37 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 01 | March 2021 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v2i1.342 Research on World Agricultural Economy http://ojs.nassg.org/index.php/rwae Patterns of Chemical Pesticide Use and Determinants of Self-Reported Symptoms on Farmers Health: A Case Study in Kano State for Kura Local Government Area of Nigeria Hussain Muhammad Isah1,2　Morufu Olalekan Raimi1,3*　Henry Olawale Sawyerr1 1. Department of Environmental Health Science, Kwara State University, Malete, Kwara State, Nigeria. 2. Kano State College of Health Sciences and Technology, Kano, Nigeria. 3. Department of Community Medicine, Environmental Health Unit, Faculty of Clinical Sciences, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article history Received: 1 December 2020 Accepted: 8 January 2021 Published Online: 30 March 2021 Background: Today modern agriculture relies heavily on the use of pesticides and an astonishing 150 million tons of fertilizers and 6 million tons of pesticides are yearly and routinely applied to fields and crops with the purpose of increasing agricultural production. As many of these pesticides have only become a problem because of the direct actions to humans. Hence, instilling confidence and enriching farmers begins with recognizing the need for pesticide use modification, whether through ex- isting or new technologies, such as efficiency, cost reduction or effective decision-making. Objective: The aim of the present study was to assesses the frequency of farmer’s self-reported symptoms in Kano State, Nigeria. Methods: A comprehensive questionnaire was established that focuses on sociodemographic characteristics, education and experience on the ad- verse health effects associated with the use of the pesticide, description of job practices and a list of used pesticides on the farms in the study area. Of the 400 copies of the administered questionnaires, 392 copies were retrieved and found useable, which represents 98% of the administered questionnaires. Results: Results showed that 46.2% had been using the pesticide for 1-5 years, 48.1% had used it for 10-15, regularity of these symptoms reveals that the majority of the respondents experienced these symptoms on a regular basis (56.1% for headache, 53.8% for stomach cramps, 56.5% for muscles weakness, 56.8% for vomiting, 58.3% for dizziness, 40.7% for shortness of breath, 45.5% for blurred vision and 66.7% for eye irritation. Conclusions: It is important to focus on the use of pesticides in farming practice as it speaks to the emphasis it places on farmers regarding their income, health and wellbeing as danger lurks around the corners for Kura farmers in Kano State, which are already fac- ing challenges from all manners of long-term health risk exposure. This of course should worry the state and federal government. Government must increasingly play the critical role of intercessor for farmers, as this is very much in line with the sustainable development goals (SDGs) which emphasize on no poverty (goal 1), zero hunger (goal 2), ensure good health and well-being (goal 3) towards strengthening agriculture and fast- rack rural development. There is therefore need to intervene by sustaining efforts to reduce food contamination through educating the farmers. Keywords: Sustainable development goals (SDGs) partnership and collaboration decision making health risk exposure food contamination farmers income 　 *Corresponding Author: Morufu Olalekan Raimi, ola07038053786@gmail.com; olamuf001@outlook.com 38 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 01 | March 2021 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 1. Introduction Over 65% of Nigerians living in rural areas have been largely neglected and denied access to modern healthcare services and other basic modern infrastructural necessities that are essential in order to maintain their health [1-4]. This is unacceptable, as a large part of the infrastructural un- derserved rural country's population provides the nation’s food needs, including valuable export crops. Indeed, the agriculture significance to the development of Nigerian economy can’t be over stressed in association to the at- tractive labour force. Rural residents face many repeated environmental threats related to agricultural every day risks, including pesticides, solvents and metals of occupa- tional and environmental origin [5-13]. These anomalies are always a source of stress due to the combination of inor- ganic trace constituents’ and the types of used pesticides in agricultural products and health practices. Longitudinal pesticides exposure has been reported to cause diseases like diabetes, cancer, neurological disorders and coronary heart disease [14]. Consequently, the pesticides which are very harmful to smallholder farmers institutes a typical trans-sectoral ‘wicked problem’ and concerns about the risks to human health from the risk of exposure to pesti- cides have increased significantly [15]. In addition, expo- sure to pesticides is one of the main significant threats to the health of farmers in the global south [16,17]. It is esti- mated that 25 million farmers are exposed to poisoning from acute pesticide yearly in the global south, making poisoning of pesticide a most significant worldwide health problem [17]. Globally, the commonly used pesticides by agricultural farmers include organophosphates, causing chronic chemical poisoning through enzymes inhibiting cholinesterase. This outcomes in