir kror. the word ګړیوو /waga:rriyow/ is used by the author of aforesaid book while introducing another pashtun poet shaikh mathi and his work. the majority of other words analyzed by the author also showed similar results. for instance, the percentage of the occurrence of the words یو غړ /gha:rriyow/ ‘organs, members’, and غړو and /gha:rrow/ ‘organs, members’, which are the two possible oblique plural forms of the word غړی /gha:rray/ ‘an organ, a member’ were compared. the occurrence of the word ړیوغ /gha:rriyow/, formed by replacing the letter yey with وی , was 9.83 per cent and that of the word ړو غ /gha:rrow/, which is formed by replacing the relevant letter yey with و, was 90.16 per cent. this shows that writers, unlike the initial observation of the author of this article, mostly tend to replace the letter yey with the letter و compared with 142 that of replacing it with یو /yow/ while using the oblique plural of words terminating in different types of the said letter. however, it was not the case with all the sixteen words selected for content analysis and in relation to some words, the writers’ tendency toward replacing the letter yey with یو while making the oblique plural of words, was higher than replacing it with و. for instance, the analysis of the words شوو /sha:wow/ ‘done’ and شویو /sha:wiyow/ ‘done’, which are the two alternate oblique plural forms of the word sha:way/ ‘done’, showed that the occurrence of/ شوی the word شوو /sha:wow/, which is formed by replacing the relevant letter yey with the letter و, was 16.84 per cent in the data sources while the percentage of the word شویو /sha:wiyow/ ‘done’, which is formed by replacing the letter yey with وی , was used 82.48 per cent during the years 2010 to 2020 in the data source. similarly, a comparison of the words نوو /na:wow/ ‘plural of new’ and یوون /na:wyow/ ‘plural of new’, which are the two alternate oblique plurals of the word نوی /na:way/ ‘new’, shows that the frequency of the word نوو /na:wow/, which is formed by replacing the letter yey with و, was 22.81 per cent while that of the word ونوی /na:wyow/, which is formed by replacing the letter yey with یو /yow/, was 77.18 during the mentioned period of time. however, the overall percentage difference of all words analyzed by the author showed that during the period of review writers showed a tendency toward replacing the letter yey mostly with the letter و /waaw/ instead of replacing it with یو /yow/ while using the oblique plural cases of words terminating in the letter yey. it was also noticed that the trend of replacing most types of the letter yey with یو /yow/ had gradually increased from the year 2016 through 2020 such that in the first five years from 2011 till 2015 the percentage of replacing the letter yey with یو /yow/ while using the oblique plural cases of words terminating in the letter yey, was 20.67 while for the years 2016 till 2020 it was 79.32. however, it is still lagging far behind the trend of replacing it with و /waaw/ as described in the foregoing paragraphs and the overall result shows that the answer to the first research question is not affirmative. it can be inferred that the 20.67 per cent tendency towards replacing the different types of the letter yey while making oblique plural cases of words terminating in the said letter might be due to the different opinions of the grammarians on the rules thereof, the dialect factor and other reasons described in detail in the discussion section of this article. 4.4 what type of the letter yey must be replaced with و and what type thereof with یو? analysis of the data source pertaining to the grammatical rules on making the oblique plurals of words terminating in the letter yey showed that grammarians had a difference of opinion. among ten authors, three of them, raverty (1867), roos-keppel (1922), and ayazi (1939) believe that all types of the letter yey should be replaced by و /waaw/ when making the oblique plurals thereof, while as per one author, lorimer (1902), all types of the said letter should be replaced with یو /yow/ while making such plurals. as per three authors, trumpp (1837), comrie (1987), and rishtin (2003), based on the examples they provided in their works, all types of yey can be replaced with eitherو /waaw/ or یو /yow/. one author, penzl (1957) is of the opinion that all types of yey, except for the feminine yey ۍ, can be changed into either و/waaw/ or یو /yow/. three authors, tegey & robson (1996), david (2013) and rasulzada (2016) are of the opinion that except for the long yey which is replaced by و /waaw/, the obvious yey ي and masculine yey ی can be replaced with either و /waaw/ or یو /yow/ and the feminine yey ۍ can be replaced with only یو /yow/. based on the abovementioned explanations, as a whole the following set of rules are achieved in relation to making the oblique plural of a word terminating in the letter yey and its types; in order to make the oblique plural case of a word terminating in the letter yey, a writer has the following options to do so; a) replacing all types of letter yey with و /waaw/ as defined by raverty (1867), roos-keppel (1922), and ayazi (1939) b) replacing all types thereof with یو /yow/, as defined by lorimer (1902) c) replacing all types of this letter with either و /waaw/ and یو /yow/ as described by trumpp (1873), comrie (1987), and rishtin (2003) d) replacing all types thereof with either و /waaw/ or which is ۍ yow/ except for the feminine yey/ یو only replaced with یو as defined by penzl (1957) e) replacing all types with either و /waaw/ or یو /yow/ except for the long yey which is replaced with only و /waaw/ and the masculine yey which is replaced with only یو /yow/ as defined by tegey & robson (1996), david (2013), and rasulzada (2016). the findings reveal the fact that there is no touchstone for figuring out the correct oblique plural case of words ending in the letter yey and its different types, as there exists no or very less agreement amongst grammarians in relation to their rules. this has resulted in confusion among some writers leading to ambiguity when it comes to different words and their meanings. 