15 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | June 2022 Research on World Agricultural Economy https://ojs.nassg.org/index.php/rwae Copyright © 2022 by the author(s). Published by NanYang Academy of Sciences Pte. Ltd. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/). *Corresponding Author: Ryan Mark A. Ambong, Research, Development and Extension Unit, Occidental Mindoro State College, Philippines; Email: ryanmark.ambong2017@gmail.com DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v3i2.513 Received: 1 April 2022; Received in revised form: 26 April 2022; Accepted: 6 May 2022; Published: 16 May 2022 Citation: Ambong, R.M.A., 2022. Methods of Rice Technology Adoption Studies in the Philippines and Other Asian Countries: A Systematic Review. Research on World Agricultural Economy. 3(2), 513. http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v3i2.513 REVIEW ARTICLE Methods of Rice Technology Adoption Studies in the Philippines and Other Asian Countries: A Systematic Review Ryan Mark A. Ambong* Research, Development and Extension Unit, Occidental Mindoro State College, Philippines Abstract: Agricultural researchers in developing countries were not able to give much attention on the adoption studies of agricultural technologies until the period of Green Revolution. These technologies are disseminated in rural farming community by agricultural extension professionals to boost farm efficiencies and productivity. This paper presents the systematic review of methods employed by previous researchers in studying agricultural technology adoption with special reference to rice. The review focuses on the study of rice technologies adoption in the Philippines and other related studies conducted by a Filipino author in other countries in the Asian Region. From 391 adoption studies identified, 22 papers were selected and included in the review. These papers were retrieved from Scopus database. This review revealed that papers focused on studying the adoption of rice cultivation practices employed quantitative techniques. Institutional factors were found to critically influence the decision-making of the farmers to adopt production technologies. Keywords: Adoption studies; Agricultural extension; Rice; Technology dissemination; Philippines 1. Introduction Agricultural research institutions develop new tech- nologies which are disseminated through effective exten- sion and mass media channels. Moreover, these technolo- gies must reach the farms for effective adoption to realize desired benefits [1]. Nevertheless, adoption rate of tech- nologies related to agriculture is very low in developing countries despite the availability of numerous public inter- ventions [2]. The low uptake of technology among small- holder farmers is due to lack of information and credit [3] while the lack of knowledge explains low adoption rate of technologies [4]. This implies that lack of knowledge criti- cally explains low adoption rate of profitable technologies among the farmers [2]. Similarly, adoption is not abrupt due to the presence of significant gap between the market pro- motion of technology and the actual use of the farmers [5]. Rural farmers decide on the sustainability of their busi- ness and their complex decision-making process is influ- enced by the existence of agricultural operational methods mailto:ryanmark.ambong2017@gmail.com http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v3i2.513 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5044-2913 16 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | June 2022 and technologies [6]. Hence, measuring and interpreting its impact is difficult [7]. Awareness is an important prerequisite for adoption, however, exposure to technology is usually not random and is prone to selection bias. The exposure of an individ- ual to technology may be due to the result of the research- ers’ or extension workers’ selection with high possibility of being biased [8]. Likewise, there exists a lot of scientific researches aimed at addressing determinants of adoption of agricultural technologies. However, the way these re- searches are carried out is indefinite and non-cohesive [6]. Nevertheless, studies conducted in different countries and cultures are the same and they only vary on complexity and number of variables studied [5]. Therefore, this review aims to explore the different methods used by previous authors to study the adoption of various technologies for rice. Specifically, this review wants to determine the type of technologies studied by agricultural researchers, their method of analyses, and their major findings of their papers. 