excess nicotinic stimu- lation besides muscarinic receptors, leading to symptoms of chronic pesticide poisoning such as diarrhea, weakness, headache, vomiting, ataxia, dizziness, bradycardia, dys- pnea, paralysis and finally death [18]. Pesticides use in agricultural farming in Nigeria, par- ticularly among Kano State farmers, has improved con- siderably over the past 20 years, as pesticides continue to be the pillar for agricultural control of pests and disease vectors. From the season’s beginning to harvest, farmers are faced with a large amount of pesticides, which has potential to induce DNA damage [19]. The resulting mix- ture of pesticides may be more virulent and pose a greater risk to the public than individual pesticides, and raises concern on their human health impact [20]. However, it is problematic to determine the exact configuration of these combinations. Exposure to pesticides can lead to oxidative stress through the accumulation of unrestricted radicals that can accumulate in the cell, which in turn can dam- age nuclear acids and DNA protection and improve the immune system from the body defense mechanism [14]. In this case, oxidative stress may be explained by the use of trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity with peroxidation of serum lipids through thiobarbituric acid with reactive substances and by acquiring significant occupationally exposed information on populations [21,19]. Today, the study of pesticides is an important area of research on environ- mental pollution and several questions remain unanswered about the safety and toxicity of these products to human health and the environment. It is based on the above prob- lem that this research sought to explore commonly used pesticides application and frequency of clinical symptoms of farmers on selected agricultural farmland in Kano State, Nigeria. The purpose of this research is to identify the impact of pesticides on health of farmers’ through monitoring the prevalence of self-reported symptoms in Kano State. The focus on farmers is significant since from the season’s beginning to harvest, farmers are often ex- posed to large amounts of pesticides, which has potential to induce DNA damage and pose a great risk to the ex- posed populations raising human health concerns. These health problems can affect health outcomes in years later. The knowledge, attitude and application of commonly used pesticides and the health indicators of many farmers in Kano State are essential to their health, wellbeing and future development. Thus, awareness helps to modify attitudes and behavior towards the pesticides. While sig- nificant research into understanding the health burden of chemical pesticide in Kano State has not been undertaken, a literature review revealed an absence in the research. The current study aims at contributing to the extant litera- ture in this regard. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Research Design The study adopted a descriptive survey research design. The descriptive survey design according to Gift and Obi- ndah is a kind of research design in which the researcher collects data from a cross section of the study population in respect of variables.[1] This design was considered ap- propriate for the study since it solicits information from a target group. The design involves collection and analyz- ing data gathered. Funmilayo et al., described descriptive survey design as a type of design to be employed when a study involves the use of questionnaire to seek the opin- ion of the respondents [2]. Funmilayo et al., added that the descriptive survey type of design is the most convenient way to obtain real facts and figures in which the results of DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v2i1.342 39 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 01 | March 2021 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 the analyses will be used for decision making or general- ization. This research design is considered suitable for this study considering the fact that this study’s primary objec- tive centers on the assessment of commonly used pesti- cides application and frequency of farmers’ self-reported health symptoms from selected agricultural farmland in Kano State, Nigeria. The choice of a descriptive survey design was premised on its value and facility in address- ing the research problem raised in the study. 2.2 The Study Area Location Figure 1. Map of Kano State showing the location of the Study Area in Nigeria. Adapted from Isah et al.,[49] [DOI: 10.5281/zeno- do.4008682.] and Olalekan et al., [50] [10.15406/ ahoaj.2020.04.00170] Kano State is located between latitude 13°N and 11°N and longitude 8°W and 10°E (Figure 1). It is approx- imately 840 kilometers away from the Sahara Desert. Kano has a mean height of around 472.45m above sea level. Kano State has 44 provinces: “Ajingi, Albasu, Bag- wai, Bebeji, Bichi, Bunkure, Dala, Dambatta, Dawakin Kudu, Dawakin Tofa, Doguwa, Gabasawa, Garko, Garun Mallam, Gaya, Gezawa, Gwale, Gwarzo, Kabo, Karaye, Kibiya, Kiru, Kumbotso, Kura, Kunchi, Madobi, Mako- da, Minjibir, Kano Municipal, Nassarawa, Rimin Gado, Rogo, Shanono, Sumaila, Takai, Tarauni, Tsanyawa, Tu- dun Wada, Tofa, Warawa and Wudil”. Kano State has an overall land area of 20,760sq kilo- meters with 9,383,682 population of inhabitants (2006 provisional result) [1]. Kano temperature is always between 33°C and 15.8°C even though it occasionally reaches 10°C during harmattan season. Kano has two