4.5 will replacing all types of letter yey with و /waaw/ or, replacing all types thereof with وی /yow/ create ambiguity in regard to the meaning of words while making the oblique plural case of words terminating in different types of the letter yey? 143 in regard to this question, it was found that confusion and ambiguity will arise in case; a) all types of yey are replaced with یو /yow/, and if, b) all types of yey are replaced with و /waaw/ either. the following table shows words with ambiguity in their oblique plural cases, with their english meaning written below them. table 4.1. confusion in meanings of words based on the wrong use of the letter yey in the oblique plural forms no singular direct plural oblique plural remarks 1 gaadday gaaddi gaaddow the meaning of the words cars and carts will be confused in their oblique plural case. ګاډو ګاډي ګاډی car cars cars gaaddai gaaddai gaaddai ګاډیو ګاډۍ ګاډۍ cart carts carts 2 spay spi spow the meaning of male dogs and female dogs can’t be differentiated in case the letter yey is not replaced correctly. ی سپ سپو سپي dog dogs dogs spai spai spayow ۍ سپ ۍ سپ یو سپ bitch bitches bitches if the letter yey is replaced مړو مړي مړی 3 with یو in the oblique plural forms of both words, or even with waaw in both words, the difference between the meaning of corpse and morsel will be confused. corpse corpses corpses ړیوم ړۍم ړۍم morsel morsels morsels 4 wa:ray wa:ri wa:row the meanings of sheep and gums will be confused. ورو وري یور sheep sheep sheep wa:rai wa:rai wa:rayow یوور ۍور ۍور gum gums gums 5 garray garri garrow the meaning of pitchers and watches will be confused. ړوګ ګړي ګړی pitcher pitchers pitchers garrai garrai garrayow ګړیو ګړۍ ړۍګ watch watches watches 6 peyttay peytti peyttow the meaning of backpacks and boxes will be confused. ېټو پ ېټي پ ېټی پ backpack backpacks backpacks peyttai peyttai pettayow ېټیو پ ېټۍ پ ېټۍ پ box boxes boxes 7 kili kilai kilayow the meaning of pitchers and watches will be confused. یوکل ۍکل کلي 144 key keys keys ka:lay ka:li ka:low کلو کلي یکل village villages villages 8 khpa:lsaray khpalsari khpalsarow the meaning of rebellion and rebellious will be confused. سرو خپل خپلسري ی خپلسر rebellious rebellious rebellious khpalsari khpalsarai khpalsarayow یو خپلسر ۍ خپلسر خپلسري rebellion rebellions rebellions 9 spin sta:rgay spin sta:rgi spin sta:rgayow the meaning of impudent and impudence will be confused. ګو ستر ینسپ ګي ستر ینسپ ګی ستر ینسپ impudent impudent impudent ګیو ستر ینسپ ګۍ ستر ینسپ ګي ستر ینسپ impudence impudence impudence 10 hila hiley hilow the difference between the یلو ه یلي ه یله ه meaning of hopes and deer will be confused. hope hopes hopes hilai hilai hilayow یلیو ه یلۍ ه یلۍ ه deer deer deer 11 kowtta kowttey kowttow the between the meaning of ټوکو ټېکو ټهکو rooms and mansions will be confused. rooms rooms rooms kowttai kowttai kowttayow ټیو کو ټۍکو ټۍکو mansion mansions mansions 12 towray towri towrow the difference between the تورو توري یتور meaning of letters and a certain type of vegetable will be confused. letters letters letters towrai towrai towrayow یوتور ۍتور ۍتور 13 ka:rrkai ka:rrkai ka:rrkayow the difference between the ړکیوک ړکۍ ک ړکۍ ک meaning of windows and reeds will be confused. window windows windows ka:rrkay ka:rrki ka:rrkow ړکو ک ړکي ک ړکی ک reed reeds reeds 14 gha:rray gha:rri gha:rrow the difference between the meaning of members and throats will be confused. ړوغ ړيغ ړیغ member members members gharrai gharrai gharrayow ویړغ ړۍغ ړۍغ throat throats throats 15 khwaarzwaakay khwaarzwaaki khwaarzwaakow the difference between the meaning of weakness and the weak will be confused. خوارځواکو خوارځواکي خوارځواکی weak the weak the weak khwaarzwaaki khwaarzwaakai khwaarzwaakayow خوارځواکیو خوارځواکۍ خوارځواکي weakness weaknesses weaknesses 145 as it can be seen from the above table replacing most types of the letter yey with یو or replacing most types thereof with و either, create the ambiguity of meaning. in order to address the above issues and remove the ambiguity thereof, it was important that, based on the aforesaid set of rules, clear rules be defined for making the oblique plurals of words ending in the letter yey and its different types. based on the findings hereof, the author concluded that rules for each type of the letter yey should be defined based on the direct plural forms of words where the letter yey at the end of the words in their direct plural form plays an important role in the creation of its correct oblique plural form. therefore, the following rules were proposed and put into practice which resulted in a solution to the ambiguity of meaning mentioned above. the said problem will be looked into in detail in the discussion section of this article. 4.3.1. words with direct plurals ending in obvious yey in case the direct plural form of a word ends in obvious yey ي, the oblique plural form of that word is formed by replacing the obvious yey ي with the letter waaw/. for instance, the direct form of the word/ و ttaattowbi/, to form its/ ټاټوبي ttaattowbay/ is/ ټاټوبی oblique plural form; the obvious yey ي is replaced with the letter و /waaw/ resulting in the word ټاټوبو /ttaattowbow/. the following table contains other such words with their correct oblique plural forms: table 4.2. oblique plural of words with direct plurals ending in obvious ye ي no singular direct plural oblique plural 1 gaadday gaaddi gaaddow ډواګ ګاډي ګاډی car cars cars gaaddai gaaddai gaaddai ګاډیو ګاډۍ ګاډۍ cart carts carts 2 spay spi spow ی سپ سپو سپي dog dogs dogs spai spai spayow ۍ سپ ۍ سپ یو سپ bitch bitches bitches مړو مړي مړی corpse corpses corpses ړیوم ړۍ م ړۍ م morsel morsels morsels 3 wa:ray wa:ri wa:row ورو وري یور sheep sheep sheep wa:rai wa:rai wa:rayow یوور ۍور ۍور gum gums gums 4 garray garri garrow ړوګ ي ړګ ګړی pitcher pitchers pitchers garrai garrai garrayow ګړیو ګړۍ ړۍ ګ watch watches watches 5 peyttay peytti peyttow ېټو پ ېټي پ ېټی پ backpack backpacks backpacks peyttai peyttai pettayow ېټیو پ ېټۍ پ ېټۍ پ box boxes boxes 6 kili kilai kilayow یوکل ۍکل کلي key keys keys ka:lay ka:li ka:low کلو کلي یلک village villages villages 146 7 khpa:lsaray khpalsari khpalsarow خپلسرو خپلسري ی خپلسر rebellious rebellious rebellious khpalsari