2. Methods 2.1 Selection of Studies for Review The systematic review of papers related to the farmers’ adoption of rice technologies is focused on agricultural prac- tices regardless of its type. Journal articles published and in- dexed at Scopus database were searched using the key words that include “farmers’ adoption of rice technologies” limited to year of publication, subject area, and language. The combination of the key words such as “farmers’ adoption of rice technologies and rice innovations” were used to obtain an array of information about adoption of agricultural innovations but is limited only to rice as the main subject of interest. Initially, the database has gener- ated 391 documents that were subjected to screening. 2.2 Screening of Papers The systematic review of agricultural technologies for rice is in accordance with the inclusion criteria set such as: 1) The research focus on rice production intervention and technology between 2010-2018 authored by at least one Filipino researcher (if there is co-authorship) or done in the Philippines, 2) Focus on the adoption of rice tech- nology by farmers or farming households; or technology/ knowledge transferred to farming communities, 3) Re- search methods such as qualitative, quantitative or mixed in English language published as primary journal article in the database of Scopus Elsevier, 4) The research paper reports innovation in rice production and post-harvest ac- tivity with clear methodology and analytical procedure, 5) The study is focused on the adoption of agricultural prac- tices or technologies for rice. Rice production and post-harvest practices being stud- ied are the agricultural innovations which are regarded as modern technologies that aim to improve farm productiv- ity and farmer socio-economics to alleviate poverty and hunger among rice farmers. Papers that deal with tradi- tional farm practices without innovative components were not included in the systematic review. The systematic re- view looks at the studies only focused on innovative agri- cultural practices but excluded impact and adoption inten- sity [9]. From the total of 391 documents initially obtained, 166 papers were removed following the restrictions on the year of publication and is furthered narrowed down to 157 after removing duplicates. Moreover, only 126 papers are published as primary journal article in which 26 are either authored by at least one Filipino researcher or the researches were conducted in the Philippines. The remain- ing 26 articles were screened and evaluated if they qualify for review. Finally, another four articles were excluded following the Population, Intervention, Comparator, Out- come and Study Design (PICOS) format [9] (see Table 1). A total of 22 articles were used in the systematic review following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta- Analyses) 2009 flow dia- gram [10] (Figure 1). Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the systematic review. PICOS Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria Population Rice farmers/Rice farming households Consumers, Traders, Agents, Processors, Extension workers Intervention Innovative rice practices/technologies/interventions at farm level Off-farm/Non-farm level interventions (i.e. marketing and off-farm processing) Comparator Traditional practices/Indigenous Knowledge None Outcome Adoption rate, Productivity, Yield None Study Design Statistical techniques/models in assessing adoption and its determinants None 17 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | June 2022 2.3 Acquisition of Data From the screened papers used in the systematic re- view, important data were obtained from each journal arti- cles consistent with the purpose of the review. These data include the type of technology or intervention, the method of research and statistical analysis or model and the major findings of the research paper. 2.4 Attributes of the Pre-selected Papers in the Review The succeeding tables present the attributes of 391 papers that were pre-selected for systematic review. Fol- lowing the format provided by the Elsevier’s Scopus database, documents were categorized in terms of access type, year of publication, subject area, document type, source type, origin, and language. From Table 2, major- ity of the papers (88.49%) searched from the data base are not open access and require permission or payment. From these selections, most (42.45%) of the papers were published prior to the year 2010 as presented in Table 3. In terms of subject area, majority or 65.73% belong to the discipline of Agricultural and Biological Sciences. In the data base, it is possible for a document to have duplicates wherein one research paper is categorized to multiple dis- ciplines or subject area (Table 4). Majority of the papers’ document and source type are articles (81.33%) from journals (88.75%) (Table 5). Moreover, Table 6 shows that majority of these publications are journal that may consist of original articles or reviews. In Table 7, the ori- gin