seasons, includ- ing 4 to 5 months of rain and a prolong dry spell usually from the month of October through April. The air masses movement from South West maritime, extending out of the Atlantic Ocean with the impact of the rainy season, starting from May to September. The start and duration of the rainy season varied between the northern and south- ern parts of Kano State. In the southern State of Kano, Riruwai last six (6) months beginning early May through late September. Northern parts of Kano State go from the month of June to early September [1]. Average precipitation ranges from 63.3mm + 48.2mm in May and 133.4 mm + 59mm during the month of August. Air masses from the tropical maritime move from Southwest to North, which regulates the weather of Kano State all through the rainy season. Moisture from the Atlantic Ocean is being trans- ported through the air masses. This humidity is absorbed once its forced to increase by means of convection or over a barrier of highland’s or a mass of air; and it came like rain. Peak period happens when the sun sets across West Africa amongst March through June. The dry spell begins in the month of October then lasts until April of next year. Low temperatures are usually experience around this time as the sun faces Southern Hemisphere as the desiccating continental mass of air movement which extends through the Sahara, while blowing through the Northeast and carry the harmattan dust with it,implying the period of harvest [1]. 2.3 Population and Sample Size The study population comprised farmers in Kura lo- cal government area of Kano State, North West, Nigeria. Available statistics, based on the 2006 population census, showed that Kura has a total population of 143 094 people and 80% of them were farmers [24]. Hence, the population of the farmers was estimated to be 114 475. The popula- tion of the study was projected in 2018 using population growth rate of 2.47% as provided by the Nigeria popu- lation commission [25]. The projected population was ob- tained using the following equation: Equation 1: ( )0 1 t tP P r= + where, Pt is the projected population, Po was the pop- ulation in 2006 (114 475), r is the population growth rate (2.47% = 0.0247), and t is the number of years (12). ( ) 12 0 2.47 1 114475 1 100 t tP P r   = + = +    DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v2i1.342 40 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 01 | March 2021 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 ( )12114475 1 0.0247= + ( ) ( ) ( )12 12114475 1 0.0247 =114475 1.0247 114475 1.3402 153417= + = = Hence, the projected population of 153 417 farmers in Kura of Kano State was estimated. Sample size A sample size of 399 farmers in Kura was estimated using an equation described by Yamane [26]. Sample size was estimated as: Equation 2: ( )21 N N N e = + where, n is the sample size to be determined, e is the level of significance, and N is the population size. ( )2 , 153417, 0.05 1 N N N e N e = = = + 2 153417 1 153417 (0.05) N = + 153417 153417 153417 398.9 1 153417 (0.0025) 1 383.5425 384.5425 N = = = = + + 399 2.4 Sampling Techniques The study adopted a multi-stage random sampling technique in the sample selection precess. In the first stage of the sampling, random sampling was used to sample 10 villages out of the total of 26 villages in Kura local government area. Randomization was done through balloting. The selected villages were Sarkin Kura, Gamadan, Azore, Kadani, Guraza, Imawa and Godar Ali. During the second stage of sampling, a random sample was selected to select farmers from 10 villages. To give each of the selected villages a uniform number of farm- ers, the sample size was divided equally across the 10 selected villages and a sample of 40 farmers were select- ed from each of the villages. 2.5 Instruments for Data Collection Researchers developed a questionnaire entitled “Prob- abilistic Assessment of Self-Reported Symptoms on Farmers Health” that was used in data collection. It was comprised of 25 sections which focus on different demo- graphics including sex, marital status, age, educational qualification, farming experience, farm size, land own- ership status, use of pesticides, common used pesticides, effect of pesticides, health problem associated with the exposure to pesticide use and the effect of the pesticide’s application on the environment. The study also assesses the safety measures farmers use to control pesticides and the behaviors when using pesticides. 2.6 Validity of Instrument The research questionnaire was presented to experts for validation. Copies of the questionnaire were presented to three experts, two from Environmental Health Science, Kwara State University and one expert in research and statistics (statistician). These experts were required to examine the validity of the research instrument (ques- tionnaire) in terms of language, clarity and content in line with the purpose of the study, research questions and the hypotheses it would measure. 2.7 Method of Data Collection To facilitate data collection, the researchers employed four research assistants. Two of the research assistants helped in the administration of the data. The research assistants were properly briefed on how to administer the questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered within a four-week periods. Each of the research assis- tant covered two communities while the researcher also covered two communities. Of the 400 copies of the ad- ministered instruments, 392 copies were retrieved and found useable, representing 98% of the administered questionnaire. 