khpalsarai khpalsarayow یو خپلسر ۍ خپلسر خپلسري rebellion rebellions rebellions 8 spin sta:rgay spin sta:rgi spin sta:rgayow ګو ستر ینسپ ي ګترس ینسپ ګی ترس ینسپ impudent impudent impudent ګیو ستر ینسپ ګۍ ستر ینسپ ګي ستر ینسپ impudence impudence impudence 9 hila hiley hilow یلو ه یلي ه یله ه hope hopes hopes hilai hilai hilayow یلیو ه یلۍ ه یلۍ ه deer deer deer 11 kowtta kowttey kowttow ټوکو ټېکو ټهکو rooms rooms rooms kowttai kowttai kowttayow ټیو کو ټۍکو ټۍکو mansion mansions mansions 12 towray towri towrow تورو توري یتور letters letters letters towrai towrai towrayow یو تور ۍتور ۍتور 13 ka:rrkai ka:rrkai ka:rrkayow ړکیوک ړکۍ ک ړکۍ ک window windows windows ka:rrkay ka:rrki ka:rrkow ړکو ک ړکي ک ړکی ک reed reeds reeds 14 gha:rray gha:rri gha:rrow ړوغ ړيغ ړیغ member members members gharrai gharrai gharrayow ړیوغ ړۍغ ړۍغ throat throats throats 15 khwaarzwaakay khwaarzwaaki khwaarzwaakow خوارځواکو خوارځواکي خوارځواکی weak the weak the weak khwaarzwaaki khwaarzwaakai khwaarzwaakayow خوارځواکیو خوارځواکۍ اکيورځخوا weakness weaknesses weaknesses it can be seen in the table above that the oblique plural forms of words ending in masculine yey with their direct plural form terminating in obvious yey should be formed by replacing the obvious yey with the و /waaw/ to achieve the correct oblique plural forms thereof. 4.3.2. words with direct plurals ending in feminine yey in case the direct plural form of a word ends in feminine yey ۍ, the oblique plural form of that word will be formed by replacing the feminine yey ۍ with ځواني yow/. for instance, the direct form of/ یو /dzwaani/ is ځوانۍ /dzwaanai/, to form its oblique plural form, the feminine yey ۍ is replaced with یو /yow/ resulting in the word ځوانیو /dzwaanayow/. table 4.3 contains other such words with their correct and wrong oblique plural forms. 147 table 4.3. oblique plural of words with direct plurals ending in feminine ye ۍ cdsingular direct plural oblique plural wrong form سیالو سیالیو سیالۍ سیالي syaali syaalai syaalayow syaalow زندګو زندګیو زندګۍ زندګي zindagi zindagai zindagayow zindagow خپلسرو ریو خپلس خپلسرۍ خپلسري khpa:lsari khpa:lsarai khpa:lsarayow khpa:lsarow خواخوږو یوخواخوږ خواخوږۍ خواخوږي khwaakhugji khwaakhugjai khwaakhugjayow khwakhugjow ناروغو ناروغیو ناروغۍ يوغنار naaraowghi naarowghai naarowghayow naarowghow زورواکو زورواکیو زورواکۍ زورواکي zowrwaaki zowrwaakai zowrwaakayow zowrwaakow و لولات اتلولیو ولۍاتل اتلولي atalwali atalwalai atalwalayow atalwalow ولسوالو ویالولسو ۍوالولس ولسوالي wa:laswaali wa:laswaalai wa:laswaalayow wa:laswalow ښادو ښادیو ښادۍ ښادي sxaadi sxaadai sxaadayow sxaadayow the above table shows that to avoid the ambiguity of meaning, the oblique plural of words with their direct plural forms ending in feminine yey should be formed by replacing the aforesaid yey with یو /yow/ to achieve the correct oblique plural form thereof. the problem of ambiguity arising from oblique plurals of the words خپلسری /khpa:lsaray/ and خپلسري /khpa:lsari/ is easily solved by considering the rules defined in part a above and part b herein. 4.3.3. words with singular and direct plural forms ending in feminine yey in case the singular form and direct plural form of a word terminate in feminine yey ۍ, the oblique plural form of such word will be formed by replacing the feminine yey ۍ with یو/yow/ for instance, the direct plural of کورنۍ /kowranai/ ‘family’ is also کورنۍ /kowranai/, to form its oblique plural form, the feminine yey ۍ is replaced with یو /yow/, resulting in kowranayow/ ‘families’. table 4.4 below/ کورنیو contains other such words with their correct and wrong oblique plural forms; table 4.4. oblique plurals of the words with singular and direct plural forms ending in feminine ye ۍ singular direct plural oblique plural wrong form ولډو ډولیو ډولۍ ډولۍ ddowlai ddowlai ddowlayo ddowlow ورنکو کورنیو کورنۍ کورنۍ kowranai kowranai kowranayo kowranow ډوډو ډوډیو ډوډۍ ډوډۍ ddowddai ddowddai ddowddayow ddowddow اونو اونیو اونۍ اونۍ ownai ownai ownayow ownow بهرنو بهرنیو بهرنۍ بهرنۍ bahranai bahranai bahranayow bahranow هګو هګیو هګۍ هګۍ hagai hagai hagayow hagow سلګو سلګیو سلګۍ ګۍسل 148 from the above table, it is evident that the feminine yey in the words terminating in such yey should be replaced with یو to form the correct oblique plural form thereof. which in case otherwise, will result in ambiguity of meaning. consider, for example, the words توری /towray/ ‘a letter’, and ۍتور /towrai/ ‘a type of vegetable’. the correct oblique plural form of these two words will be تورو /towrow/ ‘letters’, and توریو /towrayow/ ‘plural form of a type of vegetable’, respectively. 4.3.4. words with direct plurals ending in long yey if the direct plural form of a word ends in long yey ې, the oblique plural form of that word will be formed by replacing long yey ې with the letter و. the following table contains such words with their correct and wrong oblique plural forms. table 4.5. oblique plural forms of words with their direct plural forms ending in long ye ې singular direct plural oblique plural wrong form دندیو دندو دندې دنده danda dandey dandow dandayow کړه زده کړې زده کړو هزد کړیو زده zdakrra zdakrrey zdakrrow zdakrayow بېلګیو بېلګو بېلګې بېلګه beylga beylgey beylgow beylgayow ې ونډ ونډه نډوو ونډیو wandda wanddey wanddow wanddayow توریو تورو تورې توره tura turey turow turayow ې سندر سندره سندریو سندرو sandara sandarey sandarow sandarayow the above table shows that the direct plural form of ښځه /sxadza/ ‘woman’ is ښځې /sxadzey/ ‘women’, formed by replacing the letter ه with long yey ې. to form the oblique plural form of its direct plural, the letter ې of the word ښځې /sxadzey/ is replaced with the letter و resulting in ښځو /sxadzow/ ‘women’. this also applies to the words where the direct plural form of a word ends in long yey ې preceded by the letter و. the oblique plural form of such words will be formed by replacing the long yey with the letter و. table 4.6 contains such words with their correct and wrong oblique plural forms. table 4.6. oblique plural form of the words with their direct plural forms ending in long yey ې preceded by و singular direct plural oblique plural wrong form خواویو خواوو خواوې خوا khwaa khwaawey khwaawow khwaawayow