of the papers was identified according to the country or territory where it was published. Based on the result of pre-selection, most of the documents were published in India and the Philippines (24.04 percent and 17.14 per- cent, respectively). With that, it can be inferred that most adoption studies in rice technologies originate from these countries given also that their economies are dependent to agriculture, specifically in rice production. Finally, major- ity (97.70%) the documents searched from the data base were written and published in English language (Table 8). Table 2. Access type of pre-selected papers. Access Type Number of Documents Percentage Open Access 45 11.51 Other 346 88.49 Figure 1. Process of paper screening using PRISMA. 2.3 Acquisition of data From the screened papers used in the systematic review, important data were obtained from each journal articles consistent with the purpose of the review. These data include the type of technology or intervention, the method of research and statistical analysis or model and the major findings of the research paper. 2.4 Attributes of the pre-selected papers in the review The succeeding tables present the attributes of 391 papers that were pre-selected for systematic review. Following the format provided by the Elsevier’s Scopus database, documents were categorized in terms of access type, year of publication, subject area, document type, source type, origin, and language. From Table 2, majority of the papers (88.49%) searched from the data base are not open access and require permission or payment. From these selections, most (42.45%) of the papers were published prior to year 2010 as presented in Table 3. In terms of subject area, majority or 65.73% belong to the discipline of Agricultural and Biological Sciences. Research removed (n= 4) Not primary journal article Did not qualify in PICOS Abstracts screened (n= 126) Research removed (n= 100) <1 Author not Filipino/ Research not conducted in the Philippines Research title screened after removal of duplicates (n= 157) Research title screened following year ofpublication (n= 166) Primary journal articles included in the systematic review (n= 22) Primary journal articles for eligibility and quality (n=26) E xc lu si on /I nc lu si on Sc re en in g Papers identified from the database (n= 391) Id en ti fi ca ti on Figure 1. Process of paper screening using PRISMA. 18 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | June 2022 Table 3. Year of publication of pre-selected papers. Year of Publication Number of Documents Percentage 2018 39 9.97 2017 35 8.95 2016 40 10.23 2015 24 6.14 2014 13 3.32 2013 15 3.84 2012 23 5.88 2011 20 5.12 2010 16 4.09 Prior to 2010 166 42.45 Table 4. Subject area of pre-selected papers. Subject Area Number of Documents Percentage Agricultural and Biological Sciences 257 65.73 Social Sciences 110 28.13 Environmental Science 99 25.32 Econometrics, Economics and Finance 51 13.04 Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 7.16 Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology 22 5.63 Engineering 16 4.09 Business, Management and Accounting 11 2.81 Energy 11 2.81 Arts and Humanities 6 1.53 Table 5. Document type of pre-selected papers. Document Type Number of Documents Percentage Article 318 81.33 Review 25 6.39 Book Chapter 24 6.14 Conference Paper 19 4.86 Short Survey 2 0.51 Book 1 0.26 Article in Press 1 0.26 Note 1 0.26 Table 6. Source type of pre-selected papers. Source Type Number of Documents Percentage Journals 347 88.75 Books 27 6.91 Book Series 12 3.07 Conference Proceedings 3 0.77 Trade Publications 2 0.51 19 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | June 2022 2.5 Attributes of Included Papers in the Review Out of 391 primary documents compiled for review, only 22 primary journal articles that reported rice tech- nologies and rice innovations adoption conform with the inclusion criteria. Table 9 summarizes the journal articles included in the systematic review. After the selection of articles for the systematic review, the type of technologies studied, and the method of analyses were evaluated. Table 7. Origin of pre-selected papers. Country/Territory Number of Documents Percentage India 94 24.04 Philippines 67 17.14 United States 50 12.79 Australia 32 8.18 Japan 31 7.93 Netherlands 21 5.37 Nigeria 21 5.37 China 20 5.12 United Kingdom 19 4.86 Indonesia 16 4.09 Others 20 5.12 Table 8. Language of pre-selected papers. Language Number of Documents Percentage English 382 97.70 Chinese 3 0.77 Japanese 2 0.51 French 1 0.26 Portuguese 1 0.26 Spanish 1 0.26 Thai 1 0.26 Table 9. Journal articles subjected to systematic review. Document Title Author/s Year Source On-farm assessment of different rice crop management practices in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, using sustain- ability