2.8 Methods of Data Analysis Entered questionnaires information were rechecked for quality assurance in an Excel sheet before analysis was done. All submission requests from the semi-structured and comprehensive questions were summarized from all respondents using statistics that are analyzed descriptive- ly such as simple percentages and frequency distribution were used to analyse the demographics of the respon- dents and to answer the research questions. Also, some vital results of the analysis were presented using pictorial representation like bar chart, cluster bar charts and other forms of pictorial representation. To enhance data analysis and computation of results, version 20.0 of the SPSS was used. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v2i1.342 41 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 01 | March 2021 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 3. Results 3.1 Demographics of the Respondents 54.6 45.4 Distribution of Respondents by Sex Male Female Source: Field Survey, 2019 Figure 2. Distribution of Respondents by Sex Figure 2 presents the demographics of the respondents. Result of the distribution of the respondents based on sex reveals that 54.6% of the farmers were male and 45.4% were female. 60.7 33.9 5.4 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Married Single Divorced Distribution of Respondents by Marita Status Source: Field Survey, 2019 Figure 3. Distribution of Respondents by Marita Status Result also shows that 60.7% were married, 33.9% were single and 5.4% were divorced. 17.6 20.9 26.3 19.9 15.3 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 16-25 years 26-35 years 36-45 years 46-55 years Above 55 years Distribution of Respondents by Age (Years) Source: Field Survey, 2019 Figure 4. Distribution of Respondents by Age (Years) The distributions of the respondents based on age were as follows: 17.6% were between ages 16-25 years, 20.9% were between 26-35 years, 26.3% were between 36-45 years, 19.9% were between 46-55 years while the remain- ing 15.3% of the respondents were above 55 years. 20.2 31.6 36.2 6.4 4.6 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 No formal education Primary Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination Ordinary National Diploma/National Certificate Examination Bachelor of Science/Higher National Diploma Post graduate degree Distribution of Respondents by Education Source: Field Survey, 2019 Figure 5. Distribution of Respondents by Education In terms of their educational qualification, 20.2% of the farmers had no formal education, 31.6% had primary education, 36.2% of the farmers had secondary education, 6.4% were OND/NCE holders, 4.6% were B.Sc/HND holders while 1.0% had postgraduate degrees. 46.2 47.7 6.1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 1-10 years 11-20 years Above 20 years Distribution of Respondents by Farming Experience (years) Source: Field Survey, 2019 Figure 6. Distribution of Respondents by Farming Expe- rience (years) Result also shows that 46.2% of the respondents had 1-10 years of farming experience, 47.7% had 11-20 years of farming experience and 6.1% of the farmers had above 20 years of farming experience. 43.4 38.5 18.1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0.5-2 2.5-4 Above 4 Distribution of Respondents by Farm Size (ha) Source: Field Survey, 2019 Figure 7. Distribution of Respondents by Farm Size (ha) The distribution of the farmers based on farm size reveals that 43.4% of the respondents had 0.5-2.0 hect- DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v2i1.342 42 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 01 | March 2021 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 ares of land, 38.5% had 2.5-4.0 hectares of land and only 18.1% of the farmers had above 4 hectares of land. 52.3 47.7 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 Inheritance Lease Distribution of Respondents by Land Ownership Source: Field Survey, 2019 Figure 8. Distribution of Respondents by Land Owner- ship In terms of land ownership status, 52.3% of the farmers acquired their land through inheritance while 47.7% of the farmers acquired their lands through leasing. In Table 1 are the World Health Organization (WHO) classifications of the pesticides presented. The pesticides most commonly used (mainly pyrethroids, phenylamide and s-metolachlor compounds) by small scale farmers in Kura are categorized by WHO as moderately hazardous and slightly hazardous [27]. The classification of the pes- ticides shows that insecticides and herbicides are mostly used group, followed by fungicides (31.2%). However, 12% of the other (unidentified), pesticides were used multi-purposely. The insecticides used belonged to the chemical groups of pyrethroids, carbamates and organo- chlorines. The herbicides belonged to the groups of tri- azines, aryloxyphenoxypropionate and chloroacetanilide. Table 1. Products Reported as Used by Farmers in Kura Type of pesticide used (trade name) Active ingredient Main use Chemical Hazardous Class (WHO) Apron Plus Metalaxyl (phenylamide) Fungicide II Atrazine Triazines Herbicides III Polythrine Cypermethrin (pyrethroids) Insecticides II Sevin Carbaryl (carbamate) Insecticides II Thiodan Endosulfan (or- ganochlorine) Insecticide II Fusilade Fluazifop-p-βutyl (aryloxyphenoxy- propionate) Herbicides III Primextra S-Metolachlor (chloroacetanilide) Herbicides Has no known WHO hazard classification Others/unidentified Note: I, extremely hazardous; II, moderately hazardous; III, slightly hazardous; IV, unlikely to present acute hazards under normal use con- dition.