بریاویو بریاوو بریاوې بریا baryaa baryaawey baryaawow baryaawayow اړتیاویو اړتیاوو اړتیاوې اړتیا arrtyaa arrtyaawey arrtyaawow arrtyaawayow دعاویو دعاوو دعاوې دعا duaa duaawey duaawow duaawayow اویو خط خطاوو خطاوې خطا khataa khataawe khataawow khataawayow ویناویو ویناوو ویناوې وینا wainaa wainaawe waainawow wainawayow اسانتیاویو اسانتیاوو اسانتیاوې اسانتیا asaantyaa asaantyaawey asaantyaawow asaantyaawayow ېښکالو ښکال کالووښ ښکالویو sxkolaa sxkolaawey sxkolaawow sxkolaawayow ېراوو ښ ښېراوې ښېرا ښېراویو sxeyraa sxeyraawey sxeyraawow sxeyraawayow ستړیاویو ستړیاوو ستړیاوې ستړیا sta:rryaa sta:rryaawey sta:rryaawow sta:rryaawayow 149 table 4.6 clarifies that the direct plural form of a word ending in long yey ې preceded by the letter و is formed by replacing the long yey ې with the letter و as shown in the table for word خوا /khwaa/ ‘side’ with its direct plural form خواوې /khwaawey/ ‘sides’, resulting in the word خواوو /khwaawow/. 4.3.5. exceptions some words, especially adjectives ending in obvious yey ي do not change their original form as they’re defining a singular/plural noun alike. (usually, in pashto, adjectives are also pluralized.) the word ,/milli/ ملي milli/ ‘national’ will always be/ ملي whether used with a singular word or a plural word. for instance, د ملي ادارې دندې/da milli idarey dandey/ ‘the duties of a national institution’ or د ملي ادارو دندې /da milli idaarow dandey/ ‘the duties of national institutions’. adjectives that change in their oblique plural forms can be formed by considering the gender of the word it is defining. if the masculine noun is defining a plural word, the oblique plural form of the adjective ending in the obvious ي will be formed as per rule a above. for instance, سړي لیوني /leywani sarri/ ‘mad men’, will become سړولیونو /leywanow sarrow/. however, in case the plural noun is of the feminine gender, as the direct plural of adjective ends in the feminine yey ۍ, the oblique form thereof will be formed as per rule c above. for example, ۍ ښځې یونل /leywanai sxadzey/ ‘mad women’ will change into ښځو leywanayow sxadzow/. the following table/لیونیو contains other words for the exceptions thereof. table 4.7. exceptions; oblique plural of words with singular and direct plurals ending in obvious ye ي singular direct plural oblique plural remarks no change ملي ملي ملي milli milli milli no change افغاني افغاني افغاني afghani afghani afghani no change دولتي دولتي دولتي dawlati dawlati dawlati no change محلي محلي محلي mahalli mahalli mahalli no change يمزار يمزار مزاري mazaari mazaari mazaari no change چاپي چاپي چاپي chaapi chaapi chaapi no change دیني دیني دیني dini dini dini no change امنیتي امنیتي امنیتي amniyati amniyati amniyati no change ي څاپنا ناڅاپي ناڅاپي naacaapi naacaapi naacaapi no change کاري کاري يکار kaari kaari kaari no change کشفي کشفي کشفي kashfi kashfi kashfi 150 it is evident from the above table that not all words terminating in obvious yey can be changed in their oblique plural cases such as the words لیم /milli/ ‘national’, and يافغان /afghani/. words ending in the suffix والی /waalay/ as in ,/yawwaalay/ یووالی ,/chamtuwaalay/ چمتووالی taawtrikhwaalay/, etc. also do not change/ تاوتریخوالی their forms in its oblique plural form. also, while the words terminating in different types of the letter yey may also end in یانو /yaanow/ in their oblique plural forms along with یو /yow/, for instance, لیونی /lewanay/ ‘ a mad man’ can have both لیونو /lewanow/ and انو لیونی /leywanyanow/ as its oblique plural forms, this may not be the case for all words ending in letter yey. for instance, the word يانقرب /korbaani/ can have two meanings; ‘sacrifice’ (noun) and ‘a victim’ (adjective). the letter yey in both words can not be replaced with while making the oblique plural case thereof. in یو case the word يقربان /korbani/ is used as a noun, which here means ‘sacrifice’, then the oblique plural case of this word will be قربانیو /korbaanayow/, keeping in view the direct plural form ۍقربان /korbaanai/ of this word. in case, it is used as an adjective, which means “victim”, then the direct plural of this word will be korbaanyaan/ ‘victims’ and the oblique plural/ قربانیان thereof will be قربانیانو /korbaanyaanow/ ‘victims’. an example in this regard can be the following sentence; جدو د وک قربانیانونگ لت مرسته ړهسره /dawlat da: jang korbaanyanow sara mrasta wakrra/ ‘the government helped the victims of war’. the following table contains the oblique plurals of words with their singular and direct plural forms ending in the suffix والی /waalay/. table 4.8. exceptions; oblique plural of words with singular and direct plurals ending in the word / والی walay / singular direct plural oblique plural والی چمتو والی چمتو چمتووالی chamtuwaalay chamtuwaalay chamtuwaalay یووالی یووالی یووالی yawwaalay yawwaalay yawwaalay ې والی نږد نږدې والی نږدې والی nigjdeywaalay nigjdeywaalay nigjdeywaalay سپین والی سپین والی سپین والی spinwaalay spinwaalay spinwaalay تاوتریخوالی ی والختاوتری لی تاوتریخوا taawtrikhwaalay taawtrikhwaalay taawtrikhwaalay table 4.8 shows that some nouns ending in suffix لیوا /walay/ can not be changed in their oblique plural form and should be written without changing them. when the last letter of a singular word ends in masculine yey ی preceded by the letter alif ا, the oblique plural forms of such words are formed by replacing the masculine yey ی with یو /yow/. for instance, the oblique plural forms of the words رای /raay/ will be رایو /raayow/ and ځای /dzaay/ will turn into ځایو /dzaayow/. table 4.9. exceptions; oblique plural of words with direct plurals ending in the masculine yey ی preceded by alif [ا] singular direct plural oblique plural رایو رای رای raay raay raayow ځایو ځای ځای dzaay dzaay dzaayow سرایو سرای سرای saraay saraay saraayow 151 in some cases, if the last letter of the direct plural of a word ends in masculine ی preceded by و, the oblique plural of such word will be formed by replacing the letter yey with /yow/, and in some cases with و. the following table contains the oblique plurals of words ending in masculine ی preceded by و. table 4.10. exceptions; oblique plural of words with direct plurals ending in the masculine yey ی preceded by waaw [و] singular direct plural oblique plural لویو لوی لوی loy loy loyow یو دو ساتن ساتندوی ساتندوی saata:ndoy saata:ndoy saata:ndoyow څارندویو څارندوی څارندوی caara:ndoy caara:ndoy caara:ndoyow مرستندویو مرستندوی مرستندوی mrasta:ndoy mrasta:ndoy mrasta:ndoyow هغو ی هغو هغه hagha haghoy haghow دغو دغوی دغه dagha daghoy daghow دو دوی دۀ /دا daa/da: doy dow as it can be seen, the rules and the examples cited in the tables above set a clear method for making the oblique plurals of words ending in the letter yey and its different types, leaving less or no room for the ambiguity of meaning arising from the difference of opinion among grammarians in regard thereto. 