performance indicators Stuart, A.M., Devkota, K.P., Sato, T., (...), Beebout, S., Singleton, G.R. 2018 Field Crops Research 229, pp. 103-114 Is farmer-to-farmer extension effective? The impact of training on technology adoption and rice farming pro- ductivity in Tanzania Nakano, Y., Tsusaka, T.W., Aida, T., Pede, V.O. 2018 World Development 105, pp. 336-351 The application of best management practices increases the profitability and sustainability of rice farming in the central plains of Thailand Stuart, A.M., Pame, A.R.P., Vithoonjit, D., (...), Singleton, G.R., Lampayan, R.M. 2018 Field Crops Research 220, pp. 78-87 O n - f a r m a s s e s s m e n t o f a n e w e a r l y - m a t u r i n g drought-tolerant rice cultivar for dry direct seeding in rainfed lowlands Ohno, H., Banayo, N.P.M.C., Bueno, C., (...), Garcia, R., Kato, Y. 2018 Field Crops Research 219, pp. 222-228 Recognizing farmers’ practices and constraints for intensifying rice production at Riparian Wetlands in Indonesia Lakitan, B., Hadi, B., Herlinda, S., (...), Yun- indyawati, Y., Meihana, M. 2018 NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 85, pp. 10-20 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorId=16067620700&zone https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorId=54892721000&zone https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorId=54892721000&zone https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorId=57204355633&zone https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorId=57185656800&zone https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorId=57185656800&zone https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorId=7004925104&zone https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/78796?origin=resultslist https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorId=57199956739&zone https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorId=56659390600&zone https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorId=56659390600&zone 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Results and Discussion 3.1 Type of Technology Studied The papers included in the review mostly discussed on the rice cultivation technologies and practices (40.9%), ir- rigation and water technologies (27.27%), improved seed varieties (18.18%), and integrated pest management (IPM) (13.64%). The widespread progress of these technologies in the Philippines was prompted by the establishment of two rice research and development (R&D) institutions in the country namely Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) [11-13]. 3.2 Methods Used Generally, the articles focused on the technologies for rice production specifically on crop management practices and have diversity in terms of the methods used. Major- ity or 54.54% applied quantitative methods specifically regression analysis, on-farm/field experiment, and techni- cal efficiency and economic analyses. On the other hand, qualitative and mixed method both comprise the 22.72% of the papers. These studies mostly applied participatory action research (household surveys, focus group discus- sions, key informant interview), case study, and impact assessment. 3.3 Major Findings The result of the systematic review shows that rice technologies have mostly positive effects to farmers. Nev- ertheless, the systematic review reveals that the institu- tional factors are the most critical factors affecting farmer decisions to adopt which includes education, access to extension services, and access to technological informa- tion. Technology acceptance can be distressing to farmers especially when its relevance and expected outcomes are not properly demonstrated to them. Finally, low level of knowledge about the technology leads to resistance and poor decision-making. Below are the specific outcomes or impact of the adoption of rice cultivation practices and technology ranked according to their significance: 1) Improved crop management practices 2) Enhanced farmers’ capacity and capability 3) Increased net income/profit and benefit-cost ratio 4) Addressed issues on food security and sustainable food production 5) Increased yield and productivity 6) Decreased production cost Table 10. Type of technology, method, and major finding of rice technology adoption studies reviewed. Author/s Technology Method Major finding Stuart et al., 2018 Good Agriculture Practice (GAP); Small Farmer, Large Field (SFLF) Household survey Eight Sustainable Rice Platform (SRP) performance indicators, Bonferroni Test, Linear Regression Mean total production cost per season decreased while mean net income and benefit-cost ratio increased. GAP and SFLF management approaches improved rice farming practices and was sustainable than conventional farmers. Nakano et al., 2018 Farmer-to-farmer extension program on rice cultivation technologies