[27] 3.2 Answering of Objective Questions Table 2 shows that 41.4% of the respondents who complained of pesticides related problems had headache, 39.4% had stomach cramps, 46.5% complained of muscle weakness, 37.4% complained of vomiting, 36.4% com- plained of dizziness, 27.3% complained of shortness of breath, 11.1% complained of blurred vision while 54.5% complained of eye irritation. Results of the analysis of the regularity of these symptoms reveals that the majority of the respondents experienced these symptoms on a regular basis: 56.1% for headache, 53.8% for stomach cramps, 56.5% for muscles weakness, 56.8% for vomiting, 58.3% for dizziness, 40.7% for shortness of breath, 45.5% for blurred vision and 66.7% for eye irritation (see figure 9 below). Table 2. Symptoms and Frequency of Symptoms Among Farmers who use Pesticides and Experience Some Effects Frequency of self-reported symptoms Health related self- reported symptoms Regularly n (%) Occasionally n (%) Rarely n (%) Total Headache 23(56.1) 13(31.7) 5(12.2) 41 (41.4) Stomach cramps 21(53.8) 14(35.9) 4(10.3) 39(39.4) Muscles weakness 26(56.5) 15(32.6) 5(10.9) 46(46.5) Vomiting 21(56.8) 12(32.4) 4(10.8) 37(37.4) Dizziness 21(58.3) 13(36.1) 2(5.6) 36(36.4) Shortness of breath 11(40.7) 11(40.7) 5(18.5) 27(27.3) Blurred vision 5(45.5) 2(18.2) 4(36.4) 11(11.1) Eye irritation 36(66.7) 13(24.1) 5(9.3) 54(54.5) 23 21 26 21 21 11 5 36 13 14 15 12 13 11 2 13 5 4 5 4 2 5 4 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 He ad ac he St om ac h… M us cle s… Vo m iti ng Di zz ine ss Sh or tn es s o f… Bl ur re d v isi on Ey e i rit at io n N o. o f R es po nd ne ts Symptoms Regularly Occasionally Rarely Figure 9. Cluster bar chart showing the distribution of the symptoms of pesticide use and frequency of self-reported symptoms in Kura Local Government Area (L.G.A). Kano State, Nigeria. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v2i1.342 43 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 01 | March 2021 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 4. Discussion 4.1 A Review of the Samples In Question Before the statistical analysis’s outcomes were observed, the reviewed samples needed to be ascertained through the specific population the outcomes were generated. The socio-demographic characteristic, including sex, marital status, age, farm size, land ownership, levels of education and farmers farming experience concerning handling of pesticide is revealed in Figure 2 to 8. There are observed significant difference between the gender distribution of respondents in their classification. The male proportion of respondents was 54.6%, somewhat larger than the number of female respondents. The majority of male farmers par- ticipants may perhaps remain the outcome of males having more farmland access than females. It might also happen because farming is labor-intensive, and women may strug- gle to meet the needed effort to cultivate significant crops. This view is supported through Abubakar et al. who found that most male farmers 93%, while 7% were female, and Bhandari and others who indicates that around 90% of farmers interviewed were males [28,29]. But is contrary to the study conducted by Prince et al. who found less male farmers (21.7%) than female (78.3%), and Pornpimo et al., who state that most Thai agricultural workers in their study were women (60%) and that the agricultural work- ers characteristics in this research varied in terms of farm type [30,31]. The present study was different from the World Bank report of 2007 with comparable number of female and male agricultural workers in Southeast Asia in 2007 [32], indicating that agricultural labour force constitutes 60 to 80 percent of females in emerging countries. The report postulated that the recent increase in the number of women agricultural farmers are due to drivers of the economic that force more men to migrate to urban centers where their ser- vices are needed in the industrial or other money economy jobs; though, it may perhaps remain that women are more willing than men to be subjects in their study. However, as demographics shift and turn out to be more technologically advanced, adolescents are realizing that farm produces due to hard work and high cost depends on uncertain income because of the dependence on crop prices and weather pat- terns. It is interesting to note that there has been a shift in the people involved in agriculture in Kano State. Gradually adolescents leave the rural areas and migrate to the urban centres to find jobs in the service or manufacturing seg- ment. They arrived home to provide agricultural assistance in the farm and in the family garden once required. The study participants were young people between the ages of 36 and 45. Meaning that the mean age reflects the positive attitude of labour in agricultural production. While, this is very useful on productivity for positive effects, as adoles- cent farmers are very active and tends to use novel tech- nologies. These findings are consistent with the study done by Bhandari et al. who found that 47% were between the age range of 30-49 years and 50 years old were more than 23% [29]. This Bhandari study was an outcome of stratified sampling technique in order to minimise its impacts on the sizes of small cell by tilting the