5. discussion as described in the findings section, based on the answer to research question one, it is evident that, unlike the view of the author of this article, the trend of replacing most types of the letter yey with یو /yow/ hasn’t gained currency among writers and is not very significant to be counted as a trend. concerning research questions two and three, it was also found that there existed a difference of opinion among grammarians as to what type of the letter yey must be replaced with yow and what type with و, which had led to different sets of rules, resulting in confusion among writers and ambiguity in relation to such words. therefore, the author aimed to put into practice the five abovementioned different options pertaining to the rules defined by grammarians and unearthed the problems a writer or a reader may encounter in relation to the oblique plural forms of words. for the sake of brevity, the author restricted himself to one or two examples for each set of options. for more examples, see table 4 in the finding section hereof. based on the above-mentioned rules, if the option i is considered, where all types of letter yey can be replaced with و /waaw/ as defined by raverty (1867), roos-keppel (1922), and ayazi (1939), the oblique plural case of the word ناهیلی /naahilay/ ‘disappointed’, which terminates in masculine yey ی, will be ناهیلو /naahilow/ ‘plural of disappointed’. however, considering the related noun thereof which is the word يناهیل /naahili/ ‘disappointment’, terminating in obvious yey ي, the oblique plural thereof will be و یلناه /naahilow/ which is the oblique plural case of the adjective ناهیلی /naahilay/ ‘disappointed’ as well. in the same manner, considering the word يسیال /syaali/ ‘competition’, based on this option, as defined by raverty (1867), roos-keppel (1922), and ayazi (1939), the oblique plural thereof will be سیالو /syallow/ which is also the oblique plural form of the word سیال /syaal/ ‘competitor’. in this case, there remains no difference between the oblique plural cases of the word’s “competition” and “competitor”. this means the oblique plural case of these words is ambiguous and the readers are mixed up whether the said word means the plural of competition or competitor. if option ii is put to test, where all types of the letter yey can be replaced with یو /yow/ as defined by lorimer (1902), the oblique plural case of the word khpa:lsaray/ ‘rebellious’, terminating in/ خپلسری masculine ye ی, will be پلسریوخ /khpa:lsariyow/ ‘plural of rebellious’. however, the oblique plural case of the word يسرخپل /khpa:lsari/ ‘rebellion’, which terminates in obvious yey ي, will be the same پلسریوخ /khpa:lsariyow/ which is the plural form of rebellious as well. similarly, the oblique plural of the word هیلې /hiley/ ‘plural of hope’, based on rules defined by lorimer (1902), will be هیلیو /hiliyow/ which is also 152 the oblique plural form of the word ۍهیل /hilai/ ‘a deer’. this means for a reader to figure out what the writer meant by the word هیلیو /hiliyow/ is a tough thing to do and the reader will be confused whether to accept it as the plural of “hope” or the plural of “a deer”. based on option iii, where all types of the letter yey can be replaced with either یو /yow/ or و /yow/, as defined by trumpp (1873), comrie (1987), and rishtin (2003), the same confusing results are achieved. for instance, making the oblique plural case of the word ډیگا /gaadday/ ‘vehicle’, terminating in masculine yey ی, can be done in two ways; replacing the masculine yey thereof with و /waaw/ or replacing the said letter with یو /yow/. if the letter yey is replaced with و /waaw/, the oblique plural thereof will be ګاډو /gaaddow/ ‘vehicles’. similarly, if replaced with یو /yow/, it will result in the word ګاډیو /gaadayow/. however, for the word ډۍ گا /gaaddai/ ‘a cart’, based on the rules defined by trumpp (1873), comrie (1987), and rishtin (2003), the oblique plural form thereof will be ډوگا /gaaddow/, considering the feminine yey thereof being replaced with و /waaw/. also, if the feminine yey of this word is changed into yow/, as the grammatical rules of trumpp (1873)/ یو and rishtin (2003) allow us to do so, the oblique plural form of the said word will be ډیوگا /gaadayow/. this results in two oblique plural words ډو گا /gaaddow/ and ګاډیو /gaaddayow/. the question is which one of these two words is the oblique plural of یډگا /gaadday/ ‘a vehicle’, and which one of them means ګاډۍ /gaaddai/ ‘a cart’, as both words can have the same two forms thereby creating confusion in respect to the meanings thereof. considering option iv, where as per penzl (1957) all types of yey can be replaced with either و /waaw/ or یو /yow/ except for the feminine yey which is replaced with یو /yow/, the same results are achieved as described in the foregoing paragraph. for instance, the oblique form of both ډیاگ /gaadday/ ‘a vehicle’ and ګاډۍ /gaaddai/ ‘a cart’ will be ډیوگا /gaaddayow/. even though the rules defined by penzl (1957) are clearer than those defined by raverty (1867), rooskeppel (1922), ayazi (1939) and lorimer (1902), however, the problem of ambiguity remains unsolved. based on option v, as defined by tegey & robson (1996), david (2013), and rasulzada (2016), all types of the letter yey can be replaced with و /waaw/ or یو /yow/ except for the feminine yey ۍ which can only be replaced with یو /yow/, and the long yey ې which can only be replaced with و /waaw. compared with other options this set of rules has provided further clarity based on