Panel survey Descriptive and Regression Analysis New technologies were first adopted by the trained key and intermediate farmers thus, yield gap initially widened between the trained farmers and the non-trained ordinary famers. Stuart et al., 2018 Cost Reduction Operating Principles (CROP), Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD), Drum Seeder (DS) Technology Farmer Participatory Field Trials, Experiment Linear Mixed Models with Maximum Likelihood Estimation, Rank Transformation, Bonferroni Test Fertilizer, seed, and pesticide use can be reduced in intensive lowland irrigated rice growing areas by following best management practices with no yield penalty. The improved practices were found to reduce costs and increase profit. Ohno et al., 2018 Dry direct seeding of rice (DDSR) in drought-prone lowland areas On-farm Experiment T-test, ANOVA Crop establishment using DDSR is affected by erratic rainfall at the onset of wet season followed by weed infestation. On the other hand, there is greater establishment rate for newly released drought-tolerant cultivar resulting to less weed infestation and higher yield. 22 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | June 2022 Lakitan et al., 2018 Crop cultivation practices Two-staged mixed qualitative method (Grounded theory and Questionnaire-guided Survey) Technology development must be based on the needs, preference, and absorptive capacity of targeted smallholder farmers Pede et al., 2018 Use mobile phones to obtain information about rice varieties Quantitative Study Regression Analysis Farmers located farther away from the market were more likely to pay for the calls. Paying charges to receive rice varietal information is associated with varietal replacement Farnworth et al., 2017 Low-emission development (LED), Alternative Wetting and Drying (AWD) water-saving technology Conceptual Model Development Case Study Improved benefits for Overall contribution on GHG emission was lowered while improving farmer benefit. Women have higher access to AWD technology. Palis et al., 2017 AWD Technology Qualitative and Quantitative (FGD, KII, Survey) Descriptive Analysis The adoption of AWD by farmers has not reduced their yields. Thus, it has implications on food security through addressing issues around water, while sustaining food production. Yorobe et al., 2016 High-yielding Green Super Rice (GSR) cultivars Matched samples from a propensity score matching method (two- year panel data) Ordinary least squares and DID fixed‐effects regressions Yield benefits from GSR varieties could improve rice food security and help alleviate poverty in the country Flor et al., 2016 Adaptive Research (AR) project Monitoring data examination Complementary qualitative analysis New approaches in agricultural research require a different type of monitoring as a complement to conventional approaches that tend to favor a quantitative assessment of adoption and impact at the farm level. Camacho et al., 2016 Indigenous knowledge and practices (Muyong system) Focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews, Survey Mixed Method The proliferation of inorganic farming technologies replaces the traditional ones, and the abandonment of rice fields and muyongs as farmers go elsewhere seeking other employment opportunities. Sidhu et al., 2015 Rice–wheat (RW) cropping systems, Turbo Happy Seeder for sowing wheat into heavy rice residues Development, Field Testing and Evaluation (Experiment) Quantitative Analysis The Turbo Happy Seeder offers a practical and economic solution to the problem of rice straw burning in the rice–wheat systems. Corales, Sibayan & Palis, 2015 Natural Resource Management (NRM) technologies, such as Site- Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM), Ecologically Based Rodent Management (EBRM) and Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) On-farm evaluation Cost and yield analysis PhilRice-IRRI partnership has been proven to be a powerful instrument in facilitating delivery and adoption of NRM technologies. Beltran et al., 2013 Adoption of herbicides and the level of herbicide use Panel Data Assessment Heckman’s two‐step method (estimation of a random‐effects double‐hurdle model for unbalanced panel data) Determinants of both adoption and level are land ownership, farm area, and the method of crop establishment. Table 10 continued 23 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | June 2022 Mariano, Villano & Fleming, 2012 Certified Seed Technology (CSs) and Integrated Crop Management Practices (ICMPs) Probabilistic Binary logit and Poisson model Extension-related variables have the most significant impact on technology adoption. On- farm demonstration trials has the highest effect on the adoption of certified seeds technology. However, constraints to the adoption of CSs and ICMPs are soil