frequency distributions in Bhandari study. Similarly, this view is contrary to the study conducted by Prince et al. who found that the 46-55 years (34.8%) was the largest group in the study who engage in farming activities [30]. In our study farmers’ education levels ranged from no formal education to a doctorate, the majority of farmers had an education level of SSCE or its equivalent (36.2%), whereas the least had a post graduate degree (1%). This shows that the educational level of the responding farmers is strongly influencing, since most of them have at least a secondary education. Education revo- lutionize human attitudes. It supports people to know their environment to solve numerous snags. Meanwhile, these results are similar to those of Bhandari et al. who estimated that around 30% of farmers are uneducated and the remain- ing farmers have different education levels, which include primary (23%), junior secondary (20%), secondary (19%) and college (8.7%) [29]. Research shows that farmers who are educated are better positioned to accept and understand the health effects of pesticides information, likened to those with low education and that human capital studies have also shown that farmer education plays a remarkable role in allocation and skills development of farmers [33,1]. However, this view is contrary to the study conducted by Islam et al. who found that the majority of respondents (51.7%) had no education knowledge [34]. They could neither read nor write and 35.0% of the participants had basic education. Approxi- mately 11.7% of the participants have completed secondary education, and only 1.7% of the participants have complet- ed higher school [34]. Similarly, Prince et al. found that the 48.9% of the farmers had no formal education [30]. Hanif also stated that farmers who are educated were extra careful with the use of pesticide and its environmental impact [35]. A significantly higher proportion of the participants in the present study were married (60.7%) compared to partici- pants who were single (33.9%). This finding is similar to that of Bammeke, who argued in his study, that people who take on agricultural practices were married [36]. Similarly, this view is consistent with Prince et al., who found that 25.0% of farmers are single while 69.6% were married and 5.4% were divorced [30]. This suggests that married respondents were more likely to experience the problem than those who responded from other groups, and therefore the example was a demonstrative model of the community DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v2i1.342 44 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 01 | March 2021 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 configuration Our results showed that 46.2% of the farmers had between 1 and 10 years of experience while 47.7% had between 11 and 20 years’ experience and 6.1% have above 20 years of experience. This indicated that the individuals engaged in farming activities were experienced in farming. This view is contrary to the study by Prince et al. In which it was noted that 72.8% of the agricultural farmers had be- tween 1 and 10 years’ experience while 27.2% had between 11 and 20 years’ experience [30]. Also, Islam et al. found that the majority of respondents (60.0%) had farming experi- ence between 16-20 years, whereas 23.3% of the respon- dents had farming experience of 10-15 years, 6.7% of the farmers had 21-25 years’ experience in farming, 6.7% of the farmers had obtain 25-26 years of agricultural farming knowledge, and only 3.3% of the farmers had 36-40 years’ of farming experience [34]. Research by Islam et al. shows that experienced farmers have a good knowledge of agri- culture and they know a lot about the effects of pesticides on the environment [37]. The size of farm varied from one individual to the other and farm size is measured in ha in the area studied. The highest percentage (43.4%) of farmers had a farm size of 0.5-2 ha, while 38.5% respondents had between 2.5-4 ha, 18.1% respondents had above 4 ha. 4.2 Effects of Pesticides Use on Farmers’ Health by Monitoring the Frequency of Self-Reported Symptoms in Kano Health is one of the most significant components of the human capital for rural people in emerging countries. The study participants highlighted the potential risks of the use of pesticide and their adverse effects on environment and health. The farmers associate the potential symptoms from the exposure of pesticides linked to the acute poisoning toxicological effects. This could be as a result of majority of them were knowledgeable and several of them had ex- perienced some of these mentioned symptoms. Results of the analysis of the regularity of these symptoms reveals that the majority of the respondents experienced these symptoms on a regular basis: 56.1% for headache, 53.8% for stomach cramps, 56.5% for muscles weakness, 56.8% for vomiting, 58.3% for dizziness, 40.7% for shortness of breath, 45.5% for blurred vision and 66.7% for eye ir- ritation. These results are not in tandem with Bhandari et al. study which showed that nearly all agricultural farm- ers alleged having symptoms of acute health after using pesticide [29]. In the study, self-reported toxicity is the most often symptoms linked to pesticides, which include headache (73.8%), skin irritation (62.3%), eye irritation (32.8%), weakness (22.4%) and muscle pain (19.1%). His results are in agreement with previous research in Nepal and Vietnam [38, 39]. Conversely, this result is not consistent with the research of Maria et al., which shows the majority of common symptoms include cephalea (77 persons or 51.7% of 149 intoxicated patients) trailed by dizziness (48 people) and vomiting (42 people) [40]. Below half of the farm employees identified cephalea (29 people) considered this sign by way of physical appearance of pesticides intoxication (self-ex- amination intoxication). On one hand, over 50% of all people who report diarrhea and those who report dizziness, vomiting and stomach discomfort identified themselves as intoxicated. Further signs identified by the farm employees in their study included blurred vision, loss of appetite, burn- ing face, fatigue, body itching, fever, ringing in the ears and spots on the body. In addition, less than half of the 149 peo- ple who identify signs after pesticides use identified them- selves highly intoxicated through these products. Cases of self-reported intoxication with higher incidence among younger workers have been reported by Yassin et al. and recommended that this people could express themselves through the interviews better [41]. Some recent studies have shown an applicator with illness or symptoms leading to visiting the health care provider who may not be possible to remember this incident than other who ensured not to seek care [42, 43]. Symptoms identified in this study include dizzi- ness, cephalea (headache), abdominal pain and vomiting are specific pesticides exposure, such as the organophosphorus and Carbamate insecticides [44, 45]. Similarly, the finding are not consistent with a study conducted by Gurung and Kunwar [46], which showed 96% of the respondents knew skin irritation as a poisoning symptoms from pesticides use, which is not consistent with the study of Lekki et al., which shows 66% of the respondents had awareness regarding skin irritation [47]. The findings of Gurung and Kunwar, showed that 98% and 96% of the respondents knew diz- ziness and headache as poisoning symptoms of pesticides use in the nervous system [46]. This is contrary to what hap- pened in this current research, as the findings of Lekei et al., is not consistent with the study which shows 49% had awareness regarding dizziness and 66% about headache [47]. 84% of respondents were aware of nausea as poison- ing symptoms of pesticides use in gastro-intestinal system which is not consistent with Lekei et al., which shows 34% had awareness regarding nausea [47]. The high frequency of the regularity of self-reported symptoms among farmers in Kano State reveals that the majority of the respondents experienced these symptoms on a regular basis. This is less than what was stated in Kenya, due to the prevalence of ep- isodes of poisoning (61.1% of agricultural workers report- ed four (4) or more prior poisonings) [48]. These data most probably indicate non-severe condition because they go unidentified in the absence of an Acute Pesticides Poison- DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v2i1.342 45 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 01 | March 2021 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 ing (APP) surveillance program since they do not appear at health center. These APP cases are closely monitored by the community on the basis of self-reporting systems. The above re-affirmed pesticides exposure to be one of the main remarkable occupational risks for farmers in the global south and to identify the risks associated with pesticides use and develop pesticides safe methods while handling pesti- cide. However, most farmers in the study area do not have formal education and without any form of training, so they must be exposed to training and education on the dangers of pesticides usage. This is in tandem with Prince et al. who found that most of the agricultural workers were ignorant, and only an insignificant cluster are educated/ literate [30]. It was also shown that 48.9% of the agricultural workers are illiterate and lack knowledge on the appropriate use of agrochemicals, they merely use through learning from their seniors, which possibly will not always be right. Addition- ally, controlling pesticide usage through regulatory system of proffered is well-known. Studies has shown that residual pesticide are a major concern for consumers that fears fre- quently when they buy farmed products and community concern around pesticides in their milieu, that their effects on human health is steadily increasing. 5. Summary and Conclusion Small holder farmers using highly toxic pesticides, par- ticularly from the global south has become a trans-sectoral definitive ‘wicked problem’. Wicked snags are an issue of effective advertising marketing methods, which are hard-hit- ting to accomplish due to variances amongst development partners in media outreach, response and understanding by smallholder farmers to the problem ranging from 0.2 to 2.0 hectares. For several small holder farmers, pesticides that are cheap and hazardous in the short term have been effec- tive and profitable thereby improving agricultural produc- tion, wages for temporary contract workers, and the surviv- al of family. This study highlights the potential high risks of pesticides exposure to human and the environment in a certain rural community in Kano State. This highlights the potential to exacerbate serious public health snag that could be prevalent in the state. This result finding has remarkable policy implications in adding to sound advocacy interven- tions particularly for policy makers in Kano State. Firstly, it is important to inform farmers about the pesticide’s effects on human health and to improve farmers' education about issues of pesticide safety and pest management. The Nige- rian government must do its best to convince agricultural farmers to lessen the pesticides use. Disseminating a more detailed information about pest management and associated information, including better education, extension services for agricultural farmers and training. Subsequently, iden- tifying alternative sources of chemical pesticide by means of lessening the farmer’s health risk, which is also of grave significant in Nigeria. Pesticides substitution and improving seed quality and resistance to host plants can lead to less use of pesticide without reducing the yield of crop. Lastly, whereas the integrated pest management (IPM) concept has received robust support, the IPM expansion technology is, after all, a major issue for millions of households in Nige- ria. Henceforth, government ought to do its best to facilitate the development of short-term local pesticide spraying ser- vices, although the use of pesticides may still be necessary, however, the development of IPM strategies would reduce, if not completely stamp out pesticides use in the long term. Also, a crucial pillar in the considerations of pesticides is the “precautionary principle” and ought to be an important guide in policy making regarding pesticides safety. There- fore, the study put forward the following ideas for recom- mendations: Endorsement of sound farming practices that is organic and ecological in nature, holistic and suitable for lo- cal farming practices that remain undisruptive to the social, economic, gender and cultural considerations, Governments should provide literary education on all level of organic ag- riculture and in relevant research centres, Promote agricul- ture production patterns that have minimal environmental footprints, Regulating the dependence of agricultural farm- ers on artificial products like the use of harmful pesticides to the milieu, Advocating for community awareness on pesticide safety measures through approaches including the community, legislators, private sector, decision makers and the administrators, Promoting and supporting agricultural practices that encourage biodiversity preservation and guar- antees wholesome food and quality products that are good, Requires that farmers should be represented throughout the boards that are associated with agriculture pesticides and Provide appropriate risk criteria for evaluation and neces- sitate that such evaluation be carried out in Nigeria and not overseas. Study limitation The chief limitation of this research is the use of self-report to describe the case. Even though it is frequent- ly applied in several countries, this method is probable to overemphasize the problem triggered by exposure to pesticides. Also, long-term studies will require to provid- ing additional evidence to the causality of associations assessed in this research. Another snag may be related to the incentives (financial or otherwise) for research respon- dents, based on past understanding of farmers’ in large foreign financial research projects. The inability to pay compensation could have prevent some farmers from par- taking. In contrast, farmers with previous pesticide histo- DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v2i1.342 46 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 02 | Issue 01 | March 2021 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 ries of poisoning are more likely to participate. However, the magnitude of the non-participation was low so was improbable to make an immense change to the findings. Moreover, participants knowledge of pesticides is poor, which include the failure to identify pesticide product by its trade name or common name and classification, which could have contributed to poisoning agents misreporting or improved the quantity of poisonings as a result of un- known agents. Therefore, the classification snag due to WHO Class I and II pesticides could be noticeably under- reported. What the farmers show about the symptoms of the disease cannot be recalled if the details are forgotten. Even with having some hazards awareness and exposure routes, farmers will not be able to combine all the signs with specific exposure. As a result, this may have resulted to an underestimation of the reported pesticide linked with association of poisoning symptoms and products handled. Competing interests We affirm that we have no conflict of interest that may be alleged as prejudicing the impartiality of the study re- ported. This researcher did not receive special assistance from government, not-for-profit sectors or commercial institutions. Consent All the authors announced that they had received writ- ten notice from the participants. Ethical approval Ethical approval for the study was sought and gotten from the Institutional Review Board of the Kwara State University. Permission to carry out the research as well as written consent was also obtained from the farmers after explaining the purpose of the study to them. This was done by meeting the Kano State Farmers Association. Furthermore, the purpose of the study was again explained to participants before completing the self-administered questionnaire. Participants were assured confidentiality and informed that their participation was voluntary. 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