the types of yey, however, the problem of ambiguity has remained unsolved. for example, as per these rules; a) the masculine and obvious yey can be replaced with either و /waaw/ or یو /yow/ as seen in the rules defined by trumpp (1873), comrie (1987), and rishtin (2003) b) the feminine yey can only be replaced with یو /yow/ as defined by penzl (1957) c) the long yey can only be replaced with و /waaw/ as seen in the rules defined by tegey & robson (1996), david (2013), and rasulzada (2016) in view of the abovementioned, and avoiding the repetition of examples presented in the paragraphs hereinabove, the oblique plural case of the word خوږيخوخوا /khwaakhugji/ ‘sympathy’, and خواخوږی /khwaakhugjay/ ‘sympathetic’, will be ږیوخواخو /khwaakhugjayow/ for both of the aforesaid words. in the same manner, the word ږوخواخو /khwaakhugjow/ will also be the oblique plural case of both of the abovementioned words. common sense says, and the grammatical traditions also require that there should be two different oblique plural cases of these two words. such that one should be ږیوخواخو /khwaakhugjayow/ and the other should be ږوخواخو /khwaakhugjow/ instead of saying that both can be used as the alternate form of the other. also, the oblique plural cases of the word ښاپیری /sxaapeyray/ ‘a male fairy’, and ښاپیرۍ /sxaapeyrai/ ‘a female fairy’, will be represented by the words ښاپیریو /sxaapeyrayow/ and وپیرښا /sxaapeyrow/ for either of them. this means the reader will not be able to differentiate between the genders in the oblique plural form while in the singular and direct plural forms the genders thereof are clear. it is noticed that all sets of options discussed herein have the problem of ambiguity when it comes to replacing different types of the letter yey with و /waaw/ or یو /yow/ even though some of the grammarians and authors such as tegey & robson (1996), david (2013), and rasulzada (2016) have decreased the level of ambiguity to some extent as compared with raverty (1867), roos-keppel (1922), ayazi (1939), trumpp (1873), comrie (1987), and rishtin (2003) by narrowing down on the types of letter yey, however, the problem of ambiguity remains when it comes to the obvious yey ي and the masculine yey. from the above discussion, it can be concluded that not all types of letter yey should be replaced with yow/. it is also clear that all types thereof should/ یو not be replaced with و /waaw/, either; instead, some types should be replaced with و and some with یو /yow/. while making the oblique plural case of the words terminating in different types of the letter yey, to avoid ambiguity, the author suggests, in light of all sets of rules discussed above, the following solution; a) the oblique plural cases of words terminating in different types of the letter yey are made considering the direct plural form of the word and not on the basis of the singular form of the word terminating in different types of the letter yey. 153 b) only the feminine yey ۍ is replaced with یو /yow/. c) the masculine yey ی, the obvious yey, and the long yey ې are replaced with و /waaw/ only. d) as the obvious yey ي in words terminating in such yey changes into feminine yey in its direct plural form, therefore, the oblique plural form of the words terminating in the obvious yey ي is made by replacing the feminine yey in its direct plural form with یو /yow/. now, if considered in light of the rules suggested by the author of this article, the problem of ambiguity does not remain in relation to the oblique plural cases of the words presented as examples in all the abovementioned options. for instance, the oblique plural forms of the words یلی ناه /naahilay/ ‘disappointed’ and يناهیل /nahili/ ‘disappointment’, will be as follows; a) the direct plural form of the word ناهیلی /naahilay/ ‘disappointed’ is يناهیل /naahili/ ‘plural of disappointed’. in order to make its oblique plural form, the obvious yey ي of the direct plural form thereof should be replaced with و /waaw/ resulting in ناهیلو /naahilow/ ‘plural of disappointed’. b) the direct plural form of the word يناهیل /naahilay/ ‘disappointment’ is ۍناهیل /naahilai/ ‘plural of disappointment’. in order to make its oblique plural form, the feminine yey ۍ of the direct plural form thereof should be replaced with یو /yow/ resulting in ناهیلیو /naahilayow/ ‘plural of disappointment.’ in the above example, it is clear that the oblique plural form of the word ناهیلی /naahilay/ ‘disappointed’ is ناهیلو /naahilow/ ‘plural of disappointed’, and the oblique plural form of the word يناهیل /naahili/ ‘disappointment’ is ناهیلیو /naahilayow/ ‘plural of disappointment’. similarly, in the case of the long yey, the word ېهیل /hiley/ ‘plural of hope’ which is the direct plural of the word یلهه /hila/ ‘hope’, the long yey thereof is replaced with و /waaw/ resulting in هیلو /hilow/ ‘plural of hope’. also, the oblique plural case of the word ۍهیل /hilai/ ‘a deer’ is made by replacing the feminine yey ۍ of the direct plural form thereof, ۍهیل /hilai/ ‘deers’, with یو /yow/, resulting in هیلیو /hilayow/ ‘deers’. in the same manner, regarding the obvious yey, the example of ږيخواخو /khwaakhugji/ ‘sympathy’ as discussed in the foregoing paragraphs, is presented here in the light of the rules suggested by the author of this article. the direct plural form of ږي خواخو /khwaakhugji/ ‘sympathy’ is ۍخواخوږ /khwaakhugjai/ ‘sympathies’. in order to make its oblique plural case, the feminine yey ۍ of its direct plural form is changed into یو, resulting in یو ږواخوخ /khwaakhugjayow/ ‘sympathies’. comparing the adjective ږیخواخو /khwaakhugjay/ ‘sympathetic’ with the foregoing word, the word وږوخواخ /khwaakhugjow/ ‘plural of sympathetic’ is achieved by replacing the feminine yey ۍ with یو /yow/. this shows that there is a clear difference between the oblique plural forms of the aforesaid words; و یواخوږخ /khwaakhugjayow/ ‘sympathies’, and ږوخواخو /khwaakhugjow/ ‘plural of sympathetic’. from the explanation above, it is evident that the problem of ambiguity arises mainly due to the two types of yey; the masculine yey ی and the obvious yey ي. this is due to the fact that apart from other grammarians, tegey & robson (1996), david (2013), and rasulzada (2016) have also suggested that these can be replaced with either و /waaw/ or یو /yow/, even though, unlike others, these three authors were clear about the long yey ې, and the feminine yey ۍ. as the obvious yey ي of the word terminating in this letter also changes to feminine yey ۍ in its direct plural form, therefore, the oblique plural forms of the words terminating in the obvious yey also end in یو /yow/ as described in the foregoing examples in the light of the proposed rules. however, the reason writers tend to replace the masculine yey ی with یو /yow/ can be due to the fact that as per the rules defined by grammarians mentioned herein, this type of yey is replaced with either یو /yow/ or و /waaw/ which results in ambiguity and the wrong oblique plural form as discussed previously in this part. apart from that, the reason why grammarians have defined an alternate form for the words ending in masculine yey ی, and why some writers today also replace it with یو /yow/, seems to be the dialect factor, too. in some dialects of the pashto language, the words that end in the masculine yey ی are also pronounced almost similar to the feminine yey ۍ. for instance, in some dialects of pashto, the type of yey used in the word سړی /sarray/ ‘man’ is pronounced as verbal yey ئ in which case the pronunciation of the word sarray sounds like سړئ /sarrai/, almost similar to the feminine yey in the word سیالۍ /syaalai/ ‘competition’. also, before the introduction of the five types of yey in the pashto language, there used to be only four types of yey; the obvious yey ي, the masculine yey ی, the long yey ې, and the verbal yey words of .ۍ which excluded the feminine yey ئ feminine nature were also written with verbal yey ئ, for instance, in mohammad azayi’s book, qavaid-i pashto (1939-40), while defining the types of yey, he has defined the verbal yey ئ both for feminine words and for verbs where someone is addressed to do something. for instance, he has written the word سپۍ /spai/ ‘a female dog’ is written with the verbal yey as ئ ځ spai/ and used the same yey in the example/ سپئ /dzai/ meaning ‘you go’. the use of this type of yey for the aforementioned types of yey can also be seen in the work of other writers published before the feminine yey ۍ was introduced (rasulzada 2016). however, the use of verbal yey ئ for words of feminine gender is restricted now in written 154 publications because the said words are now written with feminine yey ۍ. as the words ending in masculine yey ی and feminine yey ۍ are pronounced almost the same in some dialects of pashto, writers tend to make the oblique plurals of words ending in masculine yey in the same manner as they make such plurals for words ending in the feminine yey. this problem has worsened due to the current rules as most of them are defined based on the letter yey and its types in the singular form of the words. one other reason that writers tend to replace most types of the letter yey with یو /yow/ might be the inclination of pashtun writers towards verbosity. it has been noticed that pashtun writers tend to opt for wordy sentences and the principle of brevity seems to create a sense of incompleteness in them. brevity and conciseness which have gained currency in almost all languages are being incorporated at a very slow, and even negligible pace, especially compared with other languages that are close to pashto. pashtun writers deliberately choose unnecessarily long words and prefer wordy sentences. if some of the sentences are observed in the platforms mentioned hereinabove, it can be noted that the relevant authors are preferring wordy sentences. for instance, comparing the sentences; کیږي السلیک کچه نړیواله په تړونونه سازمان ایکو د /da: eikow saazmaan tarrununa pa: narraiwaala kacha laaslik kigji/ ‘the agreements of the eco organization are signed on international level’ (bbc pashto, 2013), and د کې شتون په واستاز د نوهېوادو ۳۰ د يالسلیکیږ تړون سولې د ترمنځ امریکایانو او طالبانو /da: 30 hewaadunow da: astaazow pa: shtun key da: taalibanow aw amrikaayaanow ta:r manz da: sowley tarrun laaslikigji / ‘peace agreement will be signed between americans and the taliban in the presence of 30 representatives’ (bbc pashto, 2020), it becomes clear that in both sentences the pashto word used for the word signed are کیږي السلیک /laaslik kigji/ and laaslikigji/. both of these words are used by/ السلیکیږي the same platform in different pieces of writings, however, the longer version کیږي السلیک /laaslik kigji/ is preferred such that more than the shorter one. same is the case for the comparison of other words such as کوي پیل /payl kawi/ ‘starts’(azadi radio pashto, 2020; deutsche welle pashto, 2012; voa pashto, 2016), and پیلوي /paylawi/ ‘starts’(azadi radio pashto, 2021; deutsche welle pashto, 2018; voa pashto, 2020). in addition, the phrase م بارکعید /eid mubarak/ ‘happy eid’, in arabic, persian and urdu has paved its journey of brevity throughout the years such that in arabic عیدکم مبارک /eidokom mobarak/ ‘happy eid to you’, is shortened to عید مبارک /eid mubarak/ ‘happy eid’, dropping the word مک /kom/ ‘your’. also, the same phrase is written as سعیدکع یدام /eidokom saeedan/ ‘happy eid to you’, which has an alternative brief form of سعیدا ''eidan saeedan/ ‘happy eid/ عیدا dropping کم /kom/ ‘your’. in persian, the aforementioned phrase has been used as باشد مبارک شما eide shomaa mobarak/ عید baashad/ ‘happy eid to you’, مبارعی تان کد /eide taan mobarak/ ‘happy eid to you’ and مبارک eid/ عید mobarak/ ‘happy eid’. the latter is now used as the widely used version thereof in written dari/persian dropping the words شما/ shoma/ ‘your/ and باشد /baashad/ ‘be’. however, in conversations and spoken dari, the former versions are still used. similarly, in urdu, the said phrase is written as هو آپکو مبارک عید /aapko eid mobarik ho/ ‘happy eid to you’. this phrase has an alternate form of مبارک eid /عید mobarik/ ‘happy eid’ which is now the commonly used form thereof. however, this trend is not seen in relation to the pashto phrase ک شهاختر مو مبار /akhta:r mow mobaarak sha/ or مبارک دې شهاختر /akhta:r dey mobaarak sha/ ‘happy eid to you’. even though recently an alternate form thereof, مبار کاختر /akhtar mobarak/ ‘happy eid’ is noticed on social media, however, it has not become common and widely used due to the inclination of writers toward verbosity. another example is the excess use of the preposition د /da:/ ‘of’ in sentences even if the sentence makes sense without using it in some parts of the sentence. the phrase د ود ویاند د وزارت د ینافاع /da: defaa da: wezaarat da: wayaand wayna/ ‘defense ministry spokesperson’s speech/ can be written in three different ways with the reduced number of preposition د /da:/ ‘of’, as under; a) ویان وزارت د دفاع ویناد د /da: defaa da: wezaarat wayaand waynaa/ b) ویناد ویاند د وزارت دفاع /da: defaa wezaarat da: wayaand wayna/ c) وینا ویاند وزارت دفاع da: defaa wezaarat wayand/ د waynaa/, and d) وزا ویا دفاع وینارت ند /defaa wezaarat wayaand wayna/. as it can be seen, the same sentence can be written with different numbers of the preposition د /da:/ ‘of’ with a maximum of 3 times and a minimum of one or even with no use thereof, conveying the same meaning. however, the writers tend to opt for the one with more usage of د /da:/. the same sentence can also be written, even in english, in four different ways by using the preposition ‘of’ and possessive apostrophes. the use of possessive apostrophes has declined throughout the years in the english language (sklar, 1976). and a reduced usage of the preposition ‘of’ is preferred. a) the speech of the spokesperson of the ministry of defense, b) speech of defense ministry’s spokesperson c) ministry of defense spokesperson's speech, d) defense ministry’s spokesperson’s speech, or e) defense ministry spokesperson speech. 155 analysis of the foregoing points shows that only the feminine yey ۍ should be replaced with یو /yow/ while making the oblique plural case of words terminating in different types of the letter yey. replacing all types of yey with یو /yow/ or replacing all with و /waaw/ while making the oblique plural of words terminating in different types of the letter yey leads to ambiguity and wrong meaning of words. it is clear that grammarians’ opinions differ when it comes to the rules of making the oblique plural of words ending in different types of the letter yey which has led to confusion amongst pashtun writers as to what type of this letter must be replaced with و and what type thereof with یو, resulting in the ambiguity of meaning in relation to different words when used in their oblique plural form. the difference of opinion among grammarians in regard to the oblique plural of words terminating in the letter yey, the dialect factor, and the tendency of writers toward verbosity, have led to the current trend of writers to replace most types of letter yey with یو /yow/ leading to ambiguity in written material. apart from that, there exists no touchstone to figure out the correct oblique plural case of words ending in the letter yey and its different types. it is also evident that the problem of ambiguity arising from the lack of clarification in the rules thereof has not been explored and looked into by any grammarian or author in their work. therefore, it is the first study in this regard and new rules hereof solve the problem of ambiguity of meaning by proposing specific and clear rules for each type of the letter yey. the new rules provide writers with a set of guidelines to make such oblique plurals and avoid ambiguity in their writing. this study opens a window into future research for grammarians to look into the current and proposed rules and the related areas thereof. in addition, the issue of pashtun writers’ tendency toward verbosity is brought to the fore in this article which is also one of the reasons they stick to the practice of replacing all types of yey with یو while making the oblique plural of words. the issue of verbosity in writing by pashtun writers, for instance, the excess use of the preposition da:/ ‘of’ is also brought to the attention of those/ د interested in pashto language research, which is worth studying in detail. 6. conclusion in view of the above, and in light of the answers to the research questions hereof, the paper concludes that replacing most types of the letter yey with یو while making the oblique plural cases of words terminating in different types of the said letter is not a very popular trend and as per the results, during the years 2010 till 2020 the occurrence of the words where the oblique plurals of such words were obtained by replacing the relevant type of the letter yey with یو /yow/ was 32.28 per cent compared with 67.71 per cent of words where the oblique plurals were obtained by replacing the relevant type of the letter yey with و /waaw/. the result also showed that the trend of replacing most types of the letter yey with یو /yow/ had only gained pace after the year 2016, however, it was lagging far behind compared with that of replacing it with و /waaw. this infers that not all types of the letter yey should be replaced with و, or with یو either as replacing all types thereof with یو /yow/, or replacing all, or most of them, with و /waaw/ either, will create problems in differentiating the meaning of words used in the related text. it is also proven that only one type of the letter yey i-e the feminine yey ۍ can be replaced with یو /yow/ while making the oblique plural of words terminating in the letter yey. the study resulted in clear rules for each type of the letter yey to form the oblique plural cases of words terminating in different types thereof on the basis of the said letter in the direct plural form of words, unlike the previous rules where most of them are based on the letter yey in the singular form of the word that led to ambiguity. the new rules provide the writers with a simple and easy-to-follow guide for making the oblique plural cases of such words thereby avoiding the problem of ambiguity. this research is the first of its kind on the problems associated with the grammatical rules of the oblique plural cases of words terminating in the letter yey and will open the door to further research in this area. references ahmad, d. a., & khan, d. a. 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