and nutrient deficiencies. Maredia & Raitzer, 2012 Impact of Agricultural research Comprehensive search and review of the literature, In- depth review, and analysis of documented impacts of agricultural research Systematic- Quantitative Analysis Evidence of impacts in other areas and other commodities is minor. Impacts of research on long- term developmental goals remain undocumented. There is declining trend in total documented net benefits from agricultural research. Pascual & Bumatay, 2012 Location- Specific Technology Development (LSTD) Impact Assessment Case Study LSTD Project was found effective in technology transfer process as manifested by the adoption of the technology by the farmer- participants. All the interventions were effective. Laborte et al., 2012 Production technology (cultivars) Yield-Gap analysis method Trend Analysis Best-yielding farmers were generally more educated than average farmers and they used production inputs more efficiently than average farmers. Palis et al., 2011 Ecologically Based Rodent Management (EBRM) Participatory action research (household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews) Quantitative- Qualitative The adoption of EBRM meant better rice yields, higher economic returns for farmers, and reduced human health and environmental risks Mariano, Villano & Fleming, 2010 Irrigated farming ecosystems and Rainfed farming systems in rice production Stochastic meta- frontier Productivity-Technical Efficiency Analysis Farms in the rainfed farming ecosystem achieve productivity levels only slightly different from those of farms in the irrigated farming ecosystem. Some farms in both ecosystems were able to achieve the highest possible output with respect to the meta-frontier in all the seasons studied. Wang et al., 2010 Improved upland rice varieties and terraces Household Survey Case Study Farmers who have adopted both technology components have been able to increase the upland rice yield substantially. Income from rice production was similarly found to be higher for adopters than for nonadopters. Wu et al., 2010 Improved upland rice technology Impact Assessment Propensity score matching analysis Improved upland rice technology has a robust and positive effect on farmers’ well-being, as measured by income levels and the incidence of poverty Table 10 continued 4. Conclusions This paper reports the systematic review on the meth- ods used by agricultural researchers in studying rice technology adoption in the Philippines and other Asian countries. It focused on the specific type of technology studied, the method of analyses, and the major findings of the researches. Papers were focused on studying the adoption of rice cultivation practices and technologies us- ing quantitative method. The review highlights the role of institutional factors which is found to mostly influence the decision-making of the farmers to adopt technology. Hence, the findings of this review can serve as the basis of agricultural extension professionals in the academe, local government, and the private sector to strengthen the strategies of technology dissemination to the rural rice farmers. Rice cultivation technologies and practices are 24 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | June 2022 the most studied research topics using applied quantitative methods. The adoption of these technologies mainly im- proved crop management practices and farmers’ capacity and capability which led to increased net income or profit and benefit-cost-ratio. Since institutional factors were found to be critical in farmer decision-making, education, access to extension services, and access to technological information related to rice cultivation practices and tech- nologies can be further intensified. Conflict of Interest There is no conflict of interest. Acknowledgement The author is very much grateful to the Research, De- velopment, and Extension Unit of Occidental Mindoro State, Philippines for the technical support in completing this review article. References [1] Mtega, W.P., Ngoepe, M., Dube, L., 2016. Factors in- fluencing access to agricultural knowledge: The case of smallholder rice farmers in the Kilombero district of Tanzania. South African Journal of Information Management. 18(1), 1-8. [2] Matsumoto, T., Yamano, T., Sserunkuuma, D., 2013. Technology Adoption and Dissemination in Agricul- ture: Evidence from Sequential Intervention in Maize Production in Uganda. National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies Discussion Paper. 13(14), 1-59. [3] Kinuthia, B.K., Mabaya, E., 2017. STAARS-Policy Brief-The Impact of Agriculture Technology Adop- tion on Farmers in East Africa. International Devel- opment Research Centre (IDRC). Partnership for Economic Policy. [4] Challa, M